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lati " ( " Romanians " ) " just as they have owned it " . In the 1270s , Litovoi extended his territory and stopped paying tribute to the king , but his army was defeated by the royal forces , and he was killed in the battle .
Romanian historical tradition associates the foundation of Wallachia with the " dismounting of Radu Negru " who crossed the Carpathians from Transylvania accompanied by " Romanians , papists , Saxons , and all kind of men " around 1290 . The first sovereign of Wallachia recorded in contemporary sources was Basarab I who obtained international recognition for the independence of the principality by his victory over Charles I of Hungary in the battle of Posada on November 12 , 1330 . The princes of Wallachia were chosen from among his descendants – either legitimate , or not – by an assembly of the boyars until the 16th century .
The boyars , members of the landed nobility , formed the most important social group in the principality . The vast majority of the population was formed by peasants who were called several names , such as vecini ( " neighbors " ) or rumâni ( " Romanians " ) , in medieval documents . In this period , animals , especially sheep , remained the main item of export , but from the Wallachian Plain great quantities of grain were transported to the Mediterranean area . The basis of the peasants ' diet was formed by millet eaten as porridge , while the boyars also used wheat .
The Orthodox Metropolitan See of Wallachia was recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople in 1359 . Wallachia issued its own currency under Vladislav I ( 1364 – c . 1377 ) . The earliest written information about Gypsies in modern Romania , a deed issued by Dan I of Wallachia ( c . 1383 – 1386 ) refers to Vladislav I 's former donation of Gypsies to the Vodiţa monastery . Later on , all the important monasteries and boyars owned Gipsy slaves .
The Ottomans entered for the first time into Wallachia in 1395 . Although the invading troops were defeated somewhere in a rovină ( " ragged marshland " ) in Oltenia , the chaos created by the threat of attacks allowed a group of boyars to put Vlad I the Usurper ( 1395 – 1397 ) on the throne . Thus Mircea I was forced to take refuge in Transylvania , where he agreed to be Sigismund I of Hungary 's vassal . He was restored to the throne and participated in the disastrous crusade of Nicopolis organized by Sigismund I.
= = = Establishment of Moldavia = = =
After 1241 the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester was controlled by the Golden Horde . Nevertheless , the contemporary Thomas Tuscus 's reference to the Romanians ' conflict with the Ruthenians in 1277 suggests that Romanian political entities existed in northern Moldavia at that time . In 1345 Andrew Lackfi , the count of the Székelys led an army over the Carpathians and occupied this region where a border province was organized by Louis I of Hungary .
Romanian historical tradition links the foundation of Moldavia to the " dismounting of Dragoş " , a Romanian voivode from Maramureş . Although Dragoş was succeeded by his son , Sas , his line did not last long . His descendants were soon expelled by Bogdan , a former voivode of Maramureş who fled to Moldavia and joined with local boyars in a revolt .
In Moldavia , agriculture and animal raising remained the principal economic activities . Similarly to Wallachia , wooden plow remained the main agricultural tool throughout the Middle Ages . The constant clearing of land shows that finding new land was still preferred to crop rotation . The establishment of the principality enhanced the security of travel , thus Moldavia could also profit from the transit trade between Poland and the Black Sea ports . The first local coins were minted in 1377 , under Peter I Muşat ( c . 1375 – 1391 ) .
The succession to the throne , similarly to Wallachia , was governed by the hereditary @-@ elective principle . Thus either a legitimate or an illegitimate member of the Muşatin family could be proclaimed prince by an assembly of the boyars . In 1387 Peter I Muşat recognized Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland as his suzerain , but Hungary also maintained its claim of suzerainty over the principality . Therefore , the princes of Moldavia could counterbalance the influence of Poland and Hungary by playing one off against the other .
= = = Dobruja = = =
After 1242 most of the territory between the Danube and the Black Sea was included in the area dominated by the Mongols . Although the Byzantine Empire reestablished control over the Danube Delta in the 1260s , it fell again under the direct rule of the Golden Horde sometime before 1337 . By the end of the 13th century , flourishing communities of Genoese merchants had settled in the towns of Vicina , Chilia and Licostomo .
Towards the middle of the 14th century a state dependent of the Byzantine Empire , known as " the country of Cavarna " , developed in the region . Its first known ruler was Balica . He was succeeded by his brother , Dobrotitsa , for whom part of his holdings , Dobruja , received its name . In about 1385 Ivanco became the ruler of the territory , but he soon disappeared during an Ottoman expedition . Dobruja was occupied by Mircea I of Wallachia in 1390 and by the Ottomans in 1395 .
= = Towards Ottoman domination ( 1397 – 1529 ) = =
= = = Intra @-@ Carpathian regions = = =
In order to establish a zone of buffer states , Sigismund I of Hungary tried to draw the neighboring Orthodox rulers under his own suzerainty by granting them estates in his kingdom . For example , Stefan Lazarević of Serbia received Satu Mare , Baia Mare and Baia Sprie in modern Romania , and Mircea I of Wallachia was granted Făgăraş . Sigismund I was also the first monarch who recognized , in 1419 , the legislative competence of the Estates in Transylvania . On his initiative , their assembly declared that in case of an Ottoman attack , every third nobleman and every tenth serf would take up arms . Indeed , from 1420 Ottoman attacks occurred on an annual basis . In this period many Saxon churches , and later the Székely churches of the Ciuc region , were fortified , which gave local architecture a distinctive appearance .
The increasing defense costs fell primarily on the serfs : the rent on the land was raised and extraordinary taxes were imposed . The first peasant revolt in the territory of modern Romania broke out due to the efforts taken by the bishop of Transylvania to collect the church taxes . Led by Anton Budai Nagy , the rebellious peasants , who called themselves " the commune of the rightful Hungarian and Romanian inhabitants of this part of Transylvania " , established a fortified camp on the Bobâlna hill early in 1437 . They fought two important battles against the noblemen ; the first one , at Bobâlna , was won by the peasants , and the second one , near the Apatiu River , had no clear winner . The leaders of the noblemen , the Saxons and the Székelys , however , set up a " brotherly union " in order to join forces and crushed the peasants ' resistance by the end of January 1438 .
The Ottomans ' attempt to conquer new territories led to a better organized policy against them . The temporary union of the Eastern and Western Churches proclaimed by the Council of Florence in 1439 also created a favorable background for the concentration of Christian forces . Christendom found its champion in John Hunyadi who gained a series of victories over the Ottomans after 1441 . For instance , in 1442 he routed an Ottoman army that had been devastating Transylvania . Through his last victory over Mehmed II at the siege of Belgrade ( in modern Serbia ) in 1456 , he saved the kingdom from Ottoman occupation for several decades . During the reign of his son , Matthias I of Hungary ( 1458 – 1490 ) , the Ottomans launched only one serious attack against Transylvania in 1479 when they were defeated at Câmpul Pâinii .
Matthias I used his officials to assert royal prerogatives that had already fallen into disuse . The noblemen found it particularly irksome that the lucrum camarae , a tax from which they had been exempted was replaced with a new tax . In Transylvania , the " Three Nations " entered into a formal alliance against the king in 1467 , but he quickly intervened and took the disorganized rebels by surprise .
By that time , the land once held in common by the Székely community had gradually become divided into smaller and smaller units ; thus a vast number of the free warrior @-@ peasants had to enter the service of their more prosperous fellow Székelys . This social stratification was formally recognized by a royal decree in 1473 . Thereafter those who performed mounted military service were differentiated from those who fought as foot @-@ soldiers ; those who were unable to finance themselves even as foot @-@ soldiers were legally reduced to servitude .
The prominence of the German element in the towns sometimes led to conflicts along ethnic lines . Thus the struggle for leadership in Cluj ( now Cluj @-@ Napoca ) between Hungarians and Saxons only came to an end in 1458 by establishing a rule that municipal offices must be shared equally between the two groups . In 1486 , Matthias I united all the Saxon districts in Transylvania in the " University of the Saxons " under the leadership of the elected mayor of Sibiu .
After Matthias I 's death , the assembly of the Estates , called Diet , began to function as a regular organ of power . The peasantry suffered most from the rule of the Estates , for instance , by the limitation of their right to free movement . In 1514 thousands of peasants who had been summoned to Buda ( now Budapest , in modern Hungary ) to join the crusade proclaimed by Pope Leo X against the Ottomans turned the weapons against their masters . The rebels , led by the Székely George Dózsa , occupied several towns , such as Oradea and Şoimoş , but on July 15 John Szapolyai , the voivode defeated them at Timişoara . As a retaliation , the Diet decreed that peasants were to be tied to the land " perpetually " .
The downfall of the Kingdom of Hungary was marked by the battle of Mohács ( Hungary ) where the royal army was annihilated by the Ottomans on August 29 , 1526 . Thereafter the noblemen 's political factions engaged in conflict and elected two kings . One of them , John I Szapolyai ( 1526 – 1540 ) was supported by the lesser nobility , while Ferdinand I of Habsburg ( 1526 – 1564 ) was recognized mainly in the kingdom 's western counties , but the Transylvanian Saxons also supported him . Seeking the assistance of the Ottomans , John I had to pay homage to the sultan at Mohács in 1529 .
= = = Wallachia = = =
After the battle of Nicopolis , the Ottomans occupied Bulgaria and could attack Wallachia more easily . Mircea I the Old , however , could reoccupy Dobruja in 1402 by taking advantage of the Ottomans ' difficulties after their defeat by Timur Lenk in the battle of Ankara . He even intervened in the Ottoman civil war and supported the struggle of Musa and Mustafa against their brother , Mehmed I. After the two pretenders had been defeated , the Ottomans annexed again Dobruja and occupied Giurgiu , and Mircea I was forced to pay an annual tribute to the sultan . Under Mircea I iron mines were opened at Baia de Fier and copper mining began at Baia de Aramă . In addition , sulfur and amber were extracted in the region of Buzău .
After Mircea I 's death , princes succeeded one another on the throne with devastating frequency . For instance , Michael I ( 1418 – 1420 ) was overthrown by his cousin , Dan II ( 1420 – 1431 ) , and in the next decade the throne was occupied with frequent changes either by Dan II or by his cousin , Radu II the Bald ( 1421 – 1427 ) , the former being supported by Sigismund I of Hungary and the latter by the Ottomans .
Alexander I Aldea ( 1431 – 1436 ) was the first Romanian ruler to be forced to render military service to the Ottomans . Two decades later , Vlad III the Impaler ( 1448 , 1456 – 1462 , 1476 ) , notorious as the model for the Dracula legend , turned against the Ottoman Empire . He carried out a series of attacks across the Danube in the winter of 1461 – 1462 . The response was a massive invasion led by Mehmed II who drove Vlad III from the throne and replaced him with his brother , Radu III the Fair ( 1462 – 1475 ) . Due to the frequent military operations , the Wallachian Plain was heavily depopulated after the end of the 14th century . On the other hand , Wallachia received a steady flow of immigrants , mostly from the Balkans .
After 1462 Wallachia preserved its autonomy mainly through the intervention of Stephen the Great of Moldavia . At the end of the century , however , Radu IV the Great ( 1495 – 1508 ) became an obedient subject of the sultan and visited Istanbul annually to personally offer the tribute . Even so , he could only stay in power by collaborating with the powerful Craioveşti family , strongly connected to the Ottomans by trading . In 1512 a member of this family , Neagoe ( 1512 – 1521 ) rose to throne , but he adopted the dynastic name of Basarab in order to legitimize his rule . He wrote the first original work of Romanian literature , titled Teachings , to his son , Teodosius on moral , political , and military questions .
Under Theodosius I ( 1521 – 1522 ) the Ottoman governor of Nicopolis take advantage of the internal fights among the boyar parties , and thus dominated the political life of Wallachia . Due to the imminent danger of annexation , the boyars grouped around Radu V of Afumaţi ( 1522 – 1529 ) who fought about 20 battles against the Ottomans . Finally , he was , in 1525 , forced to accept Ottoman suzerainty and the rise of the tribute .
= = = Moldavia = = =
The Orthodox Metropolitan See of Moldavia was recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarch during the reign of Alexander I the Good ( 1400 – 1432 ) . He reinforced Moldavia 's traditional pro @-@ Polish orientation and declared himself a vassal of Władysław II of Poland in 1406 . Thenceforth , the Moldavian armies fought together with the Poles against the Teutonic Knights . The first Ottoman attack on Moldavia in 1420 was also repulsed by him . Alexander I 's death was followed by a long period of political instability , characterized by frequent fights for the throne . For instance , the struggle of his sons , Iliaş I ( 1432 – 1442 ) and Stephen II ( 1433 – 1447 ) ended in 1435 by the division of the country .
Although cottage industries , both in boyar and peasant households , were still the main source of clothing , food and construction , specialized production , such as weaving and pottery , started to develop by the middle of the 15th century . The first oil wells went into production in 1440 , but their oil was also only for household use . In Moldavia , Gypsy slaves were first mentioned in 1428 when Alexander I awarded 31 Gypsy families to the Bistriţa Monastery . In time Gypsies became specialized in several crafts : for example , throughout the Middle Ages the working of iron was an occupation reserved almost exclusively for them .
Peter III Aaron ( 1451 – 1457 ) was the first prince who agreed to pay tribute to the Ottomans in 1456 . He was ousted by his nephew , Stephen , with the support of Vlad the Impaler of Wallachia . Stephen III the Great was to be the most important medieval Romanian monarch who managed to uphold Moldavia 's autonomy against Hungary , Poland and the Ottoman Empire .
In the early years of his reign , he remained allied with Poland and the Ottoman Empire , and even joined the Ottomans in attacking Wallachia . He also supported the rebellion of 1467 of the Transylvanian Estates ; therefore Matthias I of Hungary launched an expedition against Moldavia , but the royal army was defeated in the battle of Baia . He came to view the Ottoman Empire as his chief enemy in the 1470s , and in 1474 he refused to pay tribute . He soon received the ultimatum of Mehmed II who demanded the surrender of Chilia , a fortress recently captured from Wallachia . Upon Stephen III 's refusal , a large Ottoman army was sent against Moldavia . He called on Pope Sixtus IV , pleading for a crusade . Although the pope acknowledged his merits , by naming him " the Athlete of Christ " , no anti @-@ Ottoman coalition materialized . Even without external military support , Stephen the Great led his troops to victory in the battle of Vaslui on January 10 , 1475 . Following the battle , he addressed a letter to the Christian princes , expressing the idea that the two Romanian principalities were the " gateway to the Christian world " , and if they fell " all Christendom would be in danger " .
He also recognized Matthias I of Hungary as his suzerain and received , in return , Ciceu and Cetatea de Baltă in Transylvania . The following year , however , he found himself alone when Mehmed II invaded Moldavia . The Moldavian army was defeated in the Battle of Valea Albă , but the Ottomans , suffering from a lack of provisions and an outbreak of the plague , were forced to retreat . Stephen the Great suffered the greatest setback of his reign in 1484 when the Ottomans captured Chilia and Cetatea Alba ( now Bilhorod @-@ Dnistrovskyi , Ukraine ) on the Black Sea . Having tried unsuccessfully to regain the fortresses in 1485 , he concluded a peace with the sultan and agreed to pay tribute to him .
He was succeeded by his son , Bogdan III the One @-@ Eyed ( 1504 – 1517 ) whose reign was troubled by a long series of military conflicts with Poland and Wallachia . The good relations with Poland were reestablished under the reign of Stephen IV the Younger ( 1517 – 1527 ) . His successor , Peter IV Rareş ( 1527 – 1538 , 1541 – 1546 ) intervened in the struggle for the crown of the Kingdom of Hungary : on the order of the sultan , in 1529 he invaded the Székely Land and defeated the army of Ferdinand I 's partisans .
= = Ottoman suzerainty ( 1530 – 1594 ) = =
= = = Establishment of Principality of Transylvania = = =
After 1529 , resistance to John I in Transylvania was broken in a series of small campaigns . For instance , the last Transylvanian magnate to side with Ferdinánd I , Stephen Majláth went over to John I in early 1532 , and Sibiu was occupied in 1536 . On February 24 , 1538 , a secret pact was signed in Oradea by the representatives of the two kings of Hungary . According to the treaty , both rulers were allowed to retain the territories which they then held , but the childless John I promised to recognize the Habsburgs ' succession .
However , John I married a daughter of Sigismund I of Poland , Isabella , who in 1540 bore him a son . Already dying , the king took an oath from his barons to evade the treaty of Oradea , and his counselor , George Martinuzzi , had the infant John II Sigismund elected as king ( 1540 – 1571 ) . Ferdinand I sent troops to take Buda , but they withdrew upon the advance of the Ottoman army . On August 29 , 1541 Suleiman I summoned the Hungarian lords to his camp , and while the reception was taking place , his troops occupied the capital of the kingdom . At the same time the sultan assigned the territories of the kingdom east of the Tisa to Queen Isabella and her son in return for an annual tribute .
On October 18 , the kingdom 's eastern territories , including Transylvania , swore allegiance to the infant king at the Diet of Debrecen ( Hungary ) . Thus a separate country started to emerge , although George Martinuzzi was still negotiating with Ferdinand I on the reunification of the kingdom . For this purpose , in 1551 Ferdinand I sent an army into Transylvania where he was recognized as sole ruler by the Diet . The Ottomans , however , occupied a great part of Banat in 1552 , and neither could Ferdinand I consolidate his rule over the kingdom 's eastern territories . Finally , the Diet , meeting in Sebeş on March 12 , 1556 , swore again allegiance to " the son of King John " , thus the young king and his mother returned to Transylvania .
The 16th century also brought about major religious changes : the Saxons converted to Lutheranism , while most of the Hungarians converted to Calvinism or Unitarianism ; only the Székelys remained more than the other " nations " Catholic . In 1568 , the Transylvanian Diet at Torda decreed the free worship of these four " received denominations " , but Orthodoxy still continued to be only tolerated . The Romanians ' status worsened in this period . The Diets of 1554 and 1555 decided that a Catholic or Protestant peasant could not be accused of a crime except there were seven Catholic or Protestant witnesses against him , while an Orthodox peasant could be accused if there were three Catholic or Protestant or seven Orthodox witnesses . The Diet of 1559 also decreed that Romanians who had settled on lands abandoned by Catholic serfs were obliged to pay the tithe .
It ( Transylvania ) is inhabited by three nations – Székelys , Hungarians and Saxons . I should add the Romanians who – even though they easily equal the others in number – have no liberties , no nobility and no rights of their own , except for a small number living in the district of Haţeg , where it is believed that the capital of Decebalus lay , and who were made nobles during the time of John Hunyadi , a native of that place , because they always took part tirelessly in the battles against the Turks . All others are common people , serfs of the Hungarians and without settlements of their own , scattered everywhere , throughout the entire country , rarely settled in open places , most of them retired in the woods , leading an unfortunate life alongside their flocks .
From the Székelys , continuing warfare demanded increased military service , and the royal administration imposed special taxes on them . Although the leaders of the Székely community were exempted from taxation in 1554 , but all the foot soldiers continued to be taxed , resulting in a double burden of military and monetary obligations for them . In 1562 many Székelys took up arms against John II Sigismund , but they were defeated . The Saxon towns continued to develop even in the years of upheaval . Their population , however , increased slowly , mainly as a consequence of the Saxons ' traditional desire for segregation : even Hungarian craftsmen and merchants were prohibited from settling in their towns .
In the Treaty of Speyer of August 16 , 1570 , John II Sigismund acknowledged his rival , Maximilian I ( 1564 – 1576 ) as the lawful king of Hungary and adopted the title of " prince of Transylvania and parts of the Kingdom of Hungary " . The treaty also marked out the borders of the new principality , which included not only the historical province of Transylvania , but also some neighboring counties , such as Bihor and Maramureş , thenceforward collectively known as Partium . The death of John II Sigismund in 1571 threatened to throw the country again into the hands of the Habsburgs whose officers supported the Unitarian Gáspár Bekes . Now the sultan appointed Stephen Báthory , a Catholic politician , voivode .
The decisive battle between the two candidates was won by Stephen Báthory at Sânpaul on July 8 , 1575 . In the same year , he was elected king of Poland , thus a personal union was formed between the two countries that lasted until his death in 1586 . He left the administration of the principality first to his brother , Christopher Báthory ( 1575 – 1581 ) , and then to his brother 's minor son , Sigismund Báthory ( 1581 – 1602 ) , bestowing on them the title of voivode , while he himself took the title of prince .
In February , 1594 Sigismund Báthory announced that his country would join the anti @-@ Ottoman alliance formed by the Holy Roman Emperor , Rudolf II , Philip II of Spain and many smaller Italian and German states . Although the Estates twice refused to endorse the declaration of war , Transylvania joined the alliance on January 28 , 1595 after the leaders of the opposition had been executed on the order of the monarch . In return Rudolph II recognized Sigismund 's title of prince .
= = = Wallachia = = =
The short and unworthy reigns of Radu V ’ s successors only increased the crisis of Wallachia . Starting with Mircea the Shepherd ( 1545 – 1559 ) , the first prince placed on the throne by the sultan , the crown became negotiable , according to the largest tribute offered . Even Michael the Brave who in time would turn against the Ottomans ascended the throne with the support of some people who had influence with the Sublime Porte , among them Sir Edward Barton , the English ambassador to Istanbul .
He soon embarked upon a program to strengthen the central authority by replacing the members of the sfatul domnesc , an advisory body consisting of boyars , with dregători , that is officials personally loyal to him . Michael the Brave also adopted an anti @-@ Ottoman policy , and upon his initiative Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania and Aaron the Tyrant of Moldavia ( 1591 – 1595 ) signed a treaty to form an anti @-@ Ottoman alliance . The rebellion started by the massacre of all the Ottomans in Wallachia on November 13 , 1594 .
= = = Moldavia = = =
In 1531 Peter IV Rareş invaded Poland in order to reoccupy the Pocuţia region ( in modern Ukraine ) , but his army was defeated . Now he concluded a secret treaty with Ferdinand I of Hungary , but soon had to seek refugee in Transylvania when Suleiman I led an army against him . This was the first occasion when a prince , Stephen V Lăcustă ( 1538 – 1540 ) was appointed by the sultan . At the same time , the sultan occupied Brăila and Tighina ( now in Moldova ) , and the Budjak region ( now in Ukraine ) . Peter IV Rareş recovered his throne in exchange for a large sum of money in 1541 . His death was followed by a period characterized by fights between pretenders to the throne and among the boyar parties .
The idea of anti @-@ Ottoman struggle was revived by John III the Terrible ( 1572 – 1574 ) who refused to pay the tribute to the sultan . As a result , Ottoman and Wallachian troops invaded Moldavia , but they were defeated by John III in a surprise attack near Jilişte . Now the sultan sent a large army against Moldavia , and the prince was captured and quartered . Next Aaron the Tyrant joined the anti @-@ Ottoman coalition of Transylvania and Wallachia , and started a rebellion on November 13 , 1594 , simultaneously with Michael the Brave of Wallachia .
The 16th century was characterized by the flourishing of ecclesiastical mural painting whose technique have remained a secret until today . For example , the interior and exterior frescoes of the Voroneţ Monastery represent this " Moldavian style " .
= = Age of Michael the Brave ( 1595 – 1601 ) = =
Following their coordinated uprising , Michael the Brave attacked Ottoman strongholds along the Danube and recovered Giurgiu and Brăila , while Aaron the Tyrant seized Ismail ( now in Ukraine ) . In response , the sultan ordered the Grand Vizier , Sinan Pasha to invade Wallachia . The two princes needed the support of Sigismund Báthory who took advantage of the situation to make himself suzerain of Wallachia and Moldavia . When Aaron the Tyrant refused Sigismund Báthory 's conditions , he was replaced by the latter 's protégé , Ştefan Răzvan ( 1595 ) on the throne .
According to the treaty signed by Michael the Brave on May 20 , 1595 in Alba Iulia , Sigismund Báthory became the ruler of the three principalities and adopted the title of " prince of Transylvania , Moldavia and Transalpine Wallachia " . The treaty stipulated , that the taxes would be established in Wallachia by the Transylvanian Diet , together with a council of 12 Wallachian boyars . Around that time , the peasants were bound to the land both in Wallachia and Moldavia .
Ottoman troops entered Wallachia in the summer , but they were defeated by Michael the Brave at Călugăreni and by the united armies of the three principalities at Giurgiu . In the meantime , however , the Poles had invaded Moldavia and replaced Ştefan Răzvan by Ieremia Movilă ( 1595 – 1606 ) . In June 1598 Michael the Brave recognized the suzerainty of Emperor Rudolph II , who had promised to grant subsidies to him to finance his mercenaries .
On March 30 , 1599 Sigismund Báthory abdicated the throne in favor of his cousin , Andrew Báthory ( 1599 ) . The new prince was loyal to the Poles and promptly demanded that Michael the Brave accept his suzerainty . The latter secured the emperor 's approval for an invasion of Transylvania and attacked the principality where the Székelys also joined him . He defeated his opponent at Şelimbar on October 28 , 1599 and entered Alba Iulia . Here the Diet recognized him as imperial governor . He respected the traditional organization of Transylvania , and even crushed a revolt of the Romanian peasants , but forced the Diet to relieve the Orthodox priests of feudal obligations . In the spring of 1600 , he invaded Moldavia in the name of the emperor and established control over it . In July he even proclaimed himself " prince of Wallachia , Transylvania , and all of Moldavia " in Iaşi , thus bringing about the union of the three principalities .
However , the Hungarian noblemen , dissatisfied with the disorder , rebelled against his rule , and defeated him at Mirăslău on September 18 , 1600 . At the same time , the Poles invaded Moldavia and restored Ieremia Movilă to the throne ; then they entered Wallachia , where Simion Movilă defeated Michael the Brave at Buzău . In this moment of crisis , Michael the Brave left for Prague to appeal to the emperor for support . He returned to Transylvania in July 1601 at the head of an imperial army . Cooperating with the imperial general , Giorgio Basta , he defeated the Transylvanian troops at Guruslău on August 3 , but on August 19 he was assassinated on the order of his former ally , Giorgio Basta .
= = After the first union = =
After Michael the Brave 's death , Transylvania was ruled by an imperial military commission , but under Stephen Bocskay ( 1604 – 1606 ) the principality voluntarily accepted Ottoman suzerainty . In the next decades , the princes of Transylvania , among them Gabriel Bethlen ( 1613 – 1629 ) , made several unsuccessful attempts to unify Transylvania , Wallachia and Moldavia .
Wallachia and Moldavia fell back under the control of the Ottoman Empire after Michael the Brave 's death . Radu Mihnea , prince of Wallachia ( 1611 – 1616 , 1623 – 1626 ) and of Moldavia ( 1616 – 1623 ) , was the first ruler to appoint Greeks from the Phanar district of Istanbul to high government posts . This started a trend that ultimately led to the so @-@ called " Phanariot period " in Romania ’ s history .
= Far East Man =
" Far East Man " is a song written by English musicians George Harrison and Ronnie Wood , each of whom released a recording of the song in 1974 . Wood 's version appeared on I 've Got My Own Album to Do , his debut solo album , and Harrison 's on Dark Horse . Their only official songwriting collaboration , " Far East Man " is an affirmation of friendship in the face of life 's obstacles and musically reflects the two guitarists ' adoption of the soul genre . Written mostly by Harrison , the composition has been interpreted as a restatement of the humanitarian message expressed in his 1971 single " Bangla Desh " , and a tribute to Indian musician Ravi Shankar .
The song originated during a period of romantic intrigue surrounding Harrison 's marriage to Pattie Boyd and Wood 's to his wife Krissie , which culminated in Boyd leaving Harrison for his and Wood 's mutual friend Eric Clapton . Wood recorded " Far East Man " in July 1974 at The Wick , his Surrey home that had also become an established meeting place for many leading rock musicians . Harrison sang and played slide guitar on this version , while other contributors included Wood 's Faces bandmate Ian MacLagan , Mick Taylor of the Rolling Stones , and drummer Andy Newmark . The Harrison recording took place at his Friar Park studio and features backing from Billy Preston , Tom Scott , Willie Weeks and Newmark , all of whom then played on his 1974 North American tour with Shankar . Opening with a spoken dedication to Frank Sinatra , the Dark Horse recording was marred by Harrison 's damaged singing voice – a result of his rushing to complete the album 's vocal parts in Los Angeles , while simultaneously rehearsing for the tour .
Several commentators have singled out " Far East Man " as a highlight of Harrison 's 1974 album . While noting the two composers ' troubled private lives during the song 's creation , author Simon Leng describes it as " a wistful shrug of the shoulders set to music " . In 2002 , Wood released a concert DVD titled Far East Man , which included a live version of the track . Recorded in December 2001 , two weeks after Harrison 's death from cancer , this performance features special guests Andrea Corr and Slash .
= = Background = =
Author Robert Rodriguez has written of " an informal musical round robin " existing in England during the early 1970s among rock music 's " elite " . From 1972 onwards , guitarist Ronnie Wood 's home in Richmond , Surrey – The Wick – was the preferred location for these get @-@ togethers , at which the participants included ex @-@ Beatle George Harrison , Wood 's Faces bandmates , and members of the Rolling Stones . Situated over a bend on the River Thames , and formerly the home of actor John Mills and novelist Mary Hayley Bell , The Wick was also where rehearsals took place for Eric Clapton 's comeback concerts at the Rainbow Theatre in January 1973 . These concerts featured Wood in the role of second guitarist and were organised by Pete Townshend of the Who , in an effort to pull Clapton out of his heroin @-@ induced seclusion . Harrison and his wife Pattie Boyd attended the Rainbow shows , on 13 January , and became friends with Wood and his wife , Krissie .
Musically during this period , Harrison and Wood participated in Alvin Lee 's recording of " So Sad " , a Harrison composition reflecting the failure of his marriage to Boyd . In October 1973 , the Woods stayed at Friar Park , Harrison 's estate in Oxfordshire , where he and Wood recorded together . They also began writing the song " Far East Man " , about which Harrison says in his 1980 autobiography , I , Me , Mine : " We stumbled on it and other things ... "
Beatles biographer Peter Doggett describes Friar Park as having become " a haven of adventurous intrigue " at this point , with Harrison conducting an affair with Maureen Starkey , the wife of his former bandmate Ringo Starr , and Clapton urging Boyd to leave her husband for him . During their stay at Friar Park , Wood began an affair with Boyd and the couple flew to the Bahamas , while Harrison and Krissie Wood holidayed together in Portugal . These details were kept from the press , but in late November 1973 , Wood issued a statement from The Wick confirming : " My romance with Patti Boyd is definitely on . " Given these developments , Rodriguez notes the irony in " Far East Man " being " a rumination on letting a friend down " .
= = Composition = =
The song began as an instrumental collaboration , which Harrison then finished alone . In I , Me , Mine , Harrison says that he and Wood came up with the melody to the verses together , but that , at Wood 's request , he later turned it into a song by writing the words and adding a middle eight . Harrison biographer Simon Leng describes the chord sequence as " a grin @-@ making exploration of major and minor sevenths that oozes smoochy soul " .
In the first verse , Harrison states :
While the world wages war
It gets harder to see
Who your friends really are ...
Author Ian Inglis interprets " Far East Man " as being about Indian sitar maestro Ravi Shankar , for whom Harrison had staged the Concert for Bangladesh in August 1971 . Three years later , with the new nation of Bangladesh still beset by problems , and conflict clouding the issue of friendship generally for Harrison , Inglis suggests that " this is one friendship [ Harrison ] is determined to preserve " . The choruses therefore promise : " I won 't let him down ... I won 't let him drown ... " Harrison later credited Shankar with being " probably the person who has influenced my life the most " , since " Indian music was like a stepping @-@ stone to the spiritual path " . Inglis views the song as reflecting Harrison 's commitment to " all the things that India has given him " .
Leng identifies " Far East Man " as a " hopeful song " , where , despite his confusion , Harrison 's " answer is to follow his instinct , his heart " . Leng sums up the conclusion that Harrison provides in the middle eight 's final line , " Can only do what it tells me " : " He surveys the problems of love , social strife , and disconnection from spiritual values , but decides that taking his own advice is a good enough start . "
While echoing this interpretation , theologian Dale Allison also highlights Harrison 's " humanitarian impulse , his regrets about the world 's current state , [ and ] his faint utopian hope for something better " as being evident in the lyrics to " Far East Man " . Allison likens the song to Harrison 's 1971 compositions " Bangla Desh " and " The Day the World Gets ' Round " , and suggests that in the choruses to " Far East Man " , Harrison is stating " his determination to help impoverished and oppressed peoples half a world away " .
As reproduced in his autobiography , Harrison 's original lyrics for the final verse included lines that he would change before recording his version of the song . The rewritten verse allows for an outlook that Allison describes as " a melioristic hope ... that people might be able to make the world a truly better place " :
Looks like right here on earth
God , it 's hellish at times
But I feel that a heaven 's in sight ...
According to his recollection in I , Me , Mine , Harrison wrote much of the lyrics to " Far East Man " while driving to The Wick to record the song . The title came about because the Faces had just returned from a tour of the Far East and Wood was wearing a T @-@ shirt that carried the slogan Far East Man , a play on the phrase " far out , man " .
= = Ronnie Wood 's version = =
= = = Recording = = =
In Ronnie , his 2007 autobiography , Wood writes that The Wick was " a hive of recording activity as well as a thriving debauchery camp " during the year @-@ long creation of his first solo release , I 've Got My Own Album to Do ( 1974 ) . The album title originated from contributors such as Harrison and Mick Jagger " nagging me to let them go home " and work on their own projects . Wood assisted Jagger in writing and recording the Rolling Stones ' 1974 single " It 's Only Rock ' n Roll " during this period , and he similarly reciprocated Harrison , by playing on the former Beatle 's Christmas single , " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " .
The session for " Far East Man " took place at Wood 's home studio in June 1974 , during the same month that Boyd left Harrison and joined Clapton on tour in America . Harrison biographers note the significance of this session , since it introduced him to the rhythm section he subsequently used on his North American tour with Shankar – bassist Willie Weeks and drummer Andy Newmark . According to the musician credits , Weeks did not play on this particular song , however .
The recording was produced by Wood and Gary Kellgren , the co @-@ owner of New York 's Record Plant studios , and whose work in taping the Concert for Bangladesh shows at Madison Square Garden had impressed Harrison . Rodriguez describes the musical arrangement on the song as " a slow soul groove " and views Wood 's version as " more Harrisonian " than Harrison 's later reading . The other musicians on the track were Rolling Stones lead guitarist Mick Taylor , playing bass ; Newmark ; Wood 's fellow Face Ian MacLagan , on electric piano ; and Jean Roussel , Cat Stevens ' regular keyboard player , on organ .
Harrison 's slide guitar and harmony vocals are prominent in the mix , yet he received a credit only for his songwriting contribution on early editions of the album . While discussing the track in 2012 on Sky Arts HD 's The Ronnie Wood Show , Wood recalled Harrison teaching him the vocal parts for " eighteen hours " , but Harrison 's own singing contribution had to be kept to a minimum in order to satisfy the requirements of " his publishers " .
= = = Release = = =
Warner Bros. Records released I 've Got My Own Album to Do in September 1974 , with " Far East Man " appearing as the second track , following Wood 's collaboration with Jagger , " I Can Feel the Fire " . With additional contributions from Keith Richards and Faces vocalist Rod Stewart , the album was well received critically .
Like Harrison , Wood continued to incorporate soul music in his solo recordings , working with former Valentino Bobby Womack on his follow @-@ up album , Now Look ( 1975 ) . By the time of that album 's release , Wood had replaced Taylor in the Rolling Stones , leading to Stewart announcing the break @-@ up of the Faces in December 1975 . Although Wood and Harrison never officially co @-@ wrote another song after " Far East Man " , their friendship continued , with Wood announcing in 1996 that he and Harrison were recording together .
The song appears on Wood 's career @-@ spanning compilation Anthology : The Essential Crossexion , released in 2006 . In their respective reviews for the websites AllMusic and musicOMH , Thom Jurek and Barnaby Smith each identify " Far East Man " as a highlight of the two @-@ disc set .
= = George Harrison 's version = =
= = = Recording = = =
Harrison taped the basic track for his version of " Far East Man " at Friar Park over August and September 1974 , during sessions for his album Dark Horse . Having " brushed up the lyrics a bit " , as he puts it in I , Me , Mine , Harrison retained Newmark and Weeks from the sessions with Wood , and brought in keyboard player Billy Preston and saxophonist and arranger Tom Scott , both of whom would also be part of his all @-@ American tour band . Leng describes " Far East Man " as " the first Harisong to tap into 1970s soul " and notes the " supreme soul credentials " of Newmark , as the former drummer with Sly and the Family Stone , and Weeks , who had supplied the highly regarded basslines on Donny Hathaway Live ( 1972 ) . Newmark later recalled of his and Weeks ' first sessions for Harrison : " We were completely thrilled to be asked to play on his record … It was the most exciting thing to happen to me . I had to keep pinching myself to remember it was real . "
At the start of the song , Harrison delivers a spoken dedication to Frank Sinatra , adding : " we love you , Frank , and we hope you include this one at Caesars Palace on your next live album . " This message referred to Sinatra 's adoption of the Harrison composition " Something " , which he lauded as " the greatest love song of the past fifty years " . On " Far East Man " , Inglis finds Scott 's multiple horn parts " reminiscent of the soul stylings " of King Curtis , Junior Walker and the Funk Brothers . Unlike on the Wood recording , Harrison 's slide guitar appears only midway through the Dark Horse version ( overdubbed onto his rhythm guitar part ) , in a solo that author Elliot Huntley describes as " wonderfully complement [ ed ] " by Scott 's " bachelor @-@ pad saxophones " .
Harrison 's commitment to his other projects – such as starting up a new record label , Dark Horse Records , and organising Shankar 's European revue , the Music Festival from India – affected progress on the album . According to authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter , Harrison had to overdub much of his vocals while in Los Angeles for tour rehearsals , in October . Combined with his having to sing during the rehearsals , the overexertion damaged Harrison 's voice , compromising his performance on songs such as " Far East Man " . His throat condition worsened during the subsequent tour , earning Harrison highly unfavourable concert reviews from a number of critics , who objected also to the substantial stage @-@ time afforded Shankar 's ensemble .
= = = Release = = =
Dark Horse was released on Apple Records on 9 December 1974 in the United States , towards the end of the Harrison – Shankar tour . Harrison sequenced " Far East Man " as the penultimate track , between " Dark Horse " , the album 's lead single in the US , and the pop @-@ bhajan " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " .
Given Harrison 's marital problems , and the generally unfavourable reception given to his tour and album , author Gary Tillery describes his new relationship with Olivia Arias as " [ t ] he one bright spot in the problematic year " . Having met Arias in Los Angeles in October , Harrison used a photo of her on the face label for side two of the Dark Horse LP . Writing in 1981 , NME critic Bob Woffinden viewed the inclusion of this image , combined with the more upbeat message of side @-@ two songs such as " Ding Dong " and " Far East Man " , as Harrison ushering in Arias , his future wife , and farewelling Boyd .
= = = Reception = = =
Along with Jim Miller 's opinions in Rolling Stone magazine , Woffinden 's 1974 album review for the NME was one of the most scathing critiques . Woffinden bemoaned how on Dark Horse , " the radiant light of George 's spirituality is planted firmly under a bushel and darkness is not confined to equine matters " . He then wrote of the song : " [ ' Far East Man ' ] seems to have most chance of independent survival , especially as the song turned up in quite pleasant shape on Wood 's I 've Got My Own Album To Do , but here again the production effectively smothers it , and Harrison 's drab vocals complete the assassination . " By contrast , Michael Gross of Circus Raves magazine viewed the album as the equal of Harrison 's acclaimed All Things Must Pass ( 1970 ) and praised the song and its arrangement , writing : " Scott again excels on ' Far East Man ' , with a horn solo that would vindicate any context in which it was put . " In a similarly positive assessment for Melody Maker , Brian Harrigan opined that Dark Horse " should certainly do a tremendous amount to salvage George 's battered reputation " but found the extended playout to " Far East Man " overlong – an example , he said , where " you can have just too much of a good thing " .
Among more recent commentators , Simon Leng considers " Far East Man " to be among Harrison 's best compositions and " one of its writer 's most beguiling pieces " , while AllMusic 's Richard Ginell describes it as " exquisite " . Leng praises the " especially attractive " middle eight and views the track as " a musical acceptance of life as an unfathomable riddle … a wistful shrug of the shoulders set to music " . Ian Inglis identifies " a lovely melodic passage " in the first line of the choruses , which he regrets " is never fully developed elsewhere " , and compares the song favourably with Marvin Gaye 's 1971 album What 's Going On . In an April 2004 article in Blender magazine , Paul Du Noyer deemed " Far East Man " to be the " standout track " on an album that displayed an " uncharacteristic spell of rock star excess " on Harrison 's part .
Reviewing the 2014 reissue of Harrison 's Apple catalogue , for Mojo , Tom Doyle describes the song as " the excellently smooth Steely Dan @-@ ish Far East Man " . Joe Marchese of The Second Disc writes of the " impeccable " musicianship found throughout Dark Horse and adds : " There are many stellar moments , such as ' Far East Man , ' with Scott contributing his trademark jazz @-@ rock saxophone on a deliciously fab slice of ' yacht rock . ' " Blogcritics ' Chaz Lipp similarly finds " a lot of rewarding listening " on Dark Horse , and highlights the track as " a smooth soul collaboration with Ron Wood that , once heard , lodges itself in the brain " . In his review of the 2014 reissues , for Record Collector , Oregano Rathbone cites " Far East Man " as an example of how each of Harrison 's Apple albums post @-@ All Things Must Pass " contains shivery moments of release " .
= = Other versions = =
Before leaving for Los Angeles in October 1974 , Harrison performed a portion of " Far East Man " during an interview with BBC Radio 's Alan Freeman . Harrison began playing the song , on acoustic guitar , in reply to Freeman asking whether he had felt let down by friends in the past . The interview was broadcast in the UK on Rockspeak , in December , but delayed until September 1975 in America , where it formed part of Freeman 's syndicated show Rock Around the World . Along with Harrison 's performances of " Dark Horse " , " Awaiting on You All " and " I Don 't Care Anymore " , this recording is available only on bootleg compilations .
Following his troubled tour with Shankar , Harrison 's only other tour as a solo artist took place in December 1991 , when he and Clapton performed a series of well @-@ received concerts in Japan . In 2002 , various Japanese musicians recorded the Harrison tribute album Gentle Guitar Dreams , for which Hiroshi Takano contributed a cover version of " Far East Man " .
= = = Far East Man live DVD = = =
Beginning on 8 December 2001 , less than two weeks after Harrison succumbed to cancer at the age of 58 , Wood played the song during his shows in Dublin and London , in support of his sixth solo album , Not for Beginners . A live version filmed on 11 December at the Shepherds Bush Empire , west London , appeared on the concert DVD Far East Man ( 2002 ) . Among Wood 's band were his son Jessie ( on guitar ) and daughter Leah ( vocals ) , the latter being Wood 's eldest child by his second wife , Jo Karslake .
The performance of " Far East Man " includes guest appearances from Andrea Corr and Slash . Wood introduces the song as " brilliant ! " , before saying of Harrison : " And we shall miss that man ... "
= = Personnel = =
= Batman : Arkham City =
Batman : Arkham City is a 2011 action @-@ adventure video game developed by Rocksteady Studios and released by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 video game consoles , and Microsoft Windows . Based on the DC Comics superhero Batman , it is the sequel to the 2009 video game Batman : Arkham Asylum and the second installment in the Batman : Arkham series . It was released worldwide for consoles , beginning in North America on October 18 , 2011 , with a Microsoft Windows version following on November 22 .
Written by veteran Batman writer Paul Dini with Paul Crocker and Sefton Hill , Arkham City is based on the franchise 's long @-@ running comic book mythos . In the game 's main storyline , Batman is incarcerated in Arkham City , a huge new super @-@ prison enclosing the decaying urban slums of fictional Gotham City . He must uncover the secret behind the sinister scheme , " Protocol 10 " , orchestrated by the facility 's warden , Hugo Strange . The game 's leading characters are predominantly voiced by actors from the DC Animated Universe , with Kevin Conroy and Mark Hamill reprising their roles as Batman and the Joker , respectively . The game is presented from the third @-@ person perspective with a primary focus on Batman 's combat and stealth abilities , detective skills , and gadgets that can be used in both combat and exploration . Arkham City expands Batman 's arsenal of gadgets and combat attacks and offers a more open world structure , allowing the player to complete side missions away from the primary storyline .
The game received critical acclaim , particularly for its narrative , character and world designs , soundtrack , and Batman 's combat and navigation abilities . It was tied for the highest @-@ rated video game of 2011 according to review aggregator Metacritic , and was the recipient of several awards including : Game of the Year , Best Action Game , Best Action Adventure Game , Best Adventure Game , and Best Original Score from various media outlets , and it is considered one of the best games ever made . Arkham City was followed by several additional releases : a spin @-@ off mobile game , Batman : Arkham City Lockdown , on December 7 , 2011 ; a Game of the Year edition containing all of the game 's downloadable content on May 29 , 2012 ; and Wii U and OS X versions in November and December 2012 , respectively . A remastered version is in development for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . A successor , Batman : Arkham Origins , was released in October 2013 , and a narrative sequel , Batman : Arkham Knight , was released in June 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Batman : Arkham City is an open @-@ world action @-@ adventure game that incorporates tactics from stealth games . It is presented from the third @-@ person perspective , showing the playable character on screen and allowing the camera to be freely rotated around it . The game is set within Arkham City , which is open to the player from the beginning of the game , allowing them to travel freely anywhere within its boundaries . The player can move silently throughout the game , using a combination of gadgets and stealth moves to sneak up on enemies and incapacitate them . Batman can use his cape to glide around the city , diving downwards and swooping upwards to extend his flight , and he can use the grapnel gun 's retracting rope to attach to out @-@ of @-@ reach ledges . As Batman , the player is able to use " Detective Vision " , a visual mode that highlights elements of interest on @-@ screen , such as character status , collectables , and clues ; the mode is also used to perform forensic activities such as tracking the source of a sniper rifle round . The player has access to an in @-@ game criminal database which includes forensic puzzles , as well as a network for hacking communication frequencies .
Using an improved version of the Freeflow combat system from Arkham Asylum , the player can now counter multiple blows simultaneously , catch hurled projectiles , attack aerially , and administer a succession of consecutive strikes . Many of Batman 's gadgets can now be used in combat . Enemies are armed with varying levels of armor and weapons ; attacks from basic weapons like baseball bats and lead pipes inflict minor damage and can be countered , while guns inflict significant damage . Certain enemies must be disarmed in specific ways before they can be neutralized in combat : enemies with stun batons can only be attacked from behind ; enemies with shields require aerial attacks to disarm ; and enemies wearing body armor must be stunned with rapid successive strikes before they can be harmed . Larger enemies must be tackled with stuns and combo attacks , and can be manipulated to take out their allies . Disputes between gangs allied to rival villains often spark turf wars , which complicate the player 's ability to move about Arkham City . Combat , among other actions , rewards the player with experience points that allow the player to periodically level Batman up and purchase upgrades to his Batsuit , gadgets , and combat and stealth skills . Each category contains approximately 15 different upgrades . For instance , an upgraded grapnel gun can be used to remotely disarm enemies , while a combat upgrade makes it easier to activate special attacks .
Some gadgets obtained in Batman : Arkham Asylum are present at the start of Arkham City , while others become available during play . Most of these have improved or new capabilities ; for example , the Cryptographic Sequencer , used for hacking security consoles , can also monitor shortwave radio channels , and the line launcher can now be deployed as a tightrope or alter direction during flight . Other items returning from the first game include these : a remote @-@ controlled batarang ; Explosive Gel that can now be detonated to knock down enemies in combat ; and the grapnel gun , which can now be used while gliding to facilitate transportation . New items in Batman 's arsenal include : smoke bombs that disorient opponents and assist with stealth tactics ; a Remote Electric Charge ( REC ) gun that can stun enemies and temporarily power motors ; Freeze Blast grenades that encase targets in ice and can be thrown into water to create makeshift platforms ; and the Disruptor , which can remotely disable guns and explosive mines .
The game has approximately 40 hours of gameplay , with the main campaign lasting 25 hours and side missions lasting 15 hours . The side missions , which can be attempted at any time , feature prominent characters from the Batman universe . One such character , the Riddler , provides 440 optional " Riddler challenges " to solve . Most of these challenges
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Jupiter 's magnetic field .
Thermal radiation is produced by heat in the atmosphere of Jupiter .
= = = Exploration = = =
Since 1973 a number of automated spacecraft have visited Jupiter , most notably the Pioneer 10 space probe , the first spacecraft to get close enough to Jupiter to send back revelations about the properties and phenomena of the Solar System 's largest planet . Flights to other planets within the Solar System are accomplished at a cost in energy , which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft , or delta @-@ v. Entering a Hohmann transfer orbit from Earth to Jupiter from low Earth orbit requires a delta @-@ v of 6 @.@ 3 km / s which is comparable to the 9 @.@ 7 km / s delta @-@ v needed to reach low Earth orbit . Fortunately , gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required to reach Jupiter , albeit at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration .
= = = = Flyby missions = = = =
Beginning in 1973 , several spacecraft have performed planetary flyby maneuvers that brought them within observation range of Jupiter . The Pioneer missions obtained the first close @-@ up images of Jupiter 's atmosphere and several of its moons . They discovered that the radiation fields near the planet were much stronger than expected , but both spacecraft managed to survive in that environment . The trajectories of these spacecraft were used to refine the mass estimates of the Jovian system . Radio occultations by the planet resulted in better measurements of Jupiter 's diameter and the amount of polar flattening .
Six years later , the Voyager missions vastly improved the understanding of the Galilean moons and discovered Jupiter 's rings . They also confirmed that the Great Red Spot was anticyclonic . Comparison of images showed that the Red Spot had changed hue since the Pioneer missions , turning from orange to dark brown . A torus of ionized atoms was discovered along Io 's orbital path , and volcanoes were found on the moon 's surface , some in the process of erupting . As the spacecraft passed behind the planet , it observed flashes of lightning in the night side atmosphere .
The next mission to encounter Jupiter was the Ulysses solar probe . It performed a flyby maneuver to attain a polar orbit around the Sun . During this pass , the spacecraft conducted studies on Jupiter 's magnetosphere . Ulysses has no cameras so no images were taken . A second flyby six years later was at a much greater distance .
In 2000 , the Cassini probe flew by Jupiter en route to Saturn , and provided some of the highest @-@ resolution images ever made of the planet .
The New Horizons probe flew by Jupiter for gravity assist en route to Pluto . Its closest approach was on February 28 , 2007 . The probe 's cameras measured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studied all four Galilean moons in detail , as well as making long @-@ distance observations of the outer moons Himalia and Elara . Imaging of the Jovian system began September 4 , 2006 .
= = = = Galileo mission = = = =
The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was the Galileo probe , which entered orbit on December 7 , 1995 . It orbited the planet for over seven years , conducting multiple flybys of all the Galilean moons and Amalthea . The spacecraft also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 as it approached Jupiter in 1994 , giving a unique vantage point for the event . Its originally designed capacity was limited by the failed deployment of its high @-@ gain radio antenna , although extensive information was still gained about the Jovian system from Galileo .
A 340 @-@ kilogram titanium atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July 1995 , entering Jupiter 's atmosphere on December 7 . It parachuted through 150 km ( 93 mi ) of the atmosphere at a speed of about 2 @,@ 575 km / h ( 1600 mph ) and collected data for 57 @.@ 6 minutes before it was crushed by the pressure of about 23 atmospheres at a temperature of 153 ° C. It melted thereafter , and possibly vaporized . The Galileo orbiter itself experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was deliberately steered into the planet on September 21 , 2003 at a speed of over 50 km / s to avoid any possibility of it crashing into and possibly contaminating Europa , a moon which has been hypothesized to have the possibility of harboring life .
Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composes up to 90 % of Jupiter 's atmosphere . The recorded temperature was more than 300 ° C ( > 570 ° F ) and the windspeed measured more than 644 km / h ( > 400 mph ) before the probes vapourised .
= = = = Juno mission = = = =
NASA 's Juno mission arrived at Jupiter on July 4 , 2016 and will study the planet in detail from a polar orbit .
= = = = Future probes = = = =
The next planned mission to the Jovian system will be the European Space Agency 's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer ( JUICE ) , due to launch in 2022 , followed by NASA 's Europa Clipper mission in 2025 .
= = = = Canceled missions = = = =
There has been great interest in studying the icy moons in detail because of the possibility of subsurface liquid oceans on Jupiter 's moons Europa , Ganymede , and Callisto . Funding difficulties have delayed progress . NASA 's JIMO ( Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter ) was cancelled in 2005 . A subsequent proposal was developed for a joint NASA / ESA mission called EJSM / Laplace , with a provisional launch date around 2020 . EJSM / Laplace would have consisted of the NASA @-@ led Jupiter Europa Orbiter and the ESA @-@ led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter . However , ESA had formally ended the partnership by April 2011 , citing budget issues at NASA and the consequences on the mission timetable . Instead , ESA planned to go ahead with a European @-@ only mission to compete in its L1 Cosmic Vision selection .
= = Moons = =
Jupiter has 67 natural satellites . Of these , 51 are less than 10 kilometres in diameter and have only been discovered since 1975 . The four largest moons , visible from Earth with binoculars on a clear night , known as the " Galilean moons " , are Io , Europa , Ganymede , and Callisto .
= = = Galilean moons = = =
The moons discovered by Galileo — Io , Europa , Ganymede , and Callisto — are among the largest satellites in the Solar System . The orbits of three of them ( Io , Europa , and Ganymede ) form a pattern known as a Laplace resonance ; for every four orbits that Io makes around Jupiter , Europa makes exactly two orbits and Ganymede makes exactly one . This resonance causes the gravitational effects of the three large moons to distort their orbits into elliptical shapes , because each moon receives an extra tug from its neighbors at the same point in every orbit it makes . The tidal force from Jupiter , on the other hand , works to circularize their orbits .
The eccentricity of their orbits causes regular flexing of the three moons ' shapes , with Jupiter 's gravity stretching them out as they approach it and allowing them to spring back to more spherical shapes as they swing away . This tidal flexing heats the moons ' interiors by friction . This is seen most dramatically in the extraordinary volcanic activity of innermost Io ( which is subject to the strongest tidal forces ) , and to a lesser degree in the geological youth of Europa 's surface ( indicating recent resurfacing of the moon 's exterior ) .
= = = Classification = = =
Before the discoveries of the Voyager missions , Jupiter 's moons were arranged neatly into four groups of four , based on commonality of their orbital elements . Since then , the large number of new small outer moons has complicated this picture . There are now thought to be six main groups , although some are more distinct than others .
A basic sub @-@ division is a grouping of the eight inner regular moons , which have nearly circular orbits near the plane of Jupiter 's equator and are thought to have formed with Jupiter . The remainder of the moons consist of an unknown number of small irregular moons with elliptical and inclined orbits , which are thought to be captured asteroids or fragments of captured asteroids . Irregular moons that belong to a group share similar orbital elements and thus may have a common origin , perhaps as a larger moon or captured body that broke up .
= = = Planetary rings = = =
Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of three main segments : an inner torus of particles known as the halo , a relatively bright main ring , and an outer gossamer ring . These rings appear to be made of dust , rather than ice as with Saturn 's rings . The main ring is probably made of material ejected from the satellites Adrastea and Metis . Material that would normally fall back to the moon is pulled into Jupiter because of its strong gravitational influence . The orbit of the material veers towards Jupiter and new material is added by additional impacts . In a similar way , the moons Thebe and Amalthea probably produce the two distinct components of the dusty gossamer ring . There is also evidence of a rocky ring strung along Amalthea 's orbit which may consist of collisional debris from that moon .
= = Interaction with the Solar System = =
Along with the Sun , the gravitational influence of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar System . The orbits of most of the system 's planets lie closer to Jupiter 's orbital plane than the Sun 's equatorial plane ( Mercury is the only planet that is closer to the Sun 's equator in orbital tilt ) , the Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt are mostly caused by Jupiter , and the planet may have been responsible for the Late Heavy Bombardment of the inner Solar System 's history .
Along with its moons , Jupiter 's gravitational field controls numerous asteroids that have settled into the regions of the Lagrangian points preceding and following Jupiter in its orbit around the Sun . These are known as the Trojan asteroids , and are divided into Greek and Trojan " camps " to commemorate the Iliad . The first of these , 588 Achilles , was discovered by Max Wolf in 1906 ; since then more than two thousand have been discovered . The largest is 624 Hektor .
Most short @-@ period comets belong to the Jupiter family — defined as comets with semi @-@ major axes smaller than Jupiter 's . Jupiter family comets are thought to form in the Kuiper belt outside the orbit of Neptune . During close encounters with Jupiter their orbits are perturbed into a smaller period and then circularized by regular gravitational interaction with the Sun and Jupiter .
= = = Impacts = = =
Jupiter has been called the Solar System 's vacuum cleaner , because of its immense gravity well and location near the inner Solar System . It receives the most frequent comet impacts of the Solar System 's planets . It was thought that the planet served to partially shield the inner system from cometary bombardment . However , recent computer simulations suggest that Jupiter does not cause a net decrease in the number of comets that pass through the inner Solar System , as its gravity perturbs their orbits inward roughly as often as it accretes or ejects them . This topic remains controversial among scientists , as some think it draws comets towards Earth from the Kuiper belt while others think that Jupiter protects Earth from the alleged Oort cloud . Jupiter experiences about 200 times more asteroid and comet impacts than Earth .
A 1997 survey of historical astronomical drawings suggested that Cassini may have recorded an impact scar in 1690 . The survey produced eight other candidate observations between 1664 and 1839 , but they had low or no possibility of being the result of an impact .
More recent discoveries include the following :
A fireball was photographed by Voyager 1 during its Jupiter encounter in March 1979 .
During the period July 16 , 1994 , to July 22 , 1994 , over 20 fragments from the comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 ( SL9 , formally designated D / 1993 F2 ) collided with Jupiter 's southern hemisphere , providing the first direct observation of a collision between two Solar System objects . This impact provided useful data on the composition of Jupiter 's atmosphere .
On July 19 , 2009 , an impact site was discovered at approximately 216 degrees longitude in System 2 . This impact left behind a black spot in Jupiter 's atmosphere , similar in size to Oval BA . Infrared observation showed a bright spot where the impact took place , meaning the impact warmed up the lower atmosphere in the area near Jupiter 's south pole .
A fireball , smaller than the previous observed impacts , was detected on June 3 , 2010 , by Anthony Wesley , an amateur astronomer in Australia , and was later discovered to have been captured on video by another amateur astronomer in the Philippines .
Yet another fireball was seen on August 20 , 2010 .
On September 10 , 2012 , another fireball was detected .
March 17 , 2016 an asteroid or comet struck and was filmed on video .
= = Possibility of life = =
In 1953 , the Miller – Urey experiment demonstrated that a combination of lightning and the chemical compounds that existed in the atmosphere of a primordial Earth could form organic compounds ( including amino acids ) that could serve as the building blocks of life . The simulated atmosphere included water , methane , ammonia , and molecular hydrogen , all molecules still found in Jupiter 's atmosphere . Jupiter 's atmosphere has a strong vertical air circulation , which would carry these compounds down into the lower regions . The higher temperatures within the interior of the atmosphere would break down these chemicals , hindering the formation of Earth @-@ like life .
It is considered highly unlikely that there is any Earth @-@ like life on Jupiter , because there is only a small amount of water in Jupiter 's atmosphere and any possible solid surface deep within Jupiter would be under extreme pressures . Still , it has been hypothesized that ammonia- or water @-@ based life could evolve in Jupiter 's upper atmosphere . The possible presence of underground oceans on some of Jupiter 's moons has led to speculation that the presence of life is more likely there .
= = Mythology = =
The planet Jupiter has been known since ancient times . It is visible to the naked eye in the night sky and can occasionally be seen in the daytime when the Sun is low . To the Babylonians , this object represented their god Marduk . They used Jupiter 's roughly 12 @-@ year orbit along the ecliptic to define the constellations of their zodiac .
The Romans named it after Jupiter ( Latin : Iuppiter , Iūpiter ) ( also called Jove ) , the principal god of Roman mythology , whose name comes from the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European vocative compound * Dyēu @-@ pəter ( nominative : * Dyēus @-@ pətēr , meaning " Father Sky @-@ God " , or " Father Day @-@ God " ) . In turn , Jupiter was the counterpart to the mythical Greek Zeus ( Ζεύς ) , also referred to as Dias ( Δίας ) , the planetary name of which is retained in modern Greek .
The astronomical symbol for the planet , , is a stylized representation of the god 's lightning bolt . The original Greek deity Zeus supplies the root zeno- , used to form some Jupiter @-@ related words , such as zenographic .
Jovian is the adjectival form of Jupiter . The older adjectival form jovial , employed by astrologers in the Middle Ages , has come to mean " happy " or " merry " , moods ascribed to Jupiter 's astrological influence .
The Chinese , Koreans and Japanese called it the " wood star " ( Chinese : 木星 ; pinyin : mùxīng ) , based on the Chinese Five Elements . Chinese Taoism personified it as the Fu star . The Greeks called it Φαέθων , Phaethon , " blazing " . In Vedic astrology , Hindu astrologers named the planet after Brihaspati , the religious teacher of the gods , and often called it " Guru " , which literally means the " Heavy One " .
In Germanic mythology , Jupiter is equated to Thor , whence the English name Thursday for the Roman dies Jovis .
In the Central Asian @-@ Turkic myths , Jupiter is called Erendiz or Erentüz , from eren ( of uncertain meaning ) and yultuz ( " star " ) . There are many theories about the meaning of eren . These peoples calculated the period of the orbit of Jupiter as 11 years and 300 days . They believed that some social and natural events connected to Erentüz 's movements on the sky .
= Breton horse =
The Breton is a breed of draft horse . It was developed in Brittany , a province in northwest France , from native ancestral stock dating back thousands of years . The Breton was created through the crossbreeding of many different European and Oriental breeds . In 1909 , a stud book was created , and in 1951 it was officially closed . The breed is often chestnut in color , and is strong and muscular . There are three distinct subtypes of the Breton , each coming from a different area of Brittany . The Corlay Breton is the smallest type , and is generally used for light draft and under saddle work . The Postier Breton is used for harness and light farm work . The Heavy Draft Breton is the largest subtype , and is generally used for the hardest draft work . This horse breed has been used in military , draft and agricultural capacities . It also has been used to improve and create many other draft breeds , and to produce mules .
= = Characteristics = =
Breton horses are usually about 1 @.@ 58 metres ( 15 @.@ 2 hands ) tall , but may range from 1 @.@ 55 to 1 @.@ 63 m ( 15 @.@ 1 to 16 @.@ 0 hands ) , depending on type . They usually have a chestnut coat , often with a flaxen mane and tail , but can also be bay , grey , or red or blue roan . Bretons have a well @-@ proportioned head of medium volume with a straight profile and a strong , short neck well @-@ set into muscular withers . The shoulder is long and sloping , the chest broad and muscular , the back short and wide , and the croup sloping . The legs are well @-@ feathered , short but powerful , with broad joints and well @-@ formed hooves .
= = = Subcategories = = =
There are several subtypes of the Breton breed . Two , the Trait Breton and the Postier Breton , are officially recognised , while others such as the Corlais or Cheval de Corlay and the Centre @-@ montagne or Central Mountain Breton are not . Older types that have disappeared include the Grand Breton and the Bidet Breton or Bidet d 'Allure .
The Corlay Breton is derived from crossbreeding native stock with the Arabian and Thoroughbred , and is considered the real descendant of the original Breton . It has the same general features as the draft type but is smaller with a more dished face . It was used mainly for light draft work that required speed and under saddle , and its numbers have been decreasing in recent years . The type is also known as the Cheval de Corlay , and is now extremely rare . It was also used in local races because of its speed , which it inherited from its Arabian and Thoroughbred ancestors .
Postier Bretons were developed as a result of crossbreeding with the Norfolk Trotter and the Hackney during the 19th century . This type is bred mainly in central Brittany , has a very attractive gait , is a good coach horse , and capable of light farming work . Its name originates from its use in pulling mail coaches . The Postier was used extensively by the French Horse Artillery , and it has been described as a lighter version of the Suffolk Punch draft breed from Great Britain .
The Heavy Draft Breton is derived from an infusion of Ardennes and Percheron blood . It is very strong relative to its size and has short but muscular legs . It is bred in the northern coastal area of Brittany , in Merléac . This type has absorbed another , older type , called the Grand Breton , a heavier horse that was used to improve many other draft breeds . The Centre @-@ montagne or Central Mountain Breton is a smaller draft type .
= = Breed history = =
Bretons were originally bred for great strength and durability . Horses have been present in the Breton mountains for thousands of years , but nobody knows how they first arrived . One theory is that they were brought to Europe during the Aryan migration from Asia over 4 @,@ 000 years ago , while another school of thought has them descending from horses bred by Celtic warriors before their conquest of Great Britain .
The original ancestors of the Breton were a population of horses that that lived in the Breton mountains , possibly descended from steppe horses ridden by Celts . During the Crusades , these mountain horses were crossed with oriental horses to create a type known as the Bidet Breton . In the Middle Ages , the ancestral Breton horse was sought by military leaders , partly because of its comfortable gait , which was said to be partway between a brisk trot and an amble . Due to its gaits and the fact that it only stood about 1 @.@ 40 m ( 13 @.@ 3 hands ) high , it was nicknamed the Bidet d 'Allure or Bidet Breton . Horses of other bloodlines brought back to Europe during the Crusades had a strong influence on the Breton , and two types subsequently developed . The Sommier was the common , heavier type , used mainly as a pack horse and for farm and draft work . From the Sommier , the Roussin was developed , was used mainly in wars and on long journeys . The Roussin 's natural ambling gait made it popular as a lighter riding horse .
The breed retained its mountain roots with its main stud , the National Provincial Stud , being located in the mountain country of Langonnet . It was at this time that Arabian and Thoroughbred blood was added to the breed , creating the Corlay subtype . From the Middle Ages until the early 1900s , the Breton was crossed with various horses , both native and foreign , including the Boulonnais , Percheron and Ardennes breeds . In the 19th century it was crossbred with the Norfolk Trotter , which resulted in a lighter weight type of Breton , the Postier subtype . Today , the Breton breed is controlled by the Syndicat des Éleveurs de Cheval Breton , an organization dating its studbook to 1909 when it was created , with separate books for the Heavy Draft and Postier types . In 1912 , the books were combined but separate sections were used for each type , and in 1926 the sections were combined so that all types of Bretons are now registered together . Postier Bretons must be of documented Posteir bloodstock and pass in @-@ harness performance tests . In 1920 , the decision was made to permit no new outside blood into the studbook , and in 1951 the studbook was officially closed to outside horses . Breton horses are only eligible to be registered if they were foaled in the present @-@ day region of Brittany or in the Loire @-@ Atlantique department , formerly part of Brittany . Registered foals are branded with a " cross surmounting a splayed , upturned V " on the left side of the neck . Despite the registration restrictions , breeding of the Breton horse has spread across France , and around the world . Today in France , the Breton is bred mainly at studs in Lamballe , Hennebont , and parts of La Roche @-@ sur @-@ Yon .
= = = Crossbreeding = = =
For a time , there was a trend to increase the size of draft horse breeds to gain more power and bulk through crossbreeding . However , due to its endurance and gaits , the Breton was an exception . Crossbreeding was shown to reduce the breed 's unique qualities , and so in the 1930s , infusions of other blood were abandoned , and this decision led to the preservation of the breed 's purity .
Therefore , rather than being subject to crossbreeding itself , the Breton has instead been used to improve many other breeds . Buyers come to France from all over the world to buy Bretons for use in improving their native draft horses . The Breton had a significant influence on the Canadian Horse , after members of the breed were sent to New France ( Canada ) during the 17th century . They have also been used to create the Swiss Freiberger , as well as other heavy draft breeds . Bretons were used in India to produce mules , and at the Saharanpur breeding farm were crossed with the Anglo @-@ Arabian stallion Mystère to produce carriage horses . In the 19th and early 20th centuries , Italian farmers attempted to use the Brabant to improve local stock , but the offspring proved to be too heavy and slow for the lighter , more general draft work required . In the 1930s , the Hispano @-@ Bretón breed was developed in Spain by crossing imported Breton stallions with local mares . Today , the breed population is small , but has been noted by researchers for its rich genetic diversity . After World War II , a Breton stallion was used to improve the Schleswig breed of Germany .
= = Uses = =
The Breton is used in many capacities , due to the various sub @-@ types of the breed . Smaller types can be used under saddle and for fast , light draft work , while larger types are ideal for heavy draft and agricultural work . They are also commonly used to improve other breeds through crossbreeding . Today , the breed is used as a draft horse on small farms , and is also used to gather seaweed . It is also bred for meat production ; horse meat is a dietary staple in many European countries , including France , Belgium , Germany and Switzerland .
= Ao Man Long =
Ao Man Long ( born in Macau , December 1956 ) was the first Secretary for Transport and Public Works of the Macau Special Administrative Region of the People 's Republic of China , from 20 December 1999 to 6 December 2006 .
On 8 December 2006 , Ao was arrested based on a case built by the Macau Commission Against Corruption , making him the highest @-@ ranking official arrested in the history of Macau . Ao had allegedly offered preference in government works projects , and had amassed assets totalling 804 million patacas . On 30 January 2008 , Ao was found guilty on 40 counts of bribe @-@ taking , amongst others , and was sentenced to 27 years in prison . Ao was aided and abetted by four family members , who were also jailed for between 10 and 18 years for money laundering . On 31 May 2012 , Ao was found guilty of taking bribes of more than 31 @.@ 9 million patacas , and received a sentence of 29 years in prison . Joseph Lau and Steven Lo are both implicated and have been charged with offering tens of millions in bribes to Ao .
= = Career = =
Ao 's graduation from Yuet Wah College , Macau . He graduated with a Bachelor 's degree in civil engineering at National Taiwan University in 1982 , and a Master of Business Administration at the University of Macao . Ao joined the government in 1987 . He was appointed as the first Secretary for Transport and Public Works after the handover of Macau from Portugal to the PRC on 20 December 1999 .
= = Arrest = =
On 6 December 2006 , Ao was arrested for allegedly taking bribes and having engaged in irregular financial activities . The Macau Commission Against Corruption ( CAC ) alleged that between 2002 and 2006 Ao received MOP 187 million in bribes from three real estate and construction companies , two from Macau and one from the mainland , in return for which Ao had allegedly offered preference in 20 government works projects . Ao allegedly had assets not commensurate with his earnings : Ao and his wife earned 14 million patacas from their official posts between 2000 and 2006 , yet had accumulated assets totalling 804 million patacas ( US $ 100m ) , equivalent to 57 times their earnings . Ao was charged with 76 counts , including corruption , bribe @-@ taking , money laundering and abuse of power .
According to Article 50 of the Basic Law of Macau , the removal of ministers would require Central Government approval . Citing " irrefutable evidence " of improper behaviour , Chief Executive Edmund Ho asked Beijing to remove Ao from office .
= = First trial = =
Ao Man @-@ long stood trial in Macau on 5 November 2007 , facing 30 years in prison . Given Ao 's status of Government Secretary ( equivalent to Minister ) , he was tried directly in the Court of Final Appeal of the Macau SAR . Over one hundred witnesses were called to testify .
Although it was an open trial , the 500 @-@ page indictment was not made public . Media representatives petitioned for its release , but it was denied by judge Viriato Manuel Pinheiro de Lima , who said it would affect witnesses ' thoughts and testimony . The prosecution charged Ao with having received millions of dollars in kickbacks for contracts , including those for the dome constructed for the 2005 East Asian Games , the Venetian and the Galaxy StarWorld Hotel , from Ho Meng @-@ fai , Chairman of San Meng Fai Engineering and Construction Company .
Anti @-@ corruption officers were aided unwittingly by Ao , who kept details of every illegal transaction and the kickbacks he received in a notebook . Ho Meng @-@ fai – who had jumped bail – confessed in statements given to the CAC and the procurator 's office that Ao offered to recommend his company to foreign investors in exchange for 2 to 3 percent of the winning tenders . Ho said between 2004 and 2006 , he paid Ao about HK $ 140 million in kickbacks , for private projects only . During the trial , 7 witnesses , including Ho , went missing .
Ao allegedly set up shell companies a network of secret bank accounts in Hong Kong and the British Virgin Islands with the help of friends and family members to launder bribe money . Ao 's father Ao Veng @-@ kong , brother Ao Man @-@ fu , and sister @-@ in @-@ law Ao Chan Va @-@ choi were charged with setting up overseas bank accounts and shell companies for Ao Man @-@ long to handle kickbacks . The total deposits in more than a dozen Hong Kong bank accounts under his father 's name exceeded HK $ 157 million as of December 2006 . The three family members pleaded not guilty , claiming Ao Man @-@ long opened the bank accounts for them . All family members were sentenced to prison terms by a decision of the Macau Court of Second Instance on 30 October 2008 .
= = = Verdict and sentencing = = =
On 30 January 2008 , Ao was found guilty on 40 counts of bribe @-@ taking , 13 counts of money laundering , two counts of abuse of power , one count of incorrect declaration of assets and one count of holding assets from unknown sources ; Ao was sentenced to 27 years in prison . About MOP 252 million of his assets in Macau were seized . Ao decided not to appeal . There were concerns voiced in the Macau media that Ao was the fall @-@ guy , as most Macanese were sceptical that corruption on such a scale could take place without anyone else knowing or being involved . During his trial , Ao hinted that contacts valued at in excess of 6 million Patacas required the approval of his superior in government , Edmond Ho .
In a separate trial , his wife was sentenced in absentia to 23 years in jail for her role in laundering money . Ao 's four family members , each accused of six to 14 counts of money laundering activities , were also jailed for between 10 and 18 years . Ao 's wife is believed to have absconded to the United Kingdom . Macau authorities were co @-@ operating with the ICAC in Hong Kong to retrieve an estimated HK $ 637 million ( US $ 81 @.@ 7 million ) , which was reportedly deposited in 39 Hong Kong bank accounts in Ao 's name and 92 overseas bank accounts opened in the name of his relative @-@ accomplices .
= = = Appeals = = =
Ao filed a motion before the Court of Appeal to un @-@ freeze some of his personal bank accounts , on the grounds that those accounts were supposedly not linked to the corruption case , and were the actual accounts for receiving his salary . The motion was denied on 26 September 2008 : according to the verdict of his corruption trial , all his money and personal possessions , even if purchased legally , now belonged to Macau .
= = Second trial = =
In March 2008 , reports emerged that a fresh set of criminal proceedings related to other acts of corruption were being investigated by the Macau Commission Against Corruption . In addition , the family members and the businessmen allegedly involved were appealing their convictions . A second trial took place before the Court of Final Appeal . The final decision was handed on 22 April 2009 , and the total penalty was increased from 27 years of imprisonment to 28 and a half years .
= = May 2012 trial = =
On 31 May 2012 , Ao was found guilty of taking bribes of more than 31 @.@ 9 million patacas . Joseph Lau and Steven Lo are both implicated and have been charged with offering MCP20 million in bribes to Ao to secure five plots of land near the airport in Macau . The judge remarked that " no other officials involved in corruption in Asia and other countries can compare " to Ao . The maximum jail term is 30 years , according to the laws of Macau , thus the judge ordered Ao serve his 29 @-@ year term concurrent with his existence sentence .
= = Incarceration = =
Ao is now housed at Macau Prison , the only facility in Macau .
= Fuiste Tú =
" Fuiste Tú " is a latin pop song by Guatemalan recording artist Ricardo Arjona , released on 7 February 2012 as the second single from his thirteenth studio album , Independiente ( 2011 ) . Featuring additional lead vocals by Guatemalan singer Gaby Moreno , the song was written by Arjona , who produced it with longtime collaborators Dan Warner and Lee Levin under their stage name Los Gringos . Additional work on the recording was done by Puerto Rican singer @-@ songwriter Tommy Torres .
Lyrically , " Fuiste Tú " rounds the concept of recreating " the battle on a couple when someone starts to say ' is the beginning of the end ' " . The song became the second consecutive single from Independiente to reach the top ten in the US Billboard Top Latin Songs , and the second single from the album to top both the Latin Pop Songs and Tropical Songs charts . " Fuiste Tú " performed well on several national charts from Latin America , including reaching # 1 on Venezuela , and # 6 on Mexico . The single was nominated for Song of the Year and Record of the Year at the 13th Annual Latin Grammy Awards .
An accompanying music video was released in February 2012 . It was directed by Joaquín Cambré and filmed in Guatemala , and features several tropical locations from the country , including Antigua Guatemala , Río Dulce , the Atitlán lake , Semuc Champey and the Tikal ruins . Arjona commented that he chose to film the video there because he wanted to " show the real situation of that department " , which is one of the poorest in the country , although being visited yearly by thousands of tourists . As of February 2016 , the video has received over 290 million views on YouTube .
= = Background = =
Independiente is the first album Arjona released as an independent artist , and through his own record label , Metamorfosis , a company he created to refocus his career . Presided by Arjona and some friends , Metamorfosis is based in Miami and Mexico City , and also includes the photographer and director Ricardo Calderón , Universal Music México 's executive Humberto Calderon and BMG 's Miriam Sommerz . Although the album is marketed with the new label , distribution was handled by Warner Music . Arjona commented many times , that he considered the way he decided to go independent raised more compromise than freedom , saying that " Inside the word ' Independent ' , even when it sounds like extreme freedom , there 's a big amount of compromise and the responsibility of being able to administrate , in the best way possible , such independence . "
Independiente was composed and written within one year , and marks the fourth time Arjona had collaborated with Tommy Torres , who had helped writing , composing , producing and providing backing vocals . The other three albums in which the two artists had worked together are Quién Dijo Ayer , in which Torres helped producing the singles " Quién " and " Quiero " , and offering additional work on the new versions of Arjona 's hits ; 5to Piso , and Adentro , respectively . Also , in the album , Arjona returned to his classic and trademark sound , which Torres has helped crafting it since six years now , after the drastic change he made in Poquita Ropa . On that album , the artist made use of the fewest instruments possible , simplifying his sound , and introducing what he called a " stripped @-@ down acoustic effort " of his music .
Weeks before the release of Independiente , Arjona issued a letter in which he talked about his past relations with recording companies . In the letter , he revealed that he entered in his first record label as an exchange , commenting that " a producer , friend of mine , told them [ the record label ] that if they don 't sign me they won 't sign two artists he had [ at that time ] " , and that he received the " minimum royalty percentage " out from his most successful albums . Billboard notes that although other groups have decided to launch independently their works after having a contract with major record labels , Arjona is by far the most important artist in the Latin pop to follow this trend .
= = Composition = =
" Fuiste Tú " is a latin pop song written by Arjona and including additional lead vocals by Guatemalan singer @-@ songwriter Gaby Moreno . The song was produced by Arjona , alongside longtime collaborators Dan Warner and Lee Levin , with additional recording work by Puerto Rican singer @-@ songwriter Tommy Torres . The composition of the song is driven by the use of piano , violin , as well as guitars , drums and percussion .
Arjona commented that he was happy about collaborating with Moreno , stating that " we had the possibilites to record this song with very well known people , but the possibilities of doing it with her , for me , is a celebration . " He further said that Moreno was an " incredibly talented woman " , calling her a " countrywoman " and a " fantastic human being " . He also named " Fuiste Tú " one of the most important songs on the album .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Fuiste Tú " became Arjona 's second consecutive top ten single on the US Billboard Top Latin Songs since " Como Duele " and " Sin Ti ... Sin Mi " back in 2008 , and is also the second top ten single from Independiente on that chart . The song reached its peak of number two on the week ending 28 April 2012 , after jumping from number 13 , and was kept away from the number one position by Michel Teló 's " Ai se eu te pego " . In the Latin Pop Songs chart , " Fuiste Tú " became his second chart @-@ topper , reaching number one position on the week ending 10 March 2012 . This achievement made Independiente the only album by Arjona to have more than one song reach number one on that list . " Fuiste Tú " also became Arjona 's second consecutive number @-@ one single in the Tropical Songs chart . In Mexico , the song managed to reach number six on the Billboard International Mexican chart , and number 15 on the Monitor Latino 's Top 20 Pop chart . " Fuiste Tú " also reached number 15 in Colombia , and number one in Venezuela 's Record Report Top 100 and Top Latino charts .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
Ricardo Arjona released on 9 February 2012 the music video for " Fuiste Tú " . Filmed in December 2011 , the clip was directed by Joaquín Cambré , was shot in Guatemala , and features several tropical locations from the country , including Antigua Guatemala , Río Dulce , the Atitlán lake , Semuc Champey and the Tikal ruins . Some of those locations belong to the Sololá , and the singer revealed that he chose to film the video there because he wanted to " show the real situation of that department " , which is one of the poorest in the country , although being visited yearly by thousands of tourists . About the concept of the video , Arjona commented that " it recreates the battle on a couple when someone starts to say ' is the beginning of the end ' . When there is something you don 't like from your beloved one , there 's two options : The first , hold on to the relationship . The second , go away . Sadly , there 's a third one that is created by those who are unsure and that is when , on the conflictive moments , they use a recurrent phrase : It was you . "
The clip starts showing Gaby Moreno playing a melody in a guitar while staying
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close to a window , watching the people walk on the street below . Meanwhile , scenes of all the places featured on the video are interpolated . Just as the song begins , Arjona is shown leaving the Tikal ruins on an orange Jeep , as well as images of Moreno singing in front of a piano . Then , as Arjona abandons the Jeep and goes as a passenger on another vehicle , Moreno is shown singing inside a house , close to another Jeep similar to that of Arjona 's . Finally , Arjona reaches the town on which Moreno has been waiting for him , just to find that she is gone to where he has been before , on the Tikal ruins . As of February 2016 , the video has received over 290 million views on YouTube .
= = = Live performances = = =
" Fuiste Tú " was in the set list for a televised program in 2011 . The special included guest singers such as Gaby Moreno ( with whom Arjona played the song ) , Ricky Muñoz ( from Mexican band Intocable ) and Paquita la del Barrio . Broadcast by Televisa , the program was made to showcast the new fourteen songs included on Independiente . Ricky Muñoz commented that he was " happy to do things for Ricardo [ Arjona ] " and elaborated that the met each other " some time ago " and that it was " a very special situation . " The show was later bordcasted on 5 November 2011 by Canal de las Estrellas . The song is also present on his ongoing Metamorfosis World Tour . It is performed while on one of the ambiences the concert , alongside " Reconciliación " , " Tarde ( Sin Daños a Terceros ) " , " Te Conozco " and " Si El Norte Fuera El Sur " .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Fuiste Tú " ( featuring Gaby Moreno ) — 4 : 25
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from Independiente liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Mohini =
Mohini ( Devnagari : मोहिनी , Mohinī ) is the only female avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu . She is portrayed as a femme fatale , an enchantress , who maddens lovers , sometimes leading them to their doom . Mohini is introduced into the Hindu mythology in the narrative epic of the Mahabharata . Here , she appears as a form of Vishnu , acquires the pot of Amrita ( an elixir of immortality ) from thieving asuras ( demons ) , and gives it back to the devas ( gods ) , helping them retain their immortality .
Many different legends tell of her various exploits and marriages , including union with Shiva . These tales relate , among other things , the birth of the god Shasta and the destruction of Bhasmasura , the ash @-@ demon . Mohini 's main modus operandi is to trick or beguile those she encounters . She is worshipped throughout Indian culture , but mainly in Western India , where temples are devoted to her depicted as Mahalasa , the consort of Khandoba , a regional avatar of Shiva .
= = Etymology = =
The name Mohini comes from the verb root moha , meaning " to enchant , perplex , or disillusion , " and literally means " delusion personified . " In the Baiga culture of Central India , the word mohini means " erotic magic or spell . " The name also has an implied connotation of " the essence of female beauty and allurement . "
= = Legends and history = =
= = = The Amrita = = =
The earliest reference to a Mohini @-@ type goddess appears in the Samudra manthan episode of the 5th century BCE Hindu epic Mahabharata . The Amrita , or nectar of immortality , is produced by the churning of the Ocean of Milk . The Deva and the Asura fight over its possession . The Asuras contrive to keep the Amrita for themselves , angering the Devas . Vishnu , wise to their plan , assumes the form of an " enchanting damsel " . She uses her allure to trick the Asuras into giving her the Amrita , and then distributes it amongst the Devas . Rahu , an Asura , disguises himself as a god and tries to drink some Amrita himself . Surya ( the sun @-@ god ) and Chandra ( the moon @-@ god ) quickly inform Vishnu , and he uses the Sudarshana Chakra ( the divine discus ) to decapitate Rahu , leaving the head immortal . The decapitated body becomes Ketu . Rahu and Ketu are both regarded as celestial bodies that assume one 's destiny . The other major Hindu epic , Ramayana ( 4th century BCE ) , narrates the Mohini story briefly in the Bala Kanda chapter . This same tale is also recounted in the Vishnu Purana four centuries later .
In the original text , Mohini is referred to as simply an enchanting , female form of Vishnu . In later versions , Mohini is described as the maya ( illusion ) of Vishnu . Later still , the name of the avatar becomes Mohini from the original phrase describing his deliberate false appearance ( mayam ashito mohinim ) . Once the Mohini legend became popular , it was retold , revised , and expanded in several texts . The tales of Mohini @-@ Vishnu also increased among devotional circles in various regions . The same expanded Mahabharata version of the story is also recounted in the Bhagavata Purana in the 10th century CE . Here , Mohini becomes a formal avatar of Vishnu .
This legend is also retold in the Padma Purana and Brahmanda Purana . In the Brahmanda Purana , however , Vishnu @-@ Mohini simply , after meditation upon the Great Goddess Maheshvari , acquires her form to trick the thieving asuras .
= = = Slayer of demons = = =
Mohini also has an active history in the destruction of demons throughout Hindu texts . In the Vishnu Purana , Mohini defeats Bhasmasura , the " ash @-@ demon " . Bhasmasura invokes the god Shiva by performing severe penances . Shiva , pleased with Bhasmasura , grants him the power to turn anyone into ashes by touching their head . The demon decides to try the power on Shiva himself . Shiva runs terrified . Vishnu , witnessing the unfortunate turn of events , transforms into Mohini and charms Bhasmasura . Bhasmasura is so taken by Mohini that he asks her to marry him . Mohini agrees , but only on the condition that Bhasmasura follows her move for move in a dance . In the course of the dance , she places her hand on her head . Bhasmasura mimics the action , and in turn , reduces himself to ashes . The legend of Bhasmasura is retold in the Buddhist text Satara Dewala Devi Puvata , with a slight variation . In this tale , Vishnu assumes his female form ( the name " Mohini " is not used ) and charms Bhasmasura . The female Vishnu asks Bhasmasura to promise never to leave her by placing his hand on his head as per the usual practice to swear on one 's head . On doing so , Bhasmasura is reduced to ashes .
In a similar legend related to the birth of Ayyappa , the demon Surpanaka earns the power to turn anyone into ashes by his austerities . The tale mirrors all other aspects of the Buddhist version of the Bhasmasura tale , where he is forced by Mohini to severe fidelity by keeping his hand on his head and is burnt .
The prelude of the Ramakien , the Thai version of the Ramayana , the demon Nontok is charmed and killed by Mohini @-@ Vishnu . Nontok misuses a divine weapon given to him by Shiva . The four @-@ armed Mohini @-@ Vishnu enchants Nontok and then attacks him . In his last moments , the demon accuses Vishnu of foul play saying that Vishnu first seduced him and then attacked him . Vishnu decrees that in his next birth , Nontok will be born as the ten @-@ armed demon Ravana and Vishnu will be a mortal man called Rama . He will then fight him and defeat him .
In a lesser @-@ known tale in the Ganesha Purana ( 900 — 1400CE ) the wise asura king Virochana is rewarded a magical crown by the sun @-@ god Surya . The crown shields him against all harm . Vishnu as Mohini then enchants Virochana and steals his crown . The demon , thus unprotected , is killed by Vishnu .
Another legend about the demon Araka associates Mohini with Krishna rather than the god himself . The demon Araka had become virtually invincible because he had never laid eyes on a woman ( extreme chastity ) . Krishna takes the form of the beautiful Mohini and marries him . After three days of marriage , Araka 's bonds of chastity are broken , and Krishna kills him in battle . Transgender Hijras consider Krishna @-@ Mohini to be a transsexual deity .
= = = Relationship with Shiva = = =
In the Bhagavata Purana , after Vishnu deceives the demons by his maya female form , Shiva wishes to see the bewildering Mohini again . When Vishnu agrees and reveals his Mohini form , Shiva runs crazily behind Mohini , " bereft of shame and robbed by her of good sense , " while the abandoned wife Parvati ( Uma ) looks on . Shiva is overcome by Kāma ( love and desire or Kamadeva , the god of love and desire ) . His " unfailing " seed escapes and falls on ground creating ores of silver and gold . Afterwards , Vishnu comes to his true form and reveals that his maya ( illusory power ) cannot be surpassed even by Shiva . Shiva then extols Vishnu 's power .
The Tripurarahasya , a south Indian Shakta text , retells the story , giving more importance to the Goddess . When Shiva wishes to see Vishnu 's Mohini form again , Vishnu fears that he may be burned to ashes like Kamadeva by the ascetic Shiva . So , Vishnu prays to goddess Tripura , who grants half of her beauty to Vishnu , begetting the Mohini @-@ form . As Shiva touches Mohini , his seed spills , indicating a loss of the merit gained through of all his austerities .
In the Brahmanda Purana when the wandering sage Narada tells Shiva about Vishnu 's Mohini form that deluded the demons , Shiva dismisses him . Shiva and his wife Parvati go to Vishnu 's home . Shiva asks him to take on the Mohini form again so he can see the actual transformation for himself . Vishnu smiles , again meditates on the Goddess , and in place of Vishnu stands the gorgeous Mohini . Overcome by lust , Shiva chases Mohini as Parvati hangs her head in shame and envy . Shiva grabs Mohini 's hand and embraces her , but Mohini frees herself and runs further . Finally , Shiva grabs her and their " violent coupling " leads to discharge of Shiva 's seed which falls " short of its goal , " suggesting the act was not consummated . The seed falls on the ground and the god Maha @-@ Shasta ( " The Great Chastiser " ) is born . Mohini disappears , while Shiva returns home with Parvati .
Shasta is identified primarily with two regional deities : Ayyappa from Kerala and the Tamil Aiyanar . He is also identified with the classical Hindu gods Skanda and Hanuman . In the later story of the origin of Ayyappa , Shiva impregnates Mohini , who gives birth to Ayyappa . They abandon Ayyappa in shame . The legend highlights Vishnu 's protests to be Mohini again and also notes that Ayyappa is born of Vishnu 's thigh as Mohini does not have a real womb . Another variant says that instead of a biological origin , Ayyappa sprang from Shiva 's semen , which he ejaculated upon embracing Mohini . Ayyappa is referred to as Hariharaputra , " the son of Vishnu ( Hari ) and Shiva ( Hara ) " , and grows up to be a great hero . Another tale says after Surpanaka 's destruction , Shiva wishes to see Mohini and mesmerized by her looks , has union with her resulting in the birth of Ayyapppa .
Kanda Puranam narrates about the birth of Shasta identified with Aiyanar . The text tells just before the tale that Vishnu is Shiva 's Shakti ( wife and power ) Parvati in a male form . The legend begins with Shiva 's request and Vishnu 's agreement to show his illusionary Mohini form , that he assumed for the distribution of amrita . Shiva falls in love with Mohini and proposes a union with her . Mohini @-@ Vishnu declines saying that union of two same sex women was unfruitful . Shiva informs Mohini @-@ Vishnu that he was just one of forms of his Shakti . Thereafter , their union resulted in the birth of a dark boy with red locks , who was named Hariharaputra . Further , he was also known as Shasta and Aiyannar .
In the Agni Purana , as the enchanted Shiva follows Mohini , drops of his semen falls on the ground and become lingas , Shiva 's symbols . His semen also generates the monkey @-@ god Hanuman , who helps Vishnu 's avatar Rama in his fight against Ravana in the Ramayana . Shiva Purana says that by the mere glimpse of Mohini , Shiva spurts out his seed . The seed was collected and poured into the ear of Anjani , who gave birth to Hanuman , the incarnation of Shiva . The latter is retold in the Thai and Malaysian version of the Ramayana . Though Hanuman strings from Shiva 's seed , he is also considered as a combined son of Vishnu and Shiva .
The Buddhist version of the Bhasmasura tale continues with Shiva ( Ishvara ) asking the female @-@ Vishnu , who is seated on a swing , to marry him . She asks Shiva to get the permission of his wife Umayangana to take her home . Shiva returns with Umayangana 's consent to find the female @-@ Vishnu pregnant , who sends him back to get permission to bring a pregnant woman home . When he returns , a child is born and female @-@ Vishnu is pregnant again . She requests Shiva to seek approval to bring a pregnant woman with a child home . This happens six more times . Finally , Shiva brings Umayangana with him to witness the miraculous woman . Vishnu then returns to his male form . Umayangana embraces the six youngest children merging them into the six @-@ headed Skanda , while the eldest , named Aiyanayaka ( " eldest brother " ) remains intact . Aiyanayaka is identified with Aiyanar .
Mohini plays a lesser role in a Shaiva legend in the Skanda Purana . Here , Vishnu as Mohini joins Shiva to teach a lesson to arrogant sages . A group of sages are performing rituals in a forest , and start to consider themselves as gods . To humble them , Shiva takes the form of an attractive young beggar ( Bhikshatana ) and Vishnu becomes Mohini , his wife . While the sages fall for Mohini , their women wildly chase Shiva . When they regain their senses , they perform a black magic sacrifice , which produces a serpent , a lion , an elephant ( or tiger ) and a dwarf , all of which are overpowered by Shiva . Shiva then dances on the dwarf and takes the form of Nataraja , the cosmic dancer . The legend is retold in the Tamil Kovil Puranam and Kandha Puranam with some variation . This legend is also told in the Sthala Purana related to the Chidambaram Temple dedicated to Shiva @-@ Nataraja .
Another legend from the Linga Purana says that the embracing of love @-@ struck Shiva and Mohini led to be their merging into one body . At this moment , Mohini became Vishnu again , resulting the composite deity Harihara , whose right side of the body is Shiva and left side is Vishnu in his male form . In the temple in Sankarnayinarkovil near Kalugumalai is one of the rarest exceptions to iconography of Harihara ( Sankara @-@ Narayana ) . The deity is depicted similar to the Ardhanari , the composite form of Shiva @-@ Parvati , where right side of the body is the male Shiva and left side is female . This image 's female side represents Mohini and it , as a whole , symbolizes the union of Shiva and Mohini . The influence of Shakta traditions on Shaiva ones may have led to the development of composite images like Harihara , where Vishnu is identified with Shiva 's consort , or Mohini . Like the Kanda Puranam narrative , the Shaiva saint Appar identifies Vishnu as Parvati ( Uma ) , the female counterpart of Shiva .
= = = Other legends = = =
A folktale tells of the Mahabharata hero Aravan ( who becomes the Tamil god Kootthandavar ) , who was married to Mohini , before his self @-@ sacrifice . Aravan agrees to become the sacrificial victim for the Kalabbali ( " sacrifice to the battlefield " ) to ensure the victory of the Pandavas , his father , and his uncles . Before being sacrificed to goddess Kali , Aravan asks three boons from Krishna , the guide of the Pandavas . The third boon was that Aravan should be married before the sacrifice so that he could get the right of cremation and funerary offerings ( bachelors were buried ) . This third boon , however , is found only in the folk cults . To fulfill this wish in the Kuttantavar cult myth , Krishna turns into Mohini , marries Aravan , and spends the night with him . Then after the sacrifice , Mohini laments Aravan 's death , breaking her bangles , beating her breasts , and discarding her bridal finery . She then returns to the original form of Krishna . The legend of the marriage of Aravan and Krishna in his female form as Mohini , and Mohini @-@ Krishna 's widowhood after Aravan 's sacrifice , forms the central theme of an eighteen @-@ day annual festival in the Tamil month of Cittirai ( April – May ) at Koovagam . The marriage ceremony is re @-@ enacted by transgender Hijras , who play the role of Mohini @-@ Krishna .
= = Cultural interpretations = =
According to mythologist Pattanaik , Mohini is just a disguise to delude the demon Bhasmasura , rather than a sexual transformation in this legend . Mohini is a disillusion , Vishnu 's maya .
Stories in which Shiva knows of Mohini 's true nature have been interpreted to " suggest the fluidity of gender in sexual attraction " . Pattanaik writes while Westerners may interpret the Shiva @-@ Mohini union as homosexual , traditional Hindus do not agree to this interpretation . He also writes that those focusing only on homoeroticism miss the narrative 's deeper metaphysical significance : Mohini 's femininity represents the material aspect of reality , and Mohini 's seduction is another attempt to induce the ascetic Shiva into taking an interest in worldly matters . Only Vishnu has the power to " enchant " Shiva ; a demon who tried to enchant and hurt Shiva in form of a woman was killed in the attempt .
Another interpretation posits that the Mohini tale suggests that Vishnu 's maya blinds even supernatural beings . Mohini is " the impersonation of the magically delusive nature of existence which fetters all beings to the rounds of births and deaths and vicissitudes of life . " Mohini also does not have an independent existence ; she exists only as a temporary delusion , and is absorbed back into Vishnu after serving her purpose .
The legend of the union of Mohini @-@ Vishnu and Shiva may also be written as part of the desire to have a common child of the two cosmic patriarchs of Hinduism .
= = Worship = =
On the fifth day of Brahmotsavam , Venkateshwara is dressed as Mohini and paraded in a grand procession .
In Goa , Mohini is worshipped as Mahalasa or Mahalasa Narayani . She is the Kuladevi ( family goddess ) of many Hindus from western and southern India , including Goud Saraswat Brahmins , Karhade Brahmins , Daivajnas and Bhandaris . The chief temple of Mahalasa Narayani is at Mardol , Goa , though her temples also exist in the states of Karnataka , Kerala , Maharashtra , and Gujarat . Mahalasa has four hands , carrying a Trishula , a sword , a severed head , and a drinking bowl . She stands on a prostate man or demon , as a tiger or lion licks blood dripping from the severed head . Goud Saraswat Brahmins as well as Vaishnavas from Goa and South Canara identify her with Mohini and call her Narayani and Rahu @-@ matthani , the slayer of Rahu , as told in the Bhavishya Purana .
Mahalasa is also called Mhalsa , the consort of Khandoba , a local incarnation of Shiva . As the consort of Khandoba , her chief temple - the Mohiniraj temple - is located at Nevasa , where she is worshiped as a four @-@ armed goddess and identified with Mohini . Mhalsa is often depicted with two arms and accompanying Khandoba on his horse or standing besides him .
The central icon of the Jaganmohini @-@ Kesava Swany temple at Ryali , discovered buried underground by the king in the 11th century , represents the male Vishnu in the front , while the back of the icon is the female Jagan @-@ Mohini ( " one who deludes the world " ) or Mohini , with a female hairdo and figure . A Sthala Purana tells that the flower in Mohini 's hair fell at Ryali ( " fall " in Telugu ) when Mohini was being chased by Shiva .
= = Customs and ceremonies = =
Mohini has an important , dramatic role in several mythical works of South Indian drama like Yakshagana and Kathakali . In Kerala , however , where Mohini 's son Ayyappa is popular , the Mohiniattam ( " the dance of Mohini " ) is honored as an independent dance form . Named after the goddess , it is a dance meant exclusively for women and " an ideal example of the erotic form . " The origins of Mohiniattam form are unknown , though it was popularized in the 1850s , but later banned as it was used by " loose women " to attract customers . The ban was lifted in 1950 , after which it has seen a renewal .
The legends of Mohini are also being depicted in other dances , including the modern Kathak . The Sonal Nati , performed in the Saho area of Chamba district , Himachal Pradesh , retells the Mohini @-@ Bhasmasura tale , and hence is known as the Mohini @-@ Bhasmasura dance . It is performed on festive occasions , especially in the Saho fair held in Baisakh in the precincts of the Chandershekhar temple .
= Yagan =
Yagan ( / ˈjeɪɡən / ; c . 1795 – 11 July 1833 ) was an Indigenous Australian warrior from the Noongar people . He played a key part in early resistance to British settlement and rule in the area surrounding what is now Perth , Western Australia . Yagan was pursued by the local authorities after he killed a servant of Archibald Butler in an act of retaliation after Smedley , another servant of Butler , shot at a group of Noongar people taking potatoes and fowls , killing one of them . The government offered a bounty for Yagan 's capture , dead or alive , and a young settler , William Keats , subsequently shot and killed him . Yagan 's execution figures in Aboriginal folklore as a symbol of the unjust and sometimes brutal treatment of the indigenous peoples of Australia by colonial settlers . He is considered a hero by the Noongar .
After his shooting , settlers removed Yagan 's head to claim the bounty . Later , an official sent it to London , where it was exhibited as an " anthropological curiosity " and eventually given to a museum in Liverpool . It held the head in storage for more than a century before burying it with other remains in an unmarked grave in Liverpool in 1964 . Over the years , the Noongar asked for repatriation of the head , both for religious reasons and because of Yagan 's traditional stature . The burial site was identified in 1993 ; officials exhumed the head four years later and repatriated it to Australia . After years of debate within the Noongar community on the appropriate final resting place , Yagan 's head was buried in a traditional ceremony in the Swan Valley in July 2010 , 177 years after his death .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
A member of the Whadjuk Noongar people , Yagan belonged to a tribe of around 60 people whose name , according to Robert Lyon , was Beeliar . Scholars now believe that the Beeliar people may have been a family subgroup of a larger tribe whom Daisy Bates called Beelgar . According to Lyon , the Beeliar people occupied the land south of the Swan and Canning rivers , as far south as Mangles Bay . The group had customary land usage rights over a much larger area than this , extending north as far as Lake Monger and northeast to the Helena River . The group also had an unusual degree of freedom to move over their neighbours ' land , possibly due to kinship and marriage ties with neighbouring groups .
Yagan is thought to have been born around 1795 . His father was Midgegooroo , an elder of the Beeliar people ; his mother was presumably one of Midgegooroo 's two wives . Yagan was probably a Ballaroke in the Noongar classification .
= = Marriage and family = =
According to the historian Neville Green , Yagan had a wife and two children . A report in the Perth Gazette in 1833 gives the names of his children as " Naral " , age 9 , and " Willim " , age 11 ; however , most other sources state that the warrior was unmarried and childless . Described as taller than average with an impressive burly physique , Yagan had a distinctive tribal tattoo on his right shoulder , which identified him as " a man of high degree in tribal law . " He was generally acknowledged to be the most physically powerful of his tribe .
= = = Relations with settlers = = =
Yagan would have been about 35 years old in 1829 when British settlers landed in the area and established the Swan River Colony . For the first two years of the colony , relations between settlers and Noongar were generally amicable , as there was little competition for resources . The Noongar welcomed the white settlers as Djanga , the returned spirits of their dead . Historical reports noted the two groups shared fish . As time passed , conflicts between the two cultures gradually became more frequent . The settlers incorrectly thought that the Noongar were nomads who had no claim to the land over which they roamed . Colonists fenced off land for grazing and farming according to their traditional practices of land use .
As the colonists fenced off more land , the Noongar were increasingly denied access to their traditional hunting grounds and sacred sites . In search of food , the Noongar raided the settlers ' crops and killed their cattle . They also developed a taste for the settlers ' supplies , and began to take flour and other food , which became a serious problem for the colony . In addition , the Noongar practice of firestick farming : firing the bush to flush out game and encourage germination of undergrowth for sustainability , threatened the settlers ' crops and houses .
In December 1831 Yagan and his father led the first significant Aboriginal resistance to white settlement in Western Australia . Thomas Smedley , a servant of farmer Archibald Butler , ambushed some natives who were raiding a potato patch , and killed one of Yagan 's family group . A few days later , Yagan , Midgegooroo and others stormed the farmhouse and , finding the door locked , began to break through the mud @-@ brick walls . Inside were Butler 's servant Erin Entwhistle and his two sons Enion and Ralph . After hiding his sons under the bed , Entwhistle opened the door to parley and was killed by Yagan and Midgegooroo . Noongar tribal law required that murders be avenged by the killing of a member of the murderer 's tribal group , not necessarily the murderer . The Noongar considered servants and employees to be part of the settlers ' groups . Historians believe the Noongar attack on Entwhistle was retribution under their tribal law . Not understanding tribal law ( and unlikely to agree with its concepts ) , the white settlers took the killing to be an unprovoked murder and dispatched a force to arrest Yagan 's group , without success .
In June 1832 Yagan led a party of Aborigines in attacking two labourers sowing a field of wheat alongside the Canning River near Kelmscott . One of the men , John Thomas , escaped , but the other , William Gaze , was wounded and later died as a result . The settlement declared Yagan an outlaw and offered a reward of £ 20 for his capture . He avoided capture until early October 1832 . A group of fishermen enticed Yagan and two companions into their boat , then pushed off into deep water . The fishermen took the three Noongar men to the Perth guardhouse , from which they were transferred to the Round House at Fremantle . Yagan was sentenced to death , but he was saved by the intercession of settler Robert Lyon . Arguing that Yagan was defending his land against invasion , Lyon said Yagan should not be considered a criminal but a prisoner of war and suggested he should be treated as such . At the recommendation of John Septimus Roe , the Surveyor @-@ General of Western Australia , Yagan and his men were exiled on Carnac Island under the supervision of Lyon and two soldiers .
Lyon thought he could teach Yagan British ways and convert him to Christianity . He hoped to gain his cooperation and use his tribal stature to persuade the Noongar to accept colonial authority . Lyon spent many hours with Yagan learning his language and customs . After a month , Yagan and his companions escaped by stealing an unattended dinghy and rowing to Woodman Point on the mainland . The Government did not pursue them ; apparently its officials considered they had been sufficiently punished .
In January 1833 two Noongar , Gyallipert and Manyat , visited Perth from King George Sound , where relations between settlers and natives were amicable . Two settlers , Richard [ Robert ? ] Dale and George Smythe , arranged for the men to meet a party of local Noongar to encourage friendly relations in the Swan River Colony . On 26 January Yagan led a group of ten formally armed Noongars in greeting the two men near Lake Monger . The men exchanged weapons and held a corroboree , though the groups did not appear to share a language . Yagan and Gyallipert competed at spear throwing . As an example of his prowess , Yagan struck a walking stick from a distance of 25 metres .
Gyallipert and Manyat remained in Perth for some time . On 3 March , Yagan obtained permission to hold another corroboree , this time in the Post Office garden in Perth . The Perth and King George Sound men met at dusk , chalked their bodies , and performed a number of dances including a kangaroo hunt dance . The Perth Gazette wrote that Yagan " was master of ceremonies and acquitted himself with infinite grace and dignity . "
During February and March , Yagan was involved in a series of minor conflicts with settlers . In February William Watson complained that Yagan had pushed open his door , demanded a gun , and taken handkerchiefs . Watson had to give him and his companions flour and bread . The following month , Yagan was among a group who received biscuits from a military contingent under Lieutenant Norcott ; when Norcott tried to restrict his supply , Yagan threatened him with his spear . Later that month , Yagan was with a group of Noongar who entered Watson 's house while he was away . The group left after Watson 's wife called on neighbours for help . The next day Captain Ellis lectured the Noongar about their behaviour . The frequent incidents prompted The Perth Gazette to remark on " the reckless daring of this desperado who sets his life at a pin 's fee ... For the most trivial offence ... he would take the life of any man who provoked him . He is at the head and front of any mischief . "
= = = Wanted dead or alive = = =
On the night of 29 April , a party of Noongar broke into a Fremantle store to steal flour and were shot at by the caretaker Peter Chidlow . Domjum , a brother of Yagan , was badly injured and died in jail a few days later . The rest of the party moved from Fremantle to Preston Point , where Yagan reportedly vowed vengeance for the death . Between 50 and 60 Noongar gathered at Bull Creek , where they met a party of settlers who were loading carts with provisions . Later that day , the group ambushed the lead cart , killing two settlers , Tom and John Velvick . Tribal law required only a single death for vengeance . Some historians have speculated that the Velvicks were targeted because they had previously been convicted for assaulting Aboriginal people and coloured seamen . Alexandra Hasluck has also argued that stealing provisions was an important motive in the attack , but this has been refuted elsewhere .
For the killing of the Velvicks , the Lieutenant @-@ Governor Frederick Irwin declared Yagan , Midgegooroo and Munday to be outlaws , offering rewards of £ 20 each for the capture of Midgegooroo and Munday , and a reward of £ 30 for Yagan 's capture , dead or alive . Munday successfully appealed against his proscription . Midgegooroo , Yagan and their group immediately moved from their territory north towards the Helena Valley . On 17 May , Midgegooroo was captured on the Helena River . After a brief , informal trial , he was executed by firing squad . Yagan remained at large for over two months .
Late in May , George Fletcher Moore reported seeing Yagan on his property and talking with him in pidgin English . Moore wrote in the Perth Gazette :
Yagan stepped forward and leaning with his left hand on my shoulder while he gesticulated with the right , delivered a sort of recitation , looking earnestly in my face . I regret I could not understand it , I thought from the tone and manner that the purport was this :
" You came to our country — you have driven us from our haunts , and disturbed us in our occupations . As we walk in our own country we are fired upon by the white men ; why should the white men treat us so ? "
Since Moore had little knowledge of Yagan 's native language , the historian Hasluck suggests that this account is probably more indicative of " a feeling of conscience on the part of the white men " than an accurate rendering of Yagan 's state of mind .
Yagan asked Moore whether Midgegooroo was dead or alive . Moore gave no reply , but a servant answered that Midgegooroo was a prisoner on Carnac Island . Yagan warned , " White man shoot Midgegooroo , Yagan kill three . " Moore reported the encounter but made no attempt to restrain Yagan . He later wrote , " The truth is , every one wishes him taken , but no one likes to be the captor ... there is something in his daring which one is forced to admire . "
= = = Death = = =
On 11 July 1833 , two teenage brothers named William and James Keates were herding cattle along the Swan River north of Guildford when a group of Noongar approached while en route to collect flour rations from Henry Bull 's house . The Keates brothers suggested Yagan remain with them to avoid arrest . While he was staying with them during the morning , the brothers decided to kill the warrior and claim the reward . When the natives were ready to depart , the Keates took their last opportunity . William Keates shot Yagan , and James shot Heegan , another native , in the act of throwing his spear . The brothers ran away , but other Noongar overtook William and speared him to death . James escaped by swimming the river . Shortly afterward he returned with a party of armed settlers from Bull 's estate .
When the party of settlers arrived , they found Yagan dead and Heegan dying . Heegan " was groaning and his brains were partly out when the party came , and whether humanity or brutality , a man put a gun to his head and blew it to pieces . " The settlers cut Yagan 's head from his body , and skinned his back to obtain his tribal markings as a trophy . They buried the bodies a short distance away .
James Keates claimed the reward , but his conduct was widely criticised . The Perth Gazette referred to Yagan 's killing as " a wild and treacherous act ... it is revolting to hear this lauded as a meritorious deed . " However , Daisy Bates understood that " he was killed in self @-@ defence by the young lad . " Keates left the colony the following month ; it is possible that he left from fear of being murdered in tribal retaliation .
= = Yagan 's head = =
= = = Exhibition and burial = = =
Yagan 's head was initially taken to Henry Bull 's house . Moore saw it there and sketched the head a number of times in his unpublished , handwritten diary , commenting that " possibly it may yet figure in some museum at home . " The head was preserved by smoking .
In September 1833 , Governor Irwin sailed for London , partly to give his own account of the events leading up to the killing . This was an unusual measure , especially given his regiment was about to leave for a tour of duty in India . The Colonial Office indicated satisfaction with Irwin 's administration of the colony .
Travelling with Irwin was Ensign Robert Dale , who had somehow acquired Yagan 's head . According to the historian Paul Turnbull , Dale appears to have persuaded Irwin to let him have the head as an " anthropological curiosity " . After arriving in London , Dale tried to sell the head to scientists , approaching a number of anatomists and phrenologists . His price of ₤ 20 failed to find a buyer , so he made an agreement with Thomas Pettigrew for the exclusive use of the head for 18 months . Pettigrew , a surgeon and antiquarian , was well known in the London social scene for holding private parties at which he unrolled and autopsied Egyptian mummies . He displayed the head on a table in front of a panoramic view of King George Sound reproduced from Dale 's sketches . For effect , the head was adorned with a fresh corded headband and feathers of the red @-@ tailed black cockatoo .
Pettigrew had the head examined by a phrenologist . Examination was considered difficult because of the large fracture across the back of the head caused by the gunshot . His conclusions were consistent with contemporary European opinion of Indigenous Australians . Dale published these in a pamphlet entitled Descriptive Account of the Panoramic View & c. of King George 's Sound and the Adjacent Country , which Pettigrew encouraged his guests to buy as a souvenir of their evening . The frontispiece of the pamphlet was a hand @-@ coloured aquatint print of Yagan 's head by the artist George Cruikshank .
Early in October 1835 , Yagan 's head and the panoramic view were returned to Dale , then living in Liverpool . On 12 October he presented them to the Liverpool Royal Institution , where the head may have been displayed in a case along with some other preserved heads and wax models illustrating cranial anatomy . In 1894 the Institution 's collections were dispersed , and Yagan 's head was lent to the Liverpool Museum ; it is thought not to have been put on display there . By the 1960s Yagan 's head was badly deteriorated . In April 1964 the museum decided to dispose of it . It arranged burial of the head on 10 April 1964 , together with a Peruvian mummy and a Māori head . They were buried in Everton Cemetery 's General Section 16 , grave number 296 . In later years a number of burials were made around the grave . For example , in 1968 a local hospital buried directly over the box , 20 stillborn babies and two infants who died soon after birth .
= = = Lobbying for repatriation = = =
For many years beginning in the early 1980s , a number of Noongar groups sought the return of Yagan 's head to Australia .
It is Aboriginal belief that because Yagan 's skeletal remains are incomplete , his spirit is earthbound . The uniting of his head and torso will immediately set his spirit free to continue its eternal journey .
At the time , there was no historical trail for the head after Pettigrew passed it on . Tribal elders entrusted the Aboriginal leader Ken Colbung with the search . In the early 1990s , Colbung enlisted the aid of University of London archaeologist Peter Ucko . One of Ucko 's researchers , Cressida Fforde , conducted a literature search for information on the head . Fforde successfully traced the head in December 1993 . The following April , Colbung applied to exhume the remains under Section 25 of the Burial Act 1857 . Home Office regulations required next of kin consent before disturbing the remains of the 22 infants . Colbung 's solicitors requested waiver of this condition on grounds that the exhumation would be of great personal significance to Yagan 's living relatives , and great national importance to Australia .
Meanwhile , divisions in the Noongar community in Perth began to develop . Some elders questioned Colbung 's role and one Noongar registered a complaint with the Liverpool City Council over his involvement . Media reports indicated acrimonious debate within the Noongar community about who had the best cultural qualifications to take possession of the head . The academic Hannah McGlade claims that these divisions were largely manufactured by the media , particularly The West Australian , which " aimed to and successfully represented the Nyungar community in terms of disharmony and dissent " . She alleges that one West reporter contacted Noongar who were known to be in disagreement , and quoted one to the other , so as to elicit provocative responses . The disputes were " trumpeted " by The West , allowing it to " preach " against the infighting .
On 25 July a public meeting was held in Perth . All parties agreed to put aside their differences and co @-@ operate to ensure that the repatriation was a " national success " . A Yagan Steering Committee was established to co @-@ ordinate the repatriation , and Colbung 's application was allowed to proceed . In January 1995 the Home Office advised Colbung that it was unable to waive the requirement to obtain next of kin consent for the exhumation . It contacted the five relatives whose addresses were known , and received unconditional consent from only one . Accordingly , on 30 June 1995 , Colbung and the other interested parties were advised that the application for exhumation had been rejected .
Meeting on 21 September , the Yagan Steering Committee decided to lobby Australian and British politicians for support . In 1997 Colbung was invited to visit the United Kingdom at the British government 's expense and he arrived on 20 May . His visit attracted substantial media coverage , and increased the political pressure on the British Government . He secured the support of the Prime Minister of Australia , John Howard , after gate crashing the Prime Minister 's June visit to the United Kingdom .
= = = Exhumation = = =
While Colbung was in the United Kingdom , Martin and Richard Bates were engaged to undertake a geophysical survey of the grave site . Using electromagnetic and ground penetrating radar techniques , they identified an approximate position of the box that suggested it could be accessed from the side via the adjacent plot . A report of the survey was passed to the Home Office , prompting further discussions between the British and Australian Governments .
Of concern to the Home Office were an undisclosed number of letters that it had received objecting to Colbung 's involvement in the repatriation process ; it therefore sought assurances from the Australian Government that Colbung was a correct applicant . In response Colbung asked his elders to ask the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission ( ATSIC ) to tell the British Home Office that he was the correct applicant . ATSIC then convened a meeting in Perth at which it was again resolved that Colbung 's application could proceed .
Colbung continued to press for the exhumation , asking that it be performed before the 164th anniversary of Yagan 's death on 11 July , so that the anniversary could be the occasion of a celebration . His request was not met , and on the anniversary of Yagan 's death , Colbung conducted a short memorial service at the burial plot in Everton . He returned to Australia empty @-@ handed on 15 July .
The exhumation of Yagan 's head eventually proceeded , without Colbung 's knowledge , by excavating six feet down the side of the grave , then tunnelling horizontally to the location of the box . Thus the exhumation was performed without disturbing any other remains . The following day , a forensic palaeontologist from the University of Bradford positively identified the skull as Yagan 's by correlating the fractures with those described in Pettigrew 's report . The skull was then kept at the museum until 29 August , when it was handed over to the Liverpool City Council .
= = = Repatriation = = =
On 27 August 1997 , a delegation of Noongars consisting of Ken Colbung , Robert Bropho , Richard Wilkes and Mingli Wanjurri @-@ Nungala arrived in the UK to collect Yagan 's head . The delegation was to have been larger , but Commonwealth funding was withdrawn at the last minute . The handover of Yagan 's skull was further delayed , however , when a Noongar named Corrie Bodney applied to the Supreme Court of Western Australia for an injunction against the handover . Claiming that his family group has sole responsibility for Yagan 's remains , Bodney declared the exhumation illegal and denied the existence of any tradition or belief necessitating the head 's exhumation and removal to Australia . On 29 August , Justice Henry Wallwork rejected the injunction application , on the grounds that Bodney had previously agreed to the current arrangements , and on the evidence of another Noongar elder ( Albert Corunna , who claimed to be a closer relation of Yagan ) and anthropologist Pat Baines , both of whom refuted Bodney 's claim to sole responsibility .
Yagan 's skull was handed over to the Noongar delegation at a ceremony at Liverpool Town Hall on 31 August 1997 . In accepting the skull , Colbung made comments that were interpreted as linking Yagan 's death with the death of Diana , Princess of Wales , earlier that day :
That is how nature goes ... Nature is a carrier of all good things and all bad things . And because the Poms did the wrong thing , they now have to suffer .
Colbung 's comments prompted a media furore throughout Australia , with newspapers receiving many letters from the public expressing shock and anger at the comments . Colbung later claimed that his comments had been misinterpreted .
Throughout the repatriation process , many sections of the international media treated the story as a joke . For example , the US News & World Report ran a story under the headline Raiders of the Lost Conk , in which Yagan 's head was referred to as a " pickled curio " , and Colbung 's actions were treated as a publicity stunt .
= = = Preparations for reburial = = =
On its return to Perth , Yagan 's head continued to be a source of controversy and conflict . Responsibility for reburial of the head was given to a " Committee for the Reburial of Yagan 's Kaat " , headed by Richard Wilkes . However , the reburial was delayed by disputes between elders over the burial location , mainly due to uncertainty of the whereabouts of the rest of his body , and disagreement about the importance of burying the head with the body .
A number of attempts were made to locate the remains of Yagan 's body , which were believed to be on Lot 39 West Swan Road in the outer Perth suburb of Belhus . A remote sensing survey of the site was carried out in 1998 , but no remains were found . An archaeological survey of the area was undertaken two years later , but this also was unsuccessful . Disputes then arose over whether the head could be buried separately from the body . Wilkes has claimed that it can , so long as it is placed where Yagan was killed , so that Dreamtime spirits can reunite the remains .
In 1998 the Western Australian Planning Commission and the Department of Aboriginal Affairs jointly published a document entitled Yagan 's Gravesite Master Plan , which discussed " matters of ownership , management , development and future use " of the property on which Yagan 's remains are believed to be buried . Under consideration was the possibility of turning the site into an Indigenous burial site , to be managed by the Metropolitan Cemeteries Board .
Yagan 's head spent some time in storage in a bank vault before being handed over to forensics experts who reconstructed a model from it . After that it was held in storage at Western Australia 's state mortuary . Plans to re @-@ bury the head were repeatedly deferred , causing ongoing conflict between Noongar groups . In September 2008 it was reported that Yagan 's head would be reburied in November , and a Yagan Memorial Park created as a projected cost of A $ 996 @,@ 000 ; but in November it was announced that the reburial had been rescheduled for July 2009 because of logistical problems . In March 2009 , it was announced that the Department of Indigenous Affairs had given the City of Swan more than A $ 500 @,@ 000 to develop the park .
= = = Reburial = = =
The head was finally buried in a private ceremony attended only by invited Noongar elders , on 10 July 2010 , the anniversary of the last full day he lived and one day before the end of NAIDOC Week 2010 . The site in Belhus was chosen as it is believed to be near to where the rest of Yagan 's body was buried . The burial coincided with a ceremony to mark the opening of the Yagan Memorial Park which was attended by around 300 people , including Noongar elders and State government representatives . State Premier Colin Barnett described the occasion as " a wonderful day for all West Australians . "
The art works for the Yagan Memorial Park were designed by Peter Farmer , Sandra Hill , Jenny Dawson and Kylie Ricks . Dawson and Hill created an entry wall of Yagan 's story ; Farmer designed the park entry statements and Ricks the female Coolamon .
= = Legacy = =
The repatriation of Yagan 's head increased the Aboriginal leader 's notability . He is considered a famous historical figure throughout Australia , with material about him appearing in such publications as the Australian Dictionary of Biography , and Western Australia 's school curriculum . He is of greatest significance , however , to the Noongar people , for whom he is " a revered , cherished and heroic individual ... patriot and visionary hero of WA 's South @-@ West " . The return of his head was likened by some Indigenous Australians to the November 1993 ceremonial repatriation from Gallipoli of Australia 's unknown soldier .
The former Upper Swan Bridge , which carries the Great Northern Highway over the Swan River at Belhus , was renamed the Yagan Bridge in 2010 . Also , an open plaza in the Perth central business district , constructed as part of the Perth City Link , an ongoing urban renewal project , will be named Yagan Square , having previously been referred to simply as " City Square " . The plaza , located adjacent to the Horseshoe Bridge , is expected to open in late 2016 .
= = Cultural references = =
= = = Alas Poor Yagan = = =
On 6 September 1997 The West Australian published a Dean Alston cartoon entitled Alas Poor Yagan , which was critical of the fact that the return of Yagan 's head had become a source of conflict between Noongars instead of fostering unity . The cartoon was interpreted by some as insulting aspects of Noongar culture , and casting aspersions on the motives and legitimacy of Indigenous Australians with mixed racial heritage . The content of the cartoon offended many Indigenous Australians , and a group of Noongar elders complained about the cartoon to the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission . The commission ruled that the cartoon made inappropriate references to Noongar beliefs but was not in breach of the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 because it was " an artistic work " that was published " reasonably and in good faith " , and was therefore exempt . This ruling was upheld on appeal by the Federal Court of Australia , Some academic commentators have since expressed concern that the protections offered under the act have been undermined by the ruling 's broad interpretation of the exemptions .
= = = Statue = = =
From the mid @-@ 1970s , members of the Noongar community lobbied for the erection of a statue of Yagan as part of the WAY 1979 sesquicentennial celebrations . Their requests were refused , however , after then Premier of Western Australia Sir Charles Court was advised by one prominent historian that Yagan was not important enough to warrant a statue . Colbung claims " Court was more interested in spending tax payers ' money on refurbishing the badly neglected burial place of Captain James Stirling , WA 's first governor . " Despite this setback , the Noongar community persisted , establishing a Yagan Committee and running a number of fund @-@ raising drives . Eventually , sufficient funds were collected to allow the commissioning of Australian sculptor Robert Hitchcock to create a statue . The result was a life @-@ size statue in bronze , depicting Yagan standing naked with a spear held across his shoulders . Hitchcock 's statue of Yagan was officially opened by Yagan Committee chairperson Elizabeth Hanson on 11 September 1984 . It stands on Heirisson Island in the Swan River near Perth .
In 1997 , within a week of the return of Yagan 's head to Perth , vandals beheaded the statue using an angle grinder . Soon after a replacement head was installed and it too was detached and stolen . Credit for the act was anonymously claimed by a " British loyalist " as an act of retaliation for Colbung 's comments about Diana , Princess of Wales . The Western Australia Police did not succeed in identifying the vandals , nor in recovering the heads , and deemed it infeasible to have the statue fenced off or placed under guard .
Commentary on the beheadings varied widely . One column in The West Australia found humour in them , referring to the head as a " bonce " and a " noggin " , and finished with a pun on " skullduggery " . Stephen Muecke calls this the " satirical trivialising of Aboriginal concerns " ; and Adam Shoemaker writes " This is the stuff of light humour and comic relief . There is no sense of the decapitation as being an act of vandalism , even less that it could have been motivated by malevolence ... [ T ] he piece has a definite authorising function " . On the other hand , academic analysis has treated the act with much more gravity . In 2007 , for example , David Martin described the decapitation as " an act which speaks not only to the continuance of white settler racism , but also to the power of mimesis to invigorate our modern memorials and monuments with a life of their own . "
In 2002 , Member of the Western Australian Legislative Assembly Janet Woollard called for the statue 's genitalia to be covered up , but nothing was done . In November 2005 Richard Wilkes again called for the statue 's groin to be covered , on the grounds that such a depiction would be more historically accurate , as Yagan would have worn a covering for most of the year . Also under consideration is the creation of a new statue with a head shape that accords better with the forensic reconstruction of Yagan 's head .
= = = Literature and film = = =
Mary Durack published a fictionalised account of Yagan 's life in her 1964 children 's novel The Courteous Savage : Yagan of the Swan River , which was renamed Yagan of the Bibbulmun on reissue in 1976 .
The repeated beheading of Yagan 's statue in 1997 prompted Aboriginal writer Archie Weller to write a short story entitled Confessions of a Headhunter . Weller later worked with film director Sally Riley to adapt the story into a script , and in 2000 a 35 @-@ minute movie , also named Confessions of a Headhunter , was released . Directed by Sally Riley , the movie won Best Short Fiction Film at the 2000 AFI Awards . The following year the script won the Script Award in the 2001 Western Australian Premier 's Book Awards .
In 2002 , the South African @-@ born Australian poet John Mateer published his fourth collection of poems , entitled Loanwords . The collection is divided into four sections , of which the third , In the Presence of a Severed Head , has Yagan as its subject .
= = = Other cultural references = = =
A section of Kullark , a play by Jack Davis , explores the deteriorating relationship between Yagan and a settler couple .
In September 1989 an early maturing cultivar of barley , bred by the Western Australian Department of Agriculture for performance on sandy soils , was released under the name " Hordeum vulgare ( Barley ) c.v. Yagan " . Commonly referred to simply as " Yagan " , the cultivar is named for Yagan , continuing a tradition of labelling Western Australian grain cultivars after historic people of Western Australia .
= 1889 – 90 Sheffield United F.C. season =
The 1889 – 90 season was the first in existence for Sheffield United . Having not been elected to any organised league at that point they predominantly played friendly fixtures but did enter the FA Cup for the first time as well as locally arranged cup competitions The Sheffield Challenge Cup and the Wharncliffe Charity Cup . The club did not employ a manager in this period ; tactics and team selection were decided by The Football Committee and the players were coached by a trainer . J.B. Wostinholm held the position of club secretary , dealing with player transfers and contracts , arranging matches and dealing with the FA . The first season was deemed a reasonable success with steady attendances to home games and progress in the FA Cup although the fluctuating nature of the team meant that consistency was never really achieved .
As the season progressed it became obvious that a better standard of player would be required to succeed in League Football and the club began to recruit new players in the spring , notably signing Rab Howell , Mick Whitham and Arthur Watson from nearby Rotherham Swifts who were in financial difficulties . United eventually reached the second round proper of the FA Cup where they were comprehensively beaten by the more experienced Bolton Wanderers and finished the season having been accepted to play in the newly formed Midland Counties League the following term .
= = Background = =
Sheffield United had been formed earlier in 1889 by the organising committee of the Sheffield United Cricket Club in response to the growing popularity of the game . They viewed a football team as a means of generating extra revenue and a greater utilisation of the club facilities , particularly in the winter months . The initial plan was to sign a core squad of players and augment them with the best amateur players from the region as guests . The club had duly advertised for players in the local press and in Glasgow as it was considered that Scotland was an untapped pool of talent . Respondents were invited for trials and a basic squad were offered contracts .
= = Kit = =
For their first season the team wore a plain white ' jersey ' and blue ' knickers ' and socks . The club would not adopt its now traditional red and white stripes until the following season .
= = Season overview = =
With a team assembled over the summer months , United played their first ever fixture against Notts Rangers on 7 September 1889 , a game which they lost 4 – 1 . As they were not part of any organised league the club arranged a series of friendly and exhibition games to fill the schedule of their fledgling club . Their opponents were drawn both from the local area ( Sheffield having a number of established teams at this time ) and from further afield , particularly the North @-@ West and West Midlands .
The establishment of a new , well @-@ financed , football team in the city had caused some consternation amongst the local FA and United undertook a low @-@ key start , not playing their first game at Bramall Lane until the end of September , against Birmingham St. George 's . The team continued to play regularly and attendances at Bramall Lane steadily increased as interest in the new side grew . The team performed well against local sides but the fluctuating nature of the squad during this period meant there was little consistency in results . By December however , it had become clear that better quality of players would be required if the club was to develop and take on the more established sides playing in the Football League . The initial plan of maintaining a core of players that would be boosted from the ranks of the local amateur game had not borne fruit as the players who appeared were often ageing and past their best . Similarly the players recruited from Scotland had largely failed to impress and so the football committee looked to bring in fresh players to strengthen the team .
Ironically , their first two new signings were a Scot , William Calder , and another local amateur , T.B.A. Clarke , who both arrived in December 1889 but the team was beginning to take on a more professional image . The team continued their campaign of friendly fixtures into 1890 , with varying degrees of success , whilst competing in the FA Cup for the first time . With the club hoping to be accepted into the newly formed Midland Counties League for the following season the committee made a number of additions to the squad in March , signing Billy Bairstow from local side Sheffield Club but more significantly signing a trio of players from nearby Rotherham Swifts . Rab Howell , Arthur Watson and Michael Whitham would all become stalwarts of the team in the coming seasons , with both Howell and Whitham subsequently going on to represent England . They represented United 's first reported entry into the transfer market , arriving for a combined fee of £ 200 , and signalled a new era of full professionalism for the club .
= = = FA Cup = = =
United made their debut in the FA Cup in an away fixture against Scarborough on 7 October 1889 , a game which they comprehensively won 6 – 1 . Required to play a number of qualifying games they went on to play various local sides before reaching the First round proper when they took on Burnley in January 1990 . Having dispatched the Clarets , United were drawn against another Lancashire side in the next round – Bolton Wanderers . Giving up home advantage in return for a payment of £ 40 ( a practice that was actually against the rules of the competition ) they travelled across the Pennines only to be trounced 13 – 0 , a result that remains United 's worst ever cup defeat .
= = = Local cup competitions = = =
United entered both the Sheffield Challenge Cup and the Wharncliffe Charity Cup during the course of the season . Both competitions were ratified by the Sheffield FA and as such were viewed as fully competitive fixtures within the local area . United progressed through three early rounds of the Challenge Cup , beating Sheffield Exchange , Heeley and Attercliffe before facing Staveley at Bramall Lane in the semi @-@ final . A 2 – 0 victory was enough to see them progress to the team 's first ever ' cup final ' where they took on an experienced Rotherham Town side over two legs . United were held to a 0 – 0 draw in the first fixture at Bramall Lane but succumbed to a single goal in the return leg which was played at the ground of Rotherham Swifts .
The Wharncliffe Cup was a smaller affair and The Blades needed only to beat Doncaster Rovers in a home game to progress to the semi @-@ final . They travelled to Staveley but were beaten 2 – 1 by their hosts .
= = Squad = =
Source :
= = = First team = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Players leaving before end of the season = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Other players = = =
During this season a number of other players played first team games for United during their various fixtures . They were either triallists who were not retained or local players drawn from neighbouring clubs as ' guests ' . The only guest player to feature in a competitive fixture was ' T. Wilson ' who played in the FA Cup first round match against Burnley . ' Wilson ' was most likely a pseudonym and his true identity remains unknown .
= = Transfers = =
= = = In = = =
= = = Out = = =
= = Appearances and goals = =
As of the end of the season
= = Results = =
Source :
= = = Key = = =
Win Draw Loss
= = = FA Cup = = =
= = = Sheffield Challenge Cup = = =
= = = Wharncliffe Charity Cup = = =
= = = Friendlies = = =
= Eggtown =
" Eggtown " is the fourth episode of the fourth season and 76th episode overall of the ABC 's serial drama television series Lost . It was aired on February 21 , 2008 , on ABC in the United States and on CTV in Canada . It was written by supervising producer Elizabeth Sarnoff and script coordinator Greggory Nations and directed by co @-@ executive producer Stephen Williams . This is the first episode written by Nations .
The episode 's island plot takes place in late December 2004 , 90 @-@ plus days after the crash of Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 . Flashforwards show Kate Austen ( played by Evangeline Lilly ) on trial for her numerous pre @-@ island crimes , after her escape from the island . " Eggtown " was watched by 15 million Americans and received mixed reviews from critics . The cliffhanger was generally praised , but the slow pace was criticized .
= = Plot = =
John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) is keeping Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) prisoner in the basement of the house that he has claimed in the Barracks . He prepares breakfast for him , including the two remaining eggs which he fries along with some fresh melon , but Ben taunts him and Locke becomes frustrated . Kate cuts a deal with Locke 's prisoner Miles Straume ( Ken Leung ) : he will tell her what he knows about her if he can speak to Ben for a minute . Miles wants to extort $ 3 @.@ 2 million from Ben and in return , Miles promises to lie to his employer claiming Ben is dead . Miles gives Ben a week to produce the cash . Before Locke finds them , Miles reveals that he knows all about Kate 's past . Locke banishes Kate from the Barracks and goes to a lake house where Miles is being held captive . Locke puts a grenade in Miles 's mouth so that if he ceases to bite , he will die . Kate sleeps with James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) but does not have sex with him . Before Kate leaves for the camp at the beach , she slaps Sawyer across the face after he suggests that she is just pretending to be mad as an excuse to go back to Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) and continue their love triangle .
Meanwhile , Jack returns to the survivors ' beach camp with Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) and newcomers Daniel Faraday ( Jeremy Davies ) and Charlotte Lewis ( Rebecca Mader ) . Jack and Juliet grow increasingly uneasy over a series of unsuccessful attempts to contact the freighter by satellite phone and verify that Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) , Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) and Frank Lapidus ( Jeff Fahey ) , who departed for the freighter by helicopter the previous evening , have arrived safely . That evening , as Charlotte tests Daniel 's memory using playing cards ( Daniel successfully remembers two out of three cards , and Charlotte remarks that this is " progress " ) , Jack and Juliet ask if there is another phone number they could try . Charlotte dials an emergency number and speaks to Regina ( Zoë Bell ) , who reports that the helicopter never arrived .
After leaving the island , Kate is famous as one of the Oceanic Six . She is tried for her numerous crimes committed before the crash and pleads not guilty . Because Kate is opposed to bringing her son into the trial , Jack is called in as a character witness . He lies in his testimony , saying that Flight 815 crashed in the water , eight survived the crash , but two have since died and Kate was primarily responsible for the Oceanic Six 's survival . Kate speaks with her mother Diane Janssen ( Beth Broderick ) for the first time in four years . Diane is no longer angry at Kate because her perspective changed when she thought that Kate had died in the plane crash . When Diane , the prosecution 's star witness , no longer wants to testify against her daughter , the District Attorney
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ⴻⵏ ⵎⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵍⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵢⴻⵏ ⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴷⵉ ⵍⵃⵡⴻⵕⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵣⴻⵔⴼⴰⵏ @-@ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵙⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴽⵡⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵇⵓⴻⵍ ⵓ ⵢⴻⵙⵙⴻⴼⴽ ⴰⴷ @-@ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴻⴳⵎⴰⵜⵜ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴻⵏ .
Imdanen , akken ma llan ttlalen d ilelliyen msawan di lḥ weṛma d yizerfan- ghur sen tamsakwit d lâquel u yessefk ad @-@ tili tegmatt gar asen .
= Lex Luthor ( Smallville ) =
Lex Luthor is a fictional character from the television series Smallville . He was a series regular from the pilot episode until the season seven finale , and has been played continuously by Michael Rosenbaum , with various actors portraying the character as a child throughout the series . The character of Lex Luthor , first created for comic books by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster in 1940 as nemesis of Superman , was adapted to television in 2001 by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar — this is only the third time the character has been adapted to a live action television series . The character has also appeared in various literature based on the Smallville television series , none of which directly continues from or into the television episodes .
In this 2001 series , Lex Luthor is sent to Smallville , by his father Lionel Luthor , to run the local LuthorCorp fertilizer plant . After driving his car off a bridge , he is saved by Clark Kent and quickly develops a new friendship with the farm boy . As the series unfolds , Lex 's curiosity about Clark and all things connected to Clark ultimately destroys their friendship . Lex 's relationship with his father is tension @-@ filled from the start of the show , and eventually comes to an end when Lex murders his father in an effort to discover Clark 's secret .
The Smallville incarnation of the character is first introduced as a morally ambiguous character , who walks a fine line between good and evil . Lex is an inquisitive person , and it is that curiosity that drives him to attain as much power as possible as the series progresses — it will ultimately lead him to being Clark 's greatest enemy . Michael Rosenbaum has been nominated for and won a Saturn Award and a Teen Choice Award for his portrayal of Lex Luthor on Smallville . After seven seasons as a series regular , Michael Rosenbaum left the show , but reprised the role for the two @-@ hour series finale .
= = Role in Smallville = =
Lex Luthor , introduced in the pilot as the son of billionaire Lionel Luthor ( John Glover ) , is sent to Smallville by his father to run the local fertilizer plant . As a child , he is caught in the first meteor shower that renders him completely bald . Years later as a young adult , Lex first meets Clark Kent ( Tom Welling ) saving his life from drowning and the two quickly become friends . Lex tries to be a good guy for most of the early seasons , but his motives are usually driven by curiosity for the unexplained , like the day Clark rescued him from drowning . Over the course of seven seasons — beginning in the pilot episode on the day Clark rescued him from drowning — Lex has been trying to uncover the secrets that Clark keeps .
In season one , Lex hires Roger Nixon ( Tom O 'Brien ) , a reporter for the tabloid newspaper The Inquisitor , to discover how he survived the automobile accident where Clark saved him from drowning . All the evidence points to Clark having been hit by Lex 's car , but Lex refuses to believe that is what happened so Nixon attempts to expose Clark to everyone . Around the same time , Lex also enlists the help of Dr. Hamilton ( Joe Morton ) ; Hamilton is commissioned to study the effects of the meteor rocks . Hamilton finds an octagonal disc , with unknown symbols imprinted on the disc 's surface that match those on Clark 's ship , while searching for traces of an alien ship that landed in Smallville in 1989 . The disc is eventually stolen by Nixon in an attempt to open Clark 's ship .
In season two , Lex 's curiosity with the symbols continues . Lex first kills Nixon before the reporter can kill Jonathan Kent ( John Schneider ) for protecting Clark from Nixon . When Clark discovers the Kawatche Caves , under a LuthorCorp construction site , Lex opts to be the curator of the caves to preserve them after he notices symbols on the cave walls that match the symbols on the disc , as well as an octagonal shape in the wall of the cave that would fit the disc perfectly . His interest grows more and more when he finds Clark constantly in the caves , and later with a piece of paper that appears to indicate that Clark has deciphered the language on the cave walls — although , Clark denies being able to read the language . Lex 's company eventually loses the Kawatche caves to Lionel as his father has also developed an interest in the caves and the octagonal disc . During all this , Lex also met and courted Dr. Helen Bryce ( Emmanuelle Vaugier ) but Helen would try to kill him on their honeymoon .
Season three revealed why Lex endured Lionel 's harsh parenting ; his father blames him for his younger brother Julian Luthor 's death , however , Lex took the blame to protect the true killer , his mentally unwell mother Lillian Luthor ( Alisen Down ) , from Lionel 's wraith . Also , Lex 's curiosity into the symbols ( and Clark ) leads to a blowout between the two . When Lionel gives Clark a key to a room in the Luthor Mansion where Lex has been collecting information on Clark 's family , Clark informs Lex that their friendship " is over " . In season four , Lex replaces his father as LuthorCorp 's CEO and turns his attention turns toward finding three ancient stones , which contain the same symbols as those in the cave and on the disc . He fails to find all three stones but suspects that Clark did , and used the stones to find the treasure of knowledge they were supposed to have led to , often having confrontations with Jason Teague ( Jensen Ackles ) . Around this time , Lex 's lifestyle of bedding women and then leaving them the next day would catch up to him when one ( Cobie Smulders ) that he had previously slept with attempts to kill him .
In season five , Lex becomes obsessed with uncovering Clark 's secret ; he breaks three metahuman criminals out of Belle Reve and sends them to the Kent Farm , where they hold several people close to Clark hostage . The scheme amounts to nothing , however , and Clark cuts Lex out of life completely upon finding out . His curiosity into the symbols , which he believes to be alien in nature , results in Brainiac ( James Marsters ) arranging him to be possessed by the spirit of the Kryptonian criminal Zod . In season six , Lex married Lana Lang ( Kristin Kreuk ) after deceiving Lana into being pregnant with his child . Upon learning the truth , Lana faked her own death and attempted to pin the murder on Lex .
Season seven displayed Lex 's descent into darkness ; he has a brother @-@ like relationship with Grant Gabriel ( Michael Cassidy ) , the new editor of the Daily Planet newest editor , until it 's revealed Grant is actually a clone of Lex 's late brother . After Lex buys the Daily Planet , Grant attempts to keep Lex from being controlling , thus Lex has his brother 's clone murdered and staged as a failed mugging . Lex then discovers that the previous symbols are connected to the secret organization Veritas , which his father is a part of . The Veritas members learned that an alien visitor known as " The Traveler " would arrive in Smallville during the meteor shower of 1989 . At this time , Lex realizes that Lionel has been covering up the Traveler 's existence and subsequently kills his own father for it . He eventually discovers that the Veritas members knew of a means to control the Traveler , so Lex sets out to find the device . The device , an orb he finds in the mantle above a fireplace in the Luthor mansion , leads Lex to the Fortress of Solitude , where he is confronted by Clark . Having finally discovered Clark 's secret , Lex uses the orb to bring down the Fortress around Clark and himself .
In season eight , Lex is missing and Tess Mercer ( Cassidy Freeman ) is put in charge as Lex 's hand @-@ picked successor . Tess wants Lex found , until Lex is revealed to have a surgically @-@ implanted nano @-@ transmitter in Tess 's optic nerve . Wanting revenge , Lex uses a kryptonite bomb to have Lana 's stolen bio @-@ enhanced suit , designed to absorb and emit kryptonite radiation , absorb the radiation to de @-@ activate the bomb and subsequently never be able to go near Clark again without fatal effects . Oliver Queen ( Justin Hartley ) discovers Lex 's location and uses a bomb to blow up Lex 's travelling medical transport , seemingly killing him .
Season ten revealed that Lex had manufactured a number of clones in an attempt to use to heal himself . However , the majority of these clones are flawed and would age at an accelerated rate . One clone of Lex ( Mackenzie Gray ) , aged approximately twenty years older than the original , attempted to get revenge on Clark by trying to kill Lois Lane ( Erica Durance ) but died before he could finish . The 2 @-@ hour series finale reveals Lex had used the parts of other clones to create a composite one but lacked a heart . After an alternate reality version of his father sacrifices himself to Darkseid , Lex speaks with Clark , telling his former friend he accepts they have a destiny as enemies , but neither of them can fulfill their roles unless Clark defeats Darkseid by inspiring humanity . Lex later meets with Tess , and fatally stabs his sister , however , Tess poisons him with a specialized neurotoxin that removes all of Lex 's memories . The series ends by shifting seven years into the future , where Lex had been elected as the President of the United States .
= = Portrayal = =
When crafting Smallville 's version of Lex Luthor , series developers Al Gough and Miles Millar decided that he would not be a precursor to the more comedic role performed by Gene Hackman in the Superman film series ; the pair wanted him to be likeable and vulnerable . The role was difficult to cast , as no one involved in the casting could agree on who they liked for the role . Gough and Millar wanted to cast a comedian for the series , on the belief that comedians always want to " please and be loved at the same time . " Michael Rosenbaum auditioned for Lex Luthor twice . Feeling he did not take his first audition seriously , Rosenbaum outlined a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ page scene , indicating all the places to be funny , charismatic , or menacing . His audition went so well that everyone agreed he was " the guy " .
Before Rosenbaum got the part , Martin Cummins auditioned for the role of Lex Luthor ; Cummins would go on to play Dr. Garner , a neuro @-@ scientist who experiments on Clark , in multiple episodes of Smallville spanning season two and three . Michael Rosenbaum is not the only actor to portray Lex on the show . There have been four other actors that have performed the role ; Matthew Munn , Wayne Dalgish , Lucas Grabeel , and Connor Stanhope have all portrayed Lex Luthor as a child in various episodes throughout the series . Rosenbaum relished the opportunities he gets to show Lex 's evil side , even if it is only for a few seconds in earlier seasons . Specifically , he delighted in the chance to " go overboard " , like he did in " Hug " where his character pulls out a machine gun and shoots everything in sight ; to the actor , this gave the audience a glimpse into who Lex was becoming . To portray Lex 's signature bald head , Rosenbaum had to go through more than just a regular head shaving . Not only was his head shaved every day , but he had to undergo hours of make @-@ up treatments on his head , in various color combinations , so that his natural hairline did not show up on film . After seven seasons of portraying Lex Luthor on Smallville , Michael Rosenbaum decided to move on with his acting career , so he departed from the show . On February 11 , 2011 , Michael Ausiello reported that after the back and forth speculation as to whether Rosenbaum would return to the series , the actor finally agreed to appear in the series finale . Rosenbaum expressed that his return for the final episode was for the fans , stating , " I appreciate all of their passion , their relentlessness , and even their threats . "
= = Character development = =
= = = Storyline progression = = =
Rosenbaum believed that Lex was trying to be a hero in season one , but that his character showed signs of having to fight " ambiguity " and stay on the straight path . The tension @-@ filled relationship with his father , which is first established in the pilot episode , comes to a crossing in the season one finale , when Lex is left with the decision to either help his father remove the structural beam that has fallen on him , or let him die . Rosenbaum wanted the audience to see that Lex was really contemplating what his life would be like if Lionel was no longer around . As Rosenbaum explained the scene :
Season two delved deeper into Lex 's darker moments , from the time he wavers to save his father 's life , to his outburst at Jonathan for what he feels is unfair treatment . These moments play into Lex 's psyche . Season three 's " Memoria " finally explained the mysterious circumstances surrounding the death of Lex 's infant brother , Julian . Gough explains that they had known the story of Julian Luthor back in season one , when the character was first mentioned in " Stray " , but they wanted to find the right time to explain the situation . The creative team wanted the audience to think that Lex was responsible for Julian 's death as an infant , before finally revealing that Lex was merely covering for his mother .
Season four began expanding on the series long story arc of Lex 's feelings for Lana . Though the seeds were planted in the second episode of the first season , it was not until season four that Lex began to show more of his true feelings . According to Gough , not only was Lex trying to protect Lana from Jason Teague ( Jensen Ackles ) , Lana 's boyfriend who was also after the stones of knowledge , but he was also trying to get Jason out of the picture completely so he could have Lana for himself . Writer Darren Swimmer questioned Lex 's motives from earlier seasons : " You have to ask yourself , in the words of Lex Luthor himself : Why would some billionaire want to be bailing out this girl and buying her a coffee house to begin with ? What 's that all about ? " Writer Todd Slavkin described season five as " the darkening of Lex Luthor " . By the time " Aqua " came around , Lex had removed the gloves , as there is no friendship with Clark that he needed to worry about , and his dark side began to show its face . Season five also saw Lex 's hunger for power begin to develop , as he campaigned for a Kansas senate seat . It was the events of " Lexmas " that drove Lex to continue his pursuit of ultimate power . In " Lexmas " , Lex is shot and he gets a chance to live a life where he is married to Lana and he no longer on a quest for power . In this alternate reality , without all the power and money that he had originally had , Lex is unable to save Lana , who dies after giving birth to their second child . It is here that Lex decided that he would always " go for the prize " .
= = = Characterization = = =
One of Lex 's key characteristics is his curiosity for the unexplained . Lex 's primary motive for his " shady " actions derives from his curiosity , specifically beginning from the moment he and Clark meet after Lex hits Clark with his Porsche . Clark always appearing when something strange happens in Smallville does nothing but fuel Lex 's curiosity . Rosenbaum believes that Lex 's only sees two options : " For Lex , it 's either take a nice ride to Metropolis and work with his dad , or find out what 's going on with this strong , strange fellow , Clark Kent . " Another characteristic of Smallville ' s Lex Luthor — one that is being developed over the course of the series — is his evilness . Rosenbaum believes that what the audience sees in Lex 's dark side in the early seasons is merely a taste of what the character is truly capable of . In the season two premiere " Vortex " , Rosenbaum requested Greg Beeman to shoot a close @-@ up of him after he shoots Nixon , in an effort to open a window into Lex 's darker side . Rosenbaum intended to leave the interpretation of whether Lex enjoyed killing Nixon open to the audience . As Beeman explains Rosenbaum 's thoughts , " ... either Lex is horrified and appalled , or he liked it , and it felt good to him " . According to Rosenbaum , when Lex reaches that point where he uses all of his mind , and " really flips out " , that is the point where the " world needs to hide " . Television reviewer Brian Byun felt that it was this struggle between good and evil inside Lex that not only made him an anti @-@ hero , but also , given that the audience familiar with Lex 's mythology and the knowledge that he will end up being Superman 's greatest enemy , make Smallville 's Lex Luthor a " tragic figure [ of ] almost Shakespearean grandeur " .
Taking a page out of Chazz Palminteri 's A Bronx Tale , Rosenbaum ignored the script during his final scene with Kristin Kreuk for the season six finale . Here , as Lana is informing Lex that she is going to leave , Lex walks around her and closes the door to her exit . Rosenbaum was trying to invoke a moment of fright for the audience . To the actor , he wanted the audience to wonder what Lex was going to do to Lana ; it was a moment meant to show just how unpredictable Lex can be .
As the seasons progressed , and the character began to grow darker and more sinister , Rosenbaum sought more opportunities to bring humor to the scene , either with physical subtleties like little smiles at key moments , or " self @-@ deprecating humor " . One such instance , which became popular with audiences , was in the season six episode " Justice " , where Lex made a joke about wanting a ponytail . The producers were concerned over the piece of dialogue , but Rosenbaum convinced them that he could pull it off . To Rosenbaum , this quip by Lex makes him more credible as a person , because it is well known that Lex always wanted hair . This moment reflects an earlier episode , where Lex reveals his feelings of meagerness when comparing himself to Clark . In season five 's " Lockdown " , Lex provides a window into his thoughts about his place in Smallville . As writer Steven S. DeKnight describes it , the audience gets to see a moment where Lex shows how he still feels like an outsider , and that he views Clark as this " perfect person " . DeKnight believes that , from how Clark sees it , Lex is driven by his desire to attain everything that Clark has , like his family and girlfriend .
Lex also develops a craving for power , with that hunger expanding in season five . Al Gough believes that Lex 's political motivations are based on his lust for power . Rosenbaum echoes that opinion , believing that Lex can never get enough ; " Lex is an insatiable character " . Rosenbaum believes that nothing will satisfy Lex 's hunger , and that he will keep going until he is president of the United States . Even then , he will keep trying to make the majority of people like and believe in him .
Visually , the character of Lex Luthor has his own characteristics . In Smallville , Lex is usually given a " glass , steel [ colored ] background " , and dressed in a lot of black , grey , and " cool tones " like purples and blues .
= = = Relationships = = =
Rosenbaum realizes that the friendship between Lex and Clark is destined to fail , but that Clark 's friendship truly is important to Lex early in the series . The actor also believes that if Clark could see the darkness that Lex is constantly fighting then he would understand more of Lex 's actions . Reviewer Brian Byun expressed that the choice to explore the friendship between Clark and Lex , before they become sworn enemies , which was something that had been used in the past but never to the depth of what Smallville is doing , helped keep the show from becoming " Dawson 's Creek with superpowers " .
Like Lana , who held emptiness inside her after the loss of her parents , which she tried to fill with the men in her life , Lex attempts to fill his own void , over the loss of his mother , with the women in his life . According to writer Holly Harold , Lex " needs and wants to be loved " . Rosenbaum agrees , and feels that Lex is searching for that " unconditional love " . The actor likens this feeling to one that everyone can relate to , but that Lex fails to achieve with not only the women he develops relationships with , but also with his own father . Rosenbaum and Annette O 'Toole ( Martha Kent ) agree that the only person that could give Lex that love is his mother , who died when he was a child . Whenever they have scenes together , O 'Toole and Rosenbaum try and hint around the idea that Martha wants to provide that love for Lex , because she recognizes that he needs it , and that Lex really wants her to provide it as well .
After various failed relationships , Lex finally believes he has what he wants when he begins a romantic relationship with Lana Lang . In " Hypnotic " , in an effort to stop hurting Lana emotionally , Clark told her that he no longer loved her . This drives Lana into Lex 's arms . Writer Darren Swimmer explains that this was not something that just happened in the series , but something that had been hinted at for many seasons . Rosenbaum admits that Lex had a crush on Lana for many years , but contends that he tried to help Clark win Lana early on — he succeeded . When Clark and Lana 's relationship crumbled , because of Clark 's deceit , Lex was waiting . Rosenbaum believes that Lana was " tired of the boy and wanted a man around " . By contrast , Swimmer believes that Lana started dating Lex as a way of making Clark mad , but the relationship " turned into much more " . Kreuk contends that Lana went to Lex because " she knows she will never really love him . " Kreuk believes that Lana 's relationship with the men in her life was originally motivated by a desire to fill a void in her life that was left after her parents were killed . This need to fill that emptiness was fulfilled in " Void " , when Lana took a drug to induce death so that she could see her parents in the afterlife . Upon meeting her parents , Kreuk believes that Lana realized that she no longer needed someone else to fill that hole in her . Kreuk sees this filled void as the reason why Lana would gravitate toward Lex . Kreuk feels that if Lex had chosen a different path after the events of " Lexmas " , then Lana would have been able to truly love him .
As Rosenbaum describes it , Lex views Lana as this beautiful , charming girl with a little naïveté . It is this naïveté that allows Lex to believe that he can trust and confide in Lana , and that she is his one true love . Lex also knows that Lana will always love Clark , but he expects her to love him for who he is just the same . Rosenbaum does not believe that Lana gives that to Lex . Writer Holly Harold finds parallels between Lex 's relationship with Lana , and that of Lionel 's relationship with Martha . Both men believe that these two women will be their saving grace , and pull them back from the dark side . In Lex 's defense , Rosenbaum contends that Lex is not using Lana in an effort to hurt Clark , but that he really does love her . The actor believes that Lex 's problem lies in the fact that every time he has loved someone and opened up to them he has been hurt , or betrayed . Even though Lex loves Lana more than anyone else before her , he just cannot bring himself to open up completely for fear of repeating the past . Rosenbaum believes that the eventual dissolution of the marriage between Lex and Lana was a tragic moment in both characters ' lives . It is a moment that solidifies Lex 's history of opening up to women and having them hurt him .
It is not just the women in his life that Lex has a difficult time maintaining a healthy relationship with , but his father as well . Rosenbaum characterizes the relationship between Lex and Lionel as a form of tug @-@ of @-@ war , and disagrees with John Glover 's assessment that Lionel is merely testing Lex for the life he is going to take over . For Rosenbaum , Lex is being pushed and pushed , and Lex is afraid that he will reach the point that he knows he will no longer be able to come back from . In " Vortex " , Lex realizes that he forgot who he was in that moment that his father was trapped under the column , and he felt guilty over the situation . According to Rosenbaum , Lex realized that by letting his father die he would have been traveling down a dark path , and would have become all that his father was — evil . As Lex continues to live in his father 's shadow , and as time progresses , he learns more about the " monster " that Lionel truly is . The breaking point comes when Lex learns that his father killed Lex 's grandparents in a tenement fire . Rosenbaum sees this as the ultimate ethical dilemma — he likens it to parents learning that their child has murdered someone , and then having to decide if they should go to the authorities or not — and Lex , who can no longer take his father 's abuse , decides to turn Lionel over to the FBI . According to Rosenbaum , the decision is justified to Lex , who sees that monster that Lionel really is from his actions — using electroshock therapy to erase Lex 's memories , drugging Lex , killing his own parents , and the way he treated Lex 's mother .
= = Reception = =
Michael Rosenbaum was nominated multiple times for the Saturn Award category of Best Supporting Actor in a Television Series for his performance as Lex Luthor . His first nomination came in 2002 , which is the only year he has won the award . The same year he was also nominator for Cinescape Genre Face of the Future Award , alongside co @-@ star Kristin Kreuk . He followed that with consecutive nominations from 2003 to 2006 . Rosenbaum was nominated for Choice Sidekick in the 2002 and 2003 Teen Choice Awards . In 2007 , 2008 , and 2009 he was nominated as a Teen Choice Awards Choice Villain .
= = Other media appearances = =
= = = Young adult novels = = =
Lex makes his first appearance outside of the television series in the novel Smallville : Strange Visitors , published by Aspect . When a couple of con artists arrive in Smallville promoting miracle cures created by the meteor rocks , Lex becomes interested in what they are really after , as he believes their plans could hinder the research he is doing on the meteor rocks . After Jacobi and Wolfe 's con is realized , Lex uses a dummy corporation to steal all of the meteor rocks Jacobi 's Ascendence Foundation has collected . In Smallville : Dragon , Lex throws a party at his mansion for the local teenagers , that is ultimately crashed by a repitilian creature that was created by the meteor rocks . He is also visited by an old flame , Renata , who shows up looking to rekindle their relationship . Lex quickly discovers that she has an ulterior motive when she propositions him to fund a drug deal , which prompts Lex to realize that she was really sent by his father as some test for Lex .
= = = Comic books = = =
In 2012 , the Smallville series was continued through the comic book medium , with Smallville : Season 11 . Written by Bryan Q. Miller , who also wrote for the television series , the first issue details Lex changing the LuthorCorp name to LexCorp , due to his memory loss in the series finale . Tess Mercer 's death is ruled a suicide , and Lex sells the ownership rights to the Daily Planet . He also begins to question why he would befriend the " unsophisticated " Clark Kent , after reading some newspaper clippings . He immediately harbors distrust with " Superman " , after the latter reveals himself to the world . In addition , there are remnants of memories left for Lex to continue his hatred towards the superhero but have no knowledge of Superman 's secret identity . This leads to a proposal with General Sam Lane to create a joint venture between LexCorp and the Pentagon for the company 's project , " Guardian Defense Platforms " , which involves monitoring the world 's superhuman population . In the second issue , Lex takes steps to regain his lost memories , having his assistant Otis Berg research the neurotoxin Tess used on him , eventually he discovers that the toxin has caused Lex 's brain to operate at a higher percentage than normal , increasing his overall intelligence . In addition , Otis discovers that the toxin not only erased Lex 's memories and enhanced his intelligence , but also caused him to mentally bond with Tess 's consciousness when she poisoned him . Clark and Oliver eventually discover what happened to Tess , and extracts her consciousness from Lex and uploaded it into the Watchtower 's computer until they can clone her a new body . It is also revealed that Lex was friends with Bruce Wayne , the secret identity of Batman , since childhood , but lost touch after the murder of Bruce 's parents . Years later , Bruce is secretly aware that Lex is now corrupt .
= Purple @-@ throated cotinga =
The purple @-@ throated cotinga ( Porphyrolaema porphyrolaema ) is a species of bird in the cotinga family , Cotingidae . It is found in the western Amazonian region of South America ; its range extends from southern Colombia south through eastern Ecuador and Peru and east through extreme northwestern Bolivia and into western Amazonian Brazil . It lives in the canopy or along the borders of humid forest throughout its range . The purple @-@ throated cotinga is monotypic within the genus Porphyrolaema and has no known subspecies . It is one of the smaller cotinga species and expresses strong sexual dimorphism . Males have black upperparts with a bold white wingstripe and white edges to the tertial feathers and a white belly with some black barring on the rear flanks . The throat is a deep purple , giving the bird both its common and scientific names . Females are dark brown with pale buffy margins on the upperparts , buffy cinnamon with black barring on the underparts , and rufous on the throat . The male has a powerful voice .
Little research has been done on this species , and not much is known about its ecology . The purple @-@ throated cotinga is primarily frugivorous , although it does occasionally eat small insects . A solitary male attracts a female by perching in the canopy and letting the sunlight reflect off of its iridescent feathers . It is suspected to breed year @-@ round and is non @-@ migratory . Despite being considered naturally uncommon or rare across its vast range , the purple @-@ throated cotinga is listed as a species of Least Concern .
= = Taxonomy = =
The purple @-@ throated cotinga was originally described in 1852 as Cotinga porphyrolaema by Emile Deville and Philip Sclater from a male specimen collected near the Ucayali River in Peru 's Sarayacu District . The holotype is kept at the Jardin des Plantes in Paris . However , just two years later the species was split from the genus Cotinga into the monotypic genus Porphyrolaema by Charles Lucien Bonaparte . The generic and specific name of porphyrolaema comes from the Ancient Greek words porphyros " dark purple , " and laimos , " throat . "
While it is structurally similar to the Cotinga species , the purple @-@ throated cotinga differs from them in that it has a heavier , stubbier bill , distinctive pale fringing on the back feathers , and barred underparts in the female . While it is still generally considered to be closely related to the Cotinga species , recent molecular analysis has suggested that the species may in fact form a separate clade with other canopy @-@ dwelling cotingas , specifically the neotropical bellbirds of the genus Procnias , the cotingas of the genus Carpodectes , the black @-@ faced cotinga of the monotypic genus Conioptilon , and the bare @-@ necked fruitcrow of the monotypic genus Gymnoderus . Of these genera , the molecular analysis suggested that the purple @-@ throated cotinga was most closely related to the neotropical bellbirds . This cotinga does not have a recognized subspecies .
= = Description = =
The purple @-@ throated cotinga is strongly sexually dimorphic as male and female purple @-@ throated cotingas have few similarities in their plumage . The male has black upperparts , including the head , wings , and tail . The feathers on the bird 's back to its uppertail coverts , as well as its upperwing coverts , have white fringes . There is also a conspicuous white wingstripe and white edges to the tertial feathers . Additionally the male has a deeply purple throat and a white belly , with some black barring on its rear flanks .
In contrast , the female purple @-@ throated cotinga is a dark brown with pale buffy margins on the upperparts . The underparts are a buffy cinnamon with black barring . The throat is a deeper , unbarred rufous in coloration . The female 's tail feathers are longer and more pointed at the tip than those of the male . The juvenile purple @-@ throated cotinga resembles a paler , buffier female ; the plumage of the immature is undescribed .
The adult purple @-@ throated cotinga is about 18 @.@ 0 to 18 @.@ 5 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 3 in ) in length and weighs an average of 49 to 60 g ( 1 @.@ 7 to 2 @.@ 1 oz ) . The cotinga has a very wide bill with a strongly arched culmen and weakly developed rictal bristles . The bird 's iris is dark brown , while the bill and legs are black .
This species has a powerful if infrequently @-@ used voice , unlike the structurally @-@ similar Cotinga species , which are mostly silent . The male 's call is a high , plaintive " preeeeeer " that lasts for one or two seconds while dropping in pitch and is regularly repeated from a treetop perch .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The purple @-@ throated cotinga is found from southern Colombia south through eastern Ecuador and Peru to the Madre de Dios region and east through extreme northwestern Bolivia and into western Amazonian Brazil . The eastern boundary of the species appears to be the lower Rio Negro and northern Mato Grosso in Brazil . The purple @-@ throated cotinga 's total range covers approximately 2 @,@ 190 @,@ 000 km2 ( 850 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , throughout which it occurs in patches at low population densities .
The cotinga can be found in the canopy or borders of humid forest up to 900 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) in elevation , but mostly is restricted to humid forests below 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) . It can be found in either unflooded humid forests or in várzea forests , which are seasonally flooded . It is non @-@ migratory .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
The purple @-@ throated cotinga feeds primarily on the fruits of forest trees , most notably those belonging to the genus Cecropia . It also occasionally consumes small invertebrates , such as insects . All reported observations of the species feeding involve the cotinga leaning down from its perch to pluck fruit off of a tree in the forest canopy . These birds are distinct from similar species in that they are often seen in pairs . This species perches in the canopy to take in the morning sun .
A solitary male purple @-@ throated cotinga attracts a female by perching above the canopy and letting the sun highlight its iridescent plumage . The breeding behavior of this species is largely unknown , but the range in molting times implies that this species may breed year @-@ round .
= = Status = =
The purple @-@ throated cotinga is not well known and appears to be naturally uncommon or rare across a widespread area ; however , it is almost certainly under @-@ reported due to its canopy lifestyle . The IUCN considers this species to be a species of Least Concern due in part to its large range . While the IUCN has not estimated the population size , it believes it is declining due to habitat loss .
= Al Williamson =
Alfonso " Al " Williamson ( March 21 , 1931 – June 12 , 2010 ) was an American cartoonist , comic book artist and illustrator specializing in adventure , Western and science @-@ fiction / fantasy .
Born in New York City , he spent much of his early childhood in Bogotá , Colombia before moving back to the United States at the age of 12 . In his youth , Williamson developed an interest in comic strips , particularly Alex Raymond 's Flash Gordon . He took art classes at Burne Hogarth 's Cartoonists and Illustrators School , there befriending future cartoonists Wally Wood and Roy Krenkel , who introduced him to the work of illustrators who had influenced adventure strips . Before long , he was working professionally in the comics industry . His most notable works include his science @-@ fiction / heroic fantasy art for EC Comics in the 1950s , on titles including Weird Science and Weird Fantasy .
In the 1960s , he gained recognition for continuing Raymond 's illustrative tradition with his work on the Flash Gordon comic @-@ book series , and was a seminal contributor to the Warren Publishing 's black @-@ and @-@ white horror comics magazines Creepy and Eerie . Williamson spent most of the 1970s working on his own credited strip , another Raymond creation , Secret Agent X @-@ 9 . The following decade , he became known for his work adapting Star Wars films to comic books and newspaper strips . From the mid @-@ 1980s to 2003 , he was primarily active as an inker , mainly on Marvel Comics superhero titles starring such characters as Daredevil , Spider @-@ Man , and Spider @-@ Girl .
Williamson is known for his collaborations with a group of artists including Frank Frazetta , Roy Krenkel , Angelo Torres , and George Woodbridge , which was affectionately known as the " Fleagle Gang " . Williamson has been cited as a stylistic influence on a number of younger artists , and encouraged many , helping such newcomers as Bernie Wrightson and Michael Kaluta enter
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concepts concrete . Fringe is that rare blend of inventive ideas , wild ambition , and unexpected soulfulness . " The Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer believed that by the end of the season " Fringe had truly found its footing , doing daring , experimental episodes like the musical " Brown Betty " ... and heartbreaking stand alone episodes , like " White Tulip " , ( which might be my favorite hour of television this year that wasn 't Lost @-@ related ) . "
In particular , critics highlighted the season premiere " A New Day in the Old Town " as well as regular episodes " Peter " and " White Tulip " , and the season finale " Over There " . The main three cast members ' performances were praised , and various critics noted the series continued the sense of humor seen in the first season . Fringe 's second season was chosen for a number of 2010 " best of television " lists , including The New York Times , Entertainment Weekly , Digital Spy , the New York Post , The Daily Beast , the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , AOL 's TV Squad , as well as IGN , which named Fringe the best sci @-@ fi series of 2010 , beating fellow nominees Lost , Caprica , and Stargate Universe .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
At the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards , actor Joshua Jackson and actress Anna Torv submitted their work in the second season for consideration in the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series and Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series categories , respectively . Actors John Noble , Lance Reddick , Kirk Acevedo , and actress Blair Brown submitted their work for consideration in the Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series and Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series categories , respectively . The second season of Fringe was submitted for consideration in the Outstanding Drama Series category but failed to garner a nomination . The failure of the series to garner any major category nominations at the Emmys was perceived as a notable snub by many media outlets .
The second season received nominations for Sound Editing at the Creative Arts Emmy Awards and at the Golden Reel Awards . The season 's sole musical episode , " Brown Betty " , received a nomination for Short Form Musical In Television at the Golden Reel Awards . Noble , Torv , and guest actor Leonard Nimoy were nominated at the 2010 Saturn Awards , with Torv and Nimoy winning in their respective categories . Noble also received a nomination at the 2010 Satellite Awards , but lost to Dexter 's John Lithgow .
= = Home video releases = =
The second season of Fringe was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in region 1 on September 14 , 2010 , in region 2 on September 27 , 2010 and in region 4 on November 10 , 2010 . The sets includes all 22 episodes ( plus an unaired episode ) of season two on a 6 @-@ disc DVD set and a 4 @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set presented in anamorphic widescreen . Special features on the sets include four commentary tracks — " Momentum Deferred " with Jill Risk , Matthew Pitts , Danielle Dispaltro , Justin Doble and Charles Scott IV ; " Peter " with John Noble , Blair Brown and Damian Holbrook ; " Brown Betty " with Tanya Swerling , Billy Gottlieb , Chris Tilton and Jay Worth ; and " Over There , Part 2 " with Jeff Pinkner , J. H. Wyman and Akiva Goldsman . Episodic behind @-@ the @-@ scene featurettes include " Analyzing the Scene " on six episodes , " Dissected Files : Unaired Scenes " on select episodes and " Unusual Side Effects : Gag Reel " . Other featurettes include " In the Lab with John Noble and Prop Master Rob Smith " and " Beyond the Pattern : The Mythology of Fringe " . The unaired episode from season one , " Unearthed " , is presented as a special feature , separate from the other episodes .
= Oyasato @-@ yakata =
The oyasato @-@ yakata ( おやさとやかた ) complex is a collection of buildings in Tenri City , Nara , Japan , that form an incomplete square 872 metres ( 2 @,@ 861 ft ) on each side surrounding the Divine Residence ( Oyasato ) , a structure sacred to the Japanese new religion Tenrikyo . The task of revitalizing the area around the Residence was informed by both religious prophecy and city planning , and construction began in 1954 on a project that continues today . The oyasato @-@ yakata is a massive organizational undertaking that is understood by Tenrikyo adherents as a spiritual practice , creating a model city that reflects their belief in a Joyous Life . As such a practice it has involved the entire Tenrikyo community , from the volunteers who assist in construction to professors who plan the scope of future wings . Archaeologists have also excavated ancient artifacts beneath its foundations .
The complex includes Tenri University , Tenri Hospital , Tenri Seminary , the Besseki Lecture Hall , the Shuyoka , dormitories , and Tenri High School . Currently 25 wings of the complex are complete . The complete structure calls for 68 wings .
= = Origins = =
At the beginning of the 20th century , the teachings of Tenrikyo 's foundress Oyasama became popular throughout Japan . In the following decades , the most devoted followers coalesced around Oyasama 's residence in rural Nara , which she had perceived as the birthplace of the world , or Jiba . The six villages surrounding the Jiba slowly became filled with Tenrikyo ministers , mystics , and evangelists , and the area was urbanized . A popular international school ( now Tenri University ) and Tenri Central Library , built by followers , were also attracting a variety of people to the area . It was around this time that Tenrikyo 's Second Shinbashira ( community leader ) Shōzen Nakayama conceived of creating a grand construction project as a testament to the loyalty of Oyasama 's followers .
In 1934 , Nakayama commissioned the famed architect Yoshikazu Uchida to draw up a blueprint for the area . Uchida arranged ten buildings around Oyasama 's Residence . A 50 @-@ meter boulevard would come out of the Residence on a north @-@ south axis , along which six school buildings would be lined up . Classrooms and large auditoriums would be built at the end of this boulevard . The international school and library were to be eventually integrated into this plan . In January 1937 , a middle school ( now Tenri High School ) was built according to Uchida 's plan , but as Japan mobilized for the Pacific War the plan had to be temporarily shelved .
In 1952 , after the war and Occupation , Tenrikyo Chief of Architecture Onzō Okumura ( 奥村音造 ) was asked by Nakayama to design a large Besseki Lecture Hall to accommodate 10 @,@ 000 people on the site of an old girls ' school . However , considering the location of the school , several hundred meters to the west of the Residence . Okumura thought back to an old prophecy of Oyasama , as recorded in Tenrikyo 's Anecdotes :
One day Oyasama was gazing out of the south window of Her room in the Nakaminami @-@ Gatehouse and looking at the vast expanse of bamboo thickets and rice fields . Suddenly She said to the attendants : " Someday this neighborhood will be filled with houses . Houses will line the street for seven ri between Nara and Hase . One ri square will be filled with inns . The divine Residence will become eight cho [ 872 meters ] square . "
Since Tenrikyo was at the time a tiny cult centered on a house in a farming village , the growth of Tenri into a city full of inns paralleling this prophecy was seen as miraculous . In the Osashizu these prophecies are repeated , with the admonition that " it will not do to think of small things . " The original idea was that the planned school buildings and classrooms would be the first part of an enormous central hub that would eventually fill eight cho square . But Okumura began to consider the relationships between the planned buildings and the Residence . If other buildings were placed directly next to the Residence , he reasoned , they would put the Residence in shadow during the sunrise , and metaphorically crowd out the importance of the Jiba itself . Thus , with Nakayama 's permission , he developed a new overarching plan for the school , library , and other Tenrikyo buildings surrounding the Residence . His new plan , which arranged the buildings in a great square with open space on the inside , was dubbed the oyasato @-@ yakata , roughly meaning the " grounds of Oyasama 's Residence " .
In 1954 the Japanese government merged the six villages surrounding the Residence into a single city , which was dubbed Tenri City . In the same year , the Tenrikyo central church announced the construction of the first wing of the yakata . The continuing development of the oyasato @-@ yakata is currently overseen by a committee with a small office in Tenri Seminary .
= = Construction = =
The yakata was designed along the lines of Edo period tenement housing ( 長屋 ) , but modernized with reinforced walls , multiple stories , and balconies for emergency access . The result is a fusion between Western and Japanese architecture . Gaps were purposefully left in the ground floors for pedestrians , making the yakata a walkable space . The balconies and rooftops were also designed to please the eye at the ground level . At the same time , the roofs are visible from Oyasama 's gravesite north of the city .
As construction began , Tenrikyo followers founded the Oyasato Construction Young Men 's Association Hinokishin Corps , which volunteered time and labor to help build the yakata . The corps still continues their work today . By 1956 , one corner of the complex had been built at the cost of 23 billion yen , an enormous expense given the economic depression of the time .
When part of the foundations for the complex were dug in 1977 , an archaeological investigation uncovered prehistoric artifacts , as is typical during construction in Tenri . Although it was a sparsely inhabited village in Oyasama 's time , Tenri City lies on top of a confirmed cultural center of prehistoric Japan .
= = = Timeline of construction = = =
= = Influence on the city = =
Information theorist Nomura Masaichi , noting Tenrikyo 's description of the oyasato @-@ yakata as a realization of the prophecy of Oyasama and the Tenrikyo saying that " in the construction of form lies the construction of hearts " , refers to the ongoing construction as a " medium that combats decontextualization " , claiming that it gives renewed relevance to the teachings and introduces a physical context by giving them an active role in shaping the city , and that in time , the thoughts of Tenrikyo believers will come to embody the grand scale of the architecture .
One Tenrikyo elder has written the following on the subject :
" This vision of the Home of the Parent is not one of a world of concepts and beliefs apart from the actual world . It is a place where living beings can lead their lives , and place where they will have everything that is required for their lives . Yet it is not an ordinary place for living . Centered on the Jiba , it is a place to which the children return out of their longing for their Parent . Here , embraced by the love of God the Parent , they seek and cultivate the mind that is single @-@ hearted with God . Here , they savor the joy of Parent and children living together in peace and harmony . "
Taro Igarashi notes first and foremost its massive accomplishment in city planning . The ground @-@ level architecture can be compared somewhat to Karl Marx @-@ Hof , a massive tenement complex in Vienna , and the pilotis evoke Charles Fourier 's phalanstère , an architectural form specifically designed to evoke and construct an egalitarian utopia . However , the use of Japanese roofs in a modern city is quite rare , and the sheer size of the yakata makes it perhaps a unique megastructure anywhere in the world . Commenting on Taro 's article , the theologian Akio Inoue adds that the final interpretation , for the Tenrikyo believers who funded and built the structure , cannot be to inspire individual faith alone , but to " bridge the Joyous Life of the individual which determines the inner substance of faith and the world of the Joyous Life as an organized community " .
= R v Thomas =
R v Thomas was an Australian court case decided in the Victorian Court of Appeal on 18 August 2006 . It concerned the conviction in February 2006 of Joseph Thomas ( nicknamed " Jihad Jack " in the media ) on terrorism @-@ related charges , specifically receiving funds from Al Qaeda . The appeal revolved around the admissibility of a confession Thomas made during an interrogation in Pakistan in 2003 . The court found that the evidence , which was crucial to Thomas ' convictions , was inadmissible because it had not been given voluntarily . The court accordingly quashed his convictions , but after further hearings ordered on 20 December 2006 that he be retried rather than acquitted .
= = Background to the case = =
Joseph Thomas is an Australian citizen . On 23 March 2001 he left Australia and travelled by air to Pakistan , crossing into Afghanistan by land . For the next three months , he was alleged to have trained at the Al Farouq training camp near the city of Kandahar , before travelling to Kabul in July 2001 . Over the next eighteen months or so , Thomas stayed in various Al Qaeda safe houses , and is alleged to have made contact with several Al Qaeda officials .
On 4 January 2003 , Thomas was apprehended by Pakistani immigration officials at an airport in the city of Karachi , and taken into custody . Thomas had with him items including an Australian @-@ issue passport , an airline ticket for travel to Indonesia , and about $ 3 @,@ 800 in cash . The passport , issued on 19 May 1993 , had been tampered with , for the intention of concealing the details of Thomas ' movements after his departure from Australia in 2001 . He was blindfolded , and driven to an unknown location , where he was questioned for about two hours by two Pakistani men and two Americans .
He was questioned several times over the next few days , before being taken to another location , which Thomas described as " some sort of mansion house " , where he was kept in a small cell for the next two weeks and questioned on a number of occasions . Initially he maintained a fabricated story , that he was a student who had been travelling in Pakistan , but he later revealed the truth , that he had been in contact with Al Qaeda in Afghanistan . He said that he was motivated to change his story by several incidents , including one in which one of the Pakistani interrogators pulled on the collar of his hood , so as to strangle him , and incidents in which interrogators said that he would be electrocuted and executed . According to Thomas , he was then told that his cooperation was welcome and that he would be returned home .
After the two weeks , Thomas was blindfolded and shackled , and flown to Islamabad , where he remained in custody . There he was visited by an Australian consular representative , who later gave evidence that Thomas did not appear to have been maltreated , or denied food or water . However , the representative did testify that while Thomas was on the phone to his parents in Australia , he told them " I 'm not going to Cuba " ( referring to the Guantanamo Bay detainment camp ) , to which a Pakistani official replied , " No , that 's not correct . "
Between 25 January and 29 January , Thomas was interviewed four times by members of the Australian Federal Police ( AFP ) and by members of the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation ( ASIO ) , accompanied by Pakistani officials . During one of these interviews , a Pakistani official said to Thomas " we told you that you have to prove it ... that you are not a terrorist ... you have to prove it that you are an innocent man and why you are sitting here . " Thomas was then transferred again , this time to the city of Lahore , where he was kept for another three weeks , and interrogated by Pakistani officials and an American official referred to as " Joe " . This man suggested that Thomas return to Afghanistan with a recording device , to obtain information on Al Qaeda figures , a suggestion Thomas rejected because he feared he would be killed . Joe also threatened Thomas that he would be sent to Afghanistan where he would be tortured by having his testicles twisted , and implied that agents would be sent to Australia to rape Thomas ' wife . Thomas was then returned to Islamabad .
On 8 March , Thomas was interviewed again by two members of the AFP , who had made special arrangements with the Pakistani Directorate for Inter @-@ Services Intelligence ( ISI ) to have the interview conducted pursuant to Australian law , particularly the requirements of the federal Evidence Act 1995 and Crimes Act 1914 , so that admissible evidence could be gathered . ISI allowed the interview , but with a very limited timeframe , and did not allow Thomas to have access to legal advice . During this interview , Thomas made several self @-@ incriminatory statements , which were key to his later convictions and the admissibility of which was the central issue in the appeal . In the statements , Thomas admitted that he had tampered with his passport to conceal the amount of time he had been in Pakistan , and also admitted that the money and airline ticket had been given to him by Tawfiq bin Attash , a high ranking Al Qaeda lieutenant involved with the 1998 United States embassy bombings and the USS Cole bombing . On 10 March , the AFP wrote again to the ISI , reiterating the requirements of the Australian legislation , and saying that " the admissibility of [ the record of interview ] in Australian Courts has been seriously compromised . "
On 6 June 2003 , Thomas was released from Pakistani custody , at which point he was deported to Australia . He spent nearly a year and a half subsequently living with his family in the Melbourne suburb of Werribee , Victoria , before he was arrested by the AFP on 18 November 2004 and charged with several federal offences , including one count of possessing a false passport ( an offence under the Passports Act 1938 ) , and one count of receiving funds from a terrorist organisation and two counts of providing resources to a terrorist organisation ( offences under the Criminal Code Act 1995 ) .
= = = Trial = = =
Thomas was tried in the Supreme Court of Victoria . On 26 February , was found guilty of the passport charge and the receiving funds charge ( although he was acquitted of the providing funds charges ) . He was later sentenced on 31 March , to a total of five years ' imprisonment with a two @-@ year non @-@ parole period .
With respect to the admissibility of the record of the 8 March interview , the trial judge ( Justice Cummins ) had instructed the jury that :
" Normally , failure to avail an interviewee of [ the right to legal access ] would be fatal to the admission of a subsequent interview ... However , the requirement is not absolute , nor can it be ... it is not hollow to say that the suspect had the right to choose whether to proceed without that legal access . He had the right to choose not to answer , and wait for the legal bus which might never arrive , or to answer , in the legitimate aim of ultimate return to Australia . To say such a choice is no choice at all is revisionism . "
In his assessment , the judge said that the AFP interviewers had conducted the interview " fairly and properly " , and had not attempted to use Thomas ' lack of legal representation to their favour .
The trial judge also concluded that Thomas had been properly informed of his right to silence , and had not been induced by the AFP officers to participate in the interview by offer of repatriation or any other reward . Ultimately he decided that Thomas had participated voluntarily in the interview , and that in the circumstances , Thomas ' lack of legal advice should not make the record of the interview inadmissible .
= = Arguments = =
Lex Lasry QC , on behalf of Thomas , argued that the trial judge had made several errors of law :
the trial judge should have found that the 8 March interview was not voluntary and hence inadmissible , and
even if it had been voluntary , the trial judge should have excluded it anyway on grounds of fairness or public policy .
Several other matters were also raised , relating to particular parts of the evidence ( specifically , relating to the witness testimony of Yahya Goba , one of the Buffalo Six ) , but these matters had little bearing on the final outcome of the case , and were dealt with only briefly by the court . The central argument raised was that , with regard to all the circumstances , Thomas did not actually have a practical choice whether to speak or not .
The other main argument was an alternative argument , that if the court decided that the admissions were in fact voluntary , they should not have been admitted anyway on the basis that to do so would be unfair , because of factors including Thomas ' lack of access to legal advice even where he had a right to obtain it , his vulnerability in the circumstances , and " the contamination of the record of interview by the previous joint team interrogations , and their potential or actual use as levers to remind the applicant of his earlier answers . "
Two other parties sought to be involved in the case as amici curiae , Amnesty International ( represented by former Federal Court Justice Ron Merkel ) , and the Victorian human rights advocacy group the Human Rights Law Resource Centre . However both their applications were rejected , because they could not assist the court in a way in which they could not otherwise be assisted , and their submissions were largely subsumed into submissions made by Lasry in any event .
= = Judgment = =
In a unanimous decision , the three judges decided that the appeal should be allowed ( more specifically , that leave to appeal should be granted and the appeal heard and allowed instanter – at once ) , on the basis that the 8 March 2003 interview was not voluntary and so was inadmissible , and by admitting it the trial judge had made an error of law resulting in a miscarriage of justice .
= = = Voluntariness of the interview = = =
The court quoted from a 1948 judgment of future Chief Justice of Australia Owen Dixon , followed unanimously by the High Court of Australia in later decisions , in which he said that :
" At common law a confessional statement made out of court by an accused person may not be admitted in evidence against him upon his trial for the crime to which it relates unless it is shown to have been voluntarily made . This means substantially that it has been made in the exercise of his free choice . If he speaks because he is overborne , his confessional statement cannot be received in evidence and it does not matter by what means he has been overborne . If his statement is the result of duress , intimidation , persistent importunity , or sustained or undue insistence or pressure , it cannot be voluntary . But it is also a definite rule of the common law that a confessional statement cannot be voluntary if it is preceded by an inducement held out by a person in authority and the inducement has not been removed before the statement is made ... "
The court also noted a recent decision of its own , in which it had emphasised that the principles of evidence strike a balance between the rights of the individual and the rights of the state , and that :
" On the one hand , there is an obvious need to bring to account those who have committed serious offences if the objectives of the criminal justice system are to be achieved and societal values vindicated , but , on the other , it cannot be forgotten that those values incorporate the rights of the individual and , in part define the nature of the relationship between the citizen and the community in which he or she resides . "
The court considered that Thomas had been regularly informed by all those who had interrogated him that the degree to which he cooperated would determine what happened to him , and that given their position as authority figures , Thomas would have readily perceived that they had the ability to change his situation ; indeed , none of the interviewers had done anything to dispel the idea that they would be able to help Thomas . The court also pointed out that even if actions such as showing Thomas photographs of his family and letters from them could not be said to be deliberately improper , as the trial judge seemed to indicate would be necessary to characterise them as inducements , there was no way that they could be interpreted by someone in Thomas ' position , other than as indications that if he cooperated he would be reunited with his family . Particularly , after Thomas expressed happiness at seeing the photographs , one of the interviewers took them away , saying " [ we ] might give you another look at that later " , comments which were " calculated , if not intended , to remind the applicant that he was dependent on his captors and interviewers for favours . "
The court rejected the opinion of the trial judge that Thomas viewed the 8 March interview differently to the other interviews , which were concerned only with intelligence gathering . Rather , they emphasised how similar the interviews all were : " same place , same AFP personnel , same topics . " They considered that the inducements offered in the previous interviews , and indeed the threats and intimidation in previous interviews by the American " Joe " and others , all " remained operative , their power undiminished " in 8 March interview .
Lastly , the court rejected the argument that the admissions were voluntary because Thomas knew he had a right to silence , because he did not have any practical opportunity to exercise the right . The court concluded that the trial judge had made an error by separating the interview from the circumstances , and that in the circumstances Thomas had no real choice whether to answer questions : " Even the threat ' Confess or be tortured ' can be said to involve a choice , and a chance that torture may not be applied . But it could never be regarded as a free choice in the relevant sense . "
Ultimately , the court found that the admissions were not given voluntarily , and so were not admissible .
= = = Discretion to exclude evidence = = =
Although it was unnecessary to decide the alternative argument , the court addressed it briefly anyway . After considering previous cases on the issue , the court considered whether the Australian investigators acted fairly . They concluded that " only one course [ was ] properly open to the investigating officials in the light of the position taken by the Pakistani authorities . It was to acknowledge that no formal record of interview could be conducted so long as the applicant was in Pakistan since , as the investigating officials appreciated , any such interview would be unlawful , that is , would be contrary to Australian law . "
The court also referred to a judgment of Justice McHugh of the High Court , in which he said that although there is some discretion as to whether evidence obtained where an interviewee does not have access to legal advice should be admitted or not , judges are not free to make the decision " by reference to general notions of fairness . "
The court concluded that the trial judge had erred in not exercising his discretion to bar the evidence from being admitted , although it was not necessary to decide the point .
= = Consequences = =
Thomas ' original convictions were quashed , however before the final orders were made the Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions sought to make a submission as to whether there should be a directed acquittal or whether there should be a retrial . The court heard brief arguments , then set aside the issue for a further hearing , to be held after the parties had made written submissions . The prosecution sought to introduce as evidence statements Thomas made in an interview with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation for the Four Corners television program in February 2006 .
The parties made submissions , and there was an oral hearing on 1 December 2006 . All parties accepted that the relevant test to be applied was the test set out in the High Court case of DPP ( Nauru ) v Fowler , which sets out two preconditions for a retrial ; the first requiring that the admissible evidence presented at trial be " sufficiently cogent " to support a conviction , the second requiring consideration of circumstances that would make it unjust to put the accused through a retrial . However this case had an unusual feature , namely that the evidence that the prosecution would seek to use at a retrial had not been available at the original trial , through no fault of the prosecution , since although the interviews had been taken at that time they had not been published . Ultimately all parties agreed that all evidence , not just evidence submitted in the original trial , should be considered when applying the first part of the Fowler test .
The court decided that it would be reasonably possible for a jury to convict Thomas based on the available evidence , so it then considered whether there were factors which would make a retrial unjust . Thomas ' lawyer Lex Lasry argued that the delay in Thomas ' prosecution ( he was not arrested until seventeen months after he returned to Australia ) and the extensive media coverage of the case meant it was unlikely Thomas would get a fair trial , and that a retrial would be an undue hardship on Thomas given that he has spent long periods in custody , mostly in solitary confinement , without conviction , which has led to him being diagnosed with depression and post @-@ traumatic stress disorder . The court was of the opinion that a fair trial was not impossible in these circumstances , and although the other factors were considered , the court ultimately decided that the circumstances did not preclude a retrial .
As such , the court ordered on 20 December 2006 that Thomas be retried . Thomas was then released on bail , with requirements to report three times a week and not to leave Australia . Thomas and his family were in court to hear the verdict , his mother crying and Thomas looking " more like a startled rabbit [ than a terrorist ] . " Thomas ' retrial is , as of November 2007 , scheduled for 2008 .
= = = Commentary = = =
The decision was praised by civil libertarians . Former President of the Victorial Council of Civil Liberties , Robert Richter QC , said that the decision was important " because the pressure is to say , ' Well , do anything ' if the case is said to be a terrorist case . That is unacceptable , the Court of Appeal has said it 's unacceptable . " University of Melbourne evidence law professor Andrew Palmer said that " I think that it was a little bit naive to think that they could interview somebody and gather admissible evidence ... when that person was being held in conditions which were possibly oppressive ... I don 't really know what they were thinking . "
The decision has also attracted criticism . Conservative columnist Piers Akerman said that the decision " has handed al @-@ Qaeda , Jemaah Islamiyah and all other terrorist organisations a major victory and confirmed the adage the law is an ass . " Akerman emphasised that information about Thomas ( including the Four Corners interview ) was already available in the public domain for the populace to make its own judgment , despite " judicial commands to juries to ignore material [ which ] may have some minor relevance in their petty fiefdoms . "
Conservative Melbourne lawyer Peter Faris QC called for an appeal to the High Court or changes to the laws of evidence legislation , saying that " this case is bad law " , alternatively suggesting that Thomas be handed over to Pakistan , since he stated that the evidence from the interview would in his opinion be admissible in a Pakistani court . Faris also argued that there was an issue of apparent bias arising with respect to the presiding judge in the appeal , Maxwell P , which could afford grounds for invalidating the appeal . It should be noted , however , that Pakistani law of evidence does not permit a confession made to a police officer to be admitted into evidence . Faris argued that the apparent bias arose because of Maxwell 's activities before his appointment to the Supreme Court of Victoria , including his membership of organisations including Amnesty International , his past presidency of Liberty Victoria , his past involvement with human rights law and advocacy against counter @-@ terrorism laws . Faris drew a comparison with the House of Lords case which considered the extradition of Augusto Pinochet , which was overturned on appeal because of Lord Hoffman 's failure to disclose his links to Amnesty International .
Because of the ongoing proceedings relating to whether Thomas should be acquitted or retried , neither the Government of Australia nor the Opposition commented immediately after the case , although Treasurer Peter Costello later said that anti @-@ terrorism legislation did not need to be strengthened in the wake of the case , and Opposition foreign affairs spokesperson Kevin Rudd said that " What is plain from the events of yesterday is that the Government has bungled – and bungled badly – the prosecution of this case . "
Gerard Henderson said that the case " highlights an emerging division within democracies " between civil liberties advocates on the one hand and " a democracy defence lobby , which maintains that radical Islamism poses a real and present danger to Western nations " on the other .
= Asplenium bradleyi =
Asplenium bradleyi , commonly known as Bradley 's spleenwort or cliff spleenwort , is a rare epipetric fern of east @-@ central North America . Named after Professor Frank Howe Bradley , who first collected it in Tennessee , it may be found infrequently throughout much of the Appalachian Mountains , the Ozarks , and the Ouachita Mountains , growing in small crevices on exposed sandstone cliffs . The species originated as a hybrid between mountain spleenwort ( Asplenium montanum ) and ebony spleenwort ( Asplenium platyneuron ) ; A. bradleyi originated when that sterile diploid hybrid underwent chromosome doubling to become a fertile tetraploid , a phenomenon known as allopolyploidy . Studies indicate that the present population of Bradley 's spleenwort arose from several independent doublings of sterile diploid hybrids . A. bradleyi can also form sterile hybrids with several other spleenworts .
While A. bradleyi is easily outcompeted by other plants in more fertile habitats , it is well adapted to the thin , acidic soil and harsh environment of its native cliffs , where it finds few competitors . Its isolated situation on these cliffs protects it from most threats , but quarrying and mining of the cliffs , rock climbing , and other activities that disturb the cliff ecosystem can destroy it .
= = Description = =
Asplenium bradleyi is a small fern with dark green , pinnate @-@ pinnatifid to bipinnate fronds . These form evergreen , perennial tufts . Notable characteristics are the dark stem , whose color extends well up the axis of the leaf blade , a deeply cut acroscopic lobe or pinnule at the base of each pinna , and toothed pinna edges . However , some of these characteristics are variable , and may not be observed in all individuals of A. bradleyi . Some specimens have rounded , rather than toothed edges and others lack dark coloration throughout most of the stem . The fronds are monomorphic , the sterile and fertile fronds appearing the same size and shape .
Its rhizomes ( underground stems ) are short and parallel to the ground , or sometimes curving upwards , so the fronds spring up in a cluster . The rhizome is about 1 millimeter ( 0 @.@ 04 in ) in diameter , covered with narrowly triangular scales that are dark reddish to brown and strongly clathrate ( bearing a lattice @-@ like pattern ) . The scales are 3 to 5 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 2 in ) long and 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 4 millimeters wide , with untoothed or shallowly toothed edges . The stipe ( the part of the stem below the leaf blade ) is upright , 1 to 10 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 4 to 4 in ) long , occasionally as much as 13 centimeters ( 5 in ) . It lacks wings , and is reddish- to purplish @-@ brown and shiny . It is one @-@ third to three @-@ quarter times the length of the blade . Small brown scales at the base of the stipe diminish to hairs as one moves towards the tip of the leaf .
The overall shape of the blade ranges from oblong ( tapering at the ends but about the same width throughout ) to lanceolate ( slightly wider a short distance above the base , tapering to a point at the apex ) . It is squared off at the base and tapers at the tip . The blade ranges from 2 to 17 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 8 to 7 in ) long , rarely to 20 centimeters ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) , and 1 to 6 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 4 to 2 in ) in width , and may be thin or somewhat thick . The blade is cut into 5 to 15 pairs of pinnae ( possibly as low as 3 or as high as 20 in unusual specimens ) , which are themselves deeply lobed or further subdivided into pinnules . The lower pinnae are stalked , while the upper pinnae are not . They are variable in shape , tending to have a squared @-@ off or very broadly curved base , and are typically widest at or near the base . The acroscopic lobe or pinnule nearest the rachis ( located on the apical side of each pinna ) tends to be enlarged , and the pinnae are toothed . They vary from 6 to 40 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 2 to 2 in ) in length and 3 to 10 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) at the middle of the frond .
Each pinna on a fertile frond has three or more pairs of sori . These are 1 to 2 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 04 to 0 @.@ 08 in ) long , and rusty or dark brown in color . They are located between the margin and the midvein of the pinnae . The sori are covered by opaque indusia with untoothed edges . The indusia from white to light tan in color and have a membraneous texture . Each sporangium holds 64 spores . The species has a chromosome number of 144 in the sporophyte , indicating an allotetraploid origin . It sporulates from June to December .
Variants of A. bradleyi have been reported . Specimens found growing in a very shaded environment , which lacked color in the rachis and were simply pinnate , have been mistaken for green spleenwort ( A. viride ) . But even under such conditions , A. bradleyi has a more leathery leaf texture than A. viride , and their ranges do not overlap . In 1923 , Edgar T. Wherry described what he believed to be a new species of fern , Stotler 's spleenwort ( A. stotleri ) ( after T.C. Stotler , its discoverer ) . Wherry believed it to be the hybrid of lobed spleenwort ( A. pinnatifidum ) and A. platyneuron . However , it was later shown to be simply a form of A. bradleyi with rounded , rather than sharp , teeth . A dwarfed form of A. bradleyi , with fronds about 1 centimeter ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) long , was discovered in Illinois by Wallace R. Weber and Robert H. Mohlenbrock . This form lacked dark color in the stipe and rachis except for the very base ; some slightly larger specimens , with a 2 @-@ centimeter ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) frond , retained the normal coloration of these structures .
Among fertile species , A. bradleyi most closely resembles its parent species A. montanum . Several characteristics exit to distinguish them : the pinnae of A. bradleyi are toothed and less deeply lobed or cut than A. montanum ( where the pinnae are often fully cut to pinnules ) , the dark color of the stipe extends into the rachis , the upper pinnae lack stems , and the overall shape of the leaf blade is parallel @-@ sided , rather than lance @-@ shaped . A. bradleyi also shows some resemblance to black spleenwort ( A. adiantum @-@ nigrum ) ( although their ranges do not overlap ) . The latter may be identified by its distinctly triangular @-@ shaped leaf blade , more deeply cut leaves ( the pinnules of its basal pinnae are lobed ) , and enlarged basiscopic , rather than acroscopic , pinnules .
Comparison of the fronds of ' ' Asplenium bradleyi ' ' and its two parent species
Asplenium bradleyi is similar to two hybrid species of which it is a parent , Graves ' spleenwort ( A. × gravesii ) , a hybrid with A. pinnatifidum , and Wherry 's spleenwort ( A. × wherryi ) , a backcross with A. montanum . In A. × gravesii , the dark color of the stipe ends at the base of the leaf blade , the pinnae are more shallowly lobed and the enlargement of acroscopic lobes or pinnules is less distinct , and the apical portion of the blade forms a long , tapering tip with slight lobes ( as in A. pinnatifidum ) , rather than being cut into pinnae . In addition to the general reduction of the toothiness of A. bradleyi , A. × gravesii also shows faint winging along the stipe . Likewise , in A. × wherryi , the dark color of the stipe again ends at the base of the leaf blade , the overall shape of the blade tends to be more distinctly lance @-@ shaped , and the fronds are somewhat more deeply cut than A. bradleyi , progressing from bipinnate in the lower half to pinnate @-@ pinnatifid and finally pinnate at the apex . Finally , the diploid hybrid A. montanum × platyneuron , from which A. bradleyi arose by chromosome doubling , is essentially identical in appearance to A. bradleyi . On close examination , its spores are found to be abortive , and the sori are smaller and not do not become fused with each other as they grow , as they do in fertile A. bradleyi .
= = Taxonomy = =
The scientific discovery of A. bradleyi occurred in 1871 , when Frank Howe Bradley collected a number of specimens near Coal Creek , on Walden 's Ridge in East Tennessee . Bradley sent some of them to Daniel Cady Eaton , who recognized it as a species distinct from A. montanum and named it for Bradley in an 1873 publication .
While both Asa Gray and Eaton identified A. bradleyi as a hybrid intermediate between A. montanum and A. platyneuron , the English botanist R. Morton Middleton proposed in 1892 that it was identical or closely related to A. viride . This conclusion was based on the examination of forms growing in shade on the Cumberland Plateau which lacked color in the rachis , and was endorsed by contemporary Tennessee botanists such as Augustin Gattinger and Kirby Smith . This was rebutted in 1893 by Amos A. Heller , who pointed out that most collections of A. bradleyi had a dark stipe and that it possessed an auricle ( the acroscopic pinnule ) which A. viride lacked . Instead , Heller perceived in some of his specimens from the lower Susquehanna River affinities to A. montanum and A. pinnatifidum . Middleton , nevertheless , continued to maintain his theory of an affinity with A. viride , and speculated that A. bradleyi was not a hybrid , but an " intermediate " between A. viride and lanceolate spleenwort ( A. obovatum ssp. lanceolatum ) .
Edgar T. Wherry speculated at length on the hybrid origins of A. bradleyi and other Appalachian spleenworts in 1925 , but the scheme he proposed was later found to be untenable , although he did recognize the contribution of A. platyneuron to its ancestry . Herb Wagner , in 1953 , suggested instead that it was the hybrid of A. montanum and A. platyneuron , noting that Eaton and W. N. Clute had already made tentative suggestions along those lines . His cytological studies the following year showed that A. bradleyi was an allotetraploid , the product of hybridization between A. montanum and A. platyneuron to form a sterile diploid , followed by chromosome doubling that restored fertility .
These findings were later supported by chromatographic analysis of flavonoid compounds . Chromatograms of A. bradleyi showed a combination of all the compounds found in A. montanum and all those in A. platyneuron . A. × wherryi showed the same pattern , as it also contains chromosomes from both of those species . A specimen of A. stotleri was subsequently shown to form the same chromatograms as well . This showed that it was not descended to A. pinnatifidum , whose chromatograms contain compounds inherited from walking fern ( A. rhizophyllum ) , and verified that A. stotleri was simply a form of A. bradleyi . Allozyme analysis in the 1980s also supported these hybrid origins of A. bradleyi .
The species was segregated from Asplenium as Chamaefilix bradleyi by Farwell in 1931 . The change was not widely accepted and current authorities do not recognize this segregate genus .
= = = Progenitor and hybrids = = =
The sterile diploid hybrid of A. montanum and A. platyneuron , which resembles A. bradleyi except for its abortive spores and smaller sori , was not collected until 1972 , at Crowder 's Mountain , Georgia . Even though the diploid hybrid is rarely collected , allozyme studies show that A. bradleyi has multiple origins ; that is , different populations of A. bradleyi have originated from the chromosome doubling of independently formed diploids . Despite their independent origins , these populations are probably interfertile and not reproductively isolated from one another .
In addition to its parental species , A. bradleyi hybridizes with several other spleenworts . Its hybrid with A. pinnatifidum was recognized as such by William R. Maxon in 1918 . He named it A. gravesii for its discoverer , Edward W. Graves . It can also backcross with its parental species . Wherry collected specimens of A. bradleyi × montanum from a cliff near Blairstown , New Jersey in 1935 . It is not thought to have been collected again until 1961 , when it was described and named in Wherry 's honor . Specimens believed to be A. bradleyi × platyneuron were collected at an early date at McCall 's Ferry , along the Susquehanna River . The site of collection was submerged by the building of the Holtwood Dam . A preliminary report of both diploid A. bradleyi and A. bradleyi × platyneuron from Sequatchie County , Tennessee was made in 1989 .
= = Distribution = =
One of the " Appalachian spleenworts " , A. bradleyi can be found along the Appalachian Mountains from northern New Jersey and Pennsylvania southwest to Georgia and Alabama , and occasionally along the Ohio Valley to the Ozarks and Ouachitas , where it is found in Missouri , Arkansas , and eastern Oklahoma . Populations in Maryland and New York are considered historical . Populations are generally scattered in the Appalachians , but more frequent in the Ozarks and Ouachitas .
= = Ecology and conservation = =
Asplenium bradleyi can be found on steep , acidic rocks from altitudes of 0 to 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 0 to 3 @,@ 281 ft ) . Sandstone is a common substrate , but it can also be found on schist , gneiss , granite , or other acidic rocks . Like A. montanum , the soil formed when these rocks weather must be subacid ( pH 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 0 ) to mediacid ( pH 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 0 ) to support A. bradleyi ; it is slightly calcium @-@ tolerant . It usually grows tightly wedged into horizontal or vertical crevices in exposed rock or cliff faces . These microsites are too small for most other vascular plants to survive , except for a few other spleenworts . Some mosses and lichens may occur in the same habitat . The soil there is typically composed of a mixture of acidic sand weathered from the rock and decomposing organic materials , often including old fronds . Fronds are frequently lost and decompose in summer when the soil is drier , but the crevices are usually moist or wet in winter and spring . Some shade may be present , but dense shade is not tolerated . A. bradleyi specializes in growing in this rather hostile environment , and competes poorly with other plants in even slightly richer environments .
The inaccessibility of its habitat affords some protection for A. bradleyi . Quarrying and strip mining may threaten the sandstone cliffs , especially on the Cumberland Plateau . Rock climbers and botanical collectors have also damaged populations of the fern . Toxic runoff from atop cliffs can affect them , and they may also be threatened by both natural and anthropogenic shading of cliffs due to increased tree growth at the cliff base , invasive vines overrunning the cliff face , or the piling of slash against the cliff after logging .
Asplenium bradleyi is protected as an endangered species in the states of Illinois , Indiana , New Jersey , and Pennsylvania , and is considered threatened in Ohio . Acadia Cliffs State Nature Preserve in Ohio , acquired in 1994 , contains the state 's only protected population of A. bradleyi .
= Washington State Route 401 =
State Route 401 ( SR 401 ) is a 12 @.@ 13 @-@ mile ( 19 @.@ 52 km ) long state highway in Pacific County within the U.S. state of Washington . The highway originates at the north end of the Astoria – Megler Bridge west of Megler at an intersection with U.S. Route 101 ( US 101 ) . The roadway travels northeast , paralleling cliffs , the Columbia River and the South Fork of the Naselle River to Naselle , ending at SR 4 . The road was designated Secondary State Highway 12B ( SSH 12 ) between 1937 and 1964 , when SR 401 was created to replace SSH 12B . The Astoria – Megler Bridge , completed in 1966 , replaced a ferry east of the bridge , where the highway originally ended , and is known locally as Kingston Ferry Road . The roadway was extended west to the north end of the bridge , where it currently terminates . The former ferry terminal became the Dismal Nitch rest area , named after the Lewis and Clark Expedition 's description of the place .
= = Route description = =
SR 401 originates at an intersection with U.S. Route 101 ( US 101 ) at the north end of the Astoria – Megler Bridge west of Megler and southeast of McGowan . Traveling northeast between cliffs and the Columbia River past the Dismal Nitch Safety rest area to Knappton , the highway turns north along more cliffs and the South Fork of the Naselle River . In Naselle , the South Fork merges with the Naselle River , which the roadway crosses over three times before terminating at SR 4 . The intersection with SR 4 is also the busiest segment of the road with an estimated daily average of 2 @,@ 800 motorists , which has been decreasing from 3 @,@ 100 motorists in 2005 .
= = History = =
Secondary State Highway 12B ( SSH 12B ) was created during the 1937 establishment of the Primary and secondary state highway system as an auxiliary route of Primary State Highway 12 ( PSH 12 ) , co @-@ signed as both U.S. Route 101 ( US 101 ) and US 830 . The highway ran from PSH 12 / US 101 at the Megler ferry landing on the Columbia River to PSH 12 / US 830 in Naselle , with a gap between Megler and Knappton . SSH 12B , including the Megler – Knappton gap , became SR 401 during the 1964 highway renumbering . After the Astoria – Megler Bridge was completed on August 27 , 1966 , SR 401 was extended west to the new bridge and the gap between Megler and Knappton was completed by 1968 . The Dismal Nitch Safety rest area , formerly the Megler Landing Rest Area , was remodeled twice in 2007 to be accessible year @-@ round .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Pacific County .
= Class A Wild Trout Waters =
Class A Wild Trout Waters are the highest biomass class given to streams in Pennsylvania by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission . They are considered to contain the highest @-@ quality naturally reproducing trout populations in Pennsylvania . The first streams received their Class A Wild Trout Waters designations in 1983 . There are now hundreds of such waters , comprising nearly 1 @,@ 500 miles ( 2 @,@ 400 km ) of streams . Class A Wild Trout Waters receive certain legal protections . For instance , they are typically classified by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection as High @-@ Quality Coldwater Fisheries . Most Class A Wild Trout Waters are subject to standard statewide angling regulations by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission .
The official definition of Class A Wild Trout Waters is " streams that support a population of naturally produced trout of sufficient size and abundance to support a long @-@ term and rewarding sport fishery " . These streams are considered to be the best angling streams in Pennsylvania and most of the state 's 67 counties contain at least one . Class A Wild Trout Waters are virtually never stocked , although many were prior to receiving their designation . There are different total biomass criteria for different species and combinations of species , but for brook trout alone , the minimum is 30 kilograms per hectare ( 27 lb / acre ) , and for brown trout alone , the minimum is 40 kilograms per hectare ( 36 lb / acre ) .
= = History = =
The modern stream classification system of the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission , including Class A Wild Trout Waters , was developed with Operation Future , which marked a transition from recreation @-@ based management to resource @-@ based management , in 1983 . Following statewide stream surveys in the late 1970s and early 1980s , the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission created a set of biomass standards for trout streams in the state .
The first streams were designated as Class A Wild Trout Waters in 1983 . At that time , 138 stream sections , totaling nearly 400 miles ( 640 km ) of streams , were found to meet the criteria . As more streams were assessed , the number of Class A Wild Trout Waters grew rapidly . By 2005 , there were 436 Class A Wild Trout Waters , totaling 1 @,@ 265 miles ( 2 @,@ 036 km ) . By the end of 2008 , there were 487 such stream sections , which together included 1 @,@ 436 miles ( 2 @,@ 311 km ) of streams . By 2014 , there were 510 Class A Wild Trout Waters , comprising 1 @,@ 490 @.@ 6 miles ( 2 @,@ 398 @.@ 9 km ) of streams .
In the 2010s , the fact that the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission was considering adding seven urban streams to its list of Class A Wild Trout Waters —
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that Glassvatt decided to go through with it anyway . Among the other sponsors were Shell , who provided the fuel , and Scania , who provided the truck . Altogether , sponsors from eight countries financed the expedition , including Glassvatt 's French mother company , the Saint @-@ Gobain corporation . The French sponsors wanted a French truck to be used , but the Norwegians insisted on a Scandinavian one . The latter position won through , and a Scania @-@ Vabis was selected for the task . The expedition 's leader later admitted that a French truck probably would have been more suitable for driving in the desert . On 22 February 1959 , at 9 : 15 am , the expedition left Mo i Rana .
Responsibility for the expedition was given to Sivert Klevan , an engineer with a good instinct for public relations . The ice was to be procured from the glacier Svartisen , and a glaciologist was brought along to give advice . It soon became clear that the entire three @-@ ton block could not be brought out in one go . Instead , 200 kg blocks were cut out with a chainsaw , carried away on a sled , and flown by helicopter down to the town centre . There they were melted together to make a block of ice weighing 3 @,@ 050 kg . The block was placed in a specially constructed iron container , which was insulated with wood and glass wool . The container was placed on top of a truck that would carry it all the way to the Equator , accompanied by a van carrying equipment and a sedan with a film crew .
= = Through Europe = =
The first stop for the expedition was Oslo . There it was greeted by a great ceremony at Studenterlunden in front of the University . The truck was loaded with 300 kg of medicines , to the value of NOK 50 @,@ 000 . These medicines were to be delivered to the hospital of humanitarian Albert Schweitzer in Lambaréné , near the final destination of Libreville , the capital of Gabon . From Oslo the expedition continued to Helsingborg in Sweden and Copenhagen in Denmark , where more medicines were brought along . For public relations purposes the expedition made its way through several European cities – including Hamburg , Cologne , The Hague and Brussels – and was received with ceremony and much attention everywhere . In Belgium a problem arose over a missing customs declaration for the ice , but this was solved when a customs official agreed to accompany the cars through the country . Klevan later received a personal apology for this inconvenience , conveyed by the Norwegian foreign minister Halvard Lange from Lange 's Belgian colleague and personal friend .
In Paris the expedition was escorted by police through the streets , and the crew members were invited to dine with the mayor . From Paris the truck continued to Marseille . There it was lifted aboard the freighter " Sidi Mabrouk " , that sailed the cargo to Algiers . In Algiers a special crane had to be obtained to lift the truck – weighing a total of sixteen tons , including the ice – onto the shore . The container was drained at this point to see how much of the ice had melted . In spite of unusually hot European weather for the season , only four litres of water had been shed .
= = Crossing the Sahara = =
Crossing the Sahara was considered particularly perilous at the time because of guerilla forces hiding in the mountains . The medicines carried by the truck would have been valuable loot for these groups , and for the first part of the desert the expedition was accompanied by the French Foreign Legion . The instruction the men received was " No stops , drive for your lives , even if you get a flat tire . " The crossing passed without violent incidents , however , and greater problems were presented by the elements . There were no roads in the desert , and the truck was heavily loaded and not especially adapted to the conditions . Several times it got stuck in the desert sand ; the crew had to place steel plates underneath for traction and spend hours digging out the sand from under the wheels . This took a great toll on the men , who had a limited supply of water , in temperatures approaching 50 ° C. The crew spent most nights in oases along the way , but on occasion also slept in sleeping bags in the sand .
At one point the expedition met a tribe of Tuaregs and greeted them by offering their camels water from the container . According to the commentary in the documentary film , the camels had never tasted anything as delicious as the Norwegian glacier water . This was not entirely true ; the water was contaminated by the glass wool and tar paper , and it was barely drinkable . The expedition arrived at the Hoggar Mountains near the Tropic of Cancer after fourteen days of travelling . A measurement at that point showed a loss of 96 litres of water . Once the Sahara was traversed , after 7 @,@ 500 km ( 4 @,@ 660 mi ) of driving , 177 litres had melted away . On average 15 litres melted each day in the desert .
= = Arrival and aftermath = =
After approximately three weeks , the expedition arrived in Lambaréné and met with Albert Schweitzer . Klevan later described the meeting with Schweitzer as the greatest moment of the entire expedition . Later , the hospital received 500 kg of Norwegian klippfisk ( dried and salted cod ) , a particular favourite with the hospital 's patients . The medicines were handed over , and the container was opened . Even though the drainage had been monitored throughout the expedition , there was still great excitement associated with seeing the result firsthand . The block of ice turned out to be almost entirely intact .
The expedition arrived at its final destination of Libreville on 21 March , after twenty @-@ seven days . The block of ice was found to weigh 2 @,@ 714 kg ; it had lost only 336 kg along the way . Though it was unclear how much time the expedition would take , Klevan had initially estimated a loss of 10 % ; the end result was approximately 11 % . A French representative of the company met the crew in Libreville . A personal friend of President Charles de Gaulle , he presented an offer to drive the ice back to Paris . If the crew accepted , the President himself would have received the crew under the Arc de Triomphe . The men , however , were too exhausted at that point to contemplate such an offer . Instead , arrangement were made for the vehicles to be brought back by freight , while the crew would fly home . The ice was cut up and divided between the citizens of Libreville , for whom this was a rare commodity . Klevan , always conscious of promotional opportunities , brought a portion of the ice back home with him . This ice was subsequently used in drinks served to journalists at the première of the expedition documentary back home in Oslo .
The expedition had been an enormous success , both in accomplishing the goal it had set out to accomplish , and by generating worldwide press coverage for the company and its product . The venture was reported on as far away as India . In 1979 , Oslo Marketing Association commemorated the ice block expedition with a special event titled " The world 's greatest publicity stunt " . To commemorate the 50th anniversary of the event in 2009 , Glava AS made the original documentary of the expedition available online . They also released a newly recorded interview with Sivert Klevan , who by that time was 84 years old .
= H. C. McNeile =
Herman Cyril McNeile , MC ( 28 September 1888 – 14 August 1937 ) , commonly known as Cyril McNeile and publishing under the name H. C. McNeile or the pseudonym Sapper , was a British soldier and author . Drawing on his experiences in the trenches during the First World War , he started writing short stories and getting them published in the Daily Mail . As serving officers in the British Army were not permitted to publish under their own names , he was given the pen name " Sapper " by Lord Northcliffe , the owner of the Daily Mail ; the nickname was based on that of his corps , the Royal Engineers .
After the war McNeile left the army and continued writing , although he changed from war stories to thrillers . In 1920 he published Bulldog Drummond , whose eponymous hero became his best @-@ known creation . The character was based on McNeile himself , on his friend Gerard Fairlie and on English gentlemen generally . McNeile wrote ten Bulldog Drummond novels , as well as three plays and a screenplay .
McNeile interspersed his Drummond work with other novels and story collections that included two characters who appeared as protagonists in their own works , Jim Maitland and Ronald Standish . He was one of the most successful British popular authors of the inter @-@ war period before his death in 1937 from throat cancer , which has been attributed to damage sustained from a gas attack in the war .
McNeile 's stories are either directly about the war , or contain people whose lives have been shaped by it . His thrillers are a continuation of his war stories , with upper class Englishmen defending England from foreigners plotting against it . Although he was seen at the time as " simply an upstanding Tory who spoke for many of his countrymen " , after the Second World War his work was criticised as having fascist overtones , while also displaying the xenophobia and anti @-@ semitism apparent in some other writers of the period .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
McNeile was born in Bodmin , Cornwall . He was the son of Malcolm McNeile , a captain in the Royal Navy who at the time was governor of the naval prison at Bodmin , and Christiana Mary ( née Sloggett ) . The McNeile family had ancestral roots from both Belfast and Scotland , and counted a general in the British Indian Army among their members .
McNeile did not like either of his given names but preferred to be called Cyril , although he was always known by his friends as Mac . After attending a prep school in Eastbourne , he was further educated at Cheltenham College . On leaving the college , he joined the Royal Military Academy , Woolwich , from which he was commissioned into the Royal Engineers as a second lieutenant in July 1907 . He underwent further training at the Royal School of Military Engineering before a short posting to Aldershot Garrison . He received promotion to lieutenant in June 1910 and was posted to Canterbury , serving three years with the 3rd Field Troop , until January 1914 , when he was posted to Malta .
In 1914 McNeile was promoted to the rank of captain . He was still in Malta when the war broke out and was ordered to France in October 1914 ; he travelled via England and married Violet Evelyn Baird on 31 October 1914 . Baird was the daughter of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Arthur Baird Douglas of the Cameron Highlanders .
= = = First World War service = = =
On 2 November 1914 McNeile travelled to France as part of the British Expeditionary Force . Few details are known about McNeile 's wartime service , as his records were destroyed by incendiary bombs during the Second World War . He spent time with a number of Royal Engineer units on the Western Front , including 1st Field Squadron RE , 15th Field Company RE and RE elements of the 33rd Division .
McNeile 's first known published story , Reminiscences of Sergeant Michael Cassidy , was serialised on page four of the Daily Mail from 13 January 1915 . As serving officers in the British Army were not permitted to publish under their own names except during their half @-@ pay sabbaticals , many would write under a pseudonym ; Lord Northcliffe , the owner of the Daily Mail , gave McNeile the pen name " Sapper " , as the Royal Engineers were commonly known as the Sappers . McNeile later confided that he had started writing through " sheer boredom " . Some of his stories appeared on page four of the Daily Mail over the following months . Northcliffe was impressed by his writing and attempted , but failed , to have him released from the army to work as a war correspondent . By the end of 1915 , he had written two collections of short stories , The Lieutenant and Others and Sergeant Michael Cassidy , R.E. , both of which were published by Hodder & Stoughton . Although many of the stories had already appeared in the Daily Mail , between 1916 and 1918 Sergeant Michael Cassidy , R.E. sold 135 @,@ 000 copies and The Lieutenant and Others sold 139 @,@ 000 copies . By the end of the war he had published three more collections , Men , Women , and Guns ( 1916 ) , No Man 's Land ( 1917 ) and The Human Touch ( 1918 ) . In 1916 he wrote a series of articles titled The Making of an Officer , which appeared under the initials C. N. , in five issues of The Times between 8 and 14 June 1916 . The articles were aimed at young and new officers to explain their duties to them ; these were collected together and published by Hodder & Stoughton later in 1916 .
During his time with the Royal Engineers , McNeile saw action at the First and Second Battles of Ypres — he was gassed at the second battle — and the Battle of the Somme . In 1916 he was awarded the Military Cross and was mentioned in dispatches ; in November that year he was gazetted to acting major . From 1 April to 5 October 1918 , he commanded a battalion of the Middlesex Regiment and was promoted to acting lieutenant @-@ colonel ; the scholar Lawrence Treadwell observes that " for an engineer to command an infantry regiment was ... a rarity " . 18th Battalion , Middlesex Regiment under McNeile saw action for the remainder of his command , and were involved in fighting during the Hundred Days Offensive in the St. Quentin @-@ Cambrai sector in September 1918 ; during the year , he was again mentioned in dispatches . On 2 October 1918 he broke his ankle and was briefly hospitalised , which forced him to relinquish his command of the regiment on 4 October . He was on convalescent leave when the war ended in November 1918 . During the course of the war , he had spent a total of 32 months in France , and had probably been gassed more than once . His literary output from 1915 to 1918 accounted for more than 80 collected and uncollected stories . His brother — also in the Royal Engineers — had been killed earlier in the war .
= = = Post @-@ war years = = =
McNeile had a quiet life after the war ; his biographer Jonathon Green notes that " as in the novels of fellow best @-@ selling writers such as P. G. Wodehouse or Agatha Christie , it is the hero who lives the exciting life " . Although he was an " unremittingly hearty man " , he suffered from delicate health following the war . He had a loud voice and a louder laugh , and " liked to enliven clubs and restaurants with the sight and sound of military good fellowship " ; his friend and collaborator Gerard Fairlie described him as " not everybody 's cup of tea " , and commented that " he was loud in every possible way — in his voice , in his laugh , in his clothes , in the unconscious swagger with which he always motivated himself , in his whole approach to life " . McNeile and his wife had two sons .
On 13 June 1919 McNeile retired onto the reserve officer list and was confirmed in the rank of major . The same year he also published a short @-@ story collection , Mufti , in which he introduced a type of character as " the Breed " , a class of Englishman who was patriotic , loyal and " physically and morally intrepid " . Although well received by the critics , the book failed commercially and , by the end of 1922 , had only sold 16 @,@ 700 copies from its first print run of 20 @,@ 000 ; the unsold copies were pulped and the novel went out of print later that year .
In 1920 McNeile published Bull @-@ Dog Drummond , whose eponymous hero — a member of " the Breed " — became his most famous creation . He had first written Drummond as a detective for a short story in The Strand Magazine , but the character was not successful and was changed for the novel , which was a thriller . Captain Hugh " Bulldog " Drummond DSO , MC was described in the novel 's sub @-@ title as " a demobilised officer who found peace dull " after service during the First World War with the fictional Loamshire Regiment . Drummond went on to appear in ten full @-@ length novels by McNeile and a further seven by his friend Gerard Fairlie . The character was an amalgam of Fairlie , himself , and his idea of an English gentleman . Drummond also had roots in the literary characters Sherlock Holmes , Sexton Blake , Richard Hannay and The Scarlet Pimpernel . Drummond was characterised as large , very strong , physically unattractive and an " apparently brainless hunk of a man " , who was also a gentleman with a private income ; he could also be construed as " a brutalized ex @-@ officer whose thirst for excitement is also an attempt to reenact [ sic ] the war " . The character was later described by Cecil Day @-@ Lewis as an " unspeakable public school bully " . Drummond 's main adversary across four novels is Carl Peterson , a master criminal with no national allegiance , who is often accompanied by his wife , Irma . Irma is described by Jonathon Green as " the slinky epitome of a twenties ' vamp ' " , and by Lawrence Treadwell as dark , sexy and from an oriental background , " a true femme fatale " . After Carl Peterson 's death in The Final Count , Irma swears revenge on Drummond and kidnaps his wife — whom he had met in Bull @-@ Dog Drummond — with the intent of killing him in the ensuing chase . Irma Peterson appears in six of McNeile 's books , and in a further five by Fairlie .
McNeile adapted Bulldog Drummond for the stage . It was shown at Wyndham 's Theatre during the 1921 – 22 season , with Gerald du Maurier playing the title role ; it ran for 428 performances . The play also ran in New York during the same season , with A. E. Matthews as Drummond . Later in 1922 McNeile resigned his reserve commission with the rank of lieutenant @-@ colonel , and moved as a tax exile to Territet , Montreux , Switzerland , with his wife ; the Swiss countryside was later described in a number of his stories .
The following year McNeile introduced the character of Jim Maitland , a " footloose sahib of the period " . Maitland was the protagonist of the 1923 novel Jim Maitland ; he later appeared in a second novel in 1931 , The Island of Terror . Around the time McNeile killed off the Carl Peterson character in The Final Count ( 1926 ) , he also introduced the character Ronald Standish , who first appeared in " The Saving Clause " ( 1927 ) and " Tiny Carteret " ( 1930 ) before becoming the protagonist in two collections of short stories , Ronald Standish ( 1933 ) and Ask for Ronald Standish ( 1936 ) . The character also appeared in the final three Drummond novels , Knock @-@ Out ( 1933 ) , Bull @-@ Dog Drummond at Bay ( 1935 ) and Challenge ( 1937 ) . Standish was a sportsman who played cricket for England and was a part @-@ time consultant with the War Office .
In 1929 McNeile edited a volume of short stories from O. Henry , The Best of O. Henry ; the stories had served as models for him when he had started as a writer . The same year , the film Bulldog Drummond was released , starring Ronald Colman in the title role . Colman was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor at the 3rd Academy Awards ceremony . The film earned $ 750 @,@ 000 at the box office , and McNeile received an estimated £ 5 @,@ 000 for the rights to his novel . The same year he wrote his second play — The Way Out — which was staged at the Comedy Theatre in January 1930 . About a year later he and his wife returned to England , and settled near Pulborough , West Sussex .
In 1935 McNeile , Fairlie , Sidney Gilliat and J.O.C. Orton collaborated on the screenplay Bulldog Jack , a " comedy thriller " with Jack Hulbert and Fay Wray , which was produced by Gaumont British .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
In 1937 McNeile was working with Fairlie on the play Bulldog Drummond Hits Out when he was diagnosed with terminal throat cancer . He came to an agreement with Fairlie for the play to continue after his death and for Fairlie to continue writing the Drummond stories . McNeile died on 14 August 1937 at his home in West Chiltington , West Sussex . Although most sources identify throat cancer as the cause of death , Treadwell also suggests that it may have been lung cancer . It was " traceable to his war service " , and attributed to a gas attack . His funeral , with full military honours , was conducted at Woking crematorium . At his death his estate was valued at over £ 26 @,@ 000 .
Bulldog Drummond Hits Out was finished by Fairlie and had a short tour of Brighton , Birmingham , Manchester and Edinburgh , before opening in London at the Savoy Theatre on 21 December 1937 . The story was later turned into a novel by Fairlie , with the title Bulldog Drummond on Dartmoor . Fairlie continued to write Drummond novels , seven in total .
Drummond , McNeile 's chief literary legacy , became a model for other literary heroes created in the 1940s and ' 50s . W. E. Johns used McNeile 's work as a model for his character Biggles , while Ian Fleming admitted that James Bond was " Sapper from the waist up and Mickey Spillane below " . Sydney Horler 's popular character " Tiger " Standish was also modelled on Drummond .
= = Writing = =
McNeile 's works fall into two distinct phases . Those works published between 1915 and 1918 are his war stories , and relate directly to his experiences during the First World War , while the later works are largely thrillers . His war stories were marketed by the Daily Mail and Hodder & Stoughton as a soldier 's eyewitness accounts . When he started writing thrillers , Hodder & Stoughton advertised McNeile as a " light and entertaining " writer , and began publishing his works in the " Yellow Jacket " series .
= = = Style and technique = = =
McNeile 's early works , the war stories published before 1919 , are either " plot @-@ driven adventure narrative [ s ] " , such as the short stories " The Song of the Bayonet " and " Private Meyrick , Company Idiot " , or " atmospheric vignette [ s ] " , such as " The Land of Topsy Turvy " and " The Human Touch " . McNeile would write about 1 @,@ 000 words every morning in a routine that was rarely disturbed ; he took no breaks while writing and would do no re @-@ writes until he completed his work . The academic Jessica Meyer has criticised his style as having " little aesthetic merit , being stylised , clichéd and often repetitive " ; Richard Usborne agreed , adding that the female characters were " cardboard " and that McNeile was " wonderfully forgetful " about characters dead in one book and alive in the next . In the Bulldog Drummond stories , Watson identifies the central character as " a melodramatic creation , workable only within a setting of melodrama " . The academic Joan DelFattore points out that while the characters and plots cannot be considered to be unique , credible or well @-@ rounded , his books " make no claim to literary excellence " , and are instead , " good , solid thrillers " . Usborne agrees , and believes that McNeile wrote good stories that were flawed but well told . Meyer classifies the non @-@ war stories as middlebrow , with " sentimental plotlines and presenting a social message about the condition of England " . His early novels , particularly Bull @-@ Dog Drummond and The Black Gang , were structured loosely and in some ways as short stories . The academic Hans Bertens blamed this on McNeile 's lack of experience and self @-@ confidence , noting that in his later novels , McNeile " mastered the tricks of his trade " .
DelFattore outlines the use of double adjectives to reinforce feelings towards enemies in both his war stories and thrillers , such as " filthy , murdering Boche " , and " stinking , cowardly Bolshevik " . She and the scholar Lise Jaillant also comment on the dehumanisation of the enemy , comparing them to animals and vermin . Watson noted the frequency of the use of the word " devil " — and variations — when discussing antagonists .
= = = Major themes = = =
= = = = First World War = = = =
The major theme running throughout McNeile 's works is the First World War . Between 1915 and 1918 he had five collections of short stories published about the war , while his post @-@ war fiction can be seen as an extension of those stories , as " both treat the war as a trial with manhood at stake " . His war stories were considered by contemporary audiences as anti @-@ sentimental , realistic depictions of the trenches , and as a " celebration of the qualities of the Old Contemptibles " . McNeile 's view , as expressed through his writing , was that war was a purposeful activity for the nation and for individuals , even if that purpose was later wasted : a " valuable chance at national renewal that had been squandered " . The positive effects of war on the individual were outlined by McNeile in The Making of an Officer , his series of articles in The Times , in which he wrote about " the qualities of leadership and selflessness essential to ' inspire ' subalterns " , a theme he returned to in his war stories — particularly The Lieutenant and Others and Sergeant Michael Cassidy , R.E — and then afterwards in his fictional stories , notably the Bulldog Drummond works .
McNeile 's fictional work — particularly his Drummond series of books — shows characters who have served in the war and have been affected by it ; Jaillant comments that Drummond 's war @-@ time experience " has shaped his social identity , his skills , and even his physical appearance " . The Drummond character has been " brutalized by war " , which accounts for his physical approach when dealing with Peterson and others .
= = = = England = = = =
McNeile provided Drummond with a " flamboyantly aggressive patriotism " towards England , which Drummond defends physically against those who challenge its stability or morality . Hans Bertens argued that the patriotism demonstrated by Drummond was closer to nationalistic pride and a paranoia about threats directed at the upper middle classes , of which Drummond was a member . Drummond 's nickname — Bulldog — is symbolic of England , and he and his English gentlemen friends — " the Breed " — fight the conspiracy of foreigners threatening England 's stability . McNeile 's thriller stories do not often pit Englishman against Englishman as the main characters ; most of the foreigners in his books are the villains .
= = = = Sport = = = =
Running throughout McNeile 's books is the metaphor of warfare as sport . His war stories include descriptions of fights between individuals that carry a sporting motif : in Sergeant Michael Cassidy , R.E. , he writes , " To bag a man with a gun is one thing ; there is sport — there is an element of one against one , like when the quality goes big game shooting . But to bag twenty men by a mine has not the same feeling at all , even if they are Germans " . The motif was continued into the Drummond novels . McNeile reinforces this theme through his use of the language of public school sports , or of boxing , poker or hunting . The titles of his books also use sporting imagery : The Third Round , The Final Count , Knock @-@ Out and Challenge .
= = = Reception = = =
McNeile 's war story collections sold well ; nearly 50 @,@ 000 copies of his first book , Sergeant Michael Cassidy , R.E. , were purchased in its first year , and nearly 58 @,@ 000 copies the following year . His thrillers were also popular , with Bulldog Drummond selling 396 @,@ 302 copies between 1920 and 1939 , exceeding the 100 @,@ 000 @-@ copies benchmark for " best @-@ sellers " . At his peak in the 1920s , he was the highest paid short story writer in the world , and it was estimated that in the last five years of his life he was earning around £ 10 @,@ 000 a year ; the Daily Mirror estimated that during his writing career he had earned £ 85 @,@ 000 .
McNeile 's war stories were seen by reviewers as honest portrayals of the war , with British and American reviewers in the mainstream press praising his realism and avoidance of sentimentality in dealing with his subject matter . Reviewing Men , Women , and Guns for The Times Literary Supplement , Francis Henry Gribble wrote that " Sapper has been successful in previous volumes of war stories ... When the time comes for picking out the writers whose war fiction has permanent value , his claim to be included in the list will call for serious examination . " The reviewer of Sergeant Michael Cassidy , R.E. for The Atlanta Constitution reminded its readers that McNeile " has been called the foremost literary genius of the British army . " Jaillant observes that once McNeile moved from war stories to thrillers , with the concurrent re @-@ positioning of advertising and marketing by Hodder & Stoughton , the reviewers also treated him differently , and presented him as " a writer of thrillers , without any pretension to literary seriousness " . When reviewing Bulldog Drummond Strikes Back for The New York Times , the critic observed that " if you like a good knock @-@ down @-@ and @-@ drag @-@ out yarn with excitement and violence on nearly every page , you can 't go wrong on Bulldog Drummond " ; for the novel Bulldog Drummond at Bay , the reviewer considered that " as a piece of fictional melodrama , the book is first rate " . In the British market , The Times Literary Supplement also characterised him as a mass @-@ market thriller writer , which contrasted with its consideration of his earlier works .
= = = = Controversy = = = =
From the 1950s on , McNeile 's work came to be viewed in the light of events of the Second World War , and journalists such as Richard Usborne highlighted aspects of the stories which he considered were " carrying the Führer @-@ principle " . DelFattore agrees , and considers that the second Bulldog Drummond novel — The Black Gang ( 1922 ) — is when the fascist element was introduced . Jaillant notes that the accusations of fascism only came about after the Second World War , while the academic Ion Trewin considers that through the Drummond stories , McNeile was seen at the time as " simply an upstanding Tory who spoke for many of his countrymen " .
Throughout the Drummond stories , much of the language used by McNeile relating to ethnic minorities or Jews is considered by DelFattore to be " intensely conservative by modern standards " ; Green observes that while the characters of other contemporary writers , such as Agatha Christie , " exhibit the inevitable xenophobia and anti @-@ semitism of the period , McNeile 's go far beyond the ' polite ' norms " . J. D. Bourn considers his language to be " rather distasteful " , while the academic Michael Denning observed that " Drummond is a bundle of chauvinisms , hating Jews , Germans , and most other foreigners " .
= = Works = =
= M @-@ 76 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 76 is a former state trunkline highway designation in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . The highway 's designation was decommissioned when the last section of it was converted to freeway as a part of the present @-@ day Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) . At that time , M @-@ 76 extended from US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) near Standish northwesterly to I @-@ 75 south of Grayling . Two sections of the route followed freeways with a two @-@ lane highway in between to connect them . The former routing of M @-@ 76 through West Branch before that city was bypassed was initially redesignated Business M @-@ 76 ( Bus . M @-@ 76 ) . The highway itself ran through mixed fields and forests bypassing several other towns in the region .
First designated by 1919 , M @-@ 76 initially terminated at Roscommon . It was later extended north through Grayling and west to Kalkaska in the 1920s . A second , disconnected , segment was added to the highway in the 1930s . By the early 1940s , both the disconnected section and the Kalkaska – Grayling were added to M @-@ 72 . M @-@ 76 was converted in stages into a freeway in the late 1960s and early 1970s . When the last segment was completed , the number was removed from the highway , and the freeway was added to I @-@ 75 .
= = Route description = =
At the time the M @-@ 76 designation was decommissioned in 1973 , most of the overall highway had been converted to freeway . It started southwest of Standish at an interchange with US 23 in southern Arenac County . The freeway ran northward through fields to a junction with M @-@ 61 where it turned northwesterly . M @-@ 76 passed to the southwest of Sterling and over a tributary of the Tittabawassee River as the freeway approaches Alger through a forested area . In Ogemaw County , the trunkline ran south and west of Greenwood and continued to the West Branch area . There , M @-@ 76 met the southeastern end of its business loop that ran north into downtown . The freeway bypassed the town to the southwest , passed over M @-@ 30 without an interchange and then met the northwestern end of the business loop . While M @-@ 76 was still an active highway designation , this second business loop junction marked the end of the freeway in the area . M @-@ 76 turned west , merging onto M @-@ 55 to run concurrently along a two @-@ lane highway .
M @-@ 55 / M @-@ 76 ran west into Roscommon County along West Branch Road . The two highways separated at a junction with St. Helen Road where M @-@ 76 turned due north toward St. Helen . South of town , the highway met county road F @-@ 97 at a junction with Artesia Beach Road . The two roads ran concurrently into town along the east end of Lake St. Helen . Near the airport in town , M @-@ 76 turned back northwesterly along Washington Street , parting from F @-@ 97 in the process . The highway ran along the northeastern shore of Lake St. Helen and near Mud Lake as it continued toward Roscommon . As it entered that town , the trunkline passed the Roscommon Conservation Airport and followed Elm Street on a northwest track through the middle of the village . M @-@ 18 joined M @-@ 76 in the center of town , and the two turned parallel to the Roscommon – Crawford county line on Federal Highway . Northeast of Higgins Lake , the highway transitioned to a freeway ; that freeway ran northwest into Crawford County . M @-@ 18 / M @-@ 76 terminated at a junction south of Grayling with US 27 . This partial interchange marked the point where I @-@ 75 resumed its course north through the state . Traffic could not directly access southbound US 27 from northbound M @-@ 76 and northbound US 27 could not access southbound M @-@ 76 .
= = History = =
On July 1 , 1919 , the initial routing of M @-@ 76 connected Standish with Roscommon via a circuitous path through Sterling , Alger , West Branch , and St. Helen . By 1927 , M @-@ 76 was extended north to Grayling and west to Kalkaska . Before the construction of its later routing along the present @-@ day Lake State Railway between St. Helen and Roscommon , the route of M @-@ 76 followed present @-@ day Saint Helen Road ( present @-@ day F @-@ 97 ) , then Au Sable , Keno , and Silsby roads ; at the Crawford @-@ Roscommon county line , it then followed present @-@ day M @-@ 18 westerly into Roscommon . A short non @-@ contiguous segment of M @-@ 76 opened near Empire , extending eastward to County Road 669 in 1934 . In late 1940 or early 1941 , M @-@ 76 was truncated to Roscommon ; all of M @-@ 76 from Grayling to Kalkaska and the segment near Empire was redesignated as M @-@ 72 .
Beginning in 1958 , I @-@ 75 in Michigan was constructed in several discontinuous segments . M @-@ 76 was to become one of the portions incorporated into the route of I @-@ 75 . Although other portions of I @-@ 75 were completed and designated in noncontiguous segments , the portion from Standish to Roscommon was first signed as M @-@ 76 and the entire stretch rebuilt as freeway before it was redesignated as I @-@ 75 . This was done while a temporary connecting To I @-@ 75 designation between Bay City and Grayling followed a different path along US 10 and US 127 .
Starting in 1968 through the early 1970s , M @-@ 76 was rebuilt to Interstate standards in stages . The first freeway segment completed was a 17 @-@ mile ( 27 km ) stretch in Arenac County from US 23 just southwest of Standish to Alger . In 1970 , two more segments of the M @-@ 76 freeway were completed : from Alger to just south of West Branch and about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of freeway from the southern end of a completed segment of I @-@ 75 south of Grayling to just west of Roscommon . In 1971 , both the northern and southern sections of the M @-@ 76 freeway were extended : on the south , around the west side of West Branch to M @-@ 55 , or from present @-@ day exits 212 to 215 ; and on the north , on the west side of Roscommon , from present @-@ day exits 244 to 239 . In 1973 , the final 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) segment of M @-@ 76 freeway was completed . However , the entire M @-@ 76 designation was decommissioned and that segment of freeway opened as I @-@ 75 . This was the final segment of I @-@ 75 to be completed in the State of Michigan .
As segments of the freeway were completed , the former portions of M @-@ 76 were turned over to local control , except for portions near Roscommon and West Branch , which became parts of Business Loop I @-@ 75 designations . There are several places where these old portions are referred to as " Old 76 " . The route from southeast of West Branch to the Ogemaw County line was designated as county road F @-@ 9 , and a portion through the community of St. Helen is part of F @-@ 97 . The segment of old M @-@ 55 / M @-@ 76 is an unsigned state highway .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Business loop = =
Business M @-@ 76 ( Bus . M @-@ 76 ) was a business loop running through West Branch that is now called Business Loop I @-@ 75 ( BL I @-@ 75 ) . The highway used a portion of the former M @-@ 76 and the current M @-@ 55 . The southernmost portion from the Cook Road interchange at I @-@ 75 to OLD M @-@ 76 ( Alger Road ) was built as a new roadway in 1970 . This section was built when the I @-@ 75 / M @-@ 76 freeway was completed as far north as Cook Road . This new roadway allowed M @-@ 76 to connect to its former alignment south of West Branch in 1970 . The next year , the I @-@ 75 / M @-@ 76 freeway was completed to the current interchange with M @-@ 55 west of town . The former routing of M @-@ 76 along Cook Road , Alger Road and M @-@ 55 was redesignated as Bus . M @-@ 76 . When the last section of I @-@ 75 was completed in 1973 , connecting the end of the freeway at M @-@ 55 with the other end at M @-@ 18 near Roscommon , M @-@ 76 was completely decommissioned , and Bus . M @-@ 76 became BL I @-@ 75 with these changes . The total length of the highway was about 5 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) .
Major intersections
The entire highway was in Ogemaw County .
= Alexios Apokaukos =
Alexios Apokaukos ( Greek : Ἀλέξιος Ἀπόκαυκος ; died 1345 ) was a leading Byzantine statesman and high @-@ ranking military officer ( megas doux ) during the reigns of emperors Andronikos III Palaiologos ( r . 1328 – 1341 ) and John V Palaiologos ( r . 1341 – 1357 ) . Although he owed his rise to high state offices to the patronage of John VI Kant
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the European Hot 100 at number eight .
= = Covers and use in popular culture = =
Welsh singer Lucie Jones sang " Footprints in the Sand " on the British singing competition programme The X Factor . She performed it on the first show of its sixth edition ( 2009 ) Jones received generally positive reviews by her performance , but Cowell criticised her voice for not reach her highest pitch at the end of the song . Swiss singer Julia Star , a Die grössten Schweizer Talente programme participant , which is part of the global British Got Talent franchise , covered the song in 2009 . In 2011 , British easy listening group FourNurses included the song on their album Guiding You . On 1 June 2013 , Hungarian shadow theatre group Attraction used " Footprints in the Sand " during their live semi @-@ final performance on Britain 's Got Talent .
On the final signing off on August 8 , 2008 , Associated Broadcasting Company ( ABC 5 ) was featured the tribute for the ABC 5 programs of the 1990s and 2000s including Tropang Trumpo , Wow Mali Sing Galing , Totoo TV and others and including PBA on ABC ( it was Game 2 of the Fiesta Conference Finals then continued to renamed as TV5 starting Game 3 until Game 7 ) . This was before merged into TV5 on August 9 , 2008 along with the final signing off of Q on February 27 , 2011 before the re @-@ launch of GMA News TV , GMA Network 's another secondary sister channel .
In 2015 wildlife expert Bindi Irwin danced a contemporary freestyle to the song in the finals of season 21 of Dancing with the Stars .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Polar coordinate system =
In mathematics , the polar coordinate system is a two @-@ dimensional coordinate system in which each point on a plane is determined by a distance from a reference point and an angle from a reference direction .
The reference point ( analogous to the origin of a Cartesian system ) is called the pole , and the ray from the pole in the reference direction is the polar axis . The distance from the pole is called the radial coordinate or radius , and the angle is called the angular coordinate , polar angle , or azimuth .
= = History = =
The concepts of angle and radius were already used by ancient peoples of the first millennium BC . The Greek astronomer and astrologer Hipparchus ( 190 – 120 BC ) created a table of chord functions giving the length of the chord for each angle , and there are references to his using polar coordinates in establishing stellar positions . In On Spirals , Archimedes describes the Archimedean spiral , a function whose radius depends on the angle . The Greek work , however , did not extend to a full coordinate system .
From the 8th century AD onward , astronomers developed methods for approximating and calculating the direction to Mecca ( qibla ) — and its distance — from any location on the Earth . From the 9th century onward they were using spherical trigonometry and map projection methods to determine these quantities accurately . The calculation is essentially the conversion of the equatorial polar coordinates of Mecca ( i.e. its longitude and latitude ) to its polar coordinates ( i.e. its qibla and distance ) relative to a system whose reference meridian is the great circle through the given location and the Earth 's poles , and whose polar axis is the line through the location and its antipodal point .
There are various accounts of the introduction of polar coordinates as part of a formal coordinate system . The full history of the subject is described in Harvard professor Julian Lowell Coolidge 's Origin of Polar Coordinates . Grégoire de Saint @-@ Vincent and Bonaventura Cavalieri independently introduced the concepts in the mid @-@ seventeenth century . Saint @-@ Vincent wrote about them privately in 1625 and published his work in 1647 , while Cavalieri published his in 1635 with a corrected version appearing in 1653 . Cavalieri first used polar coordinates to solve a problem relating to the area within an Archimedean spiral . Blaise Pascal subsequently used polar coordinates to calculate the length of parabolic arcs .
In Method of Fluxions ( written 1671 , published 1736 ) , Sir Isaac Newton examined the transformations between polar coordinates , which he referred to as the " Seventh Manner ; For Spirals " , and nine other coordinate systems . In the journal Acta Eruditorum ( 1691 ) , Jacob Bernoulli used a system with a point on a line , called the pole and polar axis respectively . Coordinates were specified by the distance from the pole and the angle from the polar axis . Bernoulli 's work extended to finding the radius of curvature of curves expressed in these coordinates .
The actual term polar coordinates has been attributed to Gregorio Fontana and was used by 18th @-@ century Italian writers . The term appeared in English in George Peacock 's 1816 translation of Lacroix 's Differential and Integral Calculus . Alexis Clairaut was the first to think of polar coordinates in three dimensions , and Leonhard Euler was the first to actually develop them .
= = Conventions = =
The radial coordinate is often denoted by r or ρ , and the angular coordinate by ϕ , θ , or t . The angular coordinate is specified as ϕ by ISO standard 31 @-@ 11 .
Angles in polar notation are generally expressed in either degrees or radians ( 2π rad being equal to 360 ° ) . Degrees are traditionally used in navigation , surveying , and many applied disciplines , while radians are more common in mathematics and mathematical physics .
In many contexts , a positive angular coordinate means that the angle ϕ is measured counterclockwise from the axis .
In mathematical literature , the polar axis is often drawn horizontal and pointing to the right .
= = = Uniqueness of polar coordinates = = =
Adding any number of full turns ( 360 ° ) to the angular coordinate does not change the corresponding direction . Also , a negative radial coordinate is best interpreted as the corresponding positive distance measured in the opposite direction . Therefore , the same point can be expressed with an infinite number of different polar coordinates ( r , ϕ ± n × 360 ° ) or ( − r , ϕ ± ( 2n + 1 ) 180 ° ) , where n is any integer . Moreover , the pole itself can be expressed as ( 0 , ϕ ) for any angle ϕ .
Where a unique representation is needed for any point , it is usual to limit r to non @-@ negative numbers ( r ≥ 0 ) and ϕ to the interval [ 0 , 360 ° ) or ( − 180 ° , 180 ° ] ( in radians , [ 0 , 2π ) or ( − π , π ] ) . One must also choose a unique azimuth for the pole , e.g. , ϕ = 0 .
= = Converting between polar and Cartesian coordinates = =
The polar coordinates r and ϕ can be converted to the Cartesian coordinates x and y by using the trigonometric functions sine and cosine :
<formula>
<formula>
The Cartesian coordinates x and y can be converted to polar coordinates r and ϕ with r ≥ 0 and ϕ in the interval ( − π , π ] by :
<formula> ( as in the Pythagorean theorem or the Euclidean norm ) , and
<formula> ,
where atan2 is a common variation on the arctangent function defined as
<formula>
The value of ϕ above is the principal value of the complex number function arg applied to x + iy . An angle in the range [ 0 , 2π ) may be obtained by adding 2π to the value in case it is negative .
= = Polar equation of a curve = =
The equation defining an algebraic curve expressed in polar coordinates is known as a polar equation . In many cases , such an equation can simply be specified by defining r as a function of ϕ . The resulting curve then consists of points of the form ( r ( ϕ ) , ϕ ) and can be regarded as the graph of the polar function r .
Different forms of symmetry can be deduced from the equation of a polar function r . If r ( − ϕ )
= r ( ϕ ) the curve will be symmetrical about the horizontal ( 0 ° / 180 ° ) ray , if r ( π − ϕ ) =
r ( ϕ ) it will be symmetric about the vertical ( 90 ° / 270 ° ) ray , and if r ( ϕ − α ) = r ( ϕ ) it will be rotationally symmetric by α clockwise and counterclockwise about the pole .
Because of the circular nature of the polar coordinate system , many curves can be described by a rather simple polar equation , whereas their Cartesian form is much more intricate . Among the best known of these curves are the polar rose , Archimedean spiral , lemniscate , limaçon , and cardioid .
For the circle , line , and polar rose below , it is understood that there are no restrictions on the domain and range of the curve .
= = = Circle = = =
The general equation for a circle with a center at ( r0 , <formula> ) and radius a is
<formula>
This can be simplified in various ways , to conform to more specific cases , such as the equation
<formula>
for a circle with a center at the pole and radius a .
When r0 = a , or when the origin lies on the circle , the equation becomes
<formula> .
In the general case , the equation can be solved for r , giving
<formula> ,
the solution with a minus sign in front of the square root gives the same curve .
= = = Line = = =
Radial lines ( those running through the pole ) are represented by the equation
<formula> ,
where ɣ is the angle of elevation of the line ; that is , ɣ
= arctan m where m is the slope of the line in the Cartesian coordinate system . The non @-@ radial line that crosses the radial line ϕ =
ɣ perpendicularly at the point ( r0 , ɣ ) has the equation
<formula>
Otherwise stated ( r0 , ɣ ) is the point in which the tangent intersects the imaginary circle of radius r0 .
= = = Polar rose = = =
A polar rose is a famous mathematical curve that looks like a petaled flower , and that can be expressed as a simple polar equation ,
<formula>
for any constant ɣ0 ( including 0 ) . If k is an integer , these equations will produce a k @-@ petaled rose if k is odd , or a 2k @-@ petaled rose if k is even . If k is rational but not an integer , a rose @-@ like shape may form but with overlapping petals . Note that these equations never define a rose with 2 , 6 , 10 , 14 , etc. petals . The variable a represents the length of the petals of the rose .
= = = Archimedean spiral = = =
The Archimedean spiral is a famous spiral that was discovered by Archimedes , which can also be expressed as a simple polar equation . It is represented by the equation
<formula>
Changing the parameter a will turn the spiral , while b controls the distance between the arms , which for a given spiral is always constant . The Archimedean spiral has two arms , one for ϕ > 0 and one for ϕ < 0 . The two arms are smoothly connected at the pole . Taking the mirror image of one arm across the 90 ° / 270 ° line will yield the other arm . This curve is notable as one of the first curves , after the conic sections , to be described in a mathematical treatise , and as being a prime example of a curve that is best defined by a polar equation .
= = = Conic sections = = =
A conic section with one focus on the pole and the other somewhere on the 0 ° ray ( so that the conic 's major axis lies along the polar axis ) is given by :
<formula>
where e is the eccentricity and <formula> is the semi @-@ latus rectum ( the perpendicular distance at a focus from the major axis to the curve ) . If e > 1 , this equation defines a hyperbola ; if e
= 1 , it defines a parabola ; and if e < 1 , it defines an ellipse . The special case e =
0 of the latter results in a circle of radius <formula> .
= = Intersection of two polar curves = =
The graphs of two polar functions <formula> and <formula> have possible intersections in 3 cases :
In the origin if the equations <formula> and <formula> have at least one solution each .
All the points <formula> where <formula> are the solutions to the equation <formula> .
All the points <formula> where <formula> are the solutions to the equation <formula> where <formula> is an integer .
= = Complex numbers = =
Every complex number can be represented as a point in the complex plane , and can therefore be expressed by specifying either the point 's Cartesian coordinates ( called rectangular or Cartesian form ) or the point 's polar coordinates ( called polar form ) . The complex number z can be represented in rectangular form as
<formula>
where i is the imaginary unit , or can alternatively be written in polar form ( via the conversion formulae given above ) as
<formula>
and from there as
<formula>
where e is Euler 's number , which are equivalent as shown by Euler 's formula . ( Note that this formula , like all those involving exponentials of angles , assumes that the angle ϕ is expressed in radians . ) To convert between the rectangular and polar forms of a complex number , the conversion formulae given above can be used .
For the operations of multiplication , division , and exponentiation of complex numbers , it is generally much simpler to work with complex numbers expressed in polar form rather than rectangular form . From the laws of exponentiation :
Multiplication :
<formula>
Division :
<formula>
Exponentiation ( De Moivre 's formula ) :
<formula>
= = Calculus = =
Calculus can be applied to equations expressed in polar coordinates .
The angular coordinate ϕ is expressed in radians throughout this section , which is the conventional choice when doing calculus .
= = = Differential calculus = = =
Using x
= r cos ϕ and y =
r sin ϕ , one can derive a relationship between derivatives in Cartesian and polar coordinates . For a given function , u ( x , y ) , it follows that ( by computing its total derivatives )
<formula>
<formula>
or
<formula>
<formula>
Hence , we have the following formulae :
<formula>
<formula>
Using the inverse coordinates transformation , an analogous reciprocal relationship can be derived between the derivatives . Given a function u ( r , ϕ ) , it follows that
<formula>
<formula>
or
<formula>
<formula>
Hence , we have the following formulae :
<formula>
<formula>
To find the Cartesian slope of the tangent line to a polar curve r ( ϕ ) at any given point , the curve is first expressed as a system of parametric equations .
<formula>
<formula>
Differentiating both equations with respect to ϕ yields
<formula>
<formula>
Dividing the second equation by the first yields the Cartesian slope of the tangent line to the curve at the point ( r ( ϕ ) , ϕ ) :
<formula>
For other useful formulas including divergence , gradient , and Laplacian in polar coordinates , see curvilinear coordinates .
= = = Integral calculus ( arc length ) = = =
The arc length ( length of a line segment ) defined by a polar function is found by the integration over the curve r ( ϕ ) . Let L denote this length along the curve starting from points A through to point B , where these points correspond to ϕ
= a and ϕ =
b such that 0 < b − a < 2π . The length of L is given by the following integral
<formula>
= = = Integral calculus ( area ) = = =
Let R denote the region enclosed by a curve r ( ϕ ) and the rays ϕ
= a and ϕ =
b , where 0 < b − a ≤ 2π . Then , the area of R is
<formula>
This result can be found as follows . First , the interval [ a , b ] is divided into n subintervals , where n is an arbitrary positive integer . Thus Δϕ , the length of each subinterval , is equal to b − a ( the total length of the interval ) , divided by n , the number of subintervals . For each subinterval i = 1 , 2 , … , n , let ϕi be the midpoint of the subinterval , and construct a sector with the center at the pole , radius r ( ϕi ) , central angle Δϕ and arc length r ( ϕi ) Δϕ . The area of each constructed sector is therefore equal to
<formula>
Hence , the total area of all of the sectors is
<formula>
As the number of subintervals n is increased , the approximation of the area continues to improve . In the limit as n → ∞ , the sum becomes the Riemann sum for the above integral .
A mechanical device that computes area integrals is the planimeter , which measures the area of plane figures by tracing them out : this replicates integration in polar coordinates by adding a joint so that the 2 @-@ element linkage effects Green 's theorem , converting the quadratic polar integral to a linear integral .
= = = = Generalization = = = =
Using Cartesian coordinates , an infinitesimal area element can be calculated as dA
= dx dy . The substitution rule for multiple integrals states that , when using other coordinates , the Jacobian determinant of the coordinate conversion formula has to be considered :
<formula>
Hence , an area element in polar coordinates can be written as
<formula>
Now , a function , that is given in polar coordinates , can be integrated as follows :
<formula>
Here , R is the same region as above , namely , the region enclosed by a curve r ( ϕ ) and the rays ϕ =
a and ϕ = b .
The formula for the area of R mentioned above is retrieved by taking f identically equal to 1 . A more surprising application of this result yields the Gaussian integral
<formula>
= = = Vector calculus = = =
Vector calculus can also be applied to polar coordinates . For a planar motion , let <formula> be the position vector ( r cos ( ϕ ) , r sin ( ϕ ) ) , with r and ϕ depending on time t .
We define the unit vectors
<formula>
in the direction of r and
<formula>
in the plane of the motion perpendicular to the radial direction , where <formula> is a unit vector normal to the plane of the motion .
Then
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
= = = = Centrifugal and Coriolis terms = = = =
The term <formula> is sometimes referred to as the centrifugal term , and the term <formula> as the Coriolis term . For example , see Shankar . Although these equations bear some resemblance in form to the centrifugal and Coriolis effects found in rotating reference frames , nonetheless these are not the same things . For example , the physical centrifugal and Coriolis forces appear only in non @-@ inertial frames of reference . In contrast , these terms , that appear when acceleration is expressed in polar coordinates , are a mathematical consequence of differentiation ; these terms appear wherever polar coordinates are used . In particular , these terms appear even when polar coordinates are used in inertial frames of reference , where the physical centrifugal and Coriolis forces never appear .
= = = = = Co @-@ rotating frame = = = = =
For a particle in planar motion , one approach to attaching physical significance to these terms is based on the concept of an instantaneous co @-@ rotating frame of reference . To define a co @-@ rotating frame , first an origin is selected from which the distance r ( t ) to the particle is defined . An axis of rotation is set up that is perpendicular to the plane of motion of the particle , and passing through this origin . Then , at the selected moment t , the rate of rotation of the co @-@ rotating frame Ω is made to match the rate of rotation of the particle about this axis , dϕ / dt . Next , the terms in the acceleration in the inertial frame are related to those in the co @-@ rotating frame . Let the location of the particle in the inertial frame be ( r ( t ) , ϕ ( t ) ) , and in the co @-@ rotating frame be ( r ( t ) , ϕ ′ ( t ) ) . Because the co @-@ rotating frame rotates at the same rate as the particle , dϕ ′ / dt
= 0 . The fictitious centrifugal force in the co @-@ rotating frame is mrΩ2 , radially outward . The velocity of the particle in the co @-@ rotating frame also is radially outward , because dϕ ′ / dt =
0 . The fictitious Coriolis force therefore has a value − 2m ( dr / dt ) Ω , pointed in the direction of increasing ϕ only . Thus , using these forces in Newton 's second law we find :
<formula>
where over dots represent time differentiations , and F is the net real force ( as opposed to the fictitious forces ) . In terms of components , this vector equation becomes :
<formula>
<formula>
which can be compared to the equations for the inertial frame :
<formula>
<formula>
This comparison , plus the recognition that by the definition of the co @-@ rotating frame at time t it has a rate of rotation Ω = dϕ / dt , shows that we can interpret the terms in the acceleration ( multiplied by the mass of the particle ) as found in the inertial frame as the negative of the centrifugal and Coriolis forces that would be seen in the instantaneous , non @-@ inertial co @-@ rotating frame .
For general motion of a particle ( as opposed to simple circular motion ) , the centrifugal and Coriolis forces in a particle 's frame of reference commonly are referred to the instantaneous osculating circle of its motion , not to a fixed center of polar coordinates . For more detail , see centripetal force .
= = Connection to spherical and cylindrical coordinates = =
The polar coordinate system is extended into three dimensions with two different coordinate systems , the cylindrical and spherical coordinate system .
= = Applications = =
Polar coordinates are two @-@ dimensional and thus they can be used only where point positions lie on a single two @-@ dimensional plane . They are most appropriate in any context where the phenomenon being considered is inherently tied to direction and length from a center point . For instance , the examples above show how elementary polar equations suffice to define curves — such as the Archimedean spiral — whose equation in the Cartesian coordinate system would be much more intricate . Moreover , many physical systems — such as those concerned with bodies moving around a central point or with phenomena originating from a central point — are simpler and more intuitive to model using polar coordinates . The initial motivation for the introduction of the polar system was the study of circular and orbital motion .
= = = Position and navigation = = =
Polar coordinates are used often in navigation as the destination or direction of travel can be given as an angle and distance from the object being considered . For instance , aircraft use a slightly modified version of the polar coordinates for navigation . In this system , the one generally used for any sort of navigation , the 0 ° ray is generally called heading 360 , and the angles continue in a clockwise direction , rather than counterclockwise , as in the mathematical system . Heading 360 corresponds to magnetic north , while headings 90 , 180 , and 270 correspond to magnetic east , south , and west , respectively . Thus , an aircraft traveling 5 nautical miles due east will be traveling 5 units at heading 90 ( read zero @-@ niner @-@ zero by air traffic control ) .
= = = Modeling = = =
Systems displaying radial symmetry provide natural settings for the polar coordinate system , with the central point acting as the pole . A prime example of this usage is the groundwater flow equation when applied to radially symmetric wells . Systems with a radial force are also good candidates for the use of the polar coordinate system . These systems include gravitational fields , which obey the inverse @-@ square law , as well as systems with point sources , such as radio antennas .
Radially asymmetric systems may also be modeled with polar coordinates . For example , a microphone 's pickup pattern illustrates its proportional response to an incoming sound from a given direction , and these patterns can be represented as polar curves . The curve for a standard cardioid microphone , the most common unidirectional microphone , can be represented as r = 0 @.@ 5 + 0.5sin ( ϕ ) at its target design frequency . The pattern shifts toward omnidirectionality at lower frequencies .
= Tasmanian numbfish =
The Tasmanian numbfish ( Narcine tasmaniensis ) is a species of electric ray in the family Narcinidae . Endemic to southeastern Australia , this common ray inhabits shallow continental shelf waters in the southern portion of its range and deeper continental slope waters in the northern portion of its range . It prefers sand and mud habitats . This species can be identified by its spade @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc with concave anterior margins , long tail with well @-@ developed skin folds along either side , and plain dark brown dorsal colouration . Its maximum known length is 47 cm ( 19 in ) .
Bottom @-@ dwelling and sedentary , the Tasmanian numbfish feeds mainly on polychaete worms and crustaceans . As in all numbfishes , it can produce a moderate electric shock to defend itself against predators . This species gives live birth , with the unborn young sustained to term by yolk ; the litter size ranges from one to eight . The Tasmanian numbfish is a common bycatch of trawl fisheries . However , its population does not appear to be threatened by human activity and it has been assessed as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
Scottish naturalist John Richardson described the Tasmanian numbfish in an 1841 contribution to Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London . Classifying the new species in the genus Narcine , he gave it the specific epithet tasmaniensis as the holotype , a female 36 cm ( 14 in ) long , was collected from Port Arthur , Tasmania . Richardson noted that the ray was known locally as " ground shark " . Other common names for this species include electric ray , electric torpedo , little numbfish , and numbfish . In a 2012 phylogenetic study based on mitochondrial DNA , Narcine was found to be polyphyletic , with the Tasmanian numbfish belonging to a different lineage than the giant electric ray ( N. entemedor ) .
= = Description = =
Reaching a length of at least 47 cm ( 19 in ) , the Tasmanian numbfish has a trowel @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc with a short , blunt snout and concave leading margins . The medium @-@ sized eyes are followed by smaller , nearly circular spiracles with smooth rims . A pair of large electric organs are located on either side of the head . There is a curtain of skin between the nostrils with a three @-@ lobed posterior margin . The narrow , highly protrusible mouth is encircled by a deep groove . The teeth are small and diamond @-@ shaped with pointed tips ; they are arranged with a quincunx pattern into bands , which remain exposed when the mouth is closed . There are five pairs of gill slits beneath the disc .
The triangular pelvic fins are much longer than wide ; adult males have claspers that extend past the pelvic fin rear tips . The broad and flattened tail is about a quarter longer than the disc and bears prominent skin folds along both sides . There are two dorsal fins of roughly equal size and shape , with the first originating over the rear tips of the pelvic fins . The tail terminates in a low caudal fin ; the upper caudal fin lobe is somewhat angular , especially in adult males , while the lower lobe is rounded . The skin often bears creases and is devoid of dermal denticles . The Tasmanian numbfish is plain dark brown above , becoming lighter on the fins . The underside is white , sometimes with a few dark blotches . Many juveniles also exhibit a darker midline stripe along the back , along with darker blotches over the disc and at the dorsal fin bases .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Tasmanian numbfish is common off southeastern Australia ; its range extends from Coffs Harbour in New South Wales to the Esperance Plains in Western Australia , and encompasses all of Tasmania . Around Tasmania , it can be found from inshore waters to a depth of 100 m ( 330 ft ) on the continental shelf . In more northerly waters , it inhabits the upper continental slope at depths of 200 – 640 m ( 660 – 2 @,@ 100 ft ) . This bottom @-@ dwelling species favours a sandy or muddy substrate and is sometimes encountered in the vicinity of rocky reefs . Mature rays of both sexes appear to live apart from juveniles .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The Tasmanian numbfish is a fairly inactive species that spends long periods of time buried motionless in sediment . It feeds primarily on polychaete worms ( particularly those of the family Maldanidae ) and crustaceans ( including amphipods , decapods , and tanaids ) . Nematodes and sipunculids may also be consumed on rare occasions . Juvenile rays consume polychaetes and crustaceans in roughly equal proportions , while adults consume mostly polychaetes . This dietary shift may reflect increasing experience with age , as polychaetes are burrowing animals and thus more difficult to locate and capture than crustaceans . Like other members of its family , the Tasmanian numbfish can defend itself with a modest electric shock . Its predators include the broadnose sevengill shark ( Notorynchus cepedianus ) . The tapeworm Anthobothrium hickmani is a parasite of this species .
Reproduction in the Tasmanian numbfish is viviparous , with the developing embryos nourished to term via their yolk sacs . Females bear litters of one to eight pups ( average eight ) ; newborns measure 9 – 12 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) long . Males and females attain reproductive maturity at lengths of 21 – 26 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 – 10 @.@ 2 in ) and 20 – 26 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 10 @.@ 2 in ) respectively .
= = Human interactions = =
The Tasmanian numbfish is frequently caught incidentally by trawlers of Australia 's South East Trawl Fishery , which operate throughout its range . It is discarded after capture with an unknown , but probably high , rate of survival . Since this species does not appear to be threatened by human activity , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed it under Least Concern .
= La Galissonnière @-@ class ironclad =
The La Galissonnière class ironclads were a group of wooden @-@ hulled , armored corvettes built for the French Navy during the 1870s , meant as a heavier armed and faster version of the Alma @-@ class ironclad . While all three ships were begun before the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 , the construction of the last two ships was delayed for years . The navy took advantage of the extended construction time of the latter ships to upgrade their armament . La Galissonnière bombarded Sfax in 1881 as part of the French occupation of Tunisia . She and her half @-@ sister Triomphante participated in a number of battles during the Sino @-@ French War of 1884 – 85 . Their sister Victorieuse had a much quieter career . All three ships were decommissioned in the 1890s .
= = Design and description = =
The La Galissonnière @-@ class ironclads were designed as faster , more heavily armed versions of the Alma @-@ class ironclads by Henri Dupuy de Lôme . They used the same central battery layout as their predecessors , although the battery was lengthened 4 meters ( 13 ft 1 in ) to provide enough room to work the larger 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns . A two @-@ propeller layout was adopted in an unsuccessful attempt to reduce the ship 's draft . The two later ships were designed by Sabattier who reduced the number of screws from two to one to improve their sailing qualities , added an 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) bow chaser under the forecastle and increased the caliber of the secondary armament .
La Galissonnière measured 76 @.@ 62 meters ( 251 ft 5 in ) between perpendiculars , with a beam of 14 @.@ 84 meters ( 48 ft 8 in ) . She had a mean draft of 6 @.@ 55 meters ( 21 ft 6 in ) and displaced 4 @,@ 654 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 580 long tons ) . The ship had a metacentric height of .926 meters ( 3 ft 0 @.@ 5 in ) . Victorieuse and Triomphante were 76 @.@ 85 meters ( 252 ft 2 in ) between perpendiculars and had a beam of 14 @.@ 88 meters ( 48 ft 10 in ) . The two ships had a mean draft of 6 @.@ 3 meters ( 20 ft 8 in ) and displaced 4 @,@ 150 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 080 long tons ) . The crew of all three ships numbered between 352 and 382 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
La Galissonnière had two Wolf vertical compound steam engines , each driving a single 3 @.@ 8 @-@ meter ( 12 ft 6 in ) propeller . Her engines were powered by four oval boilers . On sea trials the engines produced a total of 2 @,@ 370 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 770 kW ) and the ship reached 13 @.@ 08 knots ( 24 @.@ 22 km / h ; 15 @.@ 05 mph ) . La Galissonnière carried 500 metric tons ( 490 long tons ) of coal which allowed the ship to steam for 3 @,@ 240 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 000 km ; 3 @,@ 730 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She was ship @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area around 1 @,@ 707 square meters ( 18 @,@ 370 sq ft ) .
Victorieuse and Triomphante had a single vertical compound steam engine driving a single propeller and the same boilers as La Galissonnière . During trials their engines produced 2 @,@ 214 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 651 kW ) and the ships reached 12 @.@ 75 knots ( 23 @.@ 61 km / h ; 14 @.@ 67 mph ) . They only carried 330 metric tons ( 320 long tons ) of coal which allowed the ships to steam for 2 @,@ 740 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 070 km ; 3 @,@ 150 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . They were also ship @-@ rigged with three masts , but had a sail area of 1 @,@ 730 square meters ( 18 @,@ 600 sq ft ) .
= = = Armament = = =
All three ships mounted four of their six 240 @-@ millimeter Modèle 1870 guns in the central battery on the battery deck . The other two 240 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted in barbettes on the upper deck , sponsoned out over the sides of the ship . In La Galissonnière the sponsons were positioned abaft the funnel , but the two later ships had theirs just forward of the funnel . La Galissonnière 's secondary armament of four 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns was also mounted on the upper deck . They were replaced by six 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns in 1880 .
The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 19 @-@ caliber 240 @-@ millmeter gun weighed 317 @.@ 5 pounds ( 144 @.@ 0 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 15 @.@ 41 long tons ( 15 @.@ 66 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 624 ft / s ( 495 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 14 @.@ 4 inches ( 366 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
The ship received four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns in 1878 . They fired a shell weighing about 500 g ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) at a muzzle velocity of about 610 m / s ( 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a range of about 3 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 500 yd ) . They had a rate of fire of about 30 rounds per minute . La Galissonnière also received several towed Harvey torpedoes .
While Victorieuse and Triomphant were on the stocks , their armament was reinforced by an additional 194 @-@ millimeter chase gun and the secondary armament was increased to six 138 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) guns . They also received the Hotchkiss guns and Harvey torpedoes as per La Galissonnière before completion . The 20 @-@ caliber 194 @-@ millimeter gun fired an armor @-@ piercing , 165 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 75 @.@ 0 kg ) shell while the gun itself weighed 7 @.@ 83 long tons ( 7 @.@ 96 t ) . The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 739 ft / s ( 530 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 12 @.@ 5 inches ( 320 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 138 @-@ millimeter gun was 21 calibers long and weighed 2 @.@ 63 long tons ( 2 @.@ 67 t ) . It fired a 61 @.@ 7 @-@ pound ( 28 @.@ 0 kg ) explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 529 ft / s ( 466 m / s ) .
= = = Armor = = =
The La Galissonnière @-@ class ships had a complete 150 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) wrought iron waterline belt , approximately 2 @.@ 4 meters ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) high laid over 650 millimeters ( 26 in ) of wood . The sides of the battery itself were armored with 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) of wrought iron backed by 520 millimeters ( 20 in ) of wood and the ends of the battery were closed by bulkheads of the same thickness . The barbette armor was 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick . The unarmored portions of their sides were protected by thin iron plates .
= = Construction = =
= = Service = =
La Galissonnière 's initial commissions were in the Pacific and in the Caribbean , but she was assigned to the Levant Squadron ( French : Division Navale du Levant ) when she bombarded the Tunisian port of Sfax in July 1881 as part of the French occupation of Tunisia . In early 1882 La Galissonnière was the flagship of the Levant Squadron under Rear Admiral Alfred Conrad . Both La Galissonnière and Triomphante were assigned to the Far East Squadron in 1884 , under the command of Vice Admiral Amédée Courbet , and participated in several actions during the Sino @-@ French War of 1884 – 85 . Both ships fought in the Battle of Fuzhou , destroying a small Chinese fleet and coastal defenses defending the Min River . They supplied landing parties during the Battle of Tamsui in October 1884 , but they were forced to retreat by Chinese troops , although suffering few casualties ( 11 killed and 4 wounded between the two ships ) . Nothing is known of any further participation by La Galissonnière in the war , but Triomphante helped to capture the Pescadore Islands in March 1885 during the Pescadores Campaign .
Victorieuse was placed into reserve after she finished her sea trials in 1876 . She had two commissions as flagship of the Pacific and China Squadrons and was relieved as the flagship of the latter by La Galissonnière in April 1884 . She became flagship of the Levant Squadron after she arrived in France , but was in bad shape and soon placed in reserve at Cherbourg . Victorieuse was on summer maneuvers off the Iberian coast in July 1893 . The ship was initially condemned in May 1897 , but this was reversed so she could convoy torpedo boats to Bizerte . That plan was later cancelled and Victorieuse was paid off in 1899 , becoming guardship of the outer harbor at Brest until finally condemned the following year .
= Rajiv Gandhi International Airport =
Rajiv Gandhi International Airport ( IATA : HYD , ICAO : VOHS ) is an international airport that serves Hyderabad , the largest city in the Indian state of Telangana . It is located in Shamshabad , about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) south of Hyderabad . The airport is operated by GMR Hyderabad International Airport Ltd , a public – private venture . It was opened in March 2008 to replace Begumpet Airport as the primary commercial airport for Hyderabad . It is named after Rajiv Gandhi , former Prime Minister of India .
The airport has one passenger terminal , a cargo terminal and two runways . There are also aviation training facilities , a fuel farm , a solar power plant and two MRO facilities . As of 2015 , RGIA is the fifth busiest airport by passenger traffic in India , serving 11 @.@ 9 million passengers . The airport serves as a hub for Air India Regional , Blue Dart Aviation , SpiceJet , Lufthansa Cargo and TruJet , and as a focus city for IndiGo .
= = History = =
= = = Planning ( 1997 – 2004 ) = = =
The idea to construct a new airport for Hyderabad was first conceived around 1997 by the N. Chandrababu Naidu administration . The existing commercial airport , Begumpet Airport , was unable to handle rising passenger traffic . The State Government initially considered converting Hakimpet Air Force Station to civilian use ; however , the Air Force refused . When the State proposed the construction of a new airport for the Air Force , the Ministry of Defence suggested the State consider sites south of Begumpet Airport . By October 1998 , the State had narrowed down to three possible locations for the new airport : Bongloor , Nadergul and Shamshabad . Due to its convenient location near two highways ( NH 44 and NH 765 ) and a railway line , Shamshabad was selected in December 1998 .
In November 2000 , the State Government and the Airports Authority of India ( AAI ) signed a memorandum of understanding on the airport project , establishing it as a public – private partnership . The State and AAI together would hold a 26 % stake in the project , while the remaining 74 % would be allotted to private companies . Through a bidding process , a consortium consisting of GMR Group and Malaysia Airports Holdings Berhad ( MAHB ) was chosen as the holder of the 74 % stake . In December 2002 , Hyderabad International Airport Ltd ( HIAL ) , later renamed GMR Hyderabad International Airport Limited ( GHIAL ) , was created as a special purpose entity , into which the State , AAI and GMR – MAHB placed their stakes .
In September 2003 , the members of GHIAL signed a shareholders ' agreement , as well as an agreement for state subsidy of over ₹ 400 crore ( US $ 59 million ) . A concession agreement between GHIAL and the Central Government was signed in December 2004 , stipulating that no airport within a 150 @-@ kilometre ( 93 mi ) radius of RGIA could be operated . Thus , the closure of Begumpet Airport was required .
= = = Construction and opening ( 2005 – 08 ) = = =
Construction began on 16 March 2005 when Sonia Gandhi laid the foundation stone . Two days prior , the Central Government had named the airport after former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi , who had undergone pilot training in Hyderabad . The naming resulted in opposition from the Telugu Desam Party ( TDP ) . At Begumpet Airport , the international terminal was named after Rajiv Gandhi while the domestic terminal was named after TDP founder N. T. Rama Rao ; the TDP wanted to continue this naming convention at the new airport . However , the new airport has only one terminal .
Roughly three years after the foundation stone laying ceremony , the airport was inaugurated on 14 March 2008 amid protests . The Telugu Desam Party repeated its demand for the naming of the domestic terminal . In addition , on 12 and 13 March , 20 @,@ 000 AAI employees had conducted a strike against the closure of Begumpet Airport , as well as that of HAL Airport in Bangalore , fearing they would lose their jobs .
RGIA was originally scheduled to open to commercial operations on 16 March 2008 ; however , the date was delayed due to protests from some airlines over the high ground handling rates at the airport . Once the rates were reduced , the launch date was set for 23 March . Although Lufthansa Flight 752 from Frankfurt was scheduled to be the first flight to land at RGIA , two SpiceJet flights landed earlier . However , the Lufthansa flight still received the planned ceremonial welcome upon its 12 : 25 am arrival .
= = = Later developments ( 2009 – present ) = = =
In September 2011 , SpiceJet launched its regional hub at RGIA , using its new Bombardier Q400 aircraft . The airline , which chose Hyderabad due to its central location in the country , flies to several Tier @-@ II and Tier @-@ III cities from the airport . Regional airline TruJet too opened a hub at RGIA upon commencing operations in July 2015 .
In November 2014 , the Ministry of Civil Aviation resolved that the domestic terminal of RGIA would be named after N. T. Rama Rao , resulting in protests from members of the Rajya Sabha . Airport officials remained unsure as to how the naming would occur .
= = Ownership = =
RGIA is owned and operated by GMR Hyderabad International Airport Ltd ( GHIAL ) , a public – private venture . It is composed of public entities Airports Authority of India ( 13 % ) and the Government of Telangana ( 13 % ) , as well as a private consortium between GMR Group ( 63 % ) and Malaysia Airports Holdings Berhad ( 11 % ) . Per the concession agreement between GHIAL and the Central Government , GHIAL has the right to operate the airport for 30 years , with the option to continue doing so for another 30 years .
= = Airfield = =
The airport has two runways :
Runway 09L / 27R : 4 @,@ 260 by 60 metres ( 13 @,@ 980 ft × 200 ft ) , ILS equipped .
Runway 09R / 27L : 3 @,@ 707 by 45 metres ( 12 @,@ 162 ft × 148 ft ) .
Runway 09R / 27L , the original and primary runway , is long enough to be able to receive the Airbus A380 , the world 's largest passenger aircraft . Originally a taxiway , runway 09L / 27R was inaugurated in February 2012 . Its shorter length and width allow it to handle smaller aircraft such as the Airbus A340 and Boeing 747 . It is mainly used when runway 09R / 27L is undergoing maintenance , and as air traffic to the airport rises it will be used more often . North of these runways are the three parking aprons : the cargo , passenger terminal and MRO aprons . The passenger terminal apron contains parking stands on both the north and south sides of the terminal .
= = Terminal = =
RGIA has a single passenger terminal , which covers 105 @,@ 300 square feet ( 9 @,@ 780 m2 ) and has a capacity for 12 million passengers per year . The western side of the terminal handles international flights while the eastern side is for domestic operations . There are 46 immigration counters and 96 check @-@ in desks with 19 kiosks for self check @-@ in . There is a total of nine gates , seven of which are located on the south side of the terminal and the other two on the north side . Three gates are each equipped with two jetways to accelerate the handling of widebody aircraft . Public lounge facilities are provided by Plaza Premium Lounge , which operates three lounges in the terminal ; there are also three separate lounges for VIPs . The pre @-@ security " airport village " is a meeting point for passenger pick @-@ up .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
= = = Passenger = = =
= = = Cargo = = =
The following cargo airlines fly to RGIA :
= = Statistics = =
= = GMR Aerospace Park = =
The GMR Aerospace Park contains several facilities primarily related to the aviation sector . It has a 250 @-@ acre ( 100 ha ) special economic zone , which includes a 20 @-@ acre ( 8 @.@ 1 ha ) Free Trade and Warehousing Zone , as well as a domestic tariff area .
= = = Aviation training = = =
The GMR Aviation Academy is located in the park . It was established in 2009 in co @-@ operation with the International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) , International Civil Aviation Organisation ( ICAO ) , Airports Council International ( ACI ) and the Directorate General of Civil Aviation ( DGCA ) . The academy offers programmes related to airport operations , which are accredited by the listed organisations . The park also includes the Asia Pacific Flight Training ( APFT ) academy , an initiative of GMR Group and Asia Pacific Flight Training . Launched in 2013 , it provides pilot training courses .
= = = GMR Aero Technic Ltd MRO = = =
The MRO operated by GMR Aero Technic Ltd is one of two MROs at the airport . Built at a cost of ₹ 350 crore ( US $ 52 million ) and inaugurated in March 2012 , the facility can handle up to five aircraft simultaneously . Initially , the MRO was a joint venture between GMR Group and Malaysian Aerospace Engineering ( MAE ) , a subsidiary of Malaysia Airlines . However , amid its parent 's poor financial situation following the Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 incident , MAE was unable to fund the MRO , which had been accruing losses . GMR bought out MAE 's stake in December 2014 .
= = Other facilities = =
= = = Air India MRO = = =
The other MRO is operated by Air India Engineering Services Limited ( AIESL ) , a subsidiary of Air India . Spread over 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) , the facility cost ₹ 79 crore ( US $ 12 million ) to construct and was opened in May 2015 .
= = = Cargo terminal = = =
The cargo terminal is located west of the passenger terminal . It covers 14 @,@ 330 square metres ( 154 @,@ 200 sq ft ) and can handle 150 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 170 @,@ 000 short tons ) of cargo annually . The terminal is operated by Hyderabad Menzies Air Cargo Pvt Ltd , a joint venture between GHIAL ( 51 % ) and Menzies Aviation ( 49 % ) . Within the terminal is the Pharma Zone , a temperature @-@ controlled facility designed for storing pharmaceuticals . The first such facility to be opened at an Indian airport , it is important to RGIA as pharmaceuticals account for 70 % of exports from the airport . In May 2011 , Lufthansa Cargo launched its first pharma hub at the airport .
= = = Fuel farm = = =
The airport has a fuel farm consisting of three storage tanks , with a total capacity for 13 @,@ 500 kilolitres ( 480 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of jet fuel . The tanks are connected to the apron via underground pipelines . Reliance Industries built and operates the farm , which can be used by any oil company under an open @-@ access model .
= = = Solar power plant = = =
In January 2016 , GHIAL commissioned a 5 MW solar power plant near RGIA , which will be used to serve the airport 's energy needs . It was built over 24 acres ( 9 @.@ 7 ha ) at a cost of ₹ 30 crore ( US $ 4 @.@ 5 million ) . Over the following two to three years , the capacity of the plant will be raised to 30 MW , allowing RGIA to become fully solar powered .
= = Airport hotel = =
The Novotel Hyderabad Airport , located 3 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) from RGIA , was opened in October 2008 . The hotel includes 305 rooms , two restaurants and a lounge for aircrew . It was initially owned by GHIAL before being shifted to subsidiary GMR Hotels and Resorts Ltd . Owing to high losses from low occupancy , GMR began seeking buyers of the hotel in August 2015 .
= = Connectivity = =
= = = Road = = =
RGIA is connected to the city of Hyderabad by NH 7 , NH 765 and the Outer Ring Road . In October 2009 , the PV Nar
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2 m ) .
= = = 1942 design = = =
Construction was suspended shortly after the war began and the Admiralty took advantage of the time to refine the design in light of war experience in late 1941 . The beam was increased to the maximum width of the locks of the Panama Canal to increase the depth and effectiveness of ship 's torpedo protection system , and almost 1 @,@ 100 long tons ( 1 @,@ 100 t ) of fuel oil were added to increase the ship 's endurance . The requirement that ' A ' turret had to be able to fire directly ahead at 0 ° elevation was rescinded as it radically reduced freeboard forward and caused the King George Vs to take a lot of water over the bow in head seas . To partially compensate for the additional weight , the belt armour was reduced in thickness by 1 inch ( 25 mm ) except over the magazines , and the aircraft and their facilities were removed . The space in the superstructure freed up by these changes was used to increase the light anti @-@ aircraft armament to nine octuple and one quadruple 2 @-@ pounder mounts .
The overall length of the Lion class increased to 793 feet ( 241 @.@ 7 m ) and the beam to 108 feet ( 32 @.@ 9 m ) . The displacement grew to 42 @,@ 550 long tons ( 43 @,@ 230 t ) at standard load and 47 @,@ 650 long tons ( 48 @,@ 410 t ) at deep load . No changes were made to the propulsion machinery , but the speed decreased to 28 @.@ 25 knots ( 52 @.@ 32 km / h ; 32 @.@ 51 mph ) because of the greater displacement . The 4 @,@ 800 long tons ( 4 @,@ 900 t ) of fuel increased their endurance to an estimated maximum of 16 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 30 @,@ 600 km ; 19 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots . The freeboard forward was increased by nearly 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) , and the radar suite was increased to match that of the battleship Vanguard , then under construction . Because the cruiser Belfast lost all steam power when she struck a mine early in the war , two diesel generators were substituted for two turbo @-@ generators . The additional beam was used to increase the depth of the torpedo protection system amidships from 13 @.@ 25 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) to 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) . The ships ' crew was estimated at 1750 officers and men .
= = = 1944 design = = =
Another attempt was started in February 1944 by the DNC to incorporate wartime lessons and create a cutting edge design , but he soon concluded that " the power of modern weapons had increased so much that ever @-@ increasing armour and torpedo protection was required until it became incompatible with the limited offensive power of the ship . " No effort was made to investigate the torpedo protection system , nor were their characteristics finalized . Naval historians William Garzke and Robert Dulin speculate that the ships might have been 830 feet ( 253 @.@ 0 m ) long , with a beam of 115 feet ( 35 @.@ 1 m ) , and a draught of 35 feet ( 10 @.@ 7 m ) . They might have displaced about 56 @,@ 500 long tons ( 57 @,@ 400 t ) . Estimated endurance was 8600nm with a clean hull . They would have used an improved Mk IV version of the 16 @-@ inch gun in a new Mk III turret that fired a heavier shell at a marginally lower velocity , mounted in three triple turrets . Additionally , they would carry twelve twin QF 4 @.@ 5 inch Mk V guns for secondary armament and nine sextuple Bofors plus an undetermined number of 20mm Oerlikons for anti @-@ aircraft protection .
When it became clear the original 1944 ' Design A ' pushed beyond the technologically feasible , it was abandoned in favour of a simpler modification of the 1942 plans for the Lion class . This was subsequently christened ' Design B ' . The ' B ' proposal scaled back heavily on underwater protection , top speed and reduced the size of the citadel to the minimum possible while dramatically increasing freeboard and retaining much of design A 's armour and firepower . Two further design series ; ' C ' and ' D ' , considered alternative ways of saving weight via reduced armament or belt thickness , but these were quickly deemed unsatisfactory . ' Design B ' became the primary focus and seven proposed versions were produced between March 1944 and February 1945 , of which B3 became DNC 's preference .
By mid 1945 the economic pressures on Britain were becoming paramount and a new proposal , with an armour arrangement similar to the modernized HMS Renown , christened ' Design X ' , was submitted by a design committee headed by Admiral Servaes to the DNC . ' Design X ' , along with the earlier preferred ' B3 ' variant Battleship design were further refined through October of 1945 , when further design work was informally suspended on all but the new Mk III 16 inch turret . This work too was finally cancelled by the First Sea Lord in late 1949 and brought a final end to battleship design and construction for the Royal Navy .
= = = Hybrid aircraft carrier = = =
On 8 January 1941 , Rear Admiral Bruce Fraser , Third Sea Lord and Controller of the Navy asked the DNC to work up a hybrid aircraft carrier based on the Lion @-@ class hull . Two months later , a sketch design was presented for consideration , but it was not well liked by the participants . This design retained all three main gun turrets and the flight deck was deemed too short to be useful . A revised version with only the two forward turrets retained was requested and was ready in July . In this design , the displacement ranged from 44 @,@ 750 long tons ( 45 @,@ 470 t ) at standard load and 51 @,@ 000 long tons ( 52 @,@ 000 t ) at deep load . The design 's dimensions included a waterline length of 800 feet ( 243 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 115 feet ( 35 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 29 feet 6 inches ( 9 @.@ 0 m ) . The flight deck was 500 feet ( 152 @.@ 4 m ) long and had a width of 73 feet ( 22 @.@ 3 m ) . The machinery was unchanged , but 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of additional oil increased her endurance to 14 @,@ 750 nautical miles ( 27 @,@ 320 km ; 16 @,@ 970 mi ) at 10 knots . The hybrid 's armament consisted of six 16 @-@ inch guns in two triple turrets , sixteen 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch guns and eight octuple 2 @-@ pounder mounts . Twelve fighters and two torpedo bombers could be carried . The Director of Naval Gunnery was particularly pungent in his assessment of the design , " The functions and requirements of carriers and of surface gun platforms are entirely incompatible ... the conceptions of these designs ... is evidently the result of an unresolved contest between a conscious acceptance of aircraft and a subconscious desire for a 1914 Fleet ... these abortions are the results of a psychological maladjustment . The necessary readjustments should result from a proper re @-@ analysis of the whole question , what would be a balanced fleet in 1945 , 1950 or 1955 ? " Not surprisingly , the design was rejected .
= = Construction = =
Six Lion @-@ class ships were planned , two each in the 1938 , 1939 , and 1940 Naval Programmes . The first pair , Lion and Temeraire , were ordered on 28 February 1939 from Vickers Armstrongs and Cammell Laird respectively . Lion was laid down at Vickers ' Walker , Newcastle upon Tyne shipyard on 4 July while Temeraire preceded her at Birkenhead on 1 June . Contracts for Conqueror and Thunderer were awarded on 15 August to John Brown and Fairfield . It is uncertain if Conqueror was actually ordered , but Thunderer was not . Neither ship was ever laid down .
After the start of World War II in September , construction continued desultorily until October when it was suspended by the Admiralty for one year to release labour and material for escorts needed to protect merchant convoys . Construction of the 16 @-@ inch guns and their turrets was to continue , however . The question was raised again on 12 November 1940 and the decision to suspend construction was reaffirmed . All three ships ordered were cancelled in 1942 , but Lion 's keel was not scrapped until after the end of the war . Only four 16 @-@ inch guns , and no turrets , were ever completed .
= No. 84 Wing RAAF =
No. 84 Wing is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) transport wing . Coming under the control of Air Mobility Group ( AMG ) , it is headquartered at RAAF Base Richmond , New South Wales . The wing comprises No. 34 Squadron , operating Boeing 737 and Bombardier Challenger 604 VIP jets ; No. 37 Squadron , operating Lockheed Martin C @-@ 130J Super Hercules medium transports ; and a technical training unit , No. 285 Squadron .
Formed in 1944 for army co @-@ operation duties in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II , No. 84 Wing operated a mix of aircraft including CAC Boomerangs , CAC Wirraways , Auster AOPs and Bristol Beauforts , before disbanding in 1946 . It was re @-@ formed in 1991 as a tactical transport wing headquartered at RAAF Base Townsville , Queensland , comprising Nos. 35 and 38 Squadrons operating de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 4 Caribous . By 1996 , it had been augmented by No. 32 Squadron , operating Hawker Siddeley HS 748 trainer @-@ transports .
In 1998 , No. 84 Wing was reorganised as a special transport wing , headquartered at Richmond . The Caribous were transferred to No. 86 Wing and No. 84 Wing took over responsibility for No. 33 Squadron , operating Boeing 707 tanker @-@ transports , and No. 34 Squadron , operating VIP transports , in addition to controlling No. 32 Squadron . By mid @-@ 2006 , No. 32 Squadron had converted to Beech King Air 350s and transferred to Air Force Training Group , while No. 84 Wing had assumed control of No. 285 Squadron and Air Movements Training and Development Unit ( AMTDU ) . AMTDU was subsequently moved under the direct aegis of ALG , and No. 33 Squadron under No. 86 Wing , following the retirement of the 707s . No. 37 Squadron , by then the RAAF 's sole Hercules unit , was transferred from No. 86 Wing to No. 84 Wing in 2010 . No. 35 Squadron , which had been merged with No. 38 Squadron in 2000 , was re @-@ formed under No. 84 Wing in 2013 to operate Alenia C @-@ 27J Spartan tactical transport commencing in 2015 ; the squadron was detached from the wing in January 2014 but is scheduled to return as the Spartan becomes operational .
= = History = =
= = = Army cooperation formation = = =
The Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) established two army cooperation wings in the South West Pacific Theatre late in World War II . They were , as described by the official history of the RAAF in the Pacific , " essentially non @-@ offensive in character " , responsible for reconnaissance , artillery spotting , supply drops to ground forces , spraying DDT to combat malaria , and guiding close support aircraft to their objectives . The wing 's aircraft could also carry out their own strikes on " targets of opportunity " .
No. 84 ( Army Cooperation ) Wing was formed on 11 September 1944 in Cairns , Queensland . Commanded by Group Captain Bill Hely , it comprised No. 5 ( Tactical Reconnaissance ) Squadron , No. 17 Air Observation Post ( AOP ) Flight , No. 10 Communication Unit , and No. 39 Operational Base Unit . The wing arrived at Torokina in October to begin supporting Australian troops during the Bougainville Campaign . No. 5 Squadron , equipped with eighteen CAC Boomerangs and four CAC Wirraways , was assigned to mark targets for F4U Corsairs of the Royal New Zealand Air Force . The Austers of No. 17 AOP Flight were used for reconnaissance and courier work , becoming , in the words of the official history , " the eyes of the battalion commanders " . No. 10 Communications Unit flew Avro Ansons and Bristol Beauforts on courier , reconnaissance , supply , and anti @-@ malarial spraying missions ; it was renamed No. 10 Local Air Supply Unit in March 1945 . Between December 1944 and January 1945 , the wing lost one Auster , one Wirraway , and one Boomerang on operations .
Despite suffering shortages of pilots and equipment , No. 84 Wing was generally able to keep pace with the army 's requirements . A detachment of No. 36 Squadron , flying C @-@ 47 Dakotas , was employed to augment the wing 's supply capabilities . Up until the end of June 1945 , No. 5 Squadron had flown almost 2 @,@ 000 sorties and No. 17 AOP Flight over 1 @,@ 300 , while No. 10 Local Air Supply Unit and the No. 36 Squadron detachment had accounted for almost 1 @,@ 000 between them . As the navigational efficiency of the New Zealander pilots increased , demands on the Boomerangs and Wirraways lessened , and the bulk of the reconnaissance duties fell to the Austers of No. 17 AOP Flight .
When the Pacific War ended in August 1945 , No. 10 Local Air Supply Unit was tasked with dropping leaflets announcing the news over Japanese positions . That month , Group Captain D.R. Chapman succeeded Hely as No. 84 Wing 's commander . The end of hostilities led to morale problems owing to inactivity and the uncertainties of demobilisation ; Chapman sent Northern Command headquarters a frank report to this effect , its tone earning him a rebuke from the Air Officer Commanding , Air Commodore Allan Walters . No. 17 AOP Flight was disbanded on Bougainville in December , followed a month later by No. 10 Local Air Supply Unit . No. 5 Squadron transferred to RAAF Station Pearce , Western Australia , in January 1946 , and disbanded in October that year . No. 84 Wing headquarters completed " reduction to nucleus " at Bougainville on 29 January 1946 . It departed Torakina and arrived in Essendon , Victoria , on 28 February , disbanding there on 6 March .
= = = Transport formation = = =
No. 84 Wing was re @-@ established as a tactical transport wing under the newly formed Operational Support Group ( OSG ) at RAAF Base Townsville , Queensland , in February 1991 . It comprised two squadrons of de Havilland DHC @-@ 4 Caribous : No. 35 Squadron , located at Townsville , and No. 38 Squadron , located at RAAF Base Richmond , New South Wales . Prior to this , the two squadrons had been under the control of Tactical Transport Group , OSG 's predecessor at Townsville . No. 84 Wing 's primary purpose was to support Australian Army operations and exercises , as well as the Parachute Training School at HMAS Albatross in Nowra , New South Wales . It also maintained detachments for search @-@ and @-@ rescue and local transport duties at RAAF Base Darwin , Northern Territory , and RAAF Base Pearce , Western Australia . The Pearce detachment ( No. 38 Squadron Detachment A ) was formed from No. 2 Flying Training School 's Caribou Flight on 1 March 1991 . In addition to their military role , the Caribous provided assistance to the civil community in the form of disaster relief and medical evacuation . The aircraft frequently operated in Papua New Guinea , for training and humanitarian missions . No. 38 Squadron , responsible for all Caribou aircrew conversion and operations training , transferred to RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , in October 1992 . Beginning the following month , seven of the fleet 's twenty @-@ one Caribous were retired to storage at Amberley for use as spare parts . By mid @-@ 1996 , No. 84 Wing was under the control of Air Lift Group ( ALG ) , located at Richmond , and had been augmented by No. 32 Squadron , operating Hawker Siddeley HS 748s for navigational training , VIP transport , and fisheries surveillance out of RAAF Base East Sale in Victoria .
In January 1998 , No. 84 Wing was reorganised as a special transport wing under ALG , " special transport " meaning activities not directly related to army support , such as carrying VIPs . Its headquarters was relocated to Richmond . In addition to No. 32 Squadron , its complement included No. 33 Squadron , operating Boeing 707s for air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling and VIP transport out of Richmond , and No. 34 Squadron , operating Falcon 900s for VIP transport out of RAAF Base Fairbairn in Canberra . Nos. 35 and 38 Squadrons meanwhile transferred to No. 86 Wing , also headquartered at Richmond . Two of No. 33 Squadron 's five 707s were soon employed to form No. 84 Wing Detachment A in Kuwait , as part of Operation Southern Watch . On 5 March , one of the 707s undertook the first operational aerial tanker mission since the squadron 's re @-@ formation in 1983 , when it refuelled six Panavia Tornados of the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) over Saudi Arabia . The detachment subsequently refuelled US EA @-@ 6 Prowlers , F / A @-@ 18 Hornets , and AV @-@ 8 Harriers , as well as RAF Harriers , in addition to the Tornados . From March to September 2002 , two 707s formed No. 84 Wing Detachment as part of Australia 's contribution to the war in Afghanistan . Located at Manas Air Base in Kyrgyzstan , the 707s provided aerial refuelling to coalition aircraft operating in the theatre , their efforts earning No. 84 Wing a Meritorious Unit Citation .
No. 34 Squadron 's fleet of five Falcon 900s was replaced by two Boeing 737 Business Jets and three Bombardier Challenger 604s in July 2002 . The arrival of the new jets also permitted the Air Force to cease using No. 33 Squadron 's 707s in the VIP transport role . In concert with the No. 84 Wing Navigation Training Aircraft Detachment , No. 32 Squadron completed its conversion from the HS 748 to the Beech King Air 350 in December 2004 . By mid @-@ 2006 , the squadron had been transferred to Air Force Training Group and No. 84 Wing had assumed control of two Richmond @-@ based units from the defunct No. 85 Wing , No. 285 Squadron and the Air Movements Training and Development Unit ( AMTDU ) . No. 285 Squadron undertook instruction of technical staff , and ground @-@ based aircrew training using Hercules and Boeing 707 flight simulators . AMTDU was responsible for developing and disseminating new techniques in air transport operations . It was later moved under the direct control of Headquarters ALG . No. 33 Squadron retired its 707s in June 2008 , and subsequently relocated to Amberley under the control of No. 86 Wing .
No. 37 Squadron transferred from No. 86 Wing to No. 84 Wing in October 2010 . It operated a mix of Lockheed C @-@ 130H Hercules and Lockheed Martin C @-@ 130J Super Hercules , No. 86 Wing having consolidated all its C @-@ 130 operations in the one squadron , prior to re @-@ equipping No. 36 Squadron with the Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III . The Hercules , along with Globemasters and King Airs , were employed for flood relief in Queensland and Victoria early in 2011 . In February , Hercules and Globemasters transported medical staff and equipment to aid victims of the Christchurch earthquake . The same year , No. 34 Squadron provided VIP transport during the visits to Australia by Queen Elizabeth II and US President Barack Obama . No. 37 Squadron 's C @-@ 130H Hercules were retired in November 2012 ; the C @-@ 130Js are expected to remain in service until about 2030 . In February 2013 , the RAAF marked ten years rotating a detachment of three C @-@ 130s through the Middle East Area of Operations ( MEAO ) to support the Australian contribution to the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq , a rotation maintained by No. 37 Squadron under the auspices of No. 84 Wing . Its operations having been absorbed by No. 38 Squadron in 2000 , No. 35 Squadron was re @-@ established under No. 84 Wing on 14 January 2013 , to operate ten Alenia C @-@ 27J Spartan tactical transports out of Richmond . The squadron was transferred to the C @-@ 27J Transition Team on 21 January 2014 , and is expected to return to No. 84 Wing 's control upon the Spartan reaching initial operating capability ; the first of the new aircraft arrived in Australia on 25 June 2015 . On 1 April 2014 , ALG was renamed Air Mobility Group .
= Charlie Macartney =
Charles George " Charlie " Macartney ( 27 June 1886 – 9 September 1958 ) was an Australian cricketer who played in 35 Tests between 1907 and 1926 . He was known as " The Governor @-@ General " in reference to his authoritative batting style and his flamboyant strokeplay , which drew comparisons with his close friend and role model Victor Trumper , regarded as one of the most elegant batsmen in cricketing history . Sir Donald Bradman — generally regarded as the greatest batsman in history — cited Macartney 's dynamic batting as an inspiration in his cricket career .
He started his career as a bowling all @-@ rounder . He made his Test debut in 1907 , primarily as a left arm orthodox spinner who was considered to be a useful lower @-@ middle order right @-@ hand batsman . As Macartney was initially selected for his flexibility , his position in the batting order was frequently shuffled and he was largely ineffective . His most noteworthy Test contribution in his early career was a match @-@ winning ten wicket haul at Headingley in 1909 , before being dropped in the 1910 – 11 Australian season . It was around this time that Macartney befriended Trumper and began to transform himself from a bowler who batted in a defensive and technically correct manner , into an audacious attacking batsman . He reclaimed his Test position and made his maiden Test century in the same season , before establishing himself as the leading batsman in the team .
The First World War stopped all first @-@ class cricket and Macartney enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force . Upon the resumption of cricket , Macartney stamped himself as one of the leading batsmen in the world with his performances during the 1921 Ashes tour . Macartney produced an Australian record score in England of 345 against Nottinghamshire . The innings was the fastest triple century in first @-@ class cricket and the highest score made by a batsman in a single day of play . He reached 300 in 205 minutes and the innings took less than four hours . Macartney topped the batting averages and run @-@ scoring aggregates , which saw him named as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1922 . Wisden said that he was , " by many degrees the most brilliant and individual Australian batsman of the present day " . After missing the 1924 – 25 series due to mental illness or a recurrence of war injuries , Macartney departed international cricket at the peak of his powers on the 1926 tour of England . He became the second Australian to score a century in the first session of a Test match , and did so on a sticky wicket conducive to bowling . This was part of a sequence of three consecutive Test centuries as he led the batting charts . Macartney was posthumously inducted into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame in 2007 .
= = Style = =
Macartney 's flair was compared to that of Victor Trumper , and his determination to that of Don Bradman , who is generally regarded as the finest batsman in cricketing history . His style was quite different from that of Trumper , but he generated fascination with his Trumper @-@ like daring and supreme confidence . Self @-@ taught to a greater extent than anyone else in Australia or England in his era , the 1922 Wisden Almanack described Macartney as " a triumph to individualism ... he is not a model to be copied " and " one of the most brilliant and attractive right @-@ handed batsmen in the history of Australian cricket " . His success was largely attributed to his eye , hand and foot co @-@ ordination .
Macartney was a short man , standing 160 cm ( 5 " 3 ) . When batting , he would unconventionally attempt to leg glance yorkers pitched on middle stump down to fine @-@ leg , and often lost his wicket in so doing . He was known for preferring his team @-@ mates to give him candid criticism rather than praise . In later life he condemned modern batsmen ; he would explain why he no longer watched cricket by saying " I can 't bear watching luscious half @-@ volleys being nudged gently back to bowlers " . Sir Neville Cardus wrote that " there was always chivalry in his cricket , a prancing sort of heroism . The dauntlessness of his play , the brave beauty and the original skill bring tears to my eyes yet . " In the late 1940s , Macartney received a letter from a compiler of Who 's Who in Australia , seeking information on his life . Macartney said that he had " no record of figures , nor am I concerned with them . My only interest is the manner in which the runs are compiled and how wickets are taken , and in the good of the game . " " Those sentiments " , wrote former Australian Test batsman Jack Fingleton , " summed up the cricket story of C. G. Macartney " .
An authoritative , combative stylist , Macartney 's élan and devastating strokemaking led Kent cricketer Kenneth Hutchings to dub him " The Governor @-@ General " . Fingleton noted that , early in his innings , Macartney had a strategy of aiming a shot straight at the bowler 's head , in order to rattle him and seize a psychological advantage . On one occasion , after reaching a century before lunch on the first day of a match , he immediately called for a bat change . He selected the heaviest bat from the batch that his team @-@ mate brought out and stated " Now I 'm going to have a hit " . His rate of scoring and boundary @-@ hitting subsequently increased . He possessed powerful hands , strong forearms and broad shoulders . Leg spinning Test team @-@ mate Arthur Mailey recalled that Macartney would often hit him for six in Sydney Grade Cricket matches . Grinning , he would say " Pitch another one there and I 'll hit you for a few more " . On the occasions when he lost his wicket attempting further long hits , Macartney 's grin remained , and he would remark " Wasn 't it good fun ? " The famed cricket writer RC Robertson @-@ Glasgow said
No other Australian batsman , not even Bradman , has approached Macartney for insolence of attack . He made slaves of bowlers . His batting suggested a racket player who hits winners from any position . Length could not curb him , and his defence was lost and included in his attack .
As a bowler , Macartney delivered the ball at a relatively fast pace for a left @-@ arm orthodox spinner , comparable in speed to Derek Underwood . He was known for his consistent length and his well @-@ concealed faster ball which often caught batsmen off guard . On sticky wickets , he was often incisive , and these conditions helped him take five wickets in an innings 17 times in his first @-@ class career . He was known for his miserly attitude , often giving the impression that he would rather bowl ten consecutive maidens rather than take wickets if it meant conceding runs . This extended to his off @-@ field activities , where he was considered careful with money . On the 1926 tour of England , he and Mailey visited a hat shop that had a tradition of giving souvenir hats to cricketers of touring Australian squads . When asked if he would like a similar style to the one he received in 1921 , Macartney referred to the hat on his head and replied " Not on your life . I 've been wearing this since you gave it to me in 1921 . " Macartney 's notorious fiscal obsessions irritated his captain Warwick Armstrong on the 1921 tour ; during the trip , he would hoard all manner of goods that were given to the team as gifts .
In 1909 , Australian team @-@ mate Trumper moved from Paddington , a suburb on Sydney 's south shore to Chatswood on the northern side of the harbour , where Macartney lived . Macartney and Trumper played together for Gordon Cricket Club on the north shore and became close friends . Macartney regularly practised on the Trumper family 's backyard turf pitch . Trumper 's relocation made more frequent meetings possible , since the Sydney Harbour Bridge was not to open until 1932 , and the only way of travelling between either side of the bay was by ferry . Trumper was regarded as the " crown prince of the golden age of cricket " , the finest and most stylish batsman of his era , and one of the most elegant strokemakers of all time . Under Trumper 's influence , Macartney became more audacious and adventurous ; Unlike their English counterparts , the Australians were proud of their spontaneous play . Macartney revered Trumper as both a cricketer and a person , and was to be a pall bearer when Trumper died in 1915 at the age of 37 . However , unlike Trumper , Macartney was known for his habit of " walking " , the act of leaving the ground before or contrary to an umpire 's decision if a batsman knows that he is out . On one occasion , Macartney felt so guilty that the umpire had incorrectly ruled him not out despite a clear edge that he attempted to throw his wicket away with a wild airborne shot . However , the ball went for six , and Trumper , his batting partner at the time , admonished him , saying that his good luck would be balanced by occasions when the umpire would give him out incorrectly .
= = Early years = =
Macartney was born in Maitland , New South Wales . He was taught to play cricket as a child by his maternal grandfather George Moore , a slow roundarm bowler who represented New South Wales in three first @-@ class matches against Victoria . The equipment consisted of small hand @-@ crafted bat made from cedar , and apples from the family orchard used as balls .
In 1898 , Macartney and his family moved from Maitland to Sydney . In his school cricketing career Macartney distinguished himself as an all @-@ rounder at Woollahra Superior and Chatswood public schools , before briefly attending Fort Street High School . Macartney asserted that school cricket was insignificant in his development , believing that he learned more about cricket during informal summer cricket games with his brother at the local park , with their dog acting as a fielder . It was during his school career that Macartney was noticed by incumbent Australian captain Monty Noble , who heaped praise on him in a newspaper article .
After leaving school , Macartney worked for a fruit and vegetable merchant near Sydney 's Sussex Street docks , honing his batting skills by practising without pads on a wooden wharf during his lunch break . At this stage in his career , he possessed a copybook technique and defensive style , something he was to discard for an audacious , self @-@ styled and attacking outlook .
In 1902 , Macartney joined North Sydney Cricket Club in the first division of Sydney Grade Cricket and then moved to the Gordon club in the outer northern suburbs when it was formed during the 1905 – 06 season . He played regularly for Gordon until 1933 – 34 when he was 47 , amassing 7648 runs at an average of 54 @.@ 62 . He was known for his dominant status at the Chatswood Oval . In one match , he lofted a ball out of the ground , over a railway line and onto an adjacent lawn bowling green , forcing the players to take evasive action .
= = First @-@ class debut = =
Macartney 's exploits were noticed by the State selectors , and he made his first class debut for New South Wales against Queensland at the start of the 1905 – 06 season . He made 56 in New South Wales ' first innings of 691 , and after not bowling in the first innings , he took 3 / 80 and his first catch in an innings victory . He then scored 70 not out in an innings triumph over South Australia . He failed to pass 25 in his remaining four matches for the season , but took at least one wicket in each game . In one match for his state against an Australian XI , Macartney took a total of 5 / 123 , including the wickets of Trumper and Australian Test captains Noble and Joe Darling . He was also run out in both innings . Aside from this match , New South Wales were victorious in the remaining five fixtures . He scored 185 runs at 26 @.@ 43 and took 15 wickets at 28 @.@ 20 in six matches .
Macartney continued his rise with a more productive and consistent second season with both the ball and bat . In his second match in 1906 – 07 , Macartney broke through for his first century , scoring 122 before taking match figures of 4 / 92 in an innings win over Queensland . In the next match , he took his first five @-@ wicket innings haul , recording figures of 5 / 18 and 2 / 17 in an innings win over South Australia , including leading Test batsman Clem Hill twice . Macartney took wickets in each match ; he ended the season with 405 runs at 40 @.@ 50 , with two further fifties , and took 30 wickets at 18 @.@ 20 in nine matches .
The following season , in 1907 – 08 , saw the arrival of England for a Test series . Macartney had a chance to stake his claim for national selection in a match for his state against the tourists . He made 9 and 13 , unbeaten in both innings , as his partners were dismissed cheaply and left him stranded . New South Wales made 101 and 96 and lost by 408 runs , with Macartney taking a total of 1 / 64 . He was selected for an Australian XI to play the tourists in an effective dress rehearsal for the Tests , and made 42 and took 4 / 36 in a drawn match . As a result , Macartney was selected to make his debut against England in the First Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground . He was viewed as a utility player , selected for the flexibility in his batting position and his left arm orthodox spin .
= = Test debut = =
Macartney had a moderately successful debut . He bowled three wicketless overs in the first innings , before scoring 35 in Australia 's reply while batting at No. 7 . He took one wicket , that of leading English batsman Wilfred Rhodes . With Australia needing 274 runs to win in the second innings , Noble decided that Macartney 's first innings effort warranted promotion to act as Trumper 's opening partner . He managed to score only nine , but Australia managed to scrape home to seal a two wicket victory . Macartney 's domestic form after his Test debut was sufficient for him to retain his position for the Second Test in Melbourne . Noble persevered with Macartney as Trumper 's opening partner and he scored 37 of an 84 run opening partnership in the first innings . He returned to the middle order in the second innings to score 54 and took a total of 1 / 55 as England squared the series with a narrow one wicket victory .
His most productive batting of the series came in the Third Test in Adelaide , when he scored 75 batting at No. 3 and took two wickets for 66 runs ( 2 / 66 ) in an Australian victory . His batting was largely ineffectual in the last two Tests ; he failed to score more than 30 in any innings as he was moved to No. 8 and then back to the opening position in the Fifth Test . Despite his confused role as a batsman , he contributed with the ball in the Fifth Test victory on a pitch amenable to spin , taking match figures of 5 / 66 . His first international series had yielded 273 runs at an average of 27 @.@ 30 and ten wickets at an average of 26 @.@ 60 . He tasted victory , with Australia taking the series 4 – 0 . His highest score of the season was 96 against England in a later match for New South Wales . The hosts were 12 runs short of victory with one wicket in hand when time ran out . Macartney scored 524 runs at 27 @.@ 58 and took 25 wickets at 28 @.@ 76 in 12 matches . In spite of his unsettled role in the batting line up , Macartney had performed well @-@ enough as an all @-@ rounder in the following domestic season in 1908 – 09 to be selected for the 1909 tour of England , his first overseas tour . Macartney took a total of 6 / 60 in an innings victory over South Australia in the first match of the season . He then scored 100 in the return match , and ended the six matches of the summer with 319 runs at 53 @.@ 17 and nine wickets at 29 @.@ 89 .
= = First tour of England = =
Macartney started his tour of England by taking match figures of 5 / 86 in a nine @-@ wicket win over Northamptonshire . He took at least two wickets in each of the five matches leading up to the Tests , with 5 / 24 against Oxford University . He totalled 17 wickets at 15 @.@ 18 and scored 141 runs at 28 @.@ 20 .
Macartney took 3 / 21 in the first innings of the First Test , removing captain Archie MacLaren , CB Fry and leading batsman Jack Hobbs , but managed only 0 / 35 in the second innings as England scored 0 / 105 to win by ten innings . He then scored five and was wicketless as Australia leveled the series with a nine @-@ wicket win in the Second Test . He then scored 124 , his only century of the tour , in a non @-@ first @-@ class match against Western Union .
His bowling confounded the English team in the Third Test at Headingley in Leeds , where he took 7 / 58 in the first innings and 4 / 27 in the second . It was his best innings and match bowling figures in Tests and helped win the Test and eventually retain The Ashes . Australia had struggled to post 188 in their first innings on a pitch conducive to spin bowling , with Macartney scoring only four . Australia responded with a dual spin attack , with Noble bowling off spin in tandem with Macartney 's left arm orthodox . Noble ( 0 / 22 from 13 overs ) tied down the batsman , allowing Macartney to attack at batsman at the other end . He bowled with a high trajectory , tempting the batsmen to attack him and then varied his bowling speed to surprise them . He had Jack Sharp stumped after luring him from the crease and bowled Jack Hobbs with a faster ball . Other victims included English captain MacLaren , JT Tyldesley , George Hirst and Sydney Barnes . England were bowled out for 182 and Australia replied with 207 ; Macartney scored 18 . Australia went on to win by 126 runs after Macartney took four more wickets in the second innings , removing MacLaren , Tyldesley , Rhodes and Barnes to help dismiss the hosts for 87 . Macartney then made a half @-@ century and took a wicket in each of the last two Tests , both of which were drawn to hand Australia a 2 – 1 series win .
Macartney 's batting in the Test series was largely unsuccessful . He made two fifties , but otherwise failed to pass 20 and ended with 153 runs at 19 @.@ 13 . In his era , the expectation was that batsmen would be able to bat in a variety of positions and Macartney was gradually moved from seventh down to tenth in the batting order by the end of the tour . Largely due to his efforts at Headingley , his bowling figures were more impressive ; he ended the Tests with 16 wickets at 16 @.@ 13 . At this stage of his career , Macartney was regarded as a bowling all @-@ rounder . He was only eighth on the batting averages for the tour , with 503 first @-@ class runs at 16 @.@ 77 , but took 71 wickets at an average of 17 @.@ 46 in eight matches .
Upon returning to the southern hemisphere , Macartney headed to New Zealand for a stint with Otago instead of playing in Australia in 1909 – 10 , due to attractiveness of the foreign outfit 's remuneration . The period was unsuccessful for Otago — all three matches were lost — but Macartney was prolific as an individual . He took match figures of 7 / 68 against Canterbury and 7 / 81 in the first innings of a game against Australia , removing Test teammates Warwick Armstrong and Warren Bardsley . He ended with 17 wickets at 17 @.@ 53 and scored 132 runs at 22 @.@ 00 .
Macartney started poorly in the home series against the touring South Africans in the Test series of 1910 – 11 . In the first three Tests , he accumulated 15 runs in five innings and took a solitary wicket . As a result , he was dropped for the Fourth Test . Up to this point he had not passed 45 in 13 innings for the season and taken only seven wickets in seven matches . He then made 119 and 126 for New South Wales against South Africa and took match figures of 4 / 155 as the tourists fell to a 44 @-@ run defeat . This prompted the selectors to restore him to the Test team , and Macartney bounced back with his first Test century , making 137 in the first innings and 56 in the second in just 40 minutes , as Australia completed a seven @-@ wicket win . It was his third century in as many first class innings . The late @-@ season hat @-@ trick of centuries pushed Macartney 's season total to 609 runs at 33 @.@ 83 and 10 wickets at 54 @.@ 90 in ten matches .
The 1911 – 12 season started strongly for Macartney . He scored 122 and took 5 / 81 as New South Wales defeated Queensland by an innings . However , the season went downhill from there ; Macartney failed to pass 30 in the next ten innings and took only three wickets in the next six matches . As a result , he was left out of the playing XI and made twelfth man for the first three Tests against the touring England team .
= = Omission and recall in 1912 = =
Macartney 's omission was part of the most infamous disputes in Australian cricket history and led to a fracas . Australian captain and selector Clem Hill wanted to include Macartney for the Third Test , but another member of the panel , former player Peter McAlister objected and said that Hill should omit himself if he wanted Macartney to play . Tensions between the two selectors were high , and came to a head in a selection meeting ahead of the Fourth Test . McAlister criticised Hill 's tactics and policies towards his bowlers , provoking an exchange of insults regarding the other 's leadership ability . Hill then bloodied McAlister with a powerful blow to the nose and the ensuing brawl lasted between 10 and 20 minutes . Furniture was knocked across the room , artwork shattered and Hill had to be restrained from throwing McAlister out of the third floor window , before resigning as a selector .
Eventually , Macartney was recalled for the Fifth Test against England and scored 26 and 27 and took a total of 1 / 54 in a defeat . Macartney scored 300 runs at 27 @.@ 27 and took nine wickets at 32 @.@ 78 in eight first @-@ class matches for the season . Macartney wrote later that " persistent ill @-@ feeling seriously affected the morale of the side " .
Macartney then toured England for the 1912 Triangular Test Tournament , which also included South Africa . He was not in the original touring party , but six senior players including Hill and vice @-@ captain Warwick Armstrong and leading batsman Victor Trumper withdrew from the tour due to a dispute with the board . Macartney was thus given a late call @-@ up .
Macartney scored 84 but the tourists started on a bad note , losing to Nottinghamshire . He then scored 127 against Northamptonshire , 208 against Essex , 123 and 25 not out against Surrey and 74 against the Marylebone Cricket Club in four consecutive matches . Australia won the first two by an innings and the latter two by seven and five wickets respectively . Up to this point , Macartney had only claimed a solitary wicket . He then took match figures of 6 / 60 in a ten @-@ wicket win over Oxford University .
Australia then defeated South Africa in their first Test of the tournament . Macartney made 21 in an innings victory and did not bowl . Macartney 's batting waned in the next seven tour matches , passing 50 only three times in ten innings . However , he did take 13 wickets , including 6 / 54 against Yorkshire . Macartney then scored 99 in a drawn Test against England at Lord 's that did not reach the second innings . Wisden regarded the innings as his best for the season . Macartney added half @-@ centuries in consecutive county matches and after three further matches without passing 21 , the Tests resumed .
Macartney scored nine and took 3 / 29 in a ten @-@ wicket win over South Africa , and then scored 142 and 121 in the next match against Sussex . The next Test against England was then washed out in the first innings ; Macartney neither batted nor bowled . The following match against South Africa did not reach the second innings and Australia then lost to England by 244 runs in the final , with Macartney taking a total of 2 / 67 and scoring four and 30 . It was a barren August for Macartney , who did not pass 35 and took only six wickets in six first @-@ class matches . However , he finished the tour strongly , scoring 176 against the South of England and 71 against CB Fry 's XI in the last two matches .
Macartney scored 2 @,@ 207 runs during the tour at an average of 45 @.@ 04 . During the English season , he reached the peak of his performance as an all @-@ rounder , taking 38 wickets . He made six centuries , including two in one match against Sussex . Apart from his 99 at Lord 's , Macartney did not pass 34 in the other Tests and ended with 197 runs at 32 @.@ 83 . He did not bowl heavily during the series , taking six wickets at 23 @.@ 66 . It was not a happy tour for the Australians ; without the senior players , there were frequent reports of drunken brawls and verbal abuse towards the locals . Macartney was one of only four players to accept the guaranteed tour fee of 400 pounds ; the others signed up to a percentage share of the profits and the commercial failure of the tour left them with less than half of the flat fee .
There were no further Test matches before the First World War . The 1912 – 13 Australian season was a short one for Macartney , but he was in rare form , scoring 125 , 96 , 94 , 76 not out , 91 , 10 and 154 in four matches , to total 646 runs at 107 @.@ 66 . He also took four wickets at 30 @.@ 50 .
During an unofficial tour of the Australian team to the United States and Canada during the off season in 1913 , which consisted of more than 50 matches , the overwhelming majority of which were not first @-@ class , Macartney scored 2 @,@ 390 runs at 45 @.@ 92 and took 189 wickets at 3 @.@ 81 , topping both the batting and bowling averages . He also made the most centuries ( seven ) and the highest individual score of 186 against a combined Canada and United States team . Macartney played in only five first @-@ class matches and scored two centuries in these fixtures . In two non @-@ first @-@ class matches , he took 11 / 23 and 10 / 29 in an innings .
The 1913 – 14 domestic season was to be the last season of cricket before the outbreak of World War I. Macartney captained New South Wales for the first time against Tasmania . He had another prolific season with the bat ; in six matches he scored 892 runs at 111 @.@ 50 in nine innings . He scored 201 in an innings victory over Victoria , four other centuries including a 195 , and two fifties . With Macartney in such form , five of the matches were won by an innings , and another by nine wickets . The record was blotted only by a loss to South Australia by 19 runs . Macartney took two wickets at 32 @.@ 50 . Macartney was selected for the five @-@ Test tour of South Africa in 1914 – 15 , but the campaign was called off due to the war .
Despite his success on the field , Macartney still had a regular job outside of cricket , as with most cricketers of the era . In 1914 , he left his job on the Sydney wharves and joined the staff of New South Wales Railways & Tramways in the Chief Mechanical Engineer 's Office at Redfern . The following season , he scored 191 runs at 38 @.@ 20 including a century in three matches . He did not take a wicket .
= = Post @-@ war Test career = =
World War I interrupted Macartney 's career as competitive cricket was cancelled . In January 1916 , he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . In July 1917 he was posted to France as a temporary Warrant Officer in the 3rd Division Artillery . In 1918 , he was awarded the Meritorious Service Medal for gallantry and reached the rank of corporal . The death of his father later in the year led to his repatriation from Britain and prevented his appearance with the AIF cricket team .
The war years divided Macartney 's career in two . Prior to the war , he was primarily known as a bowling all @-@ rounder . In 21 Tests , he had taken 34 wickets at 26 and scored 879 runs at 27 , with one century . After the war , Macartney transformed himself into one of the greatest batsmen of his era . In his 14 post @-@ war Tests , he scored 1 @,@ 252 runs at nearly 70 , with six centuries . His bowling became more sporadic , taking just 11 more wickets , averaging 32 .
Macartney resumed Test cricket when Australia hosted England in 1920 – 21 , and was one of only four players remaining from before the war . However , he only played in two of the Tests due to illness and injury . His early season form was ominous for the tourists . Macartney scored 161 in guiding New South Wales to a successful run @-@ chase of 4 / 335 over the Englishmen . He then scored 96 and 30 for an Australian XI against the tourists in a dress rehearsal for the Tests .
In the First Test , playing as an opening batsman , he struck 19 in the first innings . Australia 's new post @-@ war skipper Warwick Armstrong felt that Macartney would be more effective at number three , and in the second innings , he made a free @-@ flowing 69 in a 111 @-@ run second @-@ wicket stand with Herbie Collins as Australia went on to inflict a 3
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factors " . The same point was made by William of Codineston : " the lord de Briouze and his justices , officials , and servants hated William Cragh very much and rejoiced greatly at his hanging and death " .
For the convenience of other witnesses the commission moved to Hereford , where it resumed on 18 August 1307 . The other six testifying to Cragh 's execution included the hanged man himself , despite William de Briouze 's stated belief that he had died of natural causes about two years earlier . The official language of the proceedings was ecclesiastical Latin , but Cragh spoke only Welsh , therefore two Franciscan friars from Hereford – John Young and Maurice of Pencoyd – were recruited as translators . Cragh is identified in the commission 's records by his Welsh name , William ap Rhys , " of the parish of Swansea in the diocese of Saint Davids " . Of the eight other witnesses called , five testified in French and three in English . In his evidence Cragh stated that he believed himself to have been about 28 at the time of his hanging , and that his last conscious memory as he was dangling at the end of the rope was of the noise made by the crowd when Trahaern was hanged beside him . He denied his earlier story of having seen a vision of a white @-@ clad bishop while he was hanging from the gallows , and instead claimed that the Virgin Mary had appeared to him on the morning of his execution , accompanied by " a lordly figure " she introduced as " St Thomas " , who she said would save him from the gallows . Under questioning Cragh said that he presumed the figure to be Cantilupe because he had been on pilgrimage to Cantilupe 's shrine in Hereford , and because on the day of his imprisonment he had " bent a penny ... to the honour of Saint Thomas so that he should liberate him " . After hearing his testimony the commissioners physically examined Cragh , to confirm that he was indeed the man who had been hanged 18 years earlier . Although they found no marks around his neck they did discover some scarring on his tongue , according to Cragh caused by him having bitten it while hanging .
The investigation was conducted in an inquisitorial style ; witnesses were not expected to make statements but only to respond to questions asked of them . Bartlett has observed that some of the questions asked by the commissioners were rather leading . During Cragh 's interrogation , for instance , he was asked if " in his country after the time of his hanging , it was publicly and commonly ascribed , and still is ascribed , to a miracle performed by the merits of the Lord Saint Thomas that he obtained and recovered life after the hanging " . Cragh of course had no motivation other than to answer " yes " , which he did .
= = Aftermath = =
Nothing more is known of Cragh after his testimony to the papal commission in 1307 . Thirty @-@ eight posthumous miracles attributed to Thomas de Cantilupe were examined by the commissioners and submitted for consideration by the pope and his advisors . Twelve were rejected after further analysis , including Cragh 's resurrection , but no reasons were recorded . Pope John XXII formally announced Cantilupe 's canonisation on 17 April 1320 , thirty @-@ eight years after the new saint 's death .
= Cyclops @-@ class monitor =
The Cyclops class monitor was a group of four ironclad breastwork monitors built for the Royal Navy during the 1870s . They were slightly modified versions of the Cerberus @-@ class monitors . The ships were ordered to satisfy demands for local defence during the war scare of 1870 , but the pace of construction slowed down tremendously as the perceived threat of war declined . The Cyclops @-@ class monitors spent most of their careers in reserve and were finally sold off in 1903 .
= = Design and description = =
The immediate reason why these ships were ordered was for local coast defence during the war scare during the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 , but they were chosen for several other reasons . They were small and cheap , and their shallow draft was thought to limit them to defensive operations , which appealed to economy and defence @-@ minded Members of Parliament . The Admiralty , however , envisioned them attacking shallow @-@ water ports that larger ironclads could not enter and operating in the shallow waters of the Baltic Sea .
The ships used the basic design of the Cerberus @-@ class breastwork monitors to reduce design and construction time . Their hulls were completed very quickly , but the pace of building reduced as the likelihood of their immediate use diminished . They were delivered to the Royal dockyards in 1872 and commissioned for fitting out , but a number of years elapsed before that process was completed as little sense of urgency remained .
The ships had an length between perpendiculars of 225 feet ( 68 @.@ 6 m ) , a beam of 45 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 m ) , and a draught of 16 feet 3 inches ( 4 @.@ 95 m ) at deep load . They displaced 3 @,@ 480 long tons ( 3 @,@ 540 t ) . Their crew consisted of 156 officers and men .
The Cyclops @-@ class ships and other ships of her type were described by Admiral George Alexander Ballard as being like " full @-@ armoured knights riding on donkeys , easy to avoid but bad to close with . " While not unfit to face heavy weather their decks were frequently awash in even a moderate sea . Their accommodations were rated the worst in the fleet , referred to by ordinary seamen as " ratholes with tinned air " .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Cyclops @-@ class ships had two steam engines , each driving a single 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) propeller . Cyclops and Hydra had 4 @-@ cylinder inverted compound steam engines made by John Elder that had a working pressure of 60 psi ( 414 kPa ; 4 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced a total of 1 @,@ 472 – 1 @,@ 528 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 098 – 1 @,@ 139 kW ) on sea trials which gave the ships a maximum speed around 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) . The engines used by Hecate and Gorgon were built by Ravenhill and were simple horizontal 4 @-@ cylinder direct acting steam engines . Their working pressure was 34 psi ( 234 kPa ; 2 kgf / cm2 ) and they produced a total of 1 @,@ 579 – 1 @,@ 709 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 177 – 1 @,@ 274 kW ) for about the same speed . The first pair of ships carried 250 long tons ( 250 t ) of coal while the second pair carried 270 long tons ( 270 t ) . This was enough to steam 3 @,@ 000 nmi ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships mounted a pair of 10 @-@ inch rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns in each turret . The shell of the 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) gun weighed 407 pounds ( 184 @.@ 6 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 18 long tons ( 18 t ) . The gun had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 365 ft / s ( 416 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 12 @.@ 9 in ( 330 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells . They were mounted on compound pivoting carriages that used hydraulic jacks to elevate and depress the guns .
= = = Armour = = =
The Cyclops @-@ class ships had a complete waterline belt of wrought iron that was 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick amidships and thinned to 6 inches ( 152 mm ) at the ends . The superstructure and conning tower was fully armoured , the reason it was called a breastwork , with 8 – 9 inches ( 203 – 229 mm ) of wrought iron . The gun turrets had 10 inches on their faces and nine inches on the sides and rear . All of the vertical armour was backed by 9 – 11 inches ( 229 – 279 mm ) of teak . The decks were 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 @.@ 1 mm ) thick .
= = Construction = =
Each of the ships was towed to Devonport from the builders in 1872 . They were commissioned and placed into reserve until finally completed .
= = = Refit = = =
Although a recommendation had been made while the ships were still under construction to extend the superstructure out to the sides of the ship to improve their stability and habitability , this was not acted upon until they were refitted during the 1880s . This refit also strengthened the breastwork and upper decks , added another watertight bulkhead as well as a false keel . Four quick @-@ firing 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns were added on the breastwork for torpedo boat defence as well as five machine guns and several searchlights . This increased their crew to approximately 191 men and added 80 long tons ( 81 t ) to their displacement .
= = Service = =
HMS Gorgon was the first ship completed and she served as tender to HMS Cambridge , the gunnery school ship at Devonport , from 1874 to 1877 . All four ships were commissioned between April and August 1878 during the war scare during the Russo @-@ Turkish War for service with Admiral Sir Cooper Key 's Particular Service Squadron in Portland Harbour . She resumed her duties as tender to HMS Cambridge until she was refitted in 1888 – 89 . All four of the ships of the class participated in the annual fleet manoeuvers in 1887 , 1889 – 90 and 1892 ; in between times they were in Fleet Reserve . HMS Gorgon , like all of her sisters , was placed on the non @-@ effective list in 1901 and sold in 1903 for £ 8 @,@ 400 .
HMS Hydra was the next ship to be completed . After her service with the Particular Service Squadron she was paid off at Sheerness and served as tender to HMS Duncan . The ship was refitted in 1888 – 89 and was in Fleet Reserve at Chatham until 1901 .
HMS Cyclops , the lead ship of the class , was the third ship to be completed . She was placed in 1st Reserve after her completion . The ship was paid off at Chatham in August 1878 and refitted in 1887 – 89 .
HMS Hecate was the fourth and final ship of the class to be completed . She paid off at Devonport after her service with the Particular Service Squadron . The ship was refitted in 1885 – 86 and was placed into reserve at Devonport afterwards .
= Al @-@ Mu 'tadid =
Abu 'l @-@ Abbas Ahmad ibn Talha al @-@ Muwaffaq ( 854 or 861 – 5 April 902 ) , better known by his regnal name al @-@ Mu 'tadid bi @-@ llah ( Arabic : المعتضد بالله , " Seeking Support in God " ) was the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad from 892 until his death in 902 .
Al @-@ Mu 'tadid was the son of al @-@ Muwaffaq , who was the regent and virtual ruler of the Abbasid state during the reign of his brother , Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tamid . As a prince , the future al @-@ Mu 'tadid served under his father in various military campaigns , most notably in the suppression of the Zanj Rebellion , in which he played a major role . When al @-@ Muwaffaq died in June 891 al @-@ Mu 'tadid succeeded him as regent . He quickly sidelined his cousin and heir @-@ apparent al @-@ Mufawwad , and when al @-@ Mu 'tamid died in October 892 , he succeeded to the throne . Like his father , al @-@ Mu 'tadid 's power depended on his close relations with the army , first forged in the campaigns against the Zanj and reinforced in later expeditions which the Caliph led in person : al @-@ Mu 'tadid would prove to be the most militarily active of all Abbasid caliphs . Through his energy and ability , he succeeded in restoring to the Abbasid state some of the power and provinces it had lost during the turmoil of the previous decades .
In a series of campaigns he recovered the Jazira , Thughur and Jibal , and effected a rapprochement with the Saffarids in the east and the Tulunids in the west that secured their — albeit largely nominal — recognition of caliphal suzerainty . These successes came at the cost of gearing the economy almost exclusively towards maintenance of the army , which resulted in the expansion and rise to power of the central fiscal bureaucracy and contributed to the Caliph 's lasting reputation for avarice . Al @-@ Mu 'tadid was also renowned for his cruelty when punishing criminals , and subsequent chroniclers record his extensive and ingenious use of torture . His reign also saw the permanent move of the capital back to Baghdad , where he engaged in major building activities .
Despite his successes , al @-@ Mu 'tadid 's reign was ultimately too short to effect a lasting reversal of the Caliphate 's fortunes , and the " Abbasid revival " that he spearheaded was too dependent on the presence of capable personalities at the helm of the state . The brief reign of his less able son and heir , al @-@ Muktafi , still saw some major gains , but his later successors lacked his energy . In addition , the factionalism within the bureaucracy that had become apparent during the later years of al @-@ Mu 'tadid 's reign would debilitate the Abbasid government for decades to come , leading to the subjugation of the Caliphate to a series of military strongmen , culminating in the conquest of Baghdad by the Buyids in 946 .
= = Early life = =
Al @-@ Mu 'tadid was born Ahmad , the son of Talha , one of the sons of the Caliph al @-@ Mutawakkil ( r . 847 – 861 ) , and a Greek slave named Dirar . The exact date of his birth is unknown ; as he is variously recorded as being thirty @-@ eight or thirty @-@ one years old at the time of his accession , he was born either in ca . 854 or ca . 861 . In 861 , al @-@ Mutawakkil was murdered , beginning a period of internal turmoil , known as the " Anarchy at Samarra " from the site of the Caliphate 's capital , which ended in 870 with the rise to the throne of Ahmad 's uncle , al @-@ Mu 'tamid . Real power however had come to lie with the elite Turkish troops and with Ahmad 's own father , Talha , who , as the Caliphate 's main military commander , served as the chief intermediary between the caliphal government and the Turks . Assuming the honorific name al @-@ Muwaffaq in the style of the caliphs , Talha soon became the effective ruler of the Caliphate , a position consolidated in 882 after a failed attempt by al @-@ Mu 'tamid to flee to Egypt led to his confinement in house arrest .
Caliphal authority in the provinces collapsed during the " Anarchy at Samarra " , with the result that by the 870s the central government had lost effective control over most of the Caliphate outside the metropolitan region of Iraq . In the west , Egypt had fallen under the control of Ahmad ibn Tulun , who also disputed control of Syria with al @-@ Muwaffaq , while Khurasan and most of the Islamic East had been taken over by the Saffarids , who replaced the Abbasids ' loyal clients , the Tahirids . Most of the Arabian peninsula was likewise lost to local potentates , while in Tabaristan a radical Zaydi Shi 'a dynasty took power . Even in Iraq , the rebellion of the Zanj slaves threatened Baghdad itself , and further south the Qarmatians were a nascent threat . Al @-@ Muwaffaq 's regency was thus a continuous struggle to save the tottering Caliphate from collapse . His attempts to recover control of Egypt and Syria from Ibn Tulun failed , with the latter even able to expand his territory and obtain his recognition as hereditary ruler , but he succeeded in preserving the core of the Caliphate in Iraq by repelling a Saffarid invasion aiming to capture Baghdad , and by subduing the Zanj after a long struggle .
It was against the Zanj that the future al @-@ Mu 'tadid — at this time usually referred to by his kunya of Abu 'l @-@ Abbas — would acquire his first military experience and establish the close ties with the army that would characterize his reign . Al @-@ Muwaffaq gave his son a military training from an early age , and the young prince became " a keen horseman and took care to inspect both his troops and their mounts in person " ( Hugh N. Kennedy ) .
Within a decade from the outbreak of the revolt in 869 , the Zanj had seized most of lower Iraq , including the cities of Basra and Wasit , and expanded into Khuzistan as well . In 879 the death of the founder of the Saffarid state , Ya 'qub al @-@ Saffar , allowed the Abbasid government to fully concentrate its attention against the Zanj rebellion , and Abu 'l @-@ Abbas ' appointment in December 879 to command against the rebels at the head of 10 @,@ 000 troops marks the turning @-@ point of the war . In the long and hard struggle that followed , which involved amphibious operations in the Mesopotamian Marshes , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas and his own military slaves ( ghilman ) — of which the long @-@ serving Zirak al @-@ Turki was the chief — played the major role : although the Abbasid armies eventually swelled with reinforcements , volunteers , and Zanj defectors , it was the few but elite ghilman who formed the army 's backbone , filling its leadership positions and bearing the brunt of the battle , often under the personal command of Abu 'l @-@ Abbas . After years of gradually tightening the noose around the Zanj , in August 883 the Abbasid troops stormed their capital of al @-@ Mukhtara , putting an end to the rebellion . The detailed account of the war , written by a former Zanj rebel and preserved in the history of al @-@ Tabari , stresses the role of al @-@ Muwaffaq and Abu 'l @-@ Abbas as the heroes who , in defence of the embattled Muslim state , suppressed the rebellion ; the successful campaign would become a major tool in their propaganda effort to legitimize their de facto usurpation of the Caliph 's power .
Following the death of Ibn Tulun in May 884 , the two caliphal generals Ishaq ibn Kundaj and Ibn Abu 'l @-@ Saj sought to take advantage of the situation and attacked the Tulunid domains in Syria , but their initial gains were rapidly reversed . In the spring of 885 , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas was sent to take charge of the invasion . He soon succeeded in defeating the Tulunids and forcing them to retreat to Palestine , but after a quarrel with Ibn Kundaj and Ibn Abu 'l @-@ Saj , the latter abandoned the campaign and withdrew their forces . In the Battle of Tawahin on 6 April , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas confronted Ibn Tulun 's son and heir , Khumarawayh , in person . The Abbasid prince was initially victorious , forcing Khumarawayh to flee , but was in turn defeated and fled the battlefield , while much of his army was taken prisoner . After this victory the Tulunids expanded their control over the Jazira and the borderlands ( the Thughur ) with the Byzantine Empire . A peace agreement followed in 886 , whereby al @-@ Muwaffaq was forced to recognize Khumarawayh as hereditary governor over Egypt and Syria for 30 years , in exchange for an annual tribute . Over the next couple of years , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas was involved in his father 's ultimately unsuccessful attempts to wrest control of Fars from Saffarid control .
During this period , the relations between Abu 'l @-@ Abbas and his father deteriorated , although the reason is unclear . Already in 884 , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas ' ghilman rioted in Baghdad against al @-@ Muwaffaq 's vizier , Sa 'id ibn Makhlad , possibly over unpaid salaries . Eventually , in 889 , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas was arrested and put in prison on his father 's orders , where he remained despite the demonstrations of the ghilman loyal to him . He apparently remained under arrest until May 891 , when al @-@ Muwaffaq , already nearing his death , returned to Baghdad after two years he spent in Jibal . Al @-@ Muwaffaq , suffering from gout , was already visibly nearing his end ; the vizier Isma 'il ibn Bulbul and the city commander of Baghdad , Abu 'l @-@ Saqr , called al @-@ Mu 'tamid and his sons , including the heir @-@ apparent al @-@ Mufawwad , into the city , hoping to exploit al @-@ Muwaffaq 's imminent death for their own purposes . Nevertheless , the popularity of Abu 'l @-@ Abbas with the soldiers and the common people was such that he was set free , his opponents ' houses were ransacked by the mob , and the attempt to sideline him failed .
Thus , when al @-@ Muwaffaq died in June 891 , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas succeeded him immediately in his offices , with the title of al @-@ Mu 'tadid bi @-@ llah and a position in the line of succession after the Caliph and al @-@ Mufawwad . Within a few months , in April 892 , al @-@ Mu 'tadid had his cousin removed from the succession — and probably killed — so that when al @-@ Mu 'tamid died in October , possibly poisoned , he succeeded to the throne as caliph .
= = Reign = =
Harold Bowen describes al @-@ Mu 'tadid at his accession as " in appearance upright and thin ; and on his head was a white mole , which , since white moles were not admired , he used to dye black . His expression was haughty . In character he was brave — a story was told of his killing a lion with only a dagger . [ ... ] he had inherited all his father 's energy , and cultivated a reputation of prompt action . " Like his father , al @-@ Mu 'tadid ’ s power rested on his close relations with the military , and it was military activities which consumed his interest , especially as he usually led his army in person on campaign . As the historian Michael Bonner comments , " [ t ] he role of ' ghazī caliph ' , invented by Harun al @-@ Rashid and enhanced by al @-@ Mu 'tasim , now had its greatest performance , in al @-@ Mu 'tadid 's tireless campaigning " .
= = = Campaigns of reunification = = =
From the start of his reign , the new Caliph set out to reverse the fragmentation of the Abbasid Caliphate , a goal towards with he worked by a mixture of force and diplomacy ; although an active and enthusiastic campaigner , al @-@ Mu 'tadid was also " a skilful diplomat , always prepared to make compromises with those who were too powerful to defeat " ( Hugh Kennedy ) . This policy became immediately evident in the conciliatory attitude the new Caliph adopted towards his most powerful vassal , the Tulunids : in spring 893 , al @-@ Mu 'tadid recognized and reconfirmed Khumarawayh in his office as autonomous emir over Egypt and Syria , in exchange for an annual tribute of 300 @,@ 000 dinars and further 200 @,@ 000 dinars in arrears , as well as the return to caliphal control of the two Jaziran provinces of Diyar Rabi 'a and Diyar Mudar . In order to seal the pact , Khumarawayh offered his daughter , Qatr al @-@ Nada ( " Dew Drop " ) as bride to one of the Caliph 's sons , but al @-@ Mu 'tadid chose to marry her himself . The Tulunid princess brought with her a million dinars as her dowry , a " wedding gift that was considered the most sumptuous in medieval Arab history " ( Th . Bianquis ) . Her arrival in Baghdad was marked by the luxury and extravagance of her retinue , which contrasted starkly with the impoverished caliphal court . According to a story , after a thorough search , al @-@ Mu 'tadid 's chief eunuch could only find five ornate silver @-@ and @-@ gold candlesticks to decorate the palace , while the princess was accompanied by 150 servants each carrying such a candlestick . Thereupon al @-@ Mu 'tadid is said to have remarked " come let us go and hide ourselves , lest we be seen in our poverty " . Qatr al @-@ Nada died soon after the wedding , and the murder of Khumarawayh in 896 left the Tulunid state in the unsteady hands of Khumarawayh 's under @-@ age sons . Al @-@ Mu 'tadid swiftly took advantage of this and in 897 extended his control over the border emirates of the Thughur , where , in the words of Michael Bonner , " [ he ] assumed , after a long hiatus , the old caliphal prerogative of commanding the annual summer expedition and arranging the defence against the Byzantine empire " . In addition , to secure caliphal recognition of his position , the new Tulunid ruler Harun ibn Khumarawayh ( r . 896 – 904 ) was forced to further concessions , handing back all of Syria north of Homs , and increasing the annual tribute to 450 @,@ 000 dinars . Over the next few years , increasing domestic turmoil in the remaining Tulunid domains , and the escalation of Qarmatian attacks , encouraged many Tulunid followers to defect to the resurgent Caliphate .
In the Jazira the new Caliph struggled against a variety of opponents : alongside an almost thirty @-@ year @-@ old Kharijite rebellion , there were various autonomous local magnates , chiefly the Shaybani ruler of Amid and Diyar Bakr , Ahmad ibn Isa al @-@ Shaybani , and the Taghlibi chief Hamdan ibn Hamdun . In 893 , while the Kharijites were distracted by internal quarrels , al @-@ Mu 'tadid captured Mosul from the Shayban . Next , in 895 Hamdan ibn Hamdun was evicted from his strongholds , hunted down and captured . Finally , the Kharijite leader Harun ibn Abdallah himself was defeated and captured by Hamdan 's son Husayn in 896 , before being sent to Baghdad , where he was crucified . This exploit marked the beginning of an illustrious career for Husayn ibn Hamdan in the caliphal armies , and the gradual rise of the Hamdanid family to power in the Jazira . Ahmad al @-@ Shaybani retained Amid until his death in 898 , being succeeded by his son Muhammad . In the next year , al @-@ Mu 'tadid returned to the Jazira , ousted Muhammad from Amid , and reunified the entire province under central government control by installing his son and heir , Ali al @-@ Muktafi , as governor .
Al @-@ Mu 'tadid was unable , however , to restore effective caliphal control north of the Jazira in Transcaucasia , where Armenia and Adharbayjan remained in the hands of virtually independent local dynasties . Ibn Abu 'l @-@ Saj , who was now the caliphal governor of Adharbayjan , proclaimed himself independent in ca . 898 , although soon he recognized again the Caliph 's suzerainty during his conflicts with the Christian Armenian princes . When he died in 901 , he was succeeded by his son Devdad , marking the consolidation of the semi @-@ independent Sajid dynasty in the region . In 900 Ibn Abu 'l @-@ Saj was even suspected of plotting to seize the Diyar Mudar province with the co @-@ operation of the notables of Tarsus , after which the vengeful Caliph ordered the latter arrested and the city 's fleet burned . This decision was a major self @-@ inflicted wound on the centuries @-@ long war against Byzantium , for in the past decades the Tarsians and their fleet had played a major role in the raids against the Byzantine frontier provinces . While a Syrian fleet under the renegade Damian of Tarsus sacked the port of Demetrias in ca . 900 , and Arab fleets would go on wreak havoc in the Aegean Sea over the next two decades , on land , the Byzantines , strengthened by an influx of Armenian refugees like Melias , began to expand their control over the border regions , scoring victories and founding new provinces ( themes ) in the former no @-@ man 's land between the two empires .
In the Islamic East , the Caliph was forced to acknowledge the reality of the Saffarids ' domination and established a modus vivendi with them , perhaps hoping , according to Hugh Kennedy , to harness them in a partnership analogous to that which the Tahirids had enjoyed in previous decades . Consequently , the Saffarids were recognized in their possession of Khurasan and eastern Persia as well as Fars , while the Abbasids were to exercise direct control over western Persia , namely Jibal , Rayy and Isfahan . This policy gave the Caliph free hand to recover the territories of the Dulafids , another semi @-@ independent local dynasty that was centred on Isfahan and Nihavand . When the Dulafid Ahmad ibn Abd al @-@ Aziz ibn Abi Dulaf died in 893 , al @-@ Mu 'tadid moved swiftly to install his son al @-@ Muktafi as governor in Rayy , Qazvin , Qum and Hamadan . The Dulafids were confined to their core region around Karaj and Isfahan , before being deposed outright in 896 . Nevertheless , Abbasid hold over these territories remained precarious , especially due to the proximity of the Zaydi emirate in Tabaristan , and in 897 Rayy was handed over to Saffarid control .
The Abbasid – Saffarid partnership in Iran was most clearly expressed in their joint effort against the general Rafi ibn Harthama , who had made his base in Rayy and posed a threat to both caliphal and Saffarid interests in the region . Al @-@ Mu 'tadid sent Ahmad ibn Abd al @-@ Aziz to seize Rayy from Rafi , who fled and made common cause with the Zaydis of Tabaristan in an effort to seize Khurasan from the Saffarids . However , with Amr mobilizing the anti @-@ Alid sentiments of the populace against him and the expected assistance from the Zaydis failing to materialize , Rafi was defeated and killed in Khwarazm in 896 . Amr , now at the pinnacle of his power , sent the defeated rebel 's head to Baghdad , and in 897 the Caliph transferred control of Rayy to him . The partnership finally collapsed after Mu 'tadid appointed the Saffarid ruler Amr ibn al @-@ Layth in 898 as governor of Transoxiana , which was ruled by his rivals , the Samanids . Al @-@ Mu 'tamid deliberately encouraged Amr to confront the Samanids , only for Amr to be crushingly defeated and taken prisoner by the latter in 900 . The Samanid ruler , Isma 'il ibn Ahmad , sent him in chains to Baghdad , where he was executed in 902 , after al @-@ Mu 'tadid 's death . Al @-@ Mu 'tadid in turn conferred Amr 's titles and governorships to Isma 'il ibn Ahmad . The Caliph also moved to regain Fars and Kirman , but the Saffarid remnant under Tahir proved sufficiently resilient to thwart the Abbasid attempts at capturing these two provinces for several years . It was not until 910 that the Abbasids managed to regain the coveted Fars province .
At the same time , the Caliphate faced a new threat , the Qarmatians . A radical Islamic sect founded in Kufa around 874 , the Qarmatians were originally a sporadic and minor nuisance in the Sawad , but their power grew swiftly to alarming proportions after 897 : under the leadership of Abu Sa 'id al @-@ Jannabi , they seized Bahrayn in 899 and in the next year defeated a caliphal army under al @-@ Abbas ibn Amr al @-@ Ghanawi . In the years following al @-@ Mu 'tadid 's death , the Qarmatians " were to prove the most dangerous enemies the Abbasids had faced since the time of the Zanj " ( Hugh Kennedy ) . The same period also saw more anti @-@ Abbasid regimes established on the periphery of the Islamic world : the Fatimids seized power in Ifriqiya , and another Zaydi dynasty was established in Yemen .
= = = Domestic government = = =
The Abbasid army , following the reforms of al @-@ Mu 'tasim , was a smaller and more professional fighting force than the caliphal armies of the past . Although it proved militarily highly effective , it also posed a potential danger to the stability of the Abbasid regime : drawn from Turks and other peoples from the Caliphate 's periphery and the lands beyond , it was alienated from the society of the Caliphate 's heartlands , with the result that the soldiers were " entirely reliant on the state not just for cash but for their very survival " ( Hugh Kennedy ) . As a result , any failure by the central government to provide their pay resulted in a military uprising and a political crisis , as was demonstrated in the Anarchy at Samarra . Consequently , ensuring the regular payment of the army became the prime task of the state . According to Hugh Kennedy , based on a treasury document from the time of al @-@ Mu 'tadid 's accession , " out the total expenditure of 7915 dinars per day , some 5121 are entirely military , 1943 in areas ( like riding animals and stables ) which served both military and non @-@ military and only 851 in areas like the bureaucracy and the harem which can be described as truly civilian ( though even in this case , the bureaucrats ’ main purpose seems to have been to arrange the payment of the army ) . It seems reasonable to conclude that something over 80 per cent of recorded government expenditure was devoted to maintaining the army . "
At the same time , however , the Caliphate ' fiscal basis had shrunk dramatically after so many tax @-@ paying provinces had been lost from the central government 's control . The caliphal government was now increasingly reliant on the revenue of the Sawad and the other areas of lower Iraq , but there the 9th century witnessed a rapid decline in agricultural productivity due to the disruption of the civil wars and neglect of the irrigation network : by the early 10th century the Sawad , which in the reign of Harun al @-@ Rashid provided annual revenue of 102 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 dirhams — more than double the revenue of Egypt and three times that of Syria — provided less than a third of that figure . The situation was further exacerbated by the fact that in the remaining provinces , semi @-@ autonomous governors , grandees and members of the dynasty were able to establish virtual latifundia , aided by the system of muqata 'a , a form of tax farming in exchange for a fixed tribute , which they often failed to pay . To maximise their revenue from the territory remaining to them , the Abbasids increased the breadth and complexity of the central bureaucracy , dividing the provinces into smaller tax districts as well as increasing the number of the fiscal departments ( diwans ) , allowing for a far closer oversight of both revenue collection and the activities of the officials themselves .
To combat this fiscal crisis , the Caliph would often personally devote himself to the supervision of revenue , acquiring a reputation for " a spirit of economy , verging on avarice " ( F. Malti @-@ Douglas ) ; he was said to " examine petty accounts that a commoner would scorn to consider " ( Harold Bowen ) . Fines and confiscations multiplied under his rule , with the resulting revenue , along with the income from the crown domain and even a portion of the provincial taxation , flowing to the caliphal privy purse ( bayt mal al @-@ khaṣṣa ) . The latter now acquired a leading role among the other fiscal departments , and it frequently held more money than the public treasury ( bayt mal al @-@ ʿamma ) itself . By the end of al @-@ Mu 'tadid 's reign , the once empty privy purse would contain ten million dinars . On the other hand , in gesture aimed to ease the tax burden of the farmers , in 895 the Caliph changed the start of the tax year from the Persian New Year in March to 11 June — which became known as Nayrūz al @-@ Mu 'tadid , " al @-@ Mu 'tadid 's New Year " — so that the land tax ( kharāj ) was now collected after the harvest instead of before .
The Caliph 's policies strengthened the position of the civil bureaucracy , which now reached the apogee of its influence , and especially the vizier , whom even the army came to respect as the spokesman of the caliph . In terms of personnel , al @-@ Mu 'tadid 's reign was marked by continuity among the senior leadership of the state . Ubayd Allah ibn Sulayman ibn Wahb remained vizier from the start of the reign until his death in 901 , and was succeeded by his son , al @-@ Qasim , who had from the start been deputizing his father during the latter 's absences from the capital . The freedman Badr , a veteran who had served under al @-@ Muwaffaq and whose daughter married the Caliph 's son , remained commander of the army . The fiscal departments , especially of the Sawad ( Lower Iraq ) , were managed first by the Banu 'l @-@ Furat brothers Ahmad and Ali , and after 899 by the Banu 'l @-@ Jarrah under Muhammad ibn Dawud and his nephew , Ali ibn Isa . The original administrative team was so effective and harmonious that according to the 11th @-@ century historian Hilal as @-@ Sabi , it was said by subsequent generations that " there had never been such a quartet , Caliph , Vizier , Commander , and chief of the diwans , as al @-@ Mu 'tadid , Ubayd Allah , Badr and Ahmad ibn al @-@ Furat " . On the other hand , Michel Bonner points out that the later reign of al @-@ Mu 'tadid " saw a growth of factionalism within this bureaucracy , observable also in the army and in urban civilian life " . The rivalry between the two bureaucratic dynasties of the Banu 'l @-@ Furat and the Banu 'l @-@ Jarrah , with their extensive networks of clients , began at this time . Although a strong caliph and vizier could restrain this rivalry , it would dominate the Abbasid government over the next decades , with the factions alternating in office and often fining and torturing their predecessors to extract money according to a well @-@ established practice known as muṣadara . In addition , al @-@ Qasim ibn Ubayd Allah was of an altogether different character than his father : soon after his appointment , he plotted to have al @-@ Mu 'tadid assassinated , and tried to involve Badr in his scheming . The general rejected his proposals with indignation , but al @-@ Qasim was saved from discovery and execution by the Caliph 's sudden death . The vizier then tried to dominate al – Muktafi , moved swiftly to have Badr denounced and executed , and was involved in yet more intrigues against the Banu 'l @-@ Furat .
Al @-@ Mu 'tadid also completed the return of the capital from Samarra to Baghdad , which had already served as his father 's main base of operations . The city 's centre , however , was relocated on the eastern bank of the Tigris and further downstream of the original city , where it has remained to this day . As the 10th @-@ century historian al @-@ Mas 'udi wrote , the Caliph 's two main passions were " women and building " ( al @-@ nisaʿ waʿl @-@ banaʿ ) , and accordingly he engaged in major building activities in the capital : he restored and expanded the Great Mosque of al @-@ Mansur which had fallen into disuse , enlarged the Hasani palace , built the new palaces of Thurayya ( " Pleiades " ) and Firdus ( " Paradise " ) , and began work on the Taj ( " Crown " ) Palace , which was completed under al @-@ Muktafi . He also took care to restore the city 's irrigation network , cleaning up the silted @-@ up Dujayl canal , paying for it with money from those landowners who stood to profit from it .
In terms of doctrine , al @-@ Mu 'tadid from the outset of his reign sided firmly with Sunni traditionalist orthodoxy , forbidding theological works , and abolishing the fiscal department on property in escheat , which Hanbali legal opinion regarded as illegal . At the same time he also tried to maintain good relations with the Alids , to the point of seriously considering ordering the official cursing of Mu 'awiya , the first Umayyad caliph and author of the death of Ali ; he was only dissuaded at the last moment by his advisers , who feared what unforeseen consequences such an act might have . Al @-@ Mu 'tadid also maintained good relations with the breakaway Zaydi imams of Tabaristan , but his pro @-@ Alid stance failed to prevent the establishment of the second Zaydi state in Yemen in 901 .
In the dispensation of justice , he was characterized by what F. Malti @-@ Douglas describes as " severity bordering on sadism " . While tolerant of error and not above displays of tenderness , when his wrath was aroused he resorted to torture in the most ingenious ways , and had special torture chambers constructed underneath his palace . Chroniclers like al @-@ Mas 'udi and the Mamluk historian al @-@ Safadi describe in great detail the tortures inflicted by the Caliph on prisoners , as well as his practice of making an example of them by having them publicly displayed in Baghdad . At the same time , however , they tend to justify his severity as legitimate , in service of the interests of the state . F. Malti @-@ Douglas remarks that when al @-@ Safadi compared al @-@ Mu 'tadid with the founder of the Abbasid state , calling him " al @-@ Saffah the Second " , this was not only to emphasize his restoration of the Caliphate 's fortunes , but also a direct allusion to the meaning of al @-@ Saffah 's name , " the Blood @-@ Shedder " .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
Al @-@ Mu 'tadid died at the Hasani palace on 5 April 902 , at the age of either 40 or 47 . There were rumours that he had been poisoned , but it is more likely that the rigours of his campaigns , coupled with his dissipate life , severely weakened his health . During his final illness , he refused to follow the advice of his physicians , and even kicked one of them to death . Al @-@ Mu 'tadid was the first Abbasid caliph to be buried within the walls of Baghdad . Like his sons after him , he was buried in the former Tahirid palace in the western part of the city , which was now used by the caliphs as a secondary residence .
According to the Orientalist Karl Vilhelm Zetterstéen , al @-@ Mu 'tadid " had inherited his father 's gifts as a ruler and was distinguished alike for his economy and his military ability " , becoming " one of the greatest of the Abbasids in spite of his strictness and cruelty " . Al @-@ Mu 'tadid 's capable reign is credited with having arrested the Abbasid Caliphate 's decline for a while , but his successes were too dependent on the presence of an energetic ruler at the helm , and ultimately his reign " was too short to reverse long @-@ term trends and re @-@ establish Abbasid power on a long @-@ term basis " ( Hugh Kennedy ) .
Al @-@ Mu 'tadid had taken care to prepare his son and successor , al @-@ Muktafi , for his role by appointing him as governor in Rayy and the Jazira . Although al @-@ Muktafi tried to follow his father 's policies , he lacked his energy . The heavily militarized system of al @-@ Muwaffaq and al @-@ Mu 'tadid required the Caliph to actively participate in campaigns , setting a personal example and allowing for the formation of ties of loyalty , reinforced by patronage , between the ruler and the soldiers . Al @-@ Muktafi , on the other hand , did not " in his character and comportment [ ... ] , being a sedentary figure , instil much loyalty , let alone inspiration , in the soldiers " ( Michael Bonner ) . The Caliphate was still able to secure major successes over the next few years , including the reincorporation of the Tulunid domains in 904 and victories over the Qarmatians , but with al @-@ Muktafi 's death in 908 , the so @-@ called " Abbasid restoration " passed its high @-@ water mark , and a new period of crisis began .
Power was now wielded by the senior bureaucrats , who installed the weak and pliable al @-@ Muqtadir on the throne . Over the next decades , the expenditure of both the court and the army increased , while maladministration and strife between military and bureaucratic factions intensified . By 932 , when al @-@ Muqtadir was assassinated , the Caliphate was effectively bankrupt , and authority soon devolved on a series of military strongmen who competed for control of the caliph and the title of amir al @-@ umara . This process culminated in the capture of Baghdad in 946 by the Buyids , who put an end to caliphal independence even in name . Thereafter the caliphs remained as symbolic figureheads , but were divested of any military or political authority or independent financial resources .
= Elmer Ernest Southard =
Elmer Ernest Southard ( July 28 , 1876 – February 8 , 1920 ) was an American neuropsychiatrist , neuropathologist , professor and author . Born in Boston , Massachusetts , Southard lived in the city for nearly his entire life . He attended Boston Latin School and completed his education at Harvard University . At Harvard , Southard distinguished himself as a chess player . After briefly studying in Germany , he returned to the United States as a pathologist at Danvers State Hospital . Southard held academic appointments at Harvard University and its medical school .
He headed the Boston Psychopathic Hospital when it opened in 1912 , pioneering the study of brain pathology with particular interests in shell shock and schizophrenia . Southard published several books , including Shell Shock and Other Neuropsychiatric Problems with nearly 1 @,@ 000 case histories . He was president of the American Medico @-@ Psychological Association and the Boston Society of Psychiatry and Neurology , and held advisory positions with the U.S. Chemical Warfare Service and the Eugenics Record Office .
An influential mentor , Southard guided several well @-@ known figures in medicine and psychology . He worked with neuropathologist Myrtelle Canavan early in her career , and used his influence to obtain a promotion for her in Boston . Southard introduced Karl Menninger to psychiatry , and Menninger later helped establish the foundation which bears his family name . Comparative psychologist Robert Yerkes called Southard " my master of psychopathology . "
Southard was married to physician and Wellesley College professor Mabel Fletcher Austin , and they had three children . His interest in chess continued throughout his life , and he enjoyed intellectual gatherings at the home of art collector and friend Walter Arensberg . At the age of 43 , Southard died of pneumonia in 1920 during a trip to New York City to deliver lectures to two medical societies .
= = Early life = =
Southard was born in Boston in 1876 to Martin Southard and Olive Wentworth Knowles . His paternal ancestors included Mayflower passenger and Plymouth Colony leader Myles Standish . Olive Southard was descended from early residents of New Hampshire and Maine . Frederick Parker Gay , one of E. E. Southard 's longtime friends and his posthumous biographer , wrote that Southard 's parents were only modestly successful academically . His mother was a schoolteacher for several years ; his father , who supervised a cotton @-@ waste factory and established a trucking business , earned enough money to ensure that Southard did not have to work during his undergraduate and graduate studies .
Southard 's mother said that once he learned to read , he took full responsibility for his education . He was influenced academically by a paternal aunt , a Greek scholar who had graduated from Oberlin College . One of his cousins was a prominent attorney in Bath , England . Southard attended Boston Latin School , where his father , aunt and headmaster Arthur Irving Fiske sparked a lifelong interest in language and the meaning of words . Despite a tall , solid build and walking about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) a day to school , he was awkward at manual labor and athletics . Southard graduated from Boston Latin School in 1893 with awards for reading and essay @-@ writing .
He received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Harvard College in 1897 . As an undergraduate , Southard 's path was shaped by several notable faculty members . He learned about comparative anatomy and the nervous system from biologist George Howard Parker , studied psychology under William James , took a class in logic taught by Josiah Royce and graduated with a degree in philosophy . Southard then entered Harvard Medical School ; despite his previous academic success and aptitude for science he struggled in several courses focused on medicine , receiving C 's and a D. At Harvard Southard was a noted chess player , and was described as Harvard 's best player in an 1899 newspaper article on an Ivy League chess tournament : " It is probable that as long as he is engaged in the tournament , Harvard will win the cup . " Through the chess team he became lifelong friends with Walter Arensberg , who became a noted art collector .
Southard received his medical degree in 1901 . In 1902 , Southard went to Germany and studied medicine at the Senckenberg Institute and Heidelberg University for six months .
= = Career = =
= = = Appointments = = =
After returning from Germany , Southard interned in pathology at Boston City Hospital and became an instructor at Harvard Medical School in 1904 . From 1906 to 1909 , he was an assistant pathologist at Danvers State Hospital . Southard was named assistant professor of psychology at Harvard University and Bullard Professor of Neuropathology at Harvard Medical School in 1909 , titles he held until his death . That year , he also became a pathologist for the Massachusetts Commission on Mental Diseases .
In 1911 Southard and his laboratory assistant , Emma Mooers , contracted a streptococcal infection during an autopsy . Mooers died and Southard developed lymphangitis in his arm , undergoing aggressive surgery and recovering over several months . Although he wrote an outline of his autobiography and traveled extensively in Europe during his convalescence , he felt unable to concentrate on research and referred to this period as " the wasted year " . Southard led the Boston Psychopathic Hospital , which had opened as a department of Boston State Hospital , from 1912 until his death .
He served in a strategic advisory role with the U.S. Army Chemical Warfare Service during World War I , attaining the rank of major . Southard was a past president of the American Medico @-@ Psychological Association , and was president of the Boston Society of Psychiatry and Neurology at his death . Other professional memberships included the American Genetic Association , the National Epilepsy Association , the American Association of Pathologists , the Massachusetts Medical Society and the Society of Experimental Biology . He served in an editorial capacity for several publications , including the Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease .
Southard was a member of the Board of Scientific Directors for the Eugenics Record Office ( ERO ) . Led by biologist Charles Davenport , the ERO lobbied for state sterilization laws and restrictions on U.S. immigration . Public approval of the office waned during the 1930s ( when eugenics became associated with Nazism ) , and the ERO closed in 1939 . Southard coined the word " cacogenics " for the study of racial decline .
= = = Professional contributions = = =
Southard studied the organic basis of mental illness at a time when two camps of professionals ( known informally as " brain spot men " and " mind twist men " ) debated the biological and behavioral manifestations of psychiatric disorders . His neuropathological perspective was eclipsed after his death by the " mind twist " hypothesis of mental illness promoted by the dynamic psychiatry ( or psychobiology ) of Adolf Meyer and the psychoanalytic perspectives of Sigmund Freud , Carl Jung and Alfred Adler . Although physiological theories of " autointoxication " were explored in U.S. psychiatry before 1940 , Southard had long ago rejected them .
During the World War I era , Southard conducted early studies of shell shock . He believed that shell shock resulted from the mind 's inability to align the sensory experiences of war with other life events . Southard said that this process , which could also have physical causes , resulted in disorientation and transformed the events of war into a mental condition . In Shell Shock and Other Neuropsychiatric Problems , he called the term " shell shock " advantageous because it " compared with the more acutely terrible and life @-@ in @-@ the @-@ balance thing we know as traumatic or surgical shock . " The condition initially captured public interest , at least in part because it was thought to result from a traumatic force to the head . When shell shock became known as not resulting from physical injuries , patients were stigmatized and arguments over its cause interfered with effective treatment .
At the end of the war , Southard returned to Boston State Hospital and it was reorganized . He was relieved of his directorship at Boston Psychopathic and named director of the Massachusetts Psychiatric Institute , a unit of Boston Psychopathic . Free of his previous hospital administration duties , Southard was able to concentrate on research . Southard delineated several priorities for his scientific work and writing . He hoped to publish four books ; the first would cover observations from his research laboratory made between 1906 and 1919 . The second book , on clinical work he had done at Boston Psychopathic since 1912 , he hoped would increase enthusiasm for psychiatric hospitals . The third would report on the expansion of psychiatric social work , and the final work ( a requirement for his academic post ) would be an overview of neuropathology .
Although Southard expressed a great deal of interest in research , he was most inclined to work on the classification , nomenclature and definition of psychiatric and philosophical concepts . He said he realized that such work was ridiculed by many , but a " psychiatric dictionary ( to include definitions of every near @-@ lying psychological and philosophical term also ) would do more to push mental hygiene on than any other single thing I can think of . " Southard proposed an eleven @-@ category classification system for psychiatric diagnoses , which was not adopted .
He was particularly interested in dementia praecox ( which he favored renaming schizophrenia ) , and found diffuse anatomic differences in the brains of schizophrenic patients . These changes were ignored or dismissed as artifactual by other investigators for several decades . Serious attention to Southard 's findings did not reemerge in the medical literature until the 1990s , but changes in diagnostic criteria complicate the application of Southard 's findings to modern schizophrenic patients . Shortly before his death Southard wrote and presented Non @-@ dementia non @-@ praecox : note on the advantages to mental hygiene of extirpating a term , but did not live to see it published .
Southard and Mary Jarrett founded the field of psychiatric social work , applying psychiatry to industrial employees . The Kingdom of Evils , a book on psychiatric social work by Southard and Jarrett , was published after his death . In his introduction to the book , physician Richard Cabot wrote that it highlighted the collaboration between doctor and social worker ; the physician excels at diagnosis , and the social worker is better able to provide resources for treatment .
= = = Influence = = =
At Danvers State Hospital Southard met Myrtelle Canavan , with whom he worked and published in neuropathology for the next few years . When Canavan received a tempting job offer from the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane , in his capacity with the Massachusetts Commission on Mental Diseases , Southard petitioned the board to create a position for her as his assistant , and her salary was enough for her to refuse the Pennsylvania offer .
Southard also mentored Karl Menninger during Menninger 's internship at Boston Psychopathic Hospital . Menninger planned to join his father , general practitioner Charles Frederick Menninger , in practice . Southard steered Karl Menninger 's interests toward mental health ; the Menninger Foundation was later established with a focus on psychiatry , and Karl Menninger became president of the American Psychoanalytic Association . The Menninger family opened the Southard School , a teaching facility for mentally @-@ ill children , several years after Southard 's death .
Southard had considerable influence on the early career of comparative psychologist Robert Yerkes . Working in the philosophy department at Harvard , Yerkes was passed over for promotions because he had only studied animals . Southard asked him to design mental testing techniques applicable to patients at the psychopathic hospital , and Yerkes received a half @-@ time appointment at Boston Psychopathic with Southard from 1913 to 1917 . Shortly afterwards , Yerkes was elected president of the American Psychological Association and developed the U.S. Army 's mental testing program during World War I. In his autobiography , Yerkes called Southard " my master of psychopathology . "
= = Personal life = =
In 1906 Southard married Mabel Fletcher Austin , a Wellesley College mental @-@ hygiene lecturer and Johns Hopkins University graduate . She was the daughter of former Minnesota governor Horace Austin . Southard wrote to Frederic Parker Gay about the limitations his professional responsibilities placed on his marriage : " Mabel is her own cook , maid and bath steward , as for her being a wife , I have little or no time to be a husband . "
Southard had three children : a daughter , Anne , and two sons . His younger son Ordway was an early
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hota India mein . ( But boxing is still not promoted in India ! ) We don ’ t have boxing academies , we don ’ t even have proper boxing rings . I have lost count of the times I have approached the government and the sporting authorities for support , but nothing has happened . [ ... ] In this country , everyone is hung up on cricket . Forget about boxing , India is doing so well in other sports too . Saina Nehwal is a great badminton player , the Indian tennis team has just won a Davis Cup tie , lekin hamare liye support kahan hai ? ( but where is the support for all of us ? )
Before the 2012 London Olympics , Vijender spoke to The Wall Street Journal about the increasing government bias to boost cricket . " I still fail to understand why only cricketers are given perks like free land , and so on . Come on , we boxers aren ’ t that bad either : We ’ re smart , intelligent and decent looking too ! I ’ m working really hard to make my country proud . I hope someday my turn comes , too " he clarified . Vijender was approached by Percept Picture Company to act as a guide and counsellor to participants taking part in the Indian version of the boxing reality show The Contender , which follows a group of boxers competing with each other in a single elimination style @-@ competition . He agreed despite being still contractually obligated with Infinity Optimal Solutions ( IOS ) , a celebrity management firm who dealt with his media appearances and ramp walks as a male model . IOS successfully petitioned the Delhi High Court to bar him from entering into any deal with Percept .
Vijender appeared on Bollywood actor Salman Khan 's game show 10 Ka Dum . He was accompanied by Bollywood actress Mallika Sherawat . Other appearances includes the fourth season of the Indian dance reality show Nach Baliye with actress Bipasha Basu . Vijender is credited by the critics and the media for bringing the sport of boxing back into the limelight in India . His rise to the top rank of the boxing world has been an inspiration for the younger generation and has brought more aspirants and followers , to the sport .
Vijender was one of the judges on the MTV Reality TV show Roadies X2 .
= = = Bollywood debut = = =
Vijender made his Bollywood debut as an actor in film Fugly , released on 13 June 2014 . The film is produced by Grazing Goat Productions , owned by Akshay Kumar and Ashvini Yardi . The film got above average review .
= = Professional career = =
Singh turned professional as he signed a multi @-@ year agreement with Frank Warren 's Queensberry Promotions through IOS Sports and Entertainment . On 10 October 2015 Singh fought his first professional boxing match . He defeated his opponent Sonny Whiting by TKO . On November 7 , Singh knocked British boxer Dean Gillen in round 1 at the National Stadium in Dublin . In his third pro fight , Singh fought on the undercard of Lee @-@ Saunders on December 19 . Singh defeated Bulgarian Samet Hyuseinov via technical knockout . On March 21 , 2016 Singh knocked out Hungary 's Alexander Horvath in round 3 on the Flanagan @-@ Matthews undercard . Singh defeated French boxer Matiouze Royer at the Copper Box Arena on April 30 via 5th round TKO . The fight was halted due to Royer suffering a cut above his left eye . On May 13 , Singh fought at Bolton 's Macron Stadium against Polish Andrej Soldra . Singh won via 3rd round TKO , knocking down Soldra in round 5 to mark his 6th professional win in a row , all coming by way of knockout . Singh defeated Australian Kerry Hope for the vacant WBO Asia Pacific Super Middleweight title on his home soil in India , marking his seventh consecutive win by unanimous decision , thus ending his 6 fight knockout streak . Two judges scored it 98 @-@ 92 , while the third judge had it 100 @-@ 90 .
= = Professional boxing record = =
= = Titles in boxing = =
= Hurricane Debbie ( 1969 ) =
Hurricane Debbie was an intense and long @-@ lived hurricane that formed during August 1969 . The fifth tropical cyclone , fourth named storm , third hurricane and second major hurricane of the 1969 Atlantic hurricane season , Debbie formed on August 14 in the southern Atlantic Ocean and took a general northwesterly path until turning northward into the central Atlantic . The storm was characterized by numerous fluctuations in intensity , and it reached winds corresponding to Category 3 status on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale on four separate occasions . The hurricane bypassed the island of Bermuda to the southeast on August 22 , before ultimately brushing southeastern Newfoundland with strong winds . It dissipated over the cold waters east of Greenland . Although Debbie had little effect on land , it was extensively researched and was subject to a weather modification experiment by Project Stormfury , in which it was seeded with silver iodide .
= = Meteorological history = =
A disturbance associated with a tropical wave strengthened into a tropical depression on August 14 . The system had significantly organized by August 15 , and it intensified into a tropical storm at 1200 UTC that day . Upon its designation , Debbie was moving west @-@ northwestward at approximately 15 mph ( 24 km / h ) and it was predicted to gradually gain power . It attained Category 1 hurricane strength on August 16 as it turned toward the northwest . It continued to mature , and at around 1200 UTC the next day , it achieved winds corresponding to Category 2 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . On August 18 , Debbie further intensified to Category 3 status , making it a major hurricane .
However , the storm quickly downgraded , and by August 19 it was once again at minimal hurricane force . At roughly the same time , it turned more to the west , although it maintained a general northwesterly path . The abrupt weakening may have been the result of a seeding experiment carried out on the storm in an attempt to deteriorate it . By later in the day , Debbie had begun to restrengthen . It resumed Category 3 intensity on August 20 , despite a minor oscillation in magnitude during the day . At this point , the cyclone acquired peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) ; shortly thereafter , its lowest recorded barometric pressure fell to 951 millibars .
The storm turned northward on August 21 , and eventually curved northeastward . Debbie weakened to Category 2 strength but , for the fourth time , restrengthened to major hurricane intensity . The hurricane then passed well to the southeast of Bermuda , although it is believed that if not for the presence of nearby Hurricane Camille which emerged into the Atlantic from the United States on August 20 , Debbie would have likely ended up further west , closer to the island . It maintained its severity through August 22 as it continued generally toward the northeast .
On August 23 , the storm began a weakening trend and it turned towards the north . The next day , the storm — having weakened to Category 1 status — skirted the southeastern tip of Newfoundland . Debbie began to lose its tropical characteristics as it accelerated towards the northeast , and it weakened into a tropical storm early on August 25 . As it moved over increasingly cold waters , it dissipated east of Greenland .
= = Impact and Project Stormfury = =
Debbie was subject to an experiment called Project Stormfury , which attempted to weaken tropical cyclones by seeding them with silver iodide . The storm provided an excellent opportunity to test the underpinnings of Project Stormfury . In many ways it was the perfect storm for seeding : it did not threaten any land ; it passed within range of seeding aircraft ; and was intense with a distinct eye . On August 18 and again on August 20 , thirteen planes flew out to the storm to monitor and seed it . On the first day , windspeeds fell by 31 % . On the second day , windspeeds fell by 18 % . Both changes were consistent with Stormfury 's working hypothesis . The results were so encouraging that " a greatly expanded research program was planned . " Among other conclusions was the need for frequent seeding at close to hourly intervals .
Debbie remained predominately at sea throughout its 3 @,@ 000 mi ( 4 @,@ 800 km ) path , and as a result , it caused little damage . The storm had little or no impact on the island of Bermuda as it passed to the south . Later , winds of 50 to 65 mph ( 80 to 105 km / h ) were recorded over eastern Newfoundland .
= Freelancer ( video game ) =
Freelancer is a space trading and combat simulation video game developed by Digital Anvil and published by Microsoft Game Studios . It is a chronological sequel to Digital Anvil 's Starlancer , a combat flight simulator released in 2000 . The game was initially announced by Chris Roberts in 1999 , and following many production schedule mishaps and a buyout of Digital Anvil by Microsoft , it was eventually released in March 2003 .
In the game , players take on the roles of spacecraft pilots . These characters fly single @-@ seater ships , exploring the planets and space stations of 48 known star systems . They also engage in dogfights with other pilots ( player- and computer @-@ controlled ) to protect traders or engage in piracy themselves . Other player activities include bounty @-@ hunting and commodity trading . The single @-@ player mode puts the player in the role of Edison Trent , who goes through a series of missions to save the Sirius sector from a mysterious alien force . In multiplayer mode , players are free to take on any role and to explore anywhere from the start .
Originally , Roberts promised features such as automated flight maneuvers , dynamic economies , and a multiplayer mode that could host thousands of players , but diminished versions of these features were implemented in the final release . The game 's initial technical demos impressed reviewers , but after the Microsoft buyout and Roberts ' departure from Digital Anvil , critics had doubts about the game . Reviewers judged the final product technically good but failing to fulfill their initial expectations .
= = Gameplay = =
Players take up the roles of pilots who fly single @-@ seat spacecraft , trading with merchants on space stations and planets , and engaging in combat against other vessels . Starting with a small spacecraft in a star system , the player 's character explores the region , opening up new systems for further adventures . Each system provides opportunities to increase the pilot 's wealth ; aside from taking on jobs to ferry goods and hunting for bounties , the player character can engage in trade . The player character 's primary goal in the game is to accumulate money , so as to buy more advanced weaponry and equipment to upgrade his ship .
The game is played primarily through " pointing and clicking " with the mouse and a few keyboard commands . This system is also used to control the spacecraft , a breakaway from the traditional use of joysticks for space flight simulators . Observing their spacecraft from the rear , players fly their ships by moving the mouse in the direction they want the vessels to go . Freelancer 's spacecraft follow simplistic flight dynamics ; however , a dash of realism is implemented by allowing the vessels to cut power to their engines and turn to face any direction while drifting along their original path — conservation of momentum . Clicking the mouse button shoots the ship 's weapons at the location of the cursor . The interface has no radar display ; the location of objects not shown on the screen are indicated by pointers at the screen 's edges . Targeting , communications , and navigation data are displayed in information boxes that can be minimized .
After the pilot docks with a space station or lands on a planet , the screen and its interface change to a rendition of the area he is visiting . The player moves the pilot to different locations and interacts with certain objects , such as reading a bulletin board and talking to other characters , by clicking on their graphical representations . Freelancer 's economy consists of buying and selling spacecraft , their armaments and components , and commodities . Certain goods are considered contraband in some systems , and they have to be smuggled past police patrols to their buyers . Computer @-@ controlled characters ( non @-@ player characters or NPCs ) in certain locations on the planets or stations offer quests and jobs .
Freelancer features a multiplayer mode , allowing up to 128 players to play together in a game . Multiplayer games are hosted on game servers ; personal computers that meet the requirements for the game can act as a server . Gameplay is similar to the single @-@ player mode , but is absent of story @-@ driven quests . Because the server keeps individual records of the players ' progress , they can resume their game when they next log on to it . A persistent virtual galaxy is thus maintained for them .
= = Plot and setting = =
The events in Freelancer take place 800 years after those in the video game Starlancer ( 2000 ) . The solar system was engulfed in a civil war , fought between the Alliance and the Coalition . Facing defeat , the Alliance placed its people in stasis and sent them to the Sirius system , where they settled and transformed the surrounding space ( the Sirius sector ) into a region of political intrigue and opportunity . The rule of the sector is mostly split among four houses , each named after the sleeper ship that brought them to the system . Each house exhibits the culture of its terrestrial ancestor : Liberty of 1920s United States , Bretonia of Victorian era United Kingdom , Kusari of Shogunate era Japan , and Rheinland of Second Industrial Revolution Germany . The fifth sleeper ship , Hispania , suffered a malfunction en route and was abandoned in deep space ( in the Omicron Alpha system ) . The descendants of its crew became pirates .
Freelancer 's planetary bodies and space stations lie close to a single plane in each system , although some are above or below this plane and ships can travel out of the plane . There are 48 known star systems , and spacecraft can travel from one system to another by passing through jump gates . These systems are shown a 2D map , however the jump gate mechanism actually provides no clear idea of how close each system is to others or spatial directions between them , so this map is just a simplified convention . Within a system , spacecraft can travel in the trade lanes — a series of gates that connect to form a " space highway " — to quickly reach places of interest , such as planets , space stations , and mining operations . Asteroid and debris fields populate some of the systems , and secret hideouts and derelicts with valuable items exist in deep space . Merchant ships ply the trade lanes , carrying cargo from system to system and occasionally coming under attack by pirates . Patrolling the systems are police and large naval warships .
= = = Characters = = =
The player takes on the role of Edison Trent , a " mercenary freebooter " , in single @-@ player mode . Regardless of Trent 's background , the player can play him in different roles , such as being a trader , pirate , or bounty hunter . Throughout the story , Trent meets several NPCs , such as Liberty Security Force ( LSF ) commander Jun 'ko Zane , xenoarchaeologist Professor Roland Quintaine , and head of a secret organization , Casper Orillion . Trent 's relationships with these NPCs are pre @-@ determined and illustrated by cutscenes ; the player has no choice of import in Trent 's interactions with these NPCs .
Most NPCs are aligned with a certain faction , such as the police , pirates , a company , or government . Each faction has its own agenda , and the relationships among them are interlinked in a web of alliances and hostilities . Player characters anger a faction and its allies by destroying its ships . Likewise , they gain the favor of a faction — and , to a smaller extent , its allies — by attacking its enemies . Player characters who have a bad relationship with a faction are attacked on sight by its forces and denied from docking with its stations . Paying bribes to a faction improves its attitude to the player character . Several NPCs with major roles are voiced by professional voice actors , such as Ian Ziering ( Beverly Hills , 90210 ) , Jennifer Hale ( Metroid games ) , George Takei ( Star Trek ) , and John Rhys @-@ Davies ( Indiana Jones films and Sliders ) . These NPCs are excluded from the multiplayer mode because of its lack of a campaign story ( scripted missions ) .
= = = Story = = =
The plot of Freelancer 's single @-@ player campaign is illustrated with two hours worth of in @-@ game cutscenes . The story is linear in structure — the player is unable to effect a different storyline — and broken down into stages . Cutscenes inform players of background events and the goals in a stage . Most stages have no time limits for their completion , and players can put the main story on hold while taking on missions ( jobs ) not crucial to it . However , players can only proceed to other regions of the Sirius sector , where more advanced ships , weaponry , and equipment are obtained , after completing missions that advance the story . Some stages are not introduced until the character has achieved a certain level ( based on total worth accumulated ) , and it is not possible to gain sufficient levels just through the story itself , so players must spend at least some time on side missions to gain money to advance to the level required for the next stage of the story . This is also necessary as some stages would be too tough with only the money and items collected in the story .
On starting single @-@ player mode , a cutscene shows the destruction of space station Freeport 7 by unknown forces , leaving Trent without money or ship on the planet Manhattan . While waiting for his debtor , Lonnigan , to regain consciousness , Trent takes up employment with the LSF under Jun 'ko Zane , who provides him with a small ship . Lonnigan refuses to pay Trent when he awakes and is mysteriously taken away by the LSF . His death is later announced , and Trent is contacted by a thief who reveals that a mystery party destroyed Freeport 7 to get an artifact in the thief 's possession . An LSF officer kills the thief , and he is shot by Zane in self @-@ defense as she arrives at the scene . Zane and Trent flee Liberty space , traveling across approximately half of the Freelancer world in their flight . Trent locates xenoarcheology expert Dr. Quintaine to learn more about the artifact . While finding additional materials for their research , they discover the existence of the Nomad alien race , who are the caretakers of an empire that belonged to the previous inhabitants of the Sirius sector , the Dom 'Kavosh . The Nomads can possess humans and have slowly infiltrated the four Houses in this manner , planning to ignite a civil war to weaken the humans for elimination .
Trent joins the Order , a secret organization formed to combat the Nomads , and helps to rescue the Liberty president from the aliens . Quintaine 's research reveals the artifact to be a map and the key to the Dom 'Kavosh 's hyper gate — super jump gate — network , which currently acts as the Nomads ' source of power . The Order launches an attack on what they believe to be the Nomads ' homeworld , aiming to activate the hyper gates and cut off the Nomads from their power supply . The activated gates suck the Nomads to an unknown location , and the Order watches over the gates for their return . With the Nomads ' defeat , events return to normal in the Freelancer world . Trent and Zane are granted full pardons by the governments , and Trent is asked by the Order to be their eyes and ears in Liberty space , allowing the player to continue the game without any story elements .
= = Development = =
In 1997 , Chris Roberts began work on a vision he had since he first conceived Wing Commander . He wanted to realize a virtual galaxy , whose systems execute their own programs regardless of the players ' presence ; cities would be bustling with transports and each world 's weather changes on its own time . Commodity prices in each star system would fluctuate , according to the activities of the computer controlled traders , who import and export goods . Roberts envisioned thousands of players simultaneously interacting with and influencing this world through a unique and intuitive user interface never seen before in other games . Each player could pursue a quest set up for their character , and join other players to attempt other missions together without needing to exit the game and start a new mode of play . Artificial intelligence would fly the players ' spacecraft , letting them concentrate on combat or other tasks . Roberts intended the cutscenes and gameplay visuals to be of equal quality so players would be unable to distinguish between the two .
Two years later , the project was officially announced as Freelancer at GameStock , an annual showcase to the mass media of Microsoft 's games . The media covered the event , focusing on the features promised for this game . There were concerns about the state of the graphics and uncertainties over the promise of a dynamic economy , but gaming site GameSpot gave Roberts and his company , Digital Anvil , the benefit of their doubts . Initially in 1999 , Roberts announced the game would be available on the market by fall 2000 . However , the project suffered delays and by Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) 2000 , Roberts said the earliest release for the game was at the end of 2001 .
In June 2000 , Microsoft started talks to buy Digital Anvil . Roberts admitted that his team required large sums of money , which only a huge company could provide , to continue developing Freelancer with its " wildly ambitious " features and unpredictable schedule ; the project had overshot its original development projection of three years by 18 months . Roberts trusted that Microsoft would not compromise his vision for Freelancer , and was convinced the software giant would not attempt the takeover if it did not believe Freelancer could sell at least 500 @,@ 000 copies when released . Roberts left the company on completion of the deal , but assumed a creative consultant role on Freelancer until its release . Microsoft instructed Digital Anvil to scale down the ambitions of the project and focus on finishing the game based on what was possible and the team 's strengths . Features such as the automated flight control , conversations that had different choices of responses , and sub @-@ quests were abandoned . Despite the reductions , several reviewers believed the resultant product was still true to Robert 's vision .
The Freelancer team kept a low profile throughout 2001 before displaying a demo of their latest work at International Games Festival 2002 , drawing large crowds . Microsoft announced the project was on schedule , and Digital Anvil added all the planned content for the game by October 2002 . A beta test with approximately 500 testers was conducted , and the only main activities left were to refine the game 's features and to fix errors uncovered in the testing . The game shipped to retailers on March 4 , 2003 , and was later available online through Yahoo 's Game on Demand service . Digital Anvil 's role on Freelancer ended on June 6 , 2003 , with their delivery of a software patch to resolve issues on the server and cheating ; the staff were redeployed to other departments in Microsoft . In accordance with their 5 @-@ year support policy for software , Microsoft stopped supporting the game on April 8 , 2008 , and shutdown their global server , which managed the list of multiplayer servers and the connection of players to them .
Freelancer 's soundtrack was released by Sumthing Else Music Works on November 18 , 2003 . Composed by award winning composer James Hannigan , music group Visual Music Incorporated , and Digital Anvil 's musician and programmer Andrew Sega , it includes a bonus DVD that contains the game 's alternative introduction movies , concept art , scripts , and deleted content . Communities of Freelancer players banded together to produce modified versions of the game . Their software modifications included new ships — including big capital ships — for players to fly and new factions for them to join . Certain modifications allowed the players to fly ships of one franchise against another , for example , Star Wars versus Wing Commander . The communities also worked around the loss of the global server , allowing players to host the modified games on their servers and continuing the Freelancer multiple @-@ player online gaming world .
= = Reception = =
Chris Roberts is highly regarded in the field of spaceflight combat simulators due to his successful Wing Commander franchise . When the industry learned that he was creating a new spaceflight combat simulator , they paid close attention to it . In its first public showing at E3 1999 , Roberts 's Freelancer won four Game Critics Awards , including Best Game of the Show . Journalists at one of the game 's later showings queued up to 90 minutes to catch a glimpse of a half @-@ hour demonstration . Computer Gaming World , trusting Roberts 's vision , named Freelancer as a game that would revolutionize the gaming industry . Shortly after the game was released , IGN called it the Game of the Month . Early in the game 's development , the industry was enthusiastic about the prospect of playing in a world that changes without player interaction ( a dynamic world ) , although there was caution over the possibility of such implementation with contemporary technology . Delays in the schedule and Microsoft 's take over of Digital Anvil gave rise to speculation that Roberts 's most promised feature — the dynamic world — would be cut .
The concerns were partially realized ; the features , although not cut , were reduced , leaving Freelancer with a virtual world that did not live up to the industry 's expectations . It presented a static galaxy , where territories of various factions never change despite the groups ' frequent raids and attacks on each other , and commodity prices remain fixed . Nonetheless , reviewers from video game sites , such as Eurogamer and GameSpy , accepted the limitations and focused on other areas of the game . They found the lack of variety a greater detraction from the game than the compromised dynamic world . Excluding the single @-@ player campaign , players never meet any memorable NPC because almost everyone sounds American . According to Game Nation TV , after playing for a while , every character and place looked similar to the extent that the game makes " Star Trek look like a xenomorphic zoo " . Furthermore , instead of serving as entertainment , the missions , which entail the pilot to fly to a particular location and destroy the enemies there , are so repetitive that they become chores to the reviewers instead .
Freelancer 's graphics software was of older technology , but it did not detract from FiringSquad 's praise of the game 's artistic quality . The beautiful and realistic depictions of the universe impressed other reviewers , such as GameCritics.com and the Stratos Group . IGN , in particular , was enamored with the game 's graphics , describing them as " simply gorgeous " with the best explosions and enormous ships . The mouse @-@ and @-@ keyboard flight control was praised by the industry . Several reviewers found it easy to shoot down enemy ships with the intuitive controls , but others pointed out that aerobatic maneuvers , such as jinking or barrel rolls , cannot be performed , reducing dogfights to overly simplistic and repetitive " chase or be chased " sequences that pale in comparison to the action in other spaceflight simulators .
On the story side , reviewers agreed the professional actors , such as Ian Ziering , did a good job in bringing their respective characters to life . However , criticism was placed on the lone voice who voiced all the generic male encounters for his monotonous delivery and making all his characters sound alike . The long cutscenes , which cannot be skipped , frustrated game journalist Tom Chick ; he wanted to skip the scenes and continue playing instead of being forced to watch a clichéd story . Other reviewers expressed their own frustrations with the story , such as being forced to move to another star system at undesired times , or leaving them without an objective after the campaign abruptly ended .
FiringSquad said Freelancer 's multiplayer mode encapsulated the " best and worst of [ the game ] in a nutshell " : although players can move their characters anywhere , group with others for missions , and trade ships and equipment , they have very little else to do in the unchanging virtual galaxy . Despite these limitations , Stratos Group said the joy of playing with real @-@ life counterparts is a positive factor ; the NPC pilots are so inept that human @-@ controlled pilots outperform them most of the time . However , as the missions are practically the same , IGN and GameCritics.com questioned the point of playing them repeatedly with friends . Furthermore , IGN thought it was meaningless to amass wealth and higher @-@ grade equipment when they cannot be transferred to other servers . The lack of substance and repetitiveness led the gaming site to wonder how long Freelancer can be viable as a commercial multiplayer product . Whereas massively multiplayer online games such as EverQuest have thousands of players in a vast playing area , Freelancer can accommodate only up to 128 ; the loneliness of playing in such a sparsely populated virtual world gave UGO concern as well over the longevity of Freelancer 's multiplayer mode .
Overall , reviewers acknowledged Freelancer fell short of the promises initially made by Roberts ; however , it demonstrated a high quality of work in its implemented features . The various concepts were well meshed together to form an entertaining product . It never broke or raised the bar of its genre , but boasted a high production value , and has been said to be well worth the money . The game , however , was an anti @-@ climax for those who were hooked by the touted and promised initial concepts , many of which were never realized . Freelancer was a " hugely ambitious game " , as admitted by Chris Roberts , for a company to develop without the necessary capital and resources .
= = Sequels = =
= = = Freelancer 2 : Project Lonestar = = =
There were reports that Digital Anvil and Microsoft Game Studios worked on a Freelancer sequel called Project Lonestar for the Xbox 360 until Digital Anvil dissolved in 2006 .
= = = Star Citizen = = =
Star Citizen is an upcoming space trading and combat simulator video game for the PC and is considered a spiritual successor to Freelancer as the game designer is Chris Roberts . Star Citizen is currently being developed by Chris Roberts ' Cloud Imperium Games Corporation , founded in 2011 . Roberts ' previous works include games such as Wing Commander , Wing Commander : Privateer and Freelancer . It is announced that it will have a persistent world massively multiplayer , single @-@ player campaign , and customizable private server components . Players take the role of spacefaring humans in a 30th @-@ century Milky Way centred around the fictional United Empire of Earth ( UEE ) , an analogue to the Roman Empire . A central theme of the game is citizenship ( or lack thereof ) in the UEE . Players are not automatically granted citizenship , rather must earn it if they desire , and in @-@ game opportunities are influenced by it . Strong focus is placed on player interaction . The game has entered alpha phase in Q4 2015 .
= Murder of Celine Figard =
Celine Figard ( 1976 – 19 December 1995 ) was a French woman who went missing and was murdered during a visit to the United Kingdom in December 1995 , after accepting a lift from a lorry driver at the Chieveley services on the M4 in Chieveley , Berkshire . Following an appeal for information on her whereabouts and police enquiries , her body was discovered on 29 December , ten days after her disappearance , at a lay @-@ by on the A449 in Hawford , Worcestershire . A post @-@ mortem examination determined she had been strangled and bludgeoned to death .
The case received extensive news coverage in the UK around the Christmas and New Year period , amid fears that it could be linked to a series of killings around the English Midlands which police called the work of a " Midlands Ripper " . The murder investigation included the UK 's first national DNA screening programme in the hunt for a murder suspect , covering over 5 @,@ 000 people .
Stuart William Morgan , a 36 @-@ year @-@ old lorry driver from Poole , Dorset was arrested in February 1996 after a colleague recognised his image from a photofit . Morgan was later charged with Figard 's murder , and convicted in October . Detectives concluded that after raping , strangling and bludgeoning her , he carried her body in his vehicle for ten days over the Christmas period before dumping it . Morgan was given a life sentence , with a recommendation to serve at least twenty years . An appeal in February 1998 was rejected by the Court of Appeal , and in 2009 the High Court turned down his application for a review of the length of his sentence . He became eligible for parole in February 2016 , but has continued to maintain his innocence .
Figard was buried in the French village of Scey @-@ sur @-@ Saône @-@ et @-@ Saint @-@ Albin , Haute @-@ Saône , at a service attended by her family , friends and politicians in January 1996 . In the UK she is remembered in a memorial garden established at a church in the Worcestershire village of Ombersley , close to where her body was discovered .
= = Background and disappearance = =
Figard was born in 1976 to Martine and Bernard Figard . She had two brothers , Stephane and Nicolas , and a sister , Karine . At the time of her death she was studying accountancy at the Lycée le Grand Chênois in Montbéliard . She developed a fondness for the UK following a 1990 visit and traveled there repeatedly .
Figard spent the summer of 1995 working at a hotel in Fordingbridge , Hampshire , where her cousin Jean @-@ Marc was head waiter , using the opportunity to improve her English . She returned to the UK in December to spend another two weeks with Jean @-@ Marc . After leaving on 18 December , she travelled with a family friend employed by a local haulage firm to the French coast , as arranged by her parents , and crossed the channel the following day . She arrived in Ashford , Kent . She had intended to travel to Fordingbridge by train , but her escort found another French lorry driver who was willing to take her to Chieveley Services near Newbury , Berkshire . He then helped her to find another trucker for the final leg after she tried to phone her cousin to ask him to pick her up , but misdialed . She was last seen alive at Chieveley Services at Junction 13 of the M4 at around 5 pm entering a white Mercedes lorry .
Police appealed for information about her disappearance , and issued a photofit of the lorry driver , but he was not identified . By 25 December investigators were working on the theory that he had abducted her . The following day , investigators were working on the assumption she had been murdered . Figard 's father travelled to the UK to help detectives in their search for her and to appeal to the public for information as to her whereabouts .
= = Discovery of body and autopsy = =
On the morning of Friday 29 December , the naked body of a young woman was found dumped at a lay @-@ by on the A449 near the Worcestershire village of Hawford by a motorist who had stopped to change a windscreen wiper . Police sought to establish her identity , but were sure it was not Louise Smith , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old clerical assistant who had vanished early on Christmas Day after attending a nightclub at Yate , Gloucestershire . Smith 's body was discovered in February 1996 in Chipping Sodbury , South Gloucestershire .
The body was positively identified as that of Figard the following day . The post mortem determined she had been strangled and bludgeoned with a heavy implement , but did not establish which was fatal . The autopsy revealed " no obvious signs " of sexual assault . However , it determined that sexual intercourse had taken place shortly before her death . Detectives believed it had occurred against her will .
Police said that the body had been there for about twenty @-@ four hours and were working on the theory that she had been held captive before being killed . Detective Chief Superintendent Roger Hoddinott of Hampshire Police said at the time of discovery Figard had been dead for at least four to five days , but did not announce a time of death .
= = Investigation = =
The investigation was led by Detective Chief Superintendent John McCammont of West Mercia Police , and involved more than 100 detectives from three police forces . Officers examined similar unsolved murders amid concerns that they could all be the work of the same individual . Of particular interest were the recent murders of Tracey Turner and Samo Paull , both of whom were found strangled near motorways . McCammont ruled out a link at a press conference on 4 January : " I would stress that at this stage there is no firm evidence whatsoever to link Celine 's murder with any other investigations . " He appealed for information concerning a bottle of Pascal Chretien champagne , a gift to Figard before coming to England : " This particular type of champagne is not exported to anywhere in the world outside France and is not sold in this country . It is a 1993 vintage and only 60 @,@ 000 bottles have been produced . "
On 12 January , investigators announced that they would perform DNA testing on the drivers of all vehicles similar to the Mercedes . This was the first time the method was used nationally to identify a murder suspect . Detectives traced more than 1 @,@ 000 vehicles and tested 5 @,@ 000 drivers . On 19 February , West Mercia Police confirmed that a man had been arrested and was helping them with their inquiries . The following day , authorities announced that the suspect was English and had been arrested in Poole , Dorset in a joint operation between West Mercia and Dorset Police . He was subsequently identified as Stuart Morgan , a 36 @-@ year @-@ old , self @-@ employed lorry driver , who on 21 February was remanded following an appearance at Redditch magistrates .
= = Stuart Morgan = =
Stuart William Morgan is an English lorry driver and former heating engineer from Poole . The son of John and Julianne Morgan , one of five siblings , he was raised in Tunbridge Wells , Kent , where his father was employed as a council foreman and his mother – a refugee from the former East Germany – worked as a school cleaner . Morgan left school with three CSEs , and in 1974 served a custodial sentence in borstal following a conviction for burglary . After attending Croydon Polytechnic to train as a plumber and heating engineer , he established a plumbing business in the Tunbridge Wells area . He moved to Dorset following the failure of that business in 1983 and worked as a heating engineer for Bournemouth Borough Council . He became a lorry driver in 1991 .
Morgan met his first wife in Kent in the early 1980s . They married in 1982 , but he left her when she became pregnant with twins . He met the woman who would become his second wife after moving to Dorset . She also became pregnant , giving birth to a son . They did not marry until 1994 , after living together for several years . Morgan had a reputation as a womaniser , seducing customers while working as an engineer . He continued this activity after becoming a lorry driver . Following Morgan 's conviction , brother Ray Morgan said , " He has had so many affairs over the years I have lost count . " He also had a violent temper . One friend , Dave Moemken , described him as being " on a short fuse " .
He was driving from Leeds to Southampton Docks when he picked up Figard on 19 December 1995 . Detectives concluded that after raping and killing her , Morgan left her body in the bottom bunk of his cab for up to ten days while he continued to drive the lorry , driving and sleeping in it for at least some of that time . Apparently Morgan left the body in the vehicle after parking it opposite his house to spend Christmas with his family . Police believe he dumped the body on 29 December .
He was arrested after another trucker recognised him from a photofit . Morgan initially denied meeting her . After he was picked out at an identity parade , he claimed he and Figard had engaged in consensual sex .
= = Trial = =
The trial began at Worcester Crown Court on 2 October 1996 , before Mr Justice Latham and a jury . Morgan 's trial counsel was Nigel Jones QC , and the case was prosecuted by David Farrer QC . Morgan denied the charge .
The prosecution account was that Morgan raped and killed Figard on the afternoon or evening of 19 December 1995 , then kept her body in his cab for ten days . Farrer told the court that she had been strangled and battered around the head with a heavy object , and injuries to her face were " consistent with kicking and stamping " . There was also evidence to suggest her hands had been taped together , and that sexual intercourse had taken place , with the prosecution of the opinion she had been " intimidated " into having sex .
Evidence was presented by the prosecution to suggest that Morgan continued to use the vehicle while Figard lay dead in the cab , and that the lorry was parked outside his house over the Christmas period . Farrer said Morgan bought a spade , axe and hacksaw with the intention of dismembering the body , but changed his mind , instead making an overnight delivery run to dispose of her remains . After removing a fuse from his lorry 's tachograph to conceal the journey , he drove to Worcestershire . Discrepancies were subsequently found in his travel records for 29 December 1995 because he forgot to replace the fuse following the trip . DNA tests on spots of blood found in the cab matched Figard , while a blood @-@ soaked mattress was found in Morgan 's garage . Several items belonging to Figard , including photographs and a toilet bag , were recovered from his house . Some of her clothing was found close to a warehouse he had visited the night the body was dumped . Morgan gave two bottles of Pascal Chretien that Figard had brought to England as Christmas presents to two garage attendants who worked at a Shell station opposite his house .
Morgan admitted giving Figard a lift on the afternoon of 19 December 1995 . He claimed that the pair had consensual sex after chatting and flirting , developing a rapport and halting at a lay @-@ by where he made her a cup of tea and asked her for what he described as a Christmas kiss . He said afterwards he drove her to Southampton , where they exchanged contact details before he left her , and that she was " smiling and happy " . He did not come forward after police appealed for details of the driver who had given her a lift because he did not want his wife to learn of his infidelity . He claimed her photographs and other belongings were in his possession because she had left them in his truck , and the mattress had become stained with blood because a man had lain on it after gashing his leg while the vehicle was on loan to another driver in 1994 .
On 16 October a jury took three and a half hours to convict Morgan of Figard 's murder , and he was sentenced to life imprisonment with a recommendation that the Home Secretary should decide his parole eligibility . Passing sentence , Mr Justice Latham said , " What you did to Celine has caused revulsion in the minds of all right @-@ thinking people . You are a dangerous man and I will so report to the Home Secretary . " Latham subsequently set a minimum term of twenty years , which was later endorsed by the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales , Lord Bingham , and on 4 November 1998 the Home Secretary informed Morgan of the length of the sentence he must serve .
= = Appeals = =
Morgan appealed his conviction on the grounds that it was unfair due to the level of publicity the case had received . His application was rejected by the Court of Appeal of England and Wales on 5 February 1998 after the three sitting judges ruled there were insufficient grounds to justify an appeal .
In January 2009 Morgan appealed again under paragraph 3 of Schedule 22 of the Criminal Justice Act 2003 to the High Court of England and Wales requesting a review of the minimum term recommendation . This too was rejected , in July of that year , with the presiding judge , Mr Justice Openshaw recommending , " The sentence is – and remains – a sentence of imprisonment for life . The defendant may not even be considered for release until he has served at least 20 years ( less the time served before sentence ) . That is not to say that he will then be released ; indeed he will be detained unless and until the Parole Board is satisfied that he no longer presents a risk to the public . Even if the Parole Board decides then or at some time in the future to authorise his release , he will be upon licence which will extend for the rest of his life . "
In January 2016 Morgan appealed against the Ministry of Justice after it decided not to downgrade his prisoner status from that of a Category A prisoner , as well as challenging the Parole Board for refusing to allow him an oral hearing . A hearing at the High Court on 26 January was told that under the terms of his sentence , Morgan would be eligible for parole from February , but had continued to maintain his innocence throughout his time in prison , claiming to be in a " Catch 22 " situation where he could not qualify for release without admitting his guilt . Rejecting Morgan 's case , Justice William Davis suggested that Morgan had not " addressed his offending behaviour " and was " in effect in the same position as in December 1995 , when he murdered his victim " .
= = Aftermath and memorials = =
Figard 's body was flown home to France on 17 January 1996 , where her funeral was held on 20 January . She was buried in Scey @-@ sur @-@ Saône @-@ et @-@ Saint @-@ Albin . The Mail on Sunday reported that the ceremony was attended by 3 @,@ 000 mourners , including family , friends and French politicians .
A memorial garden dedicated to Figard was planted at St Andrew 's Church in the village of Ombersley , Worcestershire , close to where her body was found , and opened at a ceremony in June 1997 . Local residents raised more than £ 1 @,@ 000 to help with its construction . The garden also remembers other victims of violent crime , including Joanna Parrish and Caroline Dickinson , two English students who were murdered while in France . On 29 December 2000 , the fifth anniversary of the date Figard 's body was recovered , the local newspaper , the Worcester News reported that an annual service of remembrance was held for her at the church during the autumn , attended by her parents . Flowers were also regularly placed at the lay @-@ by at Hawford where she was found , and the location named Le Jardin de Céline ( Celine 's Garden ) in her memory .
= Bone Wars =
The Bone Wars , also known as the " Great Dinosaur Rush " , refers to a period of intense fossil speculation and discovery during the Gilded Age of American history , marked by a heated rivalry between Edward Drinker Cope ( of the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia ) and Othniel Charles Marsh ( of the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale ) . Each of the two paleontologists used underhanded methods to try to out @-@ compete the other in the field , resorting to bribery , theft , and destruction of bones . Each scientist also attacked the other in scientific publications , seeking to ruin his credibility and have his funding cut off .
Their search for fossils led them west to rich bone beds in Colorado , Nebraska , and Wyoming . From 1877 to 1892 , both paleontologists used their wealth and influence to finance their own expeditions and to procure services and dinosaur bones from fossil hunters . By the end of the Bone Wars , both men had exhausted their funds in the pursuit of paleontological supremacy .
Cope and Marsh were financially and socially ruined by their attempts to disgrace each other , but their contributions to science and the field of paleontology were massive , and provided substantial material for further work — both scientists left behind many unopened boxes of fossils after their deaths . The efforts of the two men led to over 142 new species of dinosaurs being discovered and described , though today only 32 are valid . The products of the Bone Wars resulted in an increase in knowledge of prehistoric life , and sparked the public 's interest in dinosaurs , leading to continued fossil excavation in North America in the decades to follow . Several historical books and fictional adaptations have been published about this period of intense fossil @-@ hunting activity .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
At one time , Cope and Marsh were amicable . They met in Berlin in 1864 and spent several days together . They even named species after each other . Over time their relations soured due in part to their strong personalities . Cope was known to be pugnacious and possessed a quick temper ; Marsh was slower , more methodical , and introverted . Both were quarrelsome and distrustful . Their differences also extended into the scientific realm as Cope was a firm supporter of Neo @-@ Lamarckism while Marsh supported Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection . Even at the best of times both men were inclined to look down on each other subtly . As one observer put it , " The patrician Edward may have considered Marsh not quite a gentleman . The academic Othniel probably regarded Cope as not quite a professional . "
Cope and Marsh came from very different backgrounds . Cope was born into a wealthy and influential Quaker family based in Philadelphia . Although his father wanted his son to work as a farmer , Cope distinguished himself as a naturalist . In 1864 , already a member of the Academy of Natural Sciences , Cope became a professor of zoology at Haverford College and joined Ferdinand Hayden on his expeditions west . In contrast , Marsh would have grown up poor , the son of a struggling family in Lockport , New York , had it not been for the benefaction of his uncle , philanthropist George Peabody . Marsh persuaded his uncle to build the Peabody Museum of Natural History , placing Marsh as head of the museum . Combined with the inheritance he received from Peabody upon his death in 1869 , Marsh was financially comfortable ( although , partly because of Peabody 's stern views on marriage , Marsh would remain a lifelong bachelor ) .
On one occasion , the two scientists had gone on a fossil @-@ collecting expedition to Cope 's marl pits in New Jersey , where William Parker Foulke had discovered the holotype specimen of Hadrosaurus foulkii , described by the paleontologist Joseph Leidy ; this was one of the first American dinosaur finds , and the pits were still rich with fossils . Though the two parted amicably , Marsh secretly bribed the pit operators to divert future fossil finds to him , instead of Cope . The two began attacking each other in papers and publications , and their personal relations deteriorated . Marsh humiliated Cope by pointing out his reconstruction of the plesiosaur Elasmosaurus was flawed , with the head placed where the tail should have been ( or so he claimed , 20 years later ; it was Leidy who published the correction shortly afterwards ) . Cope , in turn , began collecting in what Marsh considered his private bone @-@ hunting turf in Kansas and in Wyoming , further damaging their relationship .
= = = 1872 – 1877 : Early expeditions = = =
In the 1870s , Cope 's and Marsh 's professional attentions were directed to the American West by word of large fossil finds . Using his influence in Washington , Cope was granted a position on the US Geological Survey under Ferdinand Hayden . While the position offered no salary , it afforded Cope a great opportunity to collect fossils in the West and publish his finds . Cope 's flair for dramatic writing suited Hayden , who needed to make a popular impression with the official survey reports . In June 1872 Cope set off on his first trip , intending on observing the Eocene bone beds of Wyoming for himself . This caused a rift between Cope , Hayden , and Leidy . It was Leidy who had enjoyed receiving many of the fossils from Hayden 's collection until Cope joined the survey , and now Cope was hunting for fossils in Leidy 's staked territory — at the same time Leidy was to be collecting . Hayden attempted to smooth things over with Leidy in a letter :
I asked him not to go into that field , that you were going there . He laughed at the idea of being restricted to any locality and said he intended to go whether I aided him or not . I was anxious to secure the cooperation of such a worker as an honor to my corps . I could not be responsible for the field he selected in as much as I pay him no salary and a portion of his expenses . You will see therefore that while it is not a pleasant thing to work in competition with others it seems almost a necessity . You can sympathize .
Cope took his family with him as far as Denver , while Hayden tried to keep Cope and Leidy from prospecting in the same area . Following a tip from geologist Fielding Bradford Meek , Cope also intended to investigate reports of bones Meek had found near Black Buttes Station and the railroad . Cope found the site and some skeletal remains of a dinosaur he dubbed Agathaumas sylvestris . Believing he had the full support of Hayden and the survey , Cope then traveled to Fort Bridger in June , only to find that the men , wagons , horses , and equipment he expected were not there . Cope cobbled together an outfit at his own expense , consisting of two teamsters , a cook , and a guide , along with three men from Chicago who were interested in studying with him . As it turned out , two of Cope 's men were in fact in the employ of Marsh . When the rival paleontologist found out his own men were taking Cope 's money , he was furious . While the men tried to assure Marsh they were still his men ( one suggested he took the job in order to lead Cope away from good fossils ) , Marsh 's laziness in soliciting firm agreements and payments may have caused them to seek other work . Cope 's journey took the expedition through rugged country only Hayden had surveyed , and he discovered dozens of new species . Meanwhile , one of Marsh 's men accidentally forwarded some of his material to Cope instead . On receiving the fossils , Cope sent them back to Marsh , but further damage had been done to their relationship .
Any pretense of cordiality between Cope and Marsh ended in 1872 , and by spring 1873 open hostility ensued . At the same time , Leidy , Cope and Marsh were making great discoveries of ancient reptiles and mammals in the Western bone beds . The paleontologists had a habit of making hasty telegrams eastward describing their finds , only publishing fuller accounts after returning from trips . Among the new specimens described by the men were Uintatherium , Loxolophodon , Eobasileus , Dinoceras , and Tinoceras . The problem was that many of these finds were not uniquely different from each other ; in fact , Cope and Marsh knew that some of the fossils they were collecting had already been found by the others . As it turned out many of Marsh 's names were valid , while none of Cope 's were . Marsh also placed the new species into a new order of mammals , Cinocerea . Cope was humiliated and powerless to stop his rival 's changes . Instead , he published a broad analytical study where he proposed a new plan of classification for the Eocene mammals , in which he discarded Marsh 's genera in favor of his own . Marsh stuck to his guns and continued to claim that all of Cope 's names for Dinocerata were incorrect .
While the scientists bickered over classifications and nomenclature , they also returned west for more fossils . Marsh made his last trip furnished by Yale in 1873 , with a large group of thirteen students accompanying him , protected by a group of soldiers who wanted to make a show of force to the Sioux tribe . Due to concerns over his more lavish and expensive expeditions in years past , Marsh had the students pay their own way , and the trip cost Yale only $ 1857 @.@ 50 , far less than the $ 15 @,@ 000 ( over $ 200 @,@ 000 in modern currency ) that Marsh had claimed for the previous expedition . This excursion would prove to be Marsh 's last : for the rest of the Bone Wars , Marsh preferred to enlist the services of local collectors . Though he had enough bones to study for years , the scientist 's appetite for more would grow . Cope was even more prolific in his collecting that season than he was in 1872 , although Marsh 's penchant for cultivating collectors of his own meant that at Bridger his rival was persona non grata . Tired of working under Hayden , Cope found a paying job with the Army Corps of Engineers , but was limited by this federal association ; while Cope had to tag along on surveys , Marsh could collect wherever he wanted .
The two scientists ' attention turned to South Dakota in the mid @-@ 1870s , where the discovery of gold in the Black Hills increased Native American tensions with the United States . Marsh , desiring the fossils found in that region , became embroiled in Army @-@ Indian politics . In order to gain the support of Chief Red Cloud of the Sioux to prospect , Marsh promised Red Cloud payment for fossils collected and that he would return to Washington DC and lobby on their behalf about their improper treatment . In the end , Marsh slipped out of camp and according to his own ( possibly romanticized ) accounts , amassed cartloads of fossils and retreated just before a hostile Miniconjou party arrived . Marsh , for his part , did take on the Interior Department and the administration on behalf of Red Cloud , but his motives might have been to make a name for himself against the unpopular Ulysses S. Grant administration . By 1875 , both Cope and Marsh paused in their collecting , feeling financial strain and needing to catalogue their backlogged finds , but new discoveries would return them to the West before decade 's end .
= = = 1877 – 1892 : Como Bluff finds = = =
In 1877 , Marsh received a letter from Arthur Lakes , a schoolteacher in Golden , Colorado . Lakes reported that he had been hiking in the mountains near the town of Morrison when he and his friend , H. C. Beckwith , discovered massive bones embedded in the rock . Lakes further advised that the bones were " apparently a vertebra and a humerus bone of some gigantic saurian . " While awaiting Marsh 's reply , Lakes dug up more " colossal " bones and sent them to New Haven . As Marsh was slow to respond , Lakes also sent a shipment of bones to Cope .
When Marsh responded to Lakes , he paid the prospector $ 100 , urging him to keep the finds a secret . Learning that Lakes had corresponded with Cope , Marsh sent his field collector Benjamin Mudge to Morrison to secure Lakes ' services . Marsh published a description of Lakes ' discoveries in the American Journal of Science on July 1 , and before Cope could publish his own interpretation of the finds , Lakes wrote to him that the bones should be shipped to Marsh , a severe insult to Cope .
A second letter arrived from the west , this time addressed to Cope . O.W. Lucas was a naturalist who had been collecting plants near Cañon City , Colorado , when he came upon an assortment of fossil bones . After receiving more samples from Lucas , Cope concluded the dinosaurs were large herbivores , gleefully noting that the specimen was larger than any other previously described , including Lakes ' discovery . Hearing of Lucas ' finds , Marsh instructed Mudge and a former student , Samuel Wendell Williston , to set up a quarry on his behalf near Cañon . Unfortunately for Marsh , he learned from Williston that Lucas was finding the best bones and refused to quit Cope to come work for Marsh . Marsh ordered Williston back to Morrison , where Marsh 's small quarry collapsed and nearly killed his assistants . This setback would have dried up Marsh 's bone supply from the west if not for receipt of a third letter .
At the time of Lakes ' discoveries , the Transcontinental Railroad was being built through a remote area of Wyoming . Marsh 's letter was from two men identifying themselves as Harlow and Edwards ( their real names were Carlin and Reed ) , workers on the Union Pacific Railroad . The two men claimed they had found large numbers of fossils in Como Bluff , and warned that there were others in the area " looking for such things " , which Marsh took to mean Cope . Williston , who had just wearily arrived in Kansas after the collapse of the Morrison mine , was quickly dispatched to Como Bluff by Marsh . His former student sent back a message , confirming the large quantities of bones and that it was Cope 's men snooping around the area . Wary of repeating the same mistakes he had made with Lakes , Marsh quickly sent money to the two new bone hunters and urged them to send additional fossils . Williston struck a preliminary bargain with Carlin and Reed ( who had been unable to cash Marsh 's check due to it being made out to their pseudonyms ) , but Carlin decided he would head to New Haven to deal with Marsh directly . Marsh drew up a contract calling for a set monthly fee , with additional cash bonuses to Carlin and Reed possible , depending on the importance of the finds . Marsh also reserved the right to send his own " superintendents " to supervise the digging if needed , and advised the men to try to keep Cope out of the region . Despite a face @-@ to @-@ face meeting , Carlin failed to negotiate better terms from Marsh . The paleontologist procured Carlin 's and Reed 's work for the stated terms , but seeds of discord and resentment were sown in the bone hunters as they felt Marsh had bullied them into the deal . Marsh 's investment in the Como Bluff region soon produced rich results . While Marsh 's own collectors headed east for the winter , Reed sent carloads of bones by rail to Marsh throughout 1877 . Marsh described and named dinosaurs such as Stegosaurus , Allosaurus , and Apatosaurus in the December 1877 issue of the American Journal of Science .
Despite Marsh 's precautions against alerting his rival to Como Bluff 's rich bone beds , word of the discoveries rapidly spread . This was at least partly due to Carlin and Reed helping spread the rumors . They leaked information to the Laramie Daily Sentinel which published an article about the finds in April 1878 that exaggerated the price Marsh had paid for the bones , possibly to raise prices and demand for more bones . Marsh , attempting to cover the leak , learned from Williston that Carlin and Reed had been visited by a man ostensibly working for Cope by the name of " Haines " . After learning of the Como Bluff discoveries , Cope sent " dinosaur rustlers " to the area in an attempt to quietly steal fossils from under Marsh 's nose . During the winter of 1878 Carlin 's dissatisfaction with Marsh 's sporadic sending of payment reached a head , and he began working for Cope instead .
Cope and Marsh used their personal wealth to fund expeditions each summer , then spent the winter publishing their discoveries . Small armies of fossil hunters in mule @-@ drawn wagons or on trains were soon sending literally tons of fossils back east . The paleontological digs lasted fifteen years , from 1877 to 1892 . The workers for both Cope and Marsh suffered hardships related to the weather , as well as sabotage and obstruction by
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-@ covalent EI complex , it is sometimes possible for an inhibitor to bind to an enzyme in more than one way . For example , in the figure showing trypanothione reductase from the human protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi , two molecules of an inhibitor called quinacrine mustard are bound in its active site . The top molecule is bound reversibly , but the lower one is bound covalently as it has reacted with an amino acid residue through its nitrogen mustard group .
= = Discovery and design of inhibitors = =
New drugs are the products of a long drug development process , the first step of which is often the discovery of a new enzyme inhibitor . In the past the only way to discover these new inhibitors was by trial and error : screening huge libraries of compounds against a target enzyme and hoping that some useful leads would emerge . This brute force approach is still successful and has even been extended by combinatorial chemistry approaches that quickly produce large numbers of novel compounds and high @-@ throughput screening technology to rapidly screen these huge chemical libraries for useful inhibitors .
More recently , an alternative approach has been applied : rational drug design uses the three @-@ dimensional structure of an enzyme 's active site to predict which molecules might be inhibitors . These predictions are then tested and one of these tested compounds may be a novel inhibitor . This new inhibitor is then used to try to obtain a structure of the enzyme in an inhibitor / enzyme complex to show how the molecule is binding to the active site , allowing changes to be made to the inhibitor to try to optimise binding . This test and improve cycle is then repeated until a sufficiently potent inhibitor is produced . Computer @-@ based methods of predicting the affinity of an inhibitor for an enzyme are also being developed , such as molecular docking and molecular mechanics .
= = Uses of inhibitors = =
Enzyme inhibitors are found in nature and are also designed and produced as part of pharmacology and biochemistry . Natural poisons are often enzyme inhibitors that have evolved to defend a plant or animal against predators . These natural toxins include some of the most poisonous compounds known . Artificial inhibitors are often used as drugs , but can also be insecticides such as malathion , herbicides such as glyphosate , or disinfectants such as triclosan . Other artificial enzyme inhibitors block acetylcholinesterase , an enzyme which breaks down acetylcholine , and are used as nerve agents in chemical warfare .
= = = Chemotherapy = = =
The most common uses for enzyme inhibitors are as drugs to treat disease . Many of these inhibitors target a human enzyme and aim to correct a pathological condition . However , not all drugs are enzyme inhibitors . Some , such as anti @-@ epileptic drugs , alter enzyme activity by causing more or less of the enzyme to be produced . These effects are called enzyme induction and inhibition and are alterations in gene expression , which is unrelated to the type of enzyme inhibition discussed here . Other drugs interact with cellular targets that are not enzymes , such as ion channels or membrane receptors .
An example of a medicinal enzyme inhibitor is sildenafil ( Viagra ) , a common treatment for male erectile dysfunction . This compound is a potent inhibitor of cGMP specific phosphodiesterase type 5 , the enzyme that degrades the signalling molecule cyclic guanosine monophosphate . This signalling molecule triggers smooth muscle relaxation and allows blood flow into the corpus cavernosum , which causes an erection . Since the drug decreases the activity of the enzyme that halts the signal , it makes this signal last for a longer period of time .
Another example of the structural similarity of some inhibitors to the substrates of the enzymes they target is seen in the figure comparing the drug methotrexate to folic acid . Folic acid is a substrate of dihydrofolate reductase , an enzyme involved in making nucleotides that is potently inhibited by methotrexate . Methotrexate blocks the action of dihydrofolate reductase and thereby halts the production of nucleotides . This block of nucleotide biosynthesis is more toxic to rapidly growing cells than non @-@ dividing cells , since a rapidly growing cell has to carry out DNA replication , therefore methotrexate is often used in cancer chemotherapy .
= = = Antibiotics = = =
Drugs also are used to inhibit enzymes needed for the survival of pathogens . For example , bacteria are surrounded by a thick cell wall made of a net @-@ like polymer called peptidoglycan . Many antibiotics such as penicillin and vancomycin inhibit the enzymes that produce and then cross @-@ link the strands of this polymer together . This causes the cell wall to lose strength and the bacteria to burst . In the figure , a molecule of penicillin ( shown in a ball @-@ and @-@ stick form ) is shown bound to its target , the transpeptidase from the bacteria Streptomyces R61 ( the protein is shown as a ribbon @-@ diagram ) .
Antibiotic drug design is facilitated when an enzyme that is essential to the pathogen 's survival is absent or very different in humans . In the example above , humans do not make peptidoglycan , therefore inhibitors of this process are selectively toxic to bacteria . Selective toxicity is also produced in antibiotics by exploiting differences in the structure of the ribosomes in bacteria , or how they make fatty acids .
= = = Metabolic control = = =
Enzyme inhibitors are also important in metabolic control . Many metabolic pathways in the cell are inhibited by metabolites that control enzyme activity through allosteric regulation or substrate inhibition . A good example is the allosteric regulation of the glycolytic pathway . This catabolic pathway consumes glucose and produces ATP , NADH and pyruvate . A key step for the regulation of glycolysis is an early reaction in the pathway catalysed by phosphofructokinase @-@ 1 ( PFK1 ) . When ATP levels rise , ATP binds an allosteric site in PFK1 to decrease the rate of the enzyme reaction ; glycolysis is inhibited and ATP production falls . This negative feedback control helps maintain a steady concentration of ATP in the cell . However , metabolic pathways are not just regulated through inhibition since enzyme activation is equally important . With respect to PFK1 , fructose 2 @,@ 6 @-@ bisphosphate and ADP are examples of metabolites that are allosteric activators .
Physiological enzyme inhibition can also be produced by specific protein inhibitors . This mechanism occurs in the pancreas , which synthesises many digestive precursor enzymes known as zymogens . Many of these are activated by the trypsin protease , so it is important to inhibit the activity of trypsin in the pancreas to prevent the organ from digesting itself . One way in which the activity of trypsin is controlled is the production of a specific and potent trypsin inhibitor protein in the pancreas . This inhibitor binds tightly to trypsin , preventing the trypsin activity that would otherwise be detrimental to the organ . Although the trypsin inhibitor is a protein , it avoids being hydrolysed as a substrate by the protease by excluding water from trypsin 's active site and destabilising the transition state . Other examples of physiological enzyme inhibitor proteins include the barstar inhibitor of the bacterial ribonuclease barnase and the inhibitors of protein phosphatases .
= = = Pesticides = = =
Many pesticides are enzyme inhibitors . Acetylcholinesterase ( AChE ) is an enzyme found in animals from insects to humans . It is essential to nerve cell function through its mechanism of breaking down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine into its constituents , acetate and choline . This is somewhat unique among neurotransmitters as most , including serotonin , dopamine , and norepinephrine , are absorbed from the synaptic cleft rather than cleaved . A large number of AChE inhibitors are used in both medicine and agriculture . Reversible competitive inhibitors , such as edrophonium , physostigmine , and neostigmine , are used in the treatment of myasthenia gravis and in anaesthesia . The carbamate pesticides are also examples of reversible AChE inhibitors . The organophosphate pesticides such as malathion , parathion , and chlorpyrifos irreversibly inhibit acetylcholinesterase .
The herbicide glyphosate is an inhibitor of 3 @-@ phosphoshikimate 1 @-@ carboxyvinyltransferase , other herbicides , such as the sulfonylureas inhibit the enzyme acetolactate synthase . Both these enzymes are needed for plants to make branched @-@ chain amino acids . Many other enzymes are inhibited by herbicides , including enzymes needed for the biosynthesis of lipids and carotenoids and the processes of photosynthesis and oxidative phosphorylation .
= = = Natural poisons = = =
Animals and plants have evolved to synthesise a vast array of poisonous products including secondary metabolites , peptides and proteins that can act as inhibitors . Natural toxins are usually small organic molecules and are so diverse that there are probably natural inhibitors for most metabolic processes . The metabolic processes targeted by natural poisons encompass more than enzymes in metabolic pathways and can also include the inhibition of receptor , channel and structural protein functions in a cell . For example , paclitaxel ( taxol ) , an organic molecule found in the Pacific yew tree , binds tightly to tubulin dimers and inhibits their assembly into microtubules in the cytoskeleton .
Many natural poisons act as neurotoxins that can cause paralysis leading to death and have functions for defence against predators or in hunting and capturing prey . Some of these natural inhibitors , despite their toxic attributes , are valuable for therapeutic uses at lower doses . An example of a neurotoxin are the glycoalkaloids , from the plant species in the Solanaceae family ( includes potato , tomato and eggplant ) , that are acetylcholinesterase inhibitors . Inhibition of this enzyme causes an uncontrolled increase in the acetylcholine neurotransmitter , muscular paralysis and then death . Neurotoxicity can also result from the inhibition of receptors ; for example , atropine from deadly nightshade ( Atropa belladonna ) that functions as a competitive antagonist of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors .
Although many natural toxins are secondary metabolites , these poisons also include peptides and proteins . An example of a toxic peptide is alpha @-@ amanitin , which is found in relatives of the death cap mushroom . This is a potent enzyme inhibitor , in this case preventing the RNA polymerase II enzyme from transcribing DNA . The algal toxin microcystin is also a peptide and is an inhibitor of protein phosphatases . This toxin can contaminate water supplies after algal blooms and is a known carcinogen that can also cause acute liver hemorrhage and death at higher doses .
Proteins can also be natural poisons or antinutrients , such as the trypsin inhibitors ( discussed above ) that are found in some legumes , as shown in the figure above . A less common class of toxins are toxic enzymes : these act as irreversible inhibitors of their target enzymes and work by chemically modifying their substrate enzymes . An example is ricin , an extremely potent protein toxin found in castor oil beans . This enzyme is a glycosidase that inactivates ribosomes . Since ricin is a catalytic irreversible inhibitor , this allows just a single molecule of ricin to kill a cell .
= Battle of Yanshi =
The Battle of Yanshi ( 偃師之戰 ) was fought on 5 – 6 October 618 between the armies of Wang Shichong and Li Mi , rival contenders for the succession of the Sui Dynasty . Wang , who was still ostensibly a Sui loyalist and had been blockaded in Luoyang for months by Li Mi , gambled on a decisive battle and led his troops out to attack the besieging army . Li assembled his forces on a naturally defensible position north of Yanshi town , but Wang managed to surprise Li 's forces and approach their camp before they could react . Aided by a secondary cavalry attack from the rear , Wang secured a decisive victory over Li 's forces . Although Li managed to escape with part of his army , his authority was shattered , and his followers joined Wang . While Li Mi sought refuge in the rival Tang court , Wang consolidated his control over Henan and eventually deposed the Sui puppet ruler Yang Tong and declared himself as Emperor of the new Zheng dynasty . Wang 's power lasted until his surrender to the Tang prince Li Shimin in 621 .
= = Background = =
During the later reign of the second emperor of the Sui Dynasty , Yang ( reigned 604 – 618 ) , the dynasty 's authority began to wane : the immense material and human cost of the protracted and fruitless attempts to conquer the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo , coupled with natural disasters , caused unrest in the provinces , while the successive military failures eroded the emperor 's prestige and legitimacy ( " Mandate of Heaven " ) among the provincial governors . Yang nevertheless continued to be fixated on the Korean campaigns , and by the time he realized the gravity of the situation , it was too late : as revolts spread , in 616 , he abandoned the north and withdrew to Jiangdu , where he remained until his assassination in 618 . Local governors and magnates rose to claim power in the wake of Yang 's withdrawal . By the summer of 618 , nine major contenders emerged , some claiming the imperial title , others contenting themselves , for the time being , with more modest titles . The three most powerful were Li Yuan , who seized the Sui capital of Daxingcheng ( Chang 'an ) and on 16 June 618 proclaimed himself the first emperor of the Tang Dynasty ; Dou Jiande , a one @-@ time bandit leader who had risen in revolt against the Sui already in 611 , and came to control most of Hebei as the " King of Changle " and then as the " King of Xia " ; and Li Mi in Henan , who led a mixture of rebelled peasants and Sui soldiers .
Li Mi 's main antagonist was the Sui general Wang Shichong , who controlled the eastern capital , Luoyang , and the remnants of the Sui administration there . Emperor Yang had sent him to the city in mid @-@ 617 . In May 618 , following Yang 's murder by the general Yuwen Huaji , the Sui officials in Luoyang elevated Yang 's grandson Yang Tong to the throne . In the meantime , Li Mi had managed to gain control over most of the surrounding area . When Yuwen Huaji moved north against Li Mi , Wang seized the opportunity to play both rebels against each other : Li Mi was offered an amnesty and a high court position if he would march against Emperor Yang 's assassin . Li Mi , whose own base , the great granary at Liyang , was threatened , agreed , hoping in turn to profit from his legitimization and gain control of Luoyang . In the event , Li Mi heavily defeated Yuwen in a series of battles and forced him to withdraw to northern Hubei . Feeling threatened by Li Mi 's growing power , and facing plots against him in Luoyang , Wang launched a coup d 'état on 11 August 618 and seized power for himself , removing his opponents and barring the city to Li Mi . The two men now moved to a confrontation that , as the historian David Graff comments , could prove decisive for the outcome of the civil war . Wang " was fighting for survival " , while Li had to capture Luoyang to " cement his hold over Henan " . More importantly , however , " the victor would be left in possession of the most populous region of the Sui empire and could expect to receive the allegiance of many of the smaller armed factions " .
= = Battle of Yanshi = =
Facing starvation and surrender , Wang Shichong decided to risk an open confrontation with Li Mi , in an attempt to push him back and break the siege . Wang selected 20 @,@ 000 " elite " troops — of which only 1 @,@ 000 were cavalry — from Luoyang 's garrison , apparently troops who had already participated in several expeditions against rebels and bandits under his command and were especially trustworthy . In order to embolden his men Wang — who according to Graff " had a keen interest in divination and was fond of invoking unseen powers " — now invoked the semi @-@ mythical figure of the founder of Luoyang , the Duke of Zhou : he had a shrine erected in the Duke of Zhou 's honour , and shamans declared that the Duke promised that if they marched to confront Li Mi , they would win , whereas if they remained in Luoyang , they were doomed to die of pestilence . Apparently this had the desired effect , for on 4 October 618 Wang led his army out of Luoyang and , following the course of the Luo River , marched eastward , bypassing Li Mi 's forward positions . On the afternoon of the next day , Wang 's army had reached the walled town of Yanshi , some 20 miles from Luoyang and located between the Luo River to the south and an irrigation canal to the north . There , deep inside enemy territory , Wang made camp . Li Mi had been at Jinyong Fortress some 6 miles east of Luoyang when he learned of Wang 's sortie . He too selected the best men among his own troops , numbering around 40 @,@ 000 , left one of his generals in charge of Jinyong , and followed Wang eastward . Li Mi encamped on the Mang hills north of Yanshi .
Once there , Li Mi convened a council of war to determine his army 's course of action . Li Mi himself advocated a passive and cautious stance , arguing that Wang 's troops were not only experienced veterans , but that , as they were virtually cut off from retreat due to the Luo river , the canals , and the presence of his own army , they would fight with desperate courage — a situation already described and recommended as a strategy to galvanize one 's troops by no lesser authority than Sun Tzu , and doubtlessly familiar to both opposing commanders . In addition , while lack of supplies constrained Wang to seek an early and decisive engagement , Li Mi 's own forces had time on their side and could afford to sit out and wait until Wang 's provisions were utterly exhausted . Most of Li 's generals , however , vehemently disagreed , regarding Wang 's army as an exhausted and demoralized force , and pointing to their own considerable numerical superiority . At this juncture , the heterogeneous nature of Li 's army , cobbled together from bandit chieftains and Sui defectors , came into play : Li was well aware that his commanders were " potentially autonomous warlords who commanded the personal loyalty of their own subordinates " , and that he could not afford to antagonize them . Therefore , against his better judgement , he was forced to agree to an immediate confrontation . Nevertheless , Li Mi decided to await Wang 's attack instead of attacking himself . The main host , under Li Mi , remained on the Mang hills , while a detachment under Shan Xiongxin moved down to the plain just north of Yanshi and established a camp there . The two camps , in the description of David Graff , formed " an inverted letter ' L ' running east along the mountain and then turning sharply south across the plain to Yanshi " . Li Mi felt confident in his superior position , which gave him ample time to descend the hills and move against Wang , should he try to cross the canal for an attack . If Wang attacked either of his camps , the troops of the other would come to aid , flanking Wang 's forces . Confident in the naturally defensive layout of his hilltop camp , however , he neglected fortifying it .
The first clash between the two armies occurred on the same evening of 5 October , when Wang sent several hundred of his cavalry to attack Shan Xionxin 's camp on the plain . Li sent forces from the hills to his general 's aid , but the battle ended quickly with the arrival of night . This attack was nothing more than a diversion , drawing Li 's attention to the east while , under cover of night , Wang sent 200 of his cavalry around and behind Li 's forces . Concealing themselves in a ravine behind Li 's camp , they waited . During the night Wang laid bridges across the canal , and before dawn his army crossed over and deployed in battle formation close to Li Mi 's camps . At daybreak , Li Mi 's troops were caught entirely by surprise at the sight of the battle @-@ ready enemy advancing onto them . As the camps were unfortified , the rebel troops tried to hastily form a battle line themselves , but they were unable to prevent Wang 's forces from entering their encampments . At the same time , Wang signalled his hidden cavalry to attack . Charging down from the north into Li Mi 's camp , the 200 horsemen began setting fire to it . At the sight of the camp to their rear going up in flames , Li Mi 's army broke and fled . While Li Mi was able to escape with some 10 @,@ 000 of his men , many of the rest surrendered to Wang . According to one account , Wang 's victory was secured by a stratagem : one of his soldiers , who greatly resembled Li Mi , was bound and displayed to the rebel troops at the height of the battle , whereupon the latter collapsed .
= = Aftermath = =
While Li Mi survived , his authority suffered a devastating blow from which it could not recover . His followers started flocking to Wang Shichong , who quickly became the master of all territories " east to the sea and south as far as the River Yangzi " . With the remnants of his army , Li Mi was forced to seek refuge with the Tang court in Chang 'an . Wang Shichong , on the other hand , now stood at the apex of his power . He appointed new senior officials and finally , in May 619 he deposed the puppet Sui emperor Yang Tong and declared himself as the first emperor of the Zheng dynasty . Soon , however , Wang 's rule became cruel and repressive , costing him support . He was also unable to effectively confront the advancing Tang armies under Li Shimin , who in early 621 laid siege to Luoyang . Wang allied himself with Dou Jiande , who came to his aid ; but Li Shimin scored a decisive victory at the Battle of Hulao on 28 May 621 , taking Dou Jiande captive . Without hope of succour , Wang finally surrendered four days after the battle , and was killed on the way to his exile .
= Dareka no Manazashi =
Dareka no Manazashi ( Japanese : だれかのまなざし , lit . Someone 's Gaze ) , is a Japanese anime short film written and directed by Makoto Shinkai . It was initially screened at the Tokyo International Forum on February 10 , 2013 , though it was also shown alongside Shinkai 's film The Garden of Words during its Japanese premier on May 31 , 2013 . It was later posted on YouTube from September 2013 to January 2014 . Dareka no Manazashi is a slightly futuristic story about the maturation of a recently independent young woman and her changing relationship with her father . The story develops through reminiscent scenes of their family life and the connection the girl and her father share with the family 's cat .
The film was produced by CoMix Wave Films , NEST , and TYO M1 Production in collaboration with The Answer Studio Co . , Ltd . The voice cast includes Fumi Hirano , Satomi Hanamura , and Shinji Ogawa . Hirano 's narration was crucial in helping Shinkai structure the film . Other leading staff included Makoto Taiga , Miho Suzuki , and Takumi Tanji . Akihisa Matsuura directed the music , and Kazusa wrote and sang the theme song , " Sore de Ii yo " ( それでいいよ , lit . It 's all fine ) , which was aimed at matching the tastes of a younger generation . Online reviews and comments universally praised the film as heartfelt and artistically vibrant , while it was solely criticized for its brevity . It was described as " deeply emotional " , particularly for older viewers due to its emphasis on family bonds as a family changes over time .
= = Plot = =
Set in the near future , the story focuses on a recently independent daughter Aya Okamura ( 岡村綾 , Okamura Aya ) , her parents , and their pet cat Mii ( ミ一 ) . Aya had recently taken a job that allowed her to move away from home , and her father , Kōji ( 浩司 ) , lives at home alone with their cat while Aya 's mother , Minako ( 美菜子 ) , is working overseas . Mii is an old cat , originally obtained as a kitten by Aya 's father to help his young daughter cope with her mother 's absence , and is now in poor health . The story is narrated from the cat 's perspective .
The story begins with Aya returning home from a rough day at work . After relaxing on her bed , she receives a phone call from her father , who wants to have dinner with her ; however , she declines by lying about still being at work . The narrator then reminisces about Aya 's childhood and family life , particularly dwelling upon how her maturity and independence had created distance between her and her father , who is increasingly lonely yet happy for her . Later that night , Aya awakes to another phone call from her father . Having learned of Mii 's death , she visits her father and has lunch with him , an experience that brings the two closer together . Aya later visits her father to see the new kitten he buys . At the same time , her mother rings the doorbell and the family is reunited , their happiness renewed .
= = Production = =
Dareka no Manazashi was written and directed by Makoto Shinkai , who directed Voices of a Distant Star and 5 Centimeters Per Second . It was produced by CoMix Wave Films , NEST , and TYO M1 Production in collaboration with The Answer Studio Co . , Ltd . The assistant director was Makoto Taiga , the animation director and character designer was Miho Suzuki , and the art director was Takumi Tanji . The music was directed by Akihisa Matsuura , and the theme song , " Sore de Ii yo " ( それでいいよ , lit . It 's all fine ) , was performed by the singer @-@ songwriter Kazusa . Shinkai said he chose Kazusa to perform the theme song because she could provide " the sort of music that the young encounter " , fitting with the film 's theme . The voice cast includes Fumi Hirano as Mii , Satomi Hanamura as Aya Okamura , and Shinji Ogawa as Kōji Okamura . The short film is 6 minutes 40 seconds in length .
The short film was made with the support of Nomura Real Estate Group for its " Proud Box Appreciation Festival " ( プラウドボックス感謝祭 ) , a home living exposition at the Tokyo International Forum . According to Shinkai , the greatest challenge in the project was to keep the animation both short and entertaining while also covering the two main themes : family bonds and the future . Hirano 's narration , which provided character background and insight into their personalities , helped Shinkai structure the film .
= = Release = =
Dareka no Manazashi was announced on Shinkai 's official website on January 10 , 2013 . On January 23 , Nomura Real Estate Group streamed the trailer , and announced plans to screen the short film on February 10 , during the " Proud Box Appreciation Festival " . On May 22 , 2013 , Shinkai tweeted that he would also include the short with the Japanese premiere of The Garden of Words on May 31 , 2013 . The two films were also screened together for the Italian cinematic release on May 21 , 2014 .
The entire film was uploaded to YouTube through Nomura Real Estate Group 's ProudChannel on September 5 , 2013 , and was streamed starting September 9 . English subtitles were added on September 11 . It was originally scheduled to be taken down on January 12 , 2014 , but remained available until January 21 . During the four months it was available , it was viewed more than 745 @,@ 000 times . On March 28 , 2014 , Dareka no Manazashi was included with the " Extras " on the limited edition The Garden of Words DVD distributed by Kazé in Germany ( subtitled in German ) .
= = Reception = =
Dareka no Manazashi was positively received in Japan , and attracted particular interest once available on YouTube . Megumi Sawai of RocketNews24 quoted what she called typical online comments on the film , all of which described the emotional impact it had : " It was very good , and deeply emotional . " " Hopelessly , I was reduced to tears . " Sawai herself credited the film for the high quality of the art , and its message , saying it reminded her of the " bonds between family members , which remain unchanged even as the form of a family changes " . ASCII.jp said that " even young viewers can be moved by sympathy " after watching it , but that its greatest emotional impact might be for older audiences .
According to Curtis Stone at Geekenstein , the artwork was " vibrant and meticulous " and story was " exceptional " , and along with its execution and character development , he felt that Dareka no Manazahshi was " utterly enrapturing " despite its shortness . Stone was most impressed by how people could so easily relate to the characters emotionally , despite the film 's brevity . His only minor criticism was that the ending left open tantalizing questions about the family 's future , though he noted that this did not detract from the film 's message . UKAniFest called the short film " heartstringy " and characterized it as one of those hard @-@ to @-@ find " little gems " .
= Washington State Route 174 =
State Route 174 ( SR 174 ) is a 40 @.@ 66 @-@ mile ( 65 @.@ 44 km ) long state highway that traverses Douglas , Grant and Lincoln counties in Washington . SR 174 begins at a junction with SR 17 in Leahy and travels eastward to Grand Coulee , near the Grand Coulee Dam , to intersect SR 155 . From Grand Coulee , the roadway travels southeast to end at SR 21 northwest of Wilbur .
Prior to the establishment of SR 174 in a 1964 renumbering , it had been county roads and two highways , Secondary State Highway 10B ( SSH 10B ) and Secondary State Highway 4C ( SSH 4C ) from 1937 until 1964 . The two highways merged to form SR 174 in 1964 and a branch of SSH 10B became the Crown Point spur of SR 174 . A second spur route , located in Leahy , was added in 2009 .
= = Route description = =
SR 174 begins at an intersection with SR 17 in Leahy , a small community in Douglas County . The western terminus is only accessible from SR 17 southbound , access from SR 17 northbound is provided by the Leahy spur of SR 174 . From Leahy , the highway travels northeastward through grasslands with few farms before turning southeast to intersect its Crown Point spur near the Grand Coulee Dam . The roadway then enters Grant County and the city of Grand Coulee and becomes the Bridgeport Highway . SR 174 continues to the Grand Coulee Dam federal reservation and state maintenance ends through the area . After the gap in maintenance in Grand Coulee , SR 174 travels over the Columbia Basin Canal and intersects with SR 155 , which is named Midway Avenue through Grand Coulee . After the intersection , the highway is named Grand Coulee Avenue and passes Grand Coulee Middle School and Skilskin High School before leaving the city and the county . The roadway enters Lincoln County and continues southeast to its eastern terminus , an intersection with SR 21 , northwest of Wilbur ; SR 21 continues south to intersect with U.S. Route 2 ( US 2 ) .
= = History = =
SR 174 had previously been parts of various county roads until 1937 , when Washington established a system of primary and secondary highways throughout the state . One of the secondary highways , Secondary State Highway 10B ( SSH 10B ) ran from Primary State Highway 10 ( PSH 10 ) in Bridgeport to Coulee Dam , near the Grand Coulee Dam that was built in 1942 . Another secondary highway , Secondary State Highway 4C ( SSH 4C ) ran from Grand Coulee to PSH 4 near Wilbur . In 1951 , the western terminus SSH 10B was moved from Bridgeport to PSH 10 in Leahy and a western portion from PSH 2 in Farmer to PSH 10 in Mansfield . A branch of SSH 10B from its main route to the Crown Point viewing area of the Grand Coulee Dam was added in 1955 . SR 174 was formed after a 1964 renumbering of Washington state highways , eliminating the previous Primary and secondary highway system . SSH 10B and SSH 4C were connected to become the new highway and the renumbering went into effect in 1970 . In 2009 , a second spur in Leahy was established and added to the state highway system .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Spur routes = =
State Route 174 ( SR 174 ) has two spur routes , a type of special route .
= = = Leahy spur = = =
The Leahy spur of SR 174 is a 0 @.@ 09 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 14 km ) long two @-@ lane spur route that was added to the state highway system in 2009 . The roadway is named Leahy Road and serves as a connector from northbound SR 17 to SR 174 .
= = = Crown Point spur = = =
The older spur route is located near the Grand Coulee Dam and connects SR 174 to Crown Point State Park , part of the Lake Roosevelt National Recreation Area , within the community of Coulee Dam . The highway , named Crown Point Road , is 1 @.@ 37 miles ( 2 @.@ 20 km ) long and was added in 1964 . The Crown Point Spur was a spur route of SSH 10B , established in 1955 , prior to 1964 . The roadway itself is within federal property and is not numbered or maintained by the state .
= Lynemouth power station =
Lynemouth Power Station is a coal and biomass fired power station which provides electricity for the UK National Grid . Until March 2012 , it was the main source of electricity for the nearby Alcan Lynemouth Aluminium Smelter . It is located on the coast of Northumberland , north east of the town of Ashington in north east England . The station has stood as a landmark on the Northumberland coast since it opened in 1972 , and has been privately owned by aluminium company Rio Tinto Alcan throughout its operation until December 2013 , when RWE npower took over . In January 2016 it has been acquired by Energetický a průmyslový holding .
The station is one of the most recently built coal @-@ fired power stations in the United Kingdom , but with a generating capacity of only 420 megawatts ( MW ) , is now one of the smallest operating . Two separate wind farm plans currently have permission to be built near the station , one for a 13 turbine wind farm near the smelter and another three turbine wind farm to the north of the station . In 2009 , Alcan announced that they hope to fit the station with carbon capture and storage technology . In 2011 , it was announced that the power station may be converted to burn biomass only , in a bid to avoid government legislation . RWE npower have confirmed they are committed to conversion to biomass .
= = History = =
In 1968 , Alcan had applied for planning permission for the construction of a new aluminium smelter in Northumberland at Lynemouth . Later that year , Alcan was granted the permission and site preparation would soon begin . However , to meet the electric demand of the new smelter , a power station would also be needed to be built . Therefore , Lynemouth Power Station was constructed only 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) from the aluminium smelter .
The two establishments were constructed in South East Northumberland as part of an incentive to lower the high unemployment numbers . The site was also chosen because of the Ellington and Lynemouth collieries . Ellington Colliery sunk in 1909 , with Lynemouth Colliery sinking 18 years later . However , in 1968 , the two collieries were connected underground by the Bewick Drift , from which coal was brought to the surface . The Drift had no rail connection , and so coal was sent to the washery at Lynemouth by conveyor belt . The power station was constructed nearby the end of the conveyor belt .
Both buildings were designed by architects Yorke Rosenberg Mardall , with engineering consultation from Engineering & Power Consultants Ltd . The power station was constructed by Tarmac Construction and the smelter by M.J. Gleeson Company . Both the power station and smelter were brought into operation in March 1972 .
= = Design and specifications = =
The power station is divided into structures , which mainly include a boiler house and a turbine hall . Both of these structures have a steel frame foundation in the walls with aluminium cladding . Other structures include a single 114 m ( 374 ft ) tall chimney made out of solid reinforced concrete , and coal delivery and sorting plant .
The station 's boiler house houses three 380 MWth International Combustion boilers , which are fuelled by pulverised bituminous coal . Each of these provide steam for one of three 140 megawatt ( MW ) Parsons turbo @-@ alternators , situated in the station 's turbine hall . These give the station a total generating capacity of 420 MW . The electricity generated was fed at 24 kilovolt ( kV ) to a substation to power the smelter during operation . The substation also has a 132 kV connection to the National Grid , where electricity is distributed to homes and other industries by Northern Electric Distribution Limited . The smelter 's two pot lines required 310 MW of the 420 MW that the power station produces , so the excess 110 MW which was fed into the national grid . Since the mothballing of the smelter , all exports now go to the grid .
Between 1999 and 2000 , the power station was given a turbine upgrade . In 2000 , the station 's condensers were also refurbished . The condenser refurbishment was carried out by Alstom . These improvements saw an increase in the station 's generating capacity , thermal efficiency and MWh production .
= = Operations = =
= = = Coal supply and transport = = =
The power station is the leading coal customer in Northumberland , burning 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 tonnes of coal a year , with a weekly coal consumption between 25 @,@ 000 and 27 @,@ 000 tonnes . The station has relatively limited coal storage facilities , and is only able to hold three to four weeks worth of its fuel .
The station was designed specifically to burn coal from the Northumberland coalfields . The neighbouring Ellington Colliery originally fed coal directly to the power station using a conveyor belt from its Bewick Drift Mine , situated 970 metres ( 3 @,@ 180 ft ) from the station . Within a year of the power station opening , 3 @,@ 000 men were employed between the Ellington and Lynemouth collieries , producing over two million tons of coal a year , the majority of it being sold to the power station . In 1994 , Ellington Colliery connected underground with Lynemouth Colliery , but coal continued to be taken straight to the power station 's coal sorting area using conveyor belts . This supply was supplemented by coal from local opencast mines . However , Ellington Colliery was forced to close when it flooded in January 2005 . The station burned the colliery 's remaining coal stock after it closed , and since then coal has been sourced from opencast mines in Northumberland and Scotland , but now a small amount of import is necessary .
Coal is now delivered to the station mainly using rail transport and is unloaded at the station using a merry @-@ go @-@ round system . Trains supplying the station use the Newbiggin and Lynemouth branch line of the Blyth and Tyne Railway , which also serves the smelter . This line was originally used to export coal from the local coalfield , and also had passenger services . These passenger services ceased in 1964 , and now the line is only used to serve the power station and smelter . Coal from the local opencast mines is brought to the station by road using heavy goods vehicles . Coal is graded and washed at the station prior to being burned .
With only one significant opencast in the local area mining past 2008 , along with another smaller opencast at Stony Heap , there is a need for more local supplies of coal for the station because of the risks in depending upon overseas sources of coal . Long distance supplies of coal can see sharp fluctuations in price , as well as the flexibility and security of the supply , whereas local sources aren 't as vulnerable to interruptions and have fixed , contracted prices . The station is not an established importer of coal , having only imported since 2005 . It is situated a long way from the major coal unloading ports of Teesside , Hull and Immingham , which have been booked by power stations closer to them . This means that coal for the power station needs to be imported via Blyth or the Port of Tyne . However , because of the small sizes of these docks , they can only receive ships from Poland and Russia . Due to high production costs and industry restructuring in Poland though , the only realistic source of imported coal for the station is Russia . The environmental impact of shipping 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 tonnes of coal from Russia to Lynemouth is the production of 12 @,@ 812 tonnes of CO2 , whereas hauling coal from local mines to the station would produce only 703 tonnes of CO2 . There are currently two local opencast mines for which planning approval have been granted , one at Shotton near Cramlington approved in 2007 , the other at Potland Burn near Ashington approved in October 2008 . However , the coal mined from Potland Burn would have too high a sulphur content to meet the station 's environmental requirements , meaning it wouldn 't be an immediate choice of coal for the station . Coal had been provided by the Delhi surface mine at Blagdon , owned by Banks Developments , since 2002 . It finished extracting coal in March 2009 , following the permission of extension proposals to its original plans in May 2007 .
= = = Water use = = =
For creating the steam to turn steam turbines and generate electricity , and for cooling the steam coming away from the turbines , water is needed , and is thus beneficial to have near any thermal power station . The cooling water that is used in the Lynemouth power station is taken from a body of water located close to the plant , the North Sea . The water is transferred from the sea to the plant by a series of shafts and tunnels . There are three condensers ( one per each generating set ) in the interior of the power station , which are used to cool the heated water before it is reused in the steam cycle . The cooling water is then transferred back to the North Sea .
Water used in the steam cycle is taken from the local mains water , supplied by Northumbrian Water . Up to 300 @,@ 000 tons of mains water per year is used in the station , however it has to be cleaned of impurities before use . This is done at an on site water treatment plant that uses a process of ion exchange to remove impurities such as silica and control PH levels so as to avoid boiler tube corrosion . This treated water is used to make superheated steam in the coal @-@ fired boilers , that will turn the turbines before being recovered in the condenser and reused .
Operating close to the power station is a fishing bait company , Seabait . Seabait uses some of the excess hot water that the plant generates to grow worms four times as fast as in the wild . The worms are used for several purposes , primarily for providing worms as bait while fishing . However , the worms are also frozen , packaged and exported to seafood farms . This is seen as environmentally beneficial as it reduces the need for bait digging in natural habitats .
= = = Ash removal = = =
Fly ash and bottom ash are two byproducts made through the burning of coal in power stations . Ash is normally dumped in the station 's Ash Lagoons landfill site , which is located on site . Since 2006 , ash produced at Lynemouth Power Station has been recycled and used as a sub @-@ fill material in the construction industry and in the production of grout . In 2007 , 63 @,@ 000 tonnes of ash from the station , along with 100 @,@ 000 tonnes of ash from the Ash Lagoons , was taken and recycled . In September 2007 , Pulverised Fuel Ash was utilised as a filling material in the capping of Woodhorn Landfill , which had been used for the disposal of spent potlining from the smelter .
= = = Biomass usage = = =
In December 2003 the Environment Agency granted permission for the plant to co @-@ fire biomass fuels in the station . Since 2004 three different types of biomass fuel been in use at Lynemouth ; Sawdust and Wood pellets from FSC certified forests and Olive residues . These fuels are mixed with the coal on the conveyor belt into the power station . In 2004 11 @,@ 000 tonnes of biomass fuel were used in the station . Biomass conversion ambitions have increased , with the site currently aiming to be 100 % biomass fired from 2015 .
The station earned the world class OHSAS 18001 health and safety certificate in 2003 , ahead of Alcan 's global targets . All of the station 's staff were required to take place in safety audits to improve working practice at the station . The certificate was presented to the station 's manager by Wansbeck MP Denis Murphy on 15 March 2003 . The station 's attention to health and safety was further recognised on 6 June 2007 when they were honoured by the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents ( RoSPA ) with a RoSPA Occupational Health and Safety Award at the Hilton Birmingham Metropole Hotel . Workers at the station had been audited by RoSPA for 10 years before receiving the award .
= = = Coastal defence = = =
In late 1994 , the power station was flooded to a foot deep of sea water , after a freak high tide and strong winds . This led to a sea defence system being constructed to protect the building . The problems came about because of the temporary closure of Ellington Colliery . Tipped waste from the colliery had been used as a coastal defence measure , but as the colliery had closed , waste was no longer being tipped . The colliery was reopened by RJB Mining , and in July 1999 the station ensured the future of the colliery by signing a contract with RJB Mining to be provided with 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 tonnes of coal from Ellington Colliery and opencast mines in Northumberland , over the course of three years . The colliery closed for good in 2005 , leading to problems with coastal defence again , threatening the station 's coal stocking area . This required to a £ 2 @.@ 5 million new coastal defence scheme be put in place , involving the use of large rocks as a defence wall .
= = Environmental impact = =
The power station 's use of biomass since 2004 has been part of an attempt to reduce its carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) output . In 2002 and 2004 the station met its targets for reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . Despite this , in 2006 the power station was revealed as having the fourth highest CO2 emissions in the north of England , for producing 2 @,@ 685 @,@ 512 tonnes of CO2 per year . However , generally the station reduced it CO2 emissions by 65 % between 1990 and 2010 , and the local air quality meets UK and European standards .
= = Windfarms = =
In 2006 a proposal was made by Hawthorn Power , an offshoot of UK Coal , to construct three 110 m ( 360 ft ) tall wind turbines on an unused part of the station 's coal sorting area , north of the power station . Permission was granted for the turbines in February 2008 . In July 2010 , it was revealed that the project 's new developer , Clipper Windpower , would be using the site to erect the country 's first super @-@ efficient wind turbines , called Liberty Wind Turbine . However , this meant the height of the turbines would increase from 110 m ( 360 ft ) to 130 m ( 430 ft ) . Each turbine would have a rating of 2 @.@ 5 MW , but only three turbines would be built . The wind farm would produce enough electricity to provide power for 1 @,@ 690 houses . One turbine is expected to be erected initially , while environmental issues are assessed .
ScottishPower Renewables also have permission to build 13 wind turbines near the aluminium smelter . They were initially refused planning permission , which they submitted in November 2006 . This was because their site is spread over two council boundaries and Wansbeck Council approved the scheme , but Castle Morpeth refused . An appeal hearing was given in April 2008 , and permission was eventually granted in January 2009 for the construction of up to 13 turbines , producing 30 MW of electricity .
= = Future of the station = =
Following a visit to the station by Prime Minister Gordon Brown on 3 July 2009 , it became apparent that Rio Tinto Alcan were hoping to be able to demonstrate Carbon Capture and Storage ( CCS ) technology at the station in the future , using " pre @-@ combustion " CCS technology . This would have involved treating the coal prior to burning so that less CO2 was produced , with any remaining CO2 being pumped under the North Sea into an aquifer . However , due to the economic climate , Rio Tinto did not commit the funding for the project themselves , and did not secure any of the required £ 1 billion European Union funding available for demonstration of CCS technology . In November 2009 it was announced that a variety of energy experts were preparing for the £ 1 billion bid to the Government for investment . The plans included a pipeline into the North Sea , and the upgrading of one of the station 's generating sets from 140 MW to around 375 MW , to safeguard the supply of electricity to the aluminium smelter .
The European Commission ( EC ) claimed that Alcan is in breach of their operating licence as the station has failed to " significantly reduce its emissions " . The UK Government contested the allegations , as the power station and smelter combined then provided 650 jobs and a contribution of £ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to the local economy , in an area heavily affected by the loss of traditional heavy industry . They lost the court case over it and on 22 April 2010 , the European Court of Justice ruled that the plant was subject to the emission limit values of the European directive on Large Combustion Plants . As a consequence , the station has to have at least £ 200 million worth of adaptations made to it so that it conforms to the directive , or be shut down . A date has not yet been given for it to conform , but two options for saving the station are the CCS project , or a switch from coal to biomass as a fuel .
Lynemouth 's future came further under threat in March 2011 , following carbon cutting measures announced in the 2011 United Kingdom budget . The government 's plans meant that the station would cost an extra £ 40 million a year , erasing Rio Tinto Alcan 's profits on the station . This has made the station 's operators consider the option of converting the power station to operate on biomass only to avoid the penalties . However , this conversion itself would cost £ 50 million and then using biomass instead of coal would cost an additional £ 170 million a year .
= = Cultural use and visual impact = =
Since its construction , the station has made appearances in a small number of films shot locally . These include :
Seacoal – a film made by Amber Films in 1985 . The station is features heavily as a backdrop in the beach scenes , where the characters are working , collecting seacoal . Photographer Mik Critchlow ( who would later become involved with Amber Films ' sister company Side Gallery ) also documented the seacoalers at Lynemouth , between 1981 and 1983 . He also used the power station as an industrial backdrop to some of his images .
Billy Elliot – a 2000 film directed by Stephen Daldry . The power station and the smelter both feature as an industrial backdrop in the film 's cemetery scenes . The power station 's coal sorting area is used to represent a colliery .
The chimneys of both the power station and the smelter are strong landmarks on the local coastline , and can be seen over a 25 @-@ kilometre ( 16 mi ) stretch of coast , from Cresswell down to South Shields pier .
= Sam & Max =
Sam & Max is a media franchise focusing on the fictional characters of Sam and Max , the Freelance Police . The characters , who occupy a universe that parodies American popular culture , were created by Steve Purcell in his youth , and later debuted in a 1987 comic book series . The characters have since been the subject of a graphic adventure video game developed by LucasArts , a television series produced for Fox in cooperation with Nelvana Limited , and a series of episodic adventure games developed by Telltale Games . In addition , a variety of machinima and a webcomic have been produced for the series .
The characters are a pair of anthropomorphic , vigilante private investigators based in a dilapidated office block in New York City . Sam is a six @-@ foot dog wearing a suit and a fedora , while Max is a short and aggressive " hyperkinetic rabbity thing " . Both enjoy solving problems and cases as maniacally as possible , often with complete disregard for the law . Driving a seemingly indestructible black @-@ and @-@ white 1960 DeSoto Adventurer , the pair travel to many contemporary and historical locations to fight crime , including the Moon , Ancient Egypt , the White House and the Philippines , as well as several fictitious locations .
The series has been very successful despite its relatively limited amount of media , and has gathered a significant fan base . However , the franchise did not gain more widespread recognition until after the 1993 release of LucasArts ' Sam & Max Hit the Road , which cultivated interest in Purcell 's original comics . Sam & Max Hit the Road is regarded as an exceptional adventure game and an iconic classic of computer gaming in the 1990s . Subsequent video games and the television series have also fared well with both critics and fans ; critics consider the episodic video games to be the first successful application of the episodic distribution model .
= = Overview = =
= = = Creation = = =
The idea of Sam & Max originated with Steve Purcell 's younger brother , Dave , who invented the concept of a comic about a detective team consisting of a dog and a rabbit in his youth . Dave would often leave the comics around the house , so Steve , in a case of sibling rivalry , often finished the incomplete stories in parodies of their original form , deliberately making the characters mix up each other 's names , over @-@ explain things , shoot at each other and mock the way in which they had been drawn , as " kind of a parody of the way a kid talks when he 's writing comics " . Over time , this developed from Steve merely mocking his brother 's work to him creating his own full stories with the characters . Ultimately , in the late 1970s , Dave Purcell gave Steve the rights to the characters , signing them over in a contract on Steve 's birthday and allowing him to develop the characters in his own way . In 1980 , Purcell began to produce Sam & Max comic strips for the weekly newsletter of the California College of Arts and Crafts . Whilst the visual appearance of the characters had not yet been fully developed , the stories were similar in style to those that would follow when Purcell was offered by Fish Police author Steven Moncuse the chance to publish his work properly in 1987 .
Many aspects of the Sam & Max comics were influenced by Purcell 's own experiences . Rats and cockroaches are common throughout the franchise , the former inspired by Purcell 's pet rat . In another example , Sam and Max are occasionally shown playing a game called " fizzball " , in which the object of the exercise is to hit a can of beer in mid @-@ air with a solid axe handle . Purcell had previously invented the game with his friends , including fellow comic book writers Art Adams and Mike Mignola .
= = = Characters = = =
Sam is a laid @-@ back but enthusiastic , brown @-@ coated anthropomorphic " canine shamus " . He wears either a gray or blue suit with a matching fedora , to make people more cooperative when conversing with a six @-@ foot talking dog . A warped sense of justice makes Sam the more passionate of the pair for their police work , only held back from taking his job seriously by Max . Nevertheless , he enjoys the mannerisms and dress that come with their line of work . Sam possesses near encyclopedic amounts of knowledge , particularly on obscure topics , and is prone to long @-@ winded sentences filled with elaborate terminology . Although he is always keen to display this information — regardless of its accuracy — Sam can be capable of total ignorance towards more practical matters ; for instance , despite his regard for his DeSoto Adventurer , he is severely negligent with the car 's maintenance . Sam still retains various doglike qualities : he is excitable , enthusiastic but also susceptible to emotions of embarrassment and guilt . Nevertheless , Sam is " not above sticking his head out the car window and letting his tongue flap in the breeze " . Sam rarely loses his temper , and is able to react to panic @-@ inducing situations with extreme calm . When he does get angry , Sam tends to react in a violent , uncharacteristically savage manner , in which case it is usually Max that calms him down and prevents him from acting upon his anger . Sam usually is armed with an oversized .44 revolver .
Max is an anthropomorphic " hyperkinetic , three @-@ foot rabbity thing " with white fur , but prefers being called a lagomorph . Max retains few characteristics consistent with a rabbit , with permanently rigid ears set in an excited posture and a huge jaw normally stuck in a crazed grin . Unhinged , uninhibited and near psychotic , Max enjoys violence and tends to prefer the aggressive way of solving problems , seeing the world as little more than a vessel for his " pinball @-@ like stream of consciousness " . This creates a seeming disregard for self @-@ preservation ; Max will revel in dangerous situations with little impression that he understands the risks he faces . As a result , Max is usually enthusiastic to engage in any activity , including being used by Sam as a cable cutter or an impromptu bludgeon . Despite this , Max possesses a sharp mind and an observational nature , and enjoys interpreting new experiences in as unpredictable manner as possible . However , Max has a distaste for long stories and occasionally loses focus during lengthy scenes of plot exposition ; by his own admission , Max possesses a particularly short attention span . Despite his seemingly heartless personality , he believes strongly in protecting Sam . However , Max can still act violently towards his friend , stating that when he dies he will take Sam with him . Moreover , Max is extremely possessive of Sam and their status as partners and best friends . Max traditionally carries a Luger pistol , but as he wears no clothes , other characters often make comments as to where Max keeps it on his person . Purcell considers Max to be representative of pure id , the uncoordinated instinctual trends of the human psyche .
= = Media = =
= = = Comic books = = =
Sam and Max debuted in the 1987 comic book series Sam & Max : Freelance Police , published by Fishwrap Productions , also the publisher of Fish Police . The first comic , " Monkeys Violating the Heavenly Temple " , was Steve Purcell 's first full story . The comic came about after Purcell agreed to create a full Sam & Max story for publication alongside Steve Moncuse 's Fish Police series . " Monkeys Violating the Heavenly Temple " established many of the key features in the series ; the main story of the comic saw the Freelance Police journey to the Philippines to stop a volcano god cult . " Night of the Gilded Heron @-@ Shark " and " Night of the Cringing Wildebeest " accompanied the main story , focusing on a stand @-@ off with a group of gangsters in Sam and Max 's office and an investigation into a carnival refreshment booth respectively .
Over the subsequent years , several other comics were published , often by different publishers , including Comico Comics and Epic Comics . " Fair Wind to Java " was originally published in 1988 as a Munden 's Bar story in the pages of First Comics ' Grimjack , featuring the Freelance Police fighting pyramid @-@ building aliens in Ancient Egypt , and was followed in 1989 by " On the Road " , a three chapter story showing what Sam and Max do on vacation . In 1990 , a Christmas themed story , " The Damned Don 't Dance " was released . 1992 saw the release of a further two comics ; " Bad Day On The Moon " took the Freelance Police to deal with a roach infestation bothering giant rats on the Moon , and was later adapted as a story for the animated TV series , whilst " Beast From The Cereal Aisle " focused on the duo conducting an exorcism at the local supermarket . Two more comics were produced in 1997 , " The Kids Take Over " and " Belly Of The Beast " . The former has Sam and Max wake up from cryogenic sleep to discover that the entire world is now ruled by children while the latter sees the Freelance Police confronting a vampire abducting children at Halloween .
Purcell joined LucasArts in 1988 as an artist and game designer , where he was approached about contributing to LucasArts ' new quarterly newsletter , The Adventurer , a publication designed to inform customers about upcoming LucasArts games and company news . From its debut issue in 1990 to 1996 , Purcell created twelve comic strips for the newsletter . The strips portrayed a variety of stories , from similar plots as in the comic books to parodies of LucasArts games such as
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injury .
= = Later life = =
Pipp often attended Old @-@ Timers ' Day at Yankee Stadium and Tiger Stadium , playing in 12 Old @-@ Timers ' games . He was later hired by Sports Illustrated as one of the magazine 's first writers .
After retiring , Pipp invested in the stock market , but lost his wealth in the Wall Street Crash of 1929 . He authored a book , titled Buying Cheap and Selling Dear . He worked as a broadcaster on a pregame baseball show for the Tigers , wrote radio scripts , and worked in publishing . He organized baseball programs around his community for the National Youth Administration . He also spent time unemployed during the Great Depression . In 1940 , Pipp was on the verge of bankruptcy , but he managed to pay off his debts without going bankrupt .
During World War II , Pipp worked at the Willow Run manufacturing complex in Ypsilanti , building B @-@ 24 bombers . Following the war , Pipp worked for the Rockford Screw Products Corporation as a machine parts salesman , selling bolts and screws to automotive companies based in Detroit and Grand Rapids .
= = Personal life = =
Pipp and his wife , Nora , had four children : three sons ( Walter , Tom , and Wally Jr . ) and a daughter ( Dorothy ) . Pipp 's brother , the Reverend W.B. Pipp , was a Catholic priest and golfer .
The Pipps moved to Lansing , Michigan , in 1949 . After suffering a number of strokes , Pipp moved to a nursing home in Grand Rapids in September 1963 . He died there on January 11 , 1965 , of a heart attack at the age of 71 . He is interred in Woodlawn Cemetery in Grand Rapids .
= Shin Megami Tensei =
Shin Megami Tensei ( 真 ・ 女神転生 , literally " True Goddess Reincarnation " ) is a post @-@ apocalyptic role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Atlus . Originally released for the Super Famicom in 1992 in Japan , it has been ported to multiple systems and eventually released in the West for iOS in 2014 . It is the third game in the Megami Tensei series and the first in the central Shin Megami Tensei series . The gameplay uses first @-@ person navigation of dungeons and turn @-@ based battles against demons . The player can recruit demons as allies by talking to them rather than fighting them , and two to three demons can be fused to create new demons .
The story follows a nameless protagonist who lives in near @-@ future Tokyo . When a portal to the realm of demons is opened , United States officials order a nuclear attack on Tokyo . Transported with two other supporting characters thirty years into the future , the protagonist finds the Earth ruined by a demon invasion , which is now the stage for an escalating conflict between the Order of Messiah and the Ring of Gaea , conflicting cults who wish to bring about kingdoms for their respective patron deities ( YHVH and Lucifer ) . The story is influenced by moral decisions the protagonist makes , aligning him either with the Order , the Ring of Gaea , or setting him up as an independent agent .
From the start of the production , Atlus staff saw Shin Megami Tensei as a chance to create a game with the company 's brand on it . The staff saw it as a remake of the previous Megami Tensei game ; because of this , they knew what was going to happen in the story , and the development went smoothly . The story went through multiple revisions , and many settings were inspired by the staff 's personal lives . The character and demon designs were done by Kazuma Kaneko , who used mythical figures and multiple clothing styles in his designs . Reception and sales for the game have been highly positive , and its success helped launch Atlus as a developer and publisher , along with popularizing the Megami Tensei series .
= = Gameplay = =
In Shin Megami Tensei , players take the role of an unnamed protagonist , a teenage boy who can communicate with demons using a computer program . The gameplay is similar to that of other games in the series : players make their way through dungeons and fight against demons in a first @-@ person perspective . The protagonist uses a variety of weapons and items , with the primary weapons being swords and guns . Such items are bought from merchants scattered around the world map . In special areas , the protagonist can use the in @-@ game currency to restore health and magic points for themselves and their demons , remove status ailments , and revive fallen demons . Special Terminals scattered across the world map allow the player to save their game , and they can use them to teleport between terminals in different areas of Tokyo .
Battles are turn @-@ based , and consist of players letting the characters in their party attack with swords or guns , summon demons , or cast magic spells ; both demons and humans , with the exception of the player character , are able to use magic . By participating in battles , human characters in the player 's party receive experience points ; by accumulating these points , the characters ' levels rise and new abilities are randomly learned . Players can choose to talk to demons instead of fighting them ; they can ask the demons for items or money , try to get them to go away , or try to form an alliance with them . At some places , called " Cathedrals of Shadows " , players can fuse two to three allied demons into one single , more powerful demon ; as demons do not receive experience points , this is the only way for the player to increase their demons ' power . Magnetite is used as a fuel for allied demons , and is used up by summoned demons as the player character walks around in the dungeons ; if players run out of magnetite , summoned demons take damage .
The way demons behave is based on their and the protagonist 's respective alignments . Alignments come in two types , Light @-@ Neutral @-@ Dark , and Law @-@ Neutral @-@ Chaos . A demon 's alignment can range across both alignments , resulting in nine possible stances that affect how they behave and what actions in battle or story progression pleases them . The protagonist 's alignment changes depending on choices made during the story , and in response the attitudes of people and demons change ; for instance , demons who are law @-@ aligned will refuse to form an alliance with chaos @-@ aligned players . Additionally , depending on their alignment , players will not be let into certain areas ; for instance , the Order of Messiah will not let chaos @-@ aligned players into their churches .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Shin Megami Tensei takes place in a postmodern Tokyo , first in the year " 199X " , and then 30 years later in a post @-@ apocalyptic version of the city . A rift has been opened to another world , allowing demons to invade Tokyo ; by using a computer program , humans are able to communicate with and summon the demons . Across the story , moral alignments are portrayed in various ways : alongside the middle " neutral " pathway , the " law " faction believes in establishing a logical order at the expense of feeling and freedom , while the " chaos " faction espouses unlimited freedom for the individual while discarding the weak .
The game includes four human " heroes " : the player character , the Hero , who is a teenage boy living with his mother in Kichijōji in Tokyo ; the Heroine , who is the leader of a resistance force which tries to protect Tokyo ; and the Law Hero and Chaos Hero , who represent the alignments " law " and " chaos " , respectively . Among other characters are ambassador Thorman ( トールマン , Tōruman ) and general Gotou ( ゴトウ ) , who lead the United States military and the Japan Self @-@ Defense Forces , respectively ; the archangel Michael ( ミカエル , Mikaeru ) and the demon Asura @-@ ou ( アスラおう ) , who lead the Order of Messiah and the Ring of Gaea , respectively ; and the demons Lilith ( リリス , Ririsu ) and Lucifer ( ルシファー , Rushifā ) , who use the pseudonyms Yuriko ( 由利子 ) and Louis Cyphre ( ルイ ・ サイファー , Rui Saifā ) , respectively .
= = = Plot = = =
The game begins with the Hero dreaming that he meets the Law Hero , the Chaos Hero , and a woman named Yuriko ; she promises that she will become the Hero 's partner . He wakes up , and receives an e @-@ mail with a computer program for summoning demons attached . While out on an errand , he learns that a scientist has opened a portal to the Abyss , which allows demons to enter Tokyo . He also meets Yuriko , who says she will fulfill her promise . The next night , the Hero again dreams that he meets the Law Hero and Chaos Hero , and that they save the Heroine from a sacrificial ritual . The next day , he meets the Law Hero and Chaos Hero in reality ; they reveal that they had the same dreams . News of the demons spread , and the US military , led by ambassador Thorman , decides to intervene . The Japan Self @-@ Defense Forces , led by general Gotou , opposes them , as they see demons as the ancient spirits of the land . A third group , led by the Heroine , tries to prevent conflict between the other two . She gets captured by Gotou 's forces ; they are about to publicly execute her under supervision by Yuriko , but she is saved by the Hero , Law Hero , and Chaos Hero . Players can choose to support Thorman or Gotou , or to reject both ; regardless of what they choose , the conflict escalates until Thorman launches missiles towards Tokyo . The Heroine is killed , but saves the Hero , Law Hero , and Chaos Hero by using magic to teleport them to another plane of existence .
When they return to Tokyo , thirty years have passed , and the world lies in ruins . Both demons and humans live in Tokyo , and two warring groups have formed : the Order of Messiah , who is building a cathedral and wants to bring about the Thousand @-@ Year Kingdom , and the Ring of Gaea , who intends to summon Lucifer and wants freedom . While exploring the city , the Hero meets the Heroine , who has been reincarnated , and she joins the group . They keep traversing the ruins , until the Chaos Hero decides to leave , and fuses himself with a demon to gain power ; they move on without him , until the Law Hero 's soul gets taken by an attacking demon . The Chaos Hero joins the Ring of Gaea , while the Law Hero 's soul gets reincarnated as the new Messiah . Both try to get the Hero to join their respective side ; players can choose to support either , or to reject both . Regardless of what they choose , the Order of Messiah finishes building their cathedral , and a great flood appears , drowning people who were not inside the cathedral at the time . Survivors set up camps inside the cathedral ; the Order of Messiah takes control of the top floors , while the Ring of Gaea occupies the basement floors .
After this point , the story continues differently depending on the Hero 's alignment . If it is " law " , the Law Hero gets killed in a battle with the Chaos Hero , while the Hero and the Heroine go to the basement . On their way they have to kill the Chaos Hero and fight Yuriko , who turns out to be the demon Lilith in disguise ; she calls the Hero " Adam " , and says she wanted to create a new age and live with him forever , which is why she tried to execute the Heroine . After defeating her in battle , the Hero and the Heroine reach the basement and kill the demon Asura @-@ ou ; they then go to the cathedral 's roof , where they are thanked by a messenger from God . If the Hero 's alignment instead is " chaos " , he and the Heroine must go to the top floor and kill the archangel Michael , and on their way kill the Law Hero ; the Chaos Hero dies , too , because of the magical ring he has been wearing . On the roof , they meet Lucifer , who says that a new era will begin , where both demons and humans are free ; he also warns them that God still is alive . If the Hero 's alignment instead is " neutral " , he and the Heroine must kill the Law Hero , the Chaos Hero , Asura @-@ ou , and Michael , and fight Yuriko . On the roof , they meet Taishang Laojun , who thanks them and says that balance is needed to achieve happiness ; he asks the Hero and the Heroine to lead humanity to a future that doesn 't rely on gods or demons . The game ends with the Heroine saying that those who have died will be reborn , and that it is time for creation and rebuilding .
= = Development = =
From the beginning of production , Atlus staff saw Shin Megami Tensei as a chance to develop a game with the company 's brand on it . The main staff included director Yōsuke Niino , producer Hideyuki Yokoyama , programmer and future Megami Tensei director Kouji Okada , writers Ryutaro Ito and Kazunari Suzuki , and composer Tsukasa Masuko . Kazuma Kaneko worked on multiple aspects of the game , including character and sprite design , the world 's concept and visual design , and the creation of visual assets . Atlus saw the game as a remake of the previous game in the Megami Tensei series , Digital Devil Story : Megami Tensei II . As such , the staff knew what would happen with the story , so development went smoothly . An early factor in the game was the inclusion of a Law Hero and a Chaos Hero , and a protagonist who would initially be neutral and whose actions would affect their alignment . Kaneko defined this blending of different alignments as " a sort of hodgepodge " when compared to future games in the series . When designing it , the team slowly decided that they wanted to break the then @-@ current gaming status quo using its aesthetic and content . That feeling , along with granting it a sense of reality through use of dark imagery , would later define the series . The main theme of Shin Megami Tensei was a person waking up to inevitable destruction and being able to do nothing but rely on their own abilities . The scenario took a long time to finalize , being revised a number of times by multiple staff members . During earlier drafts , it was planned that the finale of the story would take place in Israel after an extensive journey across Japan .
One of the reasons the development team chose Tokyo as the main setting was that its turbulent history , going through multiple phases of development and often suffering severe damage in wars or due to natural disasters , made it comparable with the fantasy settings of other games at the time . In a later interview , an Atlus staff member stated that this setting and style made it the antithesis of traditional fantasy RPGs , adding that this resulted in the game developing a punk spirit . Because of the post @-@ apocalyptic setting of Megami Tensei II , the development team wanted to depict a time before the apocalypse . The decision to set the game in Tokyo was made by Suzuki and Kaneko , and was influenced by manga such as Violence Jack , Devilman , and Fist of the North Star . Kichijōji was decided to be the game 's starting point due to Kaneko , Suzuki , and Ito all having lived in or near the area , or having visited it often . The abandoned Terminal Echo building there fascinated them , making them wonder how a building in such a prime location could remain unoccupied ; Ito described it as two floors of arcade cabinets , with the rest of the building feeling like a ghost town . This fascination led to it being included as a dungeon in the game . While designing the maps , Kaneko wanted to use wire @-@ frame models , but the Super Famicom 's limited capacities meant this idea was scrapped .
By the end of development , multiple members of staff voiced dissatisfaction with the final product . Ito and Suzuki felt that the portrayals of the Law and Chaos Heroes were imbalanced , with the Chaos Hero being too emotional and the Law Hero being unsympathetic . They also saw the demon fusion system as too difficult for players to master . Okada , while commenting on what improvements would be made for the next game , stated that there were too many useless items in the game . Niino felt that the game 's pacing and flow needed to be addressed , as after naming the characters , the player immediately is prompted to divide their status points .
= = = Character designs = = =
In addition to handling the graphics , Kaneko designed the character and demon designs for the game . The Hero 's and the Heroine 's clothes were designed to be futuristic ; the Heroine was designed to be a protector , with clothes inspired by American football equipment . The Law Hero and Chaos Hero have ordinary clothes at first ; the Chaos Hero was designed to look unsophisticated , with a bad posture and military clothes . After their metamorphoses , the Law Hero wears clothes designed to look priestly ; Kaneko did not have a specific form in mind when designing them , but thought they looked " Gucci @-@ like " . The Chaos Hero 's clothes after his metamorphosis were designed to be similar to the character Piccolo from the Dragon Ball manga series ; his hair style was also based on Dragon Ball , specifically on that of the " super saiyan " transformations in that series . Kaneko wanted the Chaos Hero change back and forth between human and demon form to tie in more closely with this design theme , but the concept was abandoned . During production , all the characters had names attached to them to help with identification during event planning . The character Louis Cyphre was inspired by the character of the same name from the 1987 movie Angel Heart . Some characters , such as Stephen and General Gotou , are based on real @-@ life people ; in the game files , they are identified as " hoking " and " mishima " , respectively . According to Ito , the character Thorman 's name was originally inspired by the Norse god of thunder , but after release , he realized that the name was highly similar to that of Harry S. Truman , the American president who approved the atomic attacks against Japan .
For the demon design , Kaneko took inspiration from Medieval woodblock prints , wooden carvings from South America , masks from Micronesia , and terracotta figurines from the Middle East . His designs of angelic characters were influenced by descriptions from the Book of Ezekiel of angels having multiple strange forms , such as multiple arms or heads . In addition to traditional demons and monsters , Kaneko designed versions of less @-@ frequented figures from Celtic and Southeast Asian mythology . The theme he used when drawing them was " fear " , which extended to both obvious threats and the internal dread the creatures evoked . The graphics for most demons were directly drawn as sprites , without concept art , to make sure that the design and the graphics would work within the hardware limitations of the Super Famicom . Certain important characters , and some demons who the player would be guaranteed to meet , were drawn as concept art first . Several demons were designed in a way that allowed parts of their graphics to be reused ; for instance , the demon Cerberus ' body is also used for Shanhui and Nue , with a different color palette . Demon fusions were designed around the dichotomy of Law and Chaos , but in hindsight it was stated that this provided little fusion variety .
= = = Music = = =
The game 's music was composed by Tsukasa Masuko , with arrangements by Masuko and Tatsuya Nishiwaki . Masuko considered Shin Megami Tensei to be an experimental work : it was the first time he had created music for the Super Famicom , so he was not familiar with the console 's specifications . During composition , he needed to check the specifications repeatedly to see what he could do within the hardware limitations . For the PC Engine port , the music was arranged by Hitoshi Sakimoto .
A soundtrack album , Shin Megami Tensei Law & Chaos Disc , was released on February 24 , 1993 by Victor Entertainment under the catalog number VICL @-@ 40046 / 7 . It includes two discs : the first contains the music as it sounds in @-@ game , and the second contains arrangements by Nishiwaki . A second album , Shin Megami Tensei Sound Collection , was released on March 5 , 2003 , by SME Visual Works under the catalog number SVWC @-@ 7175 / 6 . It includes music from the original and PlayStation versions of Shin Megami Tensei , Shin Megami Tensei II , and Shin Megami Tensei If ... , along with selected tracks from Shin Megami Tensei : Nine .
= = Release = =
Shin Megami Tensei was first released on the Super Famicom on October 30 , 1992 in Japan ; it remained exclusive to that region for 22 years . It was the first Megami Tensei title not to be published by Namco . Instead , it was published by Atlus , which caused some complaints as to why Namco was not publishing the game . A fan translation of the Super Famicom version has been developed . Subsequent ports were released on the PC Engine ( December 25 , 1993 ) , Mega @-@ CD ( February 25 , 1994 ) , the PlayStation ( May 31 , 2001 ) , and Game Boy Advance ( March 28 , 2003 ) . Atlus was responsible for the PlayStation port , and the staff were divided on whether to make it a complete port or something new . Those who wanted a direct port won through . The PC Engine port included added story scenes . SIMS Co . , Ltd. was in charge of the Mega CD port , which included additional demons . The Game Boy Advance version , which was the first time Shin Megami Tensei appeared on a portable platform , included the ability to exchange demons and items using the platform 's data exchange capacities . It also featured remastered music and alterations to ease the playing experience . The game was released in February 2012 for iOS and November of that year for Android . These mobile ports were based on the Game Boy Advance version , including all the port 's features . The iOS port was localized and released in North America and Europe in March 18 , 2014 .
= = = Localization = = =
Shin Megami Tensei , as with many other early Megami Tensei titles , was initially not localized for the West due to its controversial content such as the portrayal of religious elements . This content clashed with Nintendo 's strict content policy guidelines . The PlayStation port was also prevented from being localized by Sony 's then @-@ current approval policy . The possibility of later localization after the series became established in the West were stalled due to the age of the game , which would have put it at a disadvantage in the modern gaming market .
According to Nich Maragos , the editor of the English version of Shin Megami Tensei , it was already too late to localize the PlayStation and Game Boy Advance versions of the game by the time the Megami Tensei series had " taken off " in the US ; Atlus normally does not have an interest in localizing mobile games , but saw the iOS version of the game as a perfect opportunity to fill in one of the gaps in the series . The localization project was slow at first , as it took time to extract the files from the game , so the localization team started by playing the game in order to find out what kinds of dialogue text and system messages it contained . After receiving the files , they translated the text , which was then sent to the editors ; the edited text was sent back to the translators , who checked that nothing had been lost in translation , after which the text was inserted into the game . A challenge for the localization team was character limitations : only four rows of text , with 28 characters each , were able to be displayed at a time , and at some points this had to be limited even further in order to avoid graphical glitches . This was solved by modifying the game to allow for more text boxes as needed . Later Megami Tensei games , which had been localized before Shin Megami Tensei , influenced the localization , as several of them include terms or quotes from the game . For instance , the catastrophe in Shin Megami Tensei is referred to as the " Great Cataclysm " in Devil Summoner : Raidou Kuzunoha vs. The Soulless Army , while Persona 4 and Shin Megami Tensei IV include several quotes and terms from the game . The already translated Shin Megami Tensei quotes from the Persona 4 localization were reused verbatim in the localization of Shin Megami Tensei .
= = Reception = =
According to Ito , the Super Famicom release was a great success for the company , helping establishing it as both a developer and publisher . While a success , the game also received criticism from players for its high encounter rate and difficulties using the map and in @-@ game instructions . At the end of 2001 , the PlayStation version was the 119th best selling video game of the year in Japan , with 85 @,@ 991 sold copies .
On release , Famitsu magazine gave the original Super Famicom version a score of 36 out of 40 , with all four reviewers giving it a 9 out of 10 . This made it one of their three highest @-@ rated games of 1992 , along with Dragon Quest V and World of Illusion Starring Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck . Shin Megami Tensei was also one of only eleven games to have received a Famitsu score of 36 / 40 or above up until 1992 . For subsequent console ports , Famitsu gave scores of 25 / 40 ( PCE ) , 28 / 40 ( MD ) , 30 / 40 ( PS ) , and 27 / 40 ( GBA ) .
The website Touch Arcade said that they loved the game , and that it was one of their favorite role @-@ playing games on iOS . They did however think that the game was bad at explaining things , including the system of saving one 's progress . Pocket Gamer , too , thought that things were not explained enough . For instance , they said that the game does not guide players from point A to point B , and often does not even let players know where to start looking for point B. RPGFan echoed this , and said that it is not uncommon for players to wander around , wondering where to go . Gamezebo said they did not think the battle system was particularly exciting , but appreciated how the conversation system and the demon fusion adds elements of risk and reward to the game . The British newspaper Metro found the game more entertaining than most role @-@ playing games from its time . Gamezebo found the iOS version 's touch screen @-@ based virtual buttons clumsy to use , while Pocket Gamer found the interface to work " reasonably well " while using the landscape mode , and RPGFan found the interface to be excellent . Both Gamezebo and Touch Arcade wished the game had been a " universal app " , so that it could have been played on other devices than iPhone and iPod Touch without having the graphics upscaled .
Several reviewers appreciated the game 's plot . Gamezebo said that it was an aspect of the game that stood out in a positive way , and pointed out how good they thought the English translation was . Touch Arcade called the story one of the game 's strengths , and said that it was impressive , despite how it had a tendency to be " ham @-@ fisted " . Metro appreciated how the game avoided role @-@ playing cliches , such as how it took place in a modern Japan rather than in a " Tolkien @-@ esque fantasy world " ; they also liked its " unrestrained style of storytelling " . RPGFan found the story to be good and macabre , and surprisingly relevant even in 2014 . They disliked that there was very little character development , and how scenes that " traditionally [ would ] be poignant " , especially death scenes , were handled in a nonchalant manner .
Touch Arcade called the graphics " good , but not great " , though reasonable given the game 's age , but that some demon designs were " spectacular works of art " . RPGFan found the majority of the game 's graphics to be " functional , but not too appealing " , and said that it was easy to get lost due to the bland textures of the walls and the floors . They did however like the graphics used in battles and story sections , which they found well @-@ drawn and detailed . They praised the designs of the game 's female characters , especially Nekomata , Lamia , and Yuriko , but felt that the designs of the male characters were bland . Touch Arcade found the music to be fantastic . RPGFan said that every piece fits into the scene where it is played , but that few were memorable . They did note " Ginza " as an exception , which they felt was so well @-@ composed that it would sound good in any format .
= = Legacy = =
The success of Shin Megami Tensei led to multiple sequels over the coming years and made the Megami Tensei franchise more popular . Development on a sequel began immediately after the success of Shin Megami Tensei . Shin Megami Tensei II , which directly continued the story of Shin Megami Tensei , was released in 1994 . Multiple other Shin Megami Tensei titles have followed and brought the series acclaim overseas . Kaneko 's concept of the Chaos Hero 's transformation was resurrected as the main gameplay mechanic of Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga .
In 2015 , developer Toby Fox cited Shin Megami Tensei as inspiration for Undertale , specifically its talking system .
= Shadow the Hedgehog ( video game ) =
Shadow the Hedgehog ( Japanese : シャドウ ・ ザ ・ ヘッジホッグ , Hepburn : Shadō za Hejjihoggu ) is a 2005 third @-@ person shooter video game developed by Sega Studio USA , the former United States division of Sega 's Sonic Team , and published by Sega . The game is the first to feature Shadow the Hedgehog from Sega 's Sonic the Hedgehog series as the main character , and was revealed at the March 2005 Walk of Game event . Shadow the Hedgehog is the third developed by Sega Studio USA , and is the first Sonic game to be rated E10 + by the ESRB .
Following the trend of recent Sonic games such as Sonic Adventure and Sonic Heroes , Shadow the Hedgehog is a 3D platform game . Most levels have three possible missions — " Hero , " " Dark , " or " Normal " — that the player may choose to complete , while some have only " Hero " and " Dark " missions . The missions completed determine the game 's plot and subsequently playable levels , a feature referenced by the game 's tagline , " Hero or villain ? You decide . " The plot centers on the attempt of Shadow , a creation of Doctor Eggman 's grandfather , Professor Gerald Robotnik , to learn about his past while suffering from amnesia . To defeat enemies , Shadow can use various weapons and special attacks .
Shadow the Hedgehog was developed for the GameCube , PlayStation 2 and Xbox video game consoles . The game received polarizing reviews ; reviewers criticized its controls and " dark " theme , especially the addition of guns , and other weapons to traditional Sonic gameplay , but praised its replay value , while its level design was mixed .
= = Gameplay = =
Shadow the Hedgehog is a platform game that incorporates elements of action @-@ adventure gameplay . Like previous games in the Sonic series , basic gameplay involves running quickly , collecting rings , and destroying enemies . Shadow collects rings as a form of health ; when he is attacked by an enemy , ten of his rings bounce away from him in all directions . If he is hit by an enemy while not having any rings , he loses a life . Each level is completed by undertaking a mission , and each mission is labeled " Hero , " " Dark , " or " Normal . " The " Hero " missions involve completing tasks for the Sonic series ' heroic characters or on one occasion , Doctor Eggman and the " Dark " missions involve completing tasks for the Black Arms or Doctor Eggman . The " Normal " missions involve simply reaching the Chaos Emerald or goal at the end of the level . All enemies attack Shadow regardless of the mission chosen . The mission types selected affect the plot , the levels played , and the ending received out of ten possibilities . Each level features cutscenes that advance the story , and several levels also feature boss battles .
New gameplay features distinguish Shadow the Hedgehog from previous Sonic series games . For example , Shadow can use guns to combat enemies , adding an element of third @-@ person shooter gameplay . Parts of the scenery , such as traffic signs , can also be used as weapons . Another new feature is the ability to drive vehicles , such as motorcycles and alien aircraft . Although Shadow can outrun the game 's vehicles , the latter have unique capabilities , such as crushing enemies and traversing otherwise impassible acid @-@ covered areas .
As in most Sonic series games , the Chaos Emeralds play a major role ; they help Shadow remember his past and allow him to perform Chaos Control and Chaos Blast . Chaos Control allows Shadow to move more quickly in levels and slows time in boss battles , and Chaos Blast creates an explosion that destroys or severely damages all nearby enemies . Shadow can perform Chaos Control after the player fills the Hero Gauge by defeating Black Arms soldiers , and he can perform Chaos Blast after filling the Dark Gauge by defeating G.U.N. soldiers .
The game includes a two @-@ player mode that retains the single @-@ player mechanics but is set in one of three specially designed stages and uses a vertically split screen to separate each player 's view . Each player chooses one of the available characters — Shadow , two metallic versions of him , and palette @-@ swapped variants of each . The combatants attack each other and steal each other 's rings until one is eliminated . Additionally , in single @-@ player mode , a second player may take control of Shadow 's sidekick character in some stages .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
Shadow the Hedgehog , the game 's titular protagonist , was created fifty years before the game 's events by Professor Gerald Robotnik in an orbital military research space station known as the ARK . Robotnik was trying to unlock the secrets of eternal life on the government 's orders and create the " Ultimate Life Form . " To that end , Robotnik designed Shadow to be able to harness the powers of the Chaos Emeralds . At the end of Sonic Adventure 2 , his first in @-@ game appearance , he was presumed dead , but he returned in Sonic Heroes with amnesia that persists into the events of Shadow the Hedgehog .
The Guardian Units of Nations ( G.U.N. ) is the military of Earth 's government , the United Federation , and it is directed by the G.U.N. Commander . When completing " Hero " missions , Shadow usually helps G.U.N. and heroic characters from the Sonic series , including Sonic , Tails , Knuckles , Amy , Rouge , Omega , Vector , Charmy and Espio . Their aim is to protect Earth from Eggman and the Black Arms aliens . In one " Hero " mission of Sky Troops , Shadow assists Eggman battle the Black Arms . Black Doom , the leader of the Black Arms , sends an extension of himself called " Doom 's Eye " to watch Shadow and help him complete missions . When completing " Dark " missions , Shadow helps either Black Doom or Eggman , each of who wants the Chaos Emeralds for himself .
= = = Story = = =
At the beginning , Shadow suffers from amnesia . Other than after the events of Sonic Heroes that took place three months prior , Shadow remembers only two things : his name and " that gruesome image " of his attempt to escape the space station ARK with his creator 's granddaughter Maria . He remembers her death by gunshot from soldiers of the military group G.U.N. Having gone through a room filled with androids that look like him in the events of Sonic Heroes , Shadow wonders if he too is an android . The game begins with Shadow reminiscing outside the city of Westopolis when the alien race Black Arms drop out of the sky and invade the city . One Black Arms alien , Doom 's Eye , approaches Shadow , and the Black Arms leader Black Doom tells Shadow of an old agreement Shadow made : to bring Black Doom the Chaos Emeralds . Stunned that Black Doom knew his name , Shadow searches for the Chaos Emeralds to learn about his past .
The game progresses through the Westopolis level and five more levels from the different paths Shadow may take . As missions are completed , Shadow learns more about his past and regains memories . He can choose to help Eggman or the Black Arms ( Dark ) , to help G.U.N. and the series ' heroic characters ( Hero ) , or to help neither and keep the Chaos Emeralds for himself ( Normal ) . The missions completed determine which one of ten possible endings will be seen after Shadow collects all the Chaos Emeralds and defeats one of the game 's final bosses . The possible ending events range from planning to defeat the Black Arms to planning to destroy the planet .
Completing all ten endings unlocks the game 's true ending in which Black Doom uses Chaos Control , enhanced by the power of all seven Chaos Emeralds , to bring the Black Comet to the Earth 's surface . Black Doom explains that the Black Arms intend to use humans as an energy source , and the Black Comet begins to release a nerve gas into the Earth 's atmosphere that causes total paralysis in those who inhale it . Shadow then confronts Black Doom after the " Last Way " level , where he discovers that Professor Gerald Robotnik created the ARK 's Eclipse Cannon weapon to destroy the Black Comet . During their confrontation , Black Doom reveals that Shadow was created using Black Doom 's blood , and Black Doom then attempts to control Shadow through mind control but fails . This prompts Black Doom to transform into Devil Doom . In response , Shadow uses the Chaos Emeralds to transform into Super Shadow and defeats Black Doom . Shadow then transports the Black Comet into outer space using Chaos Control and obliterates it using the ARK 's Eclipse Cannon . His friends are elated , as are people at G.U.N. headquarters . Shadow is then shown in the ARK 's control room holding up a photograph of Maria and Gerald . He tosses the photograph aside , declaring " Goodbye forever ... Shadow the Hedgehog , " and leaves the room .
= = Development = =
Shadow the Hedgehog was developed by Sega Studio USA , the now @-@ defunct United States division of Sega 's Sonic Team , and published by Sega . Sega first revealed the game and its tagline ( " Hero or villain ? You decide . " ) at the March 8 , 2005 inauguration of Sonic the Hedgehog into the Walk of Game . Sega formally announced development of the game for the Nintendo GameCube , PlayStation 2 , and Xbox video game consoles on March 23 , 2005 . The same year , Sega released the game in North America on November 15 , in Europe on November 18 , and in Japan on December 15 .
Sonic Team 's Takashi Iizuka , who had worked on the Sonic the Hedgehog series since 1993 , targeted a younger audience with previous Sonic games and wanted to target an older audience with Shadow the Hedgehog . The game 's development team wanted to make a game featuring Shadow to resolve plot mysteries that began with the character 's introduction in Sonic Adventure 2 . The team felt that Shadow 's design — inspired by films such as Underworld , Constantine , and the Terminator series — would make the story darker and allow for elements , such as vehicles and weapons , otherwise considered inappropriate for a Sonic game . Sonic Team 's Yuji Naka stated in an interview with GameSpy that he wanted to use Shadow as the game 's main character due to his popularity among fans and being the best fit for a " gun action " game . The game features several CG @-@ animated cutscenes produced by Blur Studio . The game also contains profanities , including instances of damn and hell spoken by Shadow and other characters such as Espio , the G.U.N. Commander , Knuckles , and Sonic . Profanity and the use of guns , both firsts for the Sonic series , generated some pre @-@ release controversy . The ESRB assigned the game a rating of E10 + for " fantasy violence " and " mild language . "
The game is the first in the series to use the 4Kids cast from Sonic X following the death of Doctor Eggman 's previous voice actor , Deem Bristow . This cast continued to be used until late 2010 when all cast members except for Mike Pollock were replaced before the release of Sonic Free Riders .
= = = Music = = =
= = = = Lost and Found = = = =
Lost and Found : Shadow the Hedgehog Vocal Trax is a video game soundtrack album released on CD on February 22 , 2006 . The album contains seven vocal songs from the game , one of which is a remix rather than the original .
= = = = Original Soundtrack = = = =
Another soundtrack , Shadow the Hedgehog : Original Soundtrax , was also released on February 22 , 2006 . It contains both vocal and instrumental tracks from the game .
= = Reception = =
Shadow the Hedgehog received generally unfavorable reviews from critics . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the GameCube version 53 @.@ 10 % and 51 / 100 , the Xbox version 52 @.@ 15 % and 49 / 100 and the PlayStation 2 version 49 @.@ 27 % and 45 / 100 . However , it was voted the best game of 2005 in the Official Jetix Magazine Reader Awards and named the " Best Platformer " of 2005 by Nintendo Power readers ( receiving more votes than the staff 's choice , Sonic Rush ) . It was also a commercial success : Sega Sammy 's 2006 financial report recorded sales of 1 @.@ 59 million units . The game was later released as a part of three budget lines : Greatest Hits and Platinum Range for the PlayStation 2 ( representing sales of at least 400 @,@ 000 in North America and Europe , respectively ) and Player 's Choice for the GameCube ( 250 @,@ 000 in North America ) .
Critics derided the game 's unwelcome sense of maturity for a Sonic series game , especially the addition of guns and other weapons . Game Informer staff writer Matt Helgeson said , " not only is this new ' adult ' interpretation of Sonic painfully dumb , it ’ s also ill @-@ advised and almost feels like a betrayal to longtime fans . " Eurogamer staff writer Tom Bramwell felt that " the game 's other selling point – its darker edge – [ is ] not really meant for us . " G4 's X @-@ Play and GameSpy staff writer Patrick Klepek thought similarly . In contrast , Nintendo Power staff writer Steve Thomason rated the game 8 @.@ 0 out of 10 , stating , " this darker take on the Sonic universe succeeds for the most part , giving the series a bit of an edge without going overboard on violence . " In addition , Official Xbox Magazine reassured readers , " Don 't worry , Shadow the Hedgehog isn 't half as ' urban ' or quite as ' gangsta ' as it first seems . " Hegelson panned the game 's " laughable " plot , saying it " makes no sense " , while noting that various Sonic conventions undermined its attempts to be " mature " or " edgy " .
Reviewers also criticized the game 's controls , especially Shadow 's homing attack causing unexpected character deaths . Game Informer 's Matt Helgeson complained that the attack " frequently sends you careening off into nothingness , resulting in cheap death after cheap death . " Nintendo Power , X @-@ Play , Eurogamer , Official Xbox Magazine , and GameSpy agreed . Other complaints focused on the mechanics of weapons and vehicles . Greg Mueller of GameSpot felt that the guns were nearly useless because of a lack of a target lock or manual aim , combined with an ineffective auto @-@ aim . IGN staff writer Matt Casamassina , 1UP.com staff writer Greg Sewart , Game Informer , X @-@ Play , GameSpy , and London 's The Times also criticized the mechanics of Shadow 's weapons , vehicles , and other aspects of the game 's controls . However , Thomason claimed that " blasting Shadow 's foes with the wide variety of weapons at his disposal is just plain fun . "
The level design received mixed comments . Mueller called some of them " extremely frustrating " . Helgeson stated that the fast @-@ paced " levels are poorly designed " , and Andrew Reiner , who wrote a second @-@ opinion review for Game Informer , called the level design " disastrous " . Official Xbox Magazine was more mixed , balancing the possibility of getting lost in the large levels with the likely appeal of these stages to 3D Sonic gamers , particularly those who had enjoyed Sonic Heroes . GameTrailers found that " the levels are either dark and urban , or bright and psychedelic . Either way , they fit in well to the Sonic universe . They are loaded with speed ramps , loops and an assortment of other boosts that rocket Shadow like a pinball . " Bettenhausen included " the classic run @-@ like @-@ hell roller coaster design philosophy " of some stages in his limited praise . Casamassina deplored the " stupid level design " , adding that " Just because they dazzled players six years ago does not mean that Sonic Team can copy and paste exactly the same loops and spins into each new franchise iteration and expect everyone to be happy with the outcome . " GameSpy observed that " the areas are much less open than in previous Sonic games , but the level designers haven 't taken advantage of the constraints . " Nintendo Power singled out the difficulty of the missions that require the player to locate objects .
However , critics praised the game 's replay value , applauding the many possible paths that a player may take through the game . GameTrailers stated , " this choose @-@ your @-@ own @-@ adventure style gives the game replay value that many platformers lack . " The Melbourne , Australia , publication Herald Sun , Nintendo Power , and Official Xbox Magazine thought similarly . GameSpot praised the variety of alternate endings , but concluded that " the gameplay isn 't fun enough to warrant playing the game through multiple times . " Bettenhausen thought that the morality system felt artificial , although he conceded that it did extend the game 's replay value .
= The Greencards =
The Greencards are a progressive bluegrass band that formed in Austin , Texas , and are currently based in Nashville , Tennessee . The band was founded in 2003 in Texas by Eamon McLoughlin , an Englishman , and Australians Kym Warner and Carol Young . The musicians originally performed in local Austin bars , and soon found increasing acclaim . They have released one independent album , Movin ' On , in 2003 , and two albums , Weather and Water , and Viridian , on the Dualtone record label . Their fourth album , Fascination , was released on Sugar Hill in 2009 . Their fifth album , " Brick " , 2011 , was self @-@ produced with the direct support of their fans . Pre @-@ production donors were recognized with their names inscribed on the " bricks " that make @-@ up the cover art .
Their debut album , Movin ' On , was the recipient of local Texas awards and charted on Americana radio stations . Country Music Television named their follow @-@ up Weather and Water as one of the ten best bluegrass albums of 2005 , and The Greencards were invited to tour with Bob Dylan and Willie Nelson in the same year . Viridian would go on to take the number one position on the Billboard magazine 's Bluegrass Music Chart , making The Greencards the first international band to ever do so . Viridian was a critically praised album , and was nominated for Best Country Album by the Australian Recording Industry Association . The track " Mucky the Duck " from Viridian was nominated for a Grammy Award at the 50th Grammy Awards .
The Greencards are noted for their playing of American bluegrass with a worldly feel , and for their incorporation of other genres of music . Often labeled as part of , and said to be representative of , the " newgrass " movement , they draw from Irish folk music , gypsy music , rock ' n ' roll , folk balladry , and Latin American musical sources . The Greencards ' sound has been compared to progressive American folk rock , and they have been credited with helping to expand bluegrass music .
Eamon McLoughlin left the band in December 2009 , and currently resides in Nashville TN . Carl Miner , originally from Oregon , joined the group in May 2010 , playing acoustic guitar . Carl won the 1999 National Flatpicking Championship at the Walnut Valley Festival , and currently resides in Nashville , TN .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
The Greencards were initially composed of two Australians , Kym Warner on mandolin and Carol Young on bass , and an Englishman , Eamon McLoughlin on fiddle . Raised in South London , McLoughlin began to perform country music shows with his family on weekends , influenced by George Jones , George Strait , and Ricky Skaggs . Born to Irish parents , McLoughlin 's father was head of a London @-@ based country band . At age nine , McLoughlin moved away from piano lessons to play fiddle , and performed with his father 's band . McLoughlin had earlier relocated from Brighton to Austin in 1997 , after leaving Sussex University with a degree in Politics and American Studies . Trained in London studying Royal Schools of Music Grades before emigrating , McLoughlin also toured with the Asylum Street Spankers , Austin Lounge Lizards , Bruce Robison and Ray Wylie Hubbard after arriving in the United States .
Prior to the founding of The Greencards , Young won the Australian Independent Country Artist of the Year award in 2000 , and had recorded two No. 1 Australian @-@ charted country music singles . Young was a singer in Outback country bands and acts , including Gina Jeffreys . Young was previously nominated as " Best Female Vocalist " by the Country Music Association of Australia , and won the Australian independent country artist of the year award in 2000 due in part to her No. 1 singles " True Blue Fool " and " Part of the Past " .
Warner was an aspiring bluegrass musician ( which was unusual in Australia ) after inheriting the music from his father , an early Australian bluegrass pioneer . The winner of the Australian National Bluegrass Mandolin Championship for four consecutive years , Warner had toured with country music artists including Gina Jeffreys , and with Young in Kasey Chambers 's band . Young and Warner knew each other previously , and according to Warner , had been drawn to bluegrass and American roots music through an appreciation of George Jones and Merle Haggard . Warner and Young made the decision to emigrate to America to pursue musical careers in that country , after they met . Young and Warner later lived together in Sydney while trying to find work in the moribund Australian bluegrass scene . After leaving Australia , they spent time in West Texas before relocating to Austin .
On an early trip the pair took to Austin , Warner and Young met McLoughlin at a recording session . Warner was producing an album for the recording artist Bill Atkins and found they needed a fiddle player , which led to the recruitment of McLoughlin . Initially the immigrants came to know one another through their mutual love of Monty Python , Benny Hill , and Fawlty Towers . They began to have jam sessions afterwards and there was evident chemistry between the trio , which led to their writing songs together . They named themselves The Greencards in honor of the fact that all three band members carried United States green cards . They eventually began to perform shows locally in Austin to finance the recording of what would become their debut album , 2003 's Movin ' On . In the process , they became one of the most popular musical groups in Austin . Representative of an emerging " newgrass " movement , The Greencards ' acoustic sound was said to incorporate eclectic influences from Irish traditional , Romani gypsy , and Latin American musical sources .
Their first performance together as a band was at the Austin Irish pub , Mother Egan 's . Given a noon to 3 pm Central time slot , they surprisingly began to fill the pub with patrons week after week . Their fans at Mother Egan 's soon began calling them the " Bluegrass Bunch " . Several months later , The Greencards began performing an additional three to five times per week in Austin , in addition to their Mother Egan 's Sunday show . Warner credited the frantic pace of their performance schedule during their Austin formation to their cohesion as a group and with driving them to create more new original music . During their time performing locally in Austin , they toured with various local Texas musicians , including Robert Earl Keen . Warner said that during their early career performing together , audiences would always assume they were American musicians until they finally spoke between songs , revealing their English and Australian accents .
Mario Tarradell of WFAA @-@ TV news called the idea of an American bluegrass band composed of two Australians and an Englishman not as " outrageous " as it may seem . He quoted McLoughlin in an interview :
The ironic thing is that we grew up listening to primarily American music and fell in love with American music . I love country music . I grew up with George Jones and Charley Pride and Jim Reeves . All that stuff was playing in the house . That 's what I wanted to seek out . That 's what I wanted to play . Carol was into Tammy Wynette . Trev Warner is Kym 's dad , and he was the first person to bring bluegrass music to Australia .
= = = Movin ' On ( 2003 – 2004 ) = = =
In 2003 , The Greencards recorded and self @-@ released Movin ' On , their debut album , which sold 10 @,@ 000 copies at shows and online , and entered the top five on the Americana radio charts . Pat Flynn , one of the band members of the New Grass Revival , guested on the recording of Movin ' On as a session guitarist , and would return to do so again on Weather and Water . The album was said to break past traditional rules of bluegrass music by integrating a jam @-@ band mindset while blending classical folk balladry and rock ' n ' roll into the sound . Contrasting with that appraisal , the album was also cited as a traditional and successful " lo @-@ fi " approach to bluegrass music . Critics noted the virtuoso solos on mandolin , fiddle , and guitar on Movin ' On .
The Greencards gained more fans and became known by name quickly after the release of Movin ' On . The band was credited with performing the most energetic sets during the course of the 2004 Austin City Limits Music Festival , were said to bring a global sound to bluegrass , and — by drawing on influences such as Bob Dylan and The Beatles — were pushing the genre 's boundaries . Their live show during this period was ranked by the Houston Chronicle in the top five nights of live music for the year in 2004 .
Movin ' On earned The Greencards the 2004 Austin Music Award for Best New Band . Several months after the awards the band was signed by Dualtone Records and began work on their next album , Weather and Water . The label re @-@ released Movin ' On at the beginning of 2005 , generating still more airplay and sales .
= = = Weather and Water ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = =
Their second Dualtone album , Weather and Water , was released on June 28 , 2005 . Warned stated that during the recording sessions , Dualtone Records let them record what they wanted , with no interference or changes requested . In a review of Weather and Water in The Washington Post , it was noted that on this album , unlike their debut , the focus was on the music supporting lyrics , rather than the blues virtuosity of Movin ' On . All three members of the band sang on Weather and Water , but Young 's voice was noted for its " dreamy , haunting quality " . Their music through the Weather and Water album had been called Celtic @-@ influenced and bluegrass @-@ flavored by John Lehndorff of the Rocky Mountain News , but he noted that the band had a distinctly American sound despite their overseas origins . In the spring of 2005 , The Greencards performed at South by Southwest in Austin for the first time , and afterwards made their debut at the prestigious MerleFest .
Jason Gonulsen of Glide Magazine noted that The Greencards ' debut Movin ' On didn 't capture the band 's live energy , but that Weather and Water overcame this , and was one of 2005 's best bluegrass albums . The music video for the band 's single " Time " from Weather and Water received heavy airplay and rotation on Country Music Television . " Time " was described as the centerpiece track of Weather and Water . Weather and Water was also cited as expanding the boundaries of the bluegrass genre .
Country Music Television named Weather and Water one of its ten favorite bluegrass albums of the year , saying , " At the nexus of bluegrass , country and pop , this charming trio immediately win over such diverse audiences in concert . Luckily , their winning personality translates to this disc — even with several melancholy , yet melodic , songs . Not for nothing did Bob Dylan and Willie Nelson choose them to open their summer tour of minor league ballparks . " The Greencards were the opening act for Dylan and Nelson on their 2005 summer tour . Kym Warner credits Gary Paczosa , an engineer who worked on Weather and Water , with helping them get the opportunity to tour with Dylan and Nelson . Paczosa had previously served as an engineer on recordings for Alison Krauss , Nickel Creek and Dolly Parton . " He makes the best @-@ sounding acoustic records in the world " , according to Warner . Throughout 2005 they toured extensively with Dylan and Nelson , and afterwards toured with Tommy Emmanuel . During the summer segment of the 2005 tour with Nelson and Dylan , Kym Warner wanted to have the opportunity to pick Dylan 's brain about music and performing . However , Warner did not get to spend much time alone with Dylan during their time on the road together . Dylan later told Warner at the end of the tour , " You 'll be fine from now on . "
At the end of 2005 , The Greencards relocated from Austin to Nashville , Tennessee to be closer to their production company and its staff . Coinciding with their move to Nashville and work on their second album Weather and Water , the changes in location and sound were observed by critics to be a deliberate move from the jam @-@ style of their debut album Movin ' On to instead concentrate on Americana @-@ focused music . By 2006 , The Greencards had an annual slot at Merlefest , held yearly in Wilkesboro , North Carolina . The band was nominated in the Americana Music Association Awards for 2006 in the category of New / Emerging Artist of the Year , winning the award . In December 2006 , their tour van rolled over on a patch of ice after leaving a performance in Bryan , Texas , on the way back to Austin , but with no serious injuries .
= = = Viridian ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = =
On their previous albums , The Greencards had individually recorded their musical tracks separately in isolation booths of recording studios . For Viridian , however , the bandmembers recorded their album together in real time in an open room , which was said to be a factor in creating a spontaneous feel for some of the album . Most of the songs on Viridian are sung by Young , and all of the tracks on Viridian were written by The Greencards , with the exception of " Travel On " , which was penned by Kim Richey of Nashville . Their sound , through Viridian , was likened to the Canadian alternative country band The Duhks . After its release , Viridian claimed the No. 1 position on Billboard magazine 's Bluegrass Music Chart . Doug Lancio , a producer who had previously worked with Patty Griffin , was said to have been a positive factor in the success of Viridian . Prior to the 2007 album , Lancio had not previously worked with The Greencards . The Greencards are the first international musical act to ever reach No. 1 on the Bluegrass Music Chart .
In a review of Viridian , Embo Blake of Hybrid Magazine noted Carol Young 's vocal skill , as she " effortlessly diphthongs cadence " on the track " Waiting On The Night " . According to ABC News in Dallas / Fort Worth , the album has a traditional bluegrass core , with a worldly flavor . Bruce Elder of the Sydney Morning Herald called Viridian a " tour de force " .
In the wake of Viridian , The Greencards have been internationally referred to as one of the most popular Americana musical acts in the United States . Bruce Elder went on to say that the band may , after Viridian , be the best country music performers to ever come out of Australia . In 2007 , they were nominated for Best Country Album at the 21st Australian Recording Industry Association awards , ultimately losing out to Keith Urban . In December 2007 , it was announced that their song " Mucky the Duck " from Viridian was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Country Instrumental Performance at the 50th Grammy Awards , but ultimately lost to Brad Paisley 's " Throttleneck " . Written by Warner , " Mucky the Duck " was inspired by one of the band 's favorite Houston musical venues , The Mucky Duck . Eamon McLoughlin is a regular blogger for Country Music Television . After the Grammy Awards , he wrote about the band 's experience at the event , noting that despite not winning , the bar had been raised for their next album .
The Greencards announced on their website in August 2008 that they had returned to the studio to record their fourth album with producer Jay Joyce . In September 2008 , again via their website , they announced that they signed with Sugar Hill Records for their fourth album , to be released in spring 2009 .
= = = Fascination ( from 2009 ) = = =
On April 21 , 2009 , The Greencards released their fourth studio album , Fascination . Warner describes the album as " their most focused " work . On their previous albums , the three band members had individually put forward ideas for the music , until enough cohered into the finished work . For Fascination , he says they put aside their individual pride to create a stronger work . The years of touring experience The Greencards have accumulated since their earliest work has helped them , as well . Referring to when they formed the band , he said , " We just played in Austin . We just wrote probably anything , which was the only stuff we knew , which was more of a traditional thing . But since then , we 've had five or six years of touring , all of the experiences , all of the people you meet . We 've been so fortunate to play at all of these festivals which have a really eclectic form of music styles . "
According to Young , the music on Fascination was a progression for the band , and a challenge for them . Comparing their prior work to the new album , she said , " They 're probably a bit more bluegrass @-@ influenced than this one here . While we still have the bluegrass and roots music influences , we really wanted to push ourselves harder on this one , something a bit more challenging to play live . " She described their music through their fourth album as having evolved , explaining that it began as traditional roots and bluegrass , but after six years is " our own little sound " . The track , " The Crystal Merchant " , was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Country Instrumental Performance .
In 2009 , The Greencards continued to tour , performed again at MerleFest , the Strawberry Park Bluegrass Festival in Preston , CT , and were on the bill for Lollapalooza .
= = = Buy A Brick campaign = = =
On November 8 , 2010 The Greencards announced that they will self @-@ finance the production on their next album , set for May 2011 , rather than taking an advance from a record company . The Buy A Brick campaign is selling a package of an advance copy of the final CD , a digital image of the album artwork , video updates of the recording of the album and the subscriber 's name ( up to twenty characters ) on the album artwork . Subscriptions are either $ 100 or $ 200 US with the more expensive package getting the album one week earlier and the subscriber 's name on the front of the CD package .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Considered by critics to be part of the progressive bluegrass ( " newgrass " ) musical school , The Greencards draw from a wide variety of musical influences , ranging from Bob Dylan and the Beatles to the Celtic tone of Irish traditional music , gypsy themes , and Latin sounds . Despite the wide array of influences that shape their music , The Greencards have always maintained a distinctively Americana sound . While the various sounds that influence their work are always detectable , none ever dominate the band 's music . Jim Abbott , of the Tribune News Service , described The Greencards as polished , " earthy , charming roots music with a sophisticated sheen " , but noted that some bluegrass purists may miss the vocal idiosyncrasies that can be found on other acts such as the Del McCoury Band . Their appeal has been attributed to both their " instrumental dexterity " as well as the manner in which they both revere and flaunt bluegrass conventions . The progressive nature of The Greencards ' bluegrass sound has been compared to Nickel Creek and Alison Krauss & Union Station .
The Greencards ' work on Movin ' On had a looser , jam @-@ based feeling to it , which they later firmed into a more polished sound after relocating to Nashville from Austin for Weather and Water . John T. Davis in No Depression Magazine stated The Greencards ' best work on Weather and Water contained a " stillness " , which he felt contrasted with the speed and " frantic " pace of some of the songs on Movin ' On . While other critics had mentioned The Greencards in the context of jam bands , Davis went on to say that he felt the band was not one , and that they favored a leaner and " clean " sound driven more by Celtic roots .
During their 2005 tour with Dylan and Nelson , Buzz McClain of The Washington Post believed that The Greencards play traditional American music better than some Americans do , because of their deep respect for bluegrass and the Americana sound . According to David McPherson in Bluegrass Unlimited magazine , the band 's three @-@ part harmonies evoke the soul sounds of Gospel music . Kym Warner has said that Robert Earl Keen , Kelly Willis , and Patty Griffin were key influences musically in The Greencards 's sound during their time in Austin , with the previously unreleased Griffin song " What You Are " being covered on their album Weather and Water . The recordings on Viridian , in particular the songs " River of Sand " , " Waiting on the Night " and " When I Was in Love With You " , were said to evoke the sounds of progressive folk rock that emerged in the 1960s . In Nashville Scene , Edd Hurt noted the eclectic tone of the band 's overall body of recordings , and believed that their albums belonged to the tradition of singer @-@ songwriter musicians .
Their musical appeal to fans has been attributed to both their " instrumental dexterity " as well as the manner in which they both revere and flaunt bluegrass conventions . Naila Francis described The Greencards 's sound as having a mellow tone , with " tender ballards and yarns " in their songs , but punctuated by bursts of energetic musical restlessness . Country Music Television in particular noted their melancholy but melodic sound . The Greencards have described their sound as " high energy acoustic music " .
= = Discography = =
= Antestor =
Antestor is a Norwegian unblack metal band formed in 1990 in Jessheim . Credited for starting the northern European Christian black metal scene , Antestor is the only Christian band to have an album released by Cacophonous Records , which has also released records by bands such as Dimmu Borgir , Sigh , and Cradle of Filth . The band 's only release on Cacophonous , The Return of the Black Death , proved influential for the Christian black metal movement , and has sold over 10 @,@ 000 copies .
In the late 1990s they dubbed their musical style as " sorrow metal " rather than black metal because the black metal movement was publicly affiliated with Satanism in Norway . According to HM magazine , the progressive elements on the debut album , Martyrium , were possibly ahead of their time in the Norwegian extreme metal scene .
The group has gone through several line @-@ up changes over the years , and currently Antestor consists of the founding guitarist Lars Stokstad ( Vemod ) , vocalist Ronny Hansen ( Vrede ) , bassist Erik Normann Aanonsen , guitarist Robert Bordevick , and drummer Henning Børven . The original vocalist Kjetil Molnes ( Martyr ) and drummer Svein Sander ( Armoth ) left the band around 2000 , and the members of a fellow Norwegian black metal group , Vaakevandring , joined Antestor . The reputable Norwegian extreme metal drummer Jan Axel Blomberg ( Hellhammer ) played session drums for their 2005 album The Forsaken and Det tapte liv EP . A fourth studio album , Omen , was released in 2013 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Crush Evil era = = =
In 1990 , the band was formed under the name " Crush Evil " by Lars Stokstad , Kjetil Molnes , Øyvind Hope and Erling Jørgensen in Jessheim , Norway . Paul W joined them as a drummer later on . Back then , the band 's music style was a mixture of death metal , doom metal , and thrash metal . In 1991 , they recorded and released their first demo , The Defeat of Satan , which contains three songs and an outro . The band is Christian and over the course of their career have received death threats because of this .
The existence of the band itself caused a debate in the metal underground . For example , during the early 1990s , Bård Faust of Emperor brought up the subject when he discussed with Euronymous , guitarist / vocalist from the seminal black metal band Mayhem , in his zine Orcustus about the Norwegian scene . Faust asked : " Don 't you think that something is terribly wrong when it has gone so far that we have a Christian " death metal " band here ( Crush Evil ) ? Any advice on how we should kill them ? " Euronymous replied to this : " It 's bad enough to have a couple of society bands , but a Christian band is too much . But don 't worry , we have plans . They will not continue for a very long time . " However , the band persevered despite these threats . Antestor was never forced to split apart , and in an almost ironic twist of fate , Jan Axel Blomberg ( better known as Hellhammer , the drummer for Mayhem ) was Antestor 's session drummer on their latest two releases .
= = = Martyrium ( 1993 – 1996 ) = = =
In 1993 , Vegard Undal joined the band as a bassist and Svein Sander became their drummer . During that time , they changed the name Crush Evil to Antestor , which is ( Latin for " call to witness " or " testify " ) . Despair was their first self @-@ released demo , and was released under the band name Antestor . The demo starts with an intro and ends with a cover of an old Norwegian hymn , called Jesus , Jesus , Ver Du Hjå Meg ( " Jesus , Jesus , Be With Me " ) . Strawberry Records pressed 600 copies of the recording .
In December 1994 , Antestor recorded their first full @-@ length album titled Martyrium
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. Arctic Serenades Records was originally supposed to release that album , but because of unknown reasons that never happened , and the band tried to get another label to release the album . American @-@ based label Morphine Records would subsequently produce a limited quantity of bootleg copies of the album in 1997 . In an interview , the drummer Armoth said : " ... we were in contact with a label called Morphine Records . But that was about signing a deal for the Martyrium album . But we never signed a contract but that guy , Burrito , made several promotapes and sold every bit of it illegally ' cause he didn 't have a contract . " However , the tape copies circulated in up to fifth generation copies and their audience grew fast . Martyrium was the last album that emphasized the band 's death / doom direction .
On June 3 , 1994 , Antestor appeared on a local television program called " BootlegTV " where youth could practice and experience recording and video production . Usually local bands from Oslo played on that program which was broadcast on the television station TVNorge . During the course of this program , Antestor played five songs from Martyrium . On June 6 , 1995 , Antestor was featured on the Norwegian weekly newspaper Morgenbladet 's article about the phenomenon of Christian black metal , surrounding the black metal parody controversy of the Australian unblack metal group Horde 's 1994 album Hellig Usvart . In the article , vocalist Kjetil Molnes explains the band 's stance on if a Christian band can play black metal : " We identify ourselves as black metal as a music style , not black metal as an ideology or belief . "
= = = The Return of the Black Death ( 1997 – 1998 ) = = =
In 1997 , Antestor recorded a promotional CD titled Kongsblod . The promo @-@ CD caught the interest of British Cacophonous Records , one of the biggest labels with experience in the black metal style and helped established groups such as Cradle of Filth and Dimmu Borgir start their career . Cacophonous signed a record deal for 2 albums with Antestor . In 1998 , Cacophonous released Kongsblod under a different name , The Return of the Black Death , and changed the original cover art of a famous Norwegian painting to artwork by Joe Petagno , a well @-@ known American heavy metal cover art creator .
Cacophonous being a secular label releasing material by a band that held Christian beliefs generated some interest in the metal scene . In an interview with Art for the Ears Webzine , published on December 12 , 1998 , Armoth said : " We sent the CD and a short biography . They just wanted to sign us because of the music . And that 's exactly what we wanted to do . " 2 years later in a 2000 interview with the Finnish The Christian Underground Zine issue 4 , the fanzine 's interviewer asked Antestor : " However , you had a record deal with Cacophonous Records ( ex @-@ Cradle of Filth , Bal @-@ Sagoth ) . What kind of experiences did you get from that ? " The band replied : " Pretty bad , actually . I can not say they did anything else than released the album . No money , no royalties , nothing . " The interviewer also asked : " Did the record company set any demands concerning your image ? " Antestor replied : " Nothing like that . They just said that it is not recommendable for us to proclaim exactly everywhere that we are a Christian band , and they censored the words ' Lord ' and ' Jesus ' from our lyrics . We ourselves removed a few texts because we did not want to provoke unnecessarily . "
The Return of the Black Death was mostly well received by both Christian and non @-@ Christian black metal fans and critics . For example , the British metal magazines Kerrang ! and Terrorizer both gave the album 4 points out of 5 . Musically , The Return of the Black Death is a mixture of black metal and doom metal . The album relies on hypnotic , cold atmosphere and showcases influences from Norwegian folk music , which led some to label Antestor as Viking metal . Unlike previously , around this time the band themselves said they felt uncertain whether a Christian band can play black metal , because the movement was still strongly associated with Satanism . The drummer Svein Sander says in the 1998 interview :
= = = The Forsaken ( 2000 – 2009 ) = = =
In 2000 , Antestor was signed by Endtime Productions , a metal record label that also helped to start the career of the Norwegian metal band Extol . The original vocalist Kjetil Molnes ( Martyr ) left Antestor . However , the breakup of another Christian metal band in Norway , Vaakevandring , led to several former Vaakevandring members joining Antestor . Namely , Ronny Hansen , adopting the new moniker Vrede , became Antestor 's new vocalist , and Morten Sigmund Mageroy ( known in Antestor as Sygmoon ) stepped in as the new keyboardist . Ann @-@ Mari Edvardsen , who has sung in the Norwegian gothic metal group The Third and the Mortal , joined the band as a female vocalist . For the first time in their career , Antestor began using the infamous corpse paint masks as a part of their live shows and overall image .
In 2000 , Endtime Productions released Martyrium with cover art done by the reputive Swedish metal music cover artist Kristian Wåhlin . Antestor toured the United States with Extol that year , playing small venues and finally performing at Cornerstone Festival . Over the next several years , the band remained somewhat quiet ; they did not release any more albums until 2003 , when they re @-@ released their two earliest demos on one CD , titling it The Defeat of Satan . The drummer , Svein Sander ( in Antestor , Armoth ) , left the band during this time , and Antestor would not find a new full @-@ time drummer for several more years .
In 2004 , Antestor changed their style into a more modern black metal , and released their first set of new songs since The Return of the Black Death in an EP called Det tapte liv ( " The Lost Life " ) . Det tapte liv concentrated less on the black metal aspects of Antestor 's style , instead focusing more on instrumental songs . However , it hinted at what the band was preparing for their 2005 full @-@ length , The Forsaken . The cover arts for both releases were once again done by Kristian Wåhlin , and the cover for the EP depicts the Borgund Stave Church . Hellhammer played all drums on both of these releases . In an interview with the Russian metal site Metal Library on January 7 , 2007 , Blomberg was asked what did his Mayhem colleagues and record company think about his participation in Antestor , and he said : " To be honest , it was a big ' fuck off ! ' to them all . I will repeat again that I decide what I do and I play not only in black metal groups . " The band also asked Hellhammer to play live for them , but Blomberg refused . Hellhammer also went to state : " In my opinion , black metal today is just music . I will tell you that neither I nor other members of Mayhem never really were against religion or something else . We are primarily interested in music . " Ronny Hansen commented on Blomberg 's appearance :
New drummer Tony Kirkemo joined the band later in 2005 as live session drummer . The band played live shows rarely and only at explicitly Christian music festivals . Examples of performances the group have made in 2000s include the concerts at Bobfest in 2000 in Stockholm and 2004 in Linköping , and at the Nordic Fest 2004 in Oslo .
Some of the members still play in the black metal band Vaakevandring , who played a reunion concert in 2007 together with Antestor at the Endtime Festival held at the end of March 2007 in Halmstad . Antestor performed the concert with numerous session musicians . In this concert the band announced that this is their last live show for a while .
= = = Omen ( 2010 – present ) = = =
After three years of hiatus , on January 29 , 2010 , the band launched an official Facebook page . Later they announced new members : Bassist Thor Georg Buer ( Grave Declaration ) , guitarist Robert Bordevik ( Grievance , Vardøger ) , drummer Jo Henning Børven ( Grave Declaration , Morgenroede ) and keyboardist Nickolas Main Henriksen ( Aspera , Desdemon ) . With this line @-@ up , the band played a stage show at Nordic Fest 2010 in Oslo . On November 4 , 2010 they announced signing to Bombworks Records to record a new album and an EP . After some line @-@ up changes in mid @-@ 2011 , Erik Normann Aanonsen ( Moddi ) joined on bass while Thor Georg switched to guitar , and the show at the Norwegian Seaside Festival was with that line @-@ up . The album has been recorded and will be mixed and mastered in Sweden . Guitarist Thor also left the band to focus on his college education , but stated he may return if the opportunity arises . The fourth album , Omen , was released on November 30 , 2012 . A Brazilian tour was announced for early 2013 . During the Belo Horizonte leg of this tour , the band faced a protest organized by Black Metal / Anti @-@ Christianity radicals who rejected the possibility of a Christian black metal band to perform in the city . Since the radicals were already announcing their intentions via Internet , the local police had assigned one private policeman in addition to the 30 security guards present to help guaranteeing the security of the show . At one point , the officer had to fire some shots towards the sky to control the rioters . A video posted on YouTube shows a group of radicals screaming " Fuck You Antestor ! " outside the venue and the local police escorting the band members .
After the show , the band posted a public statement about the incident , thanking their fans for coming despite of the risks involved , and blessing the radicals : " We are proud to call you our brothers and sisters in Christ . Last but not least we must thank the gig securety and the Belo Horizonte police for escorting us though the angry mob . [ ... ] We do not hate the angry mob who came to hurt us . In fact , our message in our shows is to love your enemy . So God bless everybody who stood outside chanting : Fuck Antestor ! Hope we can talk like reasonable people someday over a fresh squeezed juice . Extra special hails to our fans who had the balls to come although they knew it could be dangerous . Antestor salutes you and be blessed . " In a newspaper interview with the Norwegian Christian newspaper Dagen two days following the band 's safe return to Norway , bassist Erik Normann Aanonsen said that he had prepared himself for the worst @-@ case scenario that the tour could end in death , and he reiterates the band 's gratitude to the aggressive Brazilian Satanists stating : " We 're now twice as big in Brazil as we were before we went there . "
= = Style = =
= = = Music = = =
While the band 's style on the first publications was primarily death / doom with correspondingly slow songs and death growl singing , the band began playing black metal on the 1998 album The Return of the Black Death . On that album the band showcased screaming vocals , tremolo guitar riffs and drum passages with increased speed typical for the black metal genre . Keyboard is also in a central role , which for the typical black metal is used to perform epic interludes and dominates the soundscapes . For example , over the first three minutes of the song " Sorg " , only the keyboard melody leads the performance .
With the third album The Forsaken the band developed more in the direction of a more technical style , as it is apparent on the style of The Return of the Black Death . The band 's musical development resulted in that The Forsaken includes several guitar solos . Also the quality of production compared to The Return of the Black Death improved . Through the introduction of the two ex @-@ members of Vaakevandring , the style became more melodic and atmospheric .
= = = Lyrics = = =
Antestor 's lyrical themes include hope and despair , but also deal with the personal Christian faith of the band members . Therefore , many metal fans oppose classifying Antestor 's style to the category of black metal , as their lyrics are often contrary to the ideology of black metal . The lyrics are mostly in English . Norwegian texts are also rare for the group , but on the album The Return of the Black Death the Norwegian language dominates the lyrics . On this album , only part of the lyrics are listed in the booklet ; words directly referring to Jesus Christ and God were omitted . The song " A Sovereign Fortress " dealt with , for example , the acknowledgments of God who protects and supports the lyrical I since birth . It is portrayed in the chorus of this song as :
" Sorg " ( Norwegian for : grief , sorrow , sadness ) , however , deals with the themes of the sorrow and the search for hope , with the song based on darker imagery , and the lyrics are not explicitly Christian yet are not negative in the end . An example ( in the Norwegian language ) :
Another song that is also a dark , but this takes on Christian theme , is " Ancient Prophecy " . The lyrics tells that the man was sinful , and no one can escape the court of God . Antestor process in their lyrics also topics such as suicide , doubts about the certainty of salvation , and longing death , all of which are rare themes for a Christian band . An example from the text " Betrayed " from the album The Forsaken :
= = = Appearance = = =
Antestor are one of the few bands in the Christian metal scene who use corpse paint in their appearances and on photos . One example is the booklet photos in the album The Return of the Black Death , depicting Antestor in Norsemen outfits and black and white face paints at a snowy Norwegian mountain location . Sometimes the group uses art blood , as known for the session bassist Ravn Furfjord 's ( Frosthardr ) appearance at the Bobfest 2004 concert . The band explains that corpse paint " is the same for us as masking is for actors or mimes ; One way to express certain feelings in the battle we are in . The main purpose is to concentrate on God and not to break a lance in side issues like these . "
= = Reception = =
According to Vrede in an interview with Intense Radio on December 13 , 2007 , " by various sources , The Return of the Black Death has sold over 10 @,@ 000 copies and still keeps selling . "
Very few published reviews of the band 's albums exist , yet the ones that are available are positive , often good and some excellent . Michael Bryzak writes in the liner notes of The Defeat of Satan / Despair that , although the first album was not officially released until 2000 , " Martyrium was rightfully considered a cult classic . "
The group 's position in the Norwegian metal scene was controversial from the beginning . Bryzak writes that " standing up for their faith in Life and Hope , Antestor received serious death threats during this time from some of the major bands and key players of the scene . " When asked if the band ever played with other groups in the black metal scene , Antestor said in a 2000 interview with Tcu zine : " We played with some early form of the band Old Man 's Child once . Apparently they expressed their opinion of us with their legs and walked out of the venue during our set . It was their way of saying ' screw you Christians . ' " In the liner notes of Martyrium , Antestor corresponds in a slightly bitter tone : " For those of you who despised us , disbelieved in us and misplaced your anger upon us , may God have mercy on your poor souls ! "
On Antestor 's achievements , Bryzak wrote that " The birth of northern Europe 's Christian extreme metal scene can be attributed to only one act , Antestor . " In 2010 , HM Magazine ranked The Return of the Black Death number 40 on their Top 100 Christian metal albums of all @-@ time list with Beck stating about the album , " Devastatingly dark , TRBD set the standard for Christian black metal . " Jamie Lee Rake of HM Magazine wrote of the Endtime Productions re @-@ release of Martyrium , wondering if the progressive elements of the album made the band unnoticed innovators in the early Norwegian extreme metal scene :
= = Members = =
Current
Ronny Hansen ( aka Vrede ) – vocals and lyrics ( 2000 – present )
Lars Stokstad ( aka Vemod ) – guitars and sung vocals ( 1990 – ) , keyboards ( 1990 – 2000 , 2013 – present )
Erik Normann Aanonsen – bass and acoustic instruments ( 2011 – present )
Jo Henning Børven – drums and live programming ( 2010 – present )
Former
Robert Bordevik – guitars ( 2010 – 2011 , 2012 – 2015 ) , backing vocals ( 2012 – 2015 )
Nicholas Main Henriksen – keyboards ( 2010 – 2013 )
Thor Georg Buer – guitars ( 2011 @-@ 2012 ) , bass ( 2010 – 2011 )
Morten Sigmund Mageroy ( aka Sygmoon ) – keyboards ( 1999 – 2007 )
Vegard Undal ( aka Gard ) – bass ( 1993 – 2005 )
Tony Kirkemo – live drums ( 2003 – 2006 )
Svein Sander ( aka Armoth ) – drums ( 1993 – 2000 )
Stig Rolfsen ( aka Erkebisp ) – guitars ( 1995 – 1997 )
Tom W. Holm Paulsen – drums ( 1990 – 1993 )
Øyvind Hope – bass ( 1990 – 1993 )
Ravn Jokull Furfjord ( aka Jokull from Frosthardr ) – bass ( 2005 – 2006 )
Pål Dæhlen – live drums ( 2001 – 2003 )
Ole Børud – guitars ( 1996 – 1997 )
Kjetil Molnes ( aka Martyr ) – vocals ( 1990 – 1999 )
Erling Jorgensen ( aka Pilgrim ) – guitars ( 1990 – 1993 )
Bjørn Leren – guitars ( 1990 – 1993 , 2003 – 2005 )
Session musicians
Jan Axel Blomberg ( Hellhammer ) ( 2004 ) – session drums on The Forsaken
Ann @-@ Mari Edvardsen – session vocals on The Forsaken
Tora – session vocals on ' Martyrium
Timeline
Note : Martyrium was recorded in 1994 , with some bootleg copies leaked , but not officially released until 2000
= = Discography = =
The Defeat of Satan ( demo , 1991 )
Despair ( demo , 1993 )
Kongsblod ( promo , 1998 )
The Return of the Black Death ( 1998 )
Martyrium ( 2000 , recorded in 1994 )
The Defeat of Satan ( compilation , 2003 )
Det tapte liv ( EP , 2004 )
The Forsaken ( 2005 )
Omen ( 2012 )
= Mike Capel =
Michael Lee Capel ( born October 13 , 1961 ) is a former Major League Baseball ( MLB ) right @-@ handed pitcher who played for the Chicago Cubs , Milwaukee Brewers , and Houston Astros . In 49 career games , Capel pitched 62 @.@ 1 innings , struck out 43 batters , and had a career win – loss record of 3 – 4 with a 4 @.@ 62 earned run average ( ERA ) . While he played in MLB , Capel stood at 6 feet 1 inch ( 185 cm ) and weighed 175 pounds ( 79 kg ) . A starting pitcher in college and parts of his minor league baseball career , he converted to relief pitching while in Chicago 's minor league system .
The Philadelphia Phillies chose Capel in the 24th round of the 1980 MLB draft , but Capel did not sign with the team : instead , he opted to attend the University of Texas . Capel played on the 1982 USA College All @-@ Star Team , which competed in the Amateur World Series in Seoul and placed third . The next year , Capel and the Texas Longhorns won the College World Series . After he was drafted by the Cubs , Capel left Texas and signed to play professional baseball ; he played in six seasons of minor league baseball before he made his MLB debut in 1988 . Capel spent the entire 1989 season in Triple @-@ A , one level below the majors , but the Cubs released him at the end of the year . He agreed to terms with the Brewers and played in MLB after an injury opened a spot on Milwaukee 's roster , but was again released at the end of the season . A free agent , the Astros signed Capel , and over the course of the season he pitched in 25 games for the team . He spent the final part of his career in the Astros farm system , and after he made the 1992 Triple @-@ A All @-@ Star team , Capel played his last season in 1993 . After retirement , Capel worked as the general manager of a car dealership in Houston , Texas .
= = Early life = =
Capel was born on October 13 , 1961 , in Marshall , Texas , and attended Spring High School in Harris County . As a child , he enjoyed watching the Astros play on weekends . During his senior year in 1979 , the Spring Lions won the AAAA conference state championship , and Capel was named to the All @-@ State team , composed of the best high school players in the state . He set several pitching records at Spring High School . Future teammate Calvin Schiraldi called Capel a " hard thrower when he came out of high school " and " the top guy out of the state in 1980 " ; Roger Clemens said he was " probably the best pitcher in the state at that time " . The Philadelphia Phillies drafted Capel with the 605th overall pick in the 1980 MLB Draft , but instead of signing with the Phillies , he chose to attend the University of Texas .
= = Collegiate career = =
Capel enrolled at the University of Texas in 1981 , but did not play baseball , as stretched ligaments in his elbow forced him to miss his freshman season . Capel pitched sidearmed for the remainder of his collegiate career to compensate for a loss in the velocity of his fastball . In 1982 , he was named to the All @-@ Southwest Conference team and pitched to a 9 – 0 win – loss record with a 3 @.@ 68 ERA , as the Longhorns finished 59 – 6 . His 1982 winning percentage of 1 @.@ 000 ties him with 10 others for the best single @-@ season winning percentage in Longhorns history ( with a minimum of nine decisions ) . At the 1982 College World Series , Texas defeated the Oklahoma State Cowboys and the Stanford Cardinal , but losses to the Miami Hurricanes and the Wichita State Shockers eliminated them from play per the tournament 's double @-@ elimination format . Capel played on the United States team in the 1982 Amateur World Series overseen by the International Baseball Federation . Starting against Australia , he pitched a 14 – 4 complete game victory , as the match ended after seven innings per the championship 's ten @-@ run rule . The United States eventually placed third in the competition .
The 1983 Longhorns finished with a 61 – 14 record and were ranked as the number one team in the nation by Collegiate Baseball Magazine . That season , the Texas team featured four future MLB pitchers : Capel , Clemens , Bruce Ruffin , and Schiraldi . In the 1983 College World Series , Capel allowed four hits in a complete game against the Michigan Wolverines as the Longhorns advanced to the World Series finals . Facing the Alabama Crimson Tide , the Longhorns made Clemens their starting pitcher and won 4 – 3 . The championship was the fourth World Series title in University of Texas history , and their first since 1975 . Capel finished the season with a 13 – 1 record and a 2 @.@ 98 ERA . His career winning percentage ( .957 ) ties him with Rick Burley for the fifth @-@ best in Texas Longhorns history . In June , before the College World Series , he was drafted by the Cubs with the 320th overall pick in the 1983 MLB draft .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Chicago Cubs = = =
After he signed a professional contract with the Cubs , Capel no longer threw sidearmed . Capel began professional baseball with the Class A Quad Cities Cubs , but was promoted to the Double @-@ A Midland Cubs shortly into the season . Over 11 games , he finished with a 4 – 3 record and a 3 @.@ 51 ERA . In 1984 , Capel split playing time between the Class A @-@ Advanced Lodi Crushers and Midland ; he led Midland in losses ( 10 ) and wild pitches ( 11 ) and had the second @-@ worst ERA ( 6 @.@ 31 ) on the team . With Midland , Capel started 11 games out of the 16 in which he appeared . On his 0 – 7 record for the Crushers , Tom Alexander of the Lodi News @-@ Sentinel wrote that Capel 's luck " has been all bad when it comes to wins " . Both Lodi and Midland finished their seasons with losing records .
From 1985 – 86 , he played for the Double @-@ A Pittsfield Cubs of the Eastern League . In 1986 , Capel only pitched in relief , had a career @-@ best 1 @.@ 87 ERA over 62 @.@ 2 innings pitched , and led his team with 13 saves . After he was promoted to the Triple @-@ A Iowa Cubs , Capel split time between starting and relieving roles in 1987 . At 7 – 10 , Capel tied for Iowa 's lead in wins and losses , and led the team in strikeouts , with 75 ; his 7 wins became a career high , and his loss total matched a career high set in Midland three years earlier . After the season , Ray Sons of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times said Capel " may be ready for middle relief in Chicago " , and Dave van Dyck listed him as a prospect for the 1988 season . During winter , Capel , Greg Maddux , Manny Trillo , Damon Berryhill , and several other Cubs played for teams in the Caribbean . Capel played for the Águilas del Zulia of Venezuela and led the team with five saves .
Capel played in spring training ball as he tried to make Chicago 's opening day roster . After the Cubs acquired Mike Bielecki from the Pittsburgh Pirates on March 31 , 1988 , they assigned Capel to Triple @-@ A despite a Sun @-@ Times prediction that he would be on the MLB roster . Prior to the acquisition , when Al Nipper was supposed to become the Cubs ' fifth starter , Capel was to take his spot in the bullpen . The Cubs recalled Capel and Mark Grace to the majors on May 3 , while Drew Hall and Rolando Roomes were optioned to Iowa ; at the time , he had a 1 @.@ 54 ERA and two saves in Triple @-@ A ball . On May 7 , Capel made his MLB debut : he pitched the final 1 @.@ 2 innings of a game against the San Francisco Giants , allowing no runs and no hits but issuing a walk in a 2 – 1 Cubs loss . His first career win came the following day against the Giants , although he blew a save by giving up a two @-@ run home run to Bob Brenly and lost a 5 – 4 lead . The Cubs ultimately won 13 – 7 . Capel continued to pitch for the club until June 30 , when the Cubs optioned him to Iowa to open a roster spot for Rich " Goose " Gossage to come off the 15 @-@ day disabled list ( DL ) .
He returned to the MLB club on August 8 to replace Schiraldi , but was demoted on August 13 before making an appearance , as Chicago activated Les Lancaster from the DL . Capel rejoined the club on August 31 , and pitched in five more games before the season 's end . Over his first MLB season , Capel pitched in 20 games and allowed 16 earned runs over 29 @.@ 1 innings for a 4 @.@ 91 ERA . He pitched the entire 1989 season for Iowa , appearing in 64 games for the team . On October 15 , Capel was granted free agency by the Cubs ; he signed with the Brewers two months later .
= = = Milwaukee Brewers = = =
Capel competed against 22 other pitchers for an MLB roster spot in the Brewers ' spring training camp . The Brewers optioned Capel to their Triple @-@ A affiliate , the Denver Zephyrs , on April 5 , before the start of Milwaukee 's 1990 season . On May 17 , Denver placed Capel on the DL with a strained Achilles tendon , which opened a roster spot on the Zephyrs and allowed the Brewers to send Jaime Navarro back to Denver . When the Brewers needed a replacement for the injured Bill Wegman , Capel was called up to the major leagues . For his Brewers debut , Capel faced five batters and allowed four runs ( two charged to Capel ) against the Baltimore Orioles . His strikeout of Billy Ripken was the only MLB out Capel recorded in 1990 . On June 8 , he made his second and final outing with the Brewers and allowed four runs ( three charged to Capel ) against the Toronto Blue Jays ; combined , batters hit .857 against Capel as he finished the season with a 135 @.@ 00 ERA . When Greg Vaughn , returning from a turf toe injury and a sprained left ankle , was activated from the DL on June 11 , Capel was sent to Triple @-@ A. He finished the season with Denver where he had a 4 – 3 record with a 4 @.@ 26 ERA . On October 4 , the Brewers granted Capel free agency ; he signed with the Astros on January 5 , 1991 .
= = = Houston Astros = = =
Capel began his 1991 season with the Triple @-@ A Tucson Toros ; the Astros added Capel to their MLB roster on June 7 . Two days later , against the New York Mets , Capel allowed the game @-@ winning home run to Howard Johnson in the top of the 11th inning . Against the Mets on June 14 , Capel , starting pitcher Pete Harnisch , and closer Jim Clancy combined for a four @-@ hitter . His final MLB appearance came on August 14 against the San Diego Padres , when he pitched one inning in relief of Jim Corsi in a 4 – 1 loss . Capel said that pitching for Houston was " the high point of my career " . Over 25 games pitched , Capel finished the season with a 1 – 3 record and a 3 @.@ 03 ERA .
To reduce their roster to 35 players , the Astros assigned Capel and seven others to the Toros prior to the 1992 MLB season . Capel was selected to the Triple @-@ A All @-@ Star Game to replace Tim Scott , whom the Padres promoted to MLB . He told Javier Morales of the Arizona Daily Star that " this is one of the greatest thrills of my career " , and he hoped it showed the Astros that he could pitch in MLB . Doug Jones worked as Houston 's closer in 1992 , however , and Capel never played for the MLB club . For the Toros , Capel had a 6 – 6 record and a 2 @.@ 19 ERA with a team @-@ leading 18 saves . The following season , the Montreal Expos invited Capel to their spring camp as a non @-@ roster invitee . Capel elected to remain with the Astros organization where he allowed 26 earned runs in 32 @.@ 2 innings and pitched the entire season in Triple @-@ A. The Toros , managed by Rick Sweet , finished first in the Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) South Division with an 83 – 60 record and made the playoffs . Unlike the 1993 MLB playoffs , in which four teams competed , only two teams could make the PCL playoffs . In the championship series , the Toros faced the Portland Beavers , champions of the North Division and holders of a PCL @-@ best 87 – 56 record . In a best @-@ of @-@ seven series , the Toros defeated the Beavers four games to two . After the season , the Astros did not re @-@ sign Capel . While playing in MLB , Capel stood at 6 feet 1 inch ( 185 cm ) and weighed 175 pounds ( 79 kg ) .
= = Personal life = =
In February 1986 , Capel pitched in the University of Texas Alumni v. Varsity game , which ended in a 14 – 14 tie . Capel started to use dipping tobacco in 1976 and in March 1988 had a non @-@ cancerous lesion removed from his lip ; he tried to quit the product in March 1988 . Capel met his wife , Elizabeth , at Roger Clemens ' wedding . Outside of baseball , he is a " close " friend of Clemens , and during Clemens ' 2012 perjury trial , Capel testified on his work ethic and character . In 2012 , Capel worked as the general manager of a car dealership in Houston .
= The Covent @-@ Garden Journal =
The Covent @-@ Garden Journal ( modernised as The Covent Garden Journal ) was an English literary periodical published twice a week for most of 1752 . It was edited and almost entirely funded by novelist , playwright , and essayist Henry Fielding , under the pseudonym , " Sir Alexander Drawcansir , Knt . Censor of Great Britain " . It was Fielding 's fourth and final periodical , and one of his last written works .
The Journal incited the " Paper War " of 1752 – 1753 , a conflict among a number of contemporary literary critics and writers , which began after Fielding declared war on the " armies of Grub Street " in the first issue . His proclamation attracted multiple aggressors and instigated a long @-@ lasting debate argued in the pages of their respective publications . Initially waged for the sake of increasing sales , the Paper War ultimately became much larger than Fielding had expected and generated a huge volume of secondary commentary and literature .
Further controversy erupted in June , when Fielding expressed support for a letter decrying the Government 's 1751 Disorderly Houses Act in the Journal . His remarks were viewed by the public as an endorsement of the legality of prostitution , and it soon became common opinion that the letter , initially attributed to a " Humphrey Meanwell " , was in fact written by Fielding . Fielding refuted this assertion in the 1 August issue of the Journal , while labelling prostitutes a source of social evils .
The final issue of the Journal was released on 25 November 1752 . In its last months , poor sales had resulted in a transition from semi @-@ weekly to weekly release . Ill @-@ health and a disinclination to continue led Fielding to end its run after the Number 72 issue . He died two years later while staying in Lisbon , Portugal .
= = Background = =
The first mention of The Covent @-@ Garden Journal dates to 5 December 1749 , when a broadsheet pamphlet was printed with the title " The Covent @-@ Garden Journal . No 1 . To be published 'd Once every Month , during the present Westminster Election by Paul Wronghead , of the Fleet , Esq . " It was organized as a standard paper , with sections called " Introductory Essay " , " Foreign Affairs " , " Home Affairs " , and " Advertisement " . Published with a list of fake printers ( T. Smith , R. Webb , and S. Johnson ) , it claimed that the sellers were " all the People of London and Westminster " . It was later revealed that the paper was created as a hoax by the Duke of Bedford to mock Sir George Vandeput , 2nd Baronet and his supporters .
The printer , Richard Francklin , ran off 13 @,@ 000 copies on 5 – 6 December , only one of which still survives . Although the true author of the pamphlet remains uncertain , it was believed at the time to be Fielding 's work ; later critics , such as Martin and Ruthe Battestin , cite a letter written on behalf of the Duke of Richmond that was used as evidence of Fielding 's involvement . Dated 7 December 1749 , the letter states : " The enclosed is a paper generally given to Mr. Fielding , as the author . The humor that is in it is at least akin to his . It may possibly divert you & your company . " Fielding 's authorship would have been limited to the paper 's introduction , which was used to target prominent Tories such as Paul Whitehead : a minor poet who had pseudonymously attacked Fielding before and was vocal on political issues .
In late 1751 , just before the publication of his novel , Amelia , Fielding began plotting his next literary work . He expressed a desire to use a periodical to promote the Universal Register Office – a business which connected service providers with consumers – and his other activities and views . Alluding to the earlier publication , he gave it the title The Covent @-@ Garden Journal , and announced in The Daily Advertiser that the first number would be issued on 23 November 1751 . The release was delayed until January because of work related to the publication of Amelia .
At the time of the publication of the journal , Covent Garden , although formally associated with the theatre industry , was more widely known as London 's red light district . Fielding had earlier written The Covent Garden Tragedy , a mock @-@ tragic play concerning the tale of two prostitutes .
= = Content = =
The first number of the periodical was published on 4 January 1752 , and sold at a price of three pence . For most of its run , the journal was issued twice a week , on Tuesday and Saturday . Each number consisted of an introductory remark or essay ( written by Fielding ) , domestic and foreign news with annotations , advertisements , an obituary , a births and marriages panel , and other sundries . One section , entitled " Covent Garden " , concerned Fielding 's position as a magistrate at Bow Street . The column ran in every issue until 27 June 1752 , appearing irregularly thereafter . It dealt with crime and legal matters and provided insight into the cases that Fielding dealt with on a regular basis , but the presentation was less organized and more informal than standard legal records . Most of the information on the cases was provided by Joshua Brogden , one of Fielding 's clerks .
Particularly in the opening comment and the news , Fielding injected a degree of wit or " liveliness " not seen in his previous publications ; he stated in the first number that he planned to avoid the " dullness " seen in other contemporary periodicals :
I do promise , as far as in me lies , to avoid with the utmost Care all Kind of Encroachment on that spacious Field , in which my ... Contemporaries have such large and undoubted Possessions ; and which , from Time immemorial , hath been called the Land of Dullness .
Discussion in the Journal was chiefly concerned with matters of literary criticism , and " the social and moral health of the body politic " . Most of the opening essays took a decidedly unpolitical tone . Exceptions were those in numbers 42 , 50 , and 58 . Number 42 mocked the Country Tories by imagining how an Ancient Greek or Roman would react to party politics : " ... convey [ him ] to a Hunting @-@ Match , or Horse Race , or any other Meeting of Patriots . Will he not immediately conclude from all the Roaring and Ranting , the Hallowing and the Hazzaing , the Gaming and Drinking , ... that he is actually present at the Orgia of Bacchus , or the Celebration of some such Festival ? " Number 50 blamed the growth of the London mob on poverty laws , and number 58 targeted the " Independent Electors of Westminster " .
In his literary reviews , Fielding often wrote with a biased hand . For instance , he gave immoderate praise to Charlotte Lennox 's The Female Quixote and Charles Macklin 's two @-@ act comic play The Covent Garden Theatre , or Paquin Turn 'd Drawcansir ; Lennox and Macklin were long @-@ time friends of Fielding , and Macklin 's play was based on Fielding 's life . Fielding had a noted tendency to be prejudiced toward certain authors too – Rabelais and Aristophanes were always met harshly , while Jonathan Swift , Cervantes , and Lucian were praised as a " great Triumvirate " . Samuel Richardson 's Clarissa – published in 1748 and one of the longest novels in the English language – is a noted exception : it was received well , even though Fielding considered Richardson a literary rival , and despite Richardson 's calling the periodical " The Common Garden Journal " . Fielding lauded the work of friend William Hogarth and poetry by Edward Young . He also promoted plays involving David Garrick and James Lacy ( among others ) .
Fielding frequently used the periodical to respond to criticism for his latest novel , Amelia , which was published in December 1751 . The 25 and 28 January issues featured a section in which Amelia 's most outspoken critics were depicted on trial and in which Fielding systematically repudiated their respective complaints . " Councillor Town " , the fictional prosecutor , summarised these complaints in saying , " The whole Book is a Heap of sad Stuff , Dulness , and Nonsense ; that it contains no Wit , Humour , Knowledge of human Nature , or of the World ; indeed , that the Fable , moral Character , Manners , Sentiments , and Diction , are all alike bad and contemptible . " In his reply , Fielding posited a paternal relationship with Amelia , though conceded that it was not without flaws :
... [ N ] ay , when I go father , and avow , that of all my Offspring she is my favourite Child . I can truly say that I bestowed a more than ordinary Pains in her Education ... I do not think my Child is entirely free from Faults . I know nothing human that is so ; but surely she doth not deserve the Rancour with which she hath been treated by the Public .
Fielding 's efforts only attracted further criticism , eventually resulting in his promise " to write no more novels " .
= = = Paper War = = =
The first four numbers of the Journal featured Fielding 's contributions to the " Paper War " , a conflict he instigated with writers of other contemporary periodicals to generate sales . In the first number , along with the promise to avoid the dullness of other periodicals , Fielding confronted " the armies of Grub Street " and proclaimed his disdain for the literary critics of the day : " As to my brother authors , who , like mere mechanics , are envious and jealous of a rival in their trade , to silence their jealousies and fears , I declare that it is not my intention to encroach on the business now carried on by them , nor to deal in any of those wares which they at present vend to the public . " Also given in the inaugural number was " An introduction to a journal of the present paper @-@ war between the forces under Sir Alexander Drawcansir , and the army of Grub Street " , written in the tradition of Jonathan Swift 's Battle of the Books .
The main response to Fielding 's words came from John Hill , an English author , botanist , and literary critic who wrote a column called " The Inspector " in the London Daily Advertiser . Hill used this column approximately one week later to attack Fielding and criticise Amelia . Fielding replied in much the same fashion in the second issue of the Journal , while attempting to defend his novel . The two engaged in a sustained dispute , as each used their respective publication to joust with the other .
Several others were quick to join Hill in his criticism of Fielding and the Grub Street campaign . Bonnell Thornton , a poet and essayist , was responsible for Have at you All ; or , the Drury Lane Journal , a production that satirised Fielding and his works . Particular attention was paid to Amelia in Have at you All ; the fifth number , for example , featured " a new chapter in Amelia , more witty than the rest , if the reader has but sense enough to find out the humour . " On 15 January , Tobias Smollett published a disparaging twenty @-@ eight @-@ page pamphlet entitled A Faithful Narrative of the base and inhuman Arts that were lately practised upon the Brain of Habbakuk Hilding , Justice , Dealer and Chapman , who now lies at his own House in Covent @-@ Garden , in a deplorable State of Lunacy ; a dreadful Monument of false Friendship and Delusion . The pamphlet was notorious for its viciousness , and variously accused " Habbakuk Hilding " ( Fielding ) of literary theft , scandalousness , and smuttiness , while deriding his marriage to Mary Daniels . It also posited that Fielding founded The Covent @-@ Garden Journal to further the ambitions of politician and statesman George Lyttelton , with whom Fielding had recently formed a friendship ; the source of this inference remains unclear , since Lyttelton received no particular mention in the first few numbers .
Fielding withdrew from the conflict after the fourth number , for the " war " had become more personal and hostile than he had originally intended . Although The Covent @-@ Garden Journal would no longer feature a section on the Paper War , a similar but more moderated commentary that Fielding termed the " Court of Criticism " later took its place . The Paper War continued without Fielding , ultimately embroiling a large number of other writers , among them Christopher Smart , William Kenrick , and Arthur Murphy . Having generated a significant amount of secondary literature ( including Smart 's The Hilliad and Charles Macklin 's aforementioned The Covent Garden Theater , or Pasquin Turn 'd Drawcansir ) , the Paper War ended without victor in 1753 .
= = = Meanwell affair = = =
In 1749 , a court decision made by Fielding – in his role as magistrate – provoked rumours that he was being paid to defend brothels . Three years later , a letter written by " Humphry Meanwell " voiced objection to the 1752 Disorderly House Act ( 25 Geo . II , c . 36 ) , which was intended to remove prostitutes and brothels from Britain . The public soon associated this letter with Fielding ; his publication of what was seen as an endorsement of the letter in the 22 June issue strengthened this feeling : " The following Letter which was sent to the Justice by an unknown Hand , hath been transmitted to us ; and tho ' perhaps some Points are carried a little too far , upon the whole I think it a very sensible Performance , and worthy the Attention of the Public . " The text of the letter itself followed this note and was published in the " Covent Garden " section of the journal .
Fielding responded to the claims that he wrote the letter in the 1 August issue of the Journal . While acknowledging that his association with the letter had made him popular with prostitutes , he went on to accuse them of being a source for social evils :
Prostitutes are the lowest and meanest , so are they the basest , vilest , and wickedest of all Creatures . It is a trite Observation , that when a Woman quits her Modesty , she discards with it every other Virtue . To extend this to every frail Individual of the Sex , is to carry it too far ; but if it be confined to those who are become infamous by public Prostitution , no Maxim , I believe , hath a greater Foundation in Truth , or will be more strongly verified by Experience .
Martin Battestin believes that this passage is indicative of the fact that while Fielding was opposed to prostitution , " when actually confronted with the pitiable wretches accused of such crimes and misdemeanors ... he acted toward them with the compassion and good @-@ humored tolerance that characterize the treatment of the ' lower orders ' in his novels . " To critic Lance Bertelsen , the passage " seems to reveal a lurking fascination with the oldest profession – one that , paired with his earlier endorsement of " Meanwell " , suggests a writer oscillating between outrage and sympathy , humor and lechery . "
= = End of publication = =
By the summer of 1752 , the Journal 's circulation was dropping steadily and it was losing popularity . After making the transition to weekly publication on 4 July , it was advertised less , and , in the final months of 1752 , its discussion of anything other than court decisions and political actions was minimal . In addition , Fielding 's health was deteriorating and his inclination to continue the periodical had declined . The 72nd and final number of The Covent @-@ Garden Journal was published on 25 November 1752 ; Fielding there confirmed his lack of interest : " I shall here lay down a paper which I have neither inclination nor leisure to carry on any longer . " He also directed readers to turn their attention to The Public Advertiser , a new periodical to be released on 1 December and to replace The Daily Advertiser . His final statement in the Journal was , " I solemnly declare that unless in revising my former Works , I have at present no Intention to hold any further Correspondence with the gayer Muses . "
Fielding died approximately two years later , his death caused by the gout and asthma that had , in part , compelled him to end the Journal 's run . In his final year , he travelled to Portugal in the hope of recovery . He wrote an account of his travels during this time , entitled The Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon , which was published in England in 1755 . Fielding died in Lisbon on 8 October 1754 , and was buried in the Os Cyprestes cemetery , a local English burial ground .
= Itachi Uchiha =
Itachi Uchiha ( うちは イタチ , Uchiha Itachi ) is a fictional character in the Naruto manga and anime series created by Masashi Kishimoto . Itachi is the older brother of Sasuke Uchiha and is responsible for killing all the members of their clan , sparing only Sasuke . Though treated as an antagonist for much of the series , it is later revealed that Itachi slaughtered his clan in order to prevent a coup d 'état which would result in a war , and that he had been acting in both Konoha 's and Sasuke 's best interests for the entire series .
Itachi has been featured in the Naruto films , has appeared once in an original video animation of Naruto , and is a playable character in most of the video games from the series . Itachi 's character has been popular with readers of the manga , and has been positively received by critics . His appearance as an antagonist has been praised by several writers , although some have considered his initial appearance to be unsurprising . The gradual revelations of his past and its impact on the story has also received positive reception , and his fights were noted to be " one of the best " in the series . Numerous types of merchandise have been released in Itachi 's likeness , including keychains , plush dolls and figurines .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Naruto = = =
Itachi is a member of the Uchiha Clan from the village of Konohagakure and the elder brother of Sasuke Uchiha . He grew up as the child prodigy of the Uchiha clan , establishing milestones for not only Sasuke , but also for future Uchiha to live up to . His early childhood was marred by war , the violence of which caused him to seek peace at any cost . Upon learning that his clan was planning a coup d 'état to take control of Konoha , after his clan was accused of attacking the village with the Nine Tails , Itachi provides Konoha with intelligence on his clan 's actions during his two years as a member of the ANBU . Over time , Itachi distances himself from his clan , as some clan members believed he murdered his best friend , Shisui Uchiha , to gain the Mangekyo Sharingan .
In reality , as Shisui possesses the ability to subliminally manipulate others and shares Itachi 's love for the village , he intended to use his gift on the Uchiha clan leader to stop the coup d 'état . However , Shisui is mortally wounded by the Leaf High Council member Danzo Shimura , who then takes his eye to achieve his own ideal of peace . When Shisui entrusts Itachi with his remaining eye , Itachi covers up Shisui 's death and made it appear it was his doing . Eventually , in return for Danzo 's offer to spare his younger brother , Itachi slaughters his entire clan . After creating the misconception that he murdered their family in cold blood to give Sasuke the mindset to become strong enough to kill him once he is capable , Itachi leaves the village , although he warns Danzo not to harm Sasuke . Meeting up with Konoha 's Third Hokage Hiruzen Sarutobi , who promises to do what he can to look after Sasuke , Itachi reveals his intentions to continue to protect the village from the shadows . Soon after perceiving them as a threat to Konoha , Itachi joins the Akatsuki to ensure they do not endanger his village . Itachi becomes good friends with his partner Kisame Hoshigaki , who expresses concern for Itachi 's wellbeing .
Itachi debuts in Part I after Hiruzen 's death , when he uses his infiltration of Konoha to hunt down Naruto Uzumaki as an excuse to secretly check on Sasuke 's wellbeing . After engaging with Kakashi and some of Konoha 's forces , he reveals Akatsuki 's goal to gather the Jinchuriki of the nine tailed beasts . Itachi also learns that Naruto is under the protection of Jiraiya and sets up a trap to lure the experienced ninja away to grab the boy . However , as Jiraiya comes to Naruto 's aid , Itachi finds himself facing Sasuke and directs his brother back on the path of getting stronger by defeating him before he and Kisame fall back .
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, killing 150 of them .
= = = The Cattle Raid of Cooley = = =
At the age of seventeen , Cú Chulainn single @-@ handedly defends Ulster from the army of Connacht in the Táin Bó Cúailnge . Medb , queen of Connacht , has mounted the invasion to steal the stud bull Donn Cúailnge , and Cú Chulainn allows her to take Ulster by surprise because he is with a woman when he should be watching the border . The men of Ulster are disabled by a curse , so Cú Chulainn prevents Medb 's army from advancing further by invoking the right of single combat at fords . He defeats champion after champion in a stand @-@ off lasting months .
Before one combat a beautiful young woman comes to him , claiming to be the daughter of a king , and offers him her love , but he refuses her . The woman reveals herself as the Morrígan , and in revenge for this slight she attacks him in various animal forms while he is engaged in combat against Lóch mac Mofemis . As an eel , she trips him in the ford , but he breaks her ribs . As a wolf , she stampedes cattle across the ford , but he puts out her eye with a sling @-@ stone . Finally she appears as a heifer at the head of the stampede , but he breaks her leg with another slingstone . After Cú Chulainn finally defeats Lóch , the Morrígan appears to him as an old woman milking a cow , with the same injuries he had given her in her animal forms . She gives him three drinks of milk , and with each drink he blesses her , healing her wounds .
After one particularly arduous combat Cú Chulainn lies severely wounded , but is visited by Lug , who tells him he is his father and heals his wounds . When Cú Chulainn wakes up and sees that the boy @-@ troop of Emain Macha have attacked the Connacht army and been slaughtered , he has his most spectacular ríastrad yet :
The first warp @-@ spasm seized Cúchulainn , and made him into a monstrous thing , hideous and shapeless , unheard of . His shanks and his joints , every knuckle and angle and organ from head to foot , shook like a tree in the flood or a reed in the stream . His body made a furious twist inside his skin , so that his feet and shins switched to the rear and his heels and calves switched to the front ... On his head the temple @-@ sinews stretched to the nape of his neck , each mighty , immense , measureless knob as big as the head of a month @-@ old child ... he sucked one eye so deep into his head that a wild crane couldn 't probe it onto his cheek out of the depths of his skull ; the other eye fell out along his cheek . His mouth weirdly distorted : his cheek peeled back from his jaws until the gullet appeared , his lungs and his liver flapped in his mouth and throat , his lower jaw struck the upper a lion @-@ killing blow , and fiery flakes large as a ram 's fleece reached his mouth from his throat ... The hair of his head twisted like the tangle of a red thornbush stuck in a gap ; if a royal apple tree with all its kingly fruit were shaken above him , scarce an apple would reach the ground but each would be spiked on a bristle of his hair as it stood up on his scalp with rage .
He attacks the army and kills hundreds , building walls of corpses .
When his foster @-@ father Fergus mac Róich , now in exile in Medb 's court , is sent to face him Cú Chulainn agrees to yield , so long as Fergus agrees to return the favour the next time they meet . Finally , he fights a gruelling three @-@ day duel with his best friend and foster @-@ brother , Ferdiad , at a ford that was named Áth Fhir Diadh ( Ardee , County Louth ) after him .
The Ulstermen eventually rouse , one by one at first , and finally en masse . The final battle begins . Cú Chulainn stays on the sidelines , recuperating from his wounds , until he sees Fergus advancing . He enters the fray and confronts Fergus , who keeps his side of the bargain and yields to him , pulling his forces off the field . Connacht 's other allies panic and Medb is forced to retreat . At this inopportune moment she gets her period , and although Fergus forms a guard around her , Cú Chulainn breaks through as she is dealing with it and has her at his mercy . However , he spares her because he does not think it right to kill women , and guards her retreat back to Connacht as far as Athlone .
= = = Bricriu 's Feast = = =
The troublemaker Bricriu once incites three heroes , Cú Chulainn , Conall Cernach and Lóegaire Búadach , to compete for the champion 's portion at his feast . In every test that is set Cú Chulainn comes out top , but neither Conall nor Lóegaire will accept the result . Cú Roí mac Dáire of Munster settles it by visiting each in the guise of a hideous churl and challenging them to behead him , then allow him to return and behead them in return . Conall and Lóegaire both behead Cú Roí , who picks up his head and leaves , but when the time comes for him to return they flee . Only Cú Chulainn is brave and honourable enough to submit himself to Cú Roí 's axe ; Cú Roí spares him and he is declared champion . This beheading challenge appears in later literature , most notably in the Middle English poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight . Other examples include the 13th century French Life of Caradoc and the English romances The Turke and Gowin , and Sir Gawain and the Carle of Carlisle .
= = = The Death of Cú Roí = = =
Cú Roí , again in disguise , joins the Ulstermen on a raid on Inis Fer Falga ( probably the Isle of Man ) , in return for his choice of the spoils . They steal treasure , and abduct Blathnát , daughter of the island 's king , who loves Cú Chulainn . But when Cú Roí is asked to choose his share , he chooses Blathnát . Cú Chulainn tries to stop him taking her , but Cú Roí cuts his hair and drives him into the ground up to his armpits before escaping , taking Blathnát with him . Like other heroes such as the Biblical Samson , Duryodhana in the Mahabharata and the Welsh Llew Llaw Gyffes , Cú Roí can only be killed in certain contrived circumstances , which vary in different versions of the story . Blathnat discovers how to kill him and betrays him to Cú Chulainn , who does the deed . However , Ferchertne , Cú Roí 's poet , enraged at the betrayal of his lord , grabs Blathnát and leaps off a cliff , killing her and himself .
= = = Emer 's only jealousy = = =
Cú Chulainn has many lovers , but Emer 's only jealousy comes when he falls in love with Fand , wife of Manannán mac Lir . Manannán has left her and she has been attacked by three Fomorians who want to control the Irish Sea . Cú Chulainn agrees to help defend her as long as she marries him . She agrees reluctantly , but they fall in love when they meet . Manannán knows their relationship is doomed because Cú Chulainn is mortal and Fand is a fairy ; Cú Chulainn 's presence would destroy the fairies . Emer , meanwhile , tries to kill her rival , but when she sees the strength of Fand 's love for Cú Chulainn she decides to give him up to her . Fand , touched by Emer 's magnanimity , decides to return to her own husband . Manannan shakes his cloak between Cú Chulainn and Fand , ensuring the two will never meet again , and Cú Chulainn and Emer drink a potion to wipe the whole affair from their memories .
= = = Cú Chulainn 's death = = =
( Irish : Aided con Culainn ) Medb conspires with Lugaid , son of Cú Roí , Erc , son of Cairbre Nia Fer , and the sons of others Cú Chulainn had killed , to draw him out to his death . His fate is sealed by his breaking of the geasa ( taboos ) upon him . Cú Chulainn 's geasa included a ban against eating dog meat , but in early Ireland there was a powerful general taboo against refusing hospitality , so when an old crone offers him a meal of dog meat , he has no choice to break his geis . In this way he is spiritually weakened for the fight ahead of him .
Lugaid has three magical spears made , and it is prophesied that a king will fall by each of them . With the first he kills Cú Chulainn 's charioteer Láeg , king of chariot drivers . With the second he kills Cú Chulainn 's horse , Liath Macha , king of horses . With the third he hits Cú Chulainn , mortally wounding him . Cú Chulainn ties himself to a standing stone to die on his feet , facing his enemies . This stone is traditionally identified as one still standing at Knockbridge , Dundalk , County Louth . Due to his ferocity even when so near death , it is only when a raven lands on his shoulder that his enemies believe he is dead . Lugaid approaches and cuts off his head , but as he does so the " hero @-@ light " burns around Cú Chulainn and his sword falls from his hand and cuts Lugaid 's hand off . The light disappears only after his right hand , his sword arm , is cut from his body .
Conall Cernach had sworn that if Cú Chulainn died before him he would avenge him before sunset , and when he hears Cú Chulainn is dead he pursues Lugaid . As Lugaid has lost a hand , Conall fights him with one hand tucked into his belt , but he only beats him after his horse takes a bite out of Lugaid 's side . He also kills Erc , and takes his head back to Tara , where Erc 's sister Achall dies of grief for her brother .
= = = Later stories = = =
The story is told that when Saint Patrick was trying to convert king Lóegaire to Christianity , the ghost of Cú Chulainn appeared in his chariot , warning him of the torments of hell .
In Irish folklore , Cú Chulainn was later reimagined as an evil giant at odds with Fionn mac Cumhaill ( or Finn McCool ) . According to the most famous folk tale , Cú Chullain 's power was contained in his middle finger . Wishing to defeat Finn , he came to Finn 's house , but Finn disguised himself as a baby while his wife Oona baked cakes , some with griddle irons inside , some without . When Cú Chulainn could not bite through his cake ( which had an iron in it ) but the baby could ( Finn 's cake had no iron ) , in amazement Cú Chulainn felt to see how sharp the baby 's teeth were , allowing Finn to bite his middle finger off and deprive Cú Chulainn of both his strength and size .
= = = Appearance = = =
Cú Chulainn 's appearance is occasionally remarked on in the texts . He is usually described as small , youthful and beardless . He is often described as dark : in The Wooing of Emer and Bricriu 's Feast he is " a dark , sad man , comeliest of the men of Erin " , in The Intoxication of the Ulstermen he is a " little , black @-@ browed man " , and in The Phantom Chariot of Cú Chulainn " [ h ] is hair was thick and black , and smooth as though a cow had licked it ... in his head his eyes gleamed swift and grey " ; yet the prophetess Fedelm in the Táin Bó Cúailnge describes him as blond . The most elaborate description of his appearance comes later in the Táin :
And certainly the youth Cúchulainn mac Sualdaim was handsome as he came to show his form to the armies . You would think he had three distinct heads of hair — brown at the base , blood @-@ red in the middle , and a crown of golden yellow . This hair was settled strikingly into three coils on the cleft at the back of his head . Each long loose @-@ flowing strand hung down in shining splendour over his shoulders , deep @-@ gold and beautiful and fine as a thread of gold . A hundred neat red @-@ gold curls shone darkly on his neck , and his head was covered with a hundred crimson threads matted with gems . He had four dimples in each cheek — yellow , green , crimson and blue — and seven bright pupils , eye @-@ jewels , in each kingly eye . Each foot had seven toes and each hand seven fingers , the nails with the grip of a hawk 's claw or a gryphon 's clench .
= = Cultural depictions of Cú Chulainn = =
= = = Images = = =
The image of Cú Chulainn is invoked by both Irish nationalists and Ulster unionists . Irish nationalists see him as the most important Celtic Irish hero , and thus he is important to their whole culture . A bronze sculpture of the dead Cú Chulainn by Oliver Sheppard stands in the Dublin General Post Office ( GPO ) in commemoration of the Easter Rising of 1916 . By contrast , unionists see him as an Ulsterman defending the province from enemies to the south : in Belfast , for example , he is depicted in a mural on Highfield Drive , and was formerly depicted in a mural on the Newtownards Road , as a " defender of Ulster from Irish attacks " , both murals ironically based on the Sheppard sculpture . He is also depicted in murals in nationalist parts of the city and many nationalist areas of Northern Ireland . The statue 's image was also used on the ten shilling coin produced for 1966 . The 1916 @-@ 1966 Survivors Medal and the Military Star for the Irish Defence Forces all have the image of Cú Chulainn on their Obverse .
A statue of Cú Chulainn carrying the body of Fer Diad stands in Ardee , County Louth , traditionally the site of their combat in the Táin Bó Cúailnge . A sculpture by Martin Heron , entitled " For the Love of Emer " , depicting Cú Chulainn balancing on a tilting 20 @-@ foot pole , representing the feat of balancing on the butt of a spear he learned from Scáthach , was installed in Armagh in 2010 .
= = = Literature = = =
Augusta , Lady Gregory retold many of the legends of Cú Chulainn in her 1902 book Cuchulain of Muirthemne , which paraphrased the originals but also romanticized some of the tales and omitted most of the more violent content . This first translation was very popular , supported by the Celtic Revival movement . It featured an introduction by her friend William Butler Yeats , who wrote several pieces based on the legend , including the plays On Baile 's Strand ( 1904 ) , The Green Helmet ( 1910 ) , At the Hawk 's Well ( 1917 ) , The Only Jealousy of Emer ( 1919 ) and The Death of Cuchulain ( 1939 ) , and a poem , Cuchulain 's Fight with the Sea ( 1892 ) .
= = = Texts in translation = = =
The Birth of Cú Chulainn
Tidings of Conchobar son of Ness
The Boyhood Deeds of Cú Chulainn
The Wooing of Emer
The Death of Aífe 's Only Son
The Cattle Raid of Regamna
Bricriu 's Feast
The Cattle Raid of Cooley : Recension 1 , Recension 2
The Battle of Ross na Ríg
The Death of Cú Roí
The Sick @-@ Bed of Cuchulain
The Pursuit of Gruaidh Ghriansholus
The Death of Cú Chulainn
The Phantom Chariot of Cú Chulainn
= = = Modern retellings = = =
Cuchulain of Muirthemne , by Lady Gregory
The Boys ' Cúchullain by Eleanor Hull ( 1904 ) at The Baldwin Project
= Emeric , King of Hungary =
Emeric , also known as Henry or Imre ( Hungarian : Imre , Croatian : Emerik , Slovak : Imrich ; 1174 – 30 November 1204 ) , was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1196 and 1204 . In 1184 , his father , Béla III of Hungary , ordered that he be crowned king , and appointed him as ruler of Croatia and Dalmatia around 1195 . Emeric ascended the throne after the death of his father . During the first four years of his reign , he fought his rebellious brother , Andrew , who forced Emeric to make him ruler of Croatia and Dalmatia as appanage .
Emeric cooperated with the Holy See against the Bosnian Patarenes , whom the Catholic Church considered to be heretics . Taking advantage of a civil war , Emeric expanded his suzerainty over Serbia . He failed to prevent the Republic of Venice , which was assisted by crusaders of the Fourth Crusade , from seizing Zadar in 1202 . He also could not impede the rise of Bulgaria along the southern frontiers of his kingdom . Emeric was the first Hungarian monarch to use the " Árpád stripes " as his personal coat of arms and to adopt the title of King of Serbia . Before his death , Emeric had his four @-@ year @-@ old son , Ladislaus III , crowned king .
= = Early life ( 1174 – 1196 ) = =
Emeric was the eldest child of Béla III of Hungary and Béla 's first wife , Agnes of Antioch . His tutor was an Italian priest , Bernard . Nicholas , Archbishop of Esztergom , crowned the eight @-@ year @-@ old Emeric king on 16 May 1182 , which confirmed Emeric 's right to succeed his father . Emeric was betrothed to a daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I , but she died in 1184 . Béla III appointed Emeric to administer Croatia and Dalmatia around 1195 .
= = Reign = =
= = = Struggles with his brother ( 1196 – 1200 ) = = =
Emeric succeeded his father , who died on 23 April 1196 . Béla III had bequeathed estates and money to Emeric 's younger brother , Andrew , under the condition that Andrew should lead a crusade to the Holy Land . Instead , Andrew turned against Emeric , demanding a separate duchy for himself in 1197 . Leopold VI , Duke of Austria , intervened on behalf of Andrew , and at the end of the year , their combined forces routed Emeric 's troops at Mački , Slavonia . In early 1198 , Emeric was forced to make Andrew Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia as an appanage .
Andrew continued to conspire against Emeric , although Pope Innocent III continued urging Andrew to launch a crusade . On 10 March 1199 , Emeric forced Boleslaus , Bishop of Vác , who was a supporter of Andrew , to give him documents that proved the conspiracy against him . In the summer of that year , Emeric defeated Andrew 's army near Lake Balaton , which made Andrew flee to Austria . A papal legate named Gregory arrived in Hungary to mediate a reconciliation between the two brothers . According to the brothers ' treaty , Emeric once again granted Croatia and Dalmatia to Andrew in the summer of 1200 .
= = = Wars in the Balkans ( 1200 – 1203 ) = = =
From around 1200 , Emeric was deeply involved in the affairs of the Balkan Peninsula . On 11 October 1200 , Pope Innocent urged him to take measures to liquidate the " heretics " in Bosnia . Upon Emeric 's request , the Pope refused to send a royal crown to Grand Prince Stephen of Serbia . Emeric invaded Serbia in 1201 or 1202 , and helped Stephen 's brother Vukan seize the throne . As a token of his suzerainty over Serbia , Emeric became the first Hungarian monarch to adopt the title of King of Serbia in 1202 . He was also the first king to use a royal seal depicting the so @-@ called " Árpád stripes " , which eventually became part of the coat of arms of Hungary .
In the summer of 1202 , the Venetian doge Enrico Dandolo signed a treaty with the leaders of the Fourth Crusade , who agreed to help the Venetians recapture Zadar , a town in Dalmatia , which had accepted the Hungarian monarchs ' suzerainty since 1186 . Even though Pope Innocent III forbade the crusaders to besiege Zadar , they seized the town on 24 November and gave it to the Venetians . Although the Pope excommunicated the Venetians and the crusaders upon Emeric 's demand , Zadar remained under Venetian rule .
In fear of a crusade by Emeric , Ban Kulin of Bosnia held a synod of the Church of Bosnia at Bilino Polje on 6 April 1203 . The synod acknowledged papal primacy and ordered the reform of the rites . Kulin also acknowledged Emeric 's suzerainty . In a letter written in 1203 , the Bulgarian tsar Kaloyan informed Pope Innocent that Emeric had occupied five districts in Bulgaria , and Kaloyan demanded the Pope 's intervention .
= = = Last years ( 1203 – 1204 ) = = =
Duke Andrew once again rose up in open rebellion against Emeric in the autumn of 1203 . Their armies met at Varaždin on the river Drava in October . Emeric walked into his brother 's camp unarmed , stating , " Now I shall see who will dare to raise a hand to shed the blood of the royal lineage ! " , according to the nearly contemporaneous Thomas the Archdeacon . Nobody ventured to stop the king ; thus , he approached Andrew and seized him without resistance . Duke Andrew was held in captivity for months , but his supporters released him in early 1204 .
Taking advantage of the civil war in Hungary , Kaloyan invaded and captured Belgrade , Barancs ( now Braničevo in Serbia ) , and other fortresses . Emeric made preparations for a campaign against Bulgaria , but he disbanded his army upon Pope Innocent 's demand . The Pope , who had been negotiating a church union with Kaloyan , sent a royal crown to him , but Emeric imprisoned the papal legate who was delivering the crown to Bulgaria when the legate was passing through Hungary .
Having fallen seriously ill , Emeric had his four @-@ year @-@ old son , Ladislaus , crowned king on 26 August 1204 . He also released the papal legate . He reconciled with his brother , " entrusting to him the guardianship of his son and the administration of the entire kingdom until the ward should reach the age of majority " , according to Thomas the Archdeacon . Emeric died on 30 November , according to the Illuminated Chronicle . Emeric was buried in the cathedral of Eger .
= = Family = =
Emeric 's wife , Constance , was the daughter of King Alfonso II of Aragon . Their marriage took place between 1196 and 1200 . Their only known child , Ladislaus , was born around 1200 and died on 7 May 1205 . Queen Constance , who outlived both her husband and their son , was later married to Frederick II , Holy Roman Emperor .
= New York State Route 9L =
New York State Route 9L ( NY 9L ) is a state highway in Warren County , New York , in the United States . The road is 18 @.@ 58 miles ( 29 @.@ 90 km ) long and is a suffixed highway of U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) . NY 9L goes through three municipalities in Warren County : the city of Glens Falls , the town of Queensbury and the town of Lake George . It starts at an intersection with US 9 and NY 32 in Glens Falls and ends at a junction with US 9 and NY 9N in Lake George . NY 9L is a scenic route for people traveling to Lake George as the road provides many views of the lake . The route was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York along the path of an old military road originally built during the American Revolution .
= = Route description = =
NY 9L begins at an intersection with US 9 and NY 32 in downtown Glens Falls . It heads north , intersecting with local roads as it exits the city and enters the town of Queensbury . At the city line , maintenance of the route shifts from the city of Glens Falls to the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) . Just north of the city limits , NY 9L intersects NY 254 . The route continues northward through Queensbury , passing Floyd Bennett Memorial Airport and running parallel to the Washington County line on its way toward and eventually across the Blue Line into Adirondack Park . NY 9L intersects NY 149 , an east – west arterial connecting Interstate 87 ( I @-@ 87 ) to Vermont , just north of the park limits .
The route continues into Brayton , a hamlet situated in northeast Queensbury . At a junction 11 @.@ 3 miles ( 18 @.@ 2 km ) northeast of Glens Falls and 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Brayton , NY 9L meets Pilot Knob Road ( County Route 38 or CR 38 ) , a local roadway serving several communities located on the shores of Lake George and along the base of Pilot Knob . NY 9L turns southwest here , roughly paralleling the southern shore of Lake George . A mile west of Brayton , NY 9L intersects with Cleverdale Road , a road serving the small island hamlet of Cleverdale . Just afterward , it passes an open area called Joshua 's Rock , with a cluster of buildings . This is Owl 's Nest , the home of early realist novelist Edward Eggleston , a designated National Historic Landmark .
After passing the community of Rockhurst , the route intersects Assembly Point Road , another local road serving a minor peninsula and Assembly Point on its tip . Past this point , NY 9L tightly parallels the southern shore of Lake George southwest into the town of Lake George . The route comes to an end at a junction with US 9 and NY 9N south of the village of Lake George at the southwestern extent of the lake .
= = History = =
Modern NY 9L follows the length of the Old Military Road , which was the first road to connect to what is now the town of Queensbury . It was first built in 1755 as the Colonial Army headed north from Albany . The construction of the road helped to increase development in the town . In 1832 , the Glens Falls Feeder Canal opened , further improving transportation in Queensbury . Sixteen years later , in 1848 , a plank road was built over the old Military Road .
NY 9L was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to its current alignment . The bridge carrying NY 9L over Halfway Creek in Queensbury was originally built in 1923 . On August 27 , 2007 , the New York State Department of Transportation announced that the bridge would be replaced at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 3 million . Initially , work on the project was to begin in September of that year ; however , the start of construction was delayed until April 21 , 2008 . The new bridge was completed in September .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Warren County .
= Avery Coonley School =
The Avery Coonley School ( ACS ) , commonly called Avery Coonley , is an independent , coeducational day school serving academically gifted students in preschool through eighth grade ( approximately ages 3 to 14 ) , and is located in Downers Grove , Illinois . The school was founded in 1906 to promote the progressive educational theories developed by John Dewey and other turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ 20th @-@ century philosophers , and was a nationally recognized model for progressive education well into the 1940s . From 1943 to 1965 , Avery Coonley was part of the National College of Education ( now National @-@ Louis University ) , serving as a living laboratory for teacher training and educational research . In the 1960s , ACS became a regional research center and a leadership hub for independent schools , and began to focus on the education of the gifted .
The school has occupied several structures in its history , including a small cottage on the Coonley Estate in Riverside , Illinois , and another building designed by Frank Lloyd Wright . It moved to Downers Grove in 1916 and became the Avery Coonley School in 1929 , with a new 10 @.@ 45 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 23 ha ) campus designed in the Prairie and Arts and Crafts styles , landscaped by Jens Jensen , who was known as " dean of the world 's landscape architects " . The campus has been expanded several times since the 1980s to create more space for arts , technology , and classrooms . Avery Coonley was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2007 , citing the " long @-@ lasting influence on schools throughout the country " of the educational program and the design of the building and grounds .
The progressive legacy is still evident in the modern curriculum , which retains many traditions and educational activities dating back to the beginning of the school . Students work a minimum of one year above their current grade level , and explore broad themes allowing them to learn across subjects and engage in creative and collaborative projects , using instructional technology extensively . Opportunities to build on classroom studies are offered through a range of extracurricular activities . Admission is competitive and an IQ score of at least 120 is required . ACS is notable for its record of success in academic competitions at the state and national levels in mathematics , science , geography , and other subjects . ACS was recognized as a Blue Ribbon School by the United States Department of Education in 1988 . Avery Coonley attracted national media attention in 1994 when the school was banned from competition in the Illinois State Science Fair after winning for the fourth year in a row . Although the decision was later reversed , the controversy was decried by the press as an example of the " dumbing down " of education and the victory of self @-@ esteem over excellence in schools .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and Cottage School ( 1906 – 1916 ) = = =
In 1906 , Queene Ferry Coonley , wife of wealthy Riverside industrialist and publisher Avery Coonley , decided to start a kindergarten program to allow children younger than five years old to attend . Queene Coonley was trained as a social worker and kindergarten teacher at the Detroit Normal School ( now Wayne State University ) and was impressed by the theories of Friedrich Fröbel , who believed children 's early education should be an extension of their lives at home . Fröbel 's theories captured the three main principles of what John Dewey would later call the " kindergarten attitude " , which applied not just to kindergartners but to children of all ages . Dewey wrote that the primary role of the school is to train children in cooperative living , the root of all learning is the activity of the child and not external material , and directing children 's spontaneous impulses towards maintaining the collective life of the school is how they become prepared for adult life . Convinced of these principles , Coonley sought to enroll her four @-@ year @-@ old daughter in the Riverside School , one of the few public kindergartens in the area , but was disappointed when the child was not eligible because she had not yet turned five .
Coonley persuaded the director of the Riverside program , Lucia Burton Morse , and her assistant , Charlotte Krum , to help launch a new school . Morse and Krum had attended Elizabeth Harrison 's Kindergarten College , which " championed the concept of kindergarten teaching in America and was one of the first teacher 's colleges in the country to offer a four @-@ year program culminating in the bachelor of education degree " . There they had studied the educational theories of John Dewey and others , who stood opposed to the more traditional pedagogical practices of the day , which saw education as the business of transmitting long @-@ standing bodies of information to new generations and inculcating moral training based on rules and standards of conduct . Their new progressive views of education emphasized an individualized approach to education and an integrated curriculum where children learned from experience and social interaction . According to Dewey , " it is a cardinal precept of the newer school of education that the beginning of instruction shall be made with the experience learners already have ; that this experience and the capacities that have been developed during its course provide the starting point for all further learning . " These ideas laid the foundations of what would become the " progressive movement " in education . Coonley , Morse , and Krum brought these ideas with them to the new school , which Coonley described as " a Children 's Community . Its purpose was not so much to teach what others had thought or grown @-@ ups had done , but for the children themselves to do something . "
A small cottage on the Coonley estate served as the first school building , reflected by its original name , the Cottage School . The designer was Charles Whittlesey , who had apprenticed under Louis Sullivan . The estate 's main building , the Avery Coonley House , designed by Frank Lloyd Wright , is now a National Historic Landmark . Over the years , many of the estate 's buildings would be pressed into use as classrooms and residences for teachers . As new grades were added the school grew , and in 1911 Coonley commissioned Wright to design a larger space for the students . The new building was completed in 1912 and became known as the Coonley Playhouse , and featured dozens of brightly colored art glass windows , evoking flags , balloons , and confetti in what Wright referred to as a " kinder @-@ symphony " . " Their bright primary colors and lively geometric designs make them some of Wright 's most famous windows . "
Two years of kindergarten were offered , beginning at age four , and students progressed through to first grade with other students their age . The Cottage School was free to all students , and was supported both by Coonley 's own resources and funds raised by the Kindergarten Education Association . The Association , of which Coonley was president , promoted new educational ideas and raised money to help support them . In 1915 , John Dewey and his daughter Evelyn featured the Cottage School in their book , The Schools of To @-@ Morrow , which examined how progressive schools around the country put new educational ideas into action . They were especially struck by how prominently nature featured in school life , noting that " they have , for example , a rare bird that is as much a personality in school life as any of the children , and the children , having cared for him and watched his growth and habits , have become much more interested in wild birds . In the backyard is a goat , the best liked thing on the place , where the children have raised him from a little kid ; and they still do all the work of caring for him . " The Deweys held the Cottage School as an example of training in good citizenship , commenting on its mock elections , self @-@ government , and public service : " The school organized by the pupils into a civic league has made itself responsible for the conditions of the streets in certain portions of town , and is not only cleaning up but trying to get the rest of the town interested in the problem . " The teaching of English was also noted , as it was not taught as a separate subject but as part of history lessons , journal @-@ keeping , and other exercises . Dewey wrote , " The emphasis is put on helping the child to express his ideas ; but such work provides ample opportunity for the required drill in the mechanics of writing . "
= = = Junior Elementary School ( 1916 – 1929 ) = = =
At the same time the Playhouse was built , Coonley agreed to build a kindergarten in the nearby town of Downers Grove , which did not have a public school . Coonley purchased land on Grove Street and commissioned the architectural firm of Perkins , Fellows & Hamilton to design the building . The school , led by Lucia Morse , was launched as the Kindergarten Extension Association School in 1912 . In 1916 , the Cottage School was closed and a first grade program was launched at the Downers Grove kindergarten , which was renamed the Junior Elementary School . To accommodate older students , a second grade class was added in 1920 for students around seven years old , a third grade in 1926 for eight @-@ year @-@ olds , and a fourth grade for nine @-@ year @-@ old students shortly thereafter .
The Coonleys moved to Washington , D.C. in 1916 , and while Queene continued to devote her time and money , she left the day @-@ to @-@ day direction of the school to Morse . Under her direction , the Junior Elementary School built upon the educational foundations established at the Cottage School , with its focus on the active participation of the students . Drama , music , and dance were important parts of the curriculum , and nature study remained an integral component of students ' activities . These ideas , and nature study in particular , were largely the creation of Colonel Francis Wayland Parker , whom John Dewey once referred to as " the father of progressive education " . The Junior Elementary School was a proving ground for these principles , which called for a new way of relating to students , allowing them to freely experience their lessons on their own terms . No distinction was made between boys ' and girls ' activities , which included gardening , carpentry , and cooking . Coonley recalled that " [ w ] e had boys and girls . We made no distinction , boys and girls cooked , boys and girls did carpenter work , boys and girls took an equal part in all matters of government . " Students re @-@ enacted history and literature , composed their own music , and spent much of their time outdoors . In 1924 , Coonley and Morse helped found a journal entitled Progressive Education , in which they published their own practical experiences at the school , accompanied by articles written by leading educational theorists , including John Dewey . It became the leading professional journal of the progressive education movement and was published until 1957 .
= = = Avery Coonley School ( 1929 – 1960s ) = = =
Enrollment continued to grow , and a second building was added to the Junior Elementary School campus in the late 1920s , but still larger facilities were deemed necessary to accommodate future growth and additional grade levels . Coonley chose a wooded tract in Downers Grove , adjacent to the Maple Grove Forest Preserve , as the site for the new building , and her son @-@ in @-@ law , Waldron Faulkner , became the architect of the new building project . Over one hundred students attended school in the opened building on September 30 , 1929 , and it was renamed The Avery Coonley School , in honor of Coonley 's late husband , who had died in 1920 . Coonley chose an unusual mascot to represent the ideals of the school . She felt a seahorse was an example of a unique creature who was also a member of a larger community — an analogy for her vision for Avery Coonley . The seahorse swims upright , from which derives the school motto : " Onward and Upward " , and representations of seahorses are reflected in decorative ironwork and the weather vane on the 1929 building .
Progressive education , a pedagogy promoting learning through real @-@ life experiences , was at its zenith in the United States in the 1920s and 30s , and the Avery Coonley School was a widely known model of these theories in action . Avery Coonley was featured regularly in Progressive Education and other professional journals , and in 1938 , the editor of Progressive Education , Gertrude Hartman , published a profile of the Avery Coonley School in her book Finding Wisdom : Chronicles of a School of Today . She noted , " [ v ] isitors from all parts of the United States and from foreign countries [ came ] to see the school — sometimes as many as thirty in a day . " Hartman described in great detail the curriculum and daily life of the school , which had by then added a seventh and eighth grade , commenting that " the most noticeable thing about it is the spirit of earnestness and joy which pervades it ... There is a fundamental philosophy of life and education underlying the work of the school , which gives clear direction to all its activities . Broad areas are planned , which form the framework of the curriculum . These however are flexible and subject to modification depending upon conditions . " The book described the progress of the students from their first year of kindergarten through their ten years of study , capturing in photos , stories , and examples of students ' work their encounters with nature , history , art and other subjects through creative play and collaborative projects . She concluded with observations about the importance of the daily life of the school in developing social responsibility : " It is the belief of those concerned with the school that out of the kind of education described here will emerge more socially enlightened members of society than the education of our generation has produced ... The method in which those in the school place their faith is the building into the very nature of growing boys and girls , through their growing years , those qualities of mind and spirit from which alone a new attitude towards human relations can evolve . " Finding Wisdom became a classic in the education field and solidified the Avery Coonley School 's national reputation as a model of progressive education .
Morse died in 1940 , after 34 years as director , and several years went by without a strong local leadership . To ensure a sounder footing for the future , Coonley merged Avery Coonley with the National College of Education ( NCE , formerly the Chicago Kindergarten College and now National @-@ Louis University ) in Evanston , Illinois , in 1943 . The two institutions had close ties dating back to Morse 's Kindergarten College days , and the arrangement took advantage of the NCE 's financial and teaching resources while Avery Coonley provided a living laboratory for teacher training and educational research . Under NCE management , ACS continued to offer a curriculum that emphasized practical learning , outdoor education — including farming — and hands @-@ on activities like automobile repair . German and French were added in 1949 , with students beginning conversational French in first grade .
Coonley died in 1958 ; ACS had looked to Coonley for her leadership over the years but even more so for her philanthropy . ACS began charging tuition in 1929 , but still relied on Coonley 's financial support , and her death caused serious financial hardship . Under the direction of newly appointed headmaster John Malach , a summer program was launched in 1960 , open to all children from the surrounding area , to increase revenues and visibility . A swimming pool was added in 1961 to bolster the program . Enrollment had declined over the years and Malach marketed the program aggressively , personally interviewing prospective students . In 1964 enrollment again reached 200 students , which brought in additional tuition and much needed financial stability .
In 1965 , the benefits of the National College of Education partnership were less evident and the Administrative Board purchased Avery Coonley from the NCE . Under Malach 's leadership , ACS continued to experiment and innovate . Despite widespread skepticism among contemporary educators that kindergartners were ready to read , ACS launched an early reading program in the early 1960s . Malach 's stance was that " we don 't believe a child should be taught because he or she is now 6 years old or in 1st grade . Our children begin to learn to read when the teacher determines the child is ready . Then the teacher works individually with the child at his or her own pace . " By this time , however , the once @-@ radical ideas of progressive education had become " conventional wisdom " and kindergarten was a ubiquitous feature of American public schools . As part of Malach 's " bid to reforge the leadership role that Avery Coonley School had played during its early years " , ACS joined the Independent Schools Association of the Central States ( ISACS ) in 1961 . ISACS was founded in 1908 to promote best practices in independent schools , and instituted a mandatory accreditation program for member schools in 1961 . Avery Coonley served as the headquarters of ISACS from 1970 until the central office was dissolved in 2000 .
Malach also established the Institute for Educational Research ( IER ) in 1964 as a center for educational experimentation . The Institute , headquartered at ACS , was a joint venture with more than thirty public school districts , which collaborated on research projects and shared in the findings . The large number of schools involved ensured that statistically significant research samples were available and multiple projects could be pursued at one time . In one of the first projects of the Institute , 36 history teachers wrote over 2 @,@ 000 test questions to help demonstrate that " many teachers want assistance in writing better evaluation items based on behavioral objectives " . Examples of other projects include kindergarten speech programs , elementary science programs , and speed reading in junior high school .
= = = Gifted education ( 1960s – present ) = = =
The kindergarten reading program was the first step in the Avery Coonley School 's transition to a new focus on the education of the gifted , which coincided with a growing public awareness of the needs of gifted children in the late 1960s . The increasing focus on gifted education was symbolized by the 1972 Marland Report to the United States Congress , which was the first acknowledgment of the characteristics of gifted children and their specific educational needs . The report found that " gifted children are , in fact , deprived and can suffer psychological damage and permanent impairment of their abilities to function well which is equal to or greater than the similar deprivation suffered by any other population with special needs " . The report highlighted the necessity for educational services for the gifted , and the near total lack of such programs in the public schools at the time . Malach believed that the educational philosophy of Avery Coonley was well aligned with the most important objectives of a gifted program , namely , " the stimulation of individual interests ... the development of student initiative , the development of self @-@ acceptance , concept development , and recognition of the early ability to undertake complex learning tasks . "
In 1960 , ACS began screening applicants for high intellectual potential , requiring a tested IQ above 120 , achievement test results one and a half grade levels above national norms in reading and math , and intensive in @-@ person evaluations . At the same time , the teachers began adapting the curriculum to meet the goals of a gifted program , allowing even more differentiation for each student , accommodating different learning styles , and incorporating enough flexibility for all students to progress at their own pace .
More accelerated classes were added , but the core of the gifted curriculum remained the individualized approaches and learning by doing that had long been central to the Avery Coonley curriculum . Nature study was still prominent in the student 's activities , with music , art , and drama . The traditional learning themes and school projects involving maple trees , Native Americans , ancient Egypt and other topics were preserved but adapted to serve the gifted curriculum . In early 1980 , an early childhood ( EC ) program for three @-@ year @-@ olds was launched , designed to cater to the needs of gifted preschool children and prepare them to transition from home to kindergarten . Again departing from the prevailing educational theory , Avery Coonley introduced academics in the EC program , with the same focus on nature , music , movement , and practical skills as the higher grades .
= = Campus = =
= = = 1929 building = = =
The campus occupies 10 @.@ 45 acres ( 4 @.@ 23 ha ) off of Maple Avenue in Downers Grove . It borders the Maple Grove Forest Preserve , created in 1919 , one of the oldest forest preserves in the Forest Preserve District of DuPage County system . The 82 @-@ acre ( 33 ha ) preserve protects " the largest remaining remnant of the vast maple forest that became Downers Grove " , and has been categorized a globally endangered ecosystem . Its black maple and upland sugar maple communities are host to many threatened and endangered plant species , and bloom with trillium , trout lilies , violets , buttercups , and wild geraniums in the spring . The forest is a refuge for a wide range of birds , including Great Horned Owls and several species of hawks , as well as a stopover for several species of migratory birds , including the Indigo Bunting , which nests there during the warm breeding season and migrates south by night in the winter . A 1 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) hiking trail winds through the preserve , crossing a small creek and passing a nearby pond . The preserve is used by students in their science and nature activities .
The designer of the grounds , Jens Jensen , was known as the " dean of the world 's landscape architects " , and " the father of the Chicago park system " , for his creation of Humboldt Park , Garfield Park , the Cook County Forest Preserves , and his masterpiece , Columbus Park , in Chicago . Jensen 's work became famous for his exclusive use of plants and materials native to the local region , and was characterized by his use of open spaces , flowing water , gently curving lines , and " council rings " , or low circular benches where people can gather . All of these features are evident on the Avery Coonley campus , which makes use of wholly natural settings in lieu of formal gardens . The original landscaping was largely forgotten over the years and poorly maintained . A complete restoration of Jensen 's landscape design was completed in 2006 as part of the ACS centennial celebration .
The building was designed by Coonley 's son @-@ in @-@ law Waldron Faulkner , who , with his son ( also an architect ) Avery Coonley Faulkner , later became significant contributors to the design of George Washington University and American University in Washington , D.C. The design ties the building to the land in the style of the Prairie School , at the same time employing the handcrafted features and human scale typical of the American Arts and Crafts ( or American Craftsman ) style . The easy access to the outdoors , ground floor classrooms , separate science laboratories , and planned outdoor play area are among the features of the design that would later be adopted by schools throughout the US after World War II .
The building surrounds a courtyard with a large reflecting pool . The classrooms are oriented outward , to provide views of the surrounding forest . There are no interior passages in this part of the building ; each class area has an exit to the outside , and students pass between rooms via the covered cloister , even in inclement weather . The design is meant to reinforce the " home and school " atmosphere that dates back to the Cottage School , with child @-@ sized classrooms , ten working fireplaces , draperies , and other home @-@ like details .
Decorative tiles designed by Henry Chapman Mercer — one of the leading figures of the Arts and Crafts Movement in the U.S. — are placed throughout the building . These tiles ( known as Moravian tiles after Mercer 's Moravian Pottery and Tile Works ) feature deep colors and a handmade appearance that complement the simple brick buildings . The tiles on the fireplaces and entry floors boast patterns in literary and educational themes , such as The Canterbury Tales in the old library . A large , tripartite tile mural on the north wall of the courtyard , also by Mercer , depicts the eastern and western hemispheres united by a ship on an allegorical journey of education .
In 1970 , exploring new designs in school furniture , the Institute for Educational Research worked with the Design Department of Southern Illinois University to create a series of interconnected truncated octahedrons known as " learning spaces " , which resembled an oversized beehive . Each child had his or her own semi @-@ private space with a fold @-@ down seat , reading light , and bookshelf . The goal was to provide private spaces where third grade ( eight @-@ year @-@ old ) children could develop good study habits , and the school found that the children spent 90 percent of their work time in their learning spaces . The structures were featured in local news stories and in Life magazine . ACS patented the invention and sold models to several local schools . The original structures are still in use in the third grade classroom in 2014 .
The Avery Coonley School was designated a historical site by the Downers Grove Historical Society in 2006 , and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2007 , which cited the educational program along with the building and grounds for their " unique design and features that have exerted a long @-@ lasting influence on schools throughout the country " .
= = = Recent additions = = =
A new wing was added in early 1980 to provide additional space for the arts , with a large room for orchestra and music and another for studio art . Filling in the previously open east side of the courtyard , the design is nearly identical in design to the original school , built of red and white @-@ washed brick with a cloister on the courtyard side . The Gatehouse , which was built in 1929 and had served as the headmaster 's residence , was remodeled to house the early childhood program in 1988 .
Increased enrollment in the late 1980s and the need for more space led to another addition in 1992 . This addition included a new 17 @,@ 500 @-@ volume library , a 16 @-@ station computer lab , and a 236 @-@ seat Performing Arts Center ( PAC ) . Moravian tiles around the new foyer fireplace and library doors pay homage to the original building . The PAC " is known for its excellent acoustics " , and hosts student productions and outside artistic groups , including the Beck Institute for the Arts , which stages musical recitals there .
Avery Coonley added a full @-@ day kindergarten program in 2005 , again requiring more space , and a $ 4 million , 15 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 400 m2 ) middle school wing was constructed , financed through tax @-@ exempt bonds from the Village of Downers Grove . Its cream and red bricks , hipped roof , deep eaves , and detailed brickwork harmonize with the style of the earlier building . The project added modernized math and science labs , two computer labs , and seven wireless classrooms using tablet computer technology , videoconferencing , and computer controlled overhead projectors .
= = Curriculum = =
The founding educational philosophy is still evident in the modern day curriculum in the focus on learning by doing , teaching based on broad themes that cross subjects , an emphasis on collaborative projects , and a de @-@ emphasis of textbooks . There remains a close integration of art and nature in daily activities and a focus on the development of social skills and education for social responsibility . These principles , adapted in the 1970s for gifted students , have been further extended to accommodate new developments in technology and educational research .
ACS refers to grade levels as groups , a practice rooted in progressive education that dates back at least to the Junior Elementary School . There are three divisions of students : the early school , which includes the early childhood Program ( EC ) for three @-@ year @-@ olds and junior kindergarten ( JK ) for four @-@ year @-@ olds ; the lower school for kindergarten through group four , and middle school for groups five through eight . Each class in kindergarten through group eight has 32 students . Each lower school class is team taught by two teachers . The student @-@ to @-@ teacher ratio in the lower and middle school is 16 to 1 , 11 to 1 in kindergarten , 8 to 1 in junior kindergarten , and 7 to 1 in the early childhood program .
= = = Academic program = = =
As of 2009 , the curriculum is accelerated for each group , which is separated by grade and age ; students are instructed a minimum of one year above their current grade level . ( For example , the first group is taught at a second grade level . ) Students are grouped within their class to allow each of them work at the level of their ability , and they may work several years beyond their current level if they can do so . Students may join older groups to study subjects , which they are exceptionally advanced ; however , age groups are usually kept together " for social and emotional values " . All middle school students complete a high school level honors course in mathematics in either algebra or geometry .
Students explore broad learning themes at each level that allow them to learn across subjects and engage them in creative and collaborative projects . The second group , for example , spends much of their year on the study of trees , using trees as a focus for biology , mathematics , art , and creative writing . Students adopt and study a personal space in the nearby forest preserve . The year culminates with the tapping of maple trees to make syrup , which they share with the rest of the school . Each group engages different themes and group projects . Lower school students simulate an airplane flight to Paris and host a Japanese luncheon . The fourth group holds a Native American Fair , the fifth group creates an original Egyptian style mastaba , the sixth group presents a World 's Fair , and the eighth group organizes an Immigration and Ethnic Fair .
Science studies are enhanced by nature and outdoor experiences . Students participate in nature programs sponsored by the Forest Preserve District of DuPage County and the Illinois Department of Natural Resources , such as adopting a " Bass in the Class " , and monitoring the growth of macroinvertebrates in the DuPage River . Competition in regional and state science fairs and Science Olympiad is considered an integral part of the science program . All students are strongly encouraged to participate , and the seventh group students are required to do so .
All students study French , which is taught by language immersion , a technique in which they only speak French during language study . All signs in the building are written in both French and English . Students begin French instruction in junior kindergarten , and continue on to study French four times a week in groups one through eight . They culminate their study with a week @-@ long experience in Quebec in group eight , during which they only speak French .
Visual art study begins with drawing and painting and then advances to more complex techniques such as sculpture , stained glass , architecture , photography , and pottery . Students learn in a variety of media , including watercolor , oil pastels , charcoal , and clay . Music study begins in the early childhood program . As they progress , Avery Coonley students participate in vocal music , playing Orff instruments and recorders , dancing , and public performance . In middle school , students develop music literacy by reading and writing music , playing choir chimes , and choral singing . The study of music in culture and the history of jazz and opera are taught alongside theory and performance .
The drama program begins engaging students in acting and dramatic writing , directing , and the technical arts in the fourth group . Students practice both rehearsed and improvised performances to create pantomimes , monologues , films , and short plays . Their theatrical work culminates in the eighth group with the performance of one @-@ act plays the students write and direct themselves and the production of a professionally scripted full @-@ length play . Artistically inclined students can extend their arts studies outside of class in optional activities including Art Club , Chorus , Orchestra , Tech Club , Drama Club , and the Variety Show .
Avery Coonley teaches eight core values : appreciation of the individual , civility , gratitude , honesty , kindness and consideration , responsibility , and volunteerism . These ideals are part of the character development program as " building blocks " , which are reinforced daily on the campus and in the family through literature selections sent home for parent participation .
= = = Technology = = =
Avery Coonley began using computers for instruction in 1971 and offering computer programming to students as young as the fourth group in 1976 . Desktop computers were brought into the classrooms to teach math , language arts , music , art , and computer programming , in 1978 . Students begin learning basic keyboard and mouse skills in kindergarten and progress to multimedia presentations , data management , and software coding in the eighth group .
In what ACS calls " one @-@ to @-@ one computing " , every student in the fifth group through the eighth group receives a tablet computer , which they use to manage their daily schedules , work on class assignments , and prepare special projects . Students in early childhood and junior kindergarten have shared tablets available , and each kindergarten through the fourth group class has at least four . Students study in classrooms equipped with wireless overhead projectors , manipulate programs and presentations on touchscreen @-@ equipped SMART board systems , and engage in self @-@ paced classroom learning using ActiveExpression wireless response systems . Students , teachers , and parents communicate and interact online via a school @-@ wide intranet and an extranet for parents . Sixteen dual platform iMacs were added in 2009 for computer lab work .
= = Traditions = =
A hallmark of the curriculum in the earliest days was study organized around major themes — trees , Shakespeare , Egypt and other subjects — that built over the school year into major class projects , performances , and all @-@ school gatherings . Many of these themes and events have grown into lasting school traditions , with which the school community has come to identify each group and certain times of year . One the school 's most cherished traditions , tapping maple trees to make syrup , began with the move to the new building in 1929 . The Spring Fair , in which groups one through five each prepare and perform their own dance , has been held annually since the 1930s — the Maypole dance by the fifth group dates back to the beginning of the Cottage School .
The annual third group overnight nature trip to Wisconsin , dates back to 1974 , and the eighth group French immersion trip began in the 1970s with trips to Paris and since the mid @-@ 1990s to Quebec . Other lower school traditions , such as the Native American Fair and class visit to the Coonley Estate , also have a long history at Avery Coonley . Middle school traditions include the alternating annual Greek and Shakespeare Fests , the sixth group World 's Fair , and a seventh group trip to Washington , DC .
In the annual Thanksgiving Program , the students , in identical brown capes , silently construct a large cornucopia of fruits and vegetables in a ceremony choreographed to music prepared by each class . The food is later donated to the Salvation Army . It is the most treasured of the school traditions , and has been performed every year , virtually unchanged , since 1929 .
= = Extracurricular activities = =
Many of the extracurricular activities offered at ACS offer an extension of classroom subjects and an opportunity for students to pursue those studies in additional depth . Within the
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the WordMasters Challenge , a national language arts competition " in 2007 , placing eighth in the nation out of more than 200 teams .
Controversy erupted in 1994 , when ACS won the Illinois State Science Fair team competition for the fourth year in a row , prompting the IJAS " to banish the school from team competition for [ the ] next year , on the grounds that their students were ' just too good . ' " The incident attracted national attention and was decried as an example of the " dumbing down " of education and the victory of self @-@ esteem over excellence in schools . The IJAS relented under pressure from the media , but eliminated the team competition altogether in future years . Avery Coonley students won 24 top individual awards the following year .
= SMS Cormoran ( 1892 ) =
SMS Cormoran ( " His Majesty 's Ship Cormorant " ) was an unprotected cruiser of the Bussard class , the fifth member of a class of six ships . She was built for the Imperial German Navy for overseas duty . The cruiser 's keel was laid down in Danzig in 1890 ; she was launched in May 1892 and commissioned in July 1893 . Cormoran was armed with a main battery of eight 10 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns , and could steam at a speed of 15 @.@ 5 knots ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) .
Cormoran spent the majority of her career abroad , usually in Germany 's South Pacific colonies in the Samoan Islands . Her duties there typically consisted of survey work and suppressing colonial unrest . She briefly cruised in South African waters in late 1894 and early 1895 before steaming to the Pacific . She participated in the seizure of the Kiautschou Bay concession in the Shandong Peninsula in China in 1897 . Cormoran returned to Germany in 1903 and was modernized in 1907 – 08 . The following year , she returned to the South Pacific , where she remained until the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 . Docked in Tsingtau for repairs at the onset of hostilities , she was unable to actively take part in the fighting . She was therefore disarmed and scuttled in the harbor ; her guns were used to strengthen the defenses of the port .
= = Description = =
Cormoran was 82 @.@ 6 meters ( 271 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 12 @.@ 7 m ( 42 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 42 m ( 14 @.@ 5 ft ) forward . She displaced 1 @,@ 864 t ( 1 @,@ 835 long tons ; 2 @,@ 055 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two horizontal 3 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines powered by four coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers . These provided a top speed of 15 @.@ 5 kn ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) and a range of approximately 2 @,@ 950 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 460 km ; 3 @,@ 390 mi ) at 9 kn ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . She had a crew of 9 officers and 152 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with eight 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 35 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns in single pedestal mounts , supplied with 800 rounds of ammunition in total . They had a range of 10 @,@ 800 m ( 35 @,@ 400 ft ) . Two guns were placed side by side forward , two on each broadside , and two side by side aft . The gun armament was rounded out by five Hotchkiss guns . She was also equipped with two 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes , both of which were mounted on the deck .
= = Service history = =
Cormoran was built by the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Danzig . Her keel was laid in 1890 and her completed hull was launched on 17 May 1892 . Kaiser Wilhelm II attended the launching ceremony with the senior director of the Kaiserliche Werft . Work was completed by 25 July 1893 , when she was commissioned into the Imperial German Navy . Following her commissioning , she underwent two months of sea trials , which were completed on 22 September . Starting in 1894 , Cormoran was assigned to overseas service in Germany 's colonial possessions . She was initially ordered on 2 October to the East Asia Station to replace the gunboat SMS Wolf , but the rising tensions in South Africa led the Navy to send the new cruiser to German East Africa to secure German interests in the region instead .
On 16 October , Cormoran and her newly commissioned sister ship Condor left Germany , bound for East Africa . They arrived in Lourenço Marques , the capital of Portuguese Mozambique , on 15 December . Cormoran remained there for the next seven months . In January 1895 , she towed the Portuguese cruiser Afonso de Albuquerque back to Lourenço Marques . In July , Condor arrived there to replace Cormoran ; the latter was now free to return to her original deployment to East Asian waters . She left East Africa on 5 July . While en route , she stopped in Muscat , Oman , where she paid an official visit to the sultan . On 5 August while steaming in the Strait of Hormuz , the safety valve on the starboard low @-@ pressure cylinder of the starboard engine was damaged . As a result , Cormoran had to put into Bushehr , Persia , for repairs . Following completion of the repair work , Cormoran cruised to Basra via the Shatt al @-@ Arab , where she paid visits to the local German consul and Turkish authorities .
= = = First deployment to the Pacific = = =
On 13 September 1895 , Cormoran arrived in Singapore and joined the East Asia Division under the command of Rear Admiral Hoffmann , who flew his flag in the armored cruiser SMS Kaiser . In July 1896 , she participated in the recovery of the stranded gunboat Iltis . In October and November 1897 , Cormoran steamed up the Yangtze River to Hankow . She was also involved in the occupation of the Kiautschou Bay concession . She went to the Philippines during the Spanish – American War in May 1898 ; the American cruiser USS Raleigh prevented Cormoran from entering Cavite . In November , she towed Kaiser from Samsah Bay in Fujian to Hong Kong for repairs . The tense political situation in German Samoa prompted the Admiralstab ( Admiralty Staff ) to send Cormoran to reinforce her sisters Bussard and Falke there .
While en route to Samoa on the night of 23 – 24 March 1899 , Cormoran ran aground on the Whirlwind Reef , north of the western tip of New Pomerania . She was stuck on the reef amidships , so that her bow was sticking about a meter out of the water . The crew attempted to lighten the ship by removing coal and ammunition , but she remained grounded on the reef . The ship 's commander , Korvettenkapitän Hugo Emsmann , sent the steam pinnace and a dinghy with two officers and eleven men , towing a load of coal , to Friedrich @-@ Wilhelmshafen , some 162 nautical miles ( 300 km ; 186 mi ) away . There , they met the steamer Stettin , which arrived on the scene on 29 March . Emsmann then decided to remove all unnecessary coal and ammunition — some of which was put ashore and the rest simply thrown overboard — to cut away the fore and mainmast , and to move the stern guns forward . These measures allowed the ship to float free from the reef . The crew then re @-@ stowed the supplies that had been sent ashore before returning to Friedrich @-@ Wilhelmshafen . There , her seaworthiness was inspected , and additional supplies were brought aboard . Cormoran then steamed to Sydney for dry @-@ docking ; a full inspection of her hull revealed that it had only been slightly damaged . Repairs lasted until early June .
Cormoran returned to Sydney in mid @-@ June 1900 for her annual overhaul . Part of her crew was replaced ; these men were then sent to China to take part in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion . On 2 October , Cormoran anchored in Apia , before embarking on a tour of the German Pacific colonies . Another overhaul in Sydney followed , which lasted from 15 March to 1 May 1901 . During this period , she and the protected cruiser Hansa represented Germany during the first Parliament of Australia in Melbourne . While on the return journey to Samoa , Cormoran was sent to the St Matthias Islands in the Bismarck Archipelago , where a German researcher named Mencke had been murdered , along with his assistant . There , Cormoran and the survey vessel Möwe attacked the islanders responsible for the murders . On 28 July , Cormoran had returned to Apia , and through November , the ship was occupied with survey work and trips to the other islands .
In 1902 , she again visited the Bismarck Archipelago and the Marshall Islands . Further repairs were effected in Sydney , and the cruiser was back in Apia by 18 August . Another tour of Germany 's colonies began on 23 September . She returned to Sydney for periodic maintenance in mid @-@ March 1903 , and there she received the order to return to Germany . Cormoran departed Sydney on 23 May , bound for Germany ; she reached Kiel on 13 September . While in Germany , she served a stint in the main fleet . The ship was modernized during a lengthy reconstruction that started in 1907 at the Kaiserliche Werft in Danzig . New boilers manufactured by J W Klawitter in Danzig were installed , and her sailing rig was reduced . A new , larger conning tower was also installed . Work was completed in 1908 , and on 1 May 1909 , Cormoran was recommissioned for service in the Pacific .
= = = Second deployment to the Pacific = = =
While in Malta on 8 June 1909 , she received orders to proceed to Asia Minor , where unrest in Turkey and violence against Armenians was prompting German intervention . She joined the cruisers Stettin and Lübeck , and took on some 300 Armenians to protect them from harassment . On 9 July , while moored in Port Said , she received the order to resume her voyage to the Pacific . Cormoran was forced to stop in Jeddah for repairs to her boilers . After reaching the Pacific , she began coastal survey work , and her landing party led a punitive expedition against cannibals in Kaiser @-@ Wilhelmsland . On 3 November , she took part in a flag raising ceremony in Blanche Bay commemorating the German possession of New Pomerania . Three days later , her crew participated in the groundbreaking ceremony for a Bismarck tower in Toma , a town southwest of the capital , Herbertshöhe .
On 13 November , Cormoran embarked the governor in Herbertshöhe , and went first to Friedrich @-@ Wilhelmshafen , then to Hansa @-@ Hafen , and then to the Kaiserin @-@ Augusta River . The cruiser steamed 183 nautical miles ( 339 km ; 211 mi ) up the river before being ordered to reverse course . By 22 November , she had reached the mouth of the river , and by 8 January 1910 , she had moored in Apia once again . She participated in the celebrations for the tenth anniversary of the German annexation of the islands , which lasted from 28 February to 3 March . While on a trip to Hong Kong , she was caught in a hurricane , which did significant damage to the cruiser . Her sides were slightly pushed in and all of her boats were damaged by the storm . Temporary repairs were effected in Nouméa in New Caledonia . Cormoran finally arrived in Hong Kong on 3 May ; by 15 July , she had returned to Apia . She was thereafter joined by her sister Condor , the armored cruiser Scharnhorst and the light cruisers Emden and Nürnberg from the East Asia Squadron . The five ships cruised together until , on 13 December while in Rabaul , they were ordered to proceed to Ponape to suppress the Sokehs Rebellion . They arrived on 19 December and operated in the area until 22 February , with Cormoran , Emden and Nürnberg landing shore parties in support of Polizei @-@ Soldaten ( a force of police officers ) deployed from German New Guinea .
On 23 March , Cormoran returned to Sydney for yet another annual overhaul . Afterward , she resumed her typical cruising duties in the German Pacific colonies . In September , she and the steamer Planet pulled free the Norwegian barque Fram , which had run aground . She received another major overhaul in Tsingtau in May 1912 , which was followed by surveying cruises in the German colonies . She did not return to Apia until 10 January 1913 . Cormoran was reclassified as a gunboat on 24 February 1913 by order of Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , the State Secretary of the Reichsmarineamt ( Imperial Navy Office ) . From 4 June to 5 July , she underwent repairs in Sydney . She was then obliged to stop in Bougainville due to tribal feuds on the island . She landed her shore party to assist the Polizeitruppen in suppressing the conflict . She departed for Tsingtau for further repair work in early 1914 , arriving on 30 May .
As the political situation in Europe worsened in July 1914 , the senior officer in Tsingtau at the time , Fregattenkapitän ( Frigate Captain ) Karl von Müller , the commander of Emden , ordered the repair work to Cormoran to be accelerated . After the outbreak of war in early August , Emden captured the Russian steamer Ryazan and brought her back to Tsingtau . Since Cormoran was still out of service , she was decommissioned and her crew was used to man Ryazan , which was commissioned as the auxiliary cruiser Cormoran . Men from the gunboats Iltis and Vaterland , along with some war volunteers , joined them aboard the new auxiliary cruiser . Much of her weaponry was removed to strengthen the shore defenses at Tsingtau on 6 August 1914 to protect the concession from British attack . She was scuttled in the harbor on the night of 28 – 29 September 1914 by the staff of the Imperial Dockyard to prevent her from being captured .
= Right Thoughts , Right Words , Right Action =
Right Thoughts , Right Words , Right Action ( also known simply as Right Action ) is the fourth studio album by Scottish indie rock band Franz Ferdinand . It was released through the Domino Recording Company on 26 August 2013 in the United Kingdom and on 27 August in the United States . It is the band 's first studio album since Tonight : Franz Ferdinand , which was released four years earlier .
Recorded during 2013 , the album was recorded in multiple studios in different locations . It also features production from multiple different musicians . Similar to Tonight , the album features more of a dance @-@ oriented sound throughout . The band focused on making a generally positive and uplifting album with Right Thoughts , Right Words , Right Action . Band member Alex Kapranos , who provided production on the album , labeled it the band 's " most positive record " , stating that the album title reflects the mood of the album as well as the mood of the band members during the recording of the album .
The album received generally favourable reviews from music critics upon its release . It also had a significant commercial performance , with the album charting in the top 10 in several countries , including the band 's home country of Scotland , where it peaked at number 2 , and the UK , where it peaked at number 6 . The album spawned six singles : " Right Action " , " Love Illumination " , " Evil Eye " , " Bullet " , " Fresh Strawberries " , and " Stand on the Horizon " .
= = Background and recording = =
The band previewed many of their new tracks at live performances over 2012 and 2013 . The album was recorded during 2013 at Alex Kapranos ' Black Pudding Studio in Glasgow , Scotland , Nick McCarthy 's Sausage Studios and Mark Ralph 's Club Ralph in London , England , and Björn Yttling 's Ingrid Studio in Stockholm , Sweden . Kapranos described the album direction as " forward " and revealed that the band decided to keep a low profile about things as their last album was " tainted " by misinformation prior to its release . Regarding the lyrics , Kapranos said :
the idea of the cynic 's search for optimism and the sceptic 's search for a manual crop up here and there . I 've always liked the lead character in Alasdair Gray 's Lanark growing the hard scales to defend the soft inner @-@ self from the world . Socially awkward asthmatic with a self @-@ consuming imagination . My 19 @-@ year @-@ old self was electrified . Maybe the album is about how to shed those scales . "
= = = Album title = = =
Kapranos had talked about the background of the album title in a documentary about the album :
I think when you name a record , you have to choose something which you feel reflects the record or that collection of songs . You also want to choose something that reflects not just the mood of the record , but the mood of the people who made it ... the mood of those people when they recorded it , and there were quite a few things that sort of came up as ideas , but Right Thoughts , Right Words , Right Action seemed to sum it up best . It 's probably the most positive record we 've made , and the band have been , yeah , the most optimistic we 've been since before we had any encounter with the music industry ... probably because we 've been sort of keeping a low profile for a while and not talking about ourselves too much .
= = Production and composition = =
For Right Thoughts , Right Words , Right Action , Franz Ferdinand collaborated with other artists for parts of the album . Hot Chip band members Joe Goddard and Alexis Taylor produced the opening track " Right Action " and co @-@ produced the final track " Goodbye Lovers and Friends " , Norwegian DJ Todd Terje co @-@ produced the tracks " Evil Eye " and " Stand on the Horizon " , and Peter Bjorn and John band member Björn Yttling produced " Treason ! Animals . " and co @-@ produced " The Universe Expanded " . All tracks on the album were written by Alex Kapranos and Nick McCarthy , with additional writing from Bob Hardy on " Right Action " and " The Universe Expanded " as well as Alexander Ragnew on " Bullet " . Kapranos also co @-@ produced the majority of the album under the pseudonym " Prince House Rabbit " , with the exception of " Right Action " and " Treason ! Animals . "
Right Thoughts , Right Words , Right Action features indie rock , dance @-@ punk , and disco @-@ rock . The opening line to " Right Action " was inspired by a postcard Alex Kapranos had found in London , which featured the phrase " Come home , practically all is nearly forgiven " . The following line " Right thoughts , right words , right action " was thought of as a " great response " to the former by Kapranos . " Evil Eye " is about the evil eye and all @-@ seeing eye , which are things that Kapranos was very interested about . The guitar riff to " Love Illumination " was created by Kapranos and originally thought of as " too rocky " by Nick McCarthy , but he later claimed that he enjoyed playing it . The song was fully written and recorded during a weekend session at McCarthy 's Sausage Studio . Kapranos explained the meaning of the song by stating :
We all feel as sensitive to satisfaction at times . We can look outside us and see nothing but destruction , avarice , and boredom . So we look to find that love where we can find it . Some people look to Hollywood , some people look to Blackpool and the bright lights of Blackpool . That 's probably where I would look .
" Stand on the Horizon " was labeled by Kapranos as something neither Franz Ferdinand or Todd Terje , the co @-@ producer of the song , have done before . He also called the ending of the song " a beautiful , uplifting piece of music " . For " Fresh Strawberries " , the band called upon Roxanne Clifford of Veronica Falls to provide additional vocals for the song . The band originally wanted a falsetto section for the song , but they were not able to reach the necessary high notes themselves , which is why they wanted Clifford to provide vocals . The idea for " The Universe Expanded " comes from the theory of universe expansion . Kapranos calls the song both " heartbreaking " and " funny " at the same time . The song also features a heartbeat for a kick drum and scratches of stubble for hi @-@ hats .
= = Release = =
The album was announced on 14 May 2013 with a teaser trailer video along with updates from the band 's social networks , revealing the cover art , the album title and the full track listing . On the same day , the album was also made available to pre @-@ order from Domino in various versions . The album became available for free streaming on the NPR Music website . The album is also available to stream on Spotify . The album was released as a digital download , CD , deluxe double CD , 12 " vinyl , and deluxe double 12 " vinyl packaged in a hand numbered die @-@ cut gatefold sleeve . The exclusive bonus disc in both the double CD and double vinyl LP , entitled Right Notes , Right Words , Wrong Order , is a live session recording captured at Konk Studios in London . Right Thoughts , Right Words , Right Actions - The Passport Edition is a deluxe package limited to 500 copies worldwide and features a deluxe edition of each physical format of the album , all 7 " and 12 " singles and access to the highest quality audio files possible as well as exclusive tracks and content .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Singles = = =
The first two singles from the album were " Right Action " and " Love Illumination " . The official audio tracks for the songs were released on 27 June 2013 onto YouTube . The two songs were also released as a pink double A @-@ side 7 " single on 29 June . On 18 August 2013 , an EP titled Right Action , featuring " Right Action " , " Love Illumination " and two live tracks , was released digitally . To date , " Right Action " has had moderate success , reaching number 39 on the UK Indie Chart , number 28 on the US Alternative music Billboard Chart , and number 22 on the Japanese Singles Chart . The third single from the album , " Evil Eye " , was released on 28 October 2013 . The song received radio airplay on multiple stations , including BBC Radio 2 . The fourth single to promote the album was " Bullet " , released on 17 January 2014 in New Zealand , and on 20 January 2014 in the UK . " Fresh Strawberries " was digitally released as the fifth single on 4 April 2014 in Australia and New Zealand , and on 7 April 2014 in the UK . A 7 " vinyl release was released on 7 May 2014 , featuring a song titled " Erdbeer Mund " as the B @-@ side , which is sung entirely in German by Nick McCarthy . The sixth single , " Stand on the Horizon " , was released on 28 July 2014 .
= = = Music videos = = =
The " Right Action " official video was released on 7 July 2013 , directed by Jonas Odell , and the video for " Love Illumination " was released on 24 July 2013 , directed by Tim Saccenti . On YouTube , the " Right Action " music video has received over 3 million views and the " Love Illumination " music video has received over 4 million views . The " Evil Eye " official music video was released on 8 September 2013 and was directed by Diane Martel , who is known for directing videos for various Top 3 hits such as " Blurred Lines " , " Just Give Me a Reason " , " We Can 't Stop " , and one of the bands ' hit singles , " Do You Want To " . The band released the official video for " Bullet " on 18 November 2013 and was directed by Andy Knowles . The official music video for " Fresh Strawberries " was released on 12 March 2014 and was directed by Margarita Louca . The official music video for " Stand on the Horizon " was released on 3 August 2014 and was directed by Karan Kandhari .
= = = Concerts = = =
On 20 August 2013 , the band played at Electric Brixton in London , for a crowd of approximately 1 @,@ 500 fans . The opening song was " Right Action " and the concert featured several songs of the new album . A concert in Glasgow followed on 21 August 2013 . The band went on a world tour until the near end of 2014 , performing both regular shows as well as concerts at several music festivals .
= = Critical reception = =
Right Thoughts , Right Words , Right Action received positive reviews from music critics . On the critic review aggregator site Metacritic , the album holds a score of 71 / 100 , based on 39 reviews , indicating " generally favourable " reviews . At Digital Spy , Adam Silverstein commends that " more often than not , Right Thoughts , Right Words , Right Action is this band sharpening their particular surefire indie to glittering distinction . " Commenting on the band 's future , he says that the " half @-@ sorry , half @-@ bitter ' Goodbye Lovers & Friends ' is probably not Franz Ferdinand 's very last act , even if Kapranos proclaiming in the final seconds ' But this really is the end ' would make one awesome blowout . Although after delivering a record as good as this , they can take as long as they want " . At The A.V. Club , Annie Zaleski wrote positively of the musical differences between many of this album 's tracks compared to the band 's prior work , adding : " Admittedly , these more nuanced Right Thoughts , Right Words , Right Action sounds aren 't as easily accessible ; it 's much easier to gravitate toward more familiar raucous post @-@ punk ( ' Bullet , ' ' Right Action ' ) or the Clash @-@ reminiscent punk @-@ funk of ' Evil Eye . ' But by expanding its worldview , Franz Ferdinand has very nicely settled onto a path toward career longevity . "
Writing for Mojo , Victoria Segal says that " Franz Ferdinand remain in robust good health , athletic aesthetes who have yet to break their stride . There 's no great leap forward here but the spring in their step is unmistakable . All present , all correct . " At Alternative Press , Reed Fischer called the title " resolute " , and said that " fortunately , his cruelty translates into charming melodies here that almost excuse the long wait for them . " Conversely , Tim Stegall in The Austin Chronicle wrote : " [ T ] he satisfaction appears sonic alone : Not a song sticks . It 's sheer style that carries this disc . " Caleb Caldwell for Slant Magazine wrote :
More or less the Scottish answer to American bands like Interpol and the Strokes , Franz Ferdinand , with their du @-@ jour cool and deft combination of insular art flair and dance @-@ floor populism , was hailed by British hype machine New Musical Express as the dawn of a new rock revolution . The band 's blue @-@ blazered appeal , however , started to slip after 2009 's overly serious concept album Tonight : Franz Ferdinand . Four years later , the zeitgeist may prefer its rock stars with suspenders and banjos , but Franz Ferdinand 's Right Thoughts , Right Words , Right Action is an unapologetically swaggering disco @-@ rock album that refuses to overstay its welcome .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Personnel adapted from album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Make Way for Ducklings =
Make Way for Ducklings is a children 's picture book written and illustrated by Robert McCloskey . First published in 1941 , the book tells the story of a pair of mallards who decide to raise their family on an island in the lagoon in Boston Public Garden , a park in the center of Boston .
Make Way for Ducklings won the 1942 Caldecott Medal for McCloskey 's illustrations , executed in charcoal then lithographed on zinc plates . As of 2003 , the book had sold over two million copies . The book 's popularity led to the construction of a statue by Nancy Schön in the Public Garden of the mother duck and her eight ducklings , which is a popular destination for children and adults alike . In 1991 , Barbara Bush gave a duplicate of this sculpture to Raisa Gorbachev as part of the START Treaty , and the work is displayed in Moscow 's Novodevichy Park .
The book is the official children 's book of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts . Praise for the book is still high over 70 years since its first publication , mainly for the enhancing illustrations and effective pacing . It was criticised for having a loose plot , however . The book is popular worldwide .
The names of the ducklings mentioned in the story are : Jack , Kack , Lack , Mack , Nack , Ouack , Pack and Quack .
= = Background = =
Make Way for Ducklings , published in 1941 , was McCloskey 's second book and was the winner of the Caldecott Medal in 1942 . In his acceptance speech , McCloskey explained his motivation for the story . While attending the Vesper George Art School in the early 1930s , he would spend time in the Public Garden feeding the ducks . After some time away , he returned to Boston to paint a mural and created a draft of the book after inspiration from May Massee . To better illustrate the story , McCloskey spent time at the American Museum of Natural History in New York , visited an ornithologist , and eventually brought home for models six ducklings to live in his studio at 280 West 12th Street , apartment 4C , in New York 's West Village .
= = Plot = =
The story begins as Mr. and Mrs. Mallard fly over various potential locations around the city of Boston , Massachusetts ( United States ) to start a family . Each time Mr. Mallard selects a location , Mrs. Mallard finds something wrong with it . Tired from their search , the mallards land at the Public Garden Lagoon to spend the night . In the morning , a swan boat passes by the mallards . The mallards mistake the swan boat for a real bird and enjoy peanuts thrown by the people on the boat . Mrs. Mallard suggests that they build their nest in the Public Garden . However , just as she says this , she is nearly run down by a passing bicyclist . The mallards continue their search , flying over Boston landmarks such as Beacon Hill , the Massachusetts State House , and Louisburg Square . The Mallards finally decide on an island in the Charles River . From this island , the Mallards visit a policeman named Michael on the shore , who feeds them peanuts every day .
Shortly thereafter , the Mallards molt , and would not be able to fly until their new wings grew again , and Mrs. Mallard hatches eight ducklings named Jack , Kack , Lack , Mack , Nack , Ouack , Pack , and Quack . After the ducklings are born , Mr. Mallard decides to take a trip up the river to see what the rest of it is like . Mr. and Mrs. Mallard agree to meet at the Public Garden in one week . In the meantime , Mrs. Mallard teaches the eight ducklings all they need to know about being ducks , such as swimming , diving , marching along , and to avoid dangers such as bicycles and other wheeled objects .
One week later , Mrs. Mallard leads the ducklings ashore and straight to the highway in hopes of crossing to reach the Garden , but she has trouble crossing as the cars will not yield to her . Michael , the policeman who the Mallards visited , stops traffic for the family to cross . Michael calls police headquarters and instructs them to send a police car to stop traffic along the route for the ducks . The ducks cross the highway , Embankment Road ( Storrow Drive had yet to be constructed when the book was written ) , then proceed down Mount Vernon Street to Charles Street where they head south to the Garden . The people on the streets admire the family of ducks . When the family must cross Beacon Street to enter the Garden , there are four policeman standing in the intersection stopping traffic to make way for the ducklings . Mr. Mallard is waiting in the Public Garden for the rest of the family . Finally , the family decides to stay in the Garden and lives happily ever after . They end each day searching for peanuts and food , and when night falls , they swim to their little island and go to sleep .
= = Illustrations = =
Illustrated with sepia drawings rather than the traditional black @-@ and @-@ white pictures found in most children ’ s books of the day , the book , which received the 1942 Caldecott Medal for its illustrations , has continued to garner praise years after its first publishing . The drawings of Boston represent a duck 's eye view of the city . Each of the individual ducklings is " bored , inquisitive , sleepy , or they are scratching , talking over their backs one to another , running to catch up with the line " . Children identify with the ducklings because they behave as children do . The comforting message shows parents as caretakers , protectors , and teachers . According to fellow Caldecott winner Paul O. Zelinsky , " I realized that if the action in the drawings were to move from left to right , the ducks could not have been shown passing the Corner Book Shop , which is a wonderful detail in the story ... He clearly knew these streets very well . " " ' Robert McCloskey 's unusual and stunning pictures have long been a delight for their fun as well as their spirit of place . ' -- The Horn Book "
= = Reaction = =
= = = Sales = = =
Make Way for Ducklings has been continuously in print since it was first published . As of 2003 , the book had sold over two million copies . In September 2006 the hardcover edition of the book ranked # 2 @,@ 182 in sales at Amazon.com and # 1 @,@ 838 in sales at Barnes & Noble . The story has also been published in paperback and audiobook .
When it was first released in 1941 , Ellen Buell of The New York Times called the book " one of the merriest we have had in a long time " , praising the understated comedic aspect of the procession down Beacon Street , as well as McCloskey 's " fine large pictures " which simultaneously demonstrate " economy of line " and " wealth of detail " .
Viking publishing planned to release a 75th @-@ anniversary edition of the classic in March 2016 .
= = = Critical commentary = = =
One critic , Alice Fannin , says the " loosely plotted " story gives no true explanation for why Mr. Mallard leaves the island in the Charles River or why the Mallards did not simply stay on the lagoon island in the first place and avoid the bicyclists on the shore . However , McCloskey has stated himself that he thinks of himself as an artist who writes children 's books and not vice versa . Fannin also finds the characterization lacking , that is , the Mallards represent " rather stereotypically concerned parents " , often showing the same facial expressions and rarely showing expressiveness .
Another critic has positively commented on McCloskey 's use of page breaks as a pacing technique . McCloskey 's use of one @-@ sentence pages forces the reader to quickly turn the page , enhancing the sense of motion , especially during the home search and when Mrs. Mallard teaches the ducklings their basic skills . McCloskey also employs this page break method to heighten surprise . When searching for a home , Mr. and Mrs. Mallard seem to have found a home on page eleven .
" ' Good , ' said Mr. Mallard , delighted that at last Mrs. Mallard had found a place that suited her . But — " ( p . 11 )
Then , they encounter a sudden problem with the chosen location when Mrs. Mallard is nearly run over by a bicyclist on page thirteen .
= = = Gender roles = = =
Make Way for Ducklings was published in the 1940s . Many books of the time portray a male dominated society , a trend which Make Way for Ducklings does not follow . In context , the story takes place during wartime as fathers were being drafted and sent to Europe , requiring more social support for single parent families . McCloskey presented Mrs. Mallard as an " independent and nonsubmissive female character . "
When Mr. Mallard leaves on questionable purpose , Mrs. Mallard is charged with raising their ducklings alone . McCloskey portrays Mrs. Mallard as a capable woman who does not need the support of a male character . This strong portrayal has led one critic to label the book as " pre @-@ feminist " .
= = = Surveys = = =
Based on a 2007 online poll , the National Education Association named Make Way for Ducklings one of its " Teachers ' Top 100 Books for Children . " In 2012 it was ranked number six among the " Top 100 Picture Books " in a survey published by School Library Journal .
= = Cultural effects = =
The city of Boston , the setting of the book , has whole @-@ heartedly embraced the story . In the Public Garden , where the Mallards eventually settled , a bronze statue has been erected of Mrs. Mallard and her eight ducklings . While the tallest statue stands only 38 inches ( .97 meters ) tall , the caravan of bronze ducks set in Boston cobblestone spans 35 feet ( 10 @.@ 67 m ) from front to back . The statue , installed October 4 , 1987 , was a tribute to Robert McCloskey " whose story ... has made the Boston Public Garden familiar to children throughout the world . "
Since 1978 , the city has hosted an annual Duckling Day parade each spring , with children and their parents dressed as ducklings . Part of the route retraces the path taken by Mrs. Mallard and her ducklings to get to the Public Garden .
In 2000 , schoolchildren from Canton , Massachusetts decided that the book was worthy of being the official children 's book of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and went to their state legislature to get a bill passed declaring it so . However , legislators from Springfield , Massachusetts blocked the legislation on the grounds the official book should be by Springfield native Dr. Seuss . Legislators reached a compromise when they agreed to make Dr. Seuss the official children 's author of the commonwealth and Make Way for Ducklings the official children 's book .
A statue similar to the one in the Boston Public Garden was erected in Novodevichy Park in Moscow as part of the START Treaty by Acton , Massachusetts landscape and construction company Capizzi & Co . Inc. on July 30 , 1991 . The equipment , statues , cobblestones , and workers were all flown by the US Air Force in a C5 containing the heavy equipment , diesel fuel , and other assorted tools they would need . The individual statues , which were in total length , 40 feet ( 12 m ) long , were presented by then United States First Lady Barbara Bush to Russian First Lady Raisa Gorbachev as a gift to the children of the Soviet Union . Four of the ducks were stolen , one in 1991 and three in February 2000 . Thieves hoping to sell the ducks as scrap metal cut the statues off at the legs . The ducks were replaced in September 2000 at a rededication ceremony attended by former President of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev .
= = Films = =
Make Way for Ducklings was adapted into an 11 @-@ minute black @-@ and @-@ white cartoon created by Weston Woods in 1955 . Founded by educator Morton Schindel in 1953 , Weston Woods Studios , Inc . ( named after the wooded area outside his home in Weston , Connecticut ) specializes in animating children 's picture books on film . The program is centered toward young struggling readers who , after watching the movie , are encouraged to read the books themselves .
In 1964 , Schindel and Weston Woods Studios made the 18 @-@ minute Robert McCloskey , a documentary which is sometimes screened in art schools . The film shows McCloskey sitting in Boston Public Garden and intercuts pages from his sketchbook drawings for Make Way for Ducklings . The illustrator discusses experiences that have influenced his work and the relationship of craftsmanship to inspiration .
= The Breeders Tour 2014 =
The 2014 tour by American alternative rock group the Breeders comprised a series of thirteen concerts in central and western United States in September 2014 . The Breeders ' line @-@ up for their successful 1993 album Last Splash consisted of Josephine Wiggs , Jim Macpherson , Kim Deal , and Kelley Deal ; however , Wiggs and Macpherson were not in the band for the group 's next albums , Title TK and Mountain Battles , released in 2002 and 2008 , respectively . In 2013 , the foursome reunited for a tour to commemorate Last Splash 's 20th anniversary , and the following year , they began working on new songs together . The band Neutral Milk Hotel invited the Breeders to open for them at a September 18 concert at the Hollywood Bowl . The Breeders decided to go on a tour leading up to this show , and to use the opportunity to practice some of their new compositions .
Between September 2 and September 17 , the Breeders performed in eleven cities , including St. Louis , Denver , Seattle , Portland , San Francisco , and Las Vegas . Support groups the Funs and the Neptunas opened for them at five and six of these eleven shows , respectively . The Breeders then played at the Hollywood Bowl concert , and wrapped up the tour on September 20 at the Goose Island 312 Urban Block Dance Party event in Chicago . On the tour , the Breeders performed four new songs , as well as the compositions " Off You " and " Safari " , and numerous selections from the albums Last Splash and Pod . Among these were " Cannonball " , " No Aloha " , " Saints " , " Divine Hammer " , " Doe " , and " Iris " . The tour received good reviews from critics ; appraisal included comments that the performances were rousing , and that the band was as good as — or better than — in its heyday .
= = Background = =
In 1993 , the Breeders released their second album , Last Splash . At this time , the group ’ s line @-@ up consisted of sisters Kim and Kelley Deal on guitar and vocals , Josephine Wiggs on bass and vocals , and Jim Macpherson on drums . Last Splash went silver in the United Kingdom , gold in Canada , and platinum in the United States , and the group toured extensively , including participating in Lollapalooza 1994 . In November 1994 , Kelley Deal was arrested on heroin @-@ related charges , and in 1995 Wiggs decided to pursue other musical projects . Macpherson continued playing with Kim Deal in her side @-@ project group , the Amps , and then in the 1996 incarnation of the Breeders , but quit the band in 1997 . The Breeders ’ line @-@ ups for their albums Title TK ( 2002 ) and Mountain Battles ( 2008 ) included the Deal sisters , Mando Lopez , and Jose Medeles . In 2013 , Wiggs and Macpherson rejoined the Deals to tour the 20th anniversary of Last Splash — the LSXX Tour .
On December 31 , 2013 , the Breeders performed their final concert on the 60 @-@ date tour in Austin , Texas . The foursome enjoyed the LSXX concerts , and decided that they would like to record new music together . Throughout 2014 , Wiggs traveled from her home in Brooklyn , New York to Dayton , Ohio , which Macpherson and both of the Deals live in or near . The group began practicing new material in Kim Deal ’ s basement , including one composition by Wiggs and others by Deal . By August of that year , there were three songs that they could play well , two less so , and others that they had not yet practiced . Titles of new songs included “ Skinhead Number 2 ” , “ Simone ” , “ All Nerve ” , and “ Launched ” . The group Neutral Milk Hotel asked the Breeders to open for them at a Hollywood Bowl concert to be held on September 18 . The Breeders decided to go on a tour leading up to this concert and to perform some new compositions to prepare for the songs ’ eventual recording .
= = Performances and reception = =
The September 2014 tour comprised thirteen American dates , all in western and central states . Support groups included the Funs , the Neptunas , and Kelley Stoltz . The tour began in early September with dates in St. Louis and
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the additive theory of prime numbers . Our conjecture reflects this , dealing with interactions of sums involving primes whereas Goldbach 's conjecture and Lemoine 's conjecture deal with such sums only individually . This conjecture and the open questions about numbers at levels two and three are of interest in their own right because of the issues they raise within this fascinating and often baffling additive realm of the prime numbers . "
= = Role in modern triangle geometry = =
Lemoine has been described by Nathan Altshiller Court as a co @-@ founder ( along with Henri Brocard and Joseph Neuberg ) of modern triangle geometry , a term used by William Gallatly , among others . In this context , " modern " is used to refer to geometry developed from the late 18th century onward . Such geometry relies on the abstraction of figures in the plane rather than analytic methods used earlier involving specific angle measures and distances . The geometry focuses on topics such as collinearity , concurrency , and concyclicity , as they do not involve the measures listed previously .
Lemoine 's work defined many of the noted traits of this movement . His Géométrographie and relation of equations to tetrahedrons and triangles , as well as his study of concurrencies and concyclities , contributed to the modern triangle geometry of the time . The definition of points of the triangle such as the Lemoine point was also a staple of the geometry , and other modern triangle geometers such as Brocard and Gaston Tarry wrote about similar points .
= = List of selected works = =
Sur quelques propriétés d 'un point remarquable du triangle ( 1873 )
Note sur les propriétés du centre des médianes antiparallèles dans un triangle ( 1874 )
Sur la mesure de la simplicité dans les tracés géométriques ( 1889 )
Sur les transformations systématiques des formules relatives au triangle ( 1891 )
Étude sur une nouvelle transformation continue ( 1891 )
La Géométrographie ou l 'art des constructions géométriques ( 1892 )
Une règle d 'analogies dans le triangle et la spécification de certaines analogies à une transformation dite transformation continue ( 1893 )
Applications au tétraèdre de la transformation continue ( 1894 )
" Note on Mr. George Peirce 's Approximate Construction for π " . Bull . Amer . Math . Soc . 8 ( 4 ) : 137 – 148 . 1902 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1090 / s0002 @-@ 9904 @-@ 1902 @-@ 00864 @-@ 1 .
= Xtort =
Xtort ( stylized as XTOЯT ) , released on June 25 , 1996 on Wax Trax ! / TVT , is the ninth studio album by industrial rock group KMFDM . It was recorded in Chicago , Illinois , from the end of 1995 through early 1996 , shortly after the death of Wax Trax ! co @-@ founder and band friend Jim Nash . Xtort features a variety of guest artists from the industrial music scene and studio musicians from other genres , but includes limited participation from core member En Esch .
The album was massively promoted by TVT Records , which pressed tens of thousands of free copies of the first single , " Power " . Band leader Sascha Konietzko created his own form of promotion , issuing a press release that both disparaged and lauded the coming set . Xtort was generally well received by critics , with many calling it superlative , and is the highest charting and best @-@ selling KMFDM album to date . After the original release went out of print , a remastered version was released in 2007 .
= = Background = =
In late 1995 , KMFDM had completed the " Beat by Beat " and " In Your Face " tours in support of their last album , Nihil . KMFDM frontman and founder Sascha Konietzko described Nihil as " the crown " , and said the band had come as close to mainstream popularity as he wanted . He felt the band needed to move away from its success . In 2007 , Konietzko recalled that he had " hated all the attention , interviews , photo shoots , etc . " . After the tours , Konietzko returned to Chicago in order to be with his friend , Jim Nash , co @-@ founder of Wax Trax ! Records , who was dying from AIDS . Konietzko referred to the death of Nash that October as " the end of an era " .
En Esch , one of the longtime core members of KMFDM , had almost nothing to do with Xtort , contributing to just two songs . With regard to Esch 's lack of participation , Konietzko said , " En Esch is just En Esch . He never made himself available to do this album , and so it 's always my belief that the thing must keep moving ; I had to do it without him . " He also said the two were not in communication around the time of the album 's release .
= = Production = =
Xtort was pre @-@ produced and tracked in Seattle at Hole in the Wall Studio , and recorded and mixed in Chicago at Chicago Recording Company . Konietzko contacted F. M. Einheit and had him come to Chicago in January 1996 to work on some tracks together . Konietzko also brought in a number of Wax Trax ! alumni , such as Chris Connelly of Revolting Cocks and Bill Rieflin of Ministry , to help with the album 's creation , along with assistance from more than a dozen studio musicians . Konietzko required all the album 's contributors to be on call thirteen hours a day during production , saying " I don 't care what they do on their own time , but when they do KMFDM , if they don 't comply with the schedule , they 're out . "
Konietzko said the ideas for songs began with individual sounds , which he then modified until he created a looped rhythm . " Craze " , for example , Konietzko called " an homage to Atari Teenage Riot , a band with two guys , one girl , a couple TR90S [ sic ] drum machines and a bass machine . " He said he was inspired by touring with the band in Europe in support of Nihil in 1995 . After creating the base tunes , the songs went to Günter Schulz , another longtime member , to add guitars . With the completed songs , Konietzko then allowed guest artists , such as Connelly , to pick songs they wanted to contribute to , and added their vocals or other instrumentation . For Xtort , Konietzko used Macintosh products to do all the synchronization .
Connelly contributed to four tracks , including " Blame " , which also featured the horn section from the Oakland , California based group Tower of Power . Nicole Blackman , KMFDM 's publicist at the time , contributed spoken word vocals to the track " Dogma " , which was adapted from the ten @-@ minute live performance she provided while touring with the band . " Power " , meanwhile , was made to fulfill a request by the band 's label , Wax Trax ! , for a radio promo song . Konietzko said he 'd heard " radio didn 't like big female choruses " , so he got voiceover commercial singer Cheryl Wilson to help with the song , which he called " dumb and catchy " . The hidden track of the album , " Fairy " , is a story narrated by Jr . Blackmail , who had worked with the band previously in the 1980s . Konietzko said it was inspired by Blackmail 's " dirty fantasies " . He also said it was not a serious track : " it was more like kids at play " . For the background sounds , the group did things like roll screws on the floor while Schulz played piano .
= = Release = =
The first track on the album , " Power " , was featured on the " Wax Trax ! Summer Swindle " , a cassette sampler included with 45 @,@ 000 issues of the July 1996 issue of Alternative Press . Another 50 @,@ 000 copies of the sampler were to be handed out at summer college and beach events and given away at radio stations . 90 @,@ 000 pre @-@ release posters and information sheets were mailed out to fans .
Blackman wrote the promotional piece for the album 's press kit , and at Konietzko 's request , wrote the first half of the promo as an insulting take down of the album rather than as a standard promo . The first letter of each line of the first section of the promo spelled out the phrase " April Fools Day Fucker " and included lines such as " It 's been 100 years and fifty albums for the German / American rock squad — are they running out of gas or what ? " and " KMFDM can 't suck hard enough " , a quote from the track " Inane " . The second half of the promo included phrases such as " XTORT is a supersonic soundtrack " and " The new album is the sound of a band at the height of their powers . " Carrie Borzillo of Billboard stated KMFDM was " poised to make a significant commercial breakthrough . " Konietzko said at the time there were no plans to tour in support of the album 's release . He later said this was due to the fact that the band as a touring unit had ceased to exist .
Xtort was released on June 25 , 1996 on Wax Trax ! / TVT on cassette , CD , and vinyl . The album was also released in CD format in Europe and Japan . In addition to being the first KMFDM album to chart in the Billboard 200 , staying there for three weeks and peaking at No. 92 the week of July 13 , 1996 , Xtort sold over 200 @,@ 000 copies , making it the best @-@ selling album in the band 's history . The song " Son of a Gun " was made into an animated video by visual artist Aidan " Brute ! " Hughes , who also did the album 's cover artwork . On March 6 , 2007 , Metropolis Records released a digitally remastered version of the album on CD and MP3 . Looking back on the album at the time of its re @-@ release , Konietzko said it was his favorite album of the 1990s .
= = Critical reception = =
Reviews for Xtort were almost universally positive . Jon Wiederhorn of Entertainment Weekly called it " the heaviest and most danceable disc in [ KMFDM 's ] 12 @-@ year career " while giving it an A- . Heidi MacDonald of CMJ New Music Monthly compared Xtort to getting hit with a wrecking ball , saying , " When KMFDM does what it does best , it is the best at what it does , namely jack @-@ hammer industrial anthems that hit with stunning precision and power . " Sandy Masuo of Rolling Stone called the album " the product of a first @-@ rate lineup , " and praised the album 's diversity , saying , " The 10 tracks on Xtort are grounded in KMFDM 's smart synthesis of metallic crunch , swiveling rhythms and sophisticated electronics , but it 's the organic elements that give the album a zesty twist . " Kevin M. Williams of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the album an " essential " rating , and said , " KMFDM has some major mojo working with Xtort " .Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic was less enthusiastic , saying , " it would be nice to hear [ KMFDM ] branch out and start to experiment a little bit more " , and commenting that while Xtort did not sound much different from previous releases , " KMFDM sounds as good as they ever have , and several tracks rank among their best . " Liz Armstrong of the Daily Herald thought the guest contributors added significant differences to their individual songs .
Larry Flick of Billboard said " Power " , the opening track , " finds front man Sascha Konietzko snarling and growling with palpable force , while Cheryl Wilson softens the edges with splashes of soul @-@ mama vamping during the chorus . " Williams called the song " irresistible " . Masuo noted in particular the use of horns and the Hammond B3 organ , and concluded by stating , " In their insidiously arty and intellectually sassy music , KMFDM continue to bring diverse elements together to create a unified whole . " Armstrong called " Dogma " a song that crossed over from being industrial to " frightening " , while MacDonald described it as " blistering " and Williams said it was " captivating " . Armstrong said " Son of a Gun " was the album 's " truly explosive track " , but Williams thought " Inane " was the best song .
= = Track listing = =
All information from 2007 release CD booklet .
= = Personnel = =
All information from 2007 release CD booklet except where noted .
= Military camouflage =
Military camouflage is the use of camouflage by a military force to protect personnel and equipment from observation by enemy forces . In practice , this means applying colour and materials to military equipment of all kinds , including vehicles , ships , aircraft , gun positions and battledress , either to conceal it from observation ( crypsis ) , or to make it appear as something else ( mimicry ) . The French slang word camouflage came into common English usage during World War I when the concept of visual deception developed into an essential part of modern military tactics . In that war , long @-@ range artillery and observation from the air combined to expand the field of fire , and camouflage was widely used to decrease the danger of being targeted or to enable surprise . As such , military camouflage is a form of military deception .
Camouflage was first practiced in simple form in the mid 18th century by jäger- or rifle units . Their tasks required them to be inconspicuous , and they were issued green and later other drab colour uniforms . With the advent of longer range and more accurate weapons , especially the repeating rifle , camouflage was adopted for the uniforms of all armies , spreading to most forms of military equipment including ships and aircraft . Many modern camouflage textiles address visibility not only to visible light but also near infrared , for concealment from night vision devices . Camouflage is not only visual ; heat , sound , magnetism and even smell can be used to target weapons , and may be intentionally concealed . Some forms of camouflage have elements of scale invariance , designed to disrupt outlines at different distances , typically digital camouflage patterns made of pixels .
Camouflage for equipment and positions was extensively developed for military use by the French in 1915 , soon followed by other World War I armies . In both world wars , artists were recruited as camouflage officers . Ship camouflage developed via conspicuous dazzle camouflage schemes during WWI , but since the development of radar , ship camouflage has received less attention . Aircraft , especially in World War II , were often painted with different schemes above and below , to camouflage them against the ground and sky respectively .
Military camouflage patterns have been popular in fashion and art from as early as 1915 . Camouflage patterns have appeared in the work of artists such as Andy Warhol and Ian Hamilton Finlay , sometimes with an anti @-@ war message . In fashion , many major designers have exploited camouflage 's style and symbolism , and military clothing or imitations of it have been used both as street wear and as a symbol of political protest .
= = Principles = =
Military camouflage is part of the art of military deception . The main objective of military camouflage is to deceive the enemy as to the presence , position and intentions of military formations . Camouflage techniques include concealment , disguise , and dummies , applied to troops , vehicles , and positions .
Vision is the main sense of orientation in humans , and the primary function of camouflage is to deceive the human eye . Camouflage works through concealment ( whether by countershading , preventing casting shadows , or disruption of outlines ) , mimicry , or possibly by dazzle . In modern warfare , some forms of camouflage , for example including CADPAT textiles , also offer concealment from radar and from infrared sensors .
= = = Compromises = = =
While camouflage tricks are in principle limitless , both cost and practical considerations limit the choice of methods and the time and effort devoted to camouflage . Paint and uniforms must also protect vehicles and soldiers from the elements . Units need to move , fire their weapons and perform other tasks to keep functional , some of which run counter to camouflage . Camouflage may be dropped altogether . Late in the Second World War , the USAAF abandoned camouflage paint for some aircraft to lure enemy fighters to attack , while in the Cold War , some aircraft similarly flew with polished metal skins , to reduce drag and weight , or to reduce vulnerability to radiation from nuclear weapons .
No single camouflage pattern is effective in all terrains . The effectiveness of a pattern depends on contrast as well as colour tones . Strong contrasts which disrupt outlines are better suited for environments such as forests where the play of light and shade is prominent , while low contrasts are better suited to open terrain with little shading structure . Patterns made to match the local terrain may be more effective in that terrain than more general patterns . However , unlike an animal or a civilian hunter , military units may need to cross several terrain types like woodland , farmland and built up areas in a single day . While civilian hunting clothing may have almost photo @-@ realistic depictions of tree bark or leaves ( indeed , some such patterns are based on photographs ) , military camouflage is designed to work in a range of environments . With the cost of uniforms in particular being substantial , most armies operating globally have two separate full uniforms , one for woodland / jungle and one for desert and other dry terrain . An American attempt at a global camouflage pattern for all environments ( the 2004 UCP ) was however withdrawn after a few years of service . On the other end of the scale are terrain specific patterns like the " Berlin camo " , applied to British vehicles operating in Berlin during the Cold War , where square fields of various gray shades was designed to hide vehicles against the mostly concrete architecture of post @-@ war Berlin .
Seasons may play a role in some regions . A dramatic change in colour and texture is created by seasonal snowy conditions in northern latitudes , necessitating repainting of vehicles and separate snow oversuits . The Eastern and northern European countries have a tradition for separate winter uniforms rather than oversuits . During the Second World War , the Waffen @-@ SS went a step further , developing reversible uniforms with separate schemes for summer and autumn , as well as white winter oversuits .
= = = Movement = = =
While patterns can provide more effective crypsis than solid colour when the camouflaged object is stationary , any pattern , particularly one with high contrast , stands out when the object is moving . Jungle camouflage uniforms were issued during the Second World War , but both the British and American forces found that a simple green uniform provided better camouflage when soldiers were moving . After the war , most nations returned to a unicoloured uniform for their troops . Some nations , notably Austria and Israel , continue to use solid colour combat uniforms today . Similarly , while larger military aircraft traditionally had a disruptive pattern with a darker top over a lighter lower surface ( a form of countershading ) , modern fast fighter aircraft often wear gray overall .
= = = Digital camouflage = = =
Digital camouflage provides a disruptive effect through the use of pixellated patterns at a range of scales , meaning that the camouflage helps to defeat observation at a range of distances . Such patterns were first developed during the Second World War , when Johann Georg Otto Schick designed a number of patterns for the Waffen @-@ SS , combining micro- and macro @-@ patterns in one scheme . The German Army developed the idea further in the 1970s into Flecktarn , which combines smaller shapes with dithering ; this softens the edges of the large scale pattern , making the underlying objects harder to discern . Pixellated shapes pre @-@ date computer aided design by many years , already being used in Soviet Union experiments with camouflage patterns , such as " TTsMKK " developed in 1944 or 1945 .
In the 1970s , US Army officer Timothy R. O 'Neill suggested that patterns consisting of square blocks of colour would provide effective camouflage . By 2000 , O 'Neill 's idea was combined with patterns like the German Flecktarn to create pixellated patterns such as CADPAT and MARPAT . Battledress in digital camouflage patterns was first designed by the Canadian Forces . The " digital " refers to the coordinates of the pattern , which are digitally defined . The term is also used of computer generated patterns like the non @-@ pixellated Multicam and the Italian fractal Vegetato pattern . Pixellation does not in itself contribute to the camouflaging effect . The pixellated style , however , simplifies design and eases printing on fabric .
= = = Non @-@ visual = = =
With the birth of radar and sonar and other means of detecting military hardware not depending on the human eye , came means of camouflaging against them . Collectively these are known as stealth technology . Aircraft and ships can be shaped to reflect radar impulses away from the sender , and covered with radar @-@ absorbing materials , to reduce their radar signature . The use of heat @-@ seeking missiles has also led to efforts to hide the heat signature of aircraft engines . Methods include exhaust ports shaped to mix hot exhaust gases with cold surrounding air , and placing the exhaust ports on the upper side of the airframe . Multi @-@ spectral camouflage attempts to hide objects from detection methods such as infra @-@ red , radar , and millimetre @-@ wave imaging simultaneously .
Auditory camouflage , at least in the form of noise reduction , is practised in various ways . The rubberized hull of military submarines absorbs sonar waves and can be seen as a form of auditory camouflage . Some modern helicopters are designed to be quiet . Combat uniforms are usually equipped with buttons rather than snap fasteners or velcro to reduce noise .
Olfactory camouflage is said to be rare ; examples include ghillie suits , special garments for military snipers made from strips of hessian cloth , which are sometimes treated with mud and even manure to give them an " earthy " smell to cover the smell of the sniper .
Magnetic camouflage in the form of " degaussing " coils has been used since the Second World War to protect ships from magnetic mines and other weapons with magnetic sensors . Horizontal coils around the whole or parts of the ship generate magnetic fields to " cancel out " distortions to the earth 's magnetic field created by the ship .
= = History = =
= = = Reconnaissance and riflemen = = =
Ship camouflage was occasionally used in ancient times . Vegetius wrote in the 4th century that " Venetian blue " ( bluish @-@ green , like the sea ) was used for camouflage in the years 56 – 54 BC during the Gallic Wars , when Julius Caesar sent his scout ships to gather intelligence along the coast of Britain . The bluish @-@ green scout ships carried sailors and marines dressed in the same colour .
The emphasis on hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , and the short range of weapons such as the musket , meant that recognition and cohesion was more important than camouflage in combat clothing well into the baroque period . The introduction of infantry weapons with longer range , especially the Baker rifle , opened up new roles which needed camouflaged clothing . In the colonial Seven Years ' War ( 1756 – 1763 ) , the rifle @-@ armed Rogers ' Rangers wore gray or green uniforms . John Graves Simcoe , one of the unit 's later commanders , noted in 1784 :
Green is without comparison the best colour for light troops with dark accouterments ; and if put on in the spring , by autumn it nearly fades with the leaves , preserving its characteristic of being scarcely discernible at a distance .
The tradition was continued by British Rifle Regiments who adopted rifle green for the Napoleonic Wars .
During the Peninsular War , Portugal fielded light infantry units known as Caçadores , who wore brown @-@ jackets which helped conceal them . The brown color was considered to be more adequate for a concealment in the landscape of most of Portuguese regions , in general more arid than the greener landscapes of Central and Northern Europe .
Other nations soon followed suit , dressing their rifle regiments and sometimes also light troops in suitable drab tones , usually variations of green or gray .
The first introduction of drab general uniform was by the British Corps of Guides in India in 1848 . Initially the drab uniform was specially imported from England , with one of the reasons being to " make them invisible in a land of dust " . However , when a larger quantity was required the army improvised , using a local dye to produce uniform locally . This type of drab uniform soon became known as khaki ( Urdu for dusty , soil @-@ coloured ) by the Indian soldiers , and was of a similar colour to a local dress of cotton coloured with the mazari palm . The example was followed by other British units during the mutiny of 1857 , dying their white drill uniforms to inconspicuous tones with mud , tea , coffee or coloured inks . The resulting hue varied from dark or slate grey through light brown to off @-@ white , or sometimes even lavender . This improvised measure gradually became widespread among the troops stationed in India and North @-@ West Frontier , and sometimes among the troops campaigning on the African continent .
= = = Rifle fire = = =
While long range rifles became the standard weapon in the 1830s , armies were slow to adapt their tactics and uniforms , perhaps as a result of mainly fighting colonial wars against less well armed opponents . Not until the First Boer War of 1880 / 81 did a major European power meet an opponent well equipped with and well versed in the use of modern long range repeating firearms , forcing an immediate change in tactics and uniforms . Khaki @-@ coloured uniform became standard service dress for both British and British Indian Army troops stationed in British India in 1885 , and in 1896 khaki drill uniform was adopted by British Army for the service outside of Europe in general , but not until the Second Boer War , in 1902 , did the entire British Army standardise on khaki ( officially known as " drab " ) for Service Dress .
The US military , who had green @-@ jacketed rifle units in the Civil War , were quick to follow the British , going khaki in the same year . Russia followed , partially , in 1908 . The Italian Army used grigio @-@ verde ( " grey @-@ green " ) in the Alps from 1906 and across the army from 1909 . The Germans adopted feldgrau ( " field grey " ) in 1910 . By the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 , France was the only major power to still field soldiers dressed in traditional conspicuous uniforms .
= = = The First World War = = =
The First World War was the first full scale industrial conflict fought with modern firearms . The casualty rate on the Western Front forced the French to finally relinquish their blue coats and red trousers , adopting a grayish " horizon blue " uniform .
The use of rapid firing machine guns and long range breech loading artillery quickly led to camouflaging of vehicles and positions . Artillery pieces were soon painted in contrasting bold colours to obscure their outlines . Another early trend was building observation trees , made of steel with bark camouflage . Such trees became popular with the British and French armies in 1916 . The observation tree was invented by French painter Lucien @-@ Victor Guirand de Scévola , who led the French army 's camouflage unit , the first of its kind in any army . He also invented painted canvas netting to hide machine gun positions , and this was quickly taken up for hiding equipment and gun positions from 1917 , 7 million square yards being used by the end of the war .
The First World War also saw the birth of aerial warfare , and with it the need not only to conceal positions and vehicles from being spotted from the air , but also the need to camouflage the aircraft themselves . In 1917 , Germany started using a lozenge camouflage covering Central Powers aircraft , possibly the earliest printed camouflage . A similarly disruptive splinter pattern in earth tones , Buntfarbenanstrich 1918 , was introduced for tanks in 1918 , and was also used on the Stahlhelm ( steel helmet ) , becoming the first use of a standardized camouflage pattern for soldiers .
= = = Camoufleurs = = =
In 1909 an American artist and amateur zoologist , Abbott Thayer published a book , Concealing @-@ Coloration in the Animal Kingdom , which was widely read by military leaders , though his advocacy of countershading was unsuccessful , despite his patent for countershading submarines and surface ships .
The earliest camouflage artists were members of the Post- Impressionist and Fauve schools of France . Contemporary artistic movements such as cubism , vorticism and impressionism also influenced the development of camouflage as they dealt with disrupting outlines , abstraction and colour theory . The French established a Section de Camouflage ( Camouflage Department ) at Amiens in 1915 , headed by Lucien @-@ Victor Guirand de Scévola . His camoufleurs included the artists Jacques Villon , André Dunoyer de Segonzac , Charles Camoin and André Mare .
Camouflage schemes of the First World War and Interwar periods that employed dazzle patterns were often described as " cubist " by commentators , and Picasso claimed with typical hyperbole " Yes , it is we who made it , that is cubism " . Most of the artists employed as camoufleurs were traditional representative painters , not cubists , but de Scévola claimed " In order to deform totally the aspect of the object , I had to employ the means that cubists use to represent it . "
Other countries soon saw the advantage of camouflage , and established their own units of artists , designers and architects . The British established a Camouflage Section in late 1916 at Wimereux , and the U.S. followed suit with the New York Camouflage Society in April 1917 , the official Company A of 40th Engineers in January 1918 and the Women 's Reserve Camouflage Corps . The Italians set up the Laboratorio di mascheramento in 1917 . By 1918 de Scévola was in command of camouflage workshops with over 9 @,@ 000 workers , not counting the camoufleurs working at the front itself .
= = = From the Second World War = = =
Printed camouflage for shelter halves was introduced for the Italian and German armies in the interwar period , the " splotchy " M1929 Telo mimetico in Italy and the angular Splittermuster 31 in Germany . During the War , both patterns were used for paratrooper uniforms for their respective countries . The British soon followed suit with a brush @-@ stroke type pattern for their paratrooper 's Denison smock , and the Soviets introduced an " amoeba " pattern overgarment for their snipers .
Hugh Cott 's 1940 book Adaptive Coloration in Animals systematically covered the different forms of camouflage and mimicry by which animals protect themselves , and explicitly drew comparisons throughout with military camouflage :
The principle is one with many applications to modern warfare . In the Great War it was utilized by the Germans when they introduced strongly marked incidents of white or black tone to conceal the fainter contrasts of tone made by the sloping sides of overhead camouflage @-@ screens , or roofing , as seen from the air . The same principle has , of course , a special application in any attempt to reduce the visibility of large objects of all kinds , such as ships , tanks , buildings , and aerodromes .
Both British and Soviet aircraft were given wave @-@ type camouflage paintwork for their upper surfaces throughout the war , while American ones remained simple two @-@ colour schemes ( different upper and under sides ) or even dispensed with camouflage altogether . Italian and some Japanese aircraft wore sprayed @-@ on spotted patterns . German aircraft mostly used an angular splint @-@ pattern camouflage , but Germany experimented with different schemes , particularly in the later stages of the war . They also experimented with various spray @-@ on camouflage patterns for tanks and other vehicles , while Allied vehicles remained largely uni @-@ coloured .
The British Middle East Command Camouflage Directorate , consisting mainly of artists recruited into the Royal Engineers , developed the use of camouflage for large @-@ scale military deception . Operations combined the disguise of actual installations , vehicles and stores with the simultaneous display of dummies , whether to draw fire or to give a false idea of the strength of forces or likely attack directions . In Operation Bertram for the decisive battle at El Alamein , a whole dummy armoured division was constructed , while real tanks were disguised as soft @-@ skinned transport using " Sunshield " covers . The capabilities so developed were put to use not only in the western desert , but also in Europe as in the Operation Bodyguard deception for the Invasion of Normandy , and in the Pacific campaign , as in the Battle of Goodenough Island .
The introduction of strategic bombing led to efforts to camouflage airfields and strategic production centres . These forms of position camouflages could be quite elaborate , and even include false houses and cars . With the threat from nuclear weapons in the post @-@ war era such elaborate camouflage was no longer seen as useful , as a direct hit would not be necessary with strategic nuclear weapons to destroy infrastructure . The Soviet Union 's military doctrine of maskirovka ( literally : disguise , camouflage , concealment ) defines the need for surprise through deception , including camouflage , based on experiences such as the Battle of Kursk where camouflage helped the Red Army to overwhelm a powerful enemy .
= = Application = =
= = = Uniforms = = =
The role of uniform is not only to hide each soldier , but also to identify friend from foe . Issue of the " Frogskin " uniforms to US troops in Europe during the Second World War was halted as it was too often mistaken for the disruptively patterned German uniform worn by the Waffen @-@ SS . Camouflage uniforms need to be made and distributed to a large number of soldiers . The design of camouflage uniforms therefore involves a tradeoff between camouflaging effect , recognizability , cost , and manufacturability .
Armies facing service in different theatres may need several different camouflage uniforms . Separate issues of temperate / jungle and desert camouflage uniforms are common . Patterns can to some extent be adapted to different terrains by adding means of fastening pieces of vegetation to the uniform . Helmets often have netting covers ; some jackets have small loops for the same purpose . Being able to find appropriate camouflage vegetation or in other ways modify the issued battle uniform to suit the local terrain is an important skill for infantry soldiers .
Countries in boreal climates often need snow camouflage , either by having reversible uniforms or simple overgarments . Such simple overgarments can be used for other terrains too . The Austrian and Israeli armies use solid colour field uniforms , relying on simple overgarments for camouflage .
= = = Land vehicles = = =
The purpose of vehicle and equipment camouflage differs from personal camouflage in that the primary threat is aerial reconnaissance . The goal is to disrupt the characteristic shape of the vehicle , to reduce shine , and to make the vehicle difficult to identify even if it is spotted .
Paint is the least effective measure , but forms a basis for other techniques . Military vehicles often become so dirty that pattern @-@ painted camouflage is not visible , and although matt colours reduce shine , a wet vehicle can still be shiny , especially when viewed from above . Patterns are designed to make it more difficult to interpret shadows and shapes . The British Army adopted a disruptive scheme for vehicles operating in the stony desert of the North African Campaign and Greece , retrospectively known as the Caunter scheme . It used up to six colours applied with straight lines .
The British Army 's Special Air Service used pink as the primary colour on its desert @-@ camouflaged Land Rover Series IIA patrol vehicles , nicknamed Pink Panthers ; the colour had been observed to be indistinguishable from sand at a distance .
Nets can be effective at defeating visual observation . Traditional camouflage nets use a textile ' garnish ' to generate an apparent texture with a depth of shadow created beneath it , and the effect can be reinforced with pieces of vegetation . Modern nets tend to be made of a continuous woven material , which is easier to deploy over a vehicle and lack the " windows " between patches of garnish of traditional nets . Some nets can remain in place while vehicles move . Simple nets are less effective in defeating radar and thermal sensors . Heavier , more durable " mobile camouflage systems " , essentially conformal duvets with thermal and radar properties , provide a degree of concealment without the delay caused by having to spread nets around a vehicle .
= = = Ships = = =
Until the 20th century , naval weapons had a short range , so camouflage was unimportant for ships , and for the men on board them . Paint schemes were selected on the basis of ease of maintenance or aesthetics , typically buff upperworks ( with polished brass fittings ) and white or black hulls . Around the start of the 20th century , the increasing range of naval engagements , as demonstrated by the Battle of Tsushima , prompted the introduction of the first camouflage , in the form of some solid shade of gray overall , in the hope that ships would fade into the mist .
First and Second World War dazzle camouflage , pioneered by English artist Norman Wilkinson , was used not to make ships disappear , but to make them seem smaller and / or faster , to encourage misidentification by an enemy and to make the ships harder to hit .
After the Second World War , the use of radar made camouflage generally less effective . However , camouflage may have helped to protect US warships from Vietnamese shore batteries using optical rangefinders .
Coastal patrol boats such as those of the Norwegian , Swedish and Indonesian navies continue to use terrestrial style disruptively patterned camouflage .
= = = Aircraft = = =
Aircraft camouflage faces the challenge that an aircraft 's background varies widely , according to whether the observer is above or below the aircraft , and with the background , e.g. farmland or desert . Aircraft camouflage schemes have often consisted of a light colour underneath and darker colours above .
Other camouflage schemes acknowledge that aircraft may be seen at any angle and against any background while in combat , so aircraft are painted all over with a disruptive pattern or a neutral colour such as gray .
Second World War maritime patrol aircraft such as the Consolidated PBY Catalina flying boat were painted white , as aircraft generally appear dark against the sky ( including at night ) , and hence are least visible when painted in as light a colour as possible . The problem of appearing dark against the sky was explored in the U.S. Navy 's Yehudi lights project in 1943 , using counter @-@ illumination to raise the average brightness of a plane , when seen head @-@ on , from a dark shape to the same as the sky . The experiments worked , enabling an aircraft to approach to within 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) before being seen , whereas aircraft without the lights were noticed 12 miles ( 19 km ) away .
The higher speeds of modern aircraft , and the reliance on radar and missiles in air combat have reduced the value of visual camouflage , while increasing the value of electronic " stealth " measures . Modern paint is designed to absorb electromagnetic radiation used by radar , reducing the signature of the aircraft , and to limit the emission of infrared light used by heat seeking missiles to detect their target . Further advances in aircraft camouflage are being investigated in the field of active camouflage .
= = In fashion and art = =
= = = Fashion and the " Dazzle Ball " = = =
The transfer of camouflage patterns from battle to exclusively civilian uses is not recent . Dazzle camouflage inspired a trend of dazzlesque patterns used on clothing in England , starting in 1919 with the " Dazzle Ball " held by Chelsea Arts Club . Those attending wore dazzle @-@ patterned black and white clothing , influencing twentieth @-@ century fashion and art via postcards ( see illustration ) and magazine articles . The Illustrated London News announced
The scheme of decoration for the great fancy dress ball given by the Chelsea Arts Club at the Albert Hall , the other day , was based on the principles of ' Dazzle ' , the method of ' camouflage ' used during the war in the painting of ships ... The total effect was brilliant and fantastic .
= = = Camouflage in art = = =
While many artists helped to develop camouflage during and since World War I , the disparate sympathies of the two cultures restrained the use of " militaristic " forms other than in the work of war artists . Since the 1960s , several artists have exploited the symbolism of camouflage . For example , Andy Warhol 's 1986 camouflage series was his last major work , including Camouflage Self @-@ Portrait . Alain Jacquet created many camouflage works from 1961 to the 1970s . Alighiero Boetti 's 1966 / 67 work " Mimetico " ( camouflage ) was simply a section of the pioneering Italian telo mimetico camouflage fabric on a frame , as part of his Arte Povera program . Ian Hamilton Finlay 's 1973 Arcadia was a screenprint of a leafily @-@ camouflaged tank , " an ironic parallel between this idea of a natural paradise and the camouflage patterns on a tank " , as the Tate Collection describes it . Veruschka , the pseudonym of Vera von Lehndorff and Holger Trülzsch , created " Nature , Signs & Animals " and " Mimicry @-@ Dress @-@ Art " in 1970 – 73 . Thomas Hirschhorn made Utopia : One World , One War , One Army , One Dress in 2005 .
= = = War protesters and fashionistas = = =
In the US in the 1960s , military clothing became increasingly common ( mostly olive drab rather than patterned camouflage ) ; it was often found worn by anti @-@ war protestors , initially within groups such as Vietnam Veterans Against the War but then increasingly widely as a symbol of political protest .
Fashion often uses camouflage as inspiration - attracted by the striking designs , the " patterned disorder " of camouflage , its symbolism ( to be celebrated or subverted [ vide its use by Hello Kitty ] ) , and its versatility . Early designers include Marimekko ( 1960s ) , Jean @-@ Charles de Castelbajac ( 1975- ) , Stephen Sprouse ( using Warhol prints , 1987 – 1988 ) , and Franco Moschino ( 1986 ) , but it was not until the 1990s that camouflage became a significant and widespread facet of dress from streetwear to high @-@ fashion labels - especially the use of " faux @-@ camouflage " . Producers using camouflage in the 1990s and beyond include : John Galliano for Christian Dior , Marc Jacobs for Louis Vuitton , Comme des Garçons , Chanel , Tommy Hilfiger , Dolce & Gabbana , Issey Miyake , Armani , Yves Saint @-@ Laurent .
Companies closely associated with camouflage patterns include 6876 , A Bathing Ape , Stone Island , Stüssy , Maharishi , mhi , Zoo York , Addict , and Girbaud , using and overprinting genuine military surplus fabric ; others use camouflage patterns in bright colours such as pink or purple . Some , such as Emma Lundgren and Stüssy , have created their own designs or integrated camouflage patterns with other symbols .
= = = Restrictions = = =
Some countries such as Barbados , Aruba , and other Caribbean nations have laws prohibiting camouflage clothing from being worn by non @-@ military personnel , including tourists and children . Civilian possession of camouflage is still banned in Zimbabwe .
= The Naked Brothers Band : The Movie =
The Naked Brothers Band is a 2005 American musical comedy film written and directed by Polly Draper which stars her sons , Nat Wolff and Alex Wolff , who portray members of a fictional rock group . It tells of the boys ' struggles with their fame and an internal dispute that causes the band to split before reuniting in the end . The film was emboldened by Nat 's genuine band , The Silver Boulders , which he created in preschool with his friends who all portray themselves alongside Nat 's faux female interest , the siblings ' real life cousin as the babysitter , and their real life father as their inept accordion @-@ playing dad .
Draper shot the film in the style of a mockumentary — a parody in documentary format — that depicts the daily activities of the characters . Nat composed and performed the music , though one song had been written by Alex . Principal photography took place in mid @-@ 2004 on location in New York City , and the interior scenes were vastly filmed in the family 's Manhattan apartment . Draper 's brother , Tim , a venture capitalist , provided financial incentives for the shoot .
In late 2005 , Polly Draper , star of Thirtysomething , and her jazz musician husband Michael Wolff , entered the film in the Hamptons International Film Festival , where it won the audience award for a family feature film . Albie Hecht , former Nickelodeon president and founder of Spike TV , was in the audience and commissioned the movie , in affiliation with his Worldwide Biggies label . It became the pilot for the potential Nickelodeon show of the same name , airing in the United States on January 27 , 2007 . The series was created and produced by Draper and premiered in February 2007 , to the channel 's highest ratings in seven years for viewers in the 6 – 11 age group .
= = Plot = =
The film begins with an introduction to the documentary from the boys . Nat and Alex Wolff , aged nine and six respectively , are members of the fictional band The Silver Boulders which also consists of Thomas , David , Josh , and their manager Cooper . The band found success after a music executive ( John B. Williams ) signed them to his label , Who 's the Man Records . The band performs their new song " Motormouth " at a concert in the Hammerstein Ballroom . After the show , the band members describe how their group started and a clip from their music video " Crazy Car " is shown .
The bandmates get along well until Thomas composes the song " Boys Rule , Girls Drool " , which Nat dislikes . Nat writes a song called " Rosalina " that is about Josh 's elder half @-@ sister . Thomas and Josh ridicule Nat because the song shows his feelings for her . Moreover , Josh composes another song that Nat also dislikes , titled " I 'm the God of Rock and Roll " , set to the tune of " Twinkle , Twinkle , Little Star " . The band has a food fight in a restaurant , prompting Thomas , David , and Josh to leave and form a new group , The Gold Boulders , managed by the scornful Mort Needleman ( Jonathan Pillot ) .
After watching media reports of the band 's split on television , Nat and Alex go into a state of depression . Alex begins to binge on lemon @-@ lime soda and falls asleep , while he lies curled in the midst of aluminum cans . Nat simultaneously writes a song by the piano titled " If There Was a Place to Hide " as the band 's fans gather outside his apartment , pleading for them to reunite . Despite the absence of the formers , Alex persuades a reluctant Nat to revive the band , and subsequently , they change the band 's title to its original , The Naked Brothers Band . Through a line @-@ up of auditions , Nat , Alex , and Cooper select Rosalina as their cellist and Cole Hawkins — a member of the original Naked Brothers Band — as the guitarist .
The newly established band embark on a tour to Chicago , though Nat discovers that The Gold Boulders is their opening act . The Gold Boulders start the show with " Boys Rule , Girls Drool " and are immediately booed off the stage . After their performance , The Naked Brothers Band perform " Hardcore Wrestlers ( with Inner Feelings ) " and " Rosalina " , which are greeted with a loud applause from the audience . After the concert , Nat hosts a party for the band in his apartment . In the midst of the party , David , Thomas , and Josh arrive at his front door , asking to join the reconstructed band . Forgivingly , a surprised Nat welcomes them to join the celebration . The film concludes with the outfit performing " Crazy Car " on the roof of the Wolffs ' apartment while fireworks detonate in the background .
= = Characters = =
Adults over the age of 18 are nonsensical , and therefore , the children are responsible for undertaking challenging circumstances . Nat is the lead singer @-@ songwriter and keyboardist , while his younger brother Alex is the flamboyant drummer . Alex invented a distinctive outfit : a red , white , and blue do @-@ rag with socks tied around his ankles . He has a crush on the band 's nanny and tutor , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Jesse Cook ( Jesse Draper ) . Nat is called " The Girl Magnet " and tends to speak with an English accent in front of 11 @-@ year @-@ old Rosalina ( Allie DiMeco ) . The group also features Nat 's preschool friends – David ( David Levi ) as the keyboardist , Thomas ( Thomas Batuello ) as the cellist , Josh ( Joshua Kaye ) as the guitarist – and Cooper ( Cooper Pillot ) is the band 's manager . The brothers ' father ( Michael Wolff ) is an inept accordionist .
Principal Schmoke ( Tim Draper ) leads Amigo Elementary School . The Timmerman Brothers is a band consisting of brothers Donnie ( Adam Draper ) , Johnny ( Coulter Mulligan ) , and Billy ( Billy Draper ) . They had a hit single titled " Splishy Splashy Soap Bubble " , but their careers ended when their voices changed during puberty . Music critic ( Barbara eda @-@ Young ) describes The Silver Boulders ' music as " nostalgic " . The romantic couple ( James Badge @-@ Dale and Gretchen Egolf ) recall the group performing " Crazy Car " at their wedding ceremony .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Through their father , Nat and Alex were exposed to music from birth . As a four @-@ year @-@ old , Nat showed musical gifts that astounded his father . He easily taught himself piano chords , which he called " ' my proud chords ' " . As a five @-@ year @-@ old , he began to compose songs after listening to music by The Beatles and Alex began playing the saxophone when he was two . Nat and his brother once shouted , " We 're the naked brothers band ! " after having a bath , which inspired the name of the movie . As a pre @-@ schooler , Nat and his friends formed a band called The Silver Boulders .
Following the September 11 terrorist attacks , Nat wrote a song titled " Firefighters " when he was six years old , which he performed with his band for charity . The benefit concert was staged behind his family 's apartment and raised over US $ 45 @,@ 000 , which was donated to the children of the personnel from New York City Fire Department 's Squad 18 who were killed as a result of the attacks . After the successful concert , the band began to perform at gay and lesbian Christmas celebrations , one @-@ year @-@ old birthday parties , and restaurants . Then Alex , emboldened by Ringo Starr , chose to play drums in the band .
After the break @-@ up of The Silver Boulders , the siblings decided to revive The Naked Brothers Band . Draper did not want her children to be actors ; she explained , " Nat kept putting signs on his door : ' I want to be a child actor ! ' I said , ' No , it 's too brutal . ' " However , Nat wrote and directed a sitcom called Don 't Eat Off My Plate , which Draper presented in documentary style by interviewing his friends .
Michael Wolff set up a recording session in the music studio along with Nat , Alex , and himself . Draper was impressed by the recording and contemplated making a mockumentary about the band , presenting the boys as music icons akin to The Beatles . In a TV Guide interview in early 2007 , Draper explained , " What originally happened was that Nat and Alex had a band , and the idea evolved based on that . Spinal Tap meets The Little Rascals was my concept ... I wanted to have that Help ! or A Hard Day 's Night kind of feeling . "
= = = Filming = = =
The film was originally intended as an extended family project , and was shot over five weeks in mid @-@ 2004 for less than US $ 1 million . Filming took place on location in New York City — where , according to Draper , the crew " would sneak into locations and run " — and at the Draper @-@ Wolff family apartment in Manhattan . Draper wrote and directed the film , which was produced by Ken H. Keller , Caron Rudner , Jonathan Pillot , Michael Wolff and Draper herself . The film was co @-@ produced by Fotene Trigonis and edited by Craig Cobb , who also served as the associate producer . The executive producers were Draper , Wolff , and Draper 's brother , Tim , who oversaw the budget . Keller used a color framing , high @-@ definition video camera . Rudner served as the line producer , while John M. Davis was the music editor . Rick Butler served as the production designer , Frederick Howard was the supervising sound editor , and Deb Temco oversaw the casting . Moreover , David Levi 's father , Robert , provided footage of the real @-@ life preschool band 's daily antics ; they sang and played instruments in the Wolffs ' apartment , and Nat wrote the music .
When Polly Draper told her friend Julianne Moore and her husband , writer and director Bart Freundlich , about the film , Freundlich responded , " Julia would love to be in your movie . " Moore changed her schedule at late notice to participate in filming , and Draper wrote Moore 's scene as it was being filmed ; Draper quickly created a set that depicted the backstage green room of the talk show , Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . Moore and Nat filmed the scene in one take , and Draper was impressed with her son 's performance , while saying that Moore 's presence added credibility to the project .
= = = Casting = = =
Most of the cast were friends or relatives of the Draper @-@ Wolff clan . Tim Draper is Polly 's brother and John B. Williams is the cellist for Michael Wolff 's band Impure Thoughts . Barbara eda @-@ Young , James Badge @-@ Dale , Gretchen Egolf , and Cooper Pillot had previously performed with Draper in her playwriting Getting Into Heaven in 2003 . Jesse Draper is Tim 's daughter and thus Polly 's niece , and Nat and Alex 's cousin . Billy and Adam Draper are Tim 's sons , and Coulter Mulligan is Jesse 's cousin and Polly 's nephew .
Many of Wolff and Draper 's show business friends appeared in the film . Wolff had been the music director for jazz singer Nancy Wilson and she introduced him to Arsenio Hall , who later chose Wolff as the bandleader of his talk show . Tony Shalhoub portrayed Phil in Draper 's screenwriting debut The Tic Code , which was emboldened by Wolff 's difficulties with Tourette syndrome as well as his exploits as a jazz pianist . Draper guest starred in the first season of Shalhoub 's hit sitcom Monk . Other guest stars in the movie include Cyndi Lauper , David Thornton , Brent Popolizio , Cindy Blackman , and Ricki Lake . In addition , Draper had also made a cameo alongside her Thirtysomething co @-@ stars Tim Busfield , Mel Harris , Peter Horton , Melanie Mayron , Ken Olin , and Patricia Wettig .
David Levi , Thomas Batuello , and Joshua Kaye were preschool friends of Nat . Moore 's son , Cal , has been a classmate of Alex since preschool , while Uma Thurman 's daughter was also a preschool friend of Alex . Ann Curry 's son Walker , an original member of The Silver Boulders , was Nat 's friend in preschool . Cole Hawkins , an actor who also starred as Leonard in the 2003 musical comedy film School of Rock , had no previous involvement with the band . The actress Allie DiMeco was also not a member of the group ; she auditioned for her role .
= = = Music = = =
Nat wrote most of the songs performed in the film . As a six @-@ year @-@ old , he composed a melody without lyrics , which he later used as the basis for the bubblegum pop piece " Crazy Car " . The song was meant to emulate the music of The Beach Boys . " Firefighters " , the song written by Nat for a local 9 / 11 fundraiser , was later retitled to " Rosalina " for the movie . Nat wrote " Motormouth " while he was angry at Alex . Another song , " That 's How It Is " , was written by Alex after an unsuccessful dating attempt with a teenager ten years his senior . Additional songs Nat performed in the film include " Got No Mojo " , " Hardcore Wrestlers ( with Inner Feelings ) " , " I Need You " , " Sorry Girl " , and " If There Was a Place to Hide " .
Michael Wolff contributed the underscore and produced the music with Michael A. Levine . In the film , Wolff performed the songs " Rathskeller Polka " , " Rathskeller Waltz " , " Naked Party Polka " , and " Naked Tango " . He played the underscore for " Shakey Shakey " ( lyrics by Alex ) , and " Boys Rule , Girls Drool " and " Splishy Splashy ( Timmerman Song ) " , both written by Draper . The elder Wolff was once the musical director for jazz artist Nancy Wilson ; in the movie , Wilson sang a rendition of the song " Crazy Car " .
= = Releases and debuts = =
= = = Television spin @-@ off = = =
According to Michael Wolff , the family made the film without expecting a television series spin @-@ off . Their agent believed the film would be lucrative and market research showed a positive reaction with a young audience . After the film was shown at the Hamptons International Film Festival , Nickelodeon bought it . Moreover , " Albie Hecht had an independent production deal with Nickelodeon " and believed the film suited the network and that a television show was feasible . Draper and Wolff did not want their children in show business at such a young age but agreed when Hecht 's agent promised to work within the boy 's schedule , so that they would not miss school . This meant a summer shooting schedule in New York and short , 13 @-@ episode seasons . Nonetheless , after three seasons , despite the extremely high ratings , network executives urged the family to lengthen the 13 episode season to 60 . Draper and Wolff refused , and as a result , the series was cancelled without any public announcement made by the network .
Tom Ashiem , the executive vice president and general manager of Nickelodeon explained , " At first , we were intrigued by the idea , but we weren 't sure kids would get the vague tongue @-@ and @-@ cheek @-@ of @-@ it . Then a bunch of us took it home to
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our own children and they loved it . " The Naked Brothers Band television series ran from 2007 to 2009 . Draper was the creator , head writer , executive producer , and director , while Hecht was the other executive producer and his production company Worldwide Biggies produced the series . Later , made @-@ for @-@ TV movies were created and aired as the series continued — a total of eight have been screened on Nickelodeon . The latter films often consisted of an extended , two @-@ part episode — Nickelodeon usually uses the " movie " definition for these hour @-@ long episodes — and were usually broadcast as part of a holiday event or on weekends .
= = = International debuts = = =
The film aired worldwide , debuting in the Uniin Canada on September 10 , 2007 on YTV and in Germany on October 20 , 2007 . The film received a Region 1 DVD release on April 3 , 2007 through Nickelodeon and Paramount Home Entertainment .
= = Reception = =
The film won the audience award for a family feature film at the Hamptons International Film Festival in 2005 . It also received a nomination at the Young Artist Awards in 2008 for Best Television Movie or Special . When it premiered on the network , it was seen by an average of 2 @.@ 7 million viewers . The movie was also broadcast four times , producing a total viewership of 14 million ; it was placed on the top 10 spot of Nielsen VideoScan children 's non @-@ theatrical DVD charts . The song " Crazy Car " was downloaded more than 100 @,@ 000 times on iTunes ; and it peaked at number eighty @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 for one week and the track was featured on the Nickelodeon 's Kids ' Choice , Vol 3 .
Ronnie Sheib , of Variety , wrote : " Convincingly faithful to kids ' rhythms and speech patterns , and featuring several catchy if one @-@ chorus numbers , this bouncy , feel @-@ good kidpic , with targeted release strategy , could rock peers and parents alike . " Felicia R. Lee from The New York Times called the film " an ebullient mock documentary " . Tami Horiuchi of Amazon.com said that this " funny spoof of the Hollywood rockumentary genre is so over @-@ done that some viewers might find it distasteful , offensive , and / or inappropriate for children " and recommended an age group between the ages of 9 and 13 .
= Drug Testing ( The Office ) =
" Drug Testing " is the twentieth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the twenty @-@ sixth episode overall . It was written by Jennifer Celotta and directed by Greg Daniels , who is also an executive producer , and the series ' show runner . It first aired in the United States on April 27 , 2006 on NBC . The episode guest stars Marilyn Brett as the urine tester and Hugh Dane as Hank the security guard .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) finds pieces of a joint in the parking lot , and begins an investigation to find the owner . Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) , worrying that he may not pass a drug test , pressures Dwight for a cup of clean urine to pass the drug test . Failing to find the culprit and guilty over providing the urine to Michael , Dwight resigns as a volunteer sheriff . Later , Michael assigns Dwight the title of " Honorary Security Adviser " .
Several of the scenes were based on the actors ' real @-@ life talents , such as Krasinski 's ability to impersonate people . The episode was also the final episode of the season to be filmed , though not the last to air . " Drug Testing " was watched by 7 @.@ 8 million viewers and received mostly positive reviews from critics , although one review did criticize the plot for not quite coming together .
= = Plot = =
Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) finds half of a joint in the parking lot of the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the Dunder Mifflin Paper Company , and takes advantage of his volunteer sheriff deputy status to investigate its source with Jim saying " Dwight finding drugs is more dangerous than people using drugs . " Meanwhile , when Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) say the same thing simultaneously , Pam calls " jinx " , meaning that Jim cannot talk until he buys her a Coke . Unfortunately , the vending machine is sold out . When Dwight sets up urine testing , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) worries that a " clove cigarette " he smoked at a concert will show up .
Michael conducts an anti @-@ drug meeting for the entire office in an unsuccessful attempt to avoid the drug test . Jim continues to hold up his end of the jinx , even as Pam teases him . When she says " you can tell me anything " , an awkward silence follows . Michael pressures Dwight for a cup of his " clean " urine , which he uses to pass the drug test . Dwight turns in his volunteer sheriff badge , feeling guilty for helping Michael . Pam buys Jim his Coke , which he buys off of her so she can find out what 's been happening with Dwight the whole day . Michael feels guilty , so he makes Dwight an " Honorary Security Advisor " for Dunder Mifflin Scranton .
The episode ends with talking head interview with Jim , discussing Dwight 's actions for Michael . There is a quick cut @-@ away to a visual of Jim talking to Pam in the breakroom . He states , " I just don 't get it . What does he get out of that relationship ? " The camera emphasizes his own relationship with Pam , and why he went through with the jinx all day .
= = Production = =
" Drug Testing " was written by Jennifer Celotta and directed by show runner and executive producer Greg Daniels . Fischer noted that the subplot featuring Jim unable to talk was important because " Pam and Jim can say a lot to one another without any words at all " , a reference to the " 27 seconds of silence " the two shared in the earlier episode " Booze Cruise " . Michael has a bandage around his finger in this episode because Steve Carell hurt his finger during the week and was unable to remove his wedding ring due to the swelling . Instead of cutting off his ring , the crew simply wrapped a bandage around it .
Several of the scenes were based on the actor 's real @-@ life talents as well as improvised . When Michael tells Pam to " write this down " , Jenna Fischer 's response to the camera was improvised . " I thought it was funny that I didn 't have a pad of paper but Michael was telling me to take notes , " she explained in her MySpace blog , " so I just looked to the camera and showed my lack of pen and paper . " Jim 's impression of Stanley in this episode was inspired by John Krasinski 's actual talent of doing impressions on the set .
This was the final episode of the season to be filmed , though not the last to air . According to Jenna Fischer , everybody on the set was excited in a manner that she likened to students on the last day of school . The giddiness particularly shows in Fischer 's performance : Pam skips after Jim into the break room , she bounces on her toes at the end of the " fake crying " talking head , and she taps the soda can three times to get Jim to release the jinx .
The Season Two DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Jim doing impressions of Kevin and Angela for Pam , Dwight noting that he is so determined to find the culprit that he is prepared to pray " to Thor himself " , Toby saying that he does not think Michael is taking drugs , Jim secretly doing an impression of Dwight right in front of him , Dwight talking about Jim and concluding that , " If that were my life , I 'd do drugs " , Pam toying with Dwight by admitting that she " was a teensy bit high ... in the parking lot at the Quick and Easy " , Meredith coming to Jim because Pam told her he had something to tell her . Jim is under the jinx and says nothing , Kelly putting a customer on hold when she is called by Dwight and forgetting to return , Dwight taking notes during the conference , Pam showing the camera the flyer that Michael made up for the conference , and Lee and Gino , the workers at Vance Refrigeration , discarding a joint in the parking lot .
= = Cultural references = =
Michael notes that he had gotten high at an Alicia Keys concert . During Michael 's anti @-@ drug meeting , he misidentifies hookah as an illegal drug ; Toby points out the fact that it is merely a pipe . Dwight notes that he 'll have to bring in his bō staff , a long staff weapon used in Okinawa and feudal Japan , to protect the office . Jim later notes that Dwight was dressed like a member of the disco group the Village People .
= = Reception = =
" Drug Testing " originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 26 , 2006 . " Drug Testing " received 3 @.@ 9 / 10 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings . This means that 3 @.@ 9 percent of all households with an 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old living in it watched the episode , and ten percent had their television tuned to the channel at any point . " Drug Testing " was watched by 7 @.@ 8 million viewers .
" Drug Testing " was generally well received by critics . Lindsey Thomas of Rolling Stone named Dwight interrogating the workers in the Office after finding the joint in the parking lot one of the top twenty @-@ five scenes from the show , ranking it at number fifteen . Alan Sepinwall of The Seattle Times wrote that " ' Drug Testing ' ( in which Rainn Wilson 's supercilious Dwight paraded around the office wearing a Smokey Bear hat and carrying a coffee cup filled with undrinkable liquid ) " allowed the show to finally make " The Leap . " Brendan Babish of DVD Verdict was pleased with the entry and awarded it an " A – " . He was pleased with the episode 's emphasis on Dwight and called it " a far better showcase for Dwight 's many charms than ' Dwight 's Speech ' . " M. Giant of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an " A " . Not all reviews were so glowing . Michael Sciannamea of AOL TV was more critical of the episode and wrote that he " didn 't think this episode was so hot " , calling the premise " a good idea that didn 't really take off " . He also disliked Jim and Pam 's subplot and called it " rather childish " and wrote that it " didn 't seem to go anywhere " .
= Chrissie Watts =
Christine " Chrissie " Watts is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders , played by Tracy @-@ Ann Oberman . She first appeared in April 2004 as the second wife of the show 's " most enduring character " , Den Watts , becoming a prominent regular for the next 18 months . In 2005 she was the focus of one of " the programme 's biggest and most high @-@ profile narratives " when she killed her husband in a fit of rage during the special 20th anniversary episode . The broadcast , airing on 18 February , was watched by 14 @.@ 34 million people , with " almost 60 % of possible viewers " tuning in to see Chrissie take revenge . The character was credited by former head of BBC Drama Serials , Mal Young , as " anchoring the success of the anniversary storyline " , and was described on the news programme BBC Breakfast as the " centrepiece " of the show , with the on @-@ screen drama playing out over the course of the year and culminating in Chrissie 's departure in December .
Chrissie Watts was created by the production team to be more the " equal " of her notorious and villainous husband than his long @-@ suffering first wife , Angie . The character was described by Oberman as being like Angie " but with 15 more years of feminism behind her " , and was hailed by the TV editor of the Evening Standard as " the only strong woman left in Walford " . She became well known for her deviousness and " scheming " , echoing the traits of her husband , with the official EastEnders website characterising her as " happy to play mind games " and " often two steps ahead " of Den . As part of the Watts family , her story lines centre on her tumultuous marriage to Den , her relationship with his children , and the ongoing feud with the rival Mitchell family . She was involved in numerous clashes with other female characters , Oberman noting that Chrissie had " had more fights on EastEnders than most women have in their whole lives " , and was constantly scheming against those who got in her way , earning her the sobriquet of " super @-@ bitch " .
Oberman won praise for her " three @-@ dimensional portrayal of a classic soap bitch " , with Chrissie hailed as " helping revive the show 's fortunes that had been lagging somewhat in recent years " . According to the Daily Mirror reporter Elizabeth Hassell , the character became a " national TV heroine " to viewers shortly after arriving , for standing up to the antics of her dastardly husband , and is most often cited as a " strong " and " clever " woman ; " hard as nails " in " the grand tradition of landladies of the Queen Vic " . Although generally well received by viewers , the character was described as a " ludicrous Lady MacBeth wannabe " by Jim Shelley of the Daily Mirror . Other critics have variously called Chrissie a " witch " , " venomous " , and the show 's resident " black widow " .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Backstory = = =
Chrissie Watts first appears in EastEnders on 29 April 2004 . She and Den ( Leslie Grantham ) had met in Spain and married some years earlier , during which time he was believed to be dead by his family and associates . Their marriage was tumultuous , with Chrissie eventually leaving Den after she saw him " pawing all over that tourist guide . " She then learnt that Den had sold their bar and returned to the UK with " some girl " ; Chrissie followed intent on recovering her share of the money .
= = = 2004 – 05 = = =
Chrissie arrives in Walford in search of her husband Den . Their marriage has turned sour and he has sold their bar in Spain and taken the money . Den manages to persuade her to give their marriage another try , and to stay in Walford with him . She is shocked to discover he has children , Sharon Watts ( Letitia Dean ) , Dennis Rickman ( Nigel Harman ) and Vicki Fowler ( Scarlett Johnson ) , and that while he was in Spain with her , he was in exile after faking his own death . She starts work as a hairdresser in Kate Mitchell 's ( Jill Halfpenny ) nail salon and helps stepdaughter Vicki with her plans to enter fashion school . However , Den 's elusive behaviour raises her suspicions that he is having an affair . He almost convinces her that she is mistaken , but she eventually learns that her fears were correct and uncovers the affair between Den and Kate . Feigning friendship , she hacks off most of Kate 's hair and smashes up the beauty salon in a rage . She leaves Walford distraught at Den 's betrayal .
Den departs for Spain on business , and Chrissie returns to the salon as she remains the co @-@ owner . She remains hostile to Kate for some time , but eventually calls a truce . She then becomes concerned over Vicki 's much older boyfriend Tommy Grant ( Robert Cavanah ) , and exposes him as a liar . At this point , Den returns intent on securing her forgiveness . However , she does not succumb to his charm offensive , and so as a demonstration of his affection he confides in her of his plans to bankrupt the Mitchell family and take control of The Queen Victoria public house , declaring that he can 't do it without her . She relents , but warns if he ever cheats again she will kill him . Together , they scam the Mitchell family out of their holdings and move into the Vic on Christmas Day , 2004 .
In January , Dennis catches Den and his girlfriend Zoe Slater ( Michelle Ryan ) in bed together and tells Chrissie who is stunned . Zoe discovers she is pregnant by Den . Chrissie persuades her to abort the baby , and later reveals that she knows it was Den 's baby . Chrissie , Zoe and Sam Hunter ( Kim Medcalf ) plan revenge on Den ; Chrissie for his lies and adultery , Zoe for forcing her to fake a pregnancy and then sleep with him , and Sam for losing her pub to Den in a corrupt scheme that both he and Chrissie were involved in . Chrissie plans to intimidate Den into signing the pub over to her . They confront Den but he takes it in his stride and openly talks about his sins , unaware that Sharon is hiding at the other side of the pub , listening to her father 's confessions . Sharon berates Chrissie for tricking her into coming back to Walford with the lie that her father is ill . She storms out of the pub and Den follows . Chrissie knows that Sharon is the one person Den truly loves and cares about and knows that losing Den the love of his favourite child will destroy him . Den walks back in and she taunts him that he now knows what it is like to lose what he loves most . Unable to contain his rage , Den attacks his wife and hits her head against a fruit machine . Zoe picks up the nearest object ( a metal , dog @-@ shaped doorstop ) and hits Den over the head with it and he falls to the ground . Perceiving him to be dead , Zoe and Sam go out the back to turn all the lights off and lock all the doors . A smug Chrissie starts to gloat that Den is dead , as if to say she has won . Den suddenly grabs her leg and hisses , " You 'll never get me out of the Vic . " so Chrissie picks up the doorstop and delivers a fatal blow to his head , secretly watched by Sam . The three women bury him in a hole in the pub 's cellar , which is filled with cement the next morning .
Despite knowing that she is innocent , Chrissie allows Zoe to believe that she has killed Den . Consequently , a power struggle breaks out between Sam – who wants her pub back in return for her silence – and Chrissie , with each woman trying to gain control of Zoe . In the meantime , Chrissie publicly accounts for Den 's sudden absence by declaring that he has run off with another woman and attempts to make her story convincing by throwing his clothes into the street and engaging in a bogus phone conversation with him in front of a packed pub . She successfully removes Zoe from the Square for a time , and begins a relationship with Jake Moon ( Joel Beckett ) ; however , Sam has taken the doorstop and hidden it in her flat . She then proceeds to blackmail Chrissie by saying that unless the pub is given back to her , she will inform the police . Chrissie stalls for time , and eventually calls Sam 's bluff , declaring that she will take Sam down with her if she goes to the police . Desperate , Sam tries to corner Chrissie by telling Zoe the truth . Zoe confronts Chrissie before fleeing to Spain , telling her mother Kat Slater ( Jessie Wallace ) what has happened before she goes .
Dennis and Sharon return to Walford in search of their father . On their wedding day , a drunken Sam grows frustrated and smashes up Den 's grave and digs up his body in the hope that Chrissie will be sent down for his death . This backfires and Sam is arrested on suspicion of murder as Den 's bloodstains are found under her sink and her story constantly changes . Chrissie asks Kat to get her cousin , Stacey Slater ( Lacey Turner ) , to give a false alibi that Zoe and Chrissie were with her on the night Den died , and Kat agrees as it means that Zoe is safe from the police . Sam 's mother , Peggy Mitchell , returns to Walford to free Sam , and slaps Chrissie during Den 's funeral . The slap causes Chrissie to fall into Den 's grave on top of the coffin .
Chrissie plans to sell the pub to Johnny Allen ( Billy Murray ) and a mystery second buyer , and flee the country , although Phil and Grant Mitchell try to taunt her . Chrissie though , is unfazed , as Sharon still supports her – however , Grant finally convinces Sharon to visit Sam in prison . Sharon still believes Chrissie is innocent , but finally learns the truth when Chrissie makes an innocuous , but telling , comment . Realising that Sharon knows , Chrissie becomes distraught as she felt that so long as Sharon , Den 's daughter , thought well of her , she could think well of herself . Panicking , she begins to make mistakes , arguing with Jake outside of Johnny 's club . Chrissie had confessed her role in Den 's death to Jake , and lets information regarding her guilt slip as they argue . This is caught on CCTV by Johnny , who delights in telling Jake that he has a recording . Chrissie asks to get the money for The Queen Victoria right away , and Johnny takes advantage , saying the only way she will get the money is if she sleeps with him . Chrissie resists , saying that she will not hurt Jake . Johnny tells her that she will not receive the money , and tells Phil and Grant about the tape .
Chrissie discovers that Ian Beale ( Adam Woodyatt ) is the mystery buyer of the pub , and she and Jake make a quick sale to Ian before fleeing the Square . At the airport , they see Sharon , Phil and Grant with the police . Sharon confronts and then punches Chrissie , who is then arrested for Den 's murder . Chrissie says that she will only co @-@ operate in exchange for a meeting with Sharon . This is earned , and she tries to make Sharon realise why she killed her father , to no avail . She reveals that she forged Den 's signature on the document in which Den handed over the pub to Chrissie , thus the pub legally belongs to Sharon . Jake visits Chrissie in jail and asks her to marry him . She finds out that he has lost the £ 25 @,@ 000 that was to be her bail money , and storms out of the visiting room , calling Jake an idiot . She begins plotting revenge on Sharon for sending her to prison by trying to force her to testify in court about what Den was really like , wanting to see Sharon crumble at confessing how he cheated and supposedly beat her mother ( which he never did ) . After a week in prison , she gives up and dismisses her solicitor , and decides to plead guilty to murder . After an emotional farewell to Jake , she walks into her cell with a contented smile .
Though Chrissie has not been seen or heard of since , when Sam ( now played by Danniella Westbrook ) returns to Walford in September 2009 , she is arrested for her role in Den 's murder and expresses a fear of running into Chrissie in prison .
= = Creation and casting = =
The creation of a second wife for Den Watts ( Leslie Grantham ) , the show 's " most enduring character " and " one of the best @-@ loved villains in soap history " , came 15 years after his first wife had departed the screen . Angie Watts ( Anita Dobson ) was an iconic character in British television history , with her troublesome marriage to Den largely anchoring EastEnders extraordinary success when it was launched in the mid @-@ 80s . In an interview shortly after she first appeared on @-@ screen as Chrissie Watts , Tracy Ann Oberman noted how coming into the show after Angie was an intimidating prospect and " a big act to follow " .
Casting for the character was hectic , with Oberman describing the process as a " whirlwind " affair . The role of the second Mrs Den Watts was highly sought after with Oberman eventually beating out high profile stars like Patsy Kensit , Cheryl Baker and Joanna Lumley for the part . In a 2004 ' Star Chat ' interview featured in The People , Oberman commented on her casting : " I couldn 't have wished for a better part . I mean the Watts family are a national institution . When I realised I was auditioning for the role of Dirty Den 's wife , my jaw just dropped . I never thought I 'd get it . Amazing , swanky actresses , like Joanna Lumley and Patsy Kensit , were all considered , but Leslie Grantham and I had great chemistry from the off and I think he said : ' I want her . ' " Oberman was on holiday when she received a call saying she had been cast in the role and was required to be on set the next Tuesday . All told the audition process had taken just two weeks , with Oberman beginning filming a mere ten days after her initial screen test . In fact the schedule was so tight that Oberman was on set and taping scenes before a contract had even been signed .
The arrival of Chrissie Watts was announced barely a month before she was set to first appear on @-@ screen , and came at a time when EastEnders was undergoing immense media criticism and falling ratings . The rush of casting meant Oberman had little time to process the enormity of the part she had taken on , declaring : " my feet haven 't even touched the ground yet . [ ... ] I haven 't had time to think about what this role is going to do to my life ! I 'm very excited to be part of such a fantastic show and one I have been a fan of for many years . " She admitted , however , to being " slightly intimidated " by the high media profile and press interest surrounding the show at the time . Indeed , joining EastEnders " proved to be something of a baptism of fire for Oberman " , as she was playing opposite Leslie Grantham whose recent return to the show had been a highly publicised event . Twenty @-@ four hours after Chrissie 's first episode went to air a scandal surrounding Grantham hit the tabloid papers . According to Oberman , the atmosphere on set the next day " was a bit tense " but , she added , " the Watts are pulling together and we 're getting on with it and working " . However Oberman was also reportedly finding things difficult , having walked into a highly complicated situation : " Tracy @-@ Ann is still really finding her feet on the show ... she feels really left out because all the cast are blackballing Grantham and refusing to talk to him . Since most of her scenes are with Grantham , it 's really hard for her . " Looking back on the incident after she had left EastEnders , Oberman remarked , " I respect Leslie for fronting it out ; he emerged from his dressing room and started working . No one mentioned the story . That 's life in EastEnders ; the machine never stops . "
The increasing prominence of Chrissie in EastEnders meant that Oberman , more than most , had to endure the gruelling schedule of working on a soap , taping up to twenty scenes a day . Although she was only in EastEnders for 18 months , such was the centrality of Chrissie to the show and storylines Oberman felt she had done 4 years worth of acting , noting that by the time of her departure " Chrissie has packed into a year what most soap characters do in three . " This all came during a period of great uncertainty for the show ; media criticism and negative publicity created immense pressure behind @-@ the @-@ scenes , with large @-@ scale cast culls and speculation in the press and on the set over who may be next . In an interview with the Sunday Mirror , Oberman described the atmosphere as like a " vacuum " , with the cast " just waiting to see what the next stage is – It can be a bit tense but it 's exciting . I really don 't know what 's going to happen . " However , the prominent role of Chrissie in the show as it moved forward meant that Oberman came out of the uncertainty with more to show than most , receiving an improved deal and extending her contract for a year , with the BBC 's head of drama John Yorke declaring he had " big plans " for Chrissie .
= = Character development = =
= = = Personality = = =
Unlike Angie , Den 's first wife , Chrissie " has a strong will and fights for what she wants " . However , as Oberman noted , " there is enough of Angie in Chrissie to see that Den likes a certain type of strong woman . Chrissie is Angie with 15 years of feminism behind her " , explaining in an interview with Radio 4 : " I like to think of Chrissie as Angie with benefits ... She 's his [ Den 's ] equal a bit more than Angie was . " Oberman later expanded : " Chrissie , unlike Angie , won 't hit the bottle as soon as Den starts playing away . She 's proved she 's ready to sit and wait for her revenge . She 's a great , strong character " . Talking to the Daily Mirror shortly after appearing on @-@ screen for the first time in April , Oberman declared , " Chrissie is the sort of woman I 'd really like to be friends with ... She 's an Essex girl who was brought up in a family of brothers , so she knows how to work men . She understands that what they say is not always what they mean . " In her official character profile , Chrissie is portrayed as someone " happy to play mind games " and " often two steps ahead of her husband " , being described as " the type of person to be your best friend . But if you cross her , she 'll get her own back in the end . " Her strong @-@ willed persona has led reviewers to label the character as " venomous " , " sinister " " devious " , and " hard as nails " in " the grand tradition of landladies of the Queen Vic " , manipulating others to ensure matters go her way . As the " scheming " figure of the show , she was described as a " witch " and " super @-@ bitch " , but was also represented as " strong " and " clever " woman . Executive producer Kate Harwood characterised Chrissie as a survivor , someone who " thinks on her feet " whatever the situation . Oberman has stated that she was thrilled to be " playing such a strong female character " , whom she described as not a bad person at heart but one willing to stand and " fight in her corner " .
An aspect of Chrissie 's personality is her wardrobe and style , with EastEnders costume designer Di Humphreys noting that " Chrissie 's clothes reflect her strong , upfront character . " According to Oberman the production team was keen to emphasise this in the manner of her dress : " For Chrissie 's wardrobe , we decided she is dressy and over co @-@ ordinated " , explaining how the character 's fashion sense was informed by her own observations of British expatriates : " When I heard I had the part of Chrissie I was on holiday in Spain , where she had been living , and I remember looking at all the ex @-@ pat women , and thinking how co @-@ ordinated they are . Their hair is always perfect , their bags match their gloves and shoes and scarves . " The show 's make @-@ up artist , Elizabeth Armistead , has also spoken of the way Chrissie 's " glamorous , polished look " informs her characterisation and personality : " Chrissie 's a confident person who rarely leaves anything to chance . Even in moments of despair , though her facial expression reflects her turmoil , she never has a hair out of place . " The look was part of a desire to represent the character as a " strong " and " forceful " figure , with one interviewer describing Chrissie as " quite flashy " and " glam " . According to Humprehys this is manifested in " Chrissie ’ s outfits , [ which ] are a mixture of designer and High Street ... Chrissie 's got a great sense of style . She makes High Street clothes look made to measure . " Oberman felt Chrissie 's fashion sensibilities to be a critical element of the character : " she 's like Angie with 15 more years of Sex and The City thrown in " , referring to an American televisied serial notable for fashion . Even before stepping foot on set Oberman spent eight hours with Humphreys shopping for Chrissie 's clothes at Selfridges where they " spent a fortune ! " The character 's highly stylised representation on @-@ screen earned Oberman the award for best @-@ dressed soap star in 2005 , and reflected Chrissie 's new @-@ found role as the " voluptuous landlady " of The Queen Vic . In the media the character was widely regarded as the show 's ultimate femme fatale and resident " sex symbol " , being described by John Dingwall of the Daily Record as Walford 's " black widow " .
In an interview with the Sunday Mirror , Oberman revealed that she was attracted to the mesh of sexuality and humour in the personality of Chrissie , declaring , " What I really like is she 's got the sex and dry sarcasm " . Speaking to the official EastEnders website , she expanded on the importance of Chrissie 's sense of humour and wit to her " feisty " characterisation : " What I love about Chrissie is that she 's a good strong , funny female character ... she 's got a really good sense of humour which is necessary to deal with Den . She 's very good at wisecracks . Den has the one @-@ liners , but Chrissie bats them right back . " Chrissie 's barbed and biting remarks became a prominent feature of the character ; even when cornered by Den 's adopted daughter Sharon Watts ( Letitia Dean ) after attempting to flee the country , she remarks : " You really are your father 's daughter , Sharon . No shaking you off either . "
= = = Mrs Den Watts = = =
Chrissie entered the show as the estranged wife of " one of the most iconic characters in soap history " , Den Watts , and was deliberately presented as " very different to the first Mrs. Watts . " When EastEnders began in 1985 viewers had watched Den 's affairs and manipulation gradually take their toll on his wife , Angie , who was unable to compete in the games he played . Chrissie was intended to be a contrast to her predecessor ; where Angie turned to alcohol , Chrissie was more Den 's " equal " and could be just as devious and calculating , with Oberman observing how " Angie was all knee @-@ jerk reaction , but Chrissie is more of a plotter and schemer – just like Den . " Comparing Den 's two wives , Oberman remarked : " Chrissie 's much cooler than Angie . Her motto is , ' revenge is a dish best served cold ' . She 's tougher than Angie and she can hold it together much better . " Indeed , according to Oberman , producers deliberately wanted to take Den 's second marriage down a different path to his first ; whereas the relationship between Den and Angie had been likened to Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor , that between Den and Chrissie was modelled on Spencer Tracy and Katharine Hepburn . Like Den , Chrissie had an acerbic tongue and their relationship was marked by verbal fencing in the manner of Hepburn and Tracy : " What 's great is that they 've written Den an equal " , Oberman noted , " It 'll be interesting to see their little sparring matches . " The attraction was intended to be mutual , unlike Den 's one @-@ sided marriage to Angie . Trying to win Chrissie around into giving their marriage another try , Den declared : " I know we 've got a great relationship even when we 're tearing lumps out of each other , you give as good as you get and that 's the sort of marriage I 've always wanted " . Commenting on the complicated nature of their relationship , Oberman observed ,
The equality of their marriage was dramatically underscored towards the end of 2004 , when Den , as a sign of faith and in an effort to win back her sympathies , revealed to Chrissie his plans to reclaim The Queen Victoria public house by scamming the rival Mitchell family : " If you ever needed proof that we 're in this together or how badly I need you in my life , this is it . I wasn 't going to show this to another soul , but I 'm showing you because you 're my wife ; because it 's me and you together . "
In an interview with the official EastEnders website , Oberman detailed the background dynamic to Chrissie and Den 's relationship as it existed before their appearance on the show : " They were a real match for each other and ran a successful wine bar . The couple made a good team , but he was always going off with other women . She 'd end up leaving him , but they 'd always end up back together . " Den 's womanising and philandering nature was deliberately set against Chrissie 's strong and forceful personality , and culminated on @-@ screen in his affair with Kate Mitchell ( Jill Halfpenny ) . The plot was praised by television editor Ru Green as being one of the " better storylines " during an otherwise weak year for the show , with media attention at the time profiling Chrissie 's dramatic plans for revenge . Commenting on the storyline 's climax , a report in The Sun spotlighted how " instead of collapsing in tears " as many female characters in EastEnders are wont to do , Chrissie " proves that hell hath no fury like a woman scorned " . The climax , which saw Chrissie cut off Kate Mitchell 's hair in retribution for the affair , was a highlight for Oberman and an important dramatic milestone for her character : " cutting off Jill Halfpenny 's hair in the salon ... was a really great episode . I loved working with Jill and I think that put Chrissie on the map . "
Chrissie left Den but was eventually convinced to give their marriage another try . Oberman revealed in the Daily Mail that she drew on a famous real @-@ life model to reconcile the dichotomous behaviour of a strong woman taking back her cheating husband : " I based Chrissie on Hillary : an intelligent , attractive woman who was publicly humiliated . People ask why she stays with that awful man . A lot of strong women are like that . " She also saw the ebb and flow of Den and Chrissie 's marriage as a reflection of the mental gameplaying that was so prominent in their characterisations : " I think there 's a challenge in it , and I think she would like to be the one who would ultimately tame him . " As Den 's equal , Chrissie was intended to be a challenge to his propensity for intellectual games , having already outwitted the show 's prior top dog , Phil Mitchell ( Steve McFadden ) . Den had seen little threat in his first wife 's aptitude , but considered Chrissie to be " as sharp as they come " . Indeed , Den 's extra @-@ marital dalliances were used by writers to showcase and highlight Chrissie 's " strong @-@ willed persona " . When Zoe Slater ( Michelle Ryan ) chastised Den for caring only about Chrissie 's reaction should she learn of their affair , Den fired back : " And so should you . You think I 've treated you badly ? Well you don 't have a clue what 's going to happen if she ever finds out ! The best thing you can do is keep your mouth shut . " By the time Chrissie left the Square , Oberman dryly observed that she had " had more fights on EastEnders than most women have in their whole lives . "
= = = Witches of Walford = = =
In November 2004 it was announced that Leslie Grantham had not renewed his contract and that Den Watts would depart EastEnders in what was described by The Mirror as an " explosive " and final exit . The storyline became one of " the program 's biggest and most high @-@ profile narratives " , dominating the entire year , and made the character of Chrissie Watts the " centrepiece " of the show . The lead @-@ up to the 20th anniversary episode in February was an immensely high profile affair , with Imogen Ridgway and Richard Godwin of the Evening Standard dryly observing that " unless you 've been living on Titan you probably know that EastEnders is 20 years old and Dirty Den is once again leaving Albert Square . " Events in the show centre around Chrissie manipulating Sam Mitchell and Zoe Slater in a plot of revenge against Den , the three women being dubbed the " Witches of Walford " by the popular press in reference to Shakespeare 's play , Macbeth . The prelude to Den 's death further highlighted and showcased Chrissie 's manipulative character and conniving personality in her representation as a " strong " and " forceful " figure . When she secretly learns that Zoe is pregnant by Den , she plays on Zoe 's insecurities and vulnerabilities and " coerces " her into having an abortion . The pregnancy represented a double blow to Chrissie as Den had always resisted having children with her , and as with Kate Mitchell , Chrissie determines to teach Zoe a harsh lesson about " messing with other people 's husbands " . The possessive nature of his wife was noted by Den , who warns Zoe that Chrissie " tends to blame the women that lead me astray . "
The final confrontation between husband and wife played out during the special episode marking the show 's 20th anniversary . Such was public interest in the storyline that the production team reportedly took to " fiercely guarding " scripts , " so that even the cast weren 't sure how they would play out " , with " the show 's producers shooting multiple endings to ensure the cast couldn 't leak the plot . " During the hour @-@ long broadcast Chrissie leads Sam and Zoe into facing Den , with 14 @.@ 34 million people watching her deliver the fatal blow to her husband after a violent struggle . Oberman " begged the producers to let Chrissie do it to prove she wasn 't a sap " , adding " It was a real rush for me . " In the aftermath of Den 's death , Chrissie became an increasingly " transformed " and colder figure , as the character " played " and " spun " her way " out of every situation " . She proceeds to trick Zoe into taking the blame for Den 's murder , and continuously outmanoeuvres Sam in the latter 's efforts to get back the Vic . Oberman felt this to be a noticeable shift in Chrissie 's characterisation , with the show 's writers taking " her down a darker route " , as in one notable scene depicting Chrissie standing over Den 's grave , and confiding to him of her plans .
The storyline commenced its conclusion with the return of the Mitchell family to help Sam , who had been framed by Chrissie for the murder of Den ; events were to culminate in Chrissie 's " explosive " departure from the show , with producers telling Oberman that when she leaves " later this year , it 's going to be one of the most explosive storylines ever . Like Den before her , Chrissie had little trouble outsmarting the Mitchells , her clashes with Peggy ( Barbara Windsor ) , Phil , and Grant ( Ross Kemp ) part of the final showdown between the Watts and Mitchells that , in the words of one presenter , " grips the nation " . The story 's climax , resulting in Chrissie 's exit from Walford , was such a considerable moment for the show that BBC bosses took the highly unusual step of keeping the " manner of her departure " a " complete mystery even to the soap 's [ own ] producers " , with reports claiming that " no less than four separate storylines [ are ] to be filmed for her departure from EastEnders " . Commenting at the time to NOW , Oberman said , " I think Chrissie deserves to get away with murder . She was heavily provoked . I 'd love to see her make it to Argentina ... [ and ] run a beach bar with a young Latin lover by her side . " The immense public focus on the figure of Chrissie was used by executives in the intensifying ratings war , with the BBC " using the Chrissie Watts departure as the major weapon in our armoury ... to snatch back viewers " from rival soaps .
= = = Victim or villain = = =
To mark Chrissie 's departure from the show , BBC Three aired a special episode of EastEnders Revealed on 22 September 2005 . Entitled " Chrissie Watts : Victim or Villain ? " the episode featured comments from Oberman , Grantham , Dean , Kim Medcalf , and Barbara Windsor profiling Chrissie and exploring the nuanced nature of the character . " A lot of viewers , and myself , " Oberman later remarked , " really wanted Chrissie to get away with it , especially as Den was such a monster . But soap and film noir have a lot in common – the bad girls have to be punished . " However , critics considered Chrissie to be a " three @-@ dimensional soap bitch " , rather than a flat pantomime figure . Despite having killed her father , Chrissie highly valued her friendship with Sharon , declaring at one point : " my friendship with you is the only good thing to come out of my relationship with Den , and I mean that ! " Oberman characterised Chrissie as " part victim part villain " , declaring " I think of her as a villain with a heart " . She felt that , although " no excuse " for murder , Chrissie was driven to what she did : " She 's not a cold blooded murderer , it was all done in a fit of pique " , and that " these characters are made , not born . " Chrissie was haunted by the alcoholic fate of Den 's first wife , which she vowed at Angie 's grave to avoid . But in spite of her efforts , and indeed because of them , she failed , as she came to recognise : " You know it 's funny ; when Den used to talk about Ange he used to describe her as this weak sad , cow . And I used to think ' not like me , oh no , not like me ' . Who 's having the last laugh now , Ange ? "
= = Reception = =
As the wife of Den Watts , one of British soap 's biggest figures , Chrissie was a high profile character , with the turns in her storylines regularly splashed across the tabloid papers . According to Steve Hendry of the Daily Mail ( Glasgow ) , Oberman was an " overnight success " in the role of Chrissie , and successfully " exorcised the iconic ghost of long @-@ dead Queen Vic lush Angie Watts " , becoming , in the words of reporter Katherine Hassell , " a national TV heroine after she arrived in Albert Square in 2004 as the wife of the resurrected Dirty Den " . The character 's tough and steely persona was widely cited by TV critics , such as Imogen Ridgway of The Evening Standard , who felt Chrissie to be the " dominant female character " in the show , maintaining an increasingly threatened EastEnders tradition of the independent , forceful female figure : " For a soap originally underpinned by dominant female characters , it seems odd that Chrissie Watts is apparently the only strong woman left in Walford " .
The storyline involving Den 's death was among the most prominent of the decade , and generated intense media and public interest . Looking back on the period , Oberman noted the remarkable nature of the story :
The special 1 @-@ hour 20th anniversary episode where Chrissie killed Den was watched by 14 @.@ 34 million people on the night it was broadcast , attracting " almost 60 % of possible viewers " , with a peak share of 57 @.@ 8 % . It was the highest rated episode of EastEnders that year , and has since only been bested by a showing on Christmas Day 2007 ( which drew anomalous large audiences for all BBC One programmes that year ) , and the 25th anniversary episode . However final figures for the broadcast , which factored in digital and recorded viewings , rose to over 17 million making it the highest rated screening of a British soap since 2003 . The episode received a massive amount of media interest , and was highly praised for displaying " some of the tightest , funniest dialogue this soap has seen " . Oberman revealed that she could not stop laughing during filming of the scenes , as Grantham 's hair was stuck to the floor : " We did lots of takes and poor Leslie was on his back for hours with fake blood all around his head . The liquid dried and his hair was glued to the floor . When he got up it ripped his hair out ! "
The aftermath dominated EastEnders in 2005 and helped to revive the fortunes of the show . According to the former head of BBC Drama Serials , Mal Young , this was dependent on the character of Chrissie , who was responsible for " anchoring the success of the anniversary storyline " . A similar sentiment was expressed by Ian Hyland in the Sunday Mirror , who although critical of the convuluted plot felt EastEnders was improving " mainly because Chrissie is doing her best to rescue the fallout from the storyline dirty bomb Den 's murder has become " , and described the character as performing a " rescue act " on the show . However , Jim Shelley of the Daily Mirror was highly critical of Chrissie , calling her " the ludicrous Lady MacBeth wannabe " , and felt her departure was ennabling EastEnders to move forward . In contrast , the TV editor of the Telegraph hailed Chrissie as " helping revive the show 's fortunes that had being lagging somewhat in recent years " .
Oberman has described her time on the show as " hectic " . During Chrissie 's tenure there was constant shuffling behind the scenes , with three different executive producers taking the reins , with each new producer bringing in new writing teams . Uncertainty came to be manifested in writing and scripts , with character inconsistencies and plot holes working their way into production . One notable example was ownership of The Queen Victoria , with Chrissie legally owner of half the pub after Den legitimately signed over the deed before they renewed their vows in February . However , in November this fact was forgotten , with Chrissie represented as forging Den 's signature to nullify her ownership of the pub which legally became Sharon 's . Problems with the script did not escape Oberman , who criticised her character 's storylines after she left the show , saying the writers " must have been on crack " , adding how " plots didn 't make logical or emotional sense – but they said , ' That 's the soap convention , dear , get used to it ' " . She also considered some scenes to be irresponsible , saying " I was worried when four @-@ year @-@ olds said to me , ' I saw you kill Den . ' I don 't agree with censorship but there has to be a level of responsibility . "
One of the consequences of all the uncertainty behind the scenes was Chrissie 's final fate , which was left largely unresolved . Oberman revealed in July 2009 that originally there were plans for a trial , but that poor timing ultimately shelved the storyline . She recalled how the storyline " was put on hold and then there was a whole different team involved after that . I know that if they couldn 't get me , Michelle and Kim together , [ they wouldn 't do it ] . And I 'd moved straight on to Doctor Who , too . Nobody was available until the following year , by which point Michelle was in Bionic Woman , I was pregnant and Kim was in Cabaret . " Because of this " I never felt it was finished off and I would have loved to have wrapped it up . " She went on to declare her desire to return for a proper resolution . " I 'd love to finish off Chrissie 's storyline because I love the character and I do feel that she was left in limbo . To know what happened to her would be great . Even if she went back to say goodbye or wanted to make peace with Sam . Or maybe we could see her in prison ? "
However , Oberman has continuously affirmed that she loved playing Chrissie , and of all her roles misses playing her the most . In a 2009 interview she commented on the significance of the character to EastEnders and viewers , saying " I can 't believe that I 'm still recognised so much as Chrissie . I still get a lot of letters about her , too . I think that she had as much of an impact as Janine ( Charlie Brooks ) did , which surprised me . Chrissie wasn 't around for that long but she was an amazing character with an epic storyline . "
Oberman was nominated for a number of awards for her portrayal of Chrissie Watts . In 2004 for Most Popular Newcomer at the National Television Awards ; She also received four nominations at the British Soap Awards , for Best Newcomer in 2004 , Villain of the Year in 2005 and 2006 , and Soap Bitch of the Year in 2006 . In 2005 , she was nominated for Best Actress and Best Bitch at the Inside Soap Awards .
= LW2 ( classification ) =
LW2 is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic standing ski sport class defined by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) . Competitors in this class have severe disability in a lower limb , which may be a result of an amputation , or arthrodesis in the leg and hip . Depending on the type of skiing , the international classification process for LW2 skiers is handled by the IPC Alpine Skiing Technical Committee and IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee . National sport federations handle classification on the lower levels .
In para @-@ Alpine , skiers use one ski and two ski poles while para @-@ Nordic skiers use two skis and two ski poles . Other equipment may be used such as outriggers . Specific skiing and training techniques have been developed for this LW2 skiers that address their disability type and equipment use . A factoring system is used in both para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . These factors may change from ski season to ski season .
This classification has been included in a number of medal events at major competitions since the 1980s . It was sometimes later grouped with other classes for medal events . Skiers in this sport class include Australians Michael Milton , Toby Kane and Cameron Rahles Rahbula , and American Allison Jones .
= = Definition = =
This is a standing classification used in para @-@ Alpine skiing and para @-@ Nordic skiing , where LW stands for Locomotor Winter . It is for people with a severe disability in a lower limb , which may be a result of an amputation , arthrodesis in the leg and hip , or a disease like polio . Competitors in this class would score 20 or less on a strength test for one leg . The International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) explicitly defined this classification for para @-@ Alpine skiing as " Competitors with severe disabilities in one lower limb ... Typical disability profile of the class is single above @-@ knee amputation . " For para @-@ Nordic skiing , the IPC defines this class as " those with impairment in one entire lower limb ( involving pelvis structures distal ) . " In 2002 , the Australian Paralympic Committee described this classification for para @-@ Alpine as a standing skiing classification with " One ski , two poles , disability in one leg above the knee . " Cross Country Canada defined this classification for para @-@ Nordic
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ing spoke of his goals for the summer . " I 've got myself the goal of making 1 @,@ 000 runs in the season . Hopefully , I can stay in the middle long enough or do that . You can 't worry about other people 's expectation . I don 't care at all what is written in the press . I like to read it but it doesn 't go too far into my head . " In Tasmania 's final round @-@ robin match of the season , they needed to defeat South Australia outright to qualify for the final . Set 366 runs to win in 102 overs , Ponting joined Dene Hills at the crease with the score at 2 / 35 . Ponting scored 161 in a 290 @-@ run partnership that ended with Tasmania needing just 41 runs for victory . Despite Tasmania losing four quick wickets after his dismissal , they won with four wickets in hand . Disappointingly for Ponting , he could not repeat the performance in the final against New South Wales . He scored just one and 28 , as Tasmania were defeated by an innings and 61 runs . The season saw Ponting score 965 runs at 48 @.@ 25 , close to his 1 @,@ 000 run goal .
A month after the final , he was again selected for the Academy squad for three limited overs matches against a touring Indian team . Queenslander Stuart Law captained the Australian side that included former Australian keeper Rod Marsh . In Australia 's victory in the first match in Canberra , Ponting top @-@ scored with 71 , before making 52 in a victory in Sydney . The last match was also successful for the home team , with Ponting not required to bat .
Ponting started his 1994 – 95 campaign with a century against eventual Shield champions Queensland in Brisbane , in a performance that impressed Queensland captain Allan Border , who had just retired from international cricket after leading the national team for a decade . Border said of Ponting : " He 's just an outstanding prospect . The thing I like about him is he 's very aggressive , he plays all the shots , he 's equally at home on the front foot as the back foot . He cuts and pulls well , and he drives well . You don 't often see that , the ability to get on [ the ] front foot and back foot and play equally well . " Speculation once again arose that Ponting could be selected for the upcoming tour to the West Indies . When Tasmania played Western Australia at Bellerive Oval on 4 November 1994 , Ponting was 117 not out at stumps . That century was his fifth successive triple @-@ figure score against Western Australia ; Sir Donald Bradman is the only other batsman to score five consecutive centuries against another state in Shield history . He continued to 211 , sharing a 319 @-@ run stand with captain Rod Tucker in the process . Ten days after the double century , Ponting was named in the Australian XI to play England at Bellerive Oval in a match that was used as practice for fringe Australian players before the upcoming series in the West Indies . Future Australian representatives Matthew Hayden , Langer , Greg Blewett and Martyn were also selected . In a drawn match , Ponting compiled a half @-@ century , but Martyn scored a century .
A fourth team was introduced to the World Series Cup in 1994 – 95 — Australia A — for the only time . The Australian selectors re @-@ shuffled both teams so that some players stepped up from the A team to the main Australian team , and vice versa , during the competition , depending on their performance . The Australian captain Mark Taylor was not a fan of the innovation : " ... out there , on the field there was an ultra @-@ competitive attitude by blokes of both teams , spurred on by the crows who were predominately [ sic ] barracking for against Australia and supporting the underdog Australia A , who were pepped up and firing . Of course it gave the Australia A guys a chance to break into the Australian team , but to me the focus of the summer was on beating the Poms [ England ] in the Tests and winning the World Series , not beating our own Australian mates . " Despite the negative feedback , the concept gave Ponting a chance on the international stage , and he scored 161 runs at 26 @.@ 83 with one half @-@ century . Two weeks after the World Series , Ponting was selected in the squad for the upcoming one @-@ day tri @-@ series involving South Africa , India and hosts New Zealand . Trent Bouts , a cricket writer for The Australian said : " His selection at age 20 would normally represent a bold gamble on youth but so precocious are his talents it amounts to a routine progression . " Ponting made his ODI debut against South Africa at the Basin Reserve in Wellington on 15 February 1995 .
= Blood ( OSI album ) =
Blood is the third studio album by American progressive rock band OSI , released by InsideOut Music on April 27 , 2009 in Europe and May 19 , 2009 in North America .
Guitarist Jim Matheos and keyboardist and vocalist Kevin Moore started work on the album in 2008 , collaborating by email . Matheos would send Moore a song idea which Moore would edit and send back to Matheos . Mike Portnoy of Dream Theater , who performed drums on Office of Strategic Influence and Free , was replaced by Porcupine Tree drummer Gavin Harrison on Blood . Matheos played bass guitar on the album , having hired guest musicians to perform bass duties on the first two OSI albums . Mikael Åkerfeldt of Opeth and Tim Bowness of No @-@ Man wrote lyrics and performed vocals on one track each .
Critical reception of Blood was generally positive . The more atmospheric and ambient tracks were praised ; the more metal @-@ oriented tracks received mixed reactions . Moore 's lyrics and Harrison 's drumming , in particular , were met with acclaim .
= = Background = =
On September 4 , 2008 , keyboardist and vocalist Kevin Moore posted a news update to the official Chroma Key website . In it , he stated that he had been working with guitarist Jim Matheos on a third OSI album " for several months now , slowly but surely . " Moore later stated that with OSI , he and Matheos " usually play it by ear . We never really know if we 're going to do another OSI , we never agree on it . I don 't remember ever agreeing to start a new one , really . But Jim will send me an idea or something and we just start talking about it . "
Blood was written and recorded in the same way as the first two OSI albums . Matheos and Moore worked together on the album long @-@ distance , mainly by emailing each other files . Matheos would send Moore song ideas , " from just a guitar riff to elaborate , almost completed songs , " Moore said . " Then I ask what I can do , and I mess around , complete a verse and add a chorus , do editing , add some vocals , and send it back to him . "
Moore considered the writing of Blood to be harder compared to previous OSI albums . Previously , Matheos would send Moore guitar parts to work with , allowing Moore to " work with editing them , pitching them , and fucking about them different ways , and then programming drums and keyboards . " When working on Blood , Matheos also provided programming , keyboard and drum parts . " If he sent me stuff that already had drums and keyboard parts , and it wasn 't a complete idea , I had to figure out a way to elaborate on it without having that same equipment that he has there , " Moore said . Overall , he considered the writing process to be " smoother because we got on a roll and we 're more fluid together " .
Mike Portnoy of Dream Theater played drums on Office of Strategic Influence and Free , but found the experience frustrating . Moore regarded Portnoy 's contributions to the first two albums as " great " , but he and Matheos decided to recruit a different drummer for Blood . " We were continuing to try to get new voices involved with the album " , he explained . Matheos , a fan of Porcupine Tree , was in control of personnel on Blood and asked Porcupine Tree drummer Gavin Harrison to perform drums on the album . Harrison had a schedule gap in the fourth quarter of 2008 , so agreed to work on the album . He never met Matheos and Moore , recording his drums parts in his recording studio in England and exchanging files with them over the Internet . Most songs were sent to Harrison with programmed drums . " For the most part , we usually told him to try to stay away from the programmed drums and come up with his own parts , and he did . So much of that is his taking it in a different direction , " Moore said . " There was probably at least one song , maybe two , where we said ' We 'd like you to keep closer to the programmed drums , ' but he had a lot of say in what went on . " Matheos and Moore were " very happy " with Harrison 's work on Blood , and hoped to work with him on the fourth OSI album . Blood marked the first time Matheos played bass on an OSI album instead of recruiting an outside bassist .
Matheos asked Opeth vocalist and guitarist Mikael Åkerfeldt to write lyrics and perform vocals on one track , which would become " Stockholm " . Matheos and Moore sent him the track they wanted him to work on , and he sent back a rough mix of his vocals . " We were really happy with it , " Moore said . " We didn 't do any revisions or ask for any changes , like we were expecting to ... It was a different approach than I would have taken , and that 's what was refreshing about it . That 's why we wanted to get somebody else to do some vocals on the album . " Tim Bowness of No @-@ Man wrote lyrics and performed vocals on " No Celebrations " , a bonus track .
= = Music = =
Moore regarded Blood as " [ distilling ] the OSI vibe that we 've been going for all along with this album " . He noted that there was " conflict " due to his and Matheos ' different musical tastes , " but it 's not a personality conflict . It 's a musical conflict where we want different things to happen and have to work it musically . " Moore considered this conflict to be " pretty much the only thing that makes OSI relatively original . If it was just one way or the other , like the singer @-@ songwriter stuff , electronic music or progressive metal , there 's a lot of people doing those things already . "
Moore stated that he found writing songs which combined progressive metal and electronic music easier than writing songs confined to one genre . " There 's people who do that better . Working with the two genres , they 're different enough from each other – almost natural enemies – that it keeps it interesting , " he said . " It doesn 't feel like being in conquered territory , it feels like there 's still room to explore . There 's always conflicts between the two writing elements that keeps it interesting . "
When writing lyrics for previous releases , Moore would " start mumbling and I try to figure out what I 'm saying and then try to make it make sense " . With Blood , he " really wrote them down and tried to make them coherent . I didn 't want it to be like ' Oh , you get your own impression of the lyrics . Everybody has their own idea ! ' I wanted to have an idea that I wanted to communicate , and something communicable . " Moore noted that he did occasionally use his " mumbling " method as it " puts you in the right direction as far as sounds , vowel sounds , and stresses on certain syllables . And if you can write some words and lyrics that match that , sometimes it flows really well . " He described all the songs as based on " personal experiences " . " I 'll start writing a song that has a little bit of a world view or political view or something , " he said , " but then by the time I 'm finished the lyrics it 'll be about a relationship or something like that . "
Matheos recorded his parts in Pro Tools using a FocusRite Saffire PRO 40 preamp . Matheos primarily used PRS guitars and Mesa Boogie amplifiers . Moore used Ableton Live to write music and record his vocals . The only keyboard he used was a Minimoog Voyager .
= = Release and promotion = =
Blood was released by InsideOut Music on April 27 , 2009 in Europe and May 19 in North America . Matheos and Moore unsuccessfully tried to organise a tour in support of Free . " We sort of disappointed people by saying that we were trying to making [ a tour ] happen and we wanted to make it happen , " Moore said , " so this time we 're not going to say that stuff . " Moore stated that OSI would remain a studio @-@ only project " until further notice " .
The special edition of Blood came with a bonus disc featuring three extra tracks . Tim Bowness ( of No @-@ Man ) wrote lyrics and performed vocals on the first song , " No Celebrations " . The second track is a cover of " Christian Brothers " by Elliott Smith . The third track is " Terminal ( Endless ) " , an extended version of the regular CD track " Terminal " . " It still has something interesting drum stuff where Gavin just plays steady beats with variations on it , " Moore said . " We had some mercy on the album version , but on the bonus CD , we don 't have any mercy and we just let it go . "
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of Blood was generally positive . Writing for Blogcritics , Marty Dodge praised the album as " jaw droppingly impressive " , considering it to " [ have ] the potential to be up there in top albums of the year " . Andrew Reilly of MadeLoud lauded Blood as OSI 's best album , although considered other individual songs from the band 's catalog to be stronger than those on the album . Alex Henderson of Allmusic regarded Blood as " an album that falls short of earth @-@ shattering but is still solid and worthwhile " .
Reilly described Blood as " fully mastering the techno @-@ informed brand of progressive metal so many others have pursued to no avail ... with Blood the two have finally found the stylistic fusion their first two discs hinted at " . Henderson described the sound of the album as " Pink Floyd and King Crimson by way of Radiohead , Nirvana , grunge , alt @-@ metal and alt rock . "
Reilly lauded Moore 's lyrics , describing them as closer to his work in Dream Theater and Chroma Key than on the first two OSI albums . " Moore turns conventional phrases ... into thinly @-@ veiled warnings to some unknown subject , " Reilly commented . " OSI has long been Moore 's avenue for exploring the political as the personal , but here those two subjects fully cannibalize each other which , given this group 's past efforts and considerable talents , would not at all be an impossible intention or unforeseen consequence . " He praised Gavin Harrison 's drum performance , describing it as " phenomenal " . He considered " Stockholm " and " Blood " to be the highlights of the album . Dodge praised " Radiologue " as " stunning " .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Kevin Moore , except where noted , all music composed by Jim Matheos and Kevin Moore , except where noted .
Special edition bonus disc
= = Personnel = =
Jim Matheos – guitar , bass , keyboards , programming
Kevin Moore – vocals , keyboards , programming
Gavin Harrison – drums
Mikael Åkerfeldt – vocals on " Stockholm "
Tim Bowness – vocals on " No Celebrations "
Produced by Jim Matheos and Kevin Moore
Mixed by Phil Magnotti , Jim Matheos and Kevin Moore
= Queen 's Pier =
Queen 's Pier , named after Queen Victoria , was a public pier in front of City Hall in Edinburgh Place , Central , Hong Kong . For three generations it served not only as a public pier in day @-@ to @-@ day use but also as a major ceremonial arrival and departure point . The pier witnessed the official arrival in Hong Kong of all of Hong Kong 's governors since 1925 ; Elizabeth II landed there in 1975 , as did the Prince and Princess of Wales in 1989 .
The second and final pier structure , built along the newly reclaimed waterfront , was designed in a modern utilitarian style and was opened by Maurine Grantham , wife of Governor Alexander Grantham , in June 1954 .
On 26 April 2007 , the pier was closed by the government to enable land reclamation , soon after the adjacent Star Ferry pier was closed . There was fierce opposition by conservationists , who carried over their campaign to preserve the landmark . Police officers evicted some 30 protesters from the site on 1 August 2007 ; activists filed for a judicial review , and the High Court hearing began on 7 August . On 10 August , the court dismissed the request .
Finally , the Queen 's Pier was completely demolished in February 2008 . Its base piles were also removed in March 2008 . In 2008 , since dismantling , the government attempts to create the appearance of public support for reassembling the pier at the new waterfront has been criticised by conservationists .
= = History = =
A former wooden pier at the site known as " Queen 's Statue Wharf " was replaced in 1925 . It was a ceremonial landing area for the British Royal Family visiting Hong Kong , and for successive governors to assert their authority on arrival . The first governor to land there was Cecil Clementi , in November 1925 . The preceding governor , Reginald Stubbs , boarded the Victoria from the pier at the end of his term on 31 October 1925 .
= = = 1925 pier = = =
The 1925 pier was originally named " Statue Pier " , but was renamed " Queen 's Pier " in honour of Queen Victoria on 31 July 1924 . It was a sheltered pier made of concrete and steel , with round pillars and arches , built on the waterfront at Pedder Street on the site of the present Mandarin Oriental Hotel at a cost of HK $ 20 @,@ 000 . Intended to be opened in time for the arrival of Edward , the Prince of Wales , construction delays postponed its completion until October 1925 . It was demolished in January 1955 .
= = = 1954 pier = = =
As part of post @-@ war reclamation , the old pier was demolished . Work commenced in February 1954 on a new pier on the new waterfront designed in a modern utilitarian style . The structure was described as a U @-@ shaped plan , with an open @-@ sided superstructure . It consisted of tiled reinforced concrete base and pillars , and was modelled after previous piers in the area . Its flat roof was also made of concrete , topped with bitumen waterproofing . Five sets of stairs allowed boat passengers to board and disembark , three located on the north side , one on the east and one on the west .
The pier was considered " an integral part " of the ceremonial cluster including City Hall and Edinburgh Place which was being formed at the time , and the entrance to the City Hall formed an axis with the Pier to lend a sense of occasion to visiting dignitaries . The secondary design goal was to maximise public access to the very limited open space in Central in contrast with the city bustle .
The pier was opened by Maurine Grantham , wife of Governor Alexander Grantham , on 28 June 1954 .
= = Function = =
The pier 's primary role was ceremonial . It was the traditional landing place of successive governors , who would arrive at Central on board the official Governor 's Yacht which would dock at Queen 's Pier . From the 1960s , governors would inspect a guard of honour at Edinburgh Place , followed by the swearing @-@ in at City Hall .
HM The Queen landed there on 4 May 1975 on her first visit , after arriving by plane at Kai Tak Airport . The Prince and Princess of Wales landed there in November 1989 .
The pier 's secondary role was as a public pier , where pleasure craft were allowed to dock . Tour boats offering a view of the Kowloon side of the harbour used the pier for passenger boarding . Up to 1978 , it was the finishing line for the annual cross @-@ harbour swimming race . As the ceremonies declined , the pier 's secondary purpose became the main one : people met and strolled in the area , and others fished .
On 26 April 2007 , the pier was closed in order to facilitate land reclamation in Central .
= = Future = =
From the outset , the fate of the pier has been intimately linked with the central reclamation project which was unveiled in 1989 but not explicitly spelled out as such . However , the scale of reclamations has only been slightly cut back following significant legal battles .
= = = Government 's position = = =
Following the controversy and the demolition of the Star Ferry Pier in Edinburgh Place in early 2007 , activists declared Queen 's Pier the next battle @-@ ground against the conservation policy of the Government of Hong Kong . The criticism received over its handling of the Star Ferry Pier caused Michael Suen , the Secretary for Housing , Planning and Lands , to propose a piece @-@ by @-@ piece relocation of the pier to a new location on the reclaimed waterfront during a Legco session on 21 March 2007 . The Government later unveiled four design options for such relocation . The intended closure of the pier was 26 April 2007 .
At the end of January 2007 , the government declared it would postpone the demolition of Queen 's Pier until a consensus could be reached on the course of action ; consultations with the Hong Kong Institute of Architects , the Hong Kong Institute of Engineers , and the Conservancy Association were held . The Institute of Architects , whose members opposed dismantling the pier , originally maintained the pier should remain untouched . However , it was reported that after meeting the government , the Institute and the Conservancy Association were persuaded by the government that the pier could first be dismantled , and then reassembled at another location after completion of the reclamation . This change of heart was heavily criticised by Winston Chu , founder of the Society for Protection of the Harbour . The HKIA clarified that their opposition had not in fact changed .
Chief Executive Donald Tsang said that being overzealous in saving the past may hurt Hong Kong 's competitiveness , and called on activists to take a more balanced view toward economic growth and conservation . Soon after Tsang 's re @-@ election as Chief Executive , on 26 March , the Government pressed ahead with plans to dismantle and move the entire pier , piece by piece , enabling the reclamation to go ahead .
The government said that the in @-@ situ preservation , though apparently viable on paper , would risk irreversible damage to the pier . Furthermore , it argued that important underground facilities such as the Airport Railway Extended Overrun Tunnel would be affected , saying a natural curvature of the track was required . " Setting aside the technical difficulties and the huge risk involved in the works , underpinning for the construction of the extended overrun tunnel would cost about HK $ 500 million and take more than two years to complete " .
Appearing before a public forum at the pier on 29 July , Secretary for Development Carrie Lam Cheng Yuet @-@ ngor repeated the government 's insistence that keeping the pier was not an option . She said she would " not give the people false hope " . Although Lam 's performance in public debates was praised , the Secretary for Development 's conflict of interest as the head of the Antiquities Authority was criticised . Lam said the AAB did not have governmental authority , and that it had not suggested keeping the pier in its totality .
= = = = Dismantling and storing = = = =
At the end of July 2007 , the Development Bureau issued a paper for the Legislative Council 's lands and works panel . Hoardings to be erected by the end of July , and the target for completing " preservation works " by November . It was suggested for the pier 's pitched roof to be disassembled into halves and the 34 concrete columns to be cut at roof and deck level . The pieces would be labeled and then lifted by a crane barge and transported to the government 's explosives depot in Kau Shat Wan , Lantau Island , where it would be stored under guard . The paper suggested that reassembling it in the same location might not take place until December 2012 , as re @-@ alignment of the proposed Road P2 would be involved .
= = = = District councils = = = =
The government polled 16 District Councils , fourteen of which voted in support of relocating the pier to the new water @-@ front . However , in July 2008 activists cried foul when eight councils revealed that the preservation of the pier in its existing location was not put forth as one of the options ; the vice @-@ chairmen of two councils which voted to support also objected that their decision may have not been an informed one as not all possible options were on the table . The chief town planner said that the omitted proposal " was not an efficient option and would create unnecessary construction waste " .
After it was revealed in August 2008 that the government was behind the 13 concerted District Councils ' motions in 2008 supporting the relocation of the pier to the new waterfront , Albert Ho condemned the government of tampering with District Councils in order to " create public opinion . " Convenor of the Urban Design Alliance doubted the openness of consultation , saying that " the government had engineered its results " . Dr Li Pang @-@ kwong , of Lingnan University , said that the problematic framework of the councils has led them to work too closely with government . He said the ' copy and paste ' Queen 's Pier motions passed by 13 councils to support government decisions was a rubber @-@ stamp , and a clear sign that councils lacked independence .
= = = Conservationists ' position = = =
Ron Phillips , original designer of the pier , backed preservation , saying that any loss of the City Hall and the adjacent open space would be something " future generations will come to regret " . The Hong Kong Institute of Architects denounced the government 's insistence that dismantling and reassembling of the pier was the only feasible option , in disregard of the pier 's " grade 1 " status . The architects concluded that the " technical difficulties were not irresolvable , and the government 's reasons for not revising the current infrastructural design were not at all convincing " .
Environmental groups were angered by the government 's technobabble , and for inflating the costs and technical difficulties of keeping the pier at the original site . The proposed 40 @-@ metre @-@ wide road , planned in the 1980s , was now " obsolete " , and would make the waterfront " inaccessible to the public " . Albert Lai , Chairman of the Hong Kong People 's Council for Sustainable Development , drew attention to the fact that the budgeted spending for infrastructure over the past three years of HK $ 90 billion contrasted poorly with HK $ 90 million spent on acquiring and renovating heritage sites .
The Civic Party accused the government of misleading the public : the development plans for the North Island Line precluded the restoration the pier before 2016 . Christine Loh criticised Donald Tsang for failing to grasp the economical , cultural and social importance of heritage .
= = = Preservation campaign battlefronts = = =
= = = = Public and media = = = =
In September 2004 , legislator Law Chi @-@ kwong took a swim in Victoria Harbour bearing a plaque saying " Goodbye to the Queen " , to protest the Central and Wan Chai Reclamation , particularly the loss of Queen 's Pier .
Soon after the unsuccessful attempt to save the Star Ferry pier in early 2007 , a campaign to preserve the pier in situ was launched . Ahead of the closure , members of the public , environmentalists , and some lawmakers arrived to tie blue ribbons to indicate their desire to preserve the harbour . On 22 April , about 100 protesters once again rallied at the pier , launching farewell voyages in a last @-@ ditch attempt to urge the Government to reconsider : a petition of over 400 signatures from the Arts community was collected .
An occupation of the pier was started by ten activists on the designated closure date . The campaign was boosted by the appearance of Chow Yun @-@ fat early on the morning of 28 April to sign the petition , and to appeal pre @-@ emptively to the police not to hurt protesters . Some activists , like Chu Hoi @-@ dick , have been involved in the Star Ferry pier protest , and took turns to maintain a round @-@ the @-@ clock presence . Leung Chun @-@ yiu spent three nights a week at the site , despite working a full @-@ time job , vowing to block the demolition non @-@ violently in any way he could .
On 27 July , three students , as part of a group called Local Action started a hunger strike at the pier . Hunger striker Chan King @-@ fai said : " The government wasn 't chosen by us . All we can do is to use our humble and limited voices . " The government responded with a communications offensive , announcing that Secretary for Development Carrie Lam would appear on RTHK 's City 's Forum and at a public forum on 29 July at the pier .
On 30 July , the Government ordered an end to the " unlawful occupation " of government land by midnight . Activists vowed to defy the order ; a candlelight vigil held at the pier was attended by 200 sympathisers . The Government did not risk a violent confrontation immediately on the expiry of the eviction deadline . In an operation which lasted ten hours during daylight hours on 1 August 2007 , 300 Police officers cleared away the 30 or so protesters from the site , amid scuffles . Hong Kong Human Rights Monitor complained that its observers were denied access to the area during the eviction .
= = = = Legislative Council = = = =
An application for HK $ 50 million to fund the dismantling and relocating of the pier was scheduled for debate by the Public Works sub @-@ committee on 9 May 2007 , the same day the Antiquities Advisory Board would hold a public hearing to decide on the historical grading of the pier . Government stressed the timing was " a coincidence " , and steadfastly refused to defer the vote pending an outcome of the AAB vote .
On 9 May , after an hour @-@ long heated debate , the government was forced to withdraw its motion due to the lack of support . Choy So @-@ yuk , from the usually pro @-@ Government DAB , called for the vote to be postponed , and the Liberal Party equally did not back the Government . However , Government ministers declared that it had " no plans to list the pier as a declared monument " , and insisted that there was " no direct relationship between the grading and whether we will demolish and relocate the pier " . During the debate , the Director of Leisure and Cultural Services also said that even if the site was pronounced a first @-@ class monument , there remained no legally binding prohibition against its demolition . Liberal Party Chairman James Tien said that , in failing to muster support to implement its policies , " the Government is like a crab with weak legs " .
The government claimed that its handling of the issue had been " in line with pledges made by Chief Executive Donald Tsang Yam @-@ kuen during his recent re @-@ election campaign " to regain the moral high ground regarding heritage preservation , following the mistakes of the Star Ferry saga . Civic Party legislative councillor Fernando Cheung Chiu @-@ hung said that there was " no sincerity [ from the government ] to preserve historic venues " .
The public works subcommittee approved the Government 's re @-@ submitted request for funds to dismantle and relocate Queen 's Pier on 23 May in a 10 @-@ 7 vote . Choy So @-@ yuk , who voted against the appropriation on 9 May , abstained . She revealed that she had been lobbied by Michael Suen and Donald Tsang ; party whips did not allow her to cast an opposing vote . The Hong Kong Institute of Architects said it " regretted the funding approval " .
= = = = Antiquities Advisory Board grading vote = = = =
The Antiquities Advisory Board ( AAB ) held a public hearing 9 May , and Board members voted a ' Grade 1 ' listing for the pier by a majority . Twelve members voted for Grade 1 listing , and ten voted for Grade 2 listing . However , the status is not @-@ binding on the Government .
After the hearing , an activist from ' Local Action ' declared the AAB 's decision a victory for the people , and warned the government " not to treat the voice of the people lightly " .
= = = = Legal challenge = = = =
As Lands Department officials arrived on 30 July to put up notices ordering an end to the " unlawful occupation " of government land , the activists filed for a judicial review , claiming that the decision of the Secretary for Home Affairs not to declare the structure a monument was unreasonable and illegal . The High Court set the date for the case to be heard as 7 August . Judge Johnson Lam said that the case about the future of Queen 's Pier should be heard as there is great public interest in the outcome and justified a one @-@ week respite for the site .
On 10 August , the High Court dismissed the request for judicial review , thus giving the go @-@ ahead for the government to demolish it . The judge ruled that the applicants had failed to establish that the government had acted perversely .
= = = = Institute of Planners controversy = = = =
The Hong Kong Institute of Planners , the majority of whose members work in government departments , had backed the in @-@ situ preservation of the pier . There was uproar in May 2008 when it made an apparent U @-@ turn in a position paper submitted to the government backing the relocation to a waterfront location , based on a sparsely attended meeting . It then submitted a revised paper presenting that a majority of its members supported such a move as a conclusion prior to the completion of a survey . A former vice @-@ president of the institute questioned how the institute had become allies of the government .
= = Popular culture = =
The pier is featured in the following programmes and videos :
My Date with a Vampire ( ATV )
Life Made Simple ( TVB )
Glittering Days ( TVB )
the music video of " Goodbye Bell " , a song by Sam Hui
in the 2010 movie Dream Home set in Hong Kong in the year 2007 .
in the 1988 television miniseries Noble House ( TV miniseries ) starring Pierce Brosnan .
= Wizkid ( musician ) =
Ayodeji Ibrahim Balogun ( born 16 July 1990 ) , better known by his stage name Wizkid ( sometimes stylised as WizKid ) , is a Nigerian recording artist , songwriter and performer . He started his musical career at age 11 , releasing a collaborative album with Glorious Five entitled Lil Prinz ( 2001 ) . In 2009 , he signed a record deal with Banky W. ' s imprint Empire Mates Entertainment . He rose to prominence in 2010 with the release of the song " Holla at Your Boy " from his debut studio album , Superstar ( 2011 ) . " Tease Me / Bad Guys " , " Don 't Dull " , Gidi Girl , " Love My Baby " , " Pakurumo " and " Oluwa Lo Ni " were also released as singles from the Superstar album . Wizkid 's self @-@ titled second studio album , Ayo ( 2014 ) , was preceded by the singles " Jaiye Jaiye " , " On Top Your Matter " , " One Question " , " Joy " , " Bombay " and " Show You the Money " .
In addition to his solo work , Wizkid has collaborated with several artists and was featured on the hits " Girl " ( with Bracket ) , " Fine Lady " ( with Lynxxx ) , " Sexy Mama " ( with Iyanya ) , " Slow Down " ( with R2Bees ) , " The Matter " ( with Maleek Berry ) , " Pull Over " ( with KCee ) and " Bad Girl " ( with Jesse Jagz ) . He was ranked 5th on Forbes and Channel O 's 2013 list of the Top 10 Richest / Bankable African Artists . In February 2014 , Wizkid became the first ever Nigerian musician to have over 1 million followers on Twitter .
= = Life and music career = =
= = = 1990 – 2010 : Early life and Lil Prinz = = =
Wizkid was born on 16 July 1990 in Surulere , a residential and commercial area of Lagos . In a 2012 interview with Tim Westwood , he said that his father has three wives . Wizkid started singing at age 11 , releasing a 7 track album entitled Lil Prinz ( 2001 ) . During an interview with Adesope of Factory 78 TV , Wizkid described his life in a nutshell . He said he formed a group called the Glorious Five with a couple of his church friends . The group dropped an album prior to dismembering . Wizkid later met OJB Jezreel , a record producer who prevented him from recording for a year . While visiting Jezreel 's studio frequently , he watched 2 Face Idibia record Grass 2 Grace and Sound Sultan record Jagbajantis . A year later , Wizkid started recording . His first song featured OJB Jezreel . The song was met with great reception throughout Surulere . Wizkid cited Naeto C as one of the people who mentored and coached him while he was 15 years old . Wizkid also told Factory 78 TV that his parents weren 't receptive of his music from the onset . In order to gain his father 's trust , he had to work hard and spent lots of time in the studio . Wizkid has a great relationship with Banky W. He told Factory 78 TV that he and Banky became friends prior to starting a professional relationship . He co @-@ wrote Banky W 's " Omoge You Too Much " , a song off the The W Experience album . In 2006 , he collaborated with Naeto C and Ikechukwu . In 2009 , Wizkid became a household name within Nigeria 's musical landscape ; he was featured on M.I 's " Fast Money , Fast Cars " and Kel 's " Turn by Turn " .
= = = 2010 – 11 : Superstar = = =
In 2010 , Wizkid began recording his debut studio album Superstar ( 2011 ) . On 2 January 2010 , he released " Holla at Your Boy " ( sometimes stylized as Holla @ Ur Boi ) as the album 's lead single . The song earned Wizkid a Next Rated award at The Headies 2011 , and was nominated for Best Pop Single at The Headies 2011 . The music video for " Holla at Your Boy " was nominated for Most Gifted Newcomer Video at the 2011 Channel O Music Video Awards . The music video was also nominated for Best Afro Pop Video at the 2011 Nigeria Music Video Awards ( NMVA ) . On 2 April 2010 , Wizkid released " Tease Me / Bad Guys " as the album 's second single ; it was initially released as a freestyle . " Don 't Dull " , the album 's third single , was released on 6 December 2010 .
The album , recorded in English and Yoruba , was released on 12 June 2011 by Empire Mates Entertainment . It incorporates elements of R & B , dancehall , and reggae . Wizkid collaborated with a wide range of music producers , including E @-@ Kelly , Jay Sleek , Shizzi , DJ Klem , Sunny Nweke , Q @-@ Beats and Samklef . The album features guest appearances from Banky W. , Skales , D 'Prince and Wande Coal . It was initially scheduled for release on 14 February 2011 , but was later pushed back . On 12 June 2011 , Wizkid hosted an album launch party at the Expo Hall of the Eko Hotel and Suites . The album 's launch party featured performances from Banky W , Skales , 2face Idibia , Samklef , Wande Coal , D 'Prince , Olamide , eLDee , Jesse Jagz , Ice Prince , Lynxxx and Seyi Shay . Superstar garnered Best Album of the Year at the 2012 Nigeria Entertainment Awards , and was nominated for Album of the Year at The Headies 2012 .
= = = 2012 – 2014 : Ayo and other recordings = = =
Work on Wizkid 's second studio album , Ayo , began in 2012 and continued through 2014 . It features guest appearances from Femi Kuti , Banky W. , Seyi Shay , Phyno , Tyga , Akon and Wale . The album 's production was handled by Sarz , Shizzi , Uhuru , Del B , Dr Frabz , Maleek Berry , Legendury Beatz and Spellz . It was initially titled Chosen . According to MTV Base , the album suffered from a pushed back release date . It was earlier reported that the album would feature Don Jazzy , Efya and Olamide . On 6 September 2014 , Wizkid revealed the album 's cover art and track listing .
Prior to announcing plans for a second studio album , Wizkid had plans of releasing a mixtape in April 2013 . In an interview with Ok ! Nigeria TV at Disturbing Headquarters in London , he said that the mixtape would be released in April . He also said that the mixtape would feature Wale and Tinie Tempah . Wizkid later announced that he would be releasing his second studio album on 12 June 2013 . In an interview with HipTV , Banky W revealed the album 's title and commented on the delayed album . In addition , he gave an estimated time @-@ frame for the album 's release .
On 2 May 2013 , Wizkid and Starboy Entertainment released the album 's lead single " Jaiye Jaiye " featuring Femi Kuti . Wizkid told Showtime Celebrity that he collaborated with Femi Kuti in order to prevent people from depicting him as an artist whose lyrics revolve around girls , cars and materialistic things . " On Top Your Matter " was released as the album 's second single on 26 October 2013 ; it was produced by Del B. The music video for the single , released on 13 February 2014 , was shot and directed in South Africa by Sesan . In July 2014 , Wizkid visited The Beat 99 @.@ 9 FM studio in Lagos and told Toolz that he collaborated with Barbadian singer Rihanna .
= = = 2015 – present : Sounds From the Other Side EP = = =
On 5 January 2015 , Wizkid released the music video for " Ojuelegba " , a song that highlights the struggles he endured in the early years of his recording career . The official remix to the song features vocals from Drake and Skepta ; it premiered on OVO Sound Radio in July 2015 . Wizkid first announced that he was working on a new album during his visit to London in October 2014 . He revealed his collaborative single with Chris Brown titled " African Bad Girl " , and said that it would be the lead single off the upcoming album . In April 2015 , both Wizkid and Chris Brown performed the song together at the latter 's concert in Durban , South Africa . In May 2015 , Wizkid released " Expensive Shit " , an Afrobeat song built on light guitars , saxophone lines and acoustic percussion ; the song was reported as being a likely inclusion on the album . In July 2015 , Wizkid announced via Twitter that Angélique Kidjo will be featured on the album . In September 2015 , Wizkid revealed that he was dropping his EP and postponing the release of his third studio album . He made the announcement via Instagram shortly after the conclusion of 2Face Idibia 's " Fortified " tribute concert . Wizkid was quoted as saying , " I celebrated the legend 2face Idibia last night ! Epic ! It made me realize how much work I need to do . " According to an interview published by The Fader magazine , Wizkid 's upcoming EP would be titled Sounds From the Other Side . Although much information were not revealed , The Fader did report that Wizkid is squeezing in edits to the EP . On April 5 , 2016 , Wizkid became Nigeria 's first artist to emerge on Billboard ’ s Twitter Last 24 hours chart following his guest feature on Drake 's " One Dance " single , which charted at number 21 . On May 12 , 2016 , the song reached number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . On 5 June 2016 , Wizkid released the promotional single " Like This " . The song made its premiere on Drake 's OVO Sound Radio in June 2016 . It was produced by Amsterdam @-@ based Ghanaian producer DJ Henry X. Sheldon Pearce of Pitchfork Media described the song as a " frolicking , summery jam that revels in all the work he [ Wizkid ] ’ s put in . "
= = = World tours and notable performances = = =
After releasing their compilation album Empire Mates State of Mind , EME acts toured the United States . The tour kicked off on 4 July 2012 and ended on 2 September 2012 . EME acts performed in several different cities , including Houston , Dallas , Toronto , Vancouver , New York City , Providence , Calgary , Atlanta , Washington DC , and Chicago . Wizkid toured London in 2012 and performed at the HMV Apollo on 4 June 2012 . On 12 November 2012 , he performed at the BBC Radio 1Xtra Live 02 Academy in Brixton alongside Trey Songz , Tulisa , Kendrick Lamar and Angel . On 17 October 2013 , Wizkid performed at the 2013 edition of Felabration , a yearly concert dedicated to the late Fela Kuti . On 2 November 2013 , he performed at the Guinness Colorful World of More concert alongside D 'banj , Tiwa Savage , P @-@ Square , Davido , Ice Prince , Burna Boy , Olamide and Phyno , among others . The concert took place at the Eko Convention Centre of the Eko Hotels and Suites . On 23 November 2013 , Wizkid performed at the Guinness Big Eruption Concert . Wizkid was invited as a special guest for some shows in Tinie Tempah 's tour of the UK in 2014 . Wizkid joined Chris Brown on his " One Hell of a Nite " world tour in May 2016 .
= = = Endorsements = = =
In 2012 , Wizkid signed a one @-@ year endorsement deal with Pepsi reportedly worth 350 @,@ 000 U.S dollars . He travelled to Beirut , Lebanon with Tiwa Savage for a Pepsi commercial shoot . On 28 May 2013 , Premium Times reported that Wizkid signed a one @-@ year deal with MTN Nigeria . Moreover , the news source reported that Wizzy 's Pepsi contract was renewed for another two years . On 23 October 2013 , BellaNaija reported that Wizkid signed an endorsement deal with Guinness for the " Guinness World of More " concert . The concert was held at the Eko Convention Centre of the Eko Hotel and Suites in Victoria Island , Lagos on 3 November 2013 . On 18 June 2015 , Pulse reported that Wizkid ditched MTN and signed a ₦ 128 million naira deal with GLO .
= = = The Next Rated prize = = =
Wizkid won the award for Next Rated at The Headies 2011 . In addition to winning the award , he was awarded a 2012 Hyundai Sonata courtesy of The Headies and its affiliates . The car 's presentation ceremony took place at the Silverbird Galleria in Victoria Island , Lagos . Guy Murray Bruce , Bola Salako and Ayo Animashaun were present during the ceremony . Wizkid joined the list of past winners , including Aṣa , Overdose , Omawumi , Wande Coal and Skuki .
= = Fashion style = =
In a February 2015 interview with Alex Frank of Vogue magazine , Wizkid stated that he wears a mixture of street @-@ wear and traditional Nigerian clothes . He cited Pharrell Williams as one of his fashion style icons . Moreover , he revealed plans to establish a clothing line following the release of his upcoming debut EP .
= = Starboy Entertainment = =
On 5 March 2013 , Charles Mgbolu ( a writer for Vanguard ) reported that Wizkid established his label imprint Starboy Entertainment . During an interview with Silverbird Television , Wizkid told Yvonne Vixen Ekwere that he planned on signing new acts to the label . Wizkid told Showtime Celebrity that he established his own record label to give up @-@ and @-@ coming artists a platform to showcase their talent . On 17 April 2013 , Wizkid signed Maleek Berry to Starboy Entertainment . Wizkid and Maleek Berry 's work credits include " Lagos to Soweto " and " The Matter " , among others . On 29 April 2013 , Premium Times reported that Wizkid signed producers Uzezi Oniko and Okiemute Oniko , popularly known as Legendury Beatz , to his imprint . He made the announcement via Twitter . On 9 May 2013 , he unveiled photos of himself with the aforementioned acts signed . On 20 August 2013 , Wizkid signed recording artist L.A.X to the label . He made the announcement moments after debuting the music video for " Caro " , the label 's first official single . On May 7 , 2016 , Wizkid announced the signings of Efya , R2Bees , and Mr Eazi to Starboy Entertainment . He made the announcement shortly after his performance at the 17th edition of the Ghana Music Awards .
= = EME 's breakup , reunion and departure = =
After Wizkid tweeted a subliminal message and tweaked his Twitter account , reports about his departure from E.M.E went viral . Wizkid moved out of the E.M.E mansion in Lagos and acquired his own home in the Lekki Phase 1 area . Prior to Wizkid 's subliminal tweets , Banky W pacified fans by assuring them that nothing was amiss . Furthermore , it was reported that troubles within E.M.E started as early as the 2012 E.M.E all stars concert . It was also reported that money was at the centre of the controversy . On 20 February 2013 , Information Nigeria reported that Wizkid was getting 25 percent from every performance , while Banky W and Segun Demuren were getting 50 percent . Osagie , Wizkid 's former manager , was getting the remaining 25 percent . After firing Osagie and hiring Godwin Tom ( whom he parted ways with in April 2014 ) , Wizkid wanted a 50 – 50 share with Banky W. The source revealed that Banky W refused to accept Wizkid 's proposal . Moreover , it was reported that Banky W wanted to find a manager for Wizkid who would accept 25 percent . It was also reported that things started getting sour as a result of both parties disagreement . Information Nigeria went on to report that Wizkid was doing three shows weekly and bringing in close to N24 million monthly . On 30 April 2013 , Nigerian Entertainment Today reported that Wizkid and E.M.E reunited after contract negotiations . The news source also reported that Wizkid performed alongside label mates Shaydee and DJ Xclusive in The Republic of Benin . In August 2014 , Wizkid told Olisa Adibua that he will depart the label following the release of his second studio album , Ayo .
= = A victim of impersonation = =
On 19 June 2013 , Wizkid and his management were invited by men from the Nigerian Police Force for questioning . Duping charges were levelled against them by a group of Unilag students . The students claimed that Wizkid agreed to perform at the UNILAG Sports Centre on 21 May 2013 for a total sum of N500,000 . They also claimed that he didn 't show up for the show and didn 't return their money . After conducting a thorough investigation , Police determined that Unilag students were bamboozled by con artists pretending to be affiliates of E.M.E. In the aforementioned interview with Showtime Celebrity , Wizkid commented on the events that transpired after the accusations . He told the media that the police were investigating the case . The masterminds behind the impersonation were later detained by law enforcement agents in Lagos . In addition to duping Unilag students , the culprits set up fake email and social media accounts . Wizkid also elaborated on how one can go about booking him .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Car accident and Porsche acquisition = = =
On 15 June 2013 , Wizkid was involved in a non @-@ life @-@ threatening car accident along the Lekki @-@ Epe Expressway in Lekki , Lagos . According to an article posted on Silverbird Television , Wizkid was hospitalised for a minor concussion resulting from the wreck . According to eyewitness reports compiled by MTV Base , Wizkid 's Porsche Panamera was spotted speeding down the road ; the car 's front tires blew out and resulted in the driver of the vehicle losing control and crashing into a road barrier . Eyewitness reports also added that the car 's airbag suspension system deployed on impact , shielding Wizkid and the driver instantaneously . At the time of the incident , Wizkid and other passengers in the car were returning from the Soundcity Nokia LumiaBeat Party . The accident allegedly occurred around 3 : 30am in front of the GET Arena . As a result of the wreck , the car was badly damaged . Pictures of the damaged vehicle surfaced on Instagram and Facebook . Vanguard reported that Wizkid acquired a Porsche Cayenne two weeks after the accident . He posted pictures of his new acquisition onto his Instagram page and tagged the pictures with the caption " # Blessed " .
= = = Fatherhood controversy = = =
On 22 August 2011 , Nigerian Entertainment Today reported that Wizkid fathered his first child at age 21 . After a thorough investigation , the news source concluded that Wizkid impregnated an undergraduate student named Oluwanishola Ogudugu . Moreover , the news source added that multiple sources familiar with the " baby mama " and her family told them that they knew about the relationship between both parties . When the story broke out , close friends and associates of Wizkid didn 't confirm the story due to DNA results that were pending at the time . Wizkid broke his silence on the story in several interviews . In an interview with a Nigerian Entertainment Today editor , Wizkid denied having a child . In another interview held at Ogudu @-@ GRA in Lagos , Wizkid said he really doesn 't want to find himself in that peculiar situation . A week before denying the aforementioned allegations , Wizkid tweeted from his official Twitter handle . In December 2012 , he denied the baby scandal during an interview with Nonye Ben @-@ Nwankwo of The Punch . In October 2013 , Wizkid uploaded a picture of he and his 2 @-@ year @-@ old son , Boluwatife Balogun , onto his Instagram account . The photo confirmed the alleged rumours and allegations that were harboured for 2 years . The photo also vindicated Nigerian Entertainment Today , the news source that first covered the story .
= = = Feuds = = =
Wizkid became engulfed in rifts with several artists including his erstwhile boss Banky W and former label mate Skales . Other artists include Davido , Dammy Krane , Saeon , Tonto Dikeh , Samklef and blogger Linda Ikeji .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Wizkid 's contribution to the Nigerian Music Industry has earned him several achievements , including a BET Award , a MOBO Award , five The Headies Awards , two Channel O Music Video Awards , six Nigeria Entertainment Awards , two Ghana Music Awards , two Dynamix All Youth Awards , two City People Entertainment Awards , and a Future Award . He has received three nominations at the MTV Europe Music Awards . He has also been nominated four times at the World Music Awards .
= = Discography = =
Lil Prinz ( 2001 )
Superstar ( 2011 )
Empire Mates State of Mind ( 2012 ) ( with EME )
Ayo ( 2014 )
Sounds From the Other Side ( TBD )
= Babe Ruth =
George Herman Ruth Jr . ( February 6 , 1895 – August 16 , 1948 ) , better known as Babe Ruth , was an American professional baseball player whose career in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) spanned 22 seasons , from 1914 through 1935 . Nicknamed " The Bambino " and " The Sultan of Swat " , he began his MLB career as a stellar left @-@ handed pitcher for the Boston Red Sox , but achieved his greatest fame as a slugging outfielder for the New York Yankees . Ruth established many MLB batting ( and some pitching ) records , including career home runs ( 714 ) , runs batted in ( RBIs ) ( 2 @,@ 213 ) , bases on balls ( 2 @,@ 062 ) , slugging percentage ( .690 ) , and on @-@ base plus slugging ( OPS ) ( 1 @.@ 164 ) ; the latter two still stand today . Ruth is regarded as one of the greatest sports heroes in American culture and is considered by many to be the greatest baseball player of all time . In 1936 , Ruth was elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame as one of its " first five " inaugural members .
At age seven , Ruth was sent to St. Mary 's Industrial School for Boys , a reformatory where he learned life lessons and baseball skills from Brother Matthias Boutlier of the Christian Brothers , the school 's disciplinarian and a capable baseball player . In 1914 , Ruth was signed to play minor @-@ league baseball for the Baltimore Orioles but was soon sold to the Red Sox . By 1916 , he had built a reputation as an outstanding pitcher who sometimes hit long home runs , a feat unusual for any player in the pre @-@ 1920 dead @-@ ball era . Although Ruth twice won 23 games in a season as a pitcher and was a member of three World Series championship teams with Boston , he wanted to play every day and was allowed to convert to an outfielder . With regular playing time , he broke the MLB single @-@ season home run record in 1919 .
After that season , Red Sox owner Harry Frazee controversially sold Ruth to the Yankees , an act that , coupled with Boston 's subsequent championship drought , popularized the " Curse of the Bambino " superstition . In his 15 years with New York , Ruth helped the Yankees win seven American League ( AL ) championships and four World Series championships . His big swing led to escalating home run totals that not only drew fans to the ballpark and boosted the sport 's popularity but also helped usher in the live @-@ ball era of baseball , in which it evolved from a low @-@ scoring game of strategy to a sport where the home run was a major factor . As part of the Yankees ' vaunted " Murderer 's Row " lineup of 1927 , Ruth hit 60 home runs , extending his MLB single @-@ season record . He retired in 1935 after a short stint with the Boston Braves . During his career , Ruth led the AL in home runs during a season twelve times .
Ruth 's legendary power and charismatic personality made him a larger @-@ than @-@ life figure in the " Roaring Twenties " . During his career , he was the target of intense press and public attention for his baseball exploits and off @-@ field penchants for drinking and womanizing . His often reckless lifestyle was tempered by his willingness to do good by visiting children at hospitals and orphanages . He was denied a job in baseball for most of his retirement , most likely due to poor behavior during parts of his playing career . In his final years , Ruth made many public appearances , especially in support of American efforts in World War II . In 1946 , he became ill with cancer , and died two years later .
= = Early years = =
George Herman Ruth Jr. was born in 1895 at 216 Emory Street in Pigtown , a working @-@ class section of Baltimore , Maryland , named for its meat @-@ packing plants . Its population included recent immigrants from Ireland , Germany and Italy , and African Americans . Ruth 's parents , George Herman Ruth , Sr. ( 1871 – 1918 ) , and Katherine Schamberger , were both of German American ancestry . According to the 1880 census , his parents were born in Maryland . The paternal grandparents of Ruth , Sr. were from Prussia and Hanover , respectively . Ruth , Sr. had a series of jobs , including lightning rod salesman and streetcar operator , before becoming a counterman in a family @-@ owned combination grocery and saloon on Frederick Street . George Ruth Jr. was born in the house of his maternal grandfather , Pius Schamberger , a German immigrant and trade unionist . Only one of young George 's seven siblings , his younger sister Mamie , survived infancy .
Many aspects of Ruth 's childhood are undetermined , including the date of his parents ' marriage . When young George was a toddler , the family moved to 339 South Woodyear Street , not far from the rail yards ; by the time the boy was 6 , his father had a saloon with an upstairs apartment at 426 West Camden Street . Details are equally scanty about why young George was sent at the age of 7 to St. Mary 's Industrial School for Boys , a reformatory and orphanage . As an adult , Babe Ruth suggested that not only had he been running the streets and rarely
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@.@ 39 to 1 @.@ 18 in ) . The largest brachiopods known – Gigantoproductus and Titanaria , reaching 30 to 38 centimetres ( 12 to 15 in ) in width – occurred in the upper part of the Lower Carboniferous . Each has two valves ( shell sections ) which cover the dorsal and ventral surface of the animal , unlike bivalve molluscs whose shells cover the lateral surfaces . The valves are termed brachial and pedicle . The brachial valve bears on its inner surface the brachia ( " arms " ) from which the phylum gets its name , and which support the lophophore , used for feeding and respiration . The pedicle valve has on its inner surface the attachment to the stalk @-@ like pedicle by which most brachiopods attach themselves to the substrate . ( R. C. Moore , 1952 ) The brachial and pedicle valves are often called the dorsal ( " upper " ) and ventral ( " lower " ) , but some paleontologists regard the terms " dorsal " and " ventral " as irrelevant since they believe that the " ventral " valve was formed by a folding of the upper surface under the body . The pedicle valve is typically larger than the brachial . In most articulate brachiopod species , both valves are convex , the surfaces often bearing growth lines and / or other ornamentation . However , inarticulate lingulids , which burrow into the seabed , have valves that are smoother , flatter and of similar size and shape . ( R. C. Moore , 1952 )
Articulate ( " jointed " ) brachiopods have a tooth and socket arrangement by which the pedicle and brachial valves hinge , locking the valves against lateral displacement . Inarticulate brachiopods have no matching teeth and sockets ; their valves are held together only by muscles . ( R. C. Moore , 1952 )
All brachiopods have adductor muscles that are set on the inside of the pedicle valve and which close the valves by pulling on the part of the brachial valve ahead of the hinge . These muscles have both " quick " fibers that close the valves in emergencies and " catch " fibers that are slower but can keep the valves closed for long periods . Articulate brachiopods open the valves by means of abductor muscles , also known as diductors , which lie further to the rear and pull on the part of the brachial valve behind the hinge . Inarticulate brachiopods use a different opening mechanism , in which muscles reduce the length of the coelom ( main body cavity ) and make it bulge outwards , pushing the valves apart . Both classes open the valves to an angle of about 10 ° . The more complex set of muscles employed by inarticulate brachiopods can also operate the valves as scissors , a mechanism that lingulids use to burrow .
Each valve consists of three layers , an outer periostracum made of organic compounds and two biomineralized layers . Articulated brachiopods have an outermost periostracum made of proteins , a " primary layer " of calcite ( a form of calcium carbonate ) under that , and innermost a mixture of proteins and calcite . Inarticulate brachiopod shells have a similar sequence of layers , but their composition is different from that of articulated brachiopods and also varies among the classes of inarticulate brachiopods . Lingulids and discinids , which have pedicles , have a matrix of glycosaminoglycans ( long , unbranched polysaccharides ) , in which other materials are embedded : chitin in the periostracum ; apatite containing calcium phosphate in the primary biomineralized layer ; and a complex mixture in the innermost layer , containing collagen and other proteins , chitinophosphate and apatite . Craniids , which have no pedicle and cement themselves directly to hard surfaces , have a periostracum of chitin and mineralized layers of calcite . Shells can grow holoperipherally , where new material is added all around the margin , or mixoperipherally , where new material is added to the posterior region of the shell in an anterior direction , growing towards the other shell .
= = = Mantle = = =
Brachiopods , as with molluscs , have an epithelial mantle that secretes and lines the shell , and encloses the internal organs . The brachiopod body occupies only about one @-@ third of the internal space inside the shell , nearest the hinge . The rest of the space is lined with the mantle lobes , extensions that enclose a water @-@ filled space in which sits the lophophore . The coelom extends into each lobe as a network of canals , which carry nutrients to the edges of the mantle .
Relatively new cells in a groove on the edges of the mantle secrete material that extends the periostracum . These cells are gradually displaced to the underside of the mantle by more recent cells in the groove , and switch to secreting the mineralized material of the shell valves . In other words , on the edge of the valve the periostracum is extended first , and then reinforced by extension of the mineralized layers under the periostracum . In most species the edge of the mantle also bears movable bristles , often called chaetae or setae , that may help defend the animals and may act as sensors . In some brachiopods groups of chaetae help to channel the flow of water into and out of the mantle cavity .
In most brachiopods , diverticula ( hollow extensions ) of the mantle penetrate through the mineralized layers of the valves into the periostraca . The function of these diverticula is uncertain and it is suggested that they may be storage chambers for chemicals such as glycogen , may secrete repellents to deter organisms that stick to the shell or may help in respiration . Experiments show that a brachiopod 's oxygen consumption drops if petroleum jelly is smeared on the shell , clogging the diverticula .
= = = Lophophore = = =
Like bryozoans and phoronids , brachiopods have a lophophore , a crown of tentacles whose cilia ( fine hairs ) create a water current that enables them to filter food particles out of the water . However a bryozoan or phoronid lophophore is a ring of tentacles mounted on a single , retracted stalk , while the basic form of the brachiopod lophophore is U @-@ shaped , forming the brachia ( " arms " ) from which the phylum gets its name . Brachiopod lophophores are non @-@ retractable and occupy up to two @-@ thirds of the internal space , in the frontmost area where the valves gape when opened . To provide enough filtering capacity in this restricted space , lophophores of larger brachiopods are folded in moderately to very complex shapes — loops and coils are common , and some species ' lophophores resemble a hand with the fingers splayed . In all species the lophophore is supported by cartilage and by a hydrostatic skeleton ( in other words by the pressure of its internal fluid ) , and the fluid extends into the tentacles . Some articulate brachiopods also have a brachidium , a calcareous support for the lophophore attached to the inside of the brachial valve .
The tentacles bear cilia ( fine mobile hairs ) on their edges and along the center . The beating of the outer cilia drives a water current from the tips of the tentacles to their bases , where it exits . Food particles that collide with the tentacles are trapped by mucus , and the cillia down the middle drive this mixture to the base of the tentacles . A brachial groove runs round the bases of the tentacles , and its own cilia pass food along the groove towards the mouth . The method used by brachiopods is known as " upstream collecting " , as food particles are captured as they enter the field of cilia that creates the feeding current . This method is used by the related phoronids and bryozoans , and also by pterobranchs . Entoprocts use a similar @-@ looking crown of tentacles , but it is solid and the flow runs from bases to tips , forming a " downstream collecting " system that catches food particles as they are about to exit .
= = = Attachment to substrate = = =
Most modern species attach to hard surfaces by means of a cylindrical pedicle ( " stalk " ) , an extension of the body wall . This has a chitinous cuticle ( non @-@ cellular " skin " ) and protrudes through an opening in the hinge . However , some genera such as the inarticulate Crania and the articulate Lacazella have no pedicle , and cement the rear of the " pedicle " valve to a surface so that the front is slightly inclined up away from the surface . In a few articulate genera such as Neothyris and Anakinetica , the pedicles wither as the adults grow and finally lie loosely on the surface . In these genera the shells are thickened and shaped so that the opening of the gaping valves is kept free of the sediment .
Pedicles of inarticulate species are extensions of the main coelom , which houses the internal organs . A layer of longitudinal muscles lines the epidermis of the pedicle . Members of the order Lingulida have long pedicles , which they use to burrow into soft substrates , to raise the shell to the opening of the burrow to feed , and to retract the shell when disturbed . A lingulid moves its body up and down the top two @-@ thirds of the burrow , while the remaining third is occupied only by the pedicle , with a bulb on the end that builds a " concrete " anchor . However , the pedicles of the order Discinida are short and attach to hard surfaces .
An articulate pedicle has no coelom , is constructed from a different part of the larval body , and has a core composed of connective tissue . Muscles at the rear of the body can straighten , bend or even rotate the pedicle . The far end of the pedicle generally has rootlike extensions or short papillae ( " bumps " ) , which attach to hard surfaces . However , articulate brachiopods of genus Chlidonophora use a branched pedicle to anchor in sediment . The pedicle emerges from the pedicle valve , either through a notch in the hinge or , in species where the pedicle valve is longer than the brachial , from a hole where the pedicle valve doubles back to touch the brachial valve . Some species stand with the front end upwards , while others lie horizontal with the pedicle valve uppermost .
Some brachiopods do not have a functional pedicle , and thus do not have this pedicle opening .
= = = Feeding and excretion = = =
The water flow enters the lophophore from the sides of the open valves and exits at the front of the animal . In lingulids the entrance and exit channels are formed by groups of chaetae that function as funnels . In other brachiopods the entry and exit channels are organized by the shape of the lophophore . The lophophore captures food particles , especially phytoplankton ( tiny photosynthetic organisms ) , and deliver them to the mouth via the brachial grooves along the bases of the tentacles . The mouth is at the base of the lophophore . Food passes through the mouth , muscular pharynx ( " throat " ) and oesophagus ( " gullet " ) , all of which are lined with cilia and cells that secrete mucus and digestive enzymes . The stomach wall has branched ceca ( " pouches " ) where food is digested , mainly within the cells .
Nutrients are transported throughout the coelom , including the mantle lobes , by cilia . The wastes produced by metabolism are broken into ammonia , which is eliminated by diffusion through the mantle and lophophore . Brachiopods have metanephridia , used by many phyla to excrete ammonia and other dissolved wastes . However , brachiopods have no sign of the podocytes , which perform the first phase of excretion in this process , and brachiopod metanephridia appear to be used only to emit sperm and ova .
The majority of food consumed by brachiopods is digestible , with very little solid waste produced . The cilia of the lophophore can change direction to eject isolated particles of indigestible matter . If the animal encounters larger lumps of undesired matter , the cilia lining the entry channels pause and the tentacles in contact with the lumps move apart to form large gaps and then slowly use their cilia to dump the lumps onto the lining of the mantle . This has its own cilia , which wash the lumps out through the opening between the valves . If the lophophore is clogged , the adductors snap the valves sharply , which creates a " sneeze " that clears the obstructions . In some inarticulate brachiopods the digestive tract is U @-@ shaped and ends with an anus that eliminates solids from the front of the body wall . Other inarticulate brachiopods and all articulate brachiopods have a curved gut that ends blindly , with no anus . These animals bundle solid waste with mucus and periodically " sneeze " it out , using sharp contractions of the gut muscles .
= = = Circulation and respiration = = =
The lophophore and mantle are the only surfaces that absorb oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide . Oxygen seems to be distributed by the fluid of the coelom , which is circulated through the mantle and driven either by contractions of the lining of the coelom or by beating of its cilia . In some species oxygen is partly carried by the respiratory pigment hemerythrin , which is transported in coelomocyte cells.The maximum oxygen consumption of brachiopods is low , and their minimum requirement is not measurable .
Brachiopods also have colorless blood , circulated by a muscular heart lying in the dorsal part of the body above the stomach . The blood passes through vessels that extend to the front and back of the body , and branch to organs including the lophophore at the front and the gut , muscles , gonads and nephridia at the rear . The blood circulation seems not to be completely closed , and the coelomic fluid and blood must mix to a degree . The main function of the blood may be to deliver nutrients .
= = = Nervous system and senses = = =
The " brain " of adult articulates consists of two ganglia , one above and the other below the oesophagus . Adult inarticulates have only the lower ganglion . From the ganglia and the commissures where they join , nerves run to the lophophore , the mantle lobes and the muscles that operate the valves . The edge of the mantle has probably the greatest concentration of sensors . Although not directly connected to sensory neurons , the mantle 's chaetae probably send tactile signals to receptors in the epidermis of the mantle . Many brachiopods close their valves if shadows appear above them , but the cells responsible for this are unknown . Some brachiopods have statocysts , which detect changes in the animals ' position .
= = = Reproduction and life cycle = = =
Lifespans range from 3 to over 30 years . Adults of most species are of one sex throughout their lives . The gonads are masses of developing gametes ( ova or sperm ) , and most species have four gonads , two in each valve . Those of articulates lie in the channels of the mantle lobes , while those of inarticulates lie near the gut . Ripe gametes float into the main coelom and then exit into the mantle cavity via the metanephridia , which open on either side of the mouth . Most species release both ova and sperm into the water , but females of some species keep the embryos in brood chambers until the larvae hatch .
The cell division in the embryo is radial ( cells form in stacks of rings directly above each other ) , holoblastic ( cells are separate , although adjoining ) and regulative ( the type of tissue into which a cell develops is controlled by interactions between adjacent cells , rather than rigidly within each cell ) . While some animals develop the mouth and anus by deepening the blastopore , a " dent " in the surface of the early embryo , the blastopore of brachiopods closes up , and their mouth and anus develop from new openings .
The larvae of inarticulates swim as plankton for months and are like miniature adults , with valves , mantle lobes , a pedicle that coils in the mantle cavity , and a small lophophore , which is used for both feeding and swimming — except that Craniids have no pedicle . As the shell becomes heavier , the juvenile sinks to the bottom and becomes a sessile adult . The larvae of articulate species live only on yolk , and remain among the plankton for only a few days . This type of larva has a ciliated frontmost lobe that becomes the body and lophophore , a rear lobe that becomes the pedicle , and a mantle like a skirt , with the hem towards the rear . On metamorphosing into an adult , the pedicle attaches to a surface , the front lobe develops the lophophore and other organs , and the mantle rolls up over the front lobe and starts to secrete the shell . In cold seas , brachiopod growth is seasonal and the animals often lose weight in winter . These variations in growth often form growth lines in the shells . Members of some genera have survived for a year in aquaria without food .
= = Taxonomy = =
= = = Taxonomical history = = =
Brachiopod fossils show great diversity in the morphology of the shells and lophophore , while the modern genera show less diversity but provide soft @-@ bodied characteristics . Both fossils and extant species have limitations that make it difficult to produce a comprehensive classification of brachiopods based on morphology . The phylum also has experienced significant convergent evolution and reversals ( in which a more recent group seems to have lost a characteristic that is seen in an intermediate group , reverting to a characteristic last seen in an older group ) . Hence some brachiopod taxonomists believe it is premature to define higher levels of classification such as order , and recommend instead a bottom @-@ up approach that identifies genera and then groups these into intermediate groups .
However , other taxonomists believe that some patterns of characteristics are sufficiently stable to make higher @-@ level classifications worthwhile , although there are different views about what the higher @-@ level classifications should be . The " traditional " classification was defined in 1869 ; two further approaches were established in the 1990s :
In the " traditional " classification , the Articulata have toothed hinges between the valves , while the hinges of the Inarticulata are held together only by muscles .
A classification devised in the 1990s , based on the materials of which the shells are based , united the Craniida and the " articulate " brachiopods in the Calciata , which have calcite shells . The Lingulida and Discinida , combined in the Lingulata , have shells made of chitin and calcium phosphate .
A three @-@ part scheme , also from the 1990s , places the Craniida in a separate group of its own , the Craniformea . The Lingulida and Discinida are grouped as Linguliformea , and the Rhynchonellida and Terebratulida as Rhynchonelliformea .
About 330 living species are recognized , grouped into over 100 genera . The great majority of modern brachiopods are rhynchonelliforms ( Articulata , but excluding Craniida ) .
= = = Modern classification = = =
Genetic analysis performed since the 1990 ’ s has extended the understanding of the relationship between different organisms . It is now clear the brachiopods do not belong to the Deuterostomata ( such as echinoderms and chordates ) as was hypothesized earlier , but should be included in the Protostomia ( with mollusks and annelid worms ) , in a subgroup now called Lophotrochozoa . Although their adult morphology seems rather different , the nucleotid sequence of the 18S rRNA indicates that the horseshoe worms are the closest relatives of the inarticulate brachiopods rather than articulate brachiopods . For now , the weight of evidence is inconclusive as to the exact relations within the inarticulates . Consequently , it has been suggested to included horseshoe worms in the Brachiopoda as a class named Phoronata B.L.Cohen & Weydmann in addition to the Craniata and Lingulata , within the subphylum Linguliformea . The other subphylum Rhynchonelliformea only contains one class , which is subdivided in the orders Rhynchonellida , Terebratulida and Thecideida .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Distribution and habitat = = =
Brachiopods live only in the sea . Most species avoid locations with strong currents or waves , and typical sites include rocky overhangs , crevices and caves , steep slopes of continental shelves , and in deep ocean floors . However , some articulate species attach to kelp or in exceptionally sheltered sites in intertidal zones . The smallest living brachiopod , Gwynia , is only about 1 millimetre ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) long , and lives in between gravel . Rhynchonelliforms ( Articulata excluding Craniida ) , whose larvae consume only their yolks and settle and develop quickly , specialize in specific areas and form dense populations that can reach thousands per meter . Young adults often attach to the shells of more mature ones . On the other hand , inarticulate brachiopods , whose larva swim for up to a month before settling , have wide ranges . Members of the discinoid genus Pelagodiscus have a cosmopolitan distribution .
= = = Interactions with other organisms = = =
The rates of metabolism of Brachiopoda are between one third and one tenth of those of bivalves . While brachiopods were abundant in warm , shallow seas during the Cretaceous period , they have been outcompeted by bivalves , and now live mainly in cold and low @-@ light conditions .
Brachiopod shells occasionally show evidence of damage by predators , and sometimes of subsequent repair . Fish and crustaceans seem to find brachiopod flesh distasteful . The fossil record shows that drilling predators like gastropods attacked molluscs and echinoids 10 to 20 times more often than they did brachiopods , suggesting that such predators attacked brachiopods by mistake or when other prey was scarce . In waters where food is scarce , the snail Capulus ungaricus steals food from bivalves , snails , tube worms , and brachiopods .
Among brachiopods only the lingulids have been fished commercially , and only on a very small scale . Brachiopods seldom settle on artificial surfaces , probably because they are vulnerable to pollution . This may make the population of Coptothyrus adamsi useful as a measure of environmental conditions around an oil terminal being built in Russia on the shore of the Sea of Japan .
= = Evolutionary history = =
= = = Fossil record = = =
Over 12 @,@ 000 fossil species are recognized , grouped into over 5 @,@ 000 genera . While the largest modern brachiopods are 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long , a few fossils measure up to 200 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) wide . The earliest confirmed brachiopods have been found in the early Cambrian , inarticulate forms appearing first , followed soon after by articulate forms . Three unmineralized species have also been found in the Cambrian , and apparently represent two distinct groups that evolved from mineralized ancestors . The inarticulate Lingula is often called a " living fossil " , as very similar genera have been found all the way back to the Ordovician . On the other hand , articulate brachiopods have produced major diversifications , and suffered severe mass extinctions — but the articulate Rhynchonellida and Terebratulida , the most diverse present @-@ day groups , appeared at the start of the Ordovician and Carboniferous respectively .
Since 1991 Claus Nielsen has proposed a hypothesis about the development of brachiopods , adapted in 2003 by Cohen and colleagues as a hypothesis about the earliest evolution of brachiopods . This " brachiopod fold " hypothesis suggests that brachiopods evolved from an ancestor similar to Halkieria , a slug @-@ like animal with " chain mail " on its back and a shell at the front and rear end . The hypothesis proposes that the first brachiopod converted its shells into a pair of valves by folding the rear part of its body under its front .
However , fossils from 2007 onwards have supported a new interpretation of the Early @-@ Cambrian tommotiids and a new hypothesis that brachiopods evolved from tommotiids . The " armor mail " of tommotiids was well @-@ known but not in an assembled form , and it was generally assumed that tommotiids were slug @-@ like animals similar to Halkieria , except that tommotiids ' armor was made of organophosphatic compounds while that of Halkieria was made of calcite . However fossils of a new tommotiid , Eccentrotheca , showed an assembled mail coat that formed a tube , which would indicate a sessile animal rather than a creeping slug @-@ like one . Eccentrotheca 's organophosphatic tube resembled that of phoronids , sessile animals that feed by lophophores and are regarded either very close relatives or a sub @-@ group of brachiopods . Paterimitra , another mostly assembled fossil found in 2008 and described in 2009 , had two symmetrical plates at the bottom , like brachiopod valves but not fully enclosing the animal 's body .
At their peak in the Paleozoic the brachiopods were among the most abundant filter @-@ feeders and reef @-@ builders , and occupied other ecological niches , including swimming in the jet @-@ propulsion style of scallops . However , after the Permian – Triassic extinction event , informally known as the " Great Dying " , brachiopods recovered only a third of their former diversity . It was often thought that brachiopods were actually decline in diversity , and that in some way bivalves out @-@ competed them . However , in 1980 Gould and Calloway produced a statistical analysis that concluded that : both brachiopods and bivalves increased all the way from the Paleozoic to modern times , but bivalves increased faster ; the Permian – Triassic extinction was moderately severe for bivalves but devastating for brachiopods , so that brachiopods for the first time were less diverse than bivalves and their diversity after the Permian increased from a very low base ; there is no evidence that bivalves out @-@ competed brachiopods , and short @-@ term increases or decreases for both groups appeared at the same times . In 2007 Knoll and Bambach concluded that brachiopods were one of several groups that were most vulnerable to the Permian – Triassic extinction , as all had calcareous hard parts ( made of calcium carbonate ) and had low metabolic rates and weak respiratory systems .
Brachiopod fossils have been useful indicators of climate changes during the Paleozoic era . When global temperatures were low , as in much of the Ordovician , the large difference in temperatures between equator and poles created different collections of fossils at different latitudes . On the other hand , warmer periods , such much of the Silurian , created smaller difference in temperatures , and all seas at the low to middle latitudes were colonized by the same few brachiopod species .
= = = Evolutionary family tree = = =
= = = = Deuterostomes or protostomes = = = =
From about the 1940s to the 1990s , family trees based on embryological and morphological features placed brachiopods among or as a sister group to the deuterostomes. a super @-@ phylum that includes chordates and echinoderms . Closer examination has found difficulties in the grounds on which brachiopods were affiliated with deuterostomes :
Radial cleavage in the earliest divisions of the egg appears to be the original condition for the ancestral bilaterians , in the earliest Ecdysozoa and possibly in the earliest Eutrochozoa , a major sub @-@ group of the Lophotrochozoa . Hence radial cleavage does not imply that brachiopods are affiliated with deuterostomes .
The traditional view is that the coelom ( s ) in deuterostomes and protostomes form by different process , called enterocoely and schizocoely respectively . However , research since the early 1990s has found significant exceptions . Both types of coelom construction appear among brachiopods , and therefore do not imply that brachiopods are deuterostomes .
The terms " deuterostomes " and " protostomes " originally defined distinct ways of forming the mouth from the blastopore , a depression that appears in an early stage of the embryo . However , some " protostomes " forming the mouth using a process more like that typical of deuterostomes . Hence forming the mouth via a deuterostome @-@ like process does not imply that brachiopods are affiliated with deuterostomes .
Nielsen views the brachiopods and closely related phoronids as affiliated with the deuterostome pterobranchs because their lophophores are driven by one cilium per cell , while those of bryozoans , which he regards as protosomes , have multiple cilia per cell . However , pterobranchs are hemichordates and probably closely related to echinoderms , and there is no evidence that the latest common ancestor of pterobranchs and other hemichordates or the latest common ancestor of hemichordates and echinoderms was sessile and fed by means of tentacles .
From 1988 onwards analyses based on molecular phylogeny , which compares biochemical features such as similarities in DNA , have placed brachiopods among the Lophotrochozoa , a protostome super @-@ phylum that includes molluscs , annelids and flatworms but excludes the other protostome super @-@ phylum Ecdysozoa , whose members include arthropods . This conclusion is unanimous among molecular phylogeny studies , which use a wide selection of genes : rDNA , Hox genes , mitochondrial protein genes , single nuclear protein genes and sets of nuclear protein genes .
Some combined studies in 2000 and 2001 , using both molecular and morphological data , support brachiopods as Lophotrochozoa , while others in 1998 and 2004 concluded that brachiopods were deuterostomes .
= = = = Relationship with other lophotrochozoans = = = =
The phoronids feed with a lophophore , burrow or encrust on surfaces , and build three @-@ layered tubes made of polysaccharide , possibly chitin , mixed with particles with seabed material . Traditionally they have been regarded as a separate phylum , but increasingly detailed molecular phylogeny studies between 1997 and 2000 have concluded that phoronids are a sub @-@ group of brachiopods . However , an analysis in 2005 concluded that phoronids are a sub @-@ group of bryozoans .
While all molecular phylogeny studies and half the combined studies until 2008 conclude that brachiopods are lophotrochozoans , they could not identify which lophotrochozoan phylum were the closest relatives of brachiopods — except phoronids , which are a sub @-@ group of brachiopods . However , in 2008 two analyses found that brachiopods ' closest lophotrochozoan relatives were nemertines . The authors found this surprising , since nemertines have spiral cleavage in the early stages of cell division and form a trochophore larva , while brachiopods have radial cleavage and a larva that shows no sign of having evolved from a trochophore . Another study in 2008 also concluded that brachiopods are closely related to nemertines , casting doubt on the idea that brachiopods are part of a clade Lophophorata of lophophore @-@ feeding animals within the lophotrochozoans .
= = Gallery = =
= Children and Television : Lessons from Sesame Street =
Children and Television : Lessons from Sesame Street ( 1974 ) is a non @-@ fiction book written by Gerald S. Lesser , in which he describes the production of Sesame Street , and the formation and pedagogical philosophy of the Children 's Television Workshop . Lesser was a professor at Harvard University , studying how social class and ethnicity interacted with school achievement and was one of the first academics in the US who researched how watching television affected children and their development . He was initially skeptical about the potential of using television as a teaching tool , but he was eventually named as the advisory board chairman of the Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) , the organization created to oversee the production and research of Sesame Street , and was the show 's first educational director . Lesser wrote the book early in Sesame Street 's history , to evaluate the show 's effectiveness , to explain what its writers , researchers , and producers were attempting to do , and to respond to criticism of Sesame Street .
Children and Television has four sections , " A Proposal " , " Planning " , " Broadcasting " and " Lessons from Sesame Street " . The book also has a preface and an epilogue , written by Lesser , a foreword written by co @-@ creator Joan Ganz Cooney , and an introduction by co @-@ creator Lloyd Morrisett . Scattered throughout the book are cartoons drawn by children 's author Maurice Sendak . Lesser describes the origin and development of Sesame Street and his part in it . He also describes the research involved in the show 's creation and production .
= = Background = =
Gerald S. Lesser was the Biglow Professor of Education and Developmental Psychology at Harvard University . He studied how social class and ethnicity interacted with school achievement and was one of the first academics in the US who researched how watching television affected children and their development . In 1963 , he served as an academic adviser for the NBC educational program , Exploring . In 1968 , Sesame Street co @-@ creator Lloyd Morrisett , whom he had met as a student at Yale University , asked Lesser to assist with the research of a new children 's show he and producer Joan Ganz Cooney were developing , a show that eventually became Sesame Street .
Lesser was initially skeptical about the potential of using television as a teaching tool , but he was eventually named as the advisory board chairman of the Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) , the organization created to oversee the production and research of Sesame Street , and was the show 's first educational director . He was also skeptical about Cooney 's qualifications as CTW 's first director , but Cooney later stated , " ... I couldn 't begin to measure how proud I am to be Gerry Lesser 's colleague and how happy I am to know the pleasure of his company " .
In the summer of 1968 , under what Sesame Street researchers Edward Palmer and Shalom Fisch called Lesser 's " able leadership " , five three @-@ day curriculum planning seminars were conducted in Boston . The purpose of the seminars , attended by educational experts and the new show 's writers and producers , was to ascertain which school @-@ preparation skills to emphasize . According to writer Michael Davis , Lesser 's skills at encouraging collegiality were evident during the seminars . Writer Louise Gikow reported that the real friction occurred between the educators present . As Sesame Street songwriter Christopher Cerf reported , " ... [ Lesser ] ran meetings better than anyone I 've ever seen . He made everybody feel like they were important , that they got listened to , and that their work ended up in the final product " . Davis noted that the seminars also served as a " crash course in child development , psychology , and preschool education " for the show 's producers and writers . According to researcher Robert W. Morrow , Lesser understood that in order to bring research about child development into the production process of Sesame Street , a close working relationship had to be created between the researchers and the producers . Davis credited Lesser 's " informal , unpretentious , and collaborative " manner with the creation of that close relationship .
As head of research on Sesame Street , Lesser came up with what he called " the CTW model " . This model included having assumptions about how children learn from television , the use of high @-@ quality production values , and establishing " an organization that fostered mutual confidence among its members " . Field research testing the effectiveness of each episode 's content was conducted at preschools , prior to broadcast . The show 's educational goals were measured after each episode aired to further evaluate the show 's effectiveness .
Lesser wrote Children and Television in 1974 , early in the show 's history , to evaluate the effectiveness of the CTW model , to explain what the show 's writers , researchers , and producers were attempting to do , and to respond to criticism of Sesame Street . Lesser also explained the show 's logic , its curriculum , and its pedagogy . Writer Robert W. Morrow called Lesser 's book " Sesame Street 's most adept defense " . According to Morrow , Children and Television was the most complete explanation of the CTW 's reasoning behind the show at the time , and a memoir of the show 's development .
= = Synopsis = =
Children and Television has four sections , " A Proposal " , " Planning " , " Broadcasting " and " Lessons from Sesame Street " . The book also has a preface and an epilogue , written by Lesser , a foreword written by Joan Ganz Cooney , and an introduction by Lloyd Morrisett . Scattered throughout the book are cartoons drawn by children 's author Maurice Sendak , who attended the 1968 seminars .
Lesser begins his book by describing the origin of Sesame Street and his part in it . He had been studying child development and how its concepts could be used to teach children ; since 1961 , he studied children 's reaction to television and whether or not the medium could be used to teach them . In 1966 , he was approached by Cooney and Morrisett to assist them in creating the new show 's educational objectives and research goals , and he agreed despite his misgivings about the effectiveness of television as a teaching tool .
Sesame Street 's audience included any child in the country who wished to watch it , but Lesser reports that the producers ' original purpose was to reach the poor children of America . Lesser states , " If the series did not work for poor children , the entire project would fail " . He is critical of the American public school system , and blames its failure to educate children on the
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lack of defined goals . When he wrote Television and Children , most American children received no preschool education . The first two chapters of the book detail the reasons for the experiment of creating an educational television program like Sesame Street , especially in regards to its audience .
" Grownups never seem to understand anything by themselves , and it is tiresome for children to be always and forever explaining things to them " .
Antoine de Saint @-@ Exupéry , The Little Prince .
Gerald Lesser used this quote to begin the second section of Children and Television . He introduced many of his sections and chapters with pertinent quotes .
Lesser opens the section on " Planning " by relating how many of the cast and crew were recruited : executive producer David Connell , producer Sam Gibbon , head writer Jon Stone , producer and writer Matt Robinson , Jim Henson , composer Joe Raposo , and actors Loretta Long , Bob McGrath , and Will Lee . Lesser also recounts the process of hiring head researcher Edward L. Palmer and those involved with community outreach . The producers of the new show spent eighteen months planning , something that was unprecedented in children 's television . Lesser extensively describes the series of curriculum seminars that took place at Harvard University and in New York City in the summer of 1968 .
These chapters outline the philosophy behind Sesame Street . The show 's creators made assumptions about teaching and held the unconventional view that learning can be unintentional and enjoyable . Finally , they decided that although Sesame Street was set in an urban setting , they would avoid depicting more negativity than what was already present in the child 's environment . Lesser states , " With all its raucousness and slapstick humor , Sesame Street became a sweet show , and its staff maintains that there is nothing wrong in that " .
The researchers developed a " Writer 's Notebook " for the show 's writers and producers to serve as a bridge between curriculum goals and script development . Lesser connects the show 's production techniques — including the use of music , humor ( especially slapstick humor ) , and animation — with educational goals . Lesser emphasizes the importance of characters , both human and Muppet , to sustain children 's attention . According to Lesser , Sesame Street combines four elements to sustain attention : Muppets , the cast of live adults and children on the set , animation , and live @-@ action film .
According to Lesser , before the creation of Sesame Street , children 's reactions to educational television was ignored ; this marked the first time that they were studied to evaluate and improve the show 's content and efficacy . Lesser reports that approximately 10 @-@ 15 percent of the CTW 's initial two @-@ year budget of $ 8 million was spent on research . He relates the priorities for pre @-@ production research , which he called " summative evaluation " . Using outside research groups like the Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) , the Workshop wanted to ascertain if watching the show made any difference . They were particularly interested in comparing the show 's effect on children from different socio @-@ economic groups , and if viewing conditions affected its effectiveness .
Lesser states , " This became the first time in television 's 25 @-@ year history that child @-@ watching was systematically applied over a sustained period to the design of a televised series for children " . Lesser describes the new methods researcher Edward Palmer created to study the effects Sesame Street had on its young viewers ; for example , the " distractor " , in which a slide projector was placed next to a television set and adjusted to change slides every eight seconds . The researchers recorded when children in their study moved their attention away from the television to the projector , and the data collected were analyzed . Segments were removed based upon the information gathered . " This was the first time in television 's history that the children themselves would be listened to with care as a television series for them was designed and broadcast " , Lesser states .
Lesser begins the section on " Broadcasting " relating the origin of the show 's name . As he puts it , " ... We were forced to select the name we all liked the least " . Lesser reports that the show 's premiere on November 10 , 1969 was met with a large amount of acclaim and good reviews , but there were some negative reviews and criticism , which he recounts and addresses in great detail in the chapter entitled " Criticism " . He includes the criticism of approximately thirty groups and individuals , and demonstrates the essence and range of their arguments .
Lesser describes the research about the long @-@ term effect of Sesame Street . He reports that the show was watched by three to four million viewers by the middle of its first season , and breaks down the viewership into categories . According to Lesser , ratings remained consistently high . Lesser also describes the testing used by ETS , which found positive differences after the first three weeks of the show 's first season . They found that the children who watched the most learned the most .
The final section of Lesser 's book , " Lessons from Sesame Street " , summarizes what the creators and researchers were attempting to do . As Lesser states , " Here is Sesame Street 's main lesson : It deliberately uses television to teach without hiding its educational intentions and yet it attracts a large and devoted audience of young children from all parts of the country " .
= = Reviews = =
Terry Barrett of Ohio State University calls Children and Television a " serious book " , something that could be read by the general public without compromising the field of education . Barrett also calls the book an informative treatment of an " interesting contemporary educational phenomenon " . Joan Tierney of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation calls the book " a well @-@ thought , well @-@ organized historical version " of the early history and development of Sesame Street . She not only considers the book a " how @-@ to " in how to create and produce a children 's television show , but also an important exposure to the public the hard work and dedication it required to put it on the air . For Tierney , the most interesting part of the story Lesser tells in the book is how people with strong and different opinions and temperaments learned to work together and to give television " a little bit of class " . She applauds Lesser for including the CTW 's detractors , but believes that he unnecessarily included the more ridiculous criticisms in order to give Sesame Street and the Workshop more credibility . Rose K. Goldsen of Cornell University criticizes Lesser for legitimizing " the strange folk belief that depositing lore in a child 's head is the same as educating a child " . She criticizes the research Lesser describes in the book , and insists that it should be considered as product @-@ testing rather than educational research . She also criticizes Lesser for legitimizing consumerism .
Ellen Wartella of Northwestern University called Children and Television a " profound book " that greatly influenced the field of children and media . She said that it was the first book in the U.S. that established the idea that children and television could be studied from a developmental perspective , that academics could be involved in the production of educational television programs , and that " children 's development and our understanding of children 's development could be important in the creation of media products " . The book also had a profound effect how later research has been conducted , and has been cited in hundreds of studies and books .
= Black Act =
The Black Act ( 9 Geo . 1 c . 22 ) was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain passed in 1723 in response to a series of raids by two groups of poachers , known as the Blacks . Arising in the aftermath of the South Sea Bubble 's collapse and the ensuing economic downturn , the Blacks gained their name from their habit of blacking their faces when undertaking poaching raids . They quickly demonstrated both " a calculated programme of action , and a conscious social resentment " , and their activities led to the introduction of the Black Act to Parliament on 26 April 1723 ; it came into force on 27 May . The Act introduced the death penalty for over 50 criminal offences , including being found in a forest while disguised , and " no other single statute passed during the eighteenth century equalled [ the Black Act ] in severity , and none appointed the punishment of death in so many cases " . Following a criminal law reform campaign in the early 19th century , it was largely repealed on 8 July 1823 , when a reform bill introduced by Robert Peel came into force .
= = Background = =
Following the South Sea Bubble 's collapse in 1720 , Britain suffered an economic downturn that led to heightened social tensions . A small element of this was the activity of two groups of poachers , based in Hampshire and Windsor Forest respectively . The first flurry of activity came from the Hampshire group , and began in October 1721 when 16 poachers assembled in Farnham to raid the park of the Bishop of Winchester . Three deer were carried off , and two others killed ; four of the poachers were later caught , with two released due to a lack of evidence and the others pilloried and sentenced to a year and a day in prison . The poachers became known as the " Blacks " , due to their practise of blackening their faces to prevent identification ; most famously , the Hampshire groups were the " Waltham Blacks " . In response to the convictions , the poachers decided to attack the Bishop 's property again , demonstrating " a calculated programme of action , and a conscious social resentment " that distinguished them from normal poachers . In the reprisal attack , 11 deer were taken and many more killed , leading to a royal proclamation offering £ 100 for information that led to the arrest of the gang . This was followed by a series of raids highlighting a " fairly direct class hatred " , that culminated in the raid of a shipment of wine ordered for the Prince of Wales . This proved to be the final straw , with Sir Francis Page , a " notorious hanging judge " , sent to the Winchester Assizes to preside over any prosecutions , forcing the Hampshire Blacks underground .
The Windsor Blacks then began their activities , copying the Hampshire group . Their main target was Caversham Park , owned by the Earl of Cadogan , with a series of increasingly audacious raids in 1722 and 1723 including one in which a gamekeeper 's son was killed . In response to these actions , the government introduced the Black Act , formally " An Act for the more effectual punishing wicked and evil disposed Persons going armed in Disguise and doing Injuries and Violence to the Persons and Properties of His Majesty 's Subject , and for the more speedy bringing the Offenders to Justice " , to Parliament on 26 April 1723 ; it came into force on 27 May .
= = Act = =
The Act dealt with any offender who was armed and with a blacked face , armed and otherwise disguised , merely blacked , merely disguised , accessories after the fact or " any other person or persons " . If anyone who fitted into one of the above categories was found in a forest , chase , down or Royal Park , they could be sentenced to death . Similarly , it was an offence to hunt , kill , wound or steal deer in these locations , with the first offence punishable by a fine , and the second by penal transportation . Other criminalised activities included fishing , the hunting of hares , the destruction of fish @-@ ponds , the destruction of trees and the killing of cattle in these locations – the latter also punishable by death . An offender could also be executed if he set fire to corn , hay , straw , wood , houses or barns , or shot another person . The same penalties applied to attempting to rescue anyone imprisoned under the Black Act , or attempting to solicit other people to participate in crimes that violated it . In total , the Act introduced the death penalty for over 50 criminal acts .
= = Aftermath = =
Three of the Blacks ' leaders had already been captured during the passage of the Act , although one later escaped , and a series of raids captured a total of 32 Blacks who were tried after the Act 's passage in Reading . Four were sentenced to death for the killing of the gamekeeper 's son , with the executions occurring on 15 June 1723 . Trials for the others continued into 1724 , and 7 more were captured and tried on 7 December . This marked the effective end of the Blacks as an organised group . At the time , it was thought that the Blacks were Jacobites , with Sir Robert Walpole encouraging these ideas to advance his own interests ; the rationale for the Act has been described as " at least as much to do with the hysteria induced by Walpole ... as with any need for new powers to fight deer @-@ stealing " .
Modern scholars have differed in their view of whether the Blacks were Jacobites or not . Some argue that the links between the Blacks and the Jacobites were " fantasies " , and that the Blacks were " simply a mixed group of foresters : labourers , yeomen and some gentry defending their customary rights " . Others , however , have claimed that the Blacks were closely connected with Jacobitism and that the Black Act was designed to combat this political threat .
In March 1723 Philip Caryll was arrested by the government for drinking to the Pretender 's health in the home of the Pretender 's former nurse in Portsea , Portsmouth . An innkeeper of Horndean testified that Caryll held meetings at his inn with the former Tory MP Sir Henry Goring . Goring fled to France after the Jacobite Atterbury Plot was discovered , in August 1722 . It quickly became known to the Dutch ambassador that Goring had requested from the Waltham Blacks support for a Jacobite rising . The ambassador wrote that the Blacks were originally a group of smugglers and that their Jacobite allegiance was the primary reason for the passing of the Black Act . Goring wrote to the Pretender on 6 May 1723 :
I had settled an affair with five gentlemen of that country who were each of them to raise a regiment of dragoons well mounted and well armed which I knew they could easily do for the men had horses and homes of their own , and were , to say the truth most of them , the persons who some time since robbed the late Bishop of Winchester 's Park , and have increased in their number ever since . They go by the name of the Waltham Blacks ( tho few of them live there ) which is a most loyal little town ... I once saw two hundred and upwards of these Blacks in a body within half a mile of my house . They had been running brandy . There was 24 customs officers following them who they abused heartily and carried off their cargo . I am told there is no less than a thousand of them and indeed I believe they have now taken loyalty into their heads , and will I hope prove very useful .
As late as the Jacobite rising of 1745 @-@ 46 newspapers were reporting that the Blacks had reappeared in Hampshire , stealing deer and robbing parks .
Sir Geoffrey Elton claimed that the Act was " passed not in order to suppress legitimate protest but because organized gangs were destroying deer and planning a Jacobite rising " . The Act has been described as " severe and sanguinary " , and L. Radzinowicz notes in the Cambridge Law Journal that " no other single statute passed during the eighteenth century equalled [ the Black Act ] in severity , and none appointed the punishment of death in so many cases " . Efforts to repeal it started in 1810 , with comments by William Grant as part of a wider debate on penal reform ; a formal recommendation for its repeal took almost a decade , with the publication of the Report on Criminal Laws in 1819 marking the first " official " suggestion that the law be removed from the statute books . Following the publication of the Report , Sir James Mackintosh introduced a law reform bill that would have repealed the Act , but although it passed through the House of Commons successfully it was strongly opposed in the Lords . In 1823 he submitted a memo to the House of Commons , again suggesting the repeal of the Act , and a few months later Robert Peel , the Home Secretary , introduced a bill that repealed the entirety of the Black Act except for the provisions that criminalised setting fire to houses and shooting a person . This passed , and came into effect on 8 July 1823 .
= Broken Sword II : The Smoking Mirror =
Broken Sword II : The Smoking Mirror is a point @-@ and @-@ click adventure video game originally released on Microsoft Windows and PlayStation in 1997 . It was re @-@ released on Microsoft Windows , OS X and iOS as a remastered edition in 2010 and on Android in 2012 . It is the second installment in the Broken Sword series , and the first game in the series that does not follow the Knights Templar storyline . The player assumes the role of George Stobbart , a young American who is an eyewitness to the kidnapping of his girlfriend Nicole Collard .
The game was conceived in 1997 by Revolution . Though serious in tone , The Smoking Mirror incorporates some humour and graphics animated in the style of classic animated films . It was the fourth and last game built with the Virtual Theatre engine , which was used to render the locations of the game 's events .
Unlike the first Broken Sword game , which garnered critical acclaim , The Smoking Mirror received mixed to positive reviews , mostly for not living up to its predecessor . Nevertheless , it was a commercial success , selling about one million copies in the mid @-@ 1990s . Revolution released a remastered version of the game in 2010 , which unlike the original version , received highly favorable reviews from critics .
= = Gameplay = =
Broken Sword II : The Smoking Mirror is a 2D adventure game played from a third @-@ person perspective . Via a point @-@ and @-@ click interface , the player guides protagonist George Stobbart through the game 's world and interacts with the environment by selecting from multiple commands , while Nicole Collard is also a playable character in selected portions of the game . The player controls George 's movements and actions with a mouse ( PC and PlayStation ) , or a gamepad ( PlayStation ) . Player can collect objects that can be used with either other collectible objects , parts of the scenery , or with other people in order to solve puzzles and progress in the game . George can engage in dialogue with other characters through conversation trees to gain hints of what needs to be done to solve the puzzles or to progress the plot . The player uses a map to travel , and new locations are added to it as the story unfolds . By right clicking on an object , the player gets a description and clues . The player character 's death is possible if the player makes a wrong decision .
= = Plot = =
Six months after the events of The Shadow of the Templars , protagonist George Stobbart and his girlfriend , Nicole Collard , visit an archaeologist named Professor Oubier to learn about a mysterious Mayan stone Nico uncovered while researching a newspaper story . At Oubier 's home , they are ambushed by two Central Americans , who kidnap Nico , tie George to a chair and set the building ablaze . George unties himself and puts out the fire . He contacts Andre Lobineau , who reveals that Nico had suspected that something would go wrong and had left the stone with him . Lobineau tells him of a gallery owner who can tell him more about Mayan art . George discovers that Oubier supplies the gallery with Mayan artifacts , which he imports through a company named Condor Transglobal . Following this lead , George finds the two Central Americans who kidnapped Nico . One of them , whose name is later revealed to be Pablo , is shown threatening and berating the other ( later revealed to be called Titipoco ) . George knocks Pablo unconscious and discovers that Condor Transglobal has links with Quaramonte City in Central America . He also frees Titipoco , who had been manacled by Pablo . George finds Nico , who reveals that , while trying to expose a drug ring run by a man named Karzac , she was sent the stone instead , prompting her to arrange the appointment with Oubier .
The two escape the warehouse and retrieve the Mayan stone from Lobineau . Afterwards , they go to Quaramonte City in hopes of finding Condor Transglobal . They find the city under dictatorial rule by ' Madame La Presidente ' Grasiento , and learn that the town contains no Condor Transglobal offices . The two meet Professor Oubier , who is talking to the chief of police , Raoul ' The General ' Grasiento , about a mysterious chart . George confronts Oubier about his girlfriend 's abduction , but the professor claims he knows nothing , and that he has not been in Paris recently . George decides to help a CIA agent , Duane , free a local agitator , Miguel , from jail by distracting General Grasiento . Afterwards , he prepares to detonate the jail wall but is arrested in the process . George gets Duane to tie a rope to the bars and pull the wall down with his truck , alerting General Grasiento . Miguel escapes , and Nico and George flee down river on a boat . However , the boat sinks after being attacked by a helicopter .
George wakes up the next morning on the river bank , and finds a treehouse belonging to a Christian missionary named Father Hubert . Hubert has been nursing Nico back to health , but she has suffered a snakebite and requires special medicine . He takes George to the local Mayan village , as he believes the village Shaman will be able to help . George shows his Mayan stone to the shaman , who explains that , hundreds of years ago , Mayan shamans had trapped the god Tezcatlipoca inside a mirror . However , he was so powerful that he would inevitably escape , so they created three stones that contained the power to keep him imprisoned . Before they could be put in place , they were stolen by explorers : one by a Spanish pirate named Captain Ketch , who hid it in the Caribbean ; one by an English ship , which took it to England ; and one by Spanish explorers , who took it back to Spain . The third of these stones was in Nico 's and George 's possession . George returns to the treehouse and cures Nico with medicine from the shaman . Shortly thereafter , the two separate to find the two remaining stones .
Nico tracks a stone down to a museum in London , England , where she encounters but does not recognize Professor Oubier . After he leaves , the stone is discovered to be missing and the museum is locked down . Nico escapes via an abandoned subway station and finds Oubier on a boat in the Thames with Karzac . Nico witnesses Karzac killing Oubier , and then sneaks in , takes the stone and escapes . Meanwhile , George tracks the remaining stone to a small museum in the Caribbean . Following subtle clues left by Captain Ketch , George learns that the stone was left on the nearby " Zombie Island " . George explores Zombie Island and finds that a butchered remake of Treasure Island is being filmed there . He poses as a stuntman to gain access to the place where the stone is being kept , but gets captured by Pablo and his men to be used as a sacrifice to Tezcatlipoca . Nico travels back to Quaramonte and saves George ; together with Titipoco they enter Tezcatlipoca 's pyramid . As they reach the central room , Karzac frees the ancient god there . However , Tezcatlipoca promptly kills Karzac . President Grasiento appears and attacks Titipoco , and their struggle sends them over a cliff . Raoul , realizing that he is expendable to his mother , chooses to save Titipoco . The protagonists place the stones into their respective slots , which causes Tezcatlipoca to be pushed back into the mirror . George and Nico briefly celebrate and the final cut @-@ scene fades into the credits .
= = Development = =
Broken Sword II : The Smoking Mirror was conceived in 1997 , by Charles Cecil and Revolution . Charles Cecil was the director and writer of the game ; Tony Warriner , David Sykes , Jonathan Howard , Paul Porter , James Long , Patrick Skelton , Chris Rea and Pete Ellacot worked on the software side of the project . Noirin Carmody was the executive producer . The game uses the Virtual Theatre engine , which was previously used for Lure of the Temptress , Beneath a Steel Sky , and Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars .
The artwork for Broken Sword II was developed through a number of stages . Initially pencil drawings were made of characters which were then digitally coloured in , before being cleaned up . The background layouts were produced in a similar way , starting out as pencil designs , and were all drawn by Eoghan Cahill and Neil Breen , who previously worked on the first Broken Sword , working together with Amy Berenz and Lee Taylor . The game 's graphics are animated in a style which resembles classic animated films .
The music in the game was composed by Barrington Pheloung , who also composed the music in Shadow of the Templars , with Bob Sekar adding the closing score . Audio features of the game include recorded sound effects , orchestral music and voice acting directed by Edward Hall . While Rolf Saxon returned to voice George Stobbart , a new actress , Jenny Caron Hall , was cast as Nicole Collard . The rest of the credited voice actors in the game are Dennis Chinnery , Stephanie Clive , Jeff Fletcher , Corey Johnson , Chris Miles , Gary Parker , Flaminia Cinque and Leo Wringer .
= = = Remastered edition = = =
When considering the project , Charles Cecil played the game again and noticed many issues , including pixilated backgrounds , FMV and audio were of poor quality , and he also felt some dialogue was out of place . He thought all these elements could be addressed and improved in a remastered edition , in which they could add a diary , hint system , and new artwork from Dave Gibbons , which they could offer as an interactive digital comic .
On December 9 , 2010 , Revolution Software announced the release of Broken Sword : The Smoking Mirror - Remastered on iOS devices , and was released on December 16 , 2010 . The new features include an exclusive interactive digital comic from Dave Gibbons , fully animated facial expressions , enhanced graphics , high quality music , a context @-@ sensitive hint system , diary , and a Dropbox integration which facilitates a unique cross @-@ platform save @-@ game feature , enabling players to enjoy the same adventure simultaneously on multiple devices . It also featured full Game Center integration – including in @-@ game achievements . The Mac and PC versions followed in early 2011 .
= = = Marketing and release = = =
A launch trailer for the iPhone and iPod touch version was also released on Revolution 's YouTube channel revolutionbevigilant . On the second day of Apple 's 12 Days of Christmas , Broken Sword II - Remastered was made free to download for 24 hours .
The original PC version is available from Sold @-@ Out Software and GOG.com ( with purchases of Broken Sword II - Remastered ) . However , the Remastered version of the game is available from various digital distribution services , including the iPhone / iPod Touch and iPad AppStore , Mac AppStore , Intel AppUp , Steam and GOG.com. Broken Sword II - Remastered is also a part of the Broken Sword Complete package from Mastertronic .
With purchases of Broken Sword II - Remastered on GOG.com , the consumer also gets the original game , the manual , an exclusive game guide , 18 artworks , and the comic book . The digital Broken Sword : The Smoking Mirror - Remastered comic book was created by Dave Gibbons . The short comic provides information on what happened before the beginning of the game .
= = Reception = =
The game was a commercial success . According to Charles Cecil , it sold around one million copies in the mid @-@ 1990s .
The Smoking Mirror received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Gaming Age gave the game a B + , saying : " The sound is another area in which The Smoking Mirror excels . Although there isn 't a constant soundtrack playing , haunting music often accompanies certain actions , much like the original Tomb Raider . " PC Gamer gave it a score of 82 % , saying it 's " more of the same solid adventure fare found in Circle of Blood . " GameSpot gave the game a 7 @.@ 9 out of 10 and praised it for its additions that " help to streamline the adventure " , but criticised the " insufficient information about Tezcatlipoca and Maya civilization altogether " when it came to the storyline . Jen of Four Fat Chicks gave it a " thumbs up " and stated that he would recommend this game for the good storyline and the beautiful graphics , but if players want a game that has more adventuring , they should look elsewhere . " Mr. Bill and Lela " of Mr. Bill 's Adventureland praised its controls and humour , and called it an excellent sequel , that they wouldn 't have missed playing .
= = = Remastered Edition = = =
Unlike the original release , Broken Sword : The Smoking Mirror has received very positive reviews from critics . AppSafari gave the game a 5 out of 5 , saying : " Production values for the game are sky @-@ high , with gorgeous graphics , challenging , well @-@ designed puzzles , and pitch @-@ perfect voice acting . The sequel also implements the same fantastic touch interface of its predecessor . " AppGamer gave the game a 10 out of 10 , saying : " Broken Sword 2 will last you hours , having all the playability of a full @-@ priced PC game . It is the kind of game that could convert people who wouldn 't look twice at adventure games , and is easily one of my most highly recommended titles on the platform . " GameZone gave the game an 8 out of 10 and praised the game 's controls and cut scenes , but stated that the iPad version of the game can be blurry at times . Carl Stevens of TouchGen gave the game 4 out of 5 start and stated that it should be on everybody 's " must play list " and that the ease of , and restriction between some puzzles were the only let down in the game . Jeniffer Allen of 148Apps gave the game a 4 out of 5 start and praised it , saying : " Broken Sword : The Smoking Mirror is a fantastic game . The story feels as fresh and as entertaining as it did back in the day , and the slightly improved graphics are much appreciated . Many hours of entertaining storytelling lie ahead . "
= Neuroblastoma =
Neuroblastoma ( NB ) is the most common extracranial solid cancer in childhood and the most common cancer in infancy , with an incidence of about 650 cases per year in the U.S. , and 100 cases per year in the UK . Nearly half of neuroblastoma cases occur in children younger than two years . It is a neuroendocrine tumor , arising from any neural crest element of the sympathetic nervous system ( SNS ) . It most frequently originates in one of the adrenal glands , but can also develop in nerve tissues in the neck , chest , abdomen , or pelvis .
Neuroblastoma is one of the few human malignancies known to demonstrate spontaneous regression from an undifferentiated state to a completely benign cellular appearance . It is a disease exhibiting extreme heterogeneity , and is stratified into three risk categories : low , intermediate , and high risk . Low @-@ risk disease is most common in infants and good outcomes are common with observation only or surgery , whereas high @-@ risk disease is difficult to treat successfully even with the most intensive multi @-@ modal therapies available .
Esthesioneuroblastoma , also known as olfactory neuroblastoma , is believed to arise from the olfactory epithelium and its classification remains controversial . However , since it is not a sympathetic nervous system malignancy , esthesioneuroblastoma is a distinct clinical entity and is not to be confused with neuroblastoma .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The first symptoms of neuroblastoma are often vague making diagnosis difficult . Fatigue , loss of appetite , fever , and joint pain are common . Symptoms depend on primary tumor locations and metastases if present :
In the abdomen , a tumor may cause a swollen belly and constipation .
A tumor in the chest may cause breathing problems .
A tumor pressing on the spinal cord may cause weakness and thus an inability to stand , crawl , or walk .
Bone lesions in the legs and hips may cause pain and limping .
A tumor in the bones around the eyes or orbits may cause distinct bruising and swelling .
Infiltration of the bone marrow may cause pallor from anemia .
Neuroblastoma often spreads to other parts of the body before any symptoms are apparent and 50 to 60 % of all neuroblastoma cases present with metastases .
The most common location for neuroblastoma to originate ( i.e. , the primary tumor ) is in the adrenal glands . This occurs in 40 % of localized tumors and in 60 % of cases of widespread disease . Neuroblastoma can also develop anywhere along the sympathetic nervous system chain from the neck to the pelvis . Frequencies in different locations include : neck ( 1 % ) , chest ( 19 % ) , abdomen ( 30 % non @-@ adrenal ) , or pelvis ( 1 % ) . In rare cases , no primary tumor can be discerned .
Rare but characteristic presentations include transverse myelopathy ( tumor spinal cord compression , 5 % of cases ) , treatment @-@ resistant diarrhea ( tumor vasoactive intestinal peptide secretion , 4 % of cases ) , Horner 's syndrome ( cervical tumor , 2 @.@ 4 % of cases ) , opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome and ataxia ( suspected paraneoplastic cause , 1 @.@ 3 % of cases ) , and hypertension ( catecholamine secretion or renal artery compression , 1 @.@ 3 % of cases ) .
= = Cause = =
The etiology of neuroblastoma is not well understood . The great majority of cases are sporadic and non @-@ familial . About 1 – 2 % of cases run in families and have been linked to specific gene mutations . Familial neuroblastoma in some cases is caused by rare germline mutations in the anaplastic lymphoma kinase ( ALK ) gene . Germline mutations in the PHOX2A or KIF1B gene have been implicated in familial neuroblastoma as well . Neuroblastoma is also a feature of neurofibromatosis type 1 and the Beckwith @-@ Wiedemann syndrome .
MYCN oncogene amplification within the tumor is a common finding in neuroblastoma . The degree of amplification shows a bimodal distribution : either 3- to 10 @-@ fold , or 100- to 300 @-@ fold . The presence of this mutation is highly correlated to advanced stages of disease .
Duplicated segments of the LMO1 gene within neuroblastoma tumor cells have been shown to increase the risk of developing an aggressive form of the cancer .
Neuroblastoma has been linked to copy @-@ number variation within the NBPF10 gene , which results in the 1q21.1 deletion syndrome or 1q21.1 duplication syndrome .
Several risk factors have been proposed and are the subject of ongoing research . Due to characteristic early onset many studies have focused on parental factors around conception and during gestation . Factors investigated have included occupation ( i.e. exposure to chemicals in specific industries ) , smoking , alcohol consumption , use of medicinal drugs during pregnancy and birth factors ; however , results have been inconclusive .
Other studies have examined possible links with atopy and exposure to infection early in life , use of hormones and fertility drugs , and maternal use of hair dye .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis is usually confirmed by a surgical pathologist , taking into account the clinical presentation , microscopic findings , and other laboratory tests .
= = = Biochemistry = = =
In about 90 % of cases of neuroblastoma , elevated levels of catecholamines or their metabolites are found in the urine or blood . Catecholamines and their metabolites include dopamine , homovanillic acid ( HVA ) , and / or vanillylmandelic acid ( VMA ) .
= = = Imaging = = =
Another way to detect neuroblastoma is the mIBG scan ( meta @-@ iodobenzylguanidine ) , which is taken up by 90 to 95 % of all neuroblastomas , often termed " mIBG @-@ avid . " The mechanism is that mIBG is taken up by sympathetic neurons , and is a functioning analog of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine . When it is radio @-@ ionated with I @-@ 131 or I @-@ 123 ( radioactive iodine isotopes ) , it is a very good radiopharmaceutical for diagnosis and monitoring of response to treatment for this disease . With a half @-@ life of 13 hours , I @-@ 123 is the preferred isotope for imaging sensitivity and quality . I @-@ 131 has a half @-@ life of 8 days and at higher doses is an effective therapy as targeted radiation against relapsed and refractory neuroblastoma .
= = = Histology = = =
On microscopy , the tumor cells are typically described as small , round and blue , and rosette patterns ( Homer Wright rosettes ) may be seen . Homer Wright rosettes are tumor cells around the neuropil , not to be confused with pseudorosettes , which are tumor cells around a blood vessel . They are also distinct from the pseudorosettes of an ependymoma which consist of tumor cells with glial fibrillary acidic protein ( GFAP ) – positive processes tapering off toward a blood vessel ( thus a combination of the two ) . A variety of immunohistochemical stains are used by pathologists to distinguish neuroblastomas from histological mimics , such as rhabdomyosarcoma , Ewing 's sarcoma , lymphoma and Wilms ' tumor .
Neuroblastoma is one of the peripheral neuroblastic tumors ( pNTs ) that have similar origins and show a wide pattern of differentiation ranging from benign ganglioneuroma to stroma @-@ rich ganglioneuroblastoma with neuroblastic cells intermixed or in nodules , to highly malignant neuroblastoma . This distinction in the pre @-@ treatment tumor pathology is an important prognostic factor , along with age and mitosis @-@ karyorrhexis index ( MKI ) . This pathology classification system ( the Shimada system ) describes " favorable " and " unfavorable " tumors by the International Neuroblastoma Pathology Committee ( INPC ) which was established in 1999 and revised in 2003 .
= = = Staging = = =
The " International Neuroblastoma Staging System " ( INSS ) established in 1986 and revised in 1988 stratifies neuroblastoma according to its anatomical presence at diagnosis :
Stage 1 : Localized tumor confined to the area of origin .
Stage 2A : Unilateral tumor with incomplete gross resection ; identifiable ipsilateral and contralateral lymph node negative for tumor .
Stage 2B : Unilateral tumor with complete or incomplete gross resection ; with ipsilateral lymph node positive for tumor ; identifiable contralateral lymph node negative for tumor .
Stage 3 : Tumor infiltrating across midline with or without regional lymph node involvement ; or unilateral tumor with contralateral lymph node involvement ; or midline tumor with bilateral lymph node involvement .
Stage 4 : Dissemination of tumor to distant lymph nodes , bone marrow , bone , liver , or other organs except as defined by Stage 4S .
Stage 4S : Age < 1 year old with localized primary tumor as defined in Stage 1 or 2 , with dissemination limited to liver , skin , or bone marrow ( less than 10 percent of nucleated bone marrow cells are tumors ) .
Although international agreement on staging ( INSS ) has been used , the need for an international consensus on risk assignment has also been recognized in order to compare similar cohorts in results of studies . Beginning in 2005 , representatives of the major pediatric oncology cooperative groups have met to review data for 8 @,@ 800 neuroblastoma patients treated in Europe , Japan , USA , Canada , and Australia between 1990 and 2002 . This task force has proposed the International Neuroblastoma Risk Group ( INRG ) classification system . Retrospective studies revealed the high survival rate of 12 – 18 month old age group , previously categorized as high @-@ risk , and prompted the decision to reclassify 12 – 18 month old children without N @-@ myc ( also commonly referred to as MYCN ) amplification to intermediate risk category .
The new INRG risk assignment will classify neuroblastoma at diagnosis based on a new International Neuroblastoma Risk Group Staging System ( INRGSS ) :
Stage L1 : Localized disease without image @-@ defined risk factors .
Stage L2 : Localized disease with image @-@ defined risk factors .
Stage M : Metastatic disease .
Stage MS : Metastatic disease " special " where MS is equivalent to stage 4S .
The new risk stratification will be based on the new INRGSS staging system , age ( dichotomized at 18 months ) , tumor grade , N @-@ myc amplification , unbalanced 11q aberration , and ploidy into four pre @-@ treatment risk groups : very low , low , intermediate , and high risk .
= = Screening = =
Urine catecholamine level can be elevated in pre @-@ clinical neuroblastoma . Screening asymptomatic infants at three weeks , six months , and one year has been performed in Japan , Canada , Austria and Germany since the 1980s . Japan began screening six @-@ month @-@ olds for neuroblastoma via analysis of the levels of homovanillic acid and vanilmandelic acid in 1984 . Screening was halted in 2004 after studies in Canada and Germany showed no reduction in deaths due to neuroblastoma , but rather caused an increase in diagnoses that would have disappeared without treatment , subjecting those infants to unnecessary surgery and chemotherapy .
= = Treatment = =
When the lesion is localized , it is generally curable . However , long @-@ term survival for children with advanced disease older than 18 months of age is poor despite aggressive multimodal therapy ( intensive chemotherapy , surgery , radiation therapy , stem cell transplant , differentiation agent isotretinoin also called 13 @-@ cis @-@ retinoic acid , and frequently immunotherapy with anti @-@ GD2 monoclonal antibody therapy ) .
Biologic and genetic characteristics have been identified , which , when added to classic clinical staging , has allowed patient assignment to risk groups for planning treatment intensity . These criteria include the age of the patient , extent of disease spread , microscopic appearance , and genetic features including DNA ploidy and N @-@ myc oncogene amplification ( N @-@ myc regulates microRNAs ) , into low , intermediate , and high risk disease . A recent biology study ( COG ANBL00B1 ) analyzed 2687 neuroblastoma patients and the spectrum of risk assignment was determined : 37 % of neuroblastoma cases are low risk , 18 % are intermediate risk , and 45 % are high risk . ( There is some evidence that the high- and low @-@ risk types are caused by different mechanisms , and are not merely two different degrees of expression of the same mechanism . )
The therapies for these different risk categories are very different .
Low @-@ risk disease can frequently be observed without any treatment at all or cured with surgery alone .
Intermediate @-@ risk disease is treated with surgery and chemotherapy .
High @-@ risk neuroblastoma is treated with intensive chemotherapy , surgery , radiation therapy , bone marrow / hematopoietic stem cell transplantation , biological @-@ based therapy with 13 @-@ cis @-@ retinoic acid ( isotretinoin or Accutane ) and antibody therapy usually administered with the cytokines GM @-@ CSF and IL @-@ 2 .
With current treatments , patients with low and intermediate risk disease have an excellent prognosis with cure rates above 90 % for low risk and 70 – 90 % for intermediate risk . In contrast , therapy for high @-@ risk neuroblastoma the past two decades resulted in cures only about 30 % of the time . The addition of antibody therapy has raised survival rates for high @-@ risk disease significantly . In March 2009 an early analysis of a Children 's Oncology Group ( COG ) study with 226 high @-@ risk patients showed that two years after stem cell transplant 66 % of the group randomized to receive ch14.18 antibody with GM @-@ CSF and IL @-@ 2 were alive and disease @-@ free compared to only 46 % in the group that did not receive the antibody . The randomization was stopped so all patients enrolling on the trial will receive the antibody therapy .
Chemotherapy agents used in combination have been found to be effective against neuroblastoma . Agents commonly used in induction and for stem cell transplant conditioning are platinum compounds ( cisplatin , carboplatin ) , alkylating agents ( cyclophosphamide , ifosfamide , melphalan ) , topoisomerase II inhibitor ( etoposide ) , anthracycline antibiotics ( doxorubicin ) and vinca alkaloids ( vincristine ) . Some newer regimens include topoisomerase I inhibitors ( topotecan and irinotecan ) in induction which have been found to be effective against recurrent disease .
= = Prognosis = =
Between 20 % and 50 % of high @-@ risk cases do not respond adequately to induction high @-@ dose chemotherapy and are progressive or refractory . Relapse after completion of frontline therapy is also common . Further treatment is available in phase I and phase II clinical trials that test new agents and combinations of agents against neuroblastoma , but the outcome remains very poor for relapsed high @-@ risk disease .
Most long @-@ term survivors alive today had low or intermediate risk disease and milder courses of treatment compared to high @-@ risk disease . The majority of survivors have long @-@ term effects from the treatment . Survivors of intermediate and high @-@ risk treatment often experience hearing loss . Growth reduction , thyroid function disorders , learning difficulties , and greater risk of secondary cancers affect survivors of high @-@ risk disease . An estimated two of three survivors of childhood cancer will ultimately develop at least one chronic and sometimes life @-@ threatening health problem within 20 to 30 years after the cancer diagnosis .
= = = Cytogenetic profiles = = =
Based on a series of 493 neuroblastoma samples , it has been reported that overall genomic pattern , as tested by array @-@ based karyotyping , is a predictor of outcome in neuroblastoma :
Tumors presenting exclusively with whole chromosome copy number changes were associated with excellent survival .
Tumors presenting with any kind of segmental chromosome copy number changes were associated with a high risk of relapse .
Within tumors showing segmental alterations , additional independent predictors of decreased overall survival were N @-@ myc amplification , 1p and 11q deletions , and 1q gain .
Earlier publications categorized neuroblastomas into three major subtypes based on cytogenetic profiles :
Subtype 1 : favorable neuroblastoma with near triploidy and a predominance of numerical gains and losses , mostly representing non @-@ metastatic NB stages 1 , 2 and 4S .
Subtypes 2A and 2B : found in unfavorable widespread neuroblastoma , stages 3 and 4 , with 11q loss and 17q gain without N @-@ myc amplification ( subtype 2A ) or with N @-@ myc amplification often together with 1p deletions and 17q gain ( subtype 2B ) .
Virtual karyotyping can be performed on fresh or paraffin @-@ embedded tumors to assess copy number at these loci . SNP array virtual karyotyping is preferred for tumor samples , including neuroblastomas , because they can detect copy neutral loss of heterozygosity ( acquired uniparental disomy ) . Copy neutral LOH can be biologically equivalent to a deletion and has been detected at key loci in neuroblastoma . ArrayCGH , FISH , or conventional cytogenetics cannot detect copy neutral LOH .
= = Epidemiology = =
Neuroblastoma comprises 6 – 10 % of all childhood cancers , and 15 % of cancer deaths in children . The annual mortality rate is 10 per million children in the 0- to 4 @-@ year @-@ old age group , and 4 per million in the 4- to 9 @-@ year old age group .
The highest incidence is in the first year of life , and some cases are congenital . The age range is broad , including older children and adults , but only 10 % of cases occur in people older than 5 years of age . A large European study reported less than 2 % of over 4000 neuroblastoma cases were over 18 years old .
= = History = =
In 1864 German physician Rudolf Virchow was the first to describe an abdominal tumor in a child as a " glioma " . The characteristics of tumors from the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla were then noted in 1891 by German pathologist Felix Marchand . In 1901 the distinctive presentation of stage 4S in infants ( liver but no bone metastases ) was described by William Pepper . In 1910 James Homer Wright understood the tumor to originate from primitive neural cells , and named it neuroblastoma . He also noted the circular clumps of cells in bone marrow samples which are now termed " Homer Wright rosettes " . Of note , " Homer @-@ Wright " with a hyphen is grammatically incorrect , as the eponym refers to just Dr. Wright .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Legislative efforts = = =
U.S. Representative Chet Edwards of Waco , Texas , successfully introduced legislation to earmark $ 150 million toward a cure for neuroblastoma and other cancers . The measure was signed into law in July 2008 by U.S. President George W. Bush . Edwards was inspired in the endeavor by the illness and subsequent death of Erin Channing Buenger ( 1997 – 2009 ) of Bryan , daughter of one of his constituents , Walter L. Buenger , head of the history department at Texas A & M University .
= = = Fundraising = = =
Several organizations fundraise for research into neuroblastoma . GLOBAL VISION cancer care NGO a pioneer non profit organisation in India supporting poor cancer patients since 2009 [ 1 ] . Tom Hanks is the Honorary Patron of the James Fund , a leading fundraising organization in support of clinical research . On December 31 , 2014 , SickKids Foundation took over stewardship of The James Funds . The Cincinnati Bengals announced in 2014 that they would donate proceeds from the jersey sales of defensive lineman Devon Still 's jersey to the Cincinnati Children 's Hospital , and presented a check from more than $ 1 @.@ 3 million to Still 's daughter Leah during Thursday night 's game on November 6 , 2014 . Cincinnati Bengals defensive lineman Devon Still 's jersey is the 11th @-@ most popular in the NFL
= = Research = =
= = = Preclinical models = = =
Neuroblastoma patient derived tumor xenografts ( PDXs ) have been created by orthotopic implantation of patient tumor samples into immunodeficient mice . PDX models have several advantages over conventional cancer cell lines ( CCL ) s . Neuroblastoma PDXs retain the genetic hallmarks of their corresponding patient tumors and PDXs display infiltrative growth and metastasis to distant organs . PDX models are more predictive of clinical outcome as compared to conventional cancer cell line xenografts . Neuroblastoma PDXs might thus serve as clinically relevant models to identify effective compounds against neuroblastoma .
= = = Treatments = = =
Recent focus has been to reduce therapy for low and intermediate risk neuroblastoma while maintaining survival rates at 90 % . A study of 467 intermediate risk patients enrolled in A3961 from 1997 to 2005 confirmed the hypothesis that therapy could be successfully reduced for this risk group . Those with favorable characteristics ( tumor grade and response ) received four cycles of chemotherapy , and those with unfavorable characteristics received eight cycles , with three @-@ year event free survival and overall survival stable at 90 % for the entire cohort . Future plans are to intensify treatment for those patients with aberration of 1p36 or 11q23 chromosomes as well as for those who lack early response to treatment .
By contrast , focus the past 20 years or more has been to intensify treatment for high @-@ risk neuroblastoma . Chemotherapy induction variations , timing of surgery , stem cell transplant regimens , various delivery schemes for radiation , and use of monoclonal antibodies and retinoids to treat minimal residual disease continue to be examined . Recent phase III clinical trials with randomization have been carried out to answer these questions to improve survival of high @-@ risk disease :
1982 – 1985 : European Neuroblastoma Study Group ( ENSG1 ) enrolled 167 children and randomized to melphalan autologous bone marrow transplant or no further therapy ( no radiation therapy given to any ) . Transplant and no @-@ transplant arms each had 65 patients , and recent long @-@ term follow @-@ up report revealed significantly better 5 year event @-@ free survival for stage 4 over 1 year old in melphalan @-@ transplant group versus no further treatment : 33 % versus 17 % respectively .
1990 – 1999 : European study ( EU @-@ 20592 or CCLGNB @-@ 1990 @-@ 11 ) randomized 262 high @-@ risk children over 1 year old and revealed higher survival rate for rapid sequence induction ( 10 @-@ day cycle ) versus standard induction ( 21 @-@ day cycle ) with same total dose . Ten @-@ year event free survival was 27 % and 18 % respectively with non @-@ aggressive surgical approach , no radiotherapy , and melphalan @-@ only autologous bone marrow or stem cell transplant for both groups .
1991 – 1996 : Phase III trial with two sequential randomizations for 379 high @-@ risk NB patients was carried out by the Children 's Cancer Group ( CCG @-@ 3891 ) which demonstrated improved survival with myeloablative therapy ( with total body irradiation ) and 13 @-@ cis @-@ retinoic acid ( Accutane ) with 50 patients in each of the four arms of the study . ,
1996 – 2003 : The German ( GPOH ) study NB97 compared outcomes of 295 high @-@ risk NB patients randomized for stem cell transplant or consolidation chemotherapy . Results showed increased survival with transplant .
2000 – 2006 : The recent study ( COG @-@ A3973 ) questioned the need for purged stem cells for CEM @-@ LI ( carboplatin , etoposide , melphalan , with local irradiation ) transplant , and accrued 486 patients . Purging stem cells was not found to improve survival
2000 – 2012 : A concurrent study ( COG @-@ ANBL0032 ) determined in early review that the antibody ch14.18 with interleukin 2 and GMCSF ( studied retrospectively in German GPOH NB90 and NB 97 at a lower dose and without cytokines ) improved survival , and will accrue a total of 423 patients . A follow on Phase III study COG @-@ ANBL0931 opened Jan 2010 to accrue 105 patients to gather further safety and efficacy data for FDA approval .
2002 – 2008 : SIOP ( International Society of Paediatric Oncology ) formed the European SIOP Neuroblastoma Group ( SIOPEN ) in 1994 and activated a phase III high @-@ risk NB protocol in 2002 ( SIOP @-@ EUROPE @-@ HR @-@ NBL @-@ 1 ) using " rapid " COJEC ( 8 cycles of chemotherapy given at 10 @-@ day intervals ) followed by transplant randomization to CEM ( carboplatin , etoposide , melphalan ) or BuMel ( busulfan , melphalan ) and the study has been recently amended to randomize children to ch14.18 antibody treatment with or without subcutaneous IL2 ( without GM @-@ CSF as given in the COG ) . This antibody was remanufactured in chinese hamster ovary ( CHO ) cells and shows molecular and functional differences compared to ch14.18 used in the COG trial . This study recently reported the benefit of growth factors ( GCSF ) , and all patients receive retinoic acid . This trial will accrue 1000 patients ( 175 per year ) .
2005 – 2010 : The current German NB2004 randomization will include MIBG therapy and randomize topotecan use in up @-@ front therapy and will accrue a total of 642 for all risk groups ( roughly half will be high @-@ risk ) . After transplant , the high @-@ risk protocol includes six months of cis @-@ retinoic acid , a three @-@ month break , and another three months of retinoic acid .
2007 : The COG phase III ANBL0532 trial opened December 2007 for accrual of 495 and will compare single versus tandem transplants , and induction begins with two cycles of topotecan .
In addition to these phase III studies , some research institutions offer pilot treatment protocols . For example , St Jude 's recently finished ( 2007 ) testing a new up @-@ front chemotherapy regimen in 23 children which included irinotecan and gefitinib with 16 months of maintenance chemotherapy after stem cell transplant with alternating oral 13 @-@ cis @-@ retinoic acid and topotecan . Memorial Sloan @-@ Kettering Cancer Center in New York offers treatment that includes a mouse @-@ derived monoclonal antibody , 3F8 , used in protocols since the mid @-@ 1980s . This antibody is used for treating minimal residual disease or consolidation instead of stem cell transplant . A new pilot protocol COG @-@ ANBL09P1 available for newly diagnosed ( high @-@ risk ) children at several Children 's Oncology Group ( COG ) centers will offer MIBG radiotherapy and chemotherapy for the transplant regimen .
= = = Refractory and relapsed neuroblastoma = = =
Some children ( particularly in high @-@ risk cases ) do not respond completely to frontline treatment ( with a complete response or very good partial response ) and are labeled refractory . These children are removed from the frontline therapy ( clinical trial ) and are eligible for clinical trials using new therapies . Many high @-@ risk children have a good response to frontline therapy and achieve a remission , but later the disease recurs ( relapse ) . These children are also eligible for new therapies being tested in clinical trials .
Chemotherapy with topotecan and cyclophosphamide is frequently used in refractory setting and after relapse . A randomized study ( 2004 ) with 119 patients ( comparing topotecan alone to topotecan and cyclophosphamide ) revealed a 31 % complete or partial response rate with two @-@ year progression @-@ free survival at 36 % in the topotecan and cyclophosphamide group . Irinotecan ( intravenous or oral ) and oral temozolomide are also used in refractory and recurrent neuroblastoma .
Many phase I and phase II trials are currently testing new agents against neuroblastoma in children who have relapsed or are resistant to initial therapy . Investigators are currently studying new agents , alone and in new combinations , using small molecule targeted therapy , 131 @-@ I MIBG radiation therapy , angiogenesis agents , new monoclonal antibodies , vaccines , oncolytic viruses , as well as new myeloablative regimens .
A group of 16 children 's hospitals in the United States known as the New Advances in Neuroblastoma Therapy ( NANT ) consortium coordinates the I @-@ 131 MIBG radiation therapy trials . The NANT consortium also offers trials using an oral powder formulation of fenretinide , intravenous fenretinide , bisphosphonate ( Zometa ) with other agents , and combining I @-@ 131 MIBG with the inhibitor vorinostat .
The SIOPEN group investigated a new delivery method for anti @-@ GD2 antibody ch14.18 / CHO given as long term continuous infusion mostly combined with cytokine IL2 ( Ref 1 ) in order to achieve a better tolerated treatment regimen .
Other research study groups such as The Neuroblastoma and Medulloblastoma Translational Research Consortium ( NMTRC ) also conduct clinical trials to treat relapse neuroblastoma . Institutions in Europe are studying novel therapies to treat relapse , including haploidentical stem cell transplant . Many hospitals conduct their own institutional studies as well .
The protein p53 is believed to play a role in the development of resistance to chemotherapy . A November 2009 study in mice shows that activating the tumor suppressor p53 with a new drug , nutlin @-@ 3 , may slow tumor growth . In this study , physician Tom Van Maerken of Ghent University Hospital in Belgium and his colleagues used nutlin @-@ 3 to neutralize MDM2 , a protein that binds to the p53 protein and obstructs p53 's ability to trigger programmed cell death . Earlier studies have shown that nutlin @-@ 3 can specifically prevent MDM2 from disabling p53 .
= Cyptotrama asprata =
Cyptotrama asprata ( alternatively spelled aspratum ) , commonly known as the golden @-@ scruffy collybia , is a saprobic species of mushroom in the family Physalacriaceae . Widely distributed in tropical regions of the world , it is characterized by the bright orange to yellow cap that in young specimens is covered with tufts of fibrils resembling small spikes . This fungus has had a varied taxonomical history , having been placed in fourteen genera before finally settling in Cyptotrama . This species is differentiated from several other similar members of genus Cyptotrama by variations in cap color , and spore size and shape .
= = History = =
This species was first described from Ceylon by English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley in 1847 ; soon after ( 1852 ) , specimens were collected from South Carolina USA . Later , the fungus was described under a variety of names : Lentinus chrysopeplus from Cuba ; Agaricus sabriusculus and Agaricus lacunosa from New York ; Collybia lacunosa from Michigan ; and Omphalia scabriuscula in Connecticut . As Canadian mycologists Redhead and Ginns explain in a 1980 article on the species , since its original 1847 description , C. asprata has been given 28 names , and placed in 14 different genera .
= = Description = =
The cap is 0 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 24 to 1 @.@ 06 in ) in diameter , convex to cushion @-@ shaped . The cap surface is dry , and younger specimens are covered with characteristic spikes ; as the spikes break up with age , they tend to look more hairy or woolly . Older specimens typically have the surface features worn off . The cap margin tends to be rolled inwards when young , gradually becoming straight with maturity . The color of the cap is bright or pale yellow , increasing in intensity towards the center of the cap . C. asprata has a web @-@ like ring that soon disappears .
The gills , pale yellow to white in color , are distantly spaced and have an adnate ( squarely attached ) or short decurrent ( running down the length ) attachment to the stem ; they feel greasy when dried and crushed . The stem is 1 to 6 @.@ 7 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 6 in ) long by 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 4 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 08 to 0 @.@ 16 in ) thick at the stem apex ; the stem is slightly thicker towards the base , and may be covered with hyphae that appear woolly ( flocculose ) or hairy ( fibrillose ) . The surface of the stem may also be scaly – especially towards the base – or it may be covered with very small particles ( granular ) . The flesh of this mushroom is white or pale yellow , with no distinctive taste or odor . The spore print is white . Edibility is unknown for this fungus .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
Spores are thin @-@ walled , smooth , and ellipsoidal or oval in shape . Viewed with a microscope , they appear translucent ( hyaline ) , and stain red or blue with Melzer 's reagent ( in amyloid ) . Their dimensions are typically 7 – 10 by 5 – 7 µm ; the spores contain a single large oil droplet . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are club @-@ shaped , two- to four @-@ spored , and 25 – 30 by 5 – 7 µm . The presence of sterile cells called pleurocystidia ( large cells found on the gill face in some mushrooms ) is uncommon ; specimens may contain few or abundant cheilocystidia ( large sterile cells found on the gill edge ) that are club @-@ shaped , thin @-@ walled and 39 – 87 @.@ 5 by 8 @.@ 5 – 16 µm in size .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Cyptotrama asprata is a saprobic fungus , and grows on the decaying wood of deciduous and coniferous trees . Host species include white fir ( Abies concolor ) , sugar maple ( Acer saccharum ) and other maple ( Acer ) species , grey alder ( Alnus oblongifolia ) , beech ( Fagus ) species , spruce ( Picea ) species , ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa ) and other pine ( Pinus ) species , poplar ( Populus ) and oak ( Quercus ) species . In temperate North America , specimens are typically collected between July through September .
The species has a pantropical distribution , and is widely distributed in tropical regions of the world . It has been collected from Australia , southeastern Canada , China , Costa Rica , India , Hawaii , New Zealand , Japan , and the Russian Far East . It is absent from Europe and Northwestern North America .
= = Similar species = =
Many other members of genus Cyptotrama are similar in appearance and differ from C. asprata by only one or two readily observable features . For example , C. granulosa is bright yellowish @-@ brown ( rather than bright or pale yellow in C. asprata ) ; C. lachnocephala is ochre @-@ colored ; C. deseynesiana is cream @-@ colored with brown scales ; C. verruculosa has a " copper @-@ rust @-@ brown " cap ; C. costesii has olive @-@ colored pigments . Species may also be distinguished by differences in spore size and shape , although a considerable size range has been noted for C. asprata spores .
= Watford F.C. =
Watford Football Club is a football club based in Watford , Hertfordshire , England , that plays in the Premier League , the highest level of English football . Founded in 1881 as Watford Rovers , the club entered the FA Cup for the first time in 1886 , and the Southern League a decade later . After finishing the 1914 – 15 season as Southern League champions under the management of Harry Kent , Watford joined the Football League in 1920 . The club played at several grounds in its early history , before moving to a permanent location at Vicarage Road in 1922 , where it remains to this day . Watford spent most of the following half century in the lower divisions of The Football League , changing colours and crest on multiple occasions .
England manager Graham Taylor 's tenure at the club saw Watford scale new heights . Between Taylor 's appointment in 1977 and departure in 1987 , Watford rose from the Fourth Division to the First Division . The team finished second in the First Division in the 1982 – 83 season , competed in the UEFA Cup in 1983 – 84 , and also reached the 1984 FA Cup Final . Watford experienced a decade of decline between 1987 and 1997 , before Taylor returned as full @-@ time manager , leading the team to successive promotions from the renamed Second Division to the Premier League for one season in 1999 – 2000 . The club experienced a further one season stint in the top division of English football during the 2006 – 07 season , under Aidy Boothroyd 's management . After eight years , Watford are again competing in the Premier League 2015 – 16 season , after clinching promotion from the Football League Championship in the 2014 – 15 season .
Watford is currently owned by the Pozzo family , which also owns Udinese Calcio in Italy and used to own Granada CF in Spain Sir Elton John , who owned Watford during both of Graham Taylor 's successful periods as manager , served alongside Taylor as the club 's joint Honorary Life President until 2008 , only to later resume the role which he now shares alongside Graham Taylor .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
Watford Rovers was formed in 1881 by Henry Groverand , who went on to play for the club as a full @-@ back . Rovers , originally composed entirely of amateur players , held home games at several locations in the town of Watford . The team first competed in the FA Cup in the 1886 – 87 season , and in 1889 Watford won the County Cup for the first time . The team became the football section of West Hertfordshire Sports Club in 1890 , and consequently moved to a ground on Cassio Road . Renamed as West Hertfordshire in 1893 , Rovers joined the Southern Football League in 1896 , and started to pay professional footballers in
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1897 . West Hertfordshire merged with local rivals Watford St Mary 's in 1898 ; the merged team was named Watford Football Club .
Following relegation to the Southern League Second Division in 1903 , Watford appointed its first manager – former England international and First Division top scorer John Goodall . He led Watford to promotion , and kept the team in the division until his departure in 1910 . Despite financial constraints , Watford won the Southern League title in the 1914 – 15 season under his successor , Harry Kent . Watford held the title for five years following the suspension of the Southern League during the First World War – after finishing the 1919 – 20 season runners @-@ up on goal average , the club resigned from the Southern League to join the new Football League Third Division .
From 1921 – 22 , the third tier of The Football League consisted of two parallel sections of 22 clubs , fighting both for promotion to the Second Division and also battling to hold on to their league status . There was a re @-@ election system in place which meant the bottom two teams in each of the two divisions had to apply for re @-@ election to the league . Watford finished outside the top six league positions in every season between 1922 and 1934 . Following Kent 's departure in 1926 , they finished 21st out of 22 clubs in 1926 – 27 , but were unanimously re @-@ elected to the league after a ballot of clubs in the top two divisions of The Football League . By contrast , under Neil McBain and subsequently Bill Findlay , the team recorded five consecutive top six finishes between 1934 – 35 and 1938 – 39 , and won the Football League Third Division South Cup in 1937 . The Football League was suspended in 1939 due to the Second World War .
= = = Post @-@ war era = = =
Football resumed in 1946 , with Watford still in the Third Division South . A 23rd @-@ placed finish in 1950 – 51 meant that the club had to apply for re @-@ election to the league once more , but again teams in the First and Second Divisions unanimously voted for Watford to stay in the league . McBain returned in 1956 , and the team remained in the division until 1958 ; the league was restructured into four national divisions for the 1958 – 59 season , and Watford were placed in the Fourth Division . Ron Burgess replaced McBain during that season , and in the following campaign Burgess presided over Watford 's first Football League promotion . This team included Fourth Division top scorer Cliff Holton , who scored a club record 42 league goals in the season . Holton was sold to Northampton the following year after another 34 goals , to the anger of supporters . Burgess was succeeded by Bill McGarry , who bought new players such as Charlie Livesey and Ron Saunders , and in his only season at the club led the club to what was at the time its highest ever league position : third in the Third Division . Eighteen @-@ year @-@ old Northern Irish goalkeeper Pat Jennings also featured under McGarry , and made his international debut despite being a Third Division player .
McGarry joined Ipswich in 1964 , and was replaced by player @-@ manager Ken Furphy , from Workington Furphy rebuilt the team around players such as Keith Eddy and Dennis Bond , but after holding Liverpool to a draw in the FA Cup and narrowly failing to win promotion in 1966 – 67 , Bond was sold to Tottenham Hotspur for £ 30 @,@ 000 , Watford 's record transfer receipt at the time . Furphy 's rebuilding came to fruition in 1969 with the signing of Barry Endean , whose arrival marked the start of an unbeaten run after Christmas . Watford secured the league title in April , at home to Plymouth Argyle . A year later Watford reached the FA Cup semi @-@ final for the first time , defeating First Division teams Stoke City and Liverpool along the way . Hampered by a lack of funds , however , Furphy eventually joined Blackburn Rovers , to be succeeded by George Kirby . Forced to sell players to survive , Watford fell back into the Third Division in 1972 . The team continued to struggle in the third tier , and despite a managerial change , Watford were relegated again in 1975 .
= = = Elton John Era = = =
Lifelong Watford supporter Elton John became club chairman in 1976 . The singer declared an ambition to take the team into the First Division , and sacked Kirby 's successor Mike Keen in April 1977 . When Graham Taylor was named as Keen 's successor , the club was still in the Fourth Division . Taylor achieved promotion in his first season ; Watford won the Fourth Division title , recording the most wins , fewest defeats , most goals scored and fewest goals conceded of any side in the division . Promotion to the Second Division followed in 1978 – 79 , and Ross Jenkins finished the season as the league 's top scorer with 29 goals . Watford consolidated with 18th and 9th @-@ placed finishes over the following two seasons , and secured promotion to the First Division for the first time in 1981 – 82 , finishing second behind rivals Luton Town .
Watford started the 1982 – 83 season with four league wins from the opening five fixtures ; in the space of seven years , the club had climbed from bottom place in the lowest division of The Football League to top position in the highest division . Watford were unable to maintain a title challenge , but eventually finished the season second behind Liverpool , which ensured UEFA Cup qualification for the following season . Luther Blissett finished the season as the First Division top scorer , before signing for Italian Serie A side Milan for £ 1 million at the end of the season . An FA Cup Final appearance followed in the 1984 fixture , where they lost to Everton . After guiding Watford to a ninth @-@ place finish in 1986 – 87 , Taylor left the club to manage Aston Villa .
Following Taylor 's departure , Wimbledon manager Dave Bassett was appointed as his replacement , and England winger John Barnes was sold to Liverpool . After 4 wins from his opening 23 league fixtures , Bassett was sacked in January 1988 . Watford were bottom of the First Division at the time of his departure , and Steve Harrison could not prevent relegation at the end of the season . In 1988 – 89 , Harrison 's Watford failed to return to the First Division , after defeat in the Second Division play @-@ offs . The under @-@ 18 team won the FA Youth Cup , beating Manchester City 2 – 1 after extra time , with future England international David James in goal for the Hornets . Harrison departed in 1990 , and over the next few years , the closest Watford came to promotion was a seventh @-@ placed finish in Division One in the 1994 – 95 season . However , in the following season – Glenn Roeder 's third as manager – Watford struggled . Despite the return of Graham Taylor as caretaker manager in February 1996 , the club was relegated to Division Two .
Following the relegation , Taylor became Director of Football , with former Watford midfielder Kenny Jackett as manager . After a mid @-@ table finish in Division Two in 1996 – 97 , Jackett was demoted to the position of assistant manager . Taylor returned as manager , and won the Second Division title in 1997 – 98 – Watford 's second league title under his management . A second successive promotion followed in 1998 – 99 , thanks to a 2 – 0 play @-@ off final victory over Bolton Wanderers . Watford 's first Premiership season started with an early victory over Liverpool , but Watford 's form soon faded , and the club was relegated after finishing bottom . Graham Taylor retired at the end of the 2000 – 01 season , and was replaced by Gianluca Vialli . Wage bills at the club rose by £ 4 million during Vialli 's tenure , and the club finished 14th in the division in 2001 – 02 . Vialli was sacked at the end of the season , following a dispute with the club 's board over the wage bill . He was replaced by Ray Lewington , who had joined the club the previous summer as Vialli 's reserve team manager .
= = = Administration = = =
Watford 's weak financial position was exposed in 2002 – 03 , following the collapse of ITV Digital . The club was facing administration , but an agreement by players and staff to a 12 % wage deferral helped the club 's cash flow , and a run to the FA Cup semi @-@ final generated vital revenue . Financial constraints saw a large number of players released that summer . After consolidating in 2003 – 04 , the following season started well , with the club in the upper half of the Championship at the end of September . Poor form , however , saw the club drop towards the relegation zone . Despite reaching the semi @-@ final of the League Cup , Watford 's league form did not improve , and Lewington was sacked in March 2005 . His successor , Aidy Boothroyd , led the club to Championship survival .
= = = Return to the Premier League = = =
Watford finished third in the league in Boothroyd 's first full season , and defeated Leeds United 3 – 0 in the play @-@ off final to gain promotion to the Premier League . But the team did not record a Premier League win until November , and Ashley Young was sold to Aston Villa for a club record fee of £ 9 @.@ 65 million in January 2007 . Watford finished bottom after only winning five league games , but did reach the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup . Boothroyd continued as manager , and spent heavily on players , including a then @-@ club record £ 3 @.@ 25 million for Nathan Ellington . Watford led the Championship by several points early in 2007 – 08 , but only finished sixth ; Boothroyd 's team were defeated 6 – 1 on aggregate by Hull City in the play @-@ off semi @-@ finals . Boothroyd left the club by mutual consent three months into the 2008 – 09 season , with Watford 21st in the Championship table .
Under Boothroyd 's successor , Brendan Rodgers , Watford finished 13th . Rodgers left to manage Reading at the end of the season ; Malky Mackay , who had previously served as caretaker manager , was his replacement . Amid the departures of several key players during Mackay 's tenure , including Tommy Smith and Jay DeMerit , and the club coming close to administration , Watford finished 16th in 2009 – 10 and 14th the following season . Mackay left to manage Cardiff City in June 2011 and was replaced by Sean Dyche . Despite presiding over Watford 's highest league position in four years , Dyche was dismissed as Watford manager in July 2012 . He was replaced by former Italy international Gianfranco Zola following the Pozzo family 's purchase of the club .
= = = Pozzo Family Era = = =
= = = = Championship = = = =
Following a successful 2012 – 13 season which saw a league @-@ best 85 goals scored , Watford ultimately finished third in the Championship , narrowly missing out on an automatic promotion place by two points , behind Hull . In the promotion play @-@ off semi @-@ final , Watford were defeated by Leicester City 1 – 0 in the away leg , but won 3 – 1 at home , with Troy Deeney scoring the winning goal on a last @-@ second injury time attack following a Leicester penalty kick miss to advance to the final . Watford were defeated in the final by Crystal Palace , 1 – 0 , on an extra @-@ time penalty by Kevin Phillips .
Watford went into the 2013 – 14 season full of confidence . They started the season well with positive results , including a 6 – 1 win over Bournemouth FC and then a 5 – 1 win over Barnsley . The club 's form , however , soon dipped , and Watford struggled , losing five consecutive home matches . This lack of form ultimately led to Gianfranco Zola 's departure from the club . In December 2013 , Watford appointed Beppe Sannino as their new manager and finished the 2013 – 14 season in 13th place .
Despite winning four of the first five league games of the 2014 – 15 season , Sannino 's future at Watford was subject to much speculation after it emerged some players were unhappy with his management style . Sannino resigned from his position as Watford manager on 31 August 2014 with the club second in the table , despite winning 4 – 2 at home to Huddersfield Town the previous day .
Two days later , on 2 September 2014 , Watford confirmed the appointment of former Brighton & Hove Albion head coach Óscar García as the club 's new manager and the successor to Sannino , beating off competition from fellow Championship side Leeds United for his services . García , however , resigned from his position as Watford manager on 29 September 2014 for health reasons , having been admitted to hospital with chest pains after the game against Charlton Athletic . Billy McKinlay , who had only been appointed first team coach on 26 September 2014 , was appointed as his immediate successor on the same day – his first position in management after spells as a coach with Fulham , and as assistant manager with Northern Ireland . However , on 7 October 2014 , McKinlay was replaced as Watford head coach by ex @-@ Chelsea defensive @-@ midfielder Slaviša Jokanović . On 25 April 2015 , Watford gained promotion to the Premier League after defeating Brighton 2 – 0 and other results going their way . Unfortunately for the Hornets , however , they failed to win their final game of the season against Sheffield United , thus gifting the Championship title to AFC Bournemouth in a dramatic season finale .
= = = = Premier League = = = =
Slaviša Jokanović left Watford at the end of his one @-@ year contract after he , and the club , failed to reach new contractual agreements ; he was replaced by the Spaniard Quique Sánchez Flores . Watford 's first fixture in their return to the Premier League was a 2 – 2 draw with Everton Watford reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup with a fantastic goal by midfielder Adlène Guedioura .
= = Club identity = =
Watford 's kit has changed considerably over the course of the club 's history . The club 's kit featured various combinations of red , green and yellow stripes , before a new colour scheme of black and white was adopted for the 1909 – 10 season . These colours were retained until the 1920s , when the club introduced an all @-@ blue shirt . After a change of colours to gold shirts and black shorts for 1959 – 60 , the team 's nickname was changed to The Hornets , after a popular vote via the supporters club . These colours remained until 1976 , when Watford 's kits started featuring red , and the gold was changed to yellow . That colour scheme has continued into the 21st century .
Watford 's initial nickname was The Brewers , in reference to the Benskins Brewery , which owned the freehold of Vicarage Road . This nickname did not prove particularly popular , and upon the adoption of a blue @-@ and @-@ white colour scheme in the 1920s , the club became predominantly known as The Blues . When Watford changed kit colours in 1959 , supporters chose The Hornets as the team 's new nickname , and the club later introduced a crest depicting a hornet . In 1974 the design was changed to depict Harry the Hornet , the club 's mascot . The club 's nickname remains , but in 1978 the hornet crest was replaced by a depiction of a hart – a male red deer – on a yellow and black background . A hart represents the town 's location in the county of Hertfordshire . Until Barnet and , later , Stevenage joined the Football League , Watford were Hertfordshire 's only league club . Other nicknames have since been adopted , including The Golden Boys , Yellow Army and The ' Orns .
When Watford play at Vicarage Road their players traditionally enter the pitch at the start of the game to the Z @-@ Cars theme tune .
= = = Kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors = = =
= = Stadium = =
Watford Rovers played at several grounds in the late 19th century , including Cassiobury Park , Vicarage Meadow and Market Street , Watford . In 1890 , the team moved to a site on Cassio Road , and remained there for 32 years , before moving to Watford 's current stadium at nearby Vicarage Road . The new stadium was initially owned by Benskins Brewery ; the club rented the ground until 2001 , when it purchased the freehold outright . However , the club 's financial situation worsened following the purchase , and in 2002 Watford sold the ground for £ 6 million in a deal which entitled Watford to buy the stadium back for £ 7 million in future . Watford took up this option in 2004 using a campaign backed and funded by the fans called " Lets buy back the Vic " .
Vicarage Road is a four @-@ sided ground with a capacity of 21 @,@ 577 . The East Stand , part of which was constructed in 1922 , was closed to the general public in 2008 for health and safety reasons , although it still hosted the dressing rooms and the matchday press area . In November 2013 , the East Stand was demolished and in its place a new steel @-@ framed , 3 @,@ 500 @-@ seater stand was constructed . The stand opened fully on Boxing Day 2014 and was named The Elton John Stand after the club 's long standing chairman . The Graham Taylor Stand ( previously the Rous Stand ) , built in 1986 , has two tiers and runs the length of the pitch , with the upper section containing the club 's corporate hospitality . At either end of the pitch , The Vicarage Stand is split between the club 's family section and away supporters , while the Rookery Stand is for home supporters only . Both stands were built in the 1990s , financed by proceeds from player sales . In the summer of 2015 , The Elton John Stand was revamped in order to accommodate an extra 700 seats . This number was revised a day later to around 1 @,@ 000 extra seats following the announcement of an expansion in the north @-@ east corner .
Between 1997 and early 2013 , Watford shared Vicarage Road with rugby union side Saracens F.C. The stadium has hosted matches for the England under @-@ 21s , and senior international football between overseas teams . Elton John has also used Vicarage Road as a venue for concerts : He first played at the stadium in 1974 and returned in 2005 and 2010 to stage fundraising concerts for the club . Former events include horse and carriage shows and greyhound racing .
= = Luton rivalry = =
Watford fans maintain a rivalry with those of Luton Town . The two sides met regularly in the Southern League between 1900 and 1920 , and continued to do so in The Football League until 1937 , when Luton gained promotion from Division Three South . Luton remained in a higher division than Watford until 1963 .
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s , Watford and Luton met sporadically . Despite this , the rivalry grew in significance , particularly following an ill @-@ tempered match between the sides in 1969 , in which three players were sent off . Both sides won promotion to the First Division in the 1981 – 82 season , with Luton taking the championship ahead of Watford . They were also relegated together from the new Division 1 in 1995 – 96 , with Watford finishing 23rd ahead of bottom @-@ placed Luton . Watford 's promotion from Division 2 in 1997 – 98 meant that the two sides did not meet again until Luton won promotion to the Championship for the 2005 – 06 season . The only meeting between those seasons – a League Cup tie in the 2002 – 03 season – was marred by violence inside Vicarage Road . On 2 January 2006 , Watford won 2 – 1 at Kenilworth Road in the Championship . A 1 – 1 draw in the most recent match between the sides , on 9 April 2006 , secured Watford 's place in the 2006 Championship play @-@ offs , from which they eventually won promotion to the Premier League for the second time beating , Leeds United 3 – 0 at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff . Watford have played in a higher division than Luton in every season since 2006 – 07 , a nine @-@ season span .
The head @-@ to @-@ head record between the clubs in competitions which currently exist stands at Luton 39 wins , Watford 27 wins , with 23 draws . Watford have remained the higher ranked team at the end of every season since 1997 ( and for 23 of the last 24 seasons , with only 1996 – 97 seeing Luton finish higher in the league than Watford ) .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
As of 3 June 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Under @-@ 21 squad = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Hall of fame = = =
= = Management = =
= = = Managerial history = = =
Watford 's team was selected by committee until 1903 , when former England international John Goodall was appointed player @-@ manager . The impact was immediate , as Watford secured promotion to the Southern League First Division in 1903 – 04 . Goodall retired as a player in 1907 , and left the club in 1910 . He was replaced by his former captain , Harry Kent , who become known for his financial management of the club ; under Kent , Watford frequently made a profit in the transfer market . Kent led the club to the Southern League title in 1914 – 15 , and missed out on a second title in 1919 – 20 on goal average , before resigning in 1926 . His three immediate successors – Fred Pagnam , Neil McBain and Bill Findlay – all played for Watford before and during the early part of their managerial tenures . None were able to lead the team to promotion from the Third Division South , although Findlay did lead Watford to a Third Division South Cup win in 1937 .
Up until Findlay 's departure in 1947 , Watford had been managed by five managers in 44 years , all of whom played for the team . By contrast , six men managed the club between 1947 and 1956 , only two of whom were former Watford players . After a further three years under McBain between 1956 and 1959 , Watford 's following three managers presided over improved teams . Ron Burgess led Watford to promotion from the Fourth Division in 1959 – 60 . Bill McGarry was only in charge for one full season ( 1963 – 64 ) , but Watford recorded a finish of third in the Third Division , the club 's highest Football League finish until that point . His successor Ken Furphy matched that achievement in 1966 – 67 , and led Watford to the Third Division title in 1969 , before taking the club to its first FA Cup semi @-@ final in 1970 . Following Furphy 's departure in 1971 , Watford entered a period of decline , experiencing relegation under subsequent managers George Kirby and Mike Keen .
Graham Taylor took charge of Watford in 1977 . He led the club to promotion to the Third Division in 1978 , the Second Division in 1979 , and the First Division for the first time in Watford 's history in 1982 . After a second @-@ placed finish in the First Division in 1983 , Watford competed in European competition for the first time in 1983 – 84 , as well as reaching the 1984 FA Cup final . Taylor left the club at the end of 1986 – 87 . Under the six subsequent permanent managers ( Dave Bassett , Steve Harrison , Colin Lee , Steve Perryman , Glenn Roeder and Kenny Jackett ) , Watford slid from 9th in the top tier in 1987 , to 13th in the third tier in 1997 . Taylor returned as manager for the start of the 1997 – 98 season . He led the club to consecutive promotions , but could not prevent relegation from the Premier League in 1999 – 2000 . Since Taylor 's retirement in 2001 , Watford have had twelve managers . Of these , Aidy Boothroyd took Watford back to the Premier League in 2006 , but Watford were relegated in 2007 , and Boothroyd departed in 2008 .
Following Watford 's takeover by the Pozzo family , Gianfranco Zola was appointed head coach , replacing former centre back Sean Dyche in July 2012 , . Zola took Watford to third position in the Championship in 2012 – 13 but resigned on 16 December 2013 . He was replaced by fellow Italian Beppe Sannino in December 2013 . Sannino guided the team to a final league position of 13th .
Despite winning four of the first five league matches of the 2014 / 15 season , and with Watford sitting in 2nd place , Sannino 's position had become the subject of much speculation following rumours of dressing @-@ room unrest and some players taking a dislike to his style of management . Sannino resigned from his position as head coach on 31 August 2014 after just over eight months in charge . His final game in charge was a 4 – 2 win at home to Huddersfield Town the day before .
Sannino 's departure initiated a bizarre sequence of events which led to Watford having three further head coaches in little more than a month . On 2 September , Watford confirmed the appointment of former Brighton & Hove Albion head coach Óscar García as the successor to Sannino , beating off competition from fellow Championship side Leeds United for his services . García , however , resigned from his position on 29 September 2014 for health reasons , having been admitted to hospital with chest pains a couple of weeks prior . Billy McKinlay , who had only been appointed first team coach on 26 September 2014 , was appointed as his immediate successor on the same day – his first position in management . A week later , McKinlay was released by mutual consent and former Partizan coach Slaviša Jokanović appointed in his place , apparently because the club favoured a head coach with greater experience .
On 4 June 2015 , Quique Sánchez Flores was announced as the new head coach as the replacement to Jovanović , who had failed to agree contract terms . Despite going on to lead the newly promoted Watford to a comfortable mid @-@ table position in the Premier League and the semi @-@ final of the FA Cup , it was announced on 13 May 2016 that Sánchez Flores would be leaving the club at the end of the season .
= = Club officials = =
= = = Current management team = = =
= = Honours = =
For a complete record of the club 's achievements , see List of Watford F.C. seasons .
= = Records = =
Striker Luther Blissett holds the record for Watford appearances , having played 503 matches in all competitions between 1976 and 1992 , and his 415 appearances in The Football League during the same period is also a club record . Blissett holds the corresponding goalscoring records , with 186 career Watford goals , 148 of which were in the league . The records for the most league goals in a season is held by Cliff Holton , having scored 42 goals in the 1959 – 60 season . The highest number of goals scored by a player in a single game at a professional level is the six registered by Harry Barton against Wycombe Wanderers in September 1903 .
Watford 's biggest ever competitive win came in 1900 , when the team defeated Maidenhead 11 – 0 in the Southern League Second Division . The team 's biggest Football League winning margin is 8 – 0 ; this first occurred in a Third Division South match against Newport County in 1924 , and was repeated in a First Division match against Sunderland in 1982 . Both of these matches were at home – Watford have won an away league match by five goals on six occasions , most recently in the 6 – 1 win against Leeds United at Elland Road in 2012 . The most goals scored in a Football League game involving Watford is 11 , in Watford 's 7 – 4 victories against Swindon Town , Torquay United and Burnley in 1934 , 1937 and 2003 respectively . The club 's highest home attendance is 34 @,@ 099 , for a fourth round FA Cup match against Manchester United on 3 February 1969 . The record home league attendance is 27 @,@ 968 against Queens Park Rangers in August of the same year . Watford 's home capacity has since been reduced due to all @-@ seater requirements ; it currently stands at 21 @,@ 577 .
= History of York City F.C. =
The history of York City Football Club spans the period from 1908 to the present time . For detail on individual periods of the club 's history , see one of the following articles :
History of York City F.C. ( 1908 – 80 )
History of York City F.C. ( 1980 – present )
= SMS Kaiser ( 1911 ) =
SMS Kaiser was the lead ship of the Kaiser class of battleships of the Imperial German Navy . Kaiser was built by the Imperial Dockyard at Kiel , launched on 22 March 1911 and commissioned on 1 August 1912 . The ship was equipped with ten 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets , and had a top speed of 23 @.@ 4 knots ( 43 @.@ 3 km / h ; 26 @.@ 9 mph ) . Kaiser was assigned to the III Squadron of the High Seas Fleet for the majority of World War I.
In 1913 , Kaiser and her sister König Albert conducted a cruise to South America and South Africa . The ship participated in most of the major fleet operations during the war . She fought at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 , during which she was hit once and suffered negligible damage . The ship was also present during Operation Albion in the Baltic Sea in September and October 1917 , and at the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in November 1917 .
During peace negotiations after the end of the war in 1918 , she was interned with other ships of the High Seas Fleet at Scapa Flow . On 21 June 1919 the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . The wreck was subsequently raised in 1929 and broken up in Rosyth in 1930 .
= = Construction = =
Ordered under the contract name Ersatz Hildebrand as a replacement for the obsolete coastal defense ship Hildebrand , Kaiser was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel in September 1909 . The hull was completed by 22 March 1911 , when the ship was launched ; this date was specifically chosen , as it was the birthday of Kaiser ( Emperor ) Wilhelm I. His grandson , Kaiser Wilhelm II , attended the launching ceremony , where German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann @-@ Hollweg gave a speech while Kaiserin ( Empress ) Augusta Victoria christened the ship . Fitting @-@ out work then began , which was completed by the end of July 1912 . On 1 August , the ship was commissioned for sea trials . These were concluded by 7 December ; the following day Kaiser joined the fleet as the flagship of V Division . Her crew consisted largely of men who had been transferred from the recently decommissioned battleships Elsass and Braunschweig .
The ship was 172 @.@ 40 m ( 565 ft 7 in ) long overall and displaced a maximum of 27 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 26 @,@ 570 long tons ) . She had a beam of 29 m ( 95 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 10 m ( 29 ft 10 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 80 m ( 28 ft 10 in ) aft . Kaiser was powered by three sets of Parsons turbines , supplied with steam by 16 coal @-@ fired boilers . The powerplant produced a top speed of 23 @.@ 4 knots ( 43 @.@ 3 km / h ; 26 @.@ 9 mph ) . She carried 3 @,@ 600 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 500 long tons ) of coal , which enabled a maximum range of 7 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 600 km ; 9 @,@ 100 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
Kaiser was armed with a main battery of ten 30 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 50 guns in five twin turrets . The ship disposed with the inefficient hexagonal arrangement of previous German battleships ; instead , three of the five turrets were mounted on the centerline , with two of them arranged in a superfiring pair aft . The other two turrets were placed en echelon amidships , such that both could fire on the broadside . The ship was also armed with fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 guns in casemates amidships , eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 guns in casemates and four 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns . The ship 's armament was rounded out by five 50 cm ( 20 in ) torpedo tubes , all mounted in the ship 's hull .
= = Service history = =
After joining the active fleet in December 1912 , Kaiser was stationed in Kiel . The ship then conducted individual training . In February 1913 , Kaiser was transferred to Wilhelmshaven , along with her sister ship Friedrich der Grosse . She then took part in several training exercises with the rest of the High Seas Fleet . These included maneuvers in the North Sea in March and April , artillery drills in the Baltic at the end of the month , and further fleet maneuvers in May . In June , Kaiser took part in the Kiel Week regatta . Kaiser Wilhelm II and Italian King Victor Emmanuel III inspected the ship . The annual summer cruise to Norway was conducted in July and August , followed immediately by the autumn maneuvers in August and September . In September 1913 , Captain Adolf von Trotha became the ship 's commanding officer , a post he held until January 1916 .
Kaiser was selected to participate in a long @-@ distance cruise to test the reliability of the new turbine propulsion system . The ship was joined by her sister König Albert and the light cruiser Strassburg in a special " Detached Division " . The trio departed Germany on 9 December 1913 and proceeded to the German colonies in western Africa . The ships visited Lomé in Togoland , Duala and Victoria in Kamerun , and Swakopmund in German South @-@ West Africa . From Africa , the ships sailed to St. Helena and then on to Rio de Janeiro , arriving on 15 February 1914 . Strassburg was detached to visit Buenos Aires , Argentina before returning to meet the two battleships in Montevideo , Uruguay . The three ships sailed south around Cape Horn and then north to Valparaiso , Chile , arriving on 2 April and remaining for over a week .
On 11 April , the ships departed Valparaiso for the long journey back to Germany . On the return trip , the ships visited several more ports , including Bahía Blanca , Argentina , before returning to Rio de Janeiro . On 16 May the ships left Rio de Janeiro for the Atlantic leg of the journey ; they stopped in Cape Verde , Madeira , and Vigo , Spain while en route to Germany . Kaiser , König Albert , and Strassburg arrived in Kiel on 17 June 1914 . In the course of the voyage , the ships traveled some 20 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 37 @,@ 000 km ; 23 @,@ 000 mi ) . A week later , on 24 June , the Detached Division was dissolved and Kaiser returned to the III Squadron . Kaiser then participated in squadron exercises in July . Kaiser joined the High Seas Fleet for its annual summer cruise to Norway in July 1914 , about two weeks after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo . As a result of rising international tensions , the cruise was cut short and the German fleet was back in Wilhelmshaven by 29 July . At midnight on 4 August , the United Kingdom declared war on Germany .
= = = World War I = = =
The High Seas Fleet , including Kaiser , conducted a number of sweeps and advances into the North Sea . The first occurred on 2 – 3 November 1914 , though no British forces were encountered . Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander of the High Seas Fleet , adopted a strategy in which the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group raided British coastal towns to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet where they could be destroyed by the High Seas Fleet . The raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 was the first such operation . On the evening of 15 December , the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts — including Kaiser and her four sisters — and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced von Ingenohl that he was faced with the entire Grand Fleet . Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II to avoid risking the fleet unnecessarily , von Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battlefleet back toward Germany .
Following the loss of SMS Blücher at the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915 , the Kaiser removed Admiral von Ingenohl from his post on 2 February . Admiral Hugo von Pohl replaced him as commander of the fleet . Admiral von Pohl conducted a series of fleet advances in 1915 in which Kaiser took part ; in the first one on 29 – 30 March , the fleet steamed out to the north of Terschelling and return without incident . Another followed on 17 – 18 April , where Kaiser and the rest of the fleet covered a mining operation by the II Scouting Group . Three days later , on 21 – 22 April , the High Seas Fleet advanced towards the Dogger Bank , though again failed to meet any British forces . Kaiser was in dock in Kiel for periodic maintenance during the operation on 17 – 18 May , but she was back with the fleet for the sortie on 29 – 30 May , during which the fleet advanced as far as Schiermonnikoog before being forced to turn back by inclement weather . On 10 August , the fleet steamed to the north of Helgoland to cover the return of the auxiliary cruiser Meteor . A month later , on 11 – 12 September , the fleet covered another mine @-@ laying operation off the Swarte Bank . The last operation of the year , conducted on 23 – 24 October , was an advance without result in the direction of Horns Reef .
On 12 January 1916 , Admiral Reinhard Scheer replaced von Pohl as the fleet commander . Kaiser was present during the fleet advance on 5 – 7 March , though this too ended without action . While in port in Kiel , the old pre @-@ dreadnought Hannover accidentally collided with Kaiser , though neither ship was seriously damaged . Scheer continued the series of fleet operations practiced by his predecessors ; the fleet conducted sweeps of the North Sea on 26 March , 2 – 3 April , and 21 – 22 April . The battlecruisers conducted another raid on the English coast on 24 – 25 April , during which Kaiser and the rest of the fleet provided distant support . Scheer planned another raid for mid @-@ May , but the battlecruiser Seydlitz had struck a mine during the previous raid and the repair work forced the operation to be pushed back until the end of the month .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
Almost immediately after the Lowestoft raid , Admiral Reinhard Scheer began planning another foray into the North Sea . He had initially intended to launch the operation in mid @-@ May , by which time the mine damage to Seydlitz was scheduled to be repaired — Scheer was unwilling to embark on a major raid without his battlecruiser forces at full strength . On 9 May , however , several battleships developed problems with their engines , which delayed the operation further , to 23 May . On 22 May , Seydlitz was still not fully repaired , and the operation was again postponed , this time to 29 May . At noon on 29 May , the repairs to Seydlitz were finally completed , and the ship returned to the I Scouting Group . The plan called for Hipper 's battlecruisers to
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Warspite came under intense fire from the approaching German battleships ; Kaiser scored a hit on Warspite that damaged her steering gear and forced her to steam in a circle , out of control . After completing two full circles and sustaining 13 heavy hits , Warspite came back under control and rejoined the squadron . However , by 20 : 00 the steering gear had again failed , so the ship was forced to withdraw from the engagement .
By 20 : 15 , the German fleet had faced the Grand Fleet for a second time and was forced to turn away ; in doing so , the order of the German line was reversed . Kaiser was now the fifth ship from the rear of the German line , ahead of only the four König @-@ class battleships . Kaiser was hit twice in quick succession by heavy @-@ caliber shells , at 20 : 23 and three minutes later . The Common Pointed , Capped , shells came from the 30 cm ( 12 in ) guns of Agincourt . One shell penetrated the upper deck and landed in a hammock stowage compartment below the No. 7 casemate ; the shell failed to explode and instead broke up on impact , starting a small fire that was quickly put out . The other shell probably exploded outside the ship .
Shortly before 21 : 30 , Kaiser , Prinzregent Luitpold , and Markgraf spotted British light forces approaching . The German ships opened fire at a range of around 7 @,@ 300 m ( 8 @,@ 000 yd ) with both their main and secondary armament . The light cruiser Calliope was badly damaged , which forced the British ships to withdraw . At around 23 : 30 , the German fleet reorganized into the night cruising formation . Kaiser was the twelfth ship , in the center of the 24 @-@ ship line .
After a series of night engagements between the leading battleships and British destroyers , the High Seas Fleet punched through the British light forces and reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . The German fleet reached Wilhelmshaven a few hours later ; the I Squadron battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead and Kaiser , Kaiserin , Prinzregent Luitpold , and Kronprinz stood ready just outside the entrance to Wilhelmshaven . The remainder of the battleships and battlecruisers entered Wilhelmshaven , where those that were still in fighting condition replenished their stocks of coal and ammunition . The two shell hits suffered by Kaiser had been largely ineffectual , wounding only one crewmember .
= = = = Subsequent operations = = = =
On 18 August , Admiral Scheer attempted a repeat of the 31 May operation ; the two serviceable German battlecruisers — Moltke and Von der Tann — supported by three dreadnoughts , were to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty 's battlecruisers . The rest of the fleet , including Kaiser , would trail behind and provide cover . The British were aware of the German plans and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . By 14 : 35 , Admiral Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just eleven weeks after the decidedly close call at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
Another fleet advance followed on 18 – 20 October , though it ended without encountering any British units . Two weeks later , on 4 November , Kaiser took part in an expedition to the western coast of Denmark to assist two U @-@ boats — U @-@ 20 and U @-@ 30 — that had become stranded there . On 1 December , the High Seas Fleet was reorganized ; Kaiser and her sisters were transferred to the newly created IV Battle Squadron , with Kaiser as the flagship . In 1917 , the policy of unrestricted submarine warfare was reinstated ; the surface units of the German navy were therefore tasked with covering the departures and arrivals of the U @-@ boats . As a result , Kaiser spent most of the year on picket duty in the German Bight . In May 1917 , Kaiser went into the dock for periodic maintenance .
= = = = Operation Albion = = = =
In early September 1917 , following the German Army 's conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the Navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The Admiralstab ( the Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon islands ; the primary naval component was organized into a Special Unit , which comprised the flagship , Moltke , along with the IV Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet . The IV Squadron was composed of the V and VI Divisions . V Division included the four König @-@ class ships , and was by this time augmented with the new battleship Bayern . The VI Division consisted of the five Kaiser @-@ class battleships . Along with 9 light cruisers , 3 torpedo boat flotillas , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , supported by over 100 aircraft and 6 zeppelins . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts Slava and Tsesarevich , the armored cruisers Bayan , Admiral Makarov , and Diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gunboats . The garrison on Ösel numbered some 14 @,@ 000 men .
On 24 September , Kaiser left Kiel , bound for the Putziger Wiek , where she rendezvoused with several other battleships . From there , the ship went to Libau , which she reached on 10 October . Two days later , on the morning of 12 October , Kaiser , joined by her sisters Kaiserin and Prinzregent Luitpold , opened fire on the Russian shore batteries at Cape Hundsort . On 14 October Kaiser engaged the Russian destroyer Grom and disabled the ship 's engine with a single hit . Grom was captured and taken in tow , but she quickly foundered . Kaiser then bombarded Russian positions on Cape Toffri on 16 October .
By 20 October , the fighting on the islands was winding down ; Moon , Ösel , and Dagö were in German possession . The previous day , the Admiralstab had ordered the cessation of naval actions and the return of the dreadnoughts to the High Seas Fleet as soon as possible . On 31 October Kaiser and the rest of the Special Unit were detached from the operation and sent back to Kiel , which they reached by 2 November . Kaiser was back in the North Sea on 7 November .
= = = = Final operations = = = =
Kaiser and Kaiserin were assigned to security duty in the Bight on 17 November ; they were tasked with providing support to the II Scouting Group ( II SG ) and several minesweepers . Two British light cruisers , Calypso and Caledon , attacked the minesweepers and II SG in Heligoland Bight . Kaiser and her sister intervened and hit one of the light cruisers . The two ships briefly engaged the battlecruiser Repulse , but neither side scored any hits . However , the German commander failed to press the attack .
On 2 February 1918 , the light cruiser Stralsund struck a mine ; Kaiser was among those ships that sortied to escort the damaged cruiser back to port . The ship was also present during the fleet advance on 23 – 24 April . The operation was intended to intercept a heavily escorted British convoy to Norway on 23 – 25 April , though the operation was canceled when the battlecruiser Moltke suffered mechanical damage . In the final months of the war , Captain Hermann Bauer took command of the ship ; his period in command lasted from August to November .
Kaiser was to have taken part in a final fleet action days before the Armistice , an operation which envisioned the bulk of the High Seas Fleet sortieing from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet . In order to retain a better bargaining position for Germany , Admirals Hipper and Scheer intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , whatever the cost to the fleet . Consequently , on 29 October 1918 , the order was given to depart from Wilhelmshaven to consolidate the fleet in the Jade roadstead , with the intention of departing the following morning . However , starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen mutinied . The unrest spread to other battleships , which forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation .
= = = Fate = = =
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of their fleet ships were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter . Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to von Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any conditions . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . Once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks . The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty .
A copy of The Times informed von Reuter that the Armistice was to expire at noon on 21 June 1919 , the deadline by which Germany was to have signed the peace treaty . Rear Admiral von Reuter came to the conclusion that the British intended to seize the German ships after the Armistice expired . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Kaiser sank at 13 : 24 ; the ship was raised in 1929 and broken up for scrap in Rosyth starting in 1930 .
= Treehouse of Horror XXII =
" Treehouse of Horror XXII " is the third episode of the twenty @-@ third season and the twenty @-@ second Halloween episode of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 30 , 2011 . The episode is part of the Treehouse of Horror series , which is an episode divided into three separate stories and an opening that is a parody of scary or Halloween themed stories . This episode 's stories were primarily spoofs of the French film The Diving Bell and the Butterfly , the television series Dexter , and the American film Avatar . The opening was a parody of the autobiographical film 127 Hours , in which the subject Aron Ralston loses an arm .
The episode was written by Carolyn Omine , directed by Matthew Faughnan , and featured guest voices from Aron Ralston and Jackie Mason . In its original American broadcast , it was viewed by approximately 8 @.@ 1 million people . The critical reception was very diverse , ranging from a plea to end the show to a statement that the show is on top of its game and should not be cancelled . The episode featured a reference to the Broadway musical Spider @-@ Man : Turn Off the Dark . After watching the show , the producers of the musical released a press statement in which they told how flattered they were when their show was mentioned on The Simpsons .
= = Plot = =
= = = Opening = = =
When Bart , Lisa and Maggie come home from trick @-@ or @-@ treating , Marge switches out the candy with dental hygiene products and asks Homer to deliver the candy to a drive for the troops overseas . Homer instead runs off with the bag to eat its contents in privacy at a canyon cliff . Unfortunately , Homer trips and falls to the bottom of the canyon with his arm pinned . Fueled by his need to get the out @-@ of @-@ reach bag of candy , and reluctant to wait twenty minutes for help , Homer is forced to chew off his arm . Though he manages it after a few tries , Homer learns that he was carrying a bag of vegetables , as Bart , Lisa and Maggie had secretly stolen back their candy , inciting an upset Homer to scream in rage .
= = = The Diving Bell and the Butterball = = =
In a parody of The Diving Bell and the Butterfly , Homer begins to decorate the house for Halloween and is reaching for a decoration in a box . Unfortunately , there is a real Black Widow spider in the box and when Homer grabs what he thinks is a plastic spider , he is bitten it . The bite leaves Homer paralyzed , unable to move or talk . When Lisa reads for him , she discovers that he can communicate through farting . The Simpson family is amazed at the result and Lisa helps Homer tell Marge how he feels about her . When he is again bitten by another spider ( a radioactive one this time ) , he gains the ability to shoot spider webs out of his rear end and have the same abilities as Spider @-@ Man , though he is still unable to move or talk .
= = = Dial D for Diddily = = =
In a parody of Dexter , after hearing a voice that he thinks is God tell him to murder people , Ned Flanders becomes a serial killing vigilante , targeting characters who are Homer 's enemies . When Flanders discovers that Homer is the one who has been duping him into committing murder ( by way of a Bible @-@ shaped receiver ) , Homer argues that God does not exist and starts burning Ned 's bible , only to be stopped and strangled to death by God Himself . Marge begs God to reverse everything that has happened , but God tells her that Satan is the one who is running the world . When Flanders thinks that this scenario cannot get any worse , it is revealed that Satan is having sex with Ned 's deceased wife , Maude .
= = = In the Na 'vi = = =
In a parody of Avatar , taking place in the future , Krusty the Clown is still alive , but has trouble entertaining his Nazi audience . On the distant planet Rigel 7 , there is a sacred extract called Hilarrium , which causes people to get in a better mood . Krusty desperately needs this sacred extract and uses military force to obtain it . The military recruits Bart and Milhouse to befriend the alien race in avatar bodies . They succeed in this and Bart ends up getting Kang 's daughter pregnant . It turns out that the extract Hilarrium , which is excreted by their queen , is primarily used by the natives to reduce the mood swings of pregnant women . After Bart and Milhouse are shown where the alien race gets the Hilarrium , Milhouse then reveals the location of the extract to the military , which then attacks the natives . In the battle , the natives are helped by all the animals of the planet , which eventually defeats the military . Kang and Kodos then admit that they would have just given the Hilarrium to the humans .
= = = Ending = = =
At the end , a Christmas carol is played as all of the characters that appeared say various things about Christmas , such as Marge saying that making a sweater causes 27 people to lose their jobs . At the very end , Grampa Simpson shows up in a black tutu , asking when the Black Swan comes up , and everyone wonders when the Black Swan will come .
= = Production = =
" Treehouse of Horror XXII " was written by Carolyn Omine and directed by Matthew Faughnan . The episode is part of the Treehouse of Horror series , which since the second season , has been a tradition for The Simpsons to air a new Halloween special each year . Treehouse of Horror episodes typically consist of four parts : an opening and Halloween @-@ themed version of the credits , followed by three segments . These segments usually have a horror , science fiction or fantasy theme and quite often are parodies of films , novels , plays , television shows , Twilight Zone episodes , or old issues of EC Comics . The episode featured guest appearances from Jackie Mason and Aron Ralston , who was the subject of the film 127 Hours . Mason has a recurring role on The Simpsons as Rabbi Hyman Krustofski , who is the father of Krusty the Clown . As it is tradition with most Treehouse of Horror episodes , this episode featured the use of " scary " names in the credits , which is to write alternate names for cast and crew in a " scary " fashion . Ralston came up with his own scary name for the credits , which was Aron " I gave my right arm to be on ' The Simpsons ' " Ralstump .
The episode marks the first time of all the Treehouse of Horror episodes that an actual theremin was used for music cues . Previously , the show had trouble locating a theremin player , who could work under the time constraints of the show . Instead , the show used a synthesizer keyboard to play a theremin sample - much to creator Matt Groening 's displeasure . The situation turned when a scene in " Homer Scissorhands " was written to feature Milhouse playing the theremin . Now the crew had to find a suitable theremin player and Charles Richard Lester was hired for that episode as well as " Treehouse of Horror XXII " .
The opening segment had many parodies and references to films . When the segment opens , the Simpson family is dressed up for Halloween . Here Maggie pops out of Bart 's astronaut suit , dressed as a baby alien , which is a reference to the 1979 film Alien . Homer is dressed as Doctor Manhattan from the 2009 superhero film Watchmen . During the middle , there is a spoof of the 1960 film Psycho , as the same music and similar scenes are used ( E.G : Reverend Lovejoy eyeing Homer in his car . In the end of the segment , it turns into a spoof of the 2010 film 127 Hours , in which Ralston loses his arm after being trapped under a rock . Ralston voiced the 911 dispatcher Homer calls when he is trapped .
" The Diving Bell and the Butterball " was a satire of the 2007 French film The Diving Bell and the Butterfly , in which a paralyzed man learns to communicate through moving his eyelids . Instead of moving his eyelids , Homer communicated through flatulence . The segment took off in different direction when Homer was bitten by another spider and turned into a paralyzed Spider @-@ Man with reversed colors , swinging around Springfield and fighting crime . The last part references the Spider @-@ Man musical , Spider @-@ Man : Turn Off the Dark that was plagued by stage malfunctions and sometimes left its performers to dangle in mid @-@ air . The many accidents caused five people to become injured while working on the musical .
The last two segments were also parodies of popular culture . " Dial D for Diddily " featured various references to the television series , Dexter , the titular character whom Ned Flanders is supposed to represent when he goes on a killing spree . The music in the segment is the original music from the main title theme of Dexter by Rolfe Kent , although the title references Dial M for Murder . Two of the targets , Patty and Selma Bouvier , were killed in a similar fashion to the style of Wile E. Coyote . " In the Na 'vi " was a parody of the 2009 film Avatar . In the end , Kang and Kodos mentions that " there is no word for ‘ yours ’ or ‘ mine . ’ " , which is why they do not enjoy the 1968 film Yours , Mine and Ours ( or the 2005 remake ) .
= = Release = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
" Treehouse of Horror XXII " originally aired on Fox in the United States on October 30 , 2011 , the night before Halloween . In recent years , this Treehouse of Horror episode aired closest to Halloween without leaving October . The release date was unusual for a Treehouse of Horror episode , because ever since Fox got the rights to the Major League Baseball playoffs , most of the Halloween specials aired in the first week of November . This only marks the second time Fox has aired a Treehouse of Horror episode in October since 1999 – in 2009 it aired nearly two weeks before Halloween . Major League Baseball decided to move the 2011 World Series earlier than the previous season so that no games would be played in November , leaving October 30 free for Fox to air " Treehouse of Horror XXII " on that date . When The Wrap asked show runner Al Jean if he was satisfied with the airing the night before Halloween , Jean said : " Yes , and the perfect thing is , Halloween is actually a bad day to air it , because nobody watches TV that night . Especially if they have kids . So October 30th , it is our Halloween . People can watch it and then still go out the next night . " As of 2015 every Treehouse of Horror episode following " Treehouse of Horror XXII " has aired during the month of October .
Treehouse of Horror XXII aired closest to Halloween without going over . ( October 30 , 2011 ) . The last time TOH actually aired on Halloween night was in 1999 .
The episode was watched by approximately 8 @.@ 10 million people during the first broadcast . The show received a 4 @.@ 0 Nielsen rating in the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 and a ten percent share of the audience , which was a 33 percent increase from the previous episode " Bart Stops to Smell the Roosevelts " . The Simpsons became the highest @-@ rated program in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup that night both in terms of viewers and in the 18 – 49 demographic . It finished before Family Guy , The Cleveland Show and the series premiere of Allen Gregory . Besides a broadcast of a NFL Football game between the Dallas Cowboys and the Philadelphia Eagles on NBC , The Simpsons was the most watched program of the night in the 18 – 49 demographic . In comparison , the episode increased eight percent over the previous year 's " Treehouse of Horror XXI " , which had a 3 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating and a nine percent share of the audience in the 18 – 49 demographic . For the week of October 24 – 30 , 2011 , The Simpsons finished 14th in the 18 – 49 demographic , fourth in the 18 – 34 demographic , and third among teenagers .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Since airing , " Treehouse of Horror XXII " has received mixed reviews from critics . Josh Harrison of Ology was positive and gave the episode a rating of seven out of ten , but commented that he preferred " episodes that feature longer , more involved storylines more than the spoof collections . " At The A.V. Club , Hayden Childs gave the episode a C + grade , saying , " The writers seem unwilling to mock the more outrageous aspects of the movies they are sending up and settle for weakly batting at the obvious . Some of the jokes land , but none land too solidly . " Meredith Woerner of io9 thought that " [ t ] he whole thing never quite achieved the same level of brilliance as some previous years — even though the Avatar bit was funny , we 've seen so many Avatar spoofs by now that , well , it 's tired . However we did get a lot of joy out of seeing Homer dressed up as Doctor Manhattan and Maggie as a wee @-@ little chest burster . " Even more critical was CraveOnline 's Blair Marnell who gave the episode a rating of three out of ten . He commented that " there is no stronger argument for ending ' The Simpsons ' than the latest Halloween installment of ' Treehouse of Horror ' " and further said that " in all honesty , it 's amazing how tame ' The Simpsons ' has become over the years . This show used to be the ' South Park ' of its day . Now it 's just showing its age and it 's no longer the cool TV rebel that it used to be . " Alex Strachan had the opposite reaction in a review in Calgary Herald and concluded that we should " [ f ] orget all that talk about The Simpsons being past its prime . Based on tonight 's sharp @-@ eyed , keen @-@ witted Treehouse of Horror XXII - funnier , faster and more fright @-@ worthy than last year 's dud , thankfully - there 's a lot of ink left in the old ink pot yet . "
The first segment , " The Diving Bell and the Butterball " , was met with mixed reactions . Marnell called the parody " wildly unfunny " , while Childs was critical of Homer turning into a paralyzed Spider @-@ Man and stated that it was " simply not very funny . " Tim Surette of TV.com was more ambivalent and said : " I found this sketch to be simultaneously awesome and terrible because I have the maturity of a 6 @-@ year old and the intelligence of an average man . " The reference to the Broadway musical Spider @-@ Man : Turn Off the Dark was noticed by the producers of the musical . They reacted by issuing a statement the following day : " Everyone at ' Spider @-@ Man : Turn Off the Dark ' was extremely flattered by last night ’ s tribute on ' The Simpsons . ' ' The Simpsons ' is an iconic American institution , and being part of last night 's episode was an honor and dream come true . " Coincidentally , the previous aired episode of South Park , " Broadway Bro Down " , also had a reference to the musical , but the spokesperson for the Broadway show did not want to comment on that episode .
The response for " Dial D for Diddly " was that it started well , but then gradually declined . In Marnell 's opinion , " [ t ] he best segment of the entire episode comes when Ned makes his normal routine look sinister and yet when he finally closes his hands to pray , he 's actually holding a pair of severed hands " , but as for the rest of the segment , he is disappointed : " [ W ] hen it seems like the short is heading for some darkly hilarious territory , the voice of God turns out to be Homer urging Ned to murder his enemies . " Other reviewers agreed with his assessment . Surette concluded that the episode " [ s ] tarted off good , but got boring very quick . " Likewise , Childs commented that the " segment had a lot of promise for the funny , but it started to sag fast and then sank altogether . "
Much of the criticism towards the Avatar spoof " In the Na 'Vi " goes towards the timing of the episode . Surette thought that it was " [ a ] n Avatar spoof that came about two years too late . This sketch had no redeeming qualities and should be erased from the minds of all Simpsons fans immediately . " Similarly , Marnell commented that in the episode " The Simpsons ' finally gets around to parodying ' Avatar ' — a movie picked to death by ' South Park ' and other series a year or two ago " and further elaborated that " [ i ] t 's almost a straight forward retelling of ' Avatar ' without the biting satire that made the film parodies of previous years so much fun . " In general , Treehouse of Horror episodes take about a year to complete for the staff . This is because they have to do many original designs , such as characters and backgrounds . Prior to the airing of the episode , Jean revealed that the staff was already working on " Treehouse of Horror XXIII " .
At the 39th Annual Annie Awards , Omine won the " Writing in a Television Production " category for her work on " Treehouse of Horror XXII " .
= Salanoia durrelli =
Salanoia durrelli , also known as Durrell 's vontsira , is a Madagascan mammal in the family Eupleridae of the order Carnivora . It is most closely related to the brown @-@ tailed mongoose ( Salanoia concolor ) , with which it forms the genus Salanoia . The two are genetically similar , but morphologically distinct , leading scientists to recognize them as separate species . After an individual was observed in 2004 , the animal became known to science and S. durrelli was described as a new species in 2010 . It is found only in the Lac Alaotra area .
A small , reddish @-@ brown carnivore , Salanoia durrelli is characterized by broad feet with prominent pads , reddish @-@ buff underparts , and broad , robust teeth , among other differences from the brown @-@ tailed mongoose . In the only two weighed specimens , body mass was 600 g and 675 g ( 21 and 24 oz ) . It is a marsh @-@ dwelling animal that may feed on crustaceans and mollusks . The Lac Alaotra area is a threatened ecosystem , and S. durrelli may also be endangered by competition with introduced species .
= = Taxonomy = =
An individual Salanoia durrelli was observed swimming in 2004 by the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust ( DWCT ) during a survey of bamboo lemurs ( Hapalemur ) in the Lac Alaotra area , the largest wetlands of Madagascar . The animal was captured , photographed , and then released , but examination of the photograph showed that it could not be identified with any known species of Malagasy carnivoran ( family Eupleridae ) . Therefore , two specimens were caught in 2005 by the DWCT . One was killed to facilitate additional morphological comparisons . In 2010 , it was formally described as Salanoia durrelli in a paper by conservationist Joanna Durbin and a team of scientists from the Climate , Community & Biodiversity Alliance , Nature Heritage , the Natural History Museum , Conservation International , and the DWCT . The specific name , durrelli , honors Gerald Durrell , a noted conservationist and the founder of the DWCT . Previously , local villagers had already reported the presence of a small carnivoran at Alaotra , and it was speculated that the animal was the closely related brown @-@ tailed mongoose ( Salanoia concolor ) .
Salanoia durrelli was placed in the genus Salanoia , which previously included only the brown @-@ tailed mongoose of eastern Madagascar . S. durrelli shows substantial morphological differences from the brown @-@ tailed mongoose , but the mitochondrial DNA of the two species is very similar . The discoverers chose to recognize the Lac Alaotra population as a separate species in view of its significant morphological differentiation . The observed morphological distinctiveness might be result of adaptations to life in the Alaotra wetlands , similar to the Alaotra bamboo lemur species , Hapalemur alaotrensis , which is also recognized as a distinct species despite being genetically close to the more widespread Hapalemur griseus .
= = Description = =
Salanoia durrelli most closely resembles the brown @-@ tailed mongoose , which is a small , gracile mongoose @-@ like carnivoran . It is reddish @-@ brown overall , paler than the brown @-@ tailed mongoose . The head and nape are speckled . The underparts are reddish @-@ buff , not brownish as in the brown @-@ tailed mongoose . Most of the tail is similar in color to the body , but the tip is yellowish @-@ brown . The inner side of the well @-@ furred external ear ( pinna ) is reddish @-@ buff . The broad feet are naked below , with the naked skin buff on the forefeet and dark brown on the hindfeet , and show prominent pads . Each of the five digits on the fore- and hindfeet bears a long , dark brown claw . There are rows of stiff hairs along the outer margins of the feet . In contrast , the brown @-@ tailed mongoose has narrower feet with more poorly developed pads . In S. durrelli , the fur is long and soft .
In the holotype specimen , a female , the head and body length was 310 mm ( 12 @.@ 2 in ) , the tail length was 210 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) , the hindfoot length was 66 @.@ 8 mm ( 2 @.@ 63 in ) , the ear length was 17 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 69 in ) , and the body mass was 675 g ( 24 oz ) . In another specimen , a male which was captured and released , the head and body length was about 330 mm ( 13 in ) , the tail length was about 175 mm ( 6 @.@ 9 in ) , and the body mass was 600 g ( 21 oz ) . Based on these limited data , S. durrelli may be slightly smaller than the brown @-@ tailed mongoose .
The skull generally resembles that of the brown @-@ tailed mongoose , but the rostrum ( front part ) is broad and deep , the nasal bones are broad and short , and the region of the palate is broad . The mandible ( lower jaw ) is robust and shows a high , steeply rising coronoid process ( a projection at the back of the bone ) . Statistical analysis of measurements of the skulls and teeth strongly separates S. durrelli from specimens of the brown @-@ tailed mongoose .
Salanoia durrelli has a more robust dentition than the brown @-@ tailed mongoose ; the teeth have larger surface areas . The first and second upper incisors are smaller than the third , which is separated by a pronounced diastema ( gap ) from the canine tooth . The canine is more robust than in the brown @-@ tailed mongoose . The first upper premolar is small , but the second and third are larger ; these two teeth are shorter and broader than in the brown @-@ tailed mongoose . The fourth premolar is large , as is the first molar . The second upper molar is less than one @-@ third the size of the first , and is more highly reduced than that of the brown @-@ tailed mongoose , which is about two @-@ thirds the size of the first molar . The first lower incisor is smaller than the other two . The lower canine , premolars , and first molar are well @-@ developed . The second molar is broad , but smaller than in the brown @-@ tailed mongoose .
= = Distribution , habitat , and behavior = =
Salanoia durrelli has been recorded at Andreba , a marshy area at 750 m ( 2460 ft ) above sea level on the eastern coast of Lac Alaotra . The nearest occurrence of the brown @-@ tailed mongoose is about 55 km ( 35 mi ) from Alaotra . The first observed specimen was swimming ; it may have fled from human activity on the shore . The two others were caught on mats of floating vegetation . Thus , S. durrelli occurs in a marsh habitat — quite different from the forest @-@ dwelling brown @-@ tailed mongoose . S. durrelli may use its robust dentition to feed on prey with hard parts , such as crustaceans and molluscs , in addition to small vertebrates , rather than the insects that the more gracile @-@ toothed brown @-@ tailed mongoose eats . Indeed , the two specimens of S. durrelli were captured using traps baited with fish and meat . S. durrelli is similar in many respects to the larger mainland African marsh mongoose ( Atilax paludinosa ) , a carnivorous wetland @-@ dweller that also uses mats of vegetation to eat and sleep on .
= = Conservation status = =
The unique habitat of Lac Alaotra is threatened by pollution , destruction of marshes for the construction of rice fields , overfishing , and introduced species such as exotic fish , plants , the black rat ( Rattus rattus ) , and the small Indian civet ( Viverricula indica ) , another small carnivoran . A bird restricted to the area , the Alaotra grebe ( Tachybaptus rufolavatus ) , was declared extinct in 2010 and the population of the bamboo lemur fell by about 30 % from 1994 to 1999 . As a narrowly distributed species with a small population , S. durrelli is likely to be threatened by degradation of its habitat and perhaps competition with the small Indian civet and the black rat , but its conservation status has not yet been formally assessed . The DWCT is working to conserve the Lac Alaotra area and the region has been designated as a protected area .
= Alcibiades =
Alcibiades , son of Cleinias , from the deme of Scambonidae ( / ˌælsᵻˈbaɪ.ədiːz / ; Greek : Ἀλκιβιάδης Κλεινίου Σκαμβωνίδης , transliterated Alkibiádēs Kleiníou Skambōnídēs ; c . 450 – 404 BC ) , was a prominent Athenian statesman , orator , and general . He was the last famous member of his mother 's aristocratic family , the Alcmaeonidae , which fell from prominence after the Peloponnesian War . He played a major role in the second half of that conflict as a strategic advisor , military commander , and politician .
During the course of the Peloponnesian War , Alcibiades changed his political allegiance several times . In his native Athens in the early 410s BC , he advocated an aggressive foreign policy and was a prominent proponent of the Sicilian Expedition , but he fled to Sparta after his political enemies brought charges of sacrilege against him . In Sparta , he served as a strategic adviser , proposing or supervising several major campaigns against Athens . In Sparta too , however , Alcibiades soon made powerful enemies and felt forced to defect to Persia . There he served as an adviser to the satrap Tissaphernes until his Athenian political allies brought about his recall . He then served as an Athenian general ( Strategos ) for several years , but his enemies eventually succeeded in exiling him a second time .
The Sicilian Expedition was the idea of Alcibiades , and scholars have argued that , had that expedition been under Alcibiades 's command instead of that of Nicias , the expedition might not have met its eventual disastrous fate . In the years when he served Sparta , Alcibiades played a significant role in Athens 's undoing ; the capture of Decelea and the revolts of several critical Athenian subjects occurred either at his suggestion or under his supervision . Once restored to his native city , however , he played a crucial role in a string of Athenian victories that eventually brought Sparta to seek a peace with Athens . He favored unconventional tactics , frequently winning cities over by treachery or negotiation rather than by siege . Alcibiades 's military and political talents frequently proved valuable to whichever state currently held his allegiance , but his propensity for making powerful enemies ensured that he never remained in one place for long ; and by the end of the war which he had helped to rekindle in the early 410s , his days of political relevance were a bygone memory .
= = Early years = =
Alcibiades was born in Athens . His father was Cleinias . His mother was Deinomache , the daughter of Megacles , and could trace her family back to Eurysaces and the Telamonian Ajax . Alcibiades thereby , through his mother , belonged to the powerful and controversial family of the Alcmaeonidae ; the renowned Pericles and his brother Ariphron were Deinomache 's cousins , as her father and their mother were siblings . His maternal grandfather , also named Alcibiades , was a friend of Cleisthenes , the famous constitutional reformer of the late 6th century BC . After the death of Cleinias at the Battle of Coronea ( 447 BC ) , Pericles and Ariphron became his guardians . According to Plutarch , Alcibiades had several famous teachers , including Socrates , and was well trained in the art of Rhetoric . He was noted , however , for his unruly behavior , which was mentioned by ancient Greek and Latin writers on several occasions .
Alcibiades took part in the Battle of Potidaea in 432 BC , where Socrates was said to have saved his life and again at the Battle of Delium in 424 BC . Alcibiades had a particularly close relationship with Socrates , whom he admired and respected . According to Plutarch , Alcibiades " feared and reverenced Socrates alone , and despised the rest of his lovers " .
Alcibiades was married to Hipparete , the daughter of Hipponicus , a wealthy Athenian . According to Plutarch , Hipparete loved her husband , but she attempted to divorce him because he consorted with courtesans but he dragged her away from her court appearance . She lived with him until her death , which came soon after , and gave birth to two children , a daughter and a son , Alcibiades the Younger .
= = Political career until 412 BC = =
= = = Rise to prominence = = =
Alcibiades first rose to prominence when he began advocating aggressive Athenian action after the signing of the Peace of Nicias . That treaty , an uneasy truce between Sparta and Athens signed midway through the Peloponnesian War , came at the end of seven years of fighting during which neither side had gained a decisive advantage . Historians Arnold W. Gomme and Raphael Sealey believe , and Thucydides reports , that Alcibiades was offended that the Spartans had negotiated that treaty through Nicias and Laches , overlooking him on account of his youth .
Disputes over the interpretation of the treaty led the Spartans to dispatch ambassadors to Athens with full powers to arrange all unsettled matters . The Athenians initially received these ambassadors well , but Alcibiades met with them in secret before they were to speak to the ecclesia ( the Athenian Assembly ) and told them that the Assembly was haughty and had great ambitions . He urged them to renounce their diplomatic authority to represent Sparta , and instead allow him to assist them through his influence in Athenian politics . The representatives agreed and , impressed with Alcibiades , they alienated themselves from Nicias , who genuinely wanted to reach an agreement with the Spartans . The next day , during the Assembly , Alcibiades asked them what powers Sparta had granted them to negotiate and they replied , as agreed , that they had not come with full and independent powers . This was in direct contradiction to what they had said the day before , and Alcibiades seized on this opportunity to denounce their character , cast suspicion on their aims , and destroy their credibility . This ploy increased Alcibiades 's standing while embarrassing Nicias , and Alcibiades was subsequently appointed General . He took advantage of his increasing power to orchestrate the creation of an alliance between Argos , Mantinea , Elis , and other states in the Peloponnese , threatening Sparta 's dominance in the region . According to Gomme , " it was a grandiose scheme for an Athenian general at the head of a mainly Peloponnesian army to march through the Peloponnese cocking a snook at Sparta when her reputation was at its lowest " . This alliance , however , would ultimately be defeated at the Battle of Mantinea .
Somewhere in the years 416 – 415 BC , a complex struggle took place between Hyperbolos on one side and Nicias and Alcibiades on the other . Hyperbolos tried to bring about the ostracism of one of this pair , but Nicias and Alcibiades combined their influence to induce the people to expel Hyperbolos instead . This incident reveals that Nicias and Alcibiades each commanded a personal following , whose votes were determined by the wishes of the leaders .
Alcibiades was not one of the Generals involved in the capture of Melos in 416 – 415 BC , but Plutarch describes him as a supporter of the decree by which the grown men of Melos were killed and the women and children enslaved . An oration urging Alcibiades ' ostracism , " Against Alcibiades " ( historically attributed to the orator Andocides but not in fact by him ) , alleges that Alcibiades had a child by one of these enslaved women .
= = = Sicilian Expedition = = =
In 415 BC , delegates from the Sicilian city of Segesta ( Greek : Egesta ) arrived at Athens to plead for the support of the Athenians in their war against Selinus . During the debates on the undertaking , Nicias was vehemently opposed to Athenian intervention , explaining that the campaign would be very costly and attacking the character and motives of Alcibiades , who had emerged as the supporter of the expedition . On the other hand , Alcibiades argued that a campaign in this new theatre would bring riches to the city and expand the empire , just as the Persian Wars had . In his speech Alcibiades predicted ( over @-@ optimistically , in the opinion of most historians ) that the Athenians would be able to recruit allies in the region and impose their rule on Syracuse , the most powerful city of Sicily . In spite of Alcibiades 's enthusiastic advocacy for the plan , it was Nicias , not he , who turned a modest undertaking into a massive campaign and made the conquest of Sicily seem possible and safe . It was at his suggestion that the size of the fleet was significantly increased from 60 ships to " 140 galleys , 5 @,@ 100 men at arms , and about 1300 archers , slingers , and light armed men " . Philosopher Leo Strauss underscores that the Sicilian expedition surpassed everything undertaken by Pericles . Almost certainly Nicias 's intention was to shock the assembly with his high estimate of the forces required , but , instead of dissuading his fellow citizens , his analysis made them all the more eager . Against his wishes Nicias was appointed General along with Alcibiades and Lamachus , all three of whom were given full powers to do whatever was in the best interests of Athens while in Sicily .
One night during preparations for the expedition , the hermai , heads of the god Hermes on a plinth with a phallus , were mutilated throughout Athens . This was a religious scandal and was seen as a bad omen for the mission . Plutarch explains that Androcles , a political leader , used false witnesses who accused Alcibiades and his friends of mutilating the statues , and of profaning the Eleusinian Mysteries . Later his opponents , chief among them being Androcles and Thessalus , Cimon 's son , enlisted orators to argue that Alcibiades should set sail as planned and stand trial on his return from the campaign . Alcibiades was suspicious of their intentions , and asked to be allowed to stand trial immediately , under penalty of death , in order to clear his name . This request was denied , and the fleet set sail soon after , with the charges unresolved .
As Alcibiades had suspected , his absence emboldened his enemies , and they began to accuse him of other sacrilegious actions and comments and even alleged that these actions were connected with a plot against the democracy . According to Thucydides , the Athenians were always in fear and took everything suspiciously . When the fleet arrived in Catana , it found the state trireme Salaminia waiting to bring Alcibiades and the others indicted for mutilating the hermai or profaning the Eleusinian Mysteries back to Athens to stand trial . Alcibiades told the heralds that he would follow them back to Athens in his ship , but in Thurii he escaped with his crew ; in Athens he was convicted in absentia and condemned to death . His property was confiscated and a reward of one talent was promised to whoever succeeded in killing any who had fled . Meanwhile , the Athenian force in Sicily , after a few early victories , moved against Messina , where the Generals expected their secret allies within the city to betray it to them . Alcibiades , however , foreseeing that he would be outlawed , gave information to the friends of the Syracusans in Messina , who succeeded in preventing the admission of the Athenians . With the death of Lamachus in battle some time later , command of the Sicilian Expedition fell into the hands of Nicias , whom modern scholars have judged to be an inadequate military leader .
= = = Defection to Sparta = = =
After his disappearance at Thurii , Alcibiades quickly contacted the Spartans , " promising to render them aid and service greater than all the harm he had previously done them as an enemy " if they would offer him sanctuary . The Spartans granted this request and received him among them . In the debate at Sparta over whether to send a force to relieve Syracuse , Alcibiades spoke and instilled fear of Athenian ambition into the Spartan ephors by informing them that the Athenians hoped to conquer Sicily , Italy , and even Carthage . Yale historian Donald Kagan believes that Alcibiades knowingly exaggerated the plans of the Athenians to convince the Spartans of the benefit they stood to gain from his help . Kagan asserts that Alcibiades had not yet acquired his " legendary " reputation , and the Spartans saw him as " a defeated and hunted man " whose policies " produced strategic failures " and brought " no decisive result " . If accurate , this assessment underscores one of Alcibiades 's greatest talents , his highly persuasive oratory . After making the threat seem imminent , Alcibiades advised the Spartans to send troops and most importantly , a Spartan commander to discipline and aid the Syracusans .
Alcibiades served as a military adviser to Sparta and helped the Spartans secure several crucial successes . He advised them to build a permanent fort at Decelea , just over ten miles ( 16 km ) from Athens and within sight of the city . By doing this , the Spartans cut the Athenians off entirely from their homes and crops and the silver mines of Sunium . This was part of Alcibiades 's plan to renew the war with Athens in Attica . The move was devastating to Athens and forced the citizens to live within the long walls of the city year round , making them entirely dependent on their seaborne trade for food . Seeing Athens thus beleaguered on a second front , members of the Delian League began to contemplate revolt . In the wake of Athens 's disastrous defeat in Sicily , Alcibiades sailed to Ionia with a Spartan fleet and succeeded in persuading several critical cities to revolt .
In spite of these valuable contributions to the Spartan cause , Alcibiades fell out of favor with the Spartan government at around this time , ruled by Agis II . Leotychides , the son born by Agis 's wife Timaia shortly after this , was believed by many to be Alcibiades 's son . Alcibiades 's influence was further reduced after the retirement of Endius , the ephor who was on good terms with him . It is alleged that Astiochus , a Spartan Admiral , was sent orders to kill him , but Alcibiades received warning of this order and defected to the Persian satrap Tissaphernes , who had been supporting the Peloponnesian forces financially in 412 BC .
= = = In Asia Minor = = =
On his arrival in the local Persian court , Alcibiades won the trust of the powerful satrap and made several policy suggestions which were well received . According to Thucydides , Alcibiades immediately began to do all he could with Tissaphernes to injure the Peloponnesian cause . At his urging , the satrap reduced the payments he was making to the Peloponnesian fleet and began delivering them irregularly . Alcibiades next advised Tissaphernes to bribe the Generals of the cities to gain valuable intelligence on their activities . Lastly , and most importantly , he told the satrap to be in no hurry to bring the Persian fleet into the conflict , as the longer the war dragged out the more exhausted the combatants would become . This would allow the Persians to more easily conquer the region in the aftermath of the fighting . Alcibiades tried to convince the satrap that it was in Persia 's interest to wear both Athens and Sparta out at first , " and after docking the Athenian power as much as he could , forthwith to rid the country of the Peloponnesians " . Although Alcibiades 's advice benefited the Persians , it was merely a means to an end ; Thucydides tells us that his real motive was to use his alleged influence with the Persians to effect his restoration to Athens .
= = Recall to Athens = =
= = = Negotiations with the Athenian oligarchs = = =
Alcibiades seemed to assume that the " radical democracy " would never agree to his recall to Athens . Therefore , he exchanged messages with the Athenian leaders at Samos and suggested that if they could install an oligarchy friendly to him he would return to Athens and bring with him Persian money and possibly the Persian fleet of 147 triremes . Alcibiades set about winning over the most influential military officers , and achieved his goal by offering them a threefold plan : the Athenian constitution was to be changed , the recall of Alcibiades was to be voted , and Alcibiades was to win over Tissaphernes and the King of Persia to the Athenian side . Most of the officers in the Athenian fleet accepted the plan and welcomed the prospect of a narrower constitution , which would allow them a greater share in determining policy . According to Thucydides , only one of the Athenian Generals at Samos , Phrynichus , opposed the plan and argued that Alcibiades cared no more for the proposed oligarchy than for the traditional democracy . The involvement in the plot of another General , Thrasybulus , remains unclear .
These officers of the Athenian fleet formed a group of conspirators , but were met with opposition from the majority of the soldiers and sailors ; these were eventually calmed down " by the advantageous prospect of the pay from the king " . The members of the group assembled and prepared to send Pisander , one of their number , on an embassy to Athens to treat for the restoration of Alcibiades and the abolition of the democracy in the city , and thus to make Tissaphernes the friend of the Athenians .
Phrynichus , fearing that Alcibiades if restored would avenge himself upon him for his opposition , sent a secret letter to the Spartan Admiral , Astyochus , to tell him that Alcibiades was ruining their cause by making Tissaphernes the friend of the Athenians , and containing an express revelation of the rest of the intrigue . Astyochus went up to Alcibiades and Tissaphernes at Magnesia and communicated to them Phrynichus 's letter . Alcibiades responded in kind , sending to the authorities at Samos a letter against Phrynichus , stating what he had done , and requiring that he should be put to death . Phrynichus in desperation wrote again to Astyochus , offering him a chance to destroy the Athenian fleet at Samos . This also Astyochus revealed to Alcibiades who informed the officers at Samos that they had been betrayed by Phrynichus . Alcibiades however gained no credit , because Phrynichus had anticipated Alcibiades 's letter and , before the accusations could arrive , told the army that he had received information of an enemy plan to attack the camp and that they
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April to 8 July 2012 respectively . In the former , CLG Dota placed third in the European group stage , and beat Orange Esports and Team Infused in the playoffs , before losing to PotM Bottom in both the Winners Bracket and Grand Finals , taking home second . In the latter , which was a round @-@ robin tournament , the team finished second behind Natus Vincere . On 18 May 2012 , In the middle of these two tournaments , Loda and smulgulig left the team , and CLG picked up Rasmus " MiSeRy " Filipsen and Dominik " Lacoste " Stipic to replace them . From 21 June to 12 August 2012 , after the additions to their roster , CLG Dota took part in The Defense Season 2 . CLG finished second in their group behind Quantic Gaming , qualifying for the playoff stage . There they defeated mTw and mousesports to reach the Winners Bracket Final , where they lost to compLexity Gaming . The team met mousesports again in the Losers Bracket Final , but was defeated , taking home third place .
On 29 September 2012 , Counter Logic Gaming was one of fourteen teams invited to attend the 2012 edition of The International , the roster 's first and only LAN tournament . The event was run by Valve , the developer of Dota 2 , and took place at PAX Prime in Seattle , with a $ 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 prize pool . The team was knocked out of the tournament in the group stage after being beaten by teams including Evil Geniuses and LGD Gaming . CLG Dota 's placing was ninth to twelfth , and the team returned home with nothing . On 15 October 2012 , the organization announced that MiSeRy and Pajkatt were leaving to join LGD.int. No replacements were announced . Later that month , on 29 October , Akke also left the team to join No Tidehunter , and Counter Logic Gaming Dota officially disbanded .
= = = Halo = = =
On 10 November 2014 , Counter Logic Gaming announced that they had acquired Shoot to Kill 's Halo roster , made up of Richard " Heinz " Heinz , Halo veteran Tom " OGRE2 " Ryan , Paul " SnakeBite " Duarte , and Matthew " Royal 2 " Fiorante , alongside their coach , Chris " Royal 1 " Fiorante . Counter Logic Gaming Halo was picked up before the start of the official Halo Championship Series ( HCS ) . After joining the organization , CLG Halo found immediate success , taking successive victories in ESL 's HCS Pre @-@ Cup Tournaments # 1 and # 2 , beating other top teams including Evil Geniuses , OpTic Gaming , and Cloud9 . Despite being eliminated in the round of sixty four by Evil Geniuses at HCS Season One Cup # 1 , the team recovered in December 2014 at the first HCS LAN Event : Iron Games Columbus , claiming first place after facing Evil Geniuses once more in the finals , and becoming the first winners of an HCS LAN event .
After this strong run , CLG Halo came into HCS S1 Cup # 2 as first seed , but was upset by Denial eSports in the quarterfinals . In January 2015 , due to their previous success , the team was able to hold on to their seeding going into the second LAN event of the season : UGC St. Louis . After reaching the Winners Bracket Final , they faced off against Denial , and were again defeated . After defeating Evil Geniuses in the Losers Bracket Final , the team had to face Denial once more in the Grand Final , and were once more defeated by them , claiming second . Despite repeatedly failing to win a tournament , CLG 's relative consistency netted them the first seed for HCS S1 Cup # 3 , and the team looked to reassert themselves here . After breezing through the first few rounds , CLG found themselves in the finals against a familiar Denial team . CLG were finally able to overcome their opponents , and won their first official HCS Online Cup on 11 January 2015 .
On 25 January 2015 , CLG was taken out by Cloud9 in the semifinals of HCS S1 Cup # 4 , netting them another top 4 finish . In each of the next three HCS S1 Cups , # 5 , # 6 , and # 7 , CLG was eliminated by the newly formed Noble Black roster , leading fans to question whether CLG Halo would still perform well at LAN . On 21 February , at Gamers For Giving 2015 , CLG met Noble Black in round four . Despite their troubles in the online cups , CLG swept their opponents to advance to the next round . After losing a close series against OpTic Gaming , the team was forced into the Losers Bracket , where they beat eLevate , Cloud9 , and OpTic to meet Evil Geniuses in the Grand Final . Evil Geniuses took a flawless series against Counter Logic Gaming Halo , and also took the first seed going into the HCS Season One Finals . At the HCS Season One Finals at PAX East , CLG lost to Evil Geniuses in the Winners Bracket Final , before defeating Noble Black in the Losers Bracket Final . Facing Evil Geniuses for a second time in the tournament on 8 March 2015 , CLG Halo was again outclassed , ending both the tournament and the season with another second @-@ place finish .
On 13 March 2015 , Heinz confirmed on Twitter that he had been released . Counter Logic Gaming announced later that day that they had acquired Denial eSports ' Scottie " Cloud " Holste to take his place . In April , at the first LAN of HCS Season Two : Iron Games Atlanta 2015 , CLG Halo defeated Cloud9 , before losing yet another series to Evil Geniuses , and falling into the Losers Bracket . There , CLG was defeated by Winterfox , and claimed fifth place after beating out OpTic Gaming in a consolation match , their first below second placing at an HCS LAN . Following HCS Season Two Cup # 1 , Ogre2 went on vacation , leaving the team with sub Weston " Clutch " Price to fill his role for the next two cups , in which the team placed top 16 and top 8 respectively .
OGRE2 's return would not immediately lead to better fortunes for Counter Logic Gaming , as the team finished top 8 in HCS S2 Cup # 4 . However , on 7 June 2015 , they earned their highest placing of the season , finishing third in HCS S2 Cup # 5 . They repeated this finish in HCS S2 Cup # 6 , before finishing top 8 in HCS S2 Cup # 7 , the final cup of the season . Later in June , CLG went into HCS LAN Indianapolis holding fifth seed , and was knocked out of the Winners Bracket relatively early on by Cloud9 . Despite an impressive Losers Bracket run , they were beaten in the Grand Final by Evil Geniuses . This second @-@ place finish was enough to secure them the fourth seed going into the HCS Season 2 Finals , which started on 24 July 2015 . At the finals , CLG was once again forced into the Losers Bracket , this time by Evil Geniuses . Wins against OpTic Gaming , Cloud9 , and Denial eSports took the team into the Grand Final , where they met Evil Geniuses for the last time that season . CLG managed their first and only Season Two victory against Evil Geniuses , but lost the second , deciding series , relegating Counter Logic Gaming Halo to successive second place season finishes .
On 2 December 2015 , the organization announced the release of Cloud , and the acquisition of Bradley " Frosty " Bergstrom , and on 28 January 2016 , it was announced that OGRE2 was being replaced by Tony " Lethxl " Campbell .
= = = Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive = = =
= = = = CLG.CS = = = =
Counter Logic Gaming 's potential expansion into Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive was first discussed publicly in a December 2014 interview of George " HotshotGG " Georgallidis , who commented , " We 're looking at all avenues . Right now we 're really interested in CS : GO and Dota 2 , and hopefully we 'll be expanding to those areas very soon . " This ambition became reality when , in early 2015 , CLG signed the ex @-@ mouseSpaz roster of Tarik " tarik " Celik , James " Hazed " Cobb , Stephen " reltuC " Cutler , Pujan " FNS " Mehta , and Peter " ptr " Gurney as CLG.CS. The team 's first major event under the CLG banner was the first of three annual majors , ESL One Katowice 2015 , where they dropped out in the group stages of the tournament . The team had decent success over the next few months , winning the CEVO Season 6 LAN Finals , and coming in fifth / sixth place at ESEA Global Finals Season 18 , losing to European teams Fnatic and mousesports .
This middling level of success was not enough for the team , and on 29 April 2015 , ptr was kicked . On 8 May the organization announced it was actively looking for a new fifth member , and on 2 June , Josh " jdm64 " Marzano rounded out the squad . The team went on to place fourth regionally in the online stage of ESL ESEA Pro League Season I , and so qualified for the LAN stage of the tournament . After unexpectedly taking out both Fnatic and Keyd Stars in their group , the team made it to the semifinals of the tournament , before being knocked out by Cloud9 .
The team qualified for ESL One Cologne 2015 on 2 August 2015 , as one of only two North American teams attending . CLG.CS performed surprisingly well at the event , but close losses against European powerhouses Ninjas in Pyjamas and Natus Vincere sent them out in the group stages . A string of mediocre domestic results bridged the gap to the last major of the year , DreamHack Open Cluj @-@ Napoca , where Counter Logic Gaming was knocked out of their group by Natus Vincere . The remainder of the year brought equally disappointing results for the team , culminating in a last place finish at the ESL ESEA Pro League Season 2 Finals . Shortly after , on 15 December , the organization announced that it was looking for a new fifth member , after FNS decided to step down from the roster . CLG announced Jacob " FugLy " Medina as their new fifth player and Faruk " pita " Pita as their head coach on 20 January 2016 . FugLy left onthe team on 13 March 2016 . Kenneth " koosta " Suen replaced jdm64 on 13 June 2016 .
= = = = CLG Red = = = =
On 5 July 2015 , Counter Logic Gaming announced that they had signed the ex @-@ Ubinited roster of Christine " potter " Chi , Diane " di ^ " Tran , Benita " bENITA " Novshadian , Catherine " CAth " Leroux @-@ Racette , Stephanie " missharvey " Harvey as a second , all @-@ female , Counter -Strike : Global Offensive team , called CLG Red . Six days later , CLG.CS Red placed first at Electronic Sports World Cup 2015 CSGO Women , beating out Games4u.se Female in the final .
= = = Super Smash Bros. = = =
On 14 June 2015 , the organization expanded into Super Smash Bros. , picking up Northern California based Melee player Kevin " PewPewU " Toy . He attended June 's CEO 2015 and July 's EVO 2015 under the Counter Logic Gaming brand , placing ninth place in the individual categories of each . He also placing third in doubles of the former and first place at EVO . On 23 October 2015 , Counter Logic Gaming signed New Jersey based Smash 4 player Tyrell " NAKAT " Coleman . On 16 December 2015 , the organization announced that they had signed PewPewU 's friend and doubles partner , North California based Melee player Zac " SFAT " Cordini , making them among the first established Super Smash Bros. duos to be signed to the same organization . New Jersey based competitive Smash 4 player and content creator Richard " Keitaro " King Jr. joined Counter Logic Gaming as a video editor on 9 March 2016 . Southern California based Smash 4 player James " VoiD " Makekau @-@ Tyson joined on 16 June 2016 .
= = = Call of Duty = = =
On 2 December 2015 , Counter Logic Gaming announced that they had expanded into Call of Duty , after buying the roster of Anthony " Methodz " Zinni , Michael " Blfire " Glushenok , Aaron " CMPLX " Vetelino , and Tyler " FeLony " Johnson from Denial eSports .
The team 's primary goal was participation in Stage 1 of the 2016 Call of Duty World League ( CWL ) , to which end they attended the North American Pro Division Offline Qualifier . There , losses to Team EnVyUs and Team Kaliber would force CLG to attempt qualification in a second online stage . The team was one of four to qualify online , and secure a spot in the 2016 CWL .
= = Current Roster = =
As of 13 December 2015 .
= = = League of Legends = = =
= = = = Counter Logic Gaming = = = =
= = = Halo 5 : Guardians = = =
= = = Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive = = =
= = = = CLG.CS = = = =
Pita is the coach of the team , but he is currently standing in as they haven 't had a fifth player since the departure of Jacob " FugLy " Medina .
= = = CLG.CS Red = = =
= = = Super Smash Bros. = = =
= = = Call of Duty = = =
= = Notable Alumni = =
Andy " Reginald " Dinh ( League of Legends )
Dan Dinh ( League of Legends )
Yiliang " Doublelift " Peng ( League of Legends )
Henrik " Froggen " Hansen ( League of Legends )
Tom " OGRE2 " Ryan ( Halo )
= York =
York ( / ˈjɔːrk / ) is a historic walled city at the confluence of the rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire , England . The municipality is the traditional county town of Yorkshire to which it gives its name . The city has a rich heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events in England throughout much of its two millennia of existence . The city offers a wealth of historic attractions , of which York Minster is the most prominent , and a variety of cultural and sporting activities making it a popular tourist destination for millions .
The city was founded by the Romans as Eboracum in 71 AD . It became the capital of the Roman province of Britannia Inferior , and later of the kingdoms of Northumbria and Jórvík . In the Middle Ages , York grew as a major wool trading centre and became the capital of the northern ecclesiastical province of the Church of England , a role it has retained .
In the 19th century , York became a hub of the railway network and a confectionery manufacturing centre . In recent decades , the economy of York has moved from being dominated by its confectionery and railway @-@ related industries to one that provides services . The University of York and health services have become major employers , whilst tourism has become an important element of the local economy .
From 1996 , the term City of York describes a unitary authority area which includes rural areas beyond the old city boundaries . In 2011 the urban area had a population of 153 @,@ 717 , while in 2010 the entire unitary authority had an estimated population of 202 @,@ 400 .
= = History = =
= = = Origin of the name = = =
The word York ( from Old Norse Jórvík , from the 9th century AD ) derives from the Latinised name for the city , variously rendered as Eboracum , Eburacum or Eburaci . The first mention of York by this name is dated to circa 95 – 104 AD as an address on a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda in Northumberland .
The toponymy of Eboracum is uncertain because the language of the pre @-@ Roman indigenous population was never recorded . They are thought to have spoken a Celtic language related to modern Welsh . It is thought that Eboracum is derived from the Brythonic word Eborakon , a combination of eburos " yew @-@ tree " ( cf . Old Irish ibar " yew @-@ tree " , Welsh efwr " alder buckthorn " , Breton evor " alder buckthorn " ) and suffix * -āko ( n ) " place " ( cf . Welsh -og ) meaning either " place of the yew trees " ( cf. efrog in Welsh , eabhrac in Irish Gaelic and eabhraig in Scottish Gaelic , by which names the city is known in those languages ) ; or less probably , Eburos , ' property ' , which is a personal Celtic name mentioned in different documents as Eβουρος , Eburus and Eburius , and which , combined with the same suffix * -āko ( n ) , could denote a property . In his Historia Regum Britanniae the 12th century chronicler , Geoffrey of Monmouth , suggests the name derives from that of a pre @-@ Roman city founded by the legendary king Ebraucus .
The name Eboracum became the Anglian Eoforwic in the 7th century : a compound of Eofor- , from the old name , and -wic a village probably by conflation of the element Ebor- with a Germanic root * eburaz ( boar ) ; by the 7th century the Old English for ' boar ' had become eofor . Alternatively , the word eofor already existed as an Old Saxon word for wild swine , which is a cognate of the current Low Saxon word eaver and Dutch ever . The Anglo @-@ Saxon newcomers probably interpreted the ebor part as eofor , and -rac as ric ( meaning rich ) , while -um was ( and is ) a common abbreviation of the Saxon -heem , meaning home . To them , it sounded as a ' home rich in boar ' . As is common in Saxon place names , the -um part gradually faded ; eoforic . When the Danish army conquered the city in 866 , its name became Jórvík .
Jórvík gradually reduced to York in the centuries following the Norman Conquest , moving from the Middle English Yerk in the 14th century through Yourke in the 16th century to Yarke in the 17th century . The form York was first recorded in the 13th century . Many company and place names , such as the Ebor race meeting , refer to the Roman name . The Archbishop of York uses Ebor as his surname in his signature .
= = = Early history = = =
Archaeological evidence suggests that Mesolithic people settled in the region of York between 8000 and 7000 BC , although it is not known whether their settlements were permanent or temporary . By the time of the Roman conquest of Britain , the area was occupied by a tribe known to the Romans as the Brigantes . The Brigantian tribal area initially became a Roman client state , but , later its leaders became more hostile and the Roman Ninth Legion was sent north of the Humber into Brigantian territory .
The city was founded in 71 AD , when the Ninth Legion conquered the Brigantes and constructed a wooden military fortress on flat ground above the River Ouse close to its confluence with the River Foss . The fortress , which was later rebuilt in stone , covered an area of 50 acres ( 20 ha ) and was inhabited by 6 @,@ 000 soldiers . The site of the Roman fortress lies under the foundations of York Minster , and excavations in the undercroft have revealed some of the original walls .
The Emperors Hadrian , Septimius Severus and Constantius I all held court in York during their various campaigns . During his stay , the Emperor Severus proclaimed York capital of the province of Britannia Inferior , and it is likely that it was he who granted York the privileges of a colonia or city . Constantius I died in 306 AD during his stay in York , and his son Constantine the Great was proclaimed Emperor by the troops based in the fortress .
While the Roman colonia and fortress were located on high ground , by 400 AD the town was victim to periodic flooding from the Rivers Ouse and Foss and was abandoned . York declined in the post @-@ Roman era , and was taken and settled by the Angles in the 5th century .
Reclamation of the flooded parts of the town was initiated in the 7th century under King Edwin of Northumbria , and York became his chief city . The first minster church was built in York for the baptism of Edwin in 627 . Edwin ordered the small wooden church be rebuilt in stone but was killed in 633 and the task of completing the stone minster fell to his successor Oswald . In the following century Alcuin of York came to the cathedral school of York . He had a long career as a teacher and scholar , first at the school at York now known as St Peter 's School , founded in 627 AD , and later as Charlemagne 's leading advisor on ecclesiastical and educational affairs .
In 866 , Northumbria was in the midst of internecine struggles when the Vikings raided and captured York . Under Viking rule the city became a major river port , part of the extensive Viking trading routes throughout northern Europe . The last ruler of an independent Jórvík , Eric Bloodaxe , was driven from the city in 954 AD by King Eadred in his successful attempt to complete the unification of England .
= = = Post conquest = = =
In 1068 , two years after the Norman Conquest of England , the people of York rebelled . Initially the rebellion was successful but upon the arrival of William the Conqueror the rebellion was put down . William at once built a wooden fortress on a motte . In 1069 , after another rebellion , William built another timbered castle across the River Ouse . These were destroyed in 1069 and rebuilt by William about the time of his ravaging Northumbria in what is called the " Harrying of the North " where he destroyed everything from York to Durham . The remains of the rebuilt castles , now in stone , are visible on either side of the River Ouse . See Peter Rex 's The English Resistance , The Underground War Against the Normans , 2006 .
The first stone minster church was badly damaged by fire in the uprising and the Normans built a minster on a new site . Around the year 1080 Archbishop Thomas started building the cathedral that in time became the current Minster . In the 12th century York started to prosper . In 1190 , York Castle was the site of an infamous massacre of its Jewish inhabitants , in which at least 150 Jews died ( although some authorities put the figure as high as 500 ) .
The city , through its location on the River Ouse and its proximity to the Great North Road became a major trading centre . King John granted the city 's first charter in 1212 , confirming trading rights in England and Europe . During the later Middle Ages York merchants imported wine from France , cloth , wax , canvas , and oats from the Low Countries , timber and furs from the Baltic and exported grain to Gascony and grain and wool to the Low Countries . York became a major cloth manufacturing and trading centre . Edward I further stimulated the city 's economy by using the city as a base for his war in Scotland . The city was the location of significant unrest during the so @-@ called Peasants ' Revolt in 1381 . The city acquired an increasing degree of autonomy from central government including the privileges granted by a charter of Richard II in 1396 .
= = = 16th to 18th centuries = = =
The city underwent a period of economic decline during Tudor times . Under Henry VIII , the Dissolution of the Monasteries saw the end of York 's many monastic houses , including several orders of friars , the hospitals of St Nicholas and of St Leonard , the largest such institution in the north of England . This led to the Pilgrimage of Grace , an uprising of northern Catholics in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire opposed to religious reform . Henry VIII restored his authority by establishing the Council of the North in York in the dissolved St Mary 's Abbey . The city became a trading and service centre during this period .
Guy Fawkes , who was born and educated in York , was a member of a group of Roman Catholic restorationists that planned the Gunpowder Plot . Its aim was to displace Protestant rule by blowing up the Houses of Parliament while King James I , the entire Protestant , and even most of the Catholic aristocracy and nobility were inside .
In 1644 , during the Civil War , the Parliamentarians besieged York , and many medieval houses outside the city walls were lost . The barbican at Walmgate Bar was undermined and explosives laid , but , the plot was discovered . On the arrival of Prince Rupert , with an army of 15 @,@ 000 men , the siege was lifted . The Parliamentarians retreated some 6 miles ( 10 km ) from York with Rupert in pursuit , before turning on his army and soundly defeating it at the Battle of Marston Moor . Of Rupert 's 15 @,@ 000 troops , no fewer than 4 @,@ 000 were killed and 1 @,@ 500 captured . The siege was renewed but the city could not hold out for long , and on 15 July surrendered to Sir Thomas Fairfax .
Following the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , and the removal of the garrison from York in 1688 , the city was dominated by the gentry and merchants , although the clergy were still important . Competition from Leeds and Hull , together with silting of the River Ouse , resulted in York losing its pre @-@ eminent position as a trading centre but the city 's role as the social and cultural centre for wealthy northerners was on the rise . York 's many elegant townhouses , such as the Lord Mayor 's Mansion House and Fairfax House date from this period , as do the Assembly Rooms , the Theatre Royal , and the racecourse .
During this general time period , the American city of New York and the colony that contained it were renamed after the Duke of York ( later King James II ) .
= = = Modern history = = =
mak all t 'railways cum to York
The railway promoter George Hudson was responsible for bringing the railway to York in 1839 . Although Hudson 's career as a railway entrepreneur ended in disgrace and bankruptcy , his promotion of his own railway company , the York and North Midland Railway and of York over Leeds , helped establish York as a major railway centre by the late 19th century .
The introduction of the railways established engineering in the city . At the turn of the 20th century , the railway accommodated the headquarters and works of the North Eastern Railway , which employed more than 5 @,@ 500 people . The railway was instrumental in the expansion of Rowntree 's Cocoa Works . It was founded in 1862 by Henry Isaac Rowntree , who was joined in 1869 by his brother the philanthropist Joseph . Another chocolate manufacturer , Terry 's of York was a major employer . By 1900 the railways and confectionery had become the city 's two major industries .
With the emergence of tourism , the historic core of York became one of the city 's major assets , and in 1968 it was designated a conservation area . The existing tourist attractions were supplemented by the establishment of the National Railway Museum in York in 1975 and the Jorvik Viking Centre in 1984 . The opening of the University of York in 1963 added to the prosperity of the city .
In 2010 , the former headquarters on the North Eastern Railway were refurbished and opened as York 's first , and still only , 5 @-@ star hotel - currently known as The Grand Hotel & Spa .
York was voted European Tourism City of the Year by European Cities Marketing in June 2007 beating 130 other European cities to gain first place , surpassing Gothenburg in Sweden ( second ) and Valencia in Spain ( third ) . York was also voted safest place to visit in the 2010 conde nast readers traveller awards .
= = = Early photography = = =
York was a centre of early photography . Photographers who had studios in York included William Hayes , and Augustus Mahalski who operated on Davygate and Low Petergate in the 19th century and who had come to England from Austria after a year of serving in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army .
= = Governance = =
= = = Parliamentary constituencies = = =
From 1997 to 2010 the central part of the district was covered by the City of York constituency , while the remainder was split between the constituencies of Ryedale , Selby , and Vale of York . These constituencies were represented by Hugh Bayley , John Greenway , John Grogan , and Anne McIntosh respectively .
Following their review in 2003 of parliamentary representation in North Yorkshire , the Boundary Commission for England recommended the creation of two new seats for the City of York , in time for the general election in 2010 . These are York Central , which covers the inner urban area , and is entirely surrounded by the York Outer constituency .
The whole of the city and local council area lies within the Yorkshire and the Humber constituency of the European Parliament .
= = = Local government = = =
York is the traditional county town of Yorkshire , yet it did not form part of any of its three historic ridings , or divisions . York is an ancient borough , and was reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 to form a municipal borough . It gained the status of a county borough in 1889 , under the Local Government Act 1888 , and existed so until 1974 , when , under the Local Government Act 1972 , it became a non @-@ metropolitan district in the county of North Yorkshire .
As a result of 1990s UK local government reform , York regained unitary status and saw a substantial alteration in its borders , taking in parts of Selby and Harrogate districts , and about half the population of the Ryedale district . The new boundary was imposed after central government rejected the former city council 's own proposal .
The City of York Council has 47 councillors . As a result of the 2015 local elections the Labour Party was reduced to 15 seats . The Liberal Democrats had twelve councillors . The Conservative Party had 14 councillors and the Greens had four with two Independents .
City of York Council operates on a leader and Cabinet style of governance . Councillors are appointed to the cabinet by the full council of 47 members . Cabinet members make decisions on their portfolio areas individually .
York 's Right Honourable Lord Mayor for 2014 – 15 is Councillor Ian Gillies . The Sheriff is John Kenny . Both appointments are made each May for a period of one year . Although York 's Sheriff office is the oldest in England it is now a purely ceremonial post . The Lord Mayor carries out civic and ceremonial duties in addition to chairing full meetings of the council .
The York Youth Council consists of several young people who negotiate with the councillors to get better facilities for York 's young people .
= = Geography = =
= = = Location = = =
The city is 21 miles ( 34 km ) from Leeds .
York lies in the Vale of York , a flat area of fertile arable land bordered by the Pennines , the North York Moors and the Yorkshire Wolds The city was built at the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Foss on a terminal moraine left by the last Ice Age .
During Roman times , the land surrounding the rivers Ouse and Foss was marshy , making the site easy to defend . The city is prone to flooding from the River Ouse , and has an extensive ( and until 2015 mostly effective ) network of flood defences with walls along the river , and a liftable barrier across the River Foss where it joins the Ouse at the ' Blue Bridge ' . In October and November 2000 York experienced the worst flooding in 375 years with more than 300 homes flooded . In December 2015 the flooding was more extensive and caused major disruption . The extreme impact led to a personal visit by Prime Minister David Cameron . Much land in and around the city is on flood plains too flood @-@ prone for development other than agriculture . The ings are flood meadows along the Ouse , while the strays are open common grassland in various locations around the city .
= = = Architecture = = =
York Minster , the largest Gothic cathedral in Northern Europe , dominates the city .
York Castle , a complex of buildings ranging from the medieval Clifford 's Tower to the 20th century entrance to the York Castle Museum ( formerly a prison ) has had a chequered history .
York 's centre is enclosed by the city 's medieval walls , which are a popular walk . These defences are the most complete in England . They have the only walls set on high ramparts and they retain all their principal gateways . They incorporate part of the walls of the Roman fortress and some Norman and medieval work , as well as 19th- and 20th @-@ century renovations . The entire circuit is approximately 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) , and encloses an area of 263 acres ( 106 ha ) . The north @-@ east section includes a part where walls never existed , because the Norman moat of York Castle , formed by damming the River Foss , also created a lake which acted as a city defence . This lake was later called the King 's Fishpond , as the rights to fish belonged to the Crown .
A feature of central York is the Snickelways , narrow pedestrian routes , many of which led towards the former market @-@ places in Pavement and St Sampson 's Square . The Shambles is a narrow medieval street , lined with shops , boutiques and tea rooms . Most of these premises were once butchers ' shops , and the hooks from which carcasses were hung and the shelves on which meat was laid out can still be seen outside some of them . The street also contains the Shrine of Margaret Clitherow , although it is not located in the house where she lived . Goodramgate has many medieval houses including the early 14th century Lady Row built to finance a Chantry , at the edge of the churchyard of Holy Trinity church .
As well as the Castle Museum , the city contains numerous other museums and historic buildings such as the Yorkshire Museum and its Museum Gardens , Jorvik Viking Centre , the York Art Gallery , the Richard III Museum , the Merchant Adventurers ' Hall , the reconstructed medieval house Barley Hall ( owned by the York Archaeological Trust ) , the 18th century Fairfax House , the Mansion House ( the historic home of the Lord Mayor ) , and the so @-@ called Treasurer 's House ( owned by the National Trust ) . The National Railway Museum is situated just beyond the station , and is home to a vast range of transport material and the largest collection of railway locomotives in the world . Included in this collection are the world 's fastest steam locomotive LNER Class A4 4468 Mallard and the world famous LNER Class A3 4472 Flying Scotsman , which has been overhauled in the Museum . Although noted for its Medieval history , visitors can also gain an understanding of the Cold War through visiting York Cold War Bunker , former headquarters of No 20 Group of the Royal Observer Corps .
York is noted for its numerous churches and pubs . Most of the remaining churches in York are from the medieval period . St William 's College behind the Minster , and Bedern Hall , off Goodramgate , are former dwelling places of the canons of the Minster .
= = = Climate = = =
York has a temperate climate with four distinct seasons . As with the rest of the Vale of York the city 's climate is drier and warmer than the rest of the Yorkshire and Humberside region . Because of its lowland location York is prone to frosts , fog , and cold winds during winter , spring and very early summer . Snow can fall in winter from December onwards to as late as April but quickly melts . From May to July , York experiences the most sunshine , an average of six hours per day . Extremes recorded at the University of York campus between 1998 and 2010 include a highest temperature of 34 @.@ 5 ° C ( 94 @.@ 1 ° F ) ( Monday 17 July 2006 ) and a lowest temperature of − 16 @.@ 3 ° C ( 2 @.@ 7 ° F ) ( Monday 6 December 2010 ) . The most rainfall in one day was 88 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) .
= = Demography = =
The York urban area had a population of 137 @,@ 505 comprising 66 @,@ 142 males and 71 @,@ 363 females in 2001 . The urban area 's population increased to 153 @,@ 717 by the time of the 2011 UK census . Also at the time of the 2001 UK census , the City of York had a total population of 181 @,@ 094 of whom 93 @,@ 957 were female and 87 @,@ 137 were male . Of the 76 @,@ 920 households in York , 36 @.@ 0 % were married couples living together , 31 @.@ 3 % were one @-@ person households , 8 @.@ 7 % were co @-@ habiting couples and 8 @.@ 0 % were lone parents . The figures for lone parent households were below the national average of 9 @.@ 5 % , and the percentage of married couples was also close to the national average of 36 @.@ 5 % ; the proportion of one person households was slightly higher than the national average of 30 @.@ 1 % .
In 2001 , the population density was 4 @,@ 368 / km2 ( 11 @,@ 310 / sq mi ) . Of those aged 16 – 74 in York , 24 @.@ 6 % had no academic qualifications , a little lower than 28 @.@ 9 % in all of England . Of York 's residents , 5 @.@ 1 % were born outside the United Kingdom , significantly lower than the national average of 9 @.@ 2 % . White British form 95 % of the population , the largest single minority group was recorded as Asian , at 1 @.@ 9 % of the population .
The number of theft @-@ from @-@ a @-@ vehicle offences and theft of a vehicle per 1 @,@ 000 of the population was 8 @.@ 8 and 2 @.@ 7 , compared to the English national average of 6 @.@ 9 and 2 @.@ 7 respectively . The number of sexual offences was 0 @.@ 9 , in line with the national average . The national average of violence against another person was 16 @.@ 2 compared to the York average of 17 @.@ 5 . The figures for crime statistics were all recorded during the 2006 – 07 financial year .
At the time of the 2011 UK census the population of York was 198 @,@ 051 and its ethnic composition was 94 @.@ 3 % white , compared with the English average of 85 @.@ 5 % . York 's population has a slightly higher elderly population than the national average .
= = = Population change = = =
The table below details the population change since 1801 .
= = = Religion = = =
Christianity is the religion with the largest following in York , with 59 @.@ 5 % residents reporting themselves as Christian in the 2011 census . The percentages following each non @-@ Christian religion were all below the national average for England , but those responding as " No Religion " was higher than the national average .
There are 33 active Anglican churches in York , which is home to the Archbishop of York and the Mother Church , York Minster , and administrative centre of the northern province of the Church of England and the Diocese of York . York is in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Middlesbrough , has eight Roman Catholic churches and a number of different Catholic religious orders .
Other Christian denominations that are active in York include the Religious Society of Friends who have a number of meeting houses , Methodists within the York Circuit of The Methodist Church York and Hull District , and Unitarians . St Columba 's United Reformed Church in Priory Street , originally built for the Presbyterians , dates from 1879 . There is one mosque in York and the city also has a UK Islamic Mission Islamic centre . Various Buddhist traditions are represented in the city and around York .
= = Economy = =
York 's economy is based on the service industry , which in 2000 was responsible for 88 @.@ 7 % of employment in the city . The service industries include public sector employment , health , education , finance , information technology ( IT ) and tourism that accounts for 10 @.@ 7 % of employment . Tourism has become an important element of the economy , with the city offering a wealth of historic attractions , of which York Minster is the most prominent , and a variety of cultural activities . In 2009 , York was the 7th most visited city by UK residents and the 13th most visited by overseas visitors .
Unemployment in York was low at 4 @.@ 2 % in 2008 compared to the United Kingdom national average of 5 @.@ 3 % . The biggest employer in York is the City of York Council , with over 7 @,@ 500 employees . Employers with more than 2 @,@ 000 staff include Aviva ( formerly Norwich Union Life ) , Network Rail , Northern , York Hospitals NHS Trust and the University of York . Other major employers include British Telecom , CPP Group , Nestlé , NFU Mutual and a number of railway companies .
Today 's economic position is very different from the 1950s , when its prosperity was based on chocolate manufacturing and the railways . This position continued until the early 1980s when 30 % of the workforce were employed by just five employers and 75 % of manufacturing jobs were in four companies . Most industry around the railway has gone , including the carriage works ( known as Asea Brown Boveri or ABB at the time of closure ) , which at its height in the 1880s employed 5 @,@ 500 people but closed in the mid @-@ 1990s . York is the headquarters of the confectionery manufacturer Nestlé York ( formerly Nestlé Rowntrees ) and home to the KitKat and eponymous Yorkie bar chocolate brands . Terry 's chocolate factory , makers of the Chocolate Orange , was located in the city ; but it closed on 30 September 2005 , when production was moved by its owners , Kraft Foods , to Poland . The historic factory building is situated next to the Knavesmire racecourse .
It was announced on 20 September 2006 that Nestlé would cut 645 jobs at the Rowntree 's chocolate factory in York . This came after a number of other job losses in the city at Aviva , British Sugar and Terry 's chocolate factory . Despite this , the employment situation in York remained fairly buoyant until the effects of the late 2000s recession began to be felt .
Since the closure of the carriage @-@ works , the site has been developed into offices . York 's economy has been developing in the areas of science , technology and the creative industries . The city has become a founding National Science City with the creation of a science park near the University of York . Between 1998 and 2008 York gained 80 new technology companies and 2 @,@ 800 new jobs in the sector .
Regional gross value added figures for York , at 2005 basic prices in pounds sterling , are :
= = = Public services = = =
Under the requirements of the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 , York City Council appointed a watch committee which established a police force and appointed a chief constable . On 1 June 1968 the York City , East Riding of Yorkshire and North Riding of Yorkshire police forces were amalgamated to form the York and North East Yorkshire Police . Since 1974 , Home Office policing in York has been provided by the North Yorkshire Police . The force 's central headquarters for policing York and nearby Selby in Fulford . Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the North Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Service , whose headquarters is at Northallerton .
The city 's first hospital , York County Hospital , opened in 1740 in Monkgate funded by public subscription . It closed in 1976 when it was replaced by York Hospital , which opened the same year and gained Foundation status in April 2007 . It has 524 adult inpatient beds and 127 special purpose beds providing general healthcare and some specialist inpatient , daycase and outpatient services . It is also known as York District Hospital and YDH .
The Yorkshire Ambulance Service NHS Trust was formed on 1 July 2006 bringing together South Yorkshire Ambulance Service , West Yorkshire Metropolitan Ambulance Service and the North and East Yorkshire parts of Tees , East and North Yorkshire Ambulance Service to provide patient transport . Other forms of health care are provided for locally by clinics and surgeries .
The city 's first subscription library opened in 1794 . In 1893 the first free public library , the York Library , was built to mark Queen Victoria 's jubilee . The library was on Clifford Street but a new building was erected on Museum Street in 1927 and is still the library today . The library was extended in 1934 and 1938 .
Since 1998 waste management has been co @-@ ordinated via the York and North Yorkshire Waste Partnership . York 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is CE Electric UK ; there are no power stations in the city . Yorkshire Water , which has a local water extraction plant on the River Derwent at Elvington , manages York 's drinking and waste water .
The city has a Magistrates ' Court , and a Crown Court and County Court too . The Crown Court House was designed by the architect John Carr , next to the then prison ( including execution area ) .
Between 1773 and 1777 , the Grand Jury House was replaced by John Carr 's elegant Court House for the Assizes of the whole county . The Female Prison was built opposite and mirrors the court building positioned around a circular lawn which became known as the " Eye of the Ridings " , or the " Eye of York " .
1776 saw the last recorded instance of a wife hanged and burnt for poisoning her husband . Horse theft was a capital offence . The culprits of lesser crimes were brought to court by the city constables and would face a fine . The corporation employed a " common informer " whose task was to bring criminals to justice .
The former prison is now the Castle Museum but still contains the cells .
= = Transport = =
York 's location on the River Ouse and in the centre of the Vale of York means that it has always had a significant position in the nation 's transport system . The city grew up as a river port at the confluence of the River Ouse and the River Foss . The Ouse was originally a tidal river , accessible to seagoing ships of the time . Today both of these rivers remain navigable , although the Foss is only navigable for a short distance above the confluence . A lock at Naburn on the Ouse to the south of York means that the river in York is no longer tidal .
Until the end of the 20th century , the Ouse was used by barges to carry freight between York and the port of Hull . The last significant traffic was the supply of newsprint to the local newspaper 's Foss @-@ side print works , which continued until 1997 . Today navigation is almost exclusively leisure @-@ oriented .
Like most cities founded by the Romans , York is well served by long distance trunk roads . The city lies at the intersection of the A19 road from Doncaster to Tyneside , the A59 road from Liverpool to York , the A64 road from Leeds to Scarborough , and the A1079 road from York to Hull . The A64 road provides the principal link to the motorway network , linking York to both the A1 ( M ) and the M1 motorways at a distance of about 10 miles ( 15 km ) from the city . The transpennine M62 motorway is less than 20 miles ( 30 km ) away providing links to Manchester and Liverpool .
The city is surrounded on all sides by an outer ring road , at a distance of some 3 miles ( 5 km ) from the centre of the city , which allows through traffic to by @-@ pass the city . The street plan of the historic core of the city dates from medieval times and is not suitable for modern traffic . As a consequence many of the routes inside the city walls are designated as car free during business hours or restrict traffic entirely . To alleviate this situation , five bus based park and ride sites operate in York . The sites are located towards the edge of the urban area , with easy access from the ring road , and allow out of town visitors to complete their journey into the city centre by bus .
York has been a major railway centre since the first line arrived in 1839 at the beginning of the railway age . For many years the city hosted the headquarters and works of the North Eastern Railway . York railway station is a principal stop on the East Coast Main Line from London to Newcastle and Edinburgh . It takes less than two hours to get to York from London by rail , with at least 25 direct trains each weekday . The station is also served by long distance trains on CrossCountry services linking Edinburgh and Newcastle with destinations in south and west England via Birmingham . TransPennine Express provide a frequent service of semi @-@ fast trains linking York to Newcastle , Scarborough , Leeds , Manchester , Manchester Airport , and Liverpool . Local stopping services by Northern connect York to Bridlington , Harrogate , Hull , Leeds , Sheffield and many intermediate points , as well as many other stations across Greater Manchester and Lancashire .
York has an airfield at the former RAF Elvington , some 7 miles ( 11 km ) south @-@ east of the city centre , which is the home of the Yorkshire Air Museum . Elvington is used for private aviation . Plans have been drafted to expand the site for business aviation or a full commercial service .
York is linked to Manchester Airport by an hourly direct TransPennine Express train , giving access to the principal airport serving the north of England , with connections to many destinations in Europe , North America , Africa , and Asia . Leeds Bradford Airport is closer to York but the hourly York Air Coach service operated by First York was withdrawn as of April 2009 . Leeds Bradford Airport provides connections to most major European and North African airports as well as Pakistan and New York City .
Public transport within the city is largely bus based . First York operates the majority of the city 's local bus services , as well as the York park and ride services . York was the location of the first implementation of FirstGroup 's experimental , and controversial , ftr bus concept , which sought to confer the advantages of a modern tramway system at a lower cost . The service was withdrawn following an election manifesto pledge by the Labour Group at the 2011 local government election . Transdev York and also operate a large number of local bus services . Open top tourist and sightseeing buses are operated by Transdev York
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0th @-@ century literary life . ‘ A man of letters ’ is probably the only description which does justice to his strange career – by turns acclaimed or wholly indigent . Biographer , belletrist , editor , failed novelist , he was perhaps most successful at happening to be in the right place at the right time during most of the century , and his journal – a huge , copious document – will probably prove his lasting memorial .
Boyd distinguished journal , biography and memoir as literary forms , different treatments of the same essential subject , the human condition , the change in medium justified his writing again of a whole @-@ life view : " I don 't think there 's anything wrong with going back over territory you 've previously covered . "
Though avowedly not an ( auto- ) biographical novelist , Boyd acknowledged that personal experiences often subconsciously affect a writer 's fiction . As in several of Boyd 's novels there are parallels with the author 's life : both Boyd and Mountstuart lived in Africa and France , studied at Oxford , worked in literary London and had a taste of New York . Boyd usually splits the creation of a novel into two phases : research and writing . The first phase of Any Human Heart took 30 months as he carefully plotted Mountstuart 's life to be significant but seem random , a period during which he bought several hundred books . He spent another year and a half writing the book .
= = Synopsis = =
The book begins with a quotation from Henry James , " Never say you know the last word about any human heart . " A short preface ( an anonymous editor suggests it was written in 1987 ) explains that the earliest pages have been lost , and recounts briefly Mountstuart 's childhood in Montevideo , Uruguay before he moves to England aged seven with his English father and Uruguayan mother . In his final term at school he and two friends set challenges . Logan is to get on to the school 's first XV rugby team ; Peter Scabius has to seduce Tess , a local farmer 's daughter ; and Ben Leeping , a lapsed Jew , has to convert to Roman Catholicism . Mountstuart enters Oxford on an exhibition and leaves with a third in History . Settling in London , he enjoys early success as a writer with The Mind 's Imaginings , a critically successful biography of Shelley ; The Girl Factory , a salacious novel about prostitutes ( which is poorly reviewed but sells well ) ; and Les Cosmopolites , a respectable book on some obscure French poets . Mountstuart 's mother loses the family wealth in the Wall Street Crash . He embarks on a series of amorous encounters : he loses his virginity to Tess , is rejected by Land Fothergill whom he met at Oxford , and marries Lottie , an Earl 's daughter . They live together at Thorpe Hall in Norfolk , where Mountstuart , unstimulated by slow country life and his warm but dull wife , becomes idle .
He meets Freya whilst on holiday , and begins an affair with her . Just before he departs for Barcelona to report on the Spanish Civil War , Lottie unexpectedly visits his London flat and quickly realises another woman lives with him . On his return to England , following an acrimonious divorce , he marries Freya in Chelsea Town Hall . The newlyweds move to a house in Battersea where Freya gives birth to their daughter , Stella . During The Second World War Mountstuart is recruited into the Naval Intelligence Division by Ian Fleming . He is sent to Portugal to monitor the Duke and Duchess of Windsor ; when they move to the Bahamas , Mountstuart follows , playing golf with the Duke and socialising regularly until the murder of Sir Harry Oakes . Mountstuart suspects the Duke is a conspirator after two hired detectives ask him to incriminate Oakes ' son @-@ in @-@ law with false fingerprint evidence . Mountstuart refuses and is called a " Judas " by the Duchess . Later in the war , Mountstuart is interned in Switzerland for two years . After the war 's end , he is grieved to discover that Freya , thinking him dead , had remarried and then died , along with Stella , in a V @-@ 2 attack .
Mountstuart 's life collapses as he seeks refuge in an alcoholic daze to escape his depression . He buys 10b Turpentine Lane , a small basement flat in Pimlico . He returns to Paris to finish his existentialist novella , The Villa by the Lake , staying with his old friend Ben Leeping ( now a successful gallery owner ) . After a failed sexual encounter with Ordile , a young French girl working at Ben 's gallery , he attempts suicide but is surprised by the girl when she returns an hour later for her Zippo lighter . Ben offers Mountstuart a job as manager of his new gallery in New York , " Leeping fils " . Mountstuart mildly prospers in the art scene of the 1960s , meeting artists like Willem de Kooning ( whom he admires ) and Jackson Pollock ( whom he does not ) ; he moves in with an American lawyer , Alannah , and her two young daughters . On his return to London , he has an affair with Gloria , Peter Scabius ' third wife ( Peter has become a successful author of popular novels ) , and in New York with Janet , a gallery owner . He eventually discovers Alannah having her own affair , and the couple split . He reconciles with his son from his first marriage , Lionel , who has moved to New York to manage a pop group , until Lionel 's sudden death . Monday , Lionel 's girlfriend , moves into Mountstuart 's flat ; at first friends , they become intimates until her father turns up and Mountstuart discovers – to his horror – that she is 16 ( having told him she was 19 ) . His lawyer advises him to leave America to avoid prosecution for statutory rape .
In the African journal , Mountstuart has become an English lecturer at the University College of Ikiri in Nigeria , from where he reports on the Biafran War . He retires to London on a paltry pension and , now an old man , he is knocked over by a speeding post office van . In hospital he brusquely refuses to turn to religion , swearing his atheism and humanism to a priest . He recovers but is now completely destitute . To boost his income and publicise the state of hospitals , he joins the Socialist Patients ' Kollective ( SPK ) , which turns out to be a cell of the Baader @-@ Meinhof Gang . He becomes the SPK 's prize newspaper seller and is sent on a special mission to the continent . The trip ends with a brief interrogation by Special Branch , after which Mountstuart returns to his life of penury in London . With a new appreciation of life , he sells his flat and moves to a small village in the south of France , living in a house bequeathed to him by an old friend . He fits into the village well , introducing himself as an écrivain who is working on a novel called Octet . As he contemplates his past life after the deaths of Peter and Ben , his old school friends , he muses :
That 's all your life amounts to in the end : the aggregate of all the good luck and the bad luck you experience . Everything is explained by that simple formula . Tot it up – look at the respective piles . There 's nothing you can do about it : nobody shares it out , allocates it to this one or that , it just happens . We must quietly suffer the laws of man 's condition , as Montaigne says .
= = Themes = =
= = = Multiple selves = = =
Multiplicity of self is introduced early on as a theme , to capture a " more riotous and disorganised reality " , and the use of the journal as the novel 's literary form is explicitly pointed to as developing this theme : " We keep a journal to entrap the collection of selves that forms us , the individual human being " the narrator explains . In an article in The Guardian , Boyd confirmed " this thesis that we are an anthology , a composite of many selves " is a theme of the book . While man 's fundamental nature remains the same , he moves in and out of happiness , love and good health . Wisdom , as with age , is slowly acquired .
= = = 20th century = = =
Boyd has previously written about the 20th century through two characters : The New Confessions was a fictional memoir , and Nat Tate a spoof biography . In Any Human Heart , Boyd uses the journal form as a fresh angle to pursue the subject from : " I wanted to invent my own exemplary figure who could seem almost as real as the real ones and whose life followed a similar pattern : boarding school , university , Paris in the 20s , the rise of Fascism , war , post @-@ war neglect , disillusion , increasing decrepitude , and so on — a long , varied and rackety life that covered most of the century . " Boyd sets Mountstuart 's life within its context , tracing the grand arc of events during the 20th century by depiciting Mountstuart as swept along in the flow of history - he serves in World War II , sees the cultural revolution in the 1950s and 60s , and takes advantage of modern transport in his extensive travels around the world . Rather than being re @-@ told in hindsight , their importance in context , historical events are seen through the petty lens of every @-@ day living . For example , in an entry from the 1920s , Mountstuart notes " Coffee with Land Fothergill at the Cadena . She was wearing a velvet coat that matched her eyes . We talked a little stiffly about Mussolini and Italy and I was embarrassed to note how much better informed she was than I. "
Boyd said he was partially inspired by the generation of English writers who matured between the wars : " I am fascinated by the life and work of that generation of English writers who were born at the beginning of the century and reached maturity by the time of World War II . People like Evelyn Waugh and Graham Greene and Anthony Powell , obviously , but also less well known writers — Henry Green , Lawrence Durrell , Cyril Connolly and William Gerhardie . The last two in particular lurk closely behind Logan . " Both real and imagined characters are blended into this context , where historical personages are typically used to concentrate the historical significance of a novel 's plot , Mountstuart 's encounters with them are superficial , leaving only an impression of both parties ' small @-@ mindedness . John Mullan found the conceit most effective during the New York journal , where Boyd satirises figures in the Abstract Expressionist movement during the 1950s " whose characters seem almost beyond invention . "
= = Genre and style = =
The novel is narrated in the first person through a series of nine journaux intimes , kept by Mountstuart from age 17 until shortly before his death at 85 . French literary journals , always published posthumously , are often extremely candid accounts , particularly of the author 's sexual life . Boyd , himself a francophile , includes masturbation , prostitution and Mountstuart 's three marriages . While Boyd had earlier written work in the form of memoir or biography , a journal is different : " For a start , it 's written without the benefit of hindsight , so there isn 't the same feeling you get when you look back and add shape to a life . There are huge chunks missing . " The novel 's grounding in everyday life and focus on characterisation place it firmly within realism .
Each journal covers a different period of Mountstuart 's life , and they are usually geographically named : The School Journal , London I , etc . Boyd varied the narrator 's tone in each to demonstrate changes in Mountstuart 's character . In the first London Journal he is , according to Boyd , a " modernist aesthete " , becoming a " world @-@ weary cynic " in New York and finding " serene and elegiac serenity " in the final French journal . To support the book 's historical themes and documentary premise , there is a feigned editorial apparatus : an index listing real people and their relation to Mountstuart alongside fictional characters , an editor 's introduction ( by Boyd ) , an authorial preface ( by Mountstuart ) and a list of works attributed to Mountstuart . An additional stylistic feature is the anonymous editor ( Boyd ) , who introduces the book and offers explanatory footnotes , cross @-@ references and attempts at dating . Since a journal is written from the perspective of each day , Mountstuart 's moods change as events affect him . The form lends itself to " plotlessness " , since the author / narrator inevitably cannot see the overall structure of the story . Plot lines which " fizzle and fade " emphasise the theme of multiple selves throughout life . Boyd adds other aspects to the work , such as parenthetical musings that are never answered , to re @-@ enforce the style . His tone of voice gradually changes as he ages : Boyd wanted the style to reflect the major theme that we change and grow throughout life : " I wanted the literary tone of each journal to reflect this and so the voice subtly changes as you read on : from pretentious school boy to modern young decadent , to bitter realist to drink soaked cynic , to sage and serene octogenarian , and so forth . "
= = Critical reception = =
Richard Eder praised Any Human Heart in the New York Times : " William Boyd , is multifaceted and inventive , and he plays a deep game under his agile card tricks . " Christopher Tayler , in the London Review of Books , called the characterisation of Mountstuart weak and wondered if he was merely a device through which Boyd could write pastiche about 20th @-@ century writers , " Boyd hustles you through to the end despite all this , but it ’ s hard not to wonder if it was really worth making the journey . " In The Atlantic Monthly , Brooke Allen liked the Mountstuart character : " he is far more generous , forgiving , and free than most of us . He is also more amusing , and more amused by life " , thus making an " attractive central character " and Boyd 's writing showed " a great natural vitality and an increasingly sophisticated humanism . " The Atlantic Monthly selected it as one of the " books of the year " .
In The Observer , Tim Adams complimented the opening sections as " nicely layered with the pretensions of a particular precocious kind of student " but criticised the " predictability " of Mountstuart 's " walk @-@ on part in literary history " and ultimately the suspension of disbelief , particularly the Baader @-@ Meinhoff passages , concluding " For all the incident , for all the change he witnesses , Mountstuart never really feels like a credible witness either to history or emotion . " Tom Cox in The Daily Telegraph disagreed : he praised the characterisation , calling Mountstuart " a man whose fragile egotism and loose @-@ fitting story has you frequently forgetting you 're reading fiction , and even more frequently forgetting you 're reading at all . " Giles Foden , in The Guardian , found the New York art @-@ scene sections weakest , saying they " puncture the realism Boyd has so carefully built up in the rest of the novel . " Michiko Kakutani agreed that Mountstuart 's youth was well evoked , but that the description of his retirement and poverty was " as carefully observed and emotionally resonant " . While in the early part of the book " the characters ' marionette strings [ are ] carefully hidden " , later Boyd tried to play God , resulting in " an increasingly contrived narrative that begins to strain our credulity . "
Boyd spends his summer in the south of France and has a large audience there , and several French journals noted the publication of Any Human Heart.L 'express called Boyd a " magician " , while Le Nouvel Observateur called it " very good Boyd . Perhaps even his magnum opus . "
The novel was in the longlist of the Man Booker Prize in 2002 , and on the shortlist of the Dublin Impac Literary Award in 2004 . In 2009 , Boyd commented , " [ it ] didn 't get particularly good reviews , yet I 've never had so many letters about a novel . It 's selling fantastically well seven years on , and we 're about to turn it into six hours of telly for Channel 4 , so something about that novel gets to readers . "
= = Television adaptation = =
On 15 April 2010 , Channel 4 announced the making of a four @-@ part television serial based on the novel . Boyd wrote the screenplay , with ( successively ) Sam Claflin , Matthew Macfadyen and Jim Broadbent playing Mountstuart as he ages . It was broadcast from 21 November 2010 to 12 December 2010 . The series was broadcast in re @-@ edited form as three 1 @.@ 5 @-@ hr episodes on 13 , 20 & 27 February 2011 in the United States on PBS as part of the Masterpiece Classic program .
= Tropical Storm Matmo ( 2008 ) =
Severe Tropical Storm Matmo , known in the Philippines as Tropical Storm Dindo , formed to the east of Manila in the Philippines as a tropical disturbance on May 13 , 2008 . Early the next day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert on the developing system while later that day the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the disturbance as a weak tropical depression and started to issue advisories on it . The JTWC then designated the depression as Tropical Depression 04W while the JMA started to issue full advisories on the storm . On May 15 , the tropical depression intensified into a tropical storm and was named Matmo by RSMC Tokyo . Later that day the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration issued their first advisory on Matmo and assigned the local name Dindo . The JTWC upgraded the system to a tropical storm later that day . It then intensified into a severe tropical storm the next day while the JTWC issued their final advisory on Matmo as they thought the storm had become extratropical . However , the JMA kept issuing advisories on Matmo , until the storm dissipated the next day . There was no impact reported from Tropical Storm Matmo .
= = Meteorological history = =
Late on May 13 , 2008 , a tropical disturbance formed about 550 km ( 340 mi ) , to the east of Manila in the Philippines . The disturbance was located in an area of low vertical wind shear and had a low @-@ level circulation center which had started to consolidate . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) then issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert on the disturbance early the next day , as deep convection was building near to the low pressure area . Later that day both the JTWC and the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) upgraded the disturbance to a tropical depression , with the JTWC designating it as Tropical Depression 04W . This was because the system had become more consolidated and had a good outflow .
Early on May 15 , as the storm was moving towards the northwest , the JMA upgraded the tropical depression to a Tropical Storm and named it Matmo . The Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) then designated the storm as Tropical Depression Dindo . Later that day Matmo rapidly tracked towards the northeastern boundary of PAGASA 's area of responsibility as it had started to interact with a mid @-@ latitude trough . The JTWC then reported that the cyclone had intensified into a tropical storm and had reached its peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . Early on May 16 , both PAGASA and the JTWC issued their final advisories on the storm as it approached the edge of PAGASA 's Area of responsibility , with the JTWC reporting that Matmo was now extratropical . However , the JMA continued to issue advisories on the storm at this time and reported that it had reached ten @-@ minute peak wind speeds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , which made Matmo a severe tropical storm . Though , within their next advisory , the JMA downgraded Matmo to a tropical storm and reported that it had weakened into a tropical depression early the next day before dissipating later that day .
= = Preparations , impact and naming = =
In preparation for Tropical Storm Matmo , the Japan Meteorological Agency issued warnings for the , Naha , Moji and Yokohama areas of Japan . However , there was no impact reported from either Japan or the Philippines .
The name Matmo was submitted to the ESCAP / WMO Typhoon Committee , by the United States of America , for use from January 1 , 2004 and means heavy rain in the Chamorro language . This came after the name Chataan was retired , following the 2002 Pacific typhoon season . The Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) also assigned the local name of Dindo to Matmo , which was last assigned by PAGASA , in the 2004 Pacific typhoon season .
= Pennsylvania Ministerium =
The Pennsylvania Ministerium was the first Lutheran church body in North America . With the encouragement of Henry Melchior Muhlenberg , the Ministerium was founded at a Church Conference of Lutheran clergy on August 26 , 1748 . The group was known as the " Ministerium of North America " until 1792 , when it adopted the name " The Ministerium of Pennsylvania and Adjacent States . "
The Pennsylvania Ministerium was also the source of the first Lutheran liturgy in America . Because of its unique place in the history of North American Lutheranism , the Ministerium continued to influence the church politics of Lutherans in America into the twentieth century .
= = Lutherans in North America = =
In 1638 , Swedish settlers , colonizing north along the Delaware from the New Sweden colony , established residences in what would become Philadelphia , at a place called Wiccaco by the local Lenape tribe , meaning " pleasant place " . These Swedish settlers were Lutheran . The Gloria Dei ( Old Swedes ’ ) Church was completed in 1700 . Colonization extended to present @-@ day Trenton .
German settlers began arriving in North America in the mid @-@ seventeenth century . They were particularly attracted by William Penn 's promise of religious freedom in the colony of Pennsylvania , and came to the Philadelphia region in significant numbers . By 1683 , the German population was large enough to form communities such as Germantown ( now a neighborhood in Philadelphia ) . Many of these immigrants brought with them their Lutheran faith and formed congregations in their new homeland .
= = Ministerium Founding = =
By the mid @-@ eighteenth century , there was a growing need for well @-@ trained Lutheran clergy in the colonies . With the goal of creating closer union between the preachers , elders , and deacons of the area congregations , a conference was proposed .
The Pietist foundation at the University of Halle in Germany sent 24 clergymen to minister in the colonies in 1742 . Among those sent was Henry Melchior Muhlenberg . Tension between pious and orthodox religious interpretations was present in Europe and North American Lutherans at this time . The conference intentionally excluded congregations critical of pious interpretation . A conference was assembled , but disrupted by the orthodox Swedish preacher Rev. Nyburg , of New Sweden colony . Tension around this conference extended beyond Pennsylvania . Open remarks from William C. Berkenmeyer against John C. Hartwick of New York were published in a booklet . Carl M. Wrangel was criticised by his Swedish colleagues in Delaware for having piestic leanings .
Five years later , a conference was again assembled . At Muhlenberg 's request , Lutheran pastors met together in Philadelphia on August 26 , 1748 , for the first Church Conference . Six pastors and lay representatives from ten congregations attended the meeting , where they agreed to work together as the " ministerium of North America . " They successfully adopted a common liturgy to be used in North America . This meeting has become known as " the most important event in the history of North American Lutheranism . " Attendees came from Philadelphia , New Hanover , Providence , Germantown , Tulpehocken , Lancaster , Upper Milford , and Saccum congregations .
The fifteenth Church Conference , of 1762 , led by Muhlenberg , was held at St Michael 's Church , Philadelphia . Four Swedish and ten German preachers represented area congregations .
Muhlenberg 's influence went beyond those congregations he served ; he organized other Lutheran congregations in Pennsylvania so that they might work in cooperation . Such was his influence that Muhlenberg became regarded to be " the patriarch of the Lutheran church in North America .
The Ministerium remained a relatively informal association until a constitution was drawn up and agreed upon in 1781 . Along with a formal constitution , it adopted the name of the " German Evangelical Lutheran Ministerium of North America . " The churches of the ministerium followed a polity influenced by the Dutch Reformed model and by Muhlenberg 's Pietism , and did not insist on strict adherence to the Lutheran Confessions . During these early years , there were not only German pastors , but also Swedish pastors in the Ministerium . Members of the Ministerium could be found in Pennsylvania , New York , New Jersey , Maryland , Virginia , and even the Carolinas .
In 1784 , Frederick A. Muhlenberg ( second son of the earlier patriarch ) organized the growing number of Lutheran congregations and clergy in the state of New York into the Ministerium of New York . Mindful of this and other Lutheran church bodies being founded in North America , in 1792 the group in Philadelphia renamed itself " The Ministerium of Pennsylvania and Adjacent States " .
= = General Synod = =
In 1818 , the Pennsylvania Ministerium began talks of organizing the various Lutheran church bodies in America , so that they could " stand in some or another in closer connection with one another . " At a meeting in Hagerstown , Maryland in October 1820 , just such an organization was founded in the General Synod ( formally titled the " Evangelical Lutheran General Synod of the United States of North America " ) . At the outset , this group consisted of the Pennsylvania Ministerium , along with the New York Ministerium and the Maryland @-@ Virginia Synod .
The General Synod served largely in an advisory function — each church body within the Synod retained its own constitution and independence . The primary role of the Synod was to facilitate cooperation among the various church bodies . It was under the auspices of the General Synod , with the leadership of Samuel Simon Schmucker , that a Lutheran seminary and college were founded in Gettysburg , Pennsylvania .
Despite its role in establishing the General Synod , the Pennsylvania Ministerium withdrew from the inter @-@ Lutheran organization in 1823 . Within the Ministerium , there was a close relationship between Lutheran and Reformed congregations , and many felt that the General Synod might jeopardize that relationship . In addition , many in the Ministerium were wary of a centralized organization , and the control that it might exert over individual congregations .
Thus , in the years following , the Pennsylvania Ministerium remained an independent Lutheran church body . However , the Ministerium sought to maintain a relationship with the Synod , including continuing to send its ministerial students to the General Synod 's seminary in Gettysburg , which was headed by Samuel Schmucker .
In the decades that followed , the Ministerium became less concerned with its relationship with the Reformed church and saw a significant increase in Lutheran identity and the importance of the Lutheran Confessions . Thus , in 1853 , the Ministerium rejoined other Lutherans in the General Synod . However , this renewed relationship would prove to be short @-@ lived .
= = General Council = =
As with many Protestant churches , the General Synod was split on the issue of the American Civil War in the 1860s . Yet this was not the biggest challenge to Lutheran unity in the middle of the 19th century . As the importance of the Lutheran Confessions grew among American Lutherans , Samuel Schmucker — who was once seen confessionally conservative — found himself on the outside of the consensus of other Lutherans . In 1855 , Schmucker , along with two other theologians from the Gettysburg seminary , penned the Definite Synodical Platform . This document downplayed the importance of the Confessions — indeed even suggested an edited " American Recension " of the Augsburg Confession — and sought to establish a distinctly American Lutheranism that was more at home with other Protestants in the country .
The Definite Synodical Platform was not enough to cause the Pennsylvania Ministerium to leave the General Synod , but it was a foretaste of things to come . When the Frankean Synod , a Lutheran church body noted for its progressive politics and its utter disregard for the Lutheran Confessions , was admitted to the General Synod , the leadership of the Ministerium had seen enough . At the 1864 gathering of the General Synod , at which the Frankeans were admitted , the delegates from the Ministerium left in protest . Unfortunately , the delegates left before the General Synod passed a resolution affirming and strengthening their commitment to the Augsburg Confession .
It is not clear whether the members of the Ministerium intended for this to be a permanent break , or a temporary protest . Regardless , it became permanent when the officials at the next Gathering of the General Synod refused to admit the delegates from the Ministerium . Thus , the Ministerium found themselves on their own .
In 1864 , unhappy with the direction of the General Synod and its seminary at Gettysburg , the Ministerium established a new seminary in Philadelphia , and asked Charles Porterfield Krauth to head the seminary ( now known as the Lutheran Theological Seminary at Philadelphia ) . This was followed , in 1867 , with the Ministerium being joined by thirteen other church bodies in a more conservative and confessional organization known as the General Council .
= = United Lutheran Church in America = =
The Pennsylvania Ministerium remained a constituent church of the General Council from 1867 – 1918 . In 1918 , following the celebration of the 400th anniversary of the Reformation , the three Lutheran church bodies of Eastern America ( The General Synod , the General Synod – South , and the General Council ) reunited to form the United Lutheran Church in America . This event , while marking a watershed of unity among American Lutherans , also marked the end of the Pennsylvania Ministerium . The ULCA would later join with other American Lutherans , in 1962 in the Lutheran Church in America , and in 1988 in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America ( which continues to be an active church body and is a direct descendant of the Pennsylvania Ministerium ) .
= Uncle David =
Uncle David is a 2010 British black comedy film directed by David Hoyle , Gary Reich , and Mike Nicholls . It was produced by Reich and stars Hoyle , an English performance artist , in the titular role alongside English pornographic actor Ashley Ryder . Developed collectively under the banner of the Avant @-@ Garde Alliance , it was filmed in October 2009 . Created without a script , every scene was improvised and filmed in a single take .
Set in a caravan park on the Isle of Sheppey in Kent , South East England , a young man with a childlike mind named Ashley ( Ryder ) arrives to stay with his Uncle David ( Hoyle ) . Escaping from his abusive mother , Ashley enters into a sexual relationship with his uncle who offers his insights into the world and the nature of reality . Eventually Ashley tells David that he wants to die , and David agrees to carry out the killing .
The film premiered on 25 March 2010 at the London Lesbian and Gay Film Festival held in the BFI Southbank in central London . Reviews were mixed , but the film won several awards at international film festivals . It was released on DVD by Peccadillo Pictures in 2011 .
= = Plot = =
Late one night , Ashley ( Ashley Ryder ) – a young man with a childlike mentality – arrives at the caravan home of his Uncle David ( David Hoyle ) on the Isle of Sheppey . Ashley confides in his uncle that his mother has been physically abusing him by stubbing cigarettes out on his hand . David lambasts the mother and society in general ; the two embrace in a kiss before going to bed together . The next morning , they awake and have breakfast in bed before David bathes Ashley in the bathtub , telling him a story about an unhappy nuclear family . Going to a local café and then a park bench , David continues to explain his anti @-@ establishment opinions about society . Ashley reveals that he wants to die , and the two express their love for one another .
The pair snort cocaine before playing in the local entertainment arcade . Returning to the caravan , they engage in sexual strangulation and anal sex . Putting on make @-@ up , they then drink wine and dance to a remix of the Muse song " Uprising " , while same @-@ sex pornography starring Ashley plays on the television set . While Ashley puts on drag , David encourages him to kill himself , telling him that he is " too nice for this Earth " and needs to escape the world 's problems .
The next morning , Ashley plays on the beach and builds sand castles . When Ashley 's drunken mother phones , demanding to know where her son is , Uncle David feigns ignorance , telling her that he himself is not in Sheppey but in Manchester . Taking Ashley to an abandoned military bunker , he injects an unknown substance into his nephew 's vein as they kiss . Ashley enters an altered state of consciousness , and David guides him back to the caravan as they smoke marijuana . Once there , David gives Ashley a second injection , as they sit and look out at the shore . After dark , David places his near @-@ catatonic nephew in a dog bed , showing him a copy of a picture book titled Is Britain Great ? . He proceeds to give him a third and final injection , which he remarks will make Ashley lose consciousness and suffer organ failure . As Ashley dies , David professes that he has never loved anyone else as much before . The next morning , he goes onto the beach to place his nephew 's body in a shallow grave , tearfully kissing the body goodbye before it is swept away by the sea .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
According to The Guardian , Hoyle became " something of a legend " on the British cabaret circuit during the 1990s , initially under the alter @-@ ego of " The Divine David " . The Divine David was an " anti @-@ drag queen " who combined " lacerating social commentary " with " breathtaking instances of self @-@ recrimination and even self @-@ harm . " Taking this character to television , Hoyle produced two shows for Channel 4 , The Divine David Presents ( 1999 ) and The Divine David Heals ( 2000 ) , before killing off the character at a farewell show at Streatham Ice Arena , South London , titled The Divine David on Ice ( 2000 ) . Independently , Hoyle appeared in the film Velvet Goldmine ( 1998 ) and the television series Nathan Barley ( 2005 ) .
Ryder had hoped to be a fashion designer , undertaking a course at Central Saint Martins which he did not complete ; from there he worked in retail , first for Prowler and then for the designer Vivienne Westwood . Subsequently appearing in gay pornography as a twink bottom for production companies like Eurocreme and UK Naked Men , he starred in such films as Drunk on Spunk and Stretch that Hole , winning numerous awards for his work . By the time he made Uncle David , he was also running his own weekly gay wrestling night in London .
Hoyle and Ryder met at a performance art event , after which the former asked Ryder if he would appear in one of his stage shows . Ryder was busy at the time , but agreed to the request several years later . Staged at the Royal Vauxhall Tavern ( RVT ) , a gay bar in Vauxhall , South London , the duo constructed a piece in which Ryder played the role of Hoyle 's nephew in an ad @-@ lib performance . Hoyle played a department store Santa Claus while Ryder portrayed a misbehaving nine @-@ year @-@ old . The performance ended in Hoyle 's Santa character pulling Christmas tinsel from the child 's anus before strangling him .
Reich – who had known Hoyle since the late 1990s – was in the audience , and enjoyed the chemistry between the two actors , suggesting that they appear in a feature film together . Over the course of a day , he filmed three shorts starring Hoyle and Ryder , in which they explored some of the scenarios and themes that made it into Uncle David . In these shorts Hoyle wore a wig and makeup , which were omitted from the later feature . The two actors continued to develop their characters through a series of text messages and phone conversations .
= = = Development = = =
Uncle David was filmed over five days in October 2009 on the Isle of Sheppey , a location chosen for its proximity to London . Hoyle commented that the profusion of barbed wire fences there made him wonder if they were " keeping people out or keeping people in ? " . Reich said that he had been " obsessed " with Sheppey , a place he had considered " a truly Godforsaken wasteland " since working on a television show there ten years previously . He remarked that the " trailer trash setting " of the film was influenced by Harmony Korine 's Gummo ( 1997 ) and John Waters ' Female Trouble ( 1974 ) . He also said that the filming budget of under £ 1000 was a homage to " the spirit of John Waters . " All the extras featured in the film were real inhabitants of Sheppey , and to film a scene in a local cafe , they walked in and asked the proprietors if they could shoot there . Although they had planned to tell any enquirers who approached them that they were shooting a horror film , during the shoot none of the locals expressed any interest in the crew 's activities .
The caravan park was largely empty at the time , and closed for winter several days after filming ended . Both actors and crew slept in the same caravan in which the film was set . Ryder later commented on the extreme cold and the crowded nature of the caravan , which had eight people inside it during filming ; he felt that it was " quite hectic but [ had ] a great atmosphere " . Throughout filming , Hoyle and Ryder remained in character , improvising their scenes around a basic narrative structure rather than using a script . Hoyle told a reporter that they " wanted everything to feel like real time ... As soon as you woke up , the cameras would be on you . I look knackered . " During filming , he contracted swine flu , but insisted that all he needed was a 30 @-@ minute break before filming , attributing his ability to continue acting to adrenaline . He noted that " I just said , ' No , no , no . We 'll carry on . I 'll just stop eating . ' I was completely purged during the making of that film . Afterwards , during the edit , I started to feel a lot calmer . " Hoyle felt that the process of making the film had been cathartic , noting that " When I was 14 , I had – let 's call it an existential crisis . I wondered if [ Uncle David ] was a case of me destroying that part of me . If you do have a breakdown that young , for the rest of your life you 're very aware of it . It can make you feel your foundations are a little bit shaky . It 's a devastating experience but we revisited it . I just went with my instincts and intuition . "
The footage was captured on two Sony HVR @-@ Z1 camcorders . Costumes had been purchased at an Oxfam charity shop in Dalston , East London , while a wig worn by Ashley in one scene was purchased from a Dalston wig store . Knowing that he would appear nude in several scenes , Ryder went to the gym regularly in the weeks proceeding filming to gain greater muscle tone . He decided to include footage from one of his pornographic videos in Uncle David , inspired to do so after learning that serial killers Fred and Rosemary West screened pornography throughout the day in their home .
The composer Richard Thomas , co @-@ creator of the controversial Jerry Springer : The Opera , agreed to produce a musical score for the film , having long been a fan of Hoyle 's work . After the cast and crew listened to a Muse album while driving between locations , they decided to include the band 's work as they felt it was " empowering " . They had also planned to include a song by Antony and the Johnsons in the film , but this was scrapped , to be replaced by a track by Boy George . After the film was screened for Boy George , the first person outside the Avant @-@ Garde Alliance to see it , he commented " well it ain 't The Sound of Music " .
= = Release = =
Uncle David premiered on 25 March 2010 at the London Lesbian and Gay Film Festival held in the BFI Southbank in central London . Attending the screening was Steve Marmion , the boss of Soho Theatre , who suggested to Reich and Hoyle that they produce a theatrical adaptation of the film . They initially showed an interest in the project ; Reich commented that " It was a very mischievous concept , doing an upbeat , life @-@ affirming song @-@ and @-@ dance musical with that storyline and subject matter . " However , the theatrical adaptation never surfaced , something Thomas attributed to the difficulty in obtaining funding for a musical on such a " dark subject . " Instead , Hoyle and Thomas teamed up to produce Merrie Hell , an " alternative Christmas celebration " that appeared at the Soho Theatre in December 2012 . A two @-@ man cabaret that differed every night , it featured Thomas on a piano , accompanying Hoyle 's rendition of various songs about Christmas and Britain 's societal problems ; Thomas described it as " David Hoyle at Christmas - the Musical " . One of the songs featured in Merrie Hell , " It 's Alright to Want to Die " , carried a pro @-@ suicide theme influenced by Uncle David .
= = = Home media = = =
In December 2011 , Uncle David was released as a Region Free DVD by the company Peccadillo Pictures , a UK based film distributor of art house , gay and lesbian , independent and world cinema . The release contained several extras , including the three preparatory shorts detailing the relationship between the characters of Ashley and Uncle David and a cast commentary track voiced by Hoyle , Ryder , Reich and Nicholls . Reviewing the DVD release for the Sex Gore Mutants website , Stuart Willis noted that the disc contained periods of " murkiness or softness in the picture " and a few " ( infrequent ) instances of muffling " , all of which he put down to the original production values of the film . British gay magazine Attitude celebrated the DVD 's release with a competition to win one of three copies ; they described the film as " a bit surreal , but totally amazing . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Awards = = =
The film received a number of awards at international film festivals . At the 2010 Paris International LGBT Film Festival it won the best film award and Hoyle and Ryder shared the best actor award . It also won best film at the 2011 Berlin Porn Film Festival , and best film at the 2011 Erotic Awards . Reich expressed surprise at the Erotic Award , because he did not consider the film to be a work of erotica , but discovered that they 'd won because they had explored " an extreme fetish that to be honest we 'd not actually heard of nor knew we were exploring . "
= = = Reviews = = =
Reviews of Uncle David were mixed . Writing in The Guardian , Ben Walters noted that " suspense and dread accumulate as the low @-@ key naturalism and the characters ' obvious affection for one another play off against the enormity of what looms ahead . " Comparing Uncle David to Hoyle 's earlier stage work , he felt that the two were " consistent " , but that in the film Hoyle abandoned the " fireworks of his performance persona " , opting for a " controlled , beguiling style " . He believed that Ryder 's familiarity with being filmed meant that he carried a " disarmingly ingenuous presence , by turns determined and naive . " Walters opined that the film 's " menacing " use of British seaside locations was similar to that in Brighton Rock and London to Brighton , while he also drew comparisons to Badlands , Bonnie and Clyde and The Talented Mr. Ripley , in that in all of them , the viewers ' sympathy for the characters eclipses moral judgement of their actions . Walters would follow this with another review published in Time Out , in which he awarded the film five stars out of five .
" Not to everyone 's taste , granted , [ Uncle David ] is nevertheless an original and disturbing take on modern love stories " was the view of Stuart Willis writing for the Sex @-@ Gore @-@ Mutants website . Believing that the film was a " pleasant surprise " , he praised the improvised nature of the work , believing that it created believable scenes and allowed the viewer to get to know the characters " almost without realising . " He considered the acting to be very good , and particularly praised Hoyle 's ability to portray a paedophile grooming a young man in a way that was both " pathetic and truly sinister all at once " . Rather than falling into " tasteless exploitation " , Willis thought that the film was saved by a lack of sensationalism . Praising the exterior scenes as " beautifully atmospheric " and the music as " fitting the laconic mood and sense of ill @-@ foreboding well " , he considered the film to be a good example of low @-@ key filmmaking , akin to that produced in Britain during the early 1980s .
Other reviewers were far more critical . Writing for the So So Gay website , Damien Ryan gave Uncle David a rating of 0 @.@ 5 out of 5 , describing it as " terrible " . Believing that the film simply intended to shock viewers with its taboo subject matter , he felt offended by the story 's " sheer inelegance " . Opining that it reminded him of " the very worst attempt of a first @-@ year film student " , he questioned the description of Uncle David as a " black comedy " , arguing that it wasn 't at all funny , instead labelling it " the most vapid , transparent attempt at shock this side of a Lady Gaga performance . " Criticising the acting , he said that Ryder " shouldn 't quit his porn day job any time soon " and that Hoyle 's character was simply a " marriage of wannabe Holden Caulfield @-@ style outsider and mincing paedophile . "
Cleaver Patterson was similarly critical in his review on the Cine @-@ Vue website , awarding the film one out of five stars . He questioned the purpose of the film , arguing that it will only serve to alienate the gay population by portraying them as " sad , perverted and ultimately lonely individuals . " More positively , he praised the appearance of the film with its " muted colours of the shingle beaches and piercing blue skies " .
= Syracuse University =
Syracuse University , commonly referred to as Syracuse , ' Cuse , or SU , is a private research university in Syracuse , New York . The institution 's roots can be traced to the Genesee Wesleyan Seminary ( later becoming Genesee College ) , founded by the Methodist Episcopal Church in Lima , New York , in 1831 . After several years of debate over relocating the college to Syracuse , the university was established in 1870 , independent of the college . Since 1920 , the university has identified itself as nonsectarian , although it maintains a relationship with The United Methodist Church .
The campus is in the University Hill neighborhood of Syracuse , east and southeast of downtown , on one of the larger hills . Its large campus features an eclectic mix of buildings , ranging from nineteenth @-@ century Romanesque Revival structures to contemporary buildings . SU is organized into 13 schools and colleges , with nationally recognized programs in information studies and library science , architecture , communications , business administration , inclusive education and wellness , sport management , public administration , engineering and the College of Arts and Sciences .
Syracuse University athletic teams , known as the Orange , participate in 20 intercollegiate sports . SU is a member of the Atlantic Coast Conference for all NCAA Division I athletics , except for the rowing team . SU is also a member of the Eastern College Athletic Conference .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
The Genesee Wesleyan Seminary was founded in 1831 by the Genesee Annual Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Lima , New York , south of Rochester . In 1850 , it was resolved to enlarge the institution from a seminary into a college , or to connect a college with the seminary , becoming Genesee College . However , the location was soon thought by many to be insufficiently central . Its difficulties were compounded by the next set of technological changes : the railroad that displaced the Erie Canal as the region 's economic engine bypassed Lima completely . The trustees of the struggling college then decided to seek a locale whose economic and transportation advantages could provide a better base of support .
The college began looking for a new home at the same time Syracuse , ninety miles to the east , was engaged in a search to bring a university to the city , having failed to convince Ezra Cornell and Andrew Dickson White to locate Cornell University there rather than in Ithaca . Syracuse resident White pressed that the new university should locate on the hill in Syracuse ( the current location of Syracuse University ) due to the city 's attractive transportation hub , which would ease the recruitment of faculty , students , and other persons of note . However , as a young carpenter working in Syracuse , Cornell had been twice robbed of his wages , and thereafter considered Syracuse a Sodom and Gomorrah insisting the university be in Ithaca on his large farm on East Hill , overlooking the town and Cayuga Lake .
Meanwhile , there were several years of dispute between the Methodist ministers , Lima , and contending cities across the state , over proposals to move Genesee College to Syracuse . At the time , the ministers wanted a share of the funds from the Morrill Land Grant Act for Genesee College . They agreed to a quid pro quo donation of $ 25 @,@ 000 from Senator Cornell in exchange for their ( Methodist ) support for his bill . Cornell insisted the bargain be written into the bill and Cornell became New York State 's Land Grant University in 1865 . In 1869 , Genesee College obtained New York State approval to move to Syracuse , but Lima got a court injunction to block the move , and Genesee stayed in Lima until it was dissolved in 1875 . By that time , however , the court injunction had been made moot by the founding of a new university on March 24 , 1870 . On that date the State of New York granted the new Syracuse University its own charter , independent of Genesee College . The City of Syracuse had offered $ 100 @,@ 000 to establish the school . Bishop Jesse Truesdell Peck had donated $ 25 @,@ 000 to the proposed school and was elected the first president of the Board of Trustees .
Rev. Daniel Steele , a former Genesee College president , served as the first administrative leader of Syracuse until its Chancellor was appointed . The university opened in September 1871 in rented space downtown . George F. Comstock , a member of the new University 's Board of Trustees , had offered the school 50 acres ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) of farmland on a hillside to the southeast of the city center . Comstock intended Syracuse University and the hill to develop as an integrated whole ; a contemporary account described the latter as " a beautiful town ... springing up on the hillside and a community of refined and cultivated membership ... established near the spot which will soon be the center of a great and beneficent educational institution . "
The university was founded as coeducational , and President Peck stated at the opening ceremonies , " The conditions of admission shall be equal to all persons ... there shall be no invidious discrimination here against woman .... brains and heart shall have a fair chance ... " Syracuse implemented this policy with a high proportion of women students . In the College of Liberal Arts , the ratio between male and female students during the 19th century was approximately even . The College of Fine Arts was predominantly female , and a low ratio of women enrolled in the College of Medicine and the College of Law . Men and women were taught together in the same courses , and many extra @-@ curricular activities were coeducational as well . Syracuse also developed " women @-@ only " organizations and clubs .
= = = Expansion = = =
Coeducation at Syracuse traced its roots to the early days of Genesee College where educators and students like Frances Willard and Belva Lockwood were heavily influenced by the Women 's movement in nearby Seneca Falls , NY . However , the progressive " co @-@ ed " policies practiced at Genesee would soon find controversy at the new university in Syracuse . Colleges and universities admitted few women students in the 1870s . Administrators and faculty argued women had inferior minds and could not master mathematics and the classics . Dr. Erastus Otis Haven , Syracuse University chancellor and former president of the University of Michigan and Northwestern University , maintained that women should receive the advantages of higher education . He enrolled his daughter , Frances , at Syracuse where she joined the other newly admitted female students in founding the Gamma Phi Beta sorority . The inclusion of women in the early days of the university led to the proliferation of various women 's clubs and societies . In fact , it was a Syracuse professor who coined the term " sorority " specifically for Gamma Phi Beta .
In the late 1880s the University engaged in a rapid building spree . Holden Observatory ( 1887 ) was followed by two Romanesque Revival buildings – von Ranke Library ( 1889 ) , now Tolley Administration Building , and Crouse College ( 1889 ) . Together with the Hall of Languages , these first buildings formed the basis for the " Old Row , " a grouping which , along with its companion Lawn , established one of Syracuse 's most enduring images . The emphatically linear organization of these buildings along the brow of the hill follows a tradition of American campus planning which dates to the construction of the " Yale Row " in the 1790s . At Syracuse , the Old Row continued to provide the framework for growth well into the twentieth century .
From its founding until through early 1920s , the University grew rapidly . It offered programs in the physical sciences and modern languages , and in 1873 , Syracuse added one of the first architecture programs in the U.S. In 1874 , Syracuse created the nation 's first bachelor of fine arts degree , and in 1876 , the school offered its first post @-@ graduate courses in the College of Arts and Sciences . SU created its first doctoral program in 1911 . SU 's school of journalism , now the S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications , was established at Syracuse in 1934 .
The growth of Syracuse University from a small liberal arts college into a major comprehensive university were due to the efforts of two men , Chancellor James Day and John Archbold . James Roscoe Day was serving the Calvary Church in New York City where he befriended Archbold . Together , the two dynamic figures would oversee the first of two great periods of campus renewal in Syracuse 's history .
John Dustin Archbold was a capitalist , philanthropist , and President of the Board of Trustees at Syracuse University . He was known as John D. Rockefeller 's right @-@ hand man and successor at the Standard Oil Company . He was a close friend of Syracuse University Chancellor James R. Day , and gave almost $ 6 million to the University over his lifetime . Said a journalist in 1917 :
Mr. Archbold 's ... is the president of the board of trustees of Syracuse University , an institution which has prospered so remarkably since his connection with it that its student roll has increased from hundreds to over 4 @,@ 000 , including 1 @,@ 500 young women , placing it in the ranks of the foremost institutions of learning in the United States .
In addition to keeping the university financially solvent during its early years , he also contributed funds for eight buildings , including the full cost of Archbold Stadium ( opened 1907 , demolished 1978 ) , Sims Hall ( men 's dormitory , 1907 ) , the Archbold Gymnasium ( 1909 , nearly destroyed by fire in 1947 , but still in use ) , and the oval athletic field .
= = = Modern = = =
After World War II , Syracuse University began to transform into a major research institution . Enrollment increased in the four years after the war due to the G.I. Bill , which paid tuition , room , board , and a small allowance for veterans returning from World War II . In 1946 , SU admitted 9 @,@ 464 freshmen , nearly four times greater than the previous incoming class . Branch campuses were established in Endicott , New York and Utica , New York .
The velocity with which the university sped through its change into a major research institution was astounding . By the end of the 1950s , Syracuse ranked twelfth nationally in terms of the amount of its sponsored research , and it had over four hundred professors and graduate students engaging in that investigation .
From the early 1950s through the 1960s , Syracuse University added programs and staff that continued the transformation of the school into a research university . In 1954 , Arthur Phillips was recruited from MIT and started the first pathogen @-@ free animal research laboratory . The lab focused on studying medical problems using animal models . The School of Social Work , which eventually merged into the College of Human Ecology , was founded in 1956 . Syracuse 's College of Engineering also founded the nation 's second oldest computer engineering and bioengineering programs . In 1962 , Samuel Irving Newhouse , Sr. donated $ 15 million to begin construction of a school of communications , eventually known as the SI Newhouse School of Public Communications . In 1966 , Syracuse University was admitted to the Association of American Universities , an organization of leading research universities devoted to maintaining a strong system of academic research and education .
= = = Pan Am Flight 103 = = =
On December 21 , 1988 , 35 Syracuse University students were killed in the terrorist bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie , Scotland . The students were returning from a study @-@ abroad program in Europe .
That evening , Syracuse University went on with a basketball game just hours after the attack , for which it was severely criticized . The conduct of university officials in making the decision was also brought to the attention of the NCAA . The day after the bombing , the university 's chancellor , Melvin A. Eggers , said on nationwide television that he should have cancelled the event . After the attacks on September 11 , 2001 , the NCAA left it up to the conferences to decide what to do about their sports events ; many cancelled them . ( the bombing of Flight 103 was the deadliest terrorist attack against the United States prior to the attacks on September 11 , 2001 . )
In April 1990 , Syracuse University dedicated a memorial wall to the students killed on Flight 103 , constructed at the entrance to the main campus in front of the Hall of Languages . Every year the university holds " Remembrance Week " during the fall semester to commemorate the students . On December 21 a service in the university 's chapel at 2 : 03 p.m. ( 19 : 03 UTC ) marks the exact minute on that date in 1988 when the plane exploded . The University also maintains a link to the tragedy with the " Remembrance Scholars " program , when 35 senior students receive scholarships during their final year at the University . With the " Lockerbie Scholars " program , two graduating students from Lockerbie Academy study at Syracuse for one year .
= = Campus = =
The university is set on a campus that features an eclectic mix of buildings , ranging from nineteenth @-@ century Romanesque Revival structures to contemporary buildings designed by renowned architects such as I.M. Pei . The center of campus , with its grass quadrangle , landscaped walkways , and outdoor sculptures , offers students the amenities of a traditional college experience . The university overlooks downtown Syracuse , a medium @-@ sized city ( 140 @,@ 600 residents in 2008 ) . The school also owns a Sheraton Hotel , the Drumlins Country Club — a nearby , 36 @-@ hole golf course , the Fisher Center and Joseph I. Lubin House in New York City , the Paul Greenberg House in Washington , D.C. , and the Minnowbrook Conference Center , a 30 @-@ acre ( 121 @,@ 000 m ² ) retreat in the Adirondack Mountains of Upstate New York .
= = = Main campus = = =
Also called " North Campus , " the Main Campus contains nearly all academic buildings and residence halls . Its centerpiece is The Kenneth A. Shaw Quadrangle , more affectionately known as " The Quad " , which is surrounded by academic and administrative buildings . The North Campus represents a large portion of the University Hill neighborhood . Buses run to South Campus , as well as downtown Syracuse and other locations in the city . About 70 percent of students live in University housing . First- and second @-@ year students are required to live on campus . All 22 residence halls are coeducational and each contain a lounge , laundry facility , and various social / study spaces . Residence halls are secured with a card access system . Residence halls are located on both Main Campus and South Campus , the latter of which is a five @-@ minute ride via bus . Learning communities and interest housing options are also available . Food facilities include six residential dining centers , two food courts , and several cafes .
The Comstock Tract Buildings , a historic district of older buildings on the campus , was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 . Three buildings on campus — the Crouse Memorial College and the Hall of Languages , and the Pi Chapter House of Psi Upsilon Fraternity — are individually listed on the National Register .
A few blocks walk from Main Campus on East Genesee St , the Syracuse Stage building includes two proscenium theatres . The Storch is used primarily by the Drama Department and the Archbold is used primarily by Syracuse Stage , a professional regional theatre .
= = = South campus = = =
After World War II , a large , undeveloped hill owned by the university was used to house returning veterans in military @-@ style campus housing . During the 1970s , this housing was replaced by permanent two @-@ level townhouses for two or three students each , or for graduate family housing . There are also three small residence halls which feature open doubles . South Campus is also home to the Institute for Sensory Research , Tennity Ice Pavilion , Goldstein Student Center , Skytop Office Building and 621 Skytop Road ( for administration ) , and the InnComplete Pub , a graduate student bar . Just north is the headquarters of SU Athletics located in the Manley Athletics Complex . Approximately 2 @,@ 500 students live on the South Campus , which is connected to the main campus by frequent bus service .
= = = Downtown = = =
In December 2004 , the university announced that it had purchased or leased twelve buildings in downtown Syracuse . Five Design Programs ; Communication , Advertising , Environmental and Interior Design , Industrial and Interactive Design , and Fashion ; reside permanently in the newly renovated facilities , fittingly called The Warehouse , which was renovated by Gluckman Mayner Architects . Both programs were chosen to be located in the downtown area because of their history of working on projects directly with the community . The Warehouse also houses a contemporary art space that commissions , exhibits , and promotes the work of local and international artists in a variety of media . Hundreds of students and faculty have also been affected by the temporary move of the School of Architecture downtown for the $ 12 million renovation of its campus facility , Slocum Hall .
Since 2009 , the Syracuse Center of Excellence in Environmental and Energy Systems , led by Syracuse University in partnership with Clarkson University and the College Environmental Science and Forestry , creates innovations in environmental and energy technologies that improve human health and productivity , security , and sustainability in urban and built environments . The Paul Robeson Performing Arts Company and the Community Folk Art Center will also be located downtown . On March 31 , 2006 , the university and the city announced an initiative to connect the main campus of the university with the arts and culture areas of downtown Syracuse and The Warehouse . Using natural gas , the Green Data Center generates its own electricity on site , providing cooling for servers and for a neighboring building .
The Connective Corridor project , supported by of public and private funds , will be a strip of cultural development that will connect the main campus of the university to downtown Syracuse , NY . In 2008 , an engineering firm is studying traffic patterns and lighting to commence the project . A design competition was held to determine the best design for the project .
= = = Metropolitan satellite locations = = =
SU has established an admissions presence in Los Angeles , California that will enhance the University 's visibility on the West Coast and will join the University 's West Coast offices of alumni relations , institutional advancement , and the LA semester program in the same location .
Syracuse University has also established an admissions presence in New York City and Atlanta , Georgia .
= = = Art on campus and permanent collections = = =
Syracuse is home to the SU Art Galleries , whose mission is to enhance the cultural environment of its community and surrounding area . The main gallery space is located in the Shaffer Art Building on the main campus .
The Warehouse Gallery is a new contemporary art space exhibiting that is operated under the umbrella of the SU Art Galleries . Housed in a former furniture warehouse off campus , the Warehouse Gallery features works from international artists in a variety of media , its mission is to engage the community in a dialogue regarding the role the arts can play in illuminating the critical issues of our times .
Also on campus is the Louise and Bernard Palitz Gallery . Located on the second floor of the Lubin House , the Palitz gallery has a rotation of exhibitions , including two annual public shows , local and regional artists , featured items from the university 's art collection , and professional artists .
There are many other venues for student work at Syracuse University . In the Shaffer Art Building is the Lowe Art Gallery , which features student work . Gallery spaces are also available for reservation on the fourth floor of the Bird Library .
Within the Schine Student Center is home to three gallery spaces . The Robert B Menschel Photography Gallery features work from professional photographers as well as students and local artists . On the third floor is the Panasci Lounge Art Hanging space for two dimensional spaces . This space can be reserved by students . The White Cube Gallery , also on the third floor is a student gallery that showcases work for the student body outside of the school of art and design .
Students can also research primary sources through the Special Collections Research Center ( SCRC ) which is composed of rare books , manuscripts , works of architecture and design , and popular culture ( cartoons , science fiction , and pulp literature ) , photography , the history of recorded sound , and more .
SU has a permanent art collection of over 45 @,@ 000 objects from artists including Picasso , Rembrandt , Hopper , Tiffany and Wyeth . More than 100 important paintings , sculptures , and murals are displayed in public places around campus . Notable sculptures on campus include Sol LeWitt 's Six Curved Walls , Anna Hyatt Huntington 's Diana , Jean @-@ Antoine Houdon 's George Washington , Antoine Bourdelle 's Herakles , James Earle Fraser 's Lincoln , Malvina Hoffman 's The Struggle of Elemental Man , and Ivan Meštrović 's Moses , Job and Supplicant Persephone .
= = Organization = =
Syracuse is governed by a 70 @-@ member Board of Trustees , with 64 trustees elected by the Board to four @-@ year terms , and six elected by the alumni to four @-@ year terms . Of the 64 Board elected Trustees , three must represent specified conferences of the United Methodist Church . In addition , the chancellor and the President of the Syracuse Alumni Association serve as ex officio voting Trustees . Two students and one faculty member serve as non @-@ voting representatives to the Board of Trustees . The Board of Trustees selects , and sets the salary of , the chancellor . The Syracuse University Bylaws also establish a University Senate with " general supervision over all educational matters concerning
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The Décoration for the Yellow House , probably the most ambitious effort he ever undertook . Van Gogh completed two chair paintings : Van Gogh 's Chair and Gauguin 's Chair .
Gauguin , after much pleading from Van Gogh , arrived in Arles on 23 October , and that November the two finally painted together . Gauguin depicted Van Gogh in his The Painter of Sunflowers : Portrait of Vincent van Gogh , while , uncharacteristically , Van Gogh painted pictures from memory ( deferring to Gauguin 's ideas ) and his The Red Vineyard . Among these " imaginative " paintings is Memory of the Garden at Etten . Their first joint outdoor venture was at the Alyscamps , when they produced Les Alyscamps pendants .
They visited Montpellier that December , where they saw works by Courbet and Delacroix in the Musée Fabre . Their relationship began to deteriorate ; Van Gogh admired Gauguin and desperately wanted to be treated as his equal , but Gauguin was arrogant and domineering , traits that frustrated Van Gogh . They often quarrelled ; Van Gogh increasingly feared that Gauguin was going to desert him and the situation , which Van Gogh described as one of " excessive tension , " rapidly headed towards crisis point .
= = = = December 1888 = = = =
The exact sequence of events that led to Van Gogh 's removal of his ear is not known . Gauguin claimed , fifteen years later , that the night followed several instances of physically threatening behaviour . Their relationship was complex , and there may have been money owed by Theo to Gauguin , who was suspicious that the brothers were exploiting him financially . Van Gogh seems to have attacked Gauguin on the night of 23 December , possibly with a razor , but this is uncorroborated . It seems likely that Van Gogh had realised that Gauguin was planning to leave and that there had been some kind of contretemps between the two . That evening , Van Gogh wholly severed his left ear with a razor , inducing a severe haemorrhage . A note from his doctor Félix Rey , written in 1930 for Irving Stone and including a drawing of the severed ear , made clear that Van Gogh had cut off his whole ear , except for a small part of the lobe . He bandaged the wound , wrapped the ear in paper , and delivered the package to Gabrielle Berlatier , a farmer 's daughter nicknamed Rachel , a teenager who worked at a brothel frequented by both him and Gauguin . Van Gogh was taken by Roulin to either his home or a hotel , where he collapsed . He would have likely bled to death had he not been found unconscious the next morning by the police and hospitalised .
Gauguin 's account implies that Van Gogh left his ear with the doorman as a memento for Gauguin . Van Gogh had no recollection of the event , and it is plain that he had suffered an acute psychotic episode . Family letters of the time make it clear that the breakdown had not been unexpected . He had suffered a nervous collapse three years before in Antwerp , and as early as 1880 his father had proposed committing him to an asylum at Geel . The hospital diagnosis was " generalised delirium " , and within a few days the local police ordered that he be placed in hospital care .
During the first days of his treatment , Van Gogh repeatedly and unsuccessfully asked for Gauguin . The French artist asked a policeman attending the case to " be kind enough , Monsieur , to awaken this man with great care , and if he asks for me tell him I have left for Paris ; the sight of me might prove fatal for him . " Gauguin wrote of Van Gogh , " His state is worse , he wants to sleep with the patients , chase the nurses , and washes himself in the coal bucket . That is to say , he continues the biblical mortifications . " Theo was notified by Gauguin and visited , as did Madame Ginoux and Roulin . Gauguin fled Arles , never to see Van Gogh again .
Despite the pessimistic diagnosis , Van Gogh recovered and returned to the Yellow House by the beginning of January , but spent the following month between hospital and home , suffering from hallucinations and delusions of poisoning . That March , the police closed his house after a petition by 30 townspeople ( including the Ginoux family ) who described him as " le fou roux " ( the redheaded madman ) . Paul Signac spent time with him in the hospital , and Van Gogh was allowed home in his company . In April , he moved into rooms owned by his physician Dr Rey after floods damaged paintings in his own home . Around this time , he wrote , " Sometimes moods of indescribable anguish , sometimes moments when the veil of time and fatality of circumstances seemed to be torn apart for an instant . " Two months later , he left Arles and voluntarily entered an asylum in Saint @-@ Rémy @-@ de @-@ Provence .
= = = = Saint @-@ Rémy ( May 1889 – May 1890 ) = = = =
Van Gogh entered the hospital at Saint Paul @-@ de @-@ Mausole on 8 May 1889 accompanied by his carer , Frédéric Salles , a Protestant clergyman . The hospital was a former monastery in Saint @-@ Rémy less than 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from Arles , and at the time run by a former naval doctor , Dr. Théophile Peyron . He had two small rooms : adjoining cells with barred windows . The second was to be used as a studio .
During his stay , the clinic and its garden became the main subjects of his paintings . He made several studies of the hospital interiors , such as Vestibule of the Asylum and Saint @-@ Remy ( September 1889 ) . Some of his work from this time are characterised by swirls , including The Starry Night . He was allowed short supervised walks , which led to paintings of cypresses and olive trees , such as Olive Trees with the Alpilles in the Background 1889 , Cypresses 1889 , Cornfield with Cypresses ( 1889 ) , Country road in Provence by Night ( 1890 ) . That September , he produced a further two versions of Bedroom in Arles .
Limited access to life outside the clinic resulted in a shortage of subject matter . He was left to work on interpretations of other artist 's paintings , such as Millet 's The Sower and Noon – Rest from Work ( after Millet ) , as well as variations on his own earlier work . Van Gogh was an admirer of the Realism of Jules Breton , Gustave Courbet and Millet , and he compared his copies to a musician 's interpreting Beethoven . Many of his most compelling works date from this period . His The Round of the Prisoners ( 1890 ) was painted after an engraving by Gustave Doré ( 1832 – 1883 ) . It is suggested that the face of the prisoner in the centre of the painting and looking toward the viewer is Van Gogh himself , although the Van Gogh scholar Jan Hulsker discounts this .
Between February and April 1890 he suffered a severe relapse . Nevertheless , he was able to paint and draw a little during this time , and he later wrote to Theo that he had made a few small canvases " from memory ... reminisces of the North . " Amongst these was Two Peasant Women Digging in a Snow @-@ Covered Field at Sunset . Hulsker believes that this small group of paintings formed the nucleus of many drawings and study sheets depicting landscapes and figures that Van Gogh worked on during this time . He comments that – save for this short period – Van Gogh 's illness had hardly any effect on his work , but sees a reflection of Van Gogh 's mental health at the time . Also belonging to this period is Sorrowing Old Man ( " At Eternity 's Gate " ) , a colour study that Hulsker describes as " another unmistakable remembrance of times long past . "
In February 1890 , he painted five versions of L 'Arlésienne ( Madame Ginoux ) , based on a charcoal sketch Gauguin had produced when she sat for both artists in November 1888 . The version intended for Madame Ginoux is lost . It was attempting to deliver this painting to Madame Ginoux in Arles that precipitated his February relapse . His work was praised by Albert Aurier in the Mercure de France in January 1890 , when he was described as " a genius " . That February , he was invited by Les XX , a society of avant @-@ garde painters in Brussels , to participate in their annual exhibition . At the opening dinner , Les XX member Henry de Groux insulted Van Gogh 's work . Toulouse @-@ Lautrec demanded satisfaction , while Signac declared he would continue to fight for Van Gogh 's honour if Lautrec surrendered . Later , while Van Gogh 's exhibit was on display with the Artistes Indépendants in Paris , Claude Monet said that his work was the best in the show . In February 1890 , following the birth of his nephew , he wrote about the new addition to the family " I started right away to make a picture for him , to hang in their bedroom , branches of white almond blossom against a blue sky . "
= = = = Auvers @-@ sur @-@ Oise ( May – July 1890 ) = = = =
In May 1890 , Van Gogh left the clinic in Saint @-@ Rémy to move nearer to both Dr. Paul Gachet in Auvers @-@ sur @-@ Oise and to Theo . Gachet was an amateur painter and had treated several other artists . Camille Pissarro had recommended him . Van Gogh 's first impression was that Gachet was " iller than I am , it seemed to me , or let 's say just as much . " In June 1890 , he painted several portraits of his doctor , including Portrait of Dr. Gachet , and his only etching . In each the emphasis is on Gachet 's melancholic disposition .
During his last weeks at Saint @-@ Rémy , Van Gogh 's thoughts returned to his " memories of the North " , and several of the approximately 70 oils painted during as many days in Auvers @-@ sur @-@ Oise , are reminiscent of northern scenes . Barbizon painter Charles Daubigny had moved to Auvers in 1861 , and in turn drew other artists there , including Camille Corot and Honoré Daumier . In July 1890 , Van Gogh completed two paintings of Daubigny 's Garden ; one of which is likely his final work . There are other paintings that show evidence of being unfinished , including Thatched Cottages by a Hill .
Van Gogh 's late paintings show an artist at the height of his abilities , according to art critic Robert Hughes , " longing for concision and grace " . Many of these works are somber , and reflective of a desire to return to lucid mental health . Yet some reflect deepening concerns . In July 1890 , Van Gogh wrote that he had become absorbed " in the immense plain against the hills , boundless as the sea , delicate yellow . " He had become captivated by the fields in May when the wheat was young and green . In July he described to Theo " vast fields of wheat under turbulent skies " . He wrote that they represented his " sadness and extreme loneliness " , and that the " canvases will tell you what I cannot say in words , that is , how healthy and invigorating I find the countryside . " Wheatfield with Crows is a painting Hulsker discusses as being associated with " melancholy and extreme loneliness . " Hulsker identifies seven oil paintings as following the completion of the Wheatfield with Crows in July 1890 while in Auvers .
= = Style = =
= = = Development = = =
Van Gogh was a later starter . He drew and painted with watercolours while at school , but only a few examples survive and the authorship of some has been challenged . When he took up art as an adult , he began at an elementary level . In early 1882 , his uncle , Cornelis Marinus , owner of a well @-@ known gallery of contemporary art in Amsterdam , asked for drawings of The Hague . Van Gogh 's work did not live up to expectations . Marinus offered a second commission , specifying the subject matter in detail , but was again was disappointed with the result . Nevertheless , Van Gogh persevered . He improved the lighting of his studio by installing variable shutters and experimented with different drawing materials . For more than a year he worked on single figures – highly elaborated studies in " Black and White " , which at the time gained him only criticism . Today , they are recognised as his first masterpieces .
In August 1882 , Theo gave Vincent a donation , used to purchase materials conducive to working en plein air . Vincent wrote that he could now " go on painting with new vigour " . From early in 1883 he worked on multi @-@ figure compositions , on which he based on his drawings . He had some of them photographed , but when his brother remarked that they lacked liveliness and freshness , he destroyed them and turned to oil painting . Van Gogh turned to renowned Hague School artists like Weissenbruch and Blommers , and received technical support from them , as well as from painters like De Bock and Van der Weele , both second generation Hague School artists . When he moved to Nuenen after the intermezzo in Drenthe he began several large paintings but destroyed most of them . The Potato Eaters and its companion pieces are the only ones to have survived . Following a visit to the Rijksmuseum , Van Gogh was aware that many of his faults were due to lack of technical experience . So in November 1885 he travelled to Antwerp and later to Paris to learn and develop his skill .
Theo criticised The Potato Eaters for its dark palette , which he thought unsuitable for a modern style . During Van Gogh 's stay in Paris between 1886 and 1887 , he quickly tried to master a new , lighter palette . His Portrait of Père Tanguy ( 1887 ) , shows his success with the brighter palette ; with its colour innovations it is evidence of an evolving personal style . Charles Blanc 's treatise on colour interested him intensely , which led him to work on with complementary colours . Van Gogh came to the conclusion that colour went beyond descriptive ; he said that " colour expresses something in itself " ( LT429 ) . According to Hughes , Van Gogh perceived colour as having a " psychological and moral weight " , as characterised in the garish reds and greens of The Night Cafe , a work he wanted " to express the terrible passions of humanity " . Yellow was the colour that meant the most to him , which he spent the most time in mastering , because it symbolized emotional truth . Yellow was the colour he used as a symbol for sunlight , life , and God .
Throughout his career Van Gogh strove to be a painter of rural life and of nature , and during his first summer in Arles he brought the more modern palette to bear on landscapes and traditional rural life . His belief that a power existed behind the natural led him to try to capture a sense of that power , or the essence of nature in his art , sometimes through the use of symbols . His renditions of the sower , at first copied from Jean @-@ François Millet , reflect Van Gogh 's own religious beliefs : the sower as Christ sowing life beneath the hot sun . These were themes and motifs he returned to often to revise , rework and develop . His paintings of flowers are filled with symbolism but not traditional Christian iconography ; rather he made up his own where life is lived under the sun and work is an allegory of life . In the summer in Arles , under a hot sun and having gained confidence after a bout of painting spring blossoms and learning to capture bright sunlight , he was ready to paint The Sower . The juxtaposition of saturated complementary colours and the single figure in the landscape represents a unique innovative style .
Van Gogh stayed within what he called the " guise of reality " , and was critical of overly abstract or stylised works . He did try his hand at stylisation and abstraction , notably with Starry Night – but he said about that painting that reality had " receded too far in the background " . Hughes describes Starry Night as a moment of extreme visionary ecstasy : the stars are in a great whirl , reminiscent of Hokusai 's Great Wave , the movement in the heaven above is reflected by the movement of the cypress on the earth below , and the painter 's vision is " translated into a thick , emphatic plasma of paint . "
Between 1885 and his death in 1890 , he appears to have been building an oeuvre , a collection that not only reflected his personal vision , but could be commercially successful . He was influenced by Blanc 's definition of style , that a true painting required optimal use of colour , perspective and brushstrokes . Van Gogh applied the word " purposeful " to paintings he thought he had mastered , as opposed to those he thought of as studies . He painted studies and went so far as to create many series of studies . Most of his studies were of still lifes , many executed as colour experiments or as gifts to friends . The finished paintings – such as Night Cafe and Starry Night , are the works he considered part of his oeuvre . The work in Arles contributed considerably to his oeuvre : those he thought the most important from that time were The Sower , Night Cafe , Memory of the Garden in Etten and Starry Night . With their broad brushstrokes , inventive perspectives , colours , contours and designs , these are the paintings that represent the style he sought . He considered The Bedroom his best work of that period , because the inventive use of perspective , combined with Impressionist techniques , resulted in the style he sought .
In the end , the style he found was revolutionary " in the very look of his pictures , their coarseness and deliberately unfinished quality , the vigor with which they were painted . " His art , with its emphasis on the common people and a wish for a better world , is the precursor to the 20th century and to Modernism .
= = = Major series = = =
Van Gogh 's stylistic developments are usually linked to periods he spent living in different locations across Europe . He was inclined to immerse himself in local cultures and lighting conditions , although he maintained a highly individual visual outlook throughout . His evolution as a painter was slow , and he was aware of his painterly limitations ; many of his early works could be described as gauche . He moved home often , perhaps to expose himself to new visual stimulants and through exposure develop his technical skill .
= = = = Portraits = = = =
Van Gogh is best known for his landscapes , but he seemed to have believed that portraits were his greatest ambition . He said of portrait studies , that they were " the only thing in painting that moves me deeply and that gives me a sense of the infinite . " He wrote to his sister that he " should like to paint portraits which appear after a century to people living then as apparitions ... I do not endeavour to achieve this through photographic resemblance , but my means of our impassioned emotions – that is to say using our knowledge and our modern taste for colour as a means of arriving at the expression and the intensification of the character . " Those closest to him are mostly absent from his portraits ; he rarely painted Theo , van Rappard or Bernard . The portraits of his mother were from photographs .
Portraiture represented his best opportunity of earning money . Some of the portraits are studies . Those with greater significance , which he considered finished paintings , are identifiable with the subject holding an object such as a book , and tend to exhibit more stylisation than his other work . In December 1888 , he painted La Berceuse – a figure that he thought as good as his sunflower still lifes . It had a limited palette , varied brushstrokes and simple contours .
= = = = Cypresses = = = =
The cypresses , numbering some fifteen canvases , are among Van Gogh 's most popular and widely known series . In mid @-@ 1889 , at his sister Wil 's request , he made several smaller versions of Wheat Field with Cypresses . The trees , traditionally associated with death and cemeteries , held a symbolic value for Van Gogh , and he brought life to them . The works are characterised by swirls and densely painted impasto , and include one of his best @-@ known paintings , The Starry Night .
Other works include Olive Trees with the Alpilles in the Background ( 1889 ) Cypresses ( 1889 ) , Cypresses with Two Figures ( 1889 – 90 ) , Road with Cypress and Star ( 1890 ) and Starry Night Over the Rhone ( 1888 ) . Road with Cypress and Star ( 1890 ) is as compositionally unreal and artificial as The Starry Night . It represents an exalted experience of reality , what both Van Gogh and Gauguin referred to as an " abstraction " . Referring to Olive Trees with the Alpilles in the Background , on or around 18 June 1889 , in a letter to his brother , Van Gogh wrote , " At last I have a landscape with olives and also a new study of a Starry Night . " While in the asylum , he went outside to paint olive trees ; these are rendered as gnarled and arthritic ; as Hughes explains , they are seemingly filled with " a continuous field of energy of which nature is a manifestation " .
= = = = Orchards = = = =
The series of Flowering Orchards , also the Orchards in Blossom , are among the first groups of work that Van Gogh completed after his arrival in Arles in February 1888 . The 14 paintings are optimistic , joyous and visually expressive of the burgeoning spring . They are delicately sensitive , silent , quiet and unpopulated . He painted swiftly , and although he brought to this series a version of Impressionism , a strong sense of personal style began to emerge during this period . The transience of the blossoming trees , of the passing of the season , seemed to align itself with his own sense of transience and belief in a new beginning in Arles , and it presented him with a world of Japanese motifs which he revelled in . Vincent wrote to Theo on 21 April 1888 and said he had 10 orchards and : " one big [ painting ] of a cherry tree , which I 've spoiled " .
During this period he mastered the use of light by subjugating shadows and bringing light to the forefront of the trees as if the trees and blossoms themselves are the source of light – almost in a sacred manner . Early the following year he painted another smaller group of orchards , including View of Arles , Flowering Orchards . Van Gogh was consumed by the landscape and vegetation of the south of France , and often visited the farm gardens near Arles . Because of the vivid light of the Mediterranean climate his palette significantly brightened .
= = = = Flowers = = = =
Van Gogh painted several landscapes with flowers , including the View of Arles with Irises , and Irises , Sunflowers , and the lilacs and roses sequences . Some reflect his interests in the language of colour , and also in Japanese ukiyo @-@ e woodblock prints . He completed two series of sunflowers . The first dated from his 1887 stay in Paris , the second during his visit to Arles the following year . The Paris series shows living flowers in the ground , in the second , they are dying in vases . The 1888 paintings were created during a rare period of optimism for the artist . He intended them to decorate a bedroom where Gauguin was supposed to stay in Arles that August , when the two would create the community of artists Van Gogh had long hoped for . The flowers are rendered with thick brushstrokes and heavy layers of paint .
He wrote to Theo in August 1888 , " I 'm painting with the gusto of a Marseillais eating bouillabaisse , which won 't surprise you when it 's a question of painting large sunflowers ... If I carry out this plan there 'll be a dozen or so panels . The whole thing will therefore be a symphony in blue and yellow . I work on it all these mornings , from sunrise . Because the flowers wilt quickly and it 's a matter of doing the whole thing in one go . "
= = = = Wheat fields = = = =
Van Gogh made several painting excursions during visits to the landscape around Arles . He made paintings featuring harvests , wheat fields and other rural landmarks of the area , including The Old Mill ( 1888 ) ; a good example of a picturesque structure bordering the wheat fields beyond . At various points , Van Gogh painted the view from his window – at The Hague , Antwerp , Paris . These works culminated in The Wheat Field series , which depicted the view he could see from his adjoining cells in the asylum at Saint @-@ Rémy .
Many of Van Gogh 's late paintings are sombre , but essentially optimistic and , right up to the time of his death , reflect his desire to return to lucid mental health . Yet some of his final works reflect his deepening concerns . Writing in July 1890 , from Auvers , Van Gogh said that he had become absorbed " in the immense plain against the hills , boundless as the sea , delicate yellow . " He was captivated by the fields in May when the wheat was young and green . His Wheatfields at Auvers with White House shows a more subdued palette of yellows and blues , against the growing wheat and corn , which creates a sense of idyllic harmony .
The weather worsened in July . He wrote to Theo of " vast fields of wheat under troubled skies " . In particular , the work Wheatfield with Crows serves as a compelling and poignant expression of the artist 's state of mind in his final days , a painting Hulsker describes as a " doom @-@ filled painting with threatening skies and ill @-@ omened crows . " Its dark palette and heavy brushstrokes conveys a sense of impending doom , of menace .
= = = = Self @-@ portraits = = = =
Van Gogh produced many self @-@ portraits during his lifetime ; he drew or painted more than 43 between 1886 and 1889 . Generally the self @-@ portraits were studies ; he wanted to learn to paint figures , but lacked models and so used himself . They vary in intensity and colour ; some portray the artist with beard , some without , and others with bandages – in the period after he had severed his ear . Self @-@ portrait without beard , from late September 1889 , was one of the most expensive paintings at the time of its 1998 sale , when it sold for $ 71 @.@ 5 million in New York . It was Van Gogh 's last self @-@ portrait , intended as a birthday gift to his mother .
Self @-@ portraits from Saint @-@ Rémy show the head from the right , hiding his severed ear . During the final weeks of his life in Auvers @-@ sur @-@ Oise , he produced many paintings , but no self @-@ portraits , as he returned to painting the natural world .
His self @-@ portraits reflect the intense degree of self @-@ scrutiny that is seldom if ever apparent in an artist , according to Hughes .
= = Death = =
He underwent a further crisis in February 1890 . Although depressed and unable to bring himself to write , he continued , however , to draw and paint . For a year he " had fits of despair and hallucination during which he could not work , between long clear months in which he could and did , punctuated by extreme visionary ecstasy . "
On 27 July 1890 , aged 37 , Van Gogh shot himself in the chest with a revolver . There were no witnesses . The location of the shooting may have been in the wheat field he had been painting recently , or a local barn . The bullet was deflected by a rib and passed through his chest without doing apparent damage to internal organs – probably stopped by his spine . He was able to walk back to the Auberge Ravoux , where he was attended by two doctors . Without a surgeon present the bullet could not be removed . The doctors tended to him as best they could , then left him alone in his room , smoking his pipe . The following morning , Theo rushed to his brother as soon as notified , and found him in surprisingly good health . But within hours Vincent began to fail , suffering from an untreated infection resulting from the wound . He died that evening , 29 hours after the gunshot . According to Theo , Vincent 's last words were : " The sadness will last forever " .
He was buried on 30 July , in the municipal cemetery of Auvers @-@ sur @-@ Oise . The funeral was attended by Theo van Gogh , Andries Bonger , Charles Laval , Lucien Pissarro , Émile Bernard , Julien Tanguy and Dr. Gachet among twenty family , friends and locals . Theo suffered from syphilis and his health declined rapidly after Vincent 's death . Weak and unable to come to terms with Vincent 's absence , he died six months later , on 25 January , at Den Dolder , and he was buried in Utrecht . In 1914 , the year she had Van Gogh 's letters published , Jo Bonger had Theo 's body exhumed , moved from Utrecht and re @-@ buried with Vincent at Auvers @-@ sur @-@ Oise .
There has been numerous debates as to the nature of Van Gogh 's illness and its effect on his work . Over 150 psychiatrists have attempted to label its root , with 30 different diagnoses . These have included schizophrenia , bipolar disorder , syphilis , poisoning from swallowed paints , temporal lobe epilepsy , and acute intermittent porphyria . Any of these could have been the culprit , and could have been aggravated by malnutrition , overwork , insomnia and alcohol , especially absinthe .
= = Posthumous fame = =
Vincent van Gogh is one of the most famous artists in the world , despite that he was virtually unrecognized during his lifetime . After his first exhibitions in the late 1880s , his reputation grew slowly but steadily among artists , art critics , dealers and collectors . In 1887 André Antoine installed Van Gogh 's paintings alongside Georges Seurat and Paul Signac , at the Théâtre Libre in Paris some of which were acquired by Julien Tanguy . In 1898 his work was described in " Le Moderniste " by the poet Albert Aurier as characterised by " fire , intensity , sunshine " .
Soon after Van Gogh 's death in July 1890 his work was collected by Gauguin , Émile Schuffenecker and Émile Bernard . Some works were resold fairly quickly , as in the case of Gauguin who consigned his versions of Sunflowers around 1895 to Ambroise Vollard , who sold them , but failed to pay . Theo 's death in January 1891 removed his most vocal and well connected champion . Theo 's widow , Johanna van Gogh @-@ Bonger , was left with only an apartment in Paris filled with a few items of furniture and the then near valueless works of her brother @-@ in @-@ law Vincent . Memorial exhibitions were held in Brussels , Paris , The Hague and Antwerp . His work was shown in a number of high @-@ profile exhibitions in 1890 , including six works at Les XX , in Brussels that January , ( in 1891 a retrospective ) , and ten paintings were shown at the " Société des Artistes Indépendants " . The following year the art critic Octave Mirbeau wrote that Van Gogh 's suicide was " infinitely sadder loss for art ... even though the populace has not crowned to a magnificent funeral , and poor Vincent van Gogh , whose demise means the extinction of a beautiful flame of genius , has gone to his death as obscure and neglected as he lived . "
In 1896 , the Fauvist painter Henri Matisse , then an unknown art student , visited the artist John Peter Russell on the island of Belle Île off Brittany . Russell was an Impressionist painter ; Matisse had never previously seen an Impressionist work directly , and was so shocked at the style that he left after ten days , saying , " I couldn 't stand it any more . " The next year he returned as Russell 's student and abandoned his earth @-@ coloured palette for bright Impressionist colours , later stating , " Russell was my teacher , and Russell explained colour theory to me . " Russell who had been a close friend of Vincent van Gogh ( who was unknown at the time ) introduced Van Gogh 's work to Matisse and gave Matisse a Van Gogh drawing .
Retrospectives were held in Paris in 1901 and 1905 , and at the Stedelijk , Amsterdam in 1905 . Important group exhibitions with the Sonderbund artists in Cologne in 1912 , the Armory Show , New York in 1913 , and Berlin in 1914 followed . In 1905 his work was exhibited at Gallerie Ernst Arnold in Dresden , which influenced German painters of the Die Brücke – particularly Erich Heckel , Karl Schmidt @-@ Rottluff , and Ernst Ludwig Kirchner . After that exhibition Henk Bremmer was instrumental in teaching and talking about Van Gogh . By 1906 Johanna van Gogh @-@ Bonger could still show a complete set of his works . Johanna was in correspondence with artists , galleries , critics , dealers throughout Europe , and her correspondence shows the role she played with Berlin dealer Paul Cassirer who put on 10 exhibitions , and staged tours to see Vincent 's work . His fame reached its first peak in Austria and Germany before World War I , aided by the publication of his letters in three volumes in 1914 . These began a compelling mythology of Van Gogh as an intense and dedicated painter who both suffered for his art , and died young .
In 1934 American novelist Irving Stone published an account of Vincent van Gogh 's life entitled Lust for Life , and according to Stone he relied on Van Gogh 's letters to Theo . This book and later the 1956 movie of the same name added to further enhance the artist 's fame .
In 1957 , Francis Bacon based a series of paintings on reproductions of Van Gogh 's The Painter on the Road to Tarascon , the original of which was destroyed during World War II . Bacon was inspired by both an image he described as " haunting " , and by Van Gogh himself , whom he regarded as an alienated outsider , a position which resonated with him . Bacon identified with Van Gogh 's theories of art and quoted lines written to Theo : " [ R ] eal painters do not paint things as they are ... [ T ] hey paint them as they themselves feel them to be . "
Today his works are among the world 's most expensive paintings . Those sold for over US $ 100 million ( today 's equivalent ) include Portrait of Dr. Gachet , Portrait of Joseph Roulin and Irises . A Wheatfield with Cypresses was acquired in 1993 for US $ 57 million , and Self @-@ Portrait with Bandaged Ear was sold privately in the late 1990s for an estimated US $ 80 – 90 million .
= The Watch ( 2012 film ) =
The Watch ( previously known as Neighborhood Watch ) is a 2012 American science fiction comedy film directed by Akiva Schaffer and written by Jared Stern , Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg . It stars Ben Stiller , Vince Vaughn , Jonah Hill and Richard Ayoade . The film follows Evan ( Stiller ) , Bob ( Vaughn ) , Franklin ( Hill ) , and Jamarcus ( Ayoade ) , a group of neighbors who form a suburban neighborhood watch group . When they uncover an alien plot threatening the world , they are forced into action .
The film began its development in 2008 under producer Shawn Levy as a teen @-@ targeted project written by Jared Stern . Between 2009 and late 2010 it saw different directors and stars join the project until November 2010 , when it moved in a new direction under Rogen and Goldberg ( who rewrote the script for an adult audience ) . Filming began in October 2011 in the state of Georgia , concluding in January 2012 .
The film 's marketing campaign was affected by the 2012 shooting of Trayvon Martin by a neighborhood @-@ watch member . As a result , the campaign was refocused on the alien premise instead of the film leads and the film 's name was changed from Neighborhood Watch to The Watch . Released on July 27 , 2012 , the film received generally negative reviews , with critics focusing on the plot , frequent " vulgar and offensive " jokes and numerous product placements . However , the lead cast was more positively received .
= = Plot = =
In the town of Glenview , Ohio , Evan Trautwig ( Ben Stiller ) is an active participant in the community and senior manager of the local Costco store . His life is disrupted when the store 's night security guard is murdered . The local police have no leads , and show no interest in investigating further . Determined to find the killer and bring him to justice , Evan decides to form a neighborhood watch . However , he only manages to recruit Bob ( Vince Vaughn ) , a construction worker and loving father ; Franklin ( Jonah Hill ) , a high school dropout who dreams of being a police officer but failed the written , physical , and mental @-@ health tests ; and Jamarcus ( Richard Ayoade ) , a recent divorcé .
The watch members use the group as an excuse to drink and have fun ( much to Evan 's annoyance ) . While driving on patrol , they accidentally hit something . They discover a strange metallic orb that acts as a highly @-@ destructive weapon , and deduce that it is of alien origin . Meanwhile , several more townspeople are mysteriously killed . The watch responds to the murders and encounters an alien , which attacks them . Evan ( apparently ) kills it with a lawn gnome before the group returns with the creature to Bob 's house . The creature regains consciousness and escapes , stealing the metallic orb and warning them that the aliens have already infiltrated the town . The watch theorizes that the aliens are stealing their victims ' skin and disguising themselves as humans , so anyone in Glenview could be an alien . Bob confides to Evan that he is worried about his daughter Chelsea ( Erin Moriarty ) , and does not trust her boyfriend Jason ( Nicholas Braun ) . Evan admits that he has been avoiding his wife Abby ( Rosemarie DeWitt ) because he is infertile , and revealing that it may cause her to leave .
Evan suspects that one of his neighbors is an alien ( due to his strange , stiff way of speaking and because he always seems to be watching him ) . As the watch scouts the neighbor 's house , Bob learns that Chelsea is at an unsupervised party with Jason . Bob disobeys Evan 's orders , and rushes to the party with Franklin . Bob prevents Jason from raping Chelsea , but Jason beats him until Franklin intervenes . Evan and Jamarcus investigate the odd neighbor alone , discovering that he ( only ) hosts orgies in his basement . When Bob returns , he and Evan argue over his putting his daughter above the watch . Bob is fired from the watch after saying Evan has no friends because he tries to control everything . Evan goes home and admits his infertility to Abby , who accepts the news and tells him they will work things out .
Evan then receives an urgent visit from Jamarcus , who confesses that he is one of the aliens but has decided to side with humanity after experiencing human culture ( and oral sex ) . He warns the group that the aliens are building a transmitter ( beneath the Costco store ) which will summon their armada to destroy the earth , and is expelled from the watch for his deception . Bob , Franklin , Evan and Abby arm themselves and infiltrate the Costco to destroy the transmitter . Bob encounters Jason who reveals that he is also an alien , and they fight . Evan and Franklin attempt to disable the transmitter , but are surrounded by aliens . Jamarcus arrives and saves the pair , revealing that the aliens ' brains are located in their crotch ; Bob kills Jason by ripping off his penis . Evan discovers that the transmitter is powered by the metallic orb and removes it , disabling the machine . More aliens arrive , forcing the group to flee . The watch uses the metallic orb to destroy the Costco building , killing all of the aliens inside .
In the epilogue , Evan and Abby rekindle their passion and adopt a daughter . Bob is closer to Chelsea and accepts her new boyfriend ( who is intimidated by stories of how Bob killed Jason by " ripping his dick off " ) . Franklin is finally accepted by the Glenview Police Department , and Jamarcus continues participating in the secret neighborhood orgies . The group maintains the watch , continuing to protect Glenview from criminals ( and aliens ) .
= = Cast = =
Ben Stiller as Evan Trautwig , a Costco manager and suburban resident who forms a neighborhood watch after his friend is murdered ; he keeps forming new groups because he has no friends .
Vince Vaughn as Bob McAllister , a resident who uses the watch to spy on his teenage daughter ; Vaughn began negotiations to star in June 2011 . The character 's relationship with his daughter is what convinced Vaughn to take the role .
Jonah Hill as Franklin , a resident with emotional problems who joins the watch after being rejected by the local police force ; Hill 's involvement was confirmed in August 2011 . His prior commitment to The Watch forced him to decline a role in Quentin Tarantino 's Django Unchained , which he had considered " the perfect next step " following his 2011 Academy Award nomination . However , he later secured a role in the film . Hill spent two weeks learning to use a balisong knife for his character .
Richard Ayoade as Jamarcus , a recently divorced resident ; Chris Tucker was considered for the role before Ayoade was signed .
Rosemarie DeWitt as Abby Trautwig ( Evan 's wife )
The cast also includes Erin Moriarty ( as Chelsea McAllister , Bob 's daughter ) , Nicholas Braun ( as Jason , Chelsea 's boyfriend ) , Will Forte ( as Sergeant Bressman ) , Mel Rodriguez ( as his partner Chucho ) , Doug Jones ( as the chief alien villain ) , R. Lee Ermey as Manfred Salisbury ( a local resident ) and Joseph A. Nunez as Antonio Guzman ( Evan 's colleague , whose murder inspires him to start the neighborhood watch ) . Billy Crudup appears ( uncredited ) as Evan 's " creepy neighbor " , Paul . Director Akiva Schaffer and his collaborators in the comedy troupe The Lonely Island , Andy Samberg and Jorma Taccone , make cameo appearances in the film as masturbating participants in Paul 's orgy .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The film began its development as Neighborhood Watch in early 2008 , with Levy developing the project over three years ( based on an idea by 20th Century Fox executive John Fox ) . Levy described his original vision as a " PG @-@ 13 kind of Ghostbusters @-@ y thing . " The original screenplay was written by Jared Stern . In May 2009 , David Dobkin and Will Ferrell were negotiating to direct and star , respectively ( with Dobkin 's involvement progressing to revising Stern 's script ) . However , by August Dobkin and Ferrell had left the project .
In December 2009 Peter Segal was in negotiations to direct the film , but by November 2010 the project had not named a director . Also in November , Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg were brought onto the project to rewrite the script as an adult @-@ oriented , R @-@ rated film . By June 2011 , Saturday Night Live alumnus Akiva Schaffer was given the option to direct his second feature film ( following the 2007 comedy Hot Rod ) . On May 4 , 2012 ( two months before the film 's release ) , it was renamed The Watch .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began in October 2011 in Georgia , with filming occurring in Atlanta ( including Inman Park ) and several areas in Cobb County ( including the Oakleigh , Echo Mill , and Amberton subdivisions in the city of Powder Springs ) . Filming also took place at Marietta Square in the city of Marietta , where businesses were renamed and an alley behind Hemingway 's Bar & Grill was treated to artificially age the buildings . One of the Marietta scenes filmed involved a young boy on a skateboard being abducted by aliens . Scenes were also filmed in the Brookhaven community . On October 25 , 2011 , a casting call was made for extras to fill the football stadium during two nights of filming on November 2 – 3 at Campbell High School in Smyrna , Georgia . On November 23 , 2011 a minor , walk @-@ on role in the film was auctioned to benefit the Stiller Foundation ; the role was sold for $ 23 @,@ 000 to an undisclosed bidder .
In late November 2011 , the site of a former BJ 's Wholesale Club in Norcross , Georgia was converted in appearance to a Costco for shooting . On January 23 , 2012 , Hill announced that filming had concluded . Multiple scene takes were made , allowing the cast to follow the script as written and inject their own improvisations . Special effects company Legacy Effects provided creature designs and effects for the aliens . The alien costume featured an animatronic head , remotely controlled by three people . The suit was hot even in cold areas , and had to be unzipped to let Doug Jones cool off between takes . The costume was enhanced with CGI in a number of ways , including replacing arms and dilating pupils ( which Schaffer thought made the creature seem more alive ) .
= = = Marketing = = =
The Neighborhood Watch marketing campaign began on February 29 , 2012 with the release of a teaser poster , trailer and the unveiling of the film 's website , jointhewatch.com. The film 's trailer was nominated for a Golden Trailer award , recognizing achievements in marketing . On March 27 , 2012 , it was reported that 20th Century Fox had the poster and trailer removed from Florida theaters in response to increasing controversy surrounding the February shooting death of Trayvon Martin in Sanford , Florida by neighborhood @-@ watch captain George Zimmerman . The trailer featured Hill imitating a gun with his hand pretending to shoot at teenagers , while the poster featured a bullet @-@ ridden , alien @-@ themed neighborhood @-@ watch sign . According to insiders Fox intended to move into the next phase of the marketing campaign as soon as possible ( focusing on the film 's science @-@ fiction aspects ) , while replacing previous posters with images of the cast . Fox maintained that the July 27 , 2012 , release date would remain unchanged by the Martin case or the marketing changes .
In a statement about the changes Fox said , " We are very sensitive to the Trayvon Martin case , but our film is a broad alien @-@ invasion comedy and bears absolutely no relation to the tragic events in Florida ... these initial marketing materials were released before this incident ever came to light . The teaser materials were part of an early phase of our marketing and were never planned for long @-@ term use . " The alien @-@ focused campaign began on May 4 , 2012 with the release of a new trailer , coinciding with Fox 's changing the film 's title to The Watch to further distance the film from the Martin case .
= = Release = =
The premiere of The Watch took place on July 23 , 2012 at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood . It was released in North America on July 27 , 2012 . On July 25 , Harkins Theatres ( the sixth @-@ largest North American cinema chain ) announced it would not be showing the film after failing to reach a financial agreement with Fox .
= = = Box office = = =
The film earned $ 35 @.@ 4 million in North America and $ 32 @.@ 9 million from markets elsewhere for a worldwide total of $ 68 @.@ 3 million . In the week before release , pre @-@ release tracking showed that up to 25 percent of North American audiences were reluctant to visit cinemas following the mass murder in a Colorado cinema the previous week . This , plus competition from the simultaneous launch of the 2012 Summer Olympics , would negatively impact ticket sales for The Watch . Tracking showed that the film could earn $ 13 – 15 million during its opening weekend .
The film earned an estimated $ 4 @.@ 5 million on its opening day . During its opening weekend it earned $ 12 @.@ 7 million from 3 @,@ 168 theaters – an average of $ 4 @,@ 025 per theater – ranking third behind Ice Age : Continental Drift ( $ 13 @.@ 3 million ) and The Dark Knight Rises ( $ 62 @.@ 1 million ) . The largest segments of the opening @-@ weekend audience were over age 25 ( 59 % ) and male ( 60 % ) . The film left theaters on October 18 , 2012 ( after 12 weeks ) with a total gross of $ 35 @.@ 3 million .
Outside North America , the film had its most successful opening weekends in the United Kingdom ( $ 3 @.@ 5 million ) , Australia ( $ 1 @.@ 8 million ) and Russia ( $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) . These countries also represented its largest total grosses , with $ 6 million from the UK , $ 5 @.@ 9 million from Australia and $ 3 @.@ 2 million from Russia .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Watch received negative reviews from critics . On the review @-@ aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes , it has garnered a 17 % approval rating from 154 reviews , with an average rating of 4 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " The Watch uneasily mixes sci @-@ fi elements with gross @-@ out gags and strands its talented cast with a script that favors vulgarity over wit at nearly every turn . " Metacritic gave it a score of 36 out of 100 , from 35 critics , indicating " generally unfavorable reviews " . CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was a " C + " on an A + to F scale .
The Hollywood Reporter 's Sheri Linden described the film as feeling like " part three of a past @-@ its @-@ prime franchise " , criticizing the plot as moving " lazily from setup to punchline to setup , with no particular point and almost no punch " . Roger Ebert awarded the film 2 out of 4 stars , stating that the film " has lots of energy but not much inspiration " . Ebert commented that the comic timing of the lead actors benefits the dialog , but frequent instances of " crude , vulgar and offensive " comedy became unwelcome and unamusing . The Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers awarded the film 1 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , stating that it should have been a " Ghostbusters lite " and " should be crazy , stupid fun but settles for just stupid . " He was also critical of the use of Costco in the plot , which he considered product placement . However , he praised Hill 's " scene @-@ stealing " performance .
Entertainment Weekly 's Lisa Schwarzbaum commented that the film struggles to find a " coherent " style between the " PG @-@ 13 rated aliens " and adult themes and dialogue . The A.V. Club 's Keith Phipps also unfavorably compared the film to Ghostbusters , stating that it struggles to replicate that film 's successful formula but fails to innovate with the story or characters . He also criticized the frequent Costco promotion . Phipps praised Ayoade : " ... he lends an unpredictable element to the group dynamic , and to the film . It ’ s the sort of performance that ought to be plucked for use in another , better movie . " Variety 's Justin Chang complimented the interaction between the four leads , but criticized the film for relegating ethnic characters to murder victims and female characters " to be protected or consoled " . He described the film as a " lowbrow , lame @-@ brained mash @-@ up of buddies @-@ on @-@ patrol comedy and sci @-@ fi actioner , held together ( barely ) by an endless string of penis jokes " . However , he praised Ayoade 's " mellow , nerdy @-@ funky appeal [ that represents ] one of the [ film 's ] few novel aspects " .
The Los Angeles Times ' Betsy Sharkey was more positive , stating that " the funniest stuff comes from the kind of situational misfires that can happen when dudes try to do things , like catch aliens , that they are clearly not cut out to do " . She considered that Schaffer 's previous experience directing short comic videos for Saturday Night Live was partially responsible for individual comic moments broken up by transitions where " things tend to fall apart " . Screencrush 's Matt Singer was positive , calling the film funny and praising the improvisational feel of the scenes and " ingenious " set @-@ pieces , but was critical of the promotion of Costco and Costco products throughout . Boxoffice 's James Rocchi offered a positive stance , stating that the " plot moves , the supporting cast is lively and the action stays small @-@ scale and intimate , never overwhelming the laughs " ; he felt that the profanity and vulgarity never became " stale " . Rocchi , however , commented that the film was forgettable and " disposable " .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = Home media = = =
The Watch was released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray disc and digital download on November 13 , 2012 . The DVD version contains deleted scenes , a gag reel , the theatrical trailer and feature videos " Alien Invasions & You " and " Casting the Alien " . The Blu @-@ ray disc contains the DVD content , a digital copy of the film and two additional features : " Jonah Alternate Takes " and " Watchmakers . "
= Terra Nova : Strike Force Centauri =
Terra Nova : Strike Force Centauri is a 1996 tactical first @-@ person shooter video game developed and published by Looking Glass Technologies . Set in a science @-@ fictional depiction of the 24th century , the game follows a faction of humans who colonize the Alpha Centauri star system to escape from the Hegemony , a totalitarian Earth government . The player assumes the role of Nikola ap Io , the leader of an Alpha Centauri military unit , and undertakes missions against pirates and the Hegemony .
Terra Nova has been cited as one of the first squad @-@ oriented games with three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphics ; the player is often assisted by artificially intelligent teammates who may be given tactical commands . Conceived by Looking Glass after the completion of their first game , Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss , Terra Nova was subject to a long and difficult development process , caused in part by the production of its full motion video cutscenes . The game 's engine can render 3D outdoor environments and simulate physics ; the latter enables such effects as procedural animation .
Terra Nova 's critical reception was highly positive . Reviewers praised its tactical elements , and several compared it to the 1995 video game MechWarrior 2 : 31st Century Combat . However , reception of its graphics was mixed , and many noted the game 's steep system requirements . Despite critical acclaim and sales in excess of 100 @,@ 000 units , the game was a commercial failure : it did not recoup its development costs . While it was intended to be the first in a series , its low sales led the company to cancel plans for a sequel .
= = Gameplay = =
As a tactical first @-@ person shooter , Terra Nova focuses on combat and takes place from a character 's eye view in a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphical environment . The protagonist wears powered battle armor ( PBA ) that features lock @-@ on targeting , jumpjets for limited flight , infrared and zoomed vision , and a rechargeable energy shield that protects against attacks . The player uses a freely movable mouse cursor to aim weapons and manipulate the heads @-@ up display ( HUD ) interface . As with Looking Glass Technologies ' earlier game System Shock , the HUD contains three " Multi @-@ Function Displays " ( MFDs ) . These screens may be configured to display tactical information , such as squad command menus , maps and weapon statistics .
The player is usually accompanied by up to three artificially intelligent squadmates , who may be given tactical orders such as holding a position , taking cover or rushing enemies . Squadmates may be commanded as a group or individually ; for example , one half of a squad may be used to distract enemies while the other half attacks an objective . Each squad member specializes in weapons , reconnaissance , repairs , demolitions or electronics . Those in the latter four categories may be given special commands , such as repairing a teammate 's armor or setting explosive charges . During missions , squad members radio in enemy sightings and status assessments .
The game takes place in 37 missions . Each begins with a briefing that describes such details as objectives , squad size and enemies . Objectives range from rescues and assaults to reconnaissance photography . Additional missions — whose contents may be selected by the player — are available through the game 's " Random Scenario Builder " . Before undertaking missions , the player outfits the squad and protagonist with PBA suits and equipment . The three types of PBA — Scout , Standard and Heavy — vary in ability ; for example , the Scout armor is fast and light , while the Heavy armor is slow and powerful . Each may be fitted with weapons and an " Auxiliary Suit Function " ( ASF ) ; the latter ranges from increased jumpjet power to deployable automatic turrets . Only a small amount of equipment is available at the outset , but more becomes accessible as the game progresses . Between missions , the player may read e @-@ mails , news and military files , and a " library " that details the game 's setting .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Terra Nova is set in a science fictional depiction of the year 2327 and takes place in the Alpha Centauri star system . The setting 's early inspirations were the novels Starship Troopers and The Forever War , and PC Gamer UK compared it to that of the 1986 action film Aliens . Over two hundred years before the beginning of the game , Earth is subsumed by a world government called the Hegemony , whose " Publicanism " philosophy PC Zone summarized as " communism without the economic restrictions " . The Hegemony annexes colonies throughout the Solar System , but the inhabitants of Jupiter 's moons reach an agreement that allows them to relocate to Alpha Centauri , where they settle on the Earth @-@ like NewHope and the frozen Thatcher planets . The settlers divide into twelve " Clans " — each with a military " Strike Force " to defend against bandits — and create the Centauri Council to govern the system . Trade is established with the Hegemony . As the game begins , an elite Strike Force called Strike Force Centauri is formed in response to increasing pirate activity .
The protagonist of Terra Nova is Nikola ap Io , the squad leader of Strike Force Centauri . His older brother , Brandt ap Io , is one of his subordinates , and the two share a mutual animosity . Other members of the squad include Sarah Walker , the daughter of a Centauri Council member ; Ernest Schuyler , who is known for his sense of humor ; and the frank and abrasive Simon
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, as the ground that supports the bridge covers underground parking garages . The concrete base and box girder are flanked by a hollow stainless steel skeleton . Despite its hollow structure , and the fact that it is designed as a concealed beam bridge , the footbridge is built to highway standards and can support a full capacity load of pedestrians . The bridge is designed without standard handrails and uses waist @-@ high parapets as guard rails instead .
= = Construction = =
The bridge was built using 22 @-@ gauge stainless steel type 316 plates ( 0 @.@ 031 inches or 0 @.@ 79 millimeters thick ) , with an angel hair finish and a flat interlocking panel process . Stainless steel type 316 is known for its excellent welding characteristics , as well as for its resistance to pitting . According to the Chicago Tribune , the bridge materials used in construction include 2 @,@ 000 rot @-@ resistant Brazilian hardwood boards for the deck , 115 @,@ 000 stainless steel screws and 9 @,@ 800 stainless steel shingle plates . According to Architecture Metal Expertise , the bridge has " 10 @,@ 400 stainless steel trapezoidal panels in 17 different shop fabricated configurations [ which ] involved 1 @,@ 000 shop hours " . The sheet metal work totaled 5 @,@ 900 field hours over a six @-@ month period . During construction , about 200 shingles were installed per day . The bridge includes two types of structural steel : steel that is 2 @.@ 0 inches or 5 @.@ 1 centimetres thick and 20 @.@ 0 inches or 51 centimetres in diameter for the approaches and box girders for the span .
CATIA software was used to handle the complex geometric layout . To ensure accurate fitting and alignment to the sloping , curving sides of the bridge , 4 @,@ 400 custom @-@ made convex , concave and radiused cladding panels were fabricated on site by sheet metal contractor Custom Metal Fabricators ( CMF ) . CMF used 57 @,@ 000 square feet ( 5 @,@ 300 m2 ) of stainless steel sheet to cover the sides , which have a combined perimeter length of 1 @,@ 728 feet ( 526 @.@ 7 m ) . CMF built special heated enclosures so that work could continue on site through the winter . They designed , fabricated and installed custom type 4 brushed stainless steel parapets serving in the place of handrails on the bridge . CMF earned the 2005 Tom Guilfoy Memorial Architectural Sheet Metal Award , by the California chapter of the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors ' National Association for the project . In 2005 it received a Merit Award from the National Steel Bridge Alliance , and an Excellence in Structural Engineering award from the Structural Engineers Association of Illinois .
On the day that the two halves of the bridge were joined , each side of Columbus Drive was closed for a 12 @-@ hour period and a 360 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 320 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 330 t ) crane was used to install the girders . Before bringing the crane to the location , screw jacks were used to shore up the underground garage roof to hold the crane 's weight .
The landscaping surrounding the bridge was redesigned by landscape architect Terry Guen . Honey locusts , ash and maple trees were removed and replaced with three varieties of magnolia and more than two dozen ornamental and canopy trees along the eastern foot of the bridge in Daley Bicentennial Plaza . Other preliminary construction work included setting reinforcing rods for the bridge in the concrete roof deck of the parking garage located under the park .
= = Use and controversies = =
Before its official opening , the bridge had a May 22 , 2004 , private ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony attended by Gehry and Mayor Daley . During the weekend of the ribbon @-@ cutting , Gehry was awarded an honorary degree from the School of the Art Institute of Chicago . The BP Pedestrian Bridge officially opened , along with the rest of Millennium Park , on July 16 , 2004 . It remained unnamed at the ribbon @-@ cutting , but before the July park opening , energy firm BP had paid $ 5 million for the bridge sponsorship and naming rights .
Timothy Gilfoyle , author of Millennium Park : Creating a Chicago Landmark , notes that a controversy surrounds the " tasteless " corporate naming of several of the Park 's features , including the bridge , which was named after an oil company . It is well documented that naming rights were sold for high fees , and Gilfoyle was not the only one who chastised park officials for selling naming rights to the highest bidder . Public interest groups have crusaded against commercialization of Chicago parks . However , many of the donors have a long history of local philanthropy and the funds were essential to providing necessary financing for several features of the park .
After the park opened , some of the bridge 's foibles became apparent . The bridge has had to be closed during the winter because freezing conditions make it unsafe . Since the bridge is over an expressway @-@ like trench of Columbus Drive , shoveling the snow onto passing cars is not an option and the Brazilian hardwood would be damaged by rock salt . The city not only mandates that the bridge be swept and washed daily , but also that the parapets be wiped free of fingerprints .
The bridge has also had controversial closures in the summer , which were related to larger park concerns . On September 8 , 2005 , Toyota Motor Sales USA paid $ 800 @,@ 000 to rent the bridge and all but four venues in the park from 6 a.m. to 11 p.m. On August 7 , 2006 , Allstate paid $ 700 @,@ 000 to rent the bridge and most of the park for a day . The exclusion of commuters who normally walk through the park and tourists lured by its attractions was controversial , though the city said the money raised paid for free public programs in Millennium Park .
= = Aesthetics = =
The bridge is noted for its sculptural characteristics and Kamin describes it as a delightful pleasure that was designed to emphasize its artistic elements while de @-@ emphasizing its concrete and steel support system . The New York Times notes that the artist Anish Kapoor 's attempts to hide the seams of Cloud Gate were an interesting contrast to Gehry 's architectural efforts . Gehry took pride in making the BP Pedestrian Bridge flaunt its seams .
Beginning with Gehry 's earliest bridge designs , the bridge was expected to complement the neighboring Pritzker Pavilion . Some have suggested that the bridge and the pavilion are mere extensions of Gehry 's work in other cities . For example , according to Gilfoyle , both structures embody Gehry 's established asymmetrical style , evoking fluid , continuous motion and sculptural abstraction . They also feature metallic facades and aesthetic curves , but they are said to be more refined , reduced and dynamic than much of his other work .
Since the 1960s , Gehry has made artistic use of scaled animals such as fish and snakes , which first appeared in his architectural designs in the 1980s . Many references to the bridge describe it as snakelike for its winding path , and some even refer to the stainless steel plates as scales with discussion of reptilian forms . Kamin calls it " a bridge that resembles a giant silver snake , complete with a scaly skin " , while Gehry said he thought the bridge looked like a river , but added he might be the only one who thought that .
The way the bridge flows in a continuum of unexpected directions is a break from Gehry 's other work and other more traditional urban and architectural forms nearby . Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning architecture critic Kamin gave the bridge four stars ( out of a possible four ) in his review and admires how " computers have given Gehry unparalleled formal freedom " to design " the complexity of its geometry " and multidimensional curvatures . The bridge provides views of both the Historic Michigan Boulevard District and Lake Michigan in a way that Kamin says makes it a belvedere . Kamin also recommends anyone having a bad day to stroll across the bridge , adding , " You won 't get where you 're going quickly , but you 'll feel a whole lot better once you 're done . "
= = Credits = =
Commissioned by – The City of Chicago
Architect – Gehry Partners , LLP
Project manager – US Equities
Construction manager – URS Construction Services
Structural engineer – Skidmore , Owings and Merrill
Mechanical and electrical engineer – McDonough Associates
Contractor – Walsh Construction
Subcontractor – Permasteelisa Cladding Technologies Ltd .
Steel supplier – Littell Steel Company
Steel construction – Imperial Construction Associates
Sheet metal contractor – Custom Metal Fabricators Inc .
= Rare ( company ) =
Rare is a British video game developer located in Twycross , Leicestershire . The company was established in 1985 by Tim and Chris Stamper , founders of Ultimate Play the Game . During its early years , Rare was backed by an unlimited budget from Nintendo , primarily concentrated on Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) games . During this time they created successful titles such as Wizards & Warriors , Battletoads , and R.C. Pro @-@ Am . Rare became a prominent second @-@ party developer for Nintendo , who came to own a large minority stake of the company . During this period , Rare received international recognition and critical acclaim for games such as Donkey Kong Country , GoldenEye 007 , Banjo @-@ Kazooie , Perfect Dark , and Conker 's Bad Fur Day .
In 2002 , Microsoft acquired Rare , who retained their original brand , logo , and most intellectual properties . It has since focused on developing games exclusively for Microsoft Studios ' video game consoles . Notable releases include Kameo : Elements of Power , Perfect Dark Zero and Viva Piñata . In 2007 , founders Tim and Chris Stamper left the company to pursue " other opportunities " and , in 2010 , the company 's focus shifted to the Xbox Live Avatar and Kinect , releasing three different Kinect Sports games . In 2015 , Rare released Rare Replay , a compilation of 30 games produced by the company to celebrate their 30th anniversary . Rare is currently working on Sea of Thieves , a multiplayer adventure game .
Several key employees left Rare to form their own companies , such as Free Radical Design and Playtonic Games . Rare was widely recognised by the gaming industry and received numerous accolades from critics and journalists . Rare 's operation was often held off from critics , and the company is often described as secretive and seclusive .
= = History = =
= = = Founding ( 1985 – 1993 ) = = =
Rare evolved from Ashby Computers & Graphics Ltd , better known by the trade name Ultimate Play the Game , and founded in Ashby @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Zouch , Leicestershire by former arcade game developers Tim and Chris Stamper . After multiple critically and commercially successful releases including Jetpac , Atic Atac , Sabre Wulf , and Knight Lore , Ultimate Play The Game was among one of the biggest UK @-@ based video game development companies . The ZX Spectrum home computer , the platform the company usually developed games for , was only popular in the UK , and they believed that working on that platform would not be beneficial to the company 's growth as they considered it a " dead end " . Meanwhile , the company inspected an imported console from Japan , the Famicom , and believed that it would be an ideal future platform of choice for the company as it was more sophisticated than the Spectrum , had a worldwide market , and its cartridges had no load times . As a result , a new subdivision named Rare Ltd was established by Ashby Computers and Graphics Ltd in 1985 . Its main goal was to reverse @-@ engineer the console and investigate the codes for Famicom 's games to learn more about the console 's programming . With successful results , the company decided to sell the Ultimate brand to U.S. Gold , and ceased games development for the ZX Spectrum in the following year .
Famicom 's owner , Nintendo , once claimed that it would be impossible for their console to be decoded . Using the information the Ashby Computers and Graphics team learnt from the Rare division , the team prepared several tech demos and showed them to the Nintendo executive Minoru Arakawa in Kyoto . Impressed with their efforts , Nintendo decided to grant the Ashby team an unlimited budget for them to work on games for the Famicom platform . After they returned to England , they moved from Ashby @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Zouch to Twycross , and established a new studio using the name of the subdivision ; Rare . They set their headquarters in a Manor Farmhouse . Rare also set up another company known as Rare Inc . , in Miami , Florida . Headed by Joel Hochberg , the American company was involved in maintaining Rare 's operation in the US and contacting major US publishers . Famicom was eventually released in the UK under the name Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) .
With the unlimited budget , the Rare studio could work a large variety of different games . The first project Rare worked on was Slalom , an ice @-@ skiing title . The company then worked with various gaming publishers that included Tradewest , Acclaim Entertainment , Electronic Arts , Sega , Mindscape and Gametek to produce over 60 games for the NES and several additional Game Boy conversions . They helped in creating new and original intellectual properties , including R.C. Pro @-@ Am , a vehicular combat game with racing elements , and Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll , an action platform game with Tim Stamper developing the game 's graphics . Rare also developed Battletoads , a beat 'em up inspired by the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles franchise . The game became known for its extreme difficulty , and upon seeing success , publisher Tradewest published multiple ports for the game , and tasked Rare to develop sequels . Tradewest also gave their own Double Dragon licence to Rare , allowing them to develop a crossover game between the two franchises . Rare released three Battletoads games in 1993 , including Battletoads & Double Dragon : The Ultimate Team , Battletoads in Ragnarok 's World and Battletoads in Battlemaniacs . The last Battletoads game was released for the arcade . Several Battletoads games were also ported to Sega 's Mega Drive .
Rare worked on licensed properties such as A Nightmare on Elm Street and Hollywood Squares , and ports including Marble Madness , Narc , and Sid Meier 's Pirates ! . The development of four Rare 's games were outsourced to Zippo Games , including Wizards & Warriors and the third instalment of the Jetpac series , Solar Jetman : Hunt for the Golden Warship . Rare eventually acquired Zippo Games and renamed them to Rare Manchester . According to Ste Pickford , a Rare team member through the late 80s and the early 90s , Rare just " wanted to make as many games as they could in their ' window of opportunity ' " . However , despite the huge catalogue of games , none became a critical success for the company while less creativity and innovation were shown despite the games making large profits .
When the Super Nintendo Entertainment System was conceived , the Rare studio was not yet ready for the change . Rare limited their releases to some Battletoads games and decided to invest their significant NES profit in purchasing expensive Silicon Graphics workstations to make three @-@ dimensional models . This move made Rare the most technologically advanced developer in the UK , and situated them high in the international market . Their priority also changed at that time , as the team decided to focus on quality instead of quantity .
= = = Partnership with Nintendo ( 1994 – 2001 ) = = =
Rare , using the SGI systems , created a boxing game demo and presented it to Nintendo . As the SNES system at that time could not render all of the SGI graphics at once , Rare used the SGI graphics to produce 3D models and graphics , before pre @-@ rendering these graphics onto the cartridge of the SNES system , a process known as " Advanced Computer Modelling " . Their progress with the 3D graphics on the SGI systems impressed Nintendo , and in 1994 , Nintendo bought a 25 % stake in the company that gradually increased to 49 % , making Rare a second @-@ party developer for Nintendo . During this period , Rare started selling their games under the trademark name " Rareware " . The company was considered one of Nintendo 's key developers and had enough recognition that Nintendo offered the Rare studio the Nintendo catalogue of characters to create a 3D CGI game . The Stampers asked for Donkey Kong . The resulting game was Donkey Kong Country , which was developed by a total of 20 people and enjoyed a 18 @-@ month development cycle . Rare staff also visited Twycross Zoo , observing and videotaping real gorillas . The game was a critical success , with critics praising the game 's highly advanced visuals and artstyle . Donkey Kong Country sold over eight million copies worldwide , making it the second best @-@ selling game in the SNES library . The game received several Game of the Year honours and was followed by two sequels , Donkey Kong Country 2 : Diddy 's Kong Quest and Donkey Kong Country 3 : Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! , as well as several handheld spin @-@ offs such as the Donkey Kong Land series .
Nintendo 's stake purchase allowed Rare to expand significantly . The number of staff members increased from 84 to 250 , and Rare moved out from their headquarters at the Manor Farmhouse . Rare also developed a CGI arcade fighting game , Killer Instinct , on their own custom @-@ built arcade machine . Killer Instinct was set to be released for Nintendo 's own 64 @-@ bit system , the Nintendo 64 in 1995 , but was forced to release the game for the 16 @-@ bit SNES system , and had to downgrade the game 's graphics . Killer Instinct sold 3 @.@ 2 million copies , and was followed by a sequel , Killer Instinct 2 . Killer Instinct Gold , the console version of Killer Instinct 2 , suffered from a graphical downgrade due to the compression technology used to fit the arcade version onto the smaller Nintendo 64 cartridge .
Rare then developed Blast Corps for the Nintendo 64 . The game sold one million copies , which was considered disappointing by Rare . At that time , Rare was split into several teams , working on different projects . A large @-@ scaled platformer was set to be released afterwards but was delayed . As a result , Rare changed their schedule and released their smaller projects first . The first project was GoldenEye 007 , a game based on the titular film . The project was led by Martin Hollis and development was conducted by an inexperienced team . Inspired by Sega 's Virtua Cop , Goldeneye 007 had originally been an on @-@ rail shooter before the team decided to expand the gameplay and turn it into a free @-@ roaming first @-@ person shooter . New elements , such as stealth , headshot mechanics and reloading , were introduced . A split @-@ screen multiplayer was added to the game by the end of its development . GoldenEye 007 was the first console first @-@ person shooter developed by Rare and it was released two years after the release of the film . The game received very high critical praise and received numerous awards . It is often credited for having revolutionised the genre of first @-@ person shooting video games . Goldeneye 007 remained as one of the best @-@ selling games for two years , and sold more than eight million units worldwide .
Rare then developed Diddy Kong Racing , their first self @-@ published game . Originally intended as a real @-@ time strategy game involving cavemen , the game was re @-@ imagined into a racing game prior to its release in 1997 . It was one of the fastest selling games at the time , as recorded by The Guinness Book of Records . Diddy Kong Racing also features protagonists from some future Rare games , including Banjo and Conker . At the time , Rare was still working on the large @-@ scale platform game . Originally codenamed Dream : Land of Giants , it was a game featuring a young boy named Edison and pirates . The protagonist was then replaced by a bear known as Banjo , and Rare expanded the role of Kazooie the bird . The two characters were inspired by characters from Walt Disney Animation Studios films and Rare hoped that they can appeal to a younger audience . Banjo @-@ Kazooie was released in June 1998 to critical acclaim . A sequel , Banjo Tooie , was released in 2000 . It was a critical success and it outsold the first game , selling 3 million copies .
Upon the completion of Banjo @-@ Kazooie 's development , Hollis immediately began another project . Originally set to be a tie @-@ in for Tomorrow Never Dies , Rare was significantly outbid by another publisher , forcing Rare to develop a new concept with new characters . With a major emphasis on lighting , the game was named Perfect Dark . Hollis left Rare for Nintendo 14 months after the start of Perfect Dark 's development . Around the same time , numerous employees left the company and formed new studios . With major project leads departing , a new team took over its development and diminished the role of lighting in the game , making it a more straightforward first @-@ person shooter . Despite the game 's troubled development , it did not affect the progress of Rare 's other teams . When Perfect Dark was still in development , Rare released two other titles , Jet Force Gemini and Donkey Kong 64 . In 1999 , Nintendo signed an agreement with Disney , and assigned Rare to develop several racing and adventure games featuring Mickey Mouse . The project later became Mickey 's Speedway USA and Mickey Racing Adventure . Perfect Dark eventually resurfaced and it was released in 2000 to critical acclaim . The game sold approximately 2 million copies .
Conker the Squirrel also had its own game . Originally named Conker 's Quest , the title was renamed to Twelve Tales : Conker 64 . However , the new title was criticised for being too family @-@ friendly and too similar to Banjo @-@ Kazooie . As a result , the team renamed the game to Conker 's Bad Fur Day and was re @-@ revealed again in 2000 . Conker 's Bad Fur Day , unlike Banjo @-@ Kazooie , was intended for a mature audience , and features violence , profanity and scatological humour . The game received positive reviews from critics , but was a commercial failure as the game was released at the end of the Nintendo 64 's life cycle and the game was not actively promoted by Nintendo .
After the completion of Diddy Kong Racing , another team was working on a new game known as Dinosaur Planet for the Nintendo 64 . However , Shigeru Miyamoto , a Nintendo executive , demanded the team to recreate the game as a Star Fox title for Nintendo 's new console , the GameCube . Unlike previous Star Fox games , Star Fox Adventures focused on ground @-@ based open world exploration . The game received positive reviews upon its launch in 2002 . Star Fox Adventures was the only game developed by Rare for GameCube .
= = = Microsoft era ( 2002 – present ) = = =
Game development costs gradually increased , and Nintendo did not provide Rare with more capital nor did they purchase the company 's remaining stake . According to Rare founders Tim and Chris Stamper , they were surprised that Nintendo did not directly acquire the studio . Rare then looked for potential buyers . In early 2000 , workers from Activision and Microsoft began visiting Rare with purchase offers . Rare was interested in Activision 's offer , but the deal collapsed and on 24 September 2002 Microsoft paid $ 375 million for the company . Rare became a first @-@ party developer for Microsoft 's Xbox . Character trademarks from games developed by Rare for Nintendo consoles , such as Conker of Conker 's Bad Fur Day and Banjo of the Banjo @-@ Kazooie series , were retained by Rare ; intellectual property created by Nintendo , such as Donkey Kong and Star Fox , were retained by Nintendo . This left Donkey Kong Racing , due for release for the GameCube , unreleased . 30 employees left Rare during the transition .
Since Microsoft is currently not part of the handheld video @-@ game console market , Rare continued to develop games for Nintendo handheld consoles after the acquisition . In August 2003 Rare and Microsoft entered an agreement with THQ for Rare to publish games for the Game Boy Advance , including Sabre Wulf , a game based on an Ultimate character ; Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Grunty 's Revenge , initially intended as a Game Boy Color game and It 's Mr. Pants ! , a puzzle game originally developed as Donkey Kong : Coconut Crackers . January 2005 saw the completion of this deal with the release of Banjo @-@ Pilot , known as " Diddy Kong Pilot " before the Microsoft acquisition .
In 2003 Rare released their first Microsoft game , Grabbed by the Ghoulies , a humorous action @-@ adventure game set in a haunted mansion full of supernatural creatures . Originally intended as a free @-@ roaming game , it was significantly streamlined in design and concept to attract a larger , more casual audience . The game received mixed reviews from critics , and was considered Rare 's worst and least @-@ popular game . At E3 2004 , Microsoft 's Ken Lobb said that Rare had obtained Nintendo DS development kits and was working on two games for the Nintendo DS . Shortly afterwards , Microsoft issued a statement that the company and its studios had no plans for Nintendo DS development . However , in July 2005 Rare posted job openings for Nintendo DS development on its website and said that it was creating " key " DS titles . The first of these games was Diddy Kong Racing DS , a remake of the Nintendo 64 title Diddy Kong Racing which was released in February 2007 .
Rare released Conker : Live & Reloaded , a remake of Conker 's Bad Fur Day , in 2005 with updated graphics and a reworked multiplayer option . The game received generally @-@ favourable reviews but , similar to Bad Fur Day , was a commercial failure . Xbox successor Xbox 360 was released in 2005 , and two of its launch titles were developed by Rare : Perfect Dark Zero and Kameo : Elements of Power . Zero , a prequel to the first Perfect Dark , was originally intended for GameCube before its redesign as an Xbox 360 game . Rare removed several features to meet the game 's release deadline . Kameo : Elements of Power was also intended for the GameCube . A new intellectual property , in it the player character shape @-@ shifts to solve puzzles . Although both games received generally @-@ positive reviews from critics and sold more than a million copies , they were considered disappointments .
In 2006 the company released Viva Piñata , a game involving gardening . Incorporating elements of several franchises including The Sims , Animal Crossing , and Harvest Moon , it was acclaimed as innovative . The game 's commercial performance was a disappointment , however , and some Rare team members questioned Microsoft Studios ' large marketing budget for Gears of War and its relative neglect of Viva Piñata . On 2 January 2007 , Rare founders Chris and Tim Stamper left the company to " pursue other opportunities " . Former lead designer Gregg Mayles became Rare 's creative director and Mark Betteridge the company 's studio director . That year saw the release of Jetpac Refuelled , a remake of Jetpac for Xbox Live Arcade .
Rare unveiled their work on Xbox Live avatars , Viva Piñata : Trouble in Paradise ( the next instalment in the Viva Piñata series ) , and Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts in 2008 . Made by the core team that developed the first Banjo @-@ Kazooie , Nuts & Bolts received significant criticism from players due to its focus on vehicle construction rather than traditional platforming . Despite generally positive reviews , the company 's titles for Microsoft sold poorly and Microsoft decided to restructure the studio at the end of the decade . In March 2010 Rare opened a new facility at Fazeley Studios in Digbeth , Birmingham . Later that year Microsoft confirmed that Scott Henson , a developer who had worked on the hardware and software designs of the Xbox 360 console and Kinect for Xbox 360 , replaced Mark Betteridge as studio manager and announced a focus on Xbox Live avatars . Rare also shifted their focus to Kinect . According to Henson , " Kinect will be the main focus for Rare going forwards as it 's a very rich canvas . This is just the beginning of an experience that will touch millions of people " . Rare 's first Kinect project , Kinect Sports , was released in November 2010 . Originally titled Sports Star , a more @-@ complex sports simulation games , the game was streamlined into what Microsoft executive Don Mattrick hoped would be the Kinect equivalent of Wii Sports . According to a former Rare employee , the team was worried about the game during its development because of Kinect 's limitations . Despite average reviews it was a commercial success , selling three million units by May 2011 . Many non @-@ Kinect teams at Rare and BigPark , another Microsoft studio , collaborated on the development of sequel Kinect Sports : Season Two . Combining with the sales of the first Kinect Sports , the game sold more than 8 million copies .
In March 2011 Scott Henson announced that Craig Duncan , who had worked on Sonic & Sega All @-@ Stars Racing and the Colin McRae Rally series , was hired as senior studio director . Simon Woodroffe , who had worked at several studios ( including Adventure Soft , Midway Games , Ubisoft , and Sega ) , became the studio 's creative director in April 2012 . A Rare property , Killer Instinct , was revived in 2013 . The company had a supporting role in its development , assisting lead developer Double Helix Games . Another Rare mascot , Conker , was also featured in another Microsoft game , Project Spark as episodic downloadable content . Known as Conker 's Big Reunion , it was cancelled in 2015 .
Rare released Kinect Sports Rivals in 2014 . The game was worked on by 150 staff members and a new game engine was developed for it . The game was a commercial failure and following Microsoft 's announcement that Kinect would no longer be a priority , about 15 Rare employees were laid off . On 10 February 2015 a group of former Rare employees announced the formation of a new studio , Playtonic Games , and planned a " spiritual successor " to the Banjo @-@ Kazooie franchise entitled Yooka @-@ Laylee . According to Rare composer Robin Beanland , the year 2015 would be significant for the company . At E3 2015 , a new compilation game , Rare Replay celebrating the studio 's 30th anniversary , was introduced ; it was released in August . The compilation , with 30 of the studio 's published titles , lacked some popular Rare franchises , including Donkey Kong and Goldeneye 007 , due to licensing issues with Nintendo . Rare Replay became the most pre @-@ ordered game shown at E3 that year and received critical acclaim upon launch . A new game , Sea of Thieves , which was a multiplayer adventure game marketed as " The Best Game That Rare Has Ever Made " , was introduced at E3 that year .
= = Culture = =
According to Mark Betteridge , one of Rare 's main goals is to create games people will find enjoyable rather than just to earn profit . The Stamper brothers gave the team considerable creative freedom , although they would intervene if a product was technically flawed or under @-@ performing . Some employees noted that working for Rare in its early days could be difficult , with staff members allowed 30 minutes for lunch and possibly working more than 60 hours a week . Nintendo worked closely with Rare , and their relationship was described as a " creative partnership " by Viva Piñata designer Justin Cook . According to Hansen in 2010 , innovation is very important to the company , thus they focus on trying out new technology , such as Xbox 360 's Kinect . According to Duncan in 2014 , Rare would only develop games that had unique ideas , and will never develop a generic game with their owned intellectual properties .
Ed Fries , head of Microsoft Studios ' publishing division at the time of acquisition , said that the company attempted to preserve Rare 's culture so its staff could continue feeling that they worked for Rare rather than Microsoft . Rare employees differed about working conditions after the Microsoft acquisition . According to Star Fox Adventures lead engineer Phil Tossell , conditions became more stressful after an " imperceptible " start , and that the culture of the two companies began clashing with each other . Tossell said that Microsoft gradually imposed a corporate structure on Rare , including more performance reviews and meetings , to which some Rare members found difficulty in adapting . Some admitted that early changes , such as permitting team members to discuss projects they were not working on and allowing staff members to use the internet or listen to music during work hours , were beneficial to team morale . Betteridge called the overall change " positive " , saying that Microsoft 's capital could help Rare develop their projects . Former Rare employee Gavin Price said that some Microsoft executives , such as Phil Spencer , were supportive of the developer . Grant Kirkhope , a former composer at Rare , strongly criticized Microsoft for ruining Rare . Fansite Rare @-@ Extreme documented a day in the life at Rare in 2008 with two employees showing a 9 till 5 work schedule . Former Xbox executive Peter Moore voiced his disappointment with Rare 's works after the acquisition . He noted that Rare employees were attempting to " recreate the glory years " , but their skills had become outdated and were no longer " applicable in today 's market " . Duncan insisted that there were still a lot of talented people working at Rare , and they will have a " bright future " .
Unlike other software developers , Rare acquired a reputation for secrecy ; the approach to their office buildings , in Manor Park near Twycross , is monitored by cameras . Web video shows have been granted access in recent years , such as Eurogamer in November 2006 . The company is internally divided , operating slightly differently from other software houses . According to Tim Stamper ,
Rare has a different philosophy . We don 't really have much contact with other game development companies and we just do things the way they 've evolved . We try to employ people who are great games players and games enthusiasts and they 're really interested in seeing the other games we 're developing in the Company , so it 's really a group of games enthusiasts all working together to produce the best games they can – that 's Rare .
Despite its secrecy , Rare allowed several exclusive tours of its studio by fan sites Rarenet in 1999 and Rare @-@ Extreme in 2004 and again in 2009 . In 2010 , Rare declined an offer by fansite MundoRare to film a documentary about their studios at MundoRare 's expense . The film , to celebrate Rare 's 25th anniversary , would have been distributed on the internet and Xbox Live . Rare refused permission to shoot this film , saying that it was not " on message " . Mundorare was shut down , and stated that the site could not support the company 's new corporate direction . Rare 's secrecy was criticised by Hardcore Gamer 's Alex Carlson , as they thought that it made them " disconnected " , and prompted them to develop games that " their fans don ’ t want " .
= = Related companies = =
Around 1997 , a number of Rare employees left to establish separate companies . The first was Eighth Wonder , underwritten by Sony Computer Entertainment Europe , which did not produce any games before it closed . After Martin Hollis left Rare , he joined Nintendo before founding his own company Zoonami , releasing Zendoku , Go ! Puzzle and Bonsai Barber . Other Perfect Dark team members , including David Doak and Steve Ellis , founded Free Radical Design and created the TimeSplitters series . It was acquired by Crytek and renamed Crytek UK before its 2014 closure , with most of its staff moving to Deep Silver Dambuster Studios .
Former Free Radical and Rare staff also formed Crash Labs , a studio specialising in developing iOS games . Chris Seavor , director of Conker 's Bad Fur Day , founded the Gory Detail studio and released 2D platform game The Unlikely Legend of Rusty Pup . Starfire Studios were founded by four former Rare employees and released Fusion Genesis , an Xbox Live Arcade title published by Microsoft Game Studios . Another group of former Rare employees formed a mobile @-@ game studio , Flippin Pixels . Former Rare employee Lee Schuneman headed Lift London , a Microsoft studio . Phil Tossell and Jennifer Schneidereit founded Nyamyam and released Tengami . Playtonic Games was founded by several former Rare employees ; their first project is Yooka @-@ Laylee , a spiritual successor to Banjo @-@ Kazooie . Chris and Tim Stamper joined FortuneFish , a mobile game company founded by Tim Stamper 's son , Joe Stamper . Their first game is That Bouncy Thing ! The Rubbishiest Game Ever for Android .
= = Games = =
Rare has developed a number of video games since its founding , with sales nearing 90 million copies by 2002 . The company is best known for its platform games , which include the Donkey Kong Country , Banjo @-@ Kazooie , and Conker series , and for its Nintendo 64 first @-@ person shooters GoldenEye 007 and Perfect Dark . Rare does not adhere to a few specific video @-@ game genres . They have also developed action @-@ adventure games , including Star Fox Adventures and Kameo : Elements of Power ; fighting games , such as the Killer Instinct series ; racing games , such as R.C. Pro @-@ Am and Diddy Kong Racing , and beat ' em up @-@ shoot ' em up games such as Battletoads and Captain Skyhawk . Since Rare has usually been associated with a video @-@ game console manufacturer ( such as Nintendo and Microsoft ) , most of their titles have been developed for a particular platform . Since E3 2015 , Rare has been working on Sea of Thieves , a pirate @-@ themed MMO for Xbox One and Windows 10 .
The company 's cancelled projects include Dream : Land of Giants , which became Banjo @-@ Kazooie ; Perfect Dark Core , originally the sequel of the first Perfect Dark ; Black Widow , an open world game that tasks players to control an eight @-@ legged robot ; Sundown , which featured a horde @-@ like survival mode ; The Fast And The Furriest , a mascot racer ; Tailwind , an action game featuring helicopters ; Urchin , a Fable @-@ style game which began development after the completion of Live & Reloaded ; Ordinary Joe ; Savannah , a Kinect @-@ based game ; Kinect equivalents of Wii Fit and Professor Layton , a sequel to Diddy Kong Racing , and a sequel to Kameo : Elements of Power .
= = Awards = =
Rare received numerous awards , including BAFTA award for " Best UK Developer " for its work on GoldenEye 007 . Rare was awarded the BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Moving Images Award for 2000 , for developing Perfect Dark . Conker 's Bad Fur Day won the 2001 BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Award for sound , Kinect Sports : Season Two won the BAFTA award for Best Sports / Fitness . Tim and Chris Stamper were named as Development Legends in the 2015 Develop Industry Excellence Awards . Rare was included as Gamasutra 's Top 30 Developers of All Time of all time , and was ranked as the 36th best video game maker by IGN .
= Willamette River =
The Willamette River ( / wᵻˈlæmᵻt / wil @-@ LAM @-@ it ) is a major tributary of the Columbia River , accounting for 12 to 15 percent of the Columbia 's flow . The Willamette 's main stem is 187 miles ( 301 km ) long , lying entirely in northwestern Oregon in the United States . Flowing northward between the Oregon Coast Range and the Cascade Range , the river and its tributaries form the Willamette Valley , a basin that contains two @-@ thirds of Oregon 's population , including the state capital , Salem , and the state 's largest city , Portland , which surrounds the Willamette 's mouth at the Columbia .
Originally created by plate tectonics about 35 million years ago and subsequently altered by volcanism and erosion , the river 's drainage basin was significantly modified by the Missoula Floods at the end of the most recent ice age . Humans began living in the watershed over 10 @,@ 000 years ago . There were once many tribal villages along the lower river and in the area around its mouth on the Columbia . Indigenous peoples lived throughout the upper reaches of the basin as well .
Rich with sediments deposited by flooding and fed by prolific rainfall on the western side of the Cascades , the Willamette Valley is one of the most fertile agricultural regions in North America , and was thus the destination of many 19th @-@ century pioneers traveling west along the Oregon Trail . The river was an important transportation route in the 19th century , although Willamette Falls , just upstream from Portland , was a major barrier to boat traffic . In the 21st century , major highways follow the river , and roads cross it on more than 50 bridges .
Since 1900 , more than 15 large dams and many smaller ones have been built in the Willamette 's drainage basin , and 13 of them are operated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) . The dams are used primarily to produce hydroelectricity , to maintain reservoirs for recreation , and to prevent flooding . The river and its tributaries support 60 fish species , including many species of salmon and trout ; this is despite the dams , other alterations , and pollution ( especially on the river 's lower reaches ) . Part of the Willamette Floodplain was established as a National Natural Landmark in 1987 and the river was named as one of 14 American Heritage Rivers in 1998 .
= = Course = =
The upper tributaries of the Willamette originate in the mountains south and southeast of Eugene , Oregon . Formed by the confluence of the Middle Fork Willamette River and the Coast Fork Willamette River near Springfield , the main stem Willamette meanders generally north for 187 miles ( 301 km ) to the Columbia River . The river 's two most significant course deviations occur at Newberg , where it turns sharply east , and about 18 miles ( 29 km ) downstream from Newberg , where it turns north again . Near its mouth north of downtown Portland , the river splits into two channels that flow around Sauvie Island . Used for navigation purposes , these channels are managed by the U.S. federal government . The main channel , which is 40 feet ( 12 m ) deep and varies in width from 600 to 1 @,@ 900 feet ( 180 to 580 m ) ( although the river broadens to 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) in some of its lower reaches ) , enters the Columbia about 101 miles ( 163 km ) from the larger river 's mouth on the Pacific Ocean . The channel forms the primary navigational conduit for Portland 's harbor and riverside industrial areas . The smaller Multnomah Channel , a distributary , is 21 miles ( 34 km ) long , about 600 feet ( 180 m ) wide , and 40 feet ( 12 m ) deep . It ends about 14 @.@ 5 miles ( 23 @.@ 3 km ) further downstream on the Columbia , near St. Helens in Columbia County .
Proposals have been made for deepening the Multnomah Channel to 43 feet ( 13 m ) in conjunction with roughly 103 @.@ 5 miles ( 166 @.@ 6 km ) of tandem @-@ maintained navigation on the Columbia River . Between the 1850s and the 1960s , channel @-@ straightening and flood control projects , as well as agricultural and urban encroachment , cut the length of the river between the McKenzie River confluence and Harrisburg by 65 percent . Similarly , the river was shortened by 40 percent in the stretch between Harrisburg and Albany .
Interstate 5 and three branches of Oregon Route 99 are the two major highways that follow the river for its entire length . Communities along the main stem include Springfield and Eugene in Lane County ; Harrisburg in Linn County ; Corvallis in Benton County ; Albany in Linn and Benton counties ; Salem in Marion County ; Newberg in Yamhill County ; Oregon City , West Linn , Milwaukie , and Lake Oswego in Clackamas County ; and Portland in Multnomah and Washington counties . Significant tributaries from source to mouth include the Middle and Coast forks and the McKenzie , Long Tom , Marys , Calapooia , Santiam , Luckiamute , Yamhill , Molalla , Tualatin , and Clackamas rivers .
Beginning at 438 feet ( 134 m ) above sea level , the main stem descends 428 feet ( 130 m ) between source and mouth , or about 2 @.@ 3 feet per mile ( 0 @.@ 4 m per km ) . The gradient is slightly steeper from the source to Albany than it is from Albany to Oregon City . At Willamette Falls , between West Linn and Oregon City , the river plunges about 40 feet ( 12 m ) . For the rest of its course , the river is extremely low @-@ gradient and is affected by Pacific Ocean tidal effects from the Columbia . The main stem of the Willamette varies in width from about 330 to 660 feet ( 100 to 200 m ) .
= = = Discharge = = =
With an average flow at the mouth of about 37 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 1 @,@ 060 m3 / s ) , the Willamette ranks 19th in volume among rivers in the United States and contributes 12 to 15 percent of the total flow of the Columbia River . The Willamette 's flow varies considerably season to season , averaging about 8 @,@ 200 cubic feet per second ( 230 m3 / s ) in August to more than 79 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 2 @,@ 200 m3 / s ) in December .
The U.S. Geological Survey ( USGS ) operates five stream gauges along the river , at Harrisburg , Corvallis , Albany , Salem , and Portland . The average discharge at the lowermost gauge , near the Morrison Bridge in Portland , was 33 @,@ 220 cubic feet per second ( 941 m3 / s ) between 1972 and 2013 . Located at river mile ( RM ) 12 @.@ 8 or river kilometer ( RK ) 20 @.@ 6 , the gauge measures the flow from an area of 11 @,@ 200 square miles ( 29 @,@ 000 km2 ) , roughly 97 percent of the Willamette basin . The highest flow recorded at this station was 420 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 11 @,@ 893 m3 / s ) on February 9 , 1996 , during the Willamette Valley Flood of 1996 , and the minimum was 4 @,@ 200 cubic feet per second ( 120 m3 / s ) on July 10 , 1978 . The highest recorded flow of 635 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 18 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) for the Willamette at a different gauge in Portland occurred during a flood in 1861 . This and many other large flows preceded the Flood Control Act of 1936 and dam construction on the Willamette 's major tributaries .
The river below Willamette Falls , 26 @.@ 5 miles ( 42 @.@ 6 km ) from the mouth , is affected by semidiurnal tides , and gauges have detected reverse flows ( backwards river flows ) upstream from Ross Island at RM 15 ( RK 24 ) . The National Weather Service issues tide forecasts for the river at the Morrison Bridge .
= = Geology = =
The Willamette River basin was created primarily by plate tectonics and volcanism and was altered by erosion and sedimentation , including some related to enormous glacial floods as recent as 13 @,@ 000 years ago . The initial trough @-@ like configuration was created about 35 million years ago as a forearc basin while the Pacific Plate subducted beneath the North American Plate . Marine deposits on top of older volcanics underlie the valley , which was initially part of the continental shelf , rather than a separate inland sea . About 20 to 16 million years ago , uplift formed the Coast Range and separated the basin from the Pacific Ocean .
Basalts of the Columbia River Basalt Group , from eruptions in eastern Oregon , flowed across large parts of the northern half of the basin about 15 million years ago . They covered the Tualatin Mountains ( West Hills ) , most of the Tualatin Valley , and the slopes of hills further south , with up to 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of lava . Later depositions covered the basalt with up to 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of silt in the Portland and Tualatin basins . During the Pleistocene , beginning roughly 2 @.@ 5 million years ago , volcanic activity in the Cascades combined with a cool , moist climate to produce further heavy sedimentation across the basin ; braided rivers created alluvial fans spreading down from the east .
Between about 15 @,@ 500 and 13 @,@ 000 years ago , the Missoula Floods — a series of large outpourings originating at Glacial Lake Missoula in Montana — swept down the Columbia River and backfilled the Willamette watershed . Each flood produced " discharges that exceeded the annual discharge of all the present @-@ day rivers of the world combined " . Filling the Willamette basin to depths of 400 feet ( 120 m ) in the Portland region , each flood created a temporary lake , Lake Allison , that stretched from Lake Oswego to near Eugene . The ancestral Tualatin Valley , part of the Willamette basin , flooded as well ; water depths ranged from 200 feet ( 61 m ) at Lake Oswego to 100 feet ( 30 m ) as far upstream ( west ) as Forest Grove . Flood deposits of silt and clay , ranging in thickness from 115 feet ( 35 m ) in the north to about 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in the south , settled from this muddy water to form today 's valley floor . The floods carried Montana icebergs well into the basin , where they melted and dropped glacial erratics on the land 's surface . These rocks , composed of granite and other materials common to central Montana but not to the Willamette Valley , include more than 40 boulders , each at least 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) in diameter . Before being partly chipped away and removed , the largest of these originally weighed about 160 short tons ( 150 t ) .
The northern part of the watershed is underlain by a network of faults capable of producing earthquakes at any time , and many small quakes have been recorded in the basin since the mid @-@ 19th century . In 1993 , the Scotts Mills earthquake — the largest recent earthquake in the valley , measuring 5 @.@ 6 on the Richter scale — was centered near Scotts Mills , about 34 miles ( 55 km ) south of Portland . It caused $ 30 million in damage , including harm to the Oregon State Capitol in Salem . Evidence suggests that massive quakes of 8 or more on the Richter scale have occurred historically in the Cascadia subduction zone off the Oregon coast , most recently in 1700 CE , and that others as strong as 9 on the Richter scale occur every 500 to 800 years . The basin 's high population density , its nearness to this subduction zone , and its loose soils , which tend to amplify shaking , make the Willamette Valley especially vulnerable to damage from strong earthquakes .
= = Watershed = =
The Willamette River drains a region of 11 @,@ 478 square miles ( 29 @,@ 730 km2 ) , which is 12 percent of the total area of Oregon . Bounded by the Coast Range to the west and the Cascade Range to the east , the river basin is about 180 miles ( 290 km ) long and 100 miles ( 160 km ) wide . Elevations within the watershed range from 10 @,@ 495 feet ( 3 @,@ 199 m ) at Mount Jefferson in the Cascade Range to 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) at the mouth on the Columbia River . Watersheds bordering the Willamette River basin are those of the Little Deschutes River to the southeast , the Deschutes River to the east , and the Sandy River to the northeast ; the North Umpqua and Umpqua rivers to the south ; coastal rivers including ( from south to north ) the Siuslaw , the Alsea , the Yaquina , the Siletz , the Nestucca , the Trask , and the Wilson to the west ; the Nehalem and the Clatskanie to the northwest , and the Columbia River to the north .
About 2 @.@ 5 million people lived in the Willamette River basin as of 2010 , about 65 percent of the population of Oregon . As of 2009 , the basin contained 20 of the 25 most populous cities in Oregon . These cities include Springfield , Eugene , Corvallis , Albany , Salem , Keizer , Newberg , Oregon City , West Linn , Milwaukie , Lake Oswego , and Portland . The largest is Portland , with more than 500 @,@ 000 residents . Other cities in the watershed ( but not on the main @-@ stem river ) with populations of 20 @,@ 000 or more are Gresham , Hillsboro , Beaverton , Tigard , McMinnville , Tualatin , Woodburn , and Forest Grove .
Sixty @-@ four percent of the watershed is privately owned , while 36 percent is publicly owned . The U.S. Forest Service manages 30 percent of the watershed , the U.S. Bureau of Land Management 5 percent , and the State of Oregon 1 percent . Sixty @-@ eight percent of the watershed is forested ; agriculture , concentrated in the Willamette Valley , makes up 19 percent , and urban areas cover 5 percent . More than 81 @,@ 000 miles ( 130 @,@ 000 km ) of roads criss @-@ cross the watershed .
In 1987 , the U.S. Secretary of the Interior designated 713 acres ( 289 ha ) of the watershed in Benton County as a National Natural Landmark . This area is the Willamette Floodplain , the largest remaining unplowed native grassland in the North Pacific geologic province , which encompasses most of the Pacific Northwest coast .
= = History = =
= = = First inhabitants = = =
For at least 10 @,@ 000 years , a variety of indigenous peoples populated the Willamette Valley . These included the Kalapuya , the Chinook , and the Clackamas . The territory of the Clackamas encompassed the northeastern portion of the basin , including the Clackamas River ( with which their name is shared ) . Although it is unclear exactly when , the territory of the Chinook once extended across the northern part of the watershed , through the Columbia River valley . Indigenous peoples of the Willamette Valley were further divided into groups including the Yamhill , Atfalati ( Tualatin ) , Molala , Santiam , Chuchsney @-@ Tufti , Muddy Creek , Long Tom , Yoncalla , Siuslaw , Calapooia , Chepenafa and Luckiamute , many of which were part of the larger Kalapuya group . The name Willamette is of indigenous origin , deriving from the French pronunciation of the name of a Clackamas Native American village . However , Native American languages in Oregon were very similar , so the name may also be derived from Kalapuya dialects .
Around the year 1850 , the Kalapuya numbered between 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 and were distributed among several groups . These figures are only speculative ; there may have been as few as eight subgroups or as many as 16 . In that time period , the Clackamas ' tribal population was roughly 1 @,@ 800 . The U.S. Census Bureau estimated that the Chinook population was nearly 5 @,@ 000 , though not all of the Chinook lived on the Willamette . The Chinook territory encompassed the lower Columbia River valley and significant stretches of the Pacific coast on both the north and the south side of the Columbia 's mouth . At times , however , the Chinook territory extended even farther south in the Willamette Valley . The total native population was estimated at about 15 @,@ 000 .
The indigenous peoples of the Willamette River practiced a variety of life ways . Those on the lower river , slightly closer to the coast , often relied on fishing as their primary economic mainstay . Salmon was the most important fish to Willamette River tribes as well as to the Native Americans of the Columbia River , where white traders traded fish with the Native Americans . Upper @-@ river tribes caught steelhead and salmon , often by building weirs across tributary streams . Tribes of the northern Willamette Valley practiced a generally settled lifestyle . The Chinooks lived in great wooden lodges , practiced slavery , and had a well @-@ defined caste system . People of the south were more nomadic , traveling from place to place with the seasons . They were known for the controlled burning of woodlands to create meadows for hunting and plant gathering ( especially camas ) .
= = = Fur trade = = =
The Willamette River first appears in the records of outsiders in 1792 , when it was seen by British Lieutenant William Robert Broughton of the Vancouver Expedition , led by George Vancouver . From the 18th to the mid @-@ 19th century , much of the Pacific Northwest and most of its rivers were involved in the fur trade , in which fur trappers ( mostly French @-@ Canadians working for the Hudson 's Bay Company and the North West Company , which later merged ) hunted for beaver and sea otter on rivers , streams , and coastlines . The pelts of these animals commanded substantial prices in either the United States , Canada or eastern Asia , because of their " thick , luxurious and water @-@ repellent " qualities .
Fur traders heavily exploited the Willamette River and its tributaries . During this period , the Siskiyou Trail ( or California @-@ Oregon Trail ) was created . This trading path , over 600 miles ( 970 km ) long , stretched from the mouth of the Willamette River near present @-@ day Portland south through the Willamette Valley , crossing the Cascades and the Siskiyou Mountains , and south through the Sacramento Valley to San Francisco .
= = = 19th @-@ century development = = =
In 1805 , the Lewis and Clark Expedition traveled thousands of miles across central North America in an attempt to map and explore the Louisiana Territory of the United States and the Oregon Country , which were then occupied mainly by Native Americans and settlers from Great Britain . As the expedition traveled down and back up the Columbia River , it missed the mouth of the Willamette , one of the Columbia 's largest tributaries . It was only after receiving directions from natives along the Sandy River that the explorers learned about their oversight . William Clark returned down the Columbia and entered the Willamette River in April 1806 . The United States Exploring Expedition passed through the Willamette Valley in 1841 while traveling along the Siskiyou Trail . The expedition members noted extensive salmon fishing by natives at Willamette Falls , much like that at Celilo Falls on the Columbia River .
In the middle part of the 19th century , the Willamette Valley 's fertile soils , pleasant climate , and abundant water attracted thousands of settlers from the eastern United States , mainly the Upland South borderlands of Missouri , Iowa , and the Ohio Valley . Many of these emigrants followed the Oregon Trail , a 2 @,@ 170 @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 490 km ) trail across western North America that began at Independence , Missouri , and ended at various locations near the mouth of the Willamette River . Although people had been traveling to Oregon since 1836 , large @-@ scale migration did not begin until 1843 , when nearly 1 @,@ 000 pioneers headed westward . Over the next 25 years , some 500 @,@ 000 settlers traveled the Oregon Trail , braving the rapids of the Snake and Columbia Rivers to reach the Willamette Valley .
Starting in the 1820s , Oregon City developed near Willamette Falls . It was incorporated in 1844 , becoming the first city west of the Rocky Mountains to have that distinction . John McLoughlin , a Hudson 's Bay Company ( HBC ) official , was one of the major contributors to the founding of the town in 1829 . McLoughlin attempted to persuade the British government ( which still held sway over the area ) to allow American settlers to live on the land , and provided significant help to American colonization of the area , all against the HBC 's orders . Oregon City prospered because of the paper mills that were run by the water power of Willamette Falls , but the falls formed an impassable barrier to river navigation . Linn City ( originally Robins Nest ) was established across the Willamette from Oregon City .
After Portland was incorporated in 1851 , quickly growing into Oregon 's largest city , Oregon City gradually lost its importance as the economic and political center of the Willamette Valley . Beginning in the 1850s , steamboats began to ply the Willamette , despite the fact that they could not pass Willamette Falls . As a result , navigation on the Willamette River was divided into two stretches : the 27 @-@ mile ( 43 km ) lower stretch from Portland to Oregon City — which allowed connection with the rest of the Columbia River system — and the upper reach , which encompassed most of the Willamette 's length . Any boats whose owners found it absolutely necessary to get past the falls had to be portaged . This led to competition for business among steam portage companies . In 1873 , the construction of the Willamette Falls Locks bypassed the falls and allowed easy navigation between the upper and lower river . Each lock chamber measured 210 feet ( 64 m ) long and 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide , and the canal was originally operated manually before it switched to electrical power . Today , the lock system is little used .
As commerce and industry flourished on the lower river , most of the original settlers acquired farms in the upper Willamette Valley . By the late 1850s , farmers had begun to grow crops on most of the available fertile land . The settlers increasingly encroached on Native American lands . Skirmishes between natives and settlers in the Umpqua and Rogue valleys to the southwest of the Willamette River led the Oregon state government to remove the natives by military force . They were first led off their traditional lands to the Willamette Valley , but soon were marched to the Coast Indian Reservation . In 1855 , Joel Palmer , an Oregon legislator , negotiated a treaty with the Willamette Valley tribes , who , although unhappy with the treaty , ceded their lands to non @-@ natives . The natives were then relocated by the government to a part of the Coast Reservation that later became the Grande Ronde Reservation .
Between 1879 and 1885 , the Willamette River was charted by Cleveland S. Rockwell , a topographical engineer and cartographer for the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey . Rockwell surveyed the lower Willamette from the foot of Ross Island through Portland to the Columbia River and then downstream on the Columbia to Bachelor Island . Rockwell 's survey was extremely detailed , including 17 @,@ 782 hydrographic soundings . His work helped open the port of Portland to commerce .
In the second half of the 19th century , the USACE dredged channels and built locks and levees in the Willam
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ette 's watershed . Although products such as lumber were often transported on an existing network of railroads in Oregon , these advances in navigation helped businesses deliver more goods to Portland , feeding the city 's growing economy . Trade goods from the Columbia basin north of Portland could also be transported southward on the Willamette due to the deeper channels made at the Willamette 's mouth .
= = = 20th and 21st centuries = = =
By the early 20th century , major river @-@ control projects had begun to take place . Levees were constructed along the river in most urban areas , and Portland built concrete walls to protect its downtown sector . In the following decades , many large dams were built on Cascade Range tributaries of the Willamette . The Army Corps of Engineers operates 13 such dams , which affect flows from about 40 percent of the basin . Most of them do not have fish ladders .
With development in and near the river came increased pollution . By the late 1930s , efforts to stem the pollution led to formation of a state sanitary board to oversee modest cleanup efforts . In the 1960s , Oregon Governor Tom McCall led a push for stronger pollution controls on the Willamette . To enhance historical , natural , and recreational values along the river , the Oregon State Legislature established the Willamette Greenway program in 1967 . Through it , state and local governments cooperated in creating or improving a system of parks , trails , and wildlife refuges along the river . In 1998 , the Willamette became one of 14 rivers designated an American Heritage River by former U.S. President Bill Clinton . By 2007 the Greenway had grown to include more than 170 separate land parcels , including 10 state parks . Public uses of the river and land along its shores include camping , swimming , fishing , boating , hiking , bicycling , and wildlife viewing .
A 1991 agreement between the City of Portland and the State of Oregon to dramatically reduce combined sewer overflows ( CSOs ) led to Portland 's Big Pipe Project . The project , part of a related series of Portland CSO projects completed in late 2011 at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 44 billion , separates the city 's sanitary sewer lines from storm @-@ water inputs that sometimes overwhelmed the combined system during heavy rains . When that occurred , some of the raw sewage in the system flowed into the river instead of into the city 's wastewater treatment plant . The Big Pipe project and related work reduces CSO volume on the lower river by about 94 percent .
= = Dams and bridges = =
= = = Dams = = =
There are more than 20 major dams on the Willamette 's tributaries , as well as a complex series of levees , dikes , and channels to control the river 's flow .
The only dam on the Willamette 's main stem is the Willamette Falls Dam , a low weir @-@ type structure at Willamette Falls that diverts water into the headraces of the adjacent mills and a power plant . The locks at Willamette Falls were completed in 1873 . Elsewhere on the main stem , numerous minor flow @-@ regulation structures force the river into a narrower and deeper channel to facilitate navigation and flood control .
The dams on the Willamette 's major tributaries are primarily large flood @-@ control , water storage , and power @-@ generating dams . Thirteen of these dams were built from the 1940s through the 1960s to be operated by the United States Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) , and 11 of those produce hydropower . Flood @-@ control dams operated by the USACE are estimated to hold up to 27 percent of the Willamette 's runoff . They are used to regulate river flows so as to cut peaks off floods and increase low flows in late summer and autumn , and to divert water into deeper , narrower channels to prevent flooding . In addition , a relatively small of amount of the water stored in the reservoirs is used for irrigation .
Detroit Dam on the North Santiam River is the second tallest dam in the Willamette River basin after Cougar Dam . It is 463 feet ( 141 m ) high and stores 455 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 561 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of water . Lookout Point Dam on the Middle Fork Willamette River , forming Lookout Point Lake , has the largest water storage capacity , at 477 @,@ 700 acre feet ( 589 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 m3 ) . The other 11 dams are Big Cliff on the North Santiam River ; Green Peter and Foster on the Santiam River ; Cougar on the South Fork McKenzie River ; Blue River on the Blue River ; Fern Ridge on the Long Tom River ; Hills Creek , Dexter on the Middle Fork Willamette River ; Fall Creek on Fall Creek ; Cottage Grove on the Coast Fork Willamette River , and Dorena on the Row River .
Other major dams in the Willamette watershed are owned by other interests ; for example , several hydroelectric facilities on the Clackamas River are owned by Portland General Electric . They include the River Mill Hydroelectric Project , the Oak Grove project , and the dam at Timothy Lake .
= = = Bridges = = =
The 50 or so crossings of the Willamette River include many historic structures , such as the Van Buren Street Bridge , a swing bridge . Built in 1913 , it carries Oregon Route 34 ( Corvallis – Lebanon Highway ) over the river upstream of RM 131 ( RK 211 ) in Corvallis . The machinery to operate the swing span was removed in the 1950s . The Oregon City Bridge , built in 1922 , replaced a suspension span constructed at the site in 1888 . It carries Oregon Route 43 over the river at about RM 26 ( RK 42 ) between Oregon City and West Linn .
The Ross Island Bridge carries U.S. Route 26 ( Mount Hood Highway ) over the river at RM 14 ( RK 23 ) . It is one of 10 highway bridges crossing the river in Portland . The 3 @,@ 700 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) bridge is the only cantilevered deck truss in Oregon .
Tilikum Crossing is a 1 @,@ 720 @-@ foot ( 520 m ) cable @-@ stayed bridge that carries public transit , bicycles , and pedestrians but no cars or trucks over the river . It opened for general use on September 12 , 2015 , becoming the first new bridge built across the river in the Portland metropolitan area since 1973 .
Further downstream is the oldest remaining highway structure over the Willamette , the Hawthorne Bridge , built in 1910 . It is the oldest vertical @-@ lift bridge in operation in the United States and the oldest highway bridge in Portland . It is also the busiest bicycle and transit bridge in Oregon , with over 8 @,@ 000 cyclists and 800 TriMet buses ( carrying about 17 @,@ 400 riders ) daily .
Another historic structure , the Steel Bridge , further downstream , was " the largest telescoping bridge in the world at the time of its opening " in 1912 . It carries trains on its lower deck , MAX ( Metropolitan Area Express ) light @-@ rail trains and motorized vehicles on its upper deck , and foot and bicycle traffic on a cantilevered walkway attached to the lower deck . When small ships must pass under the bridge , its double vertical @-@ lift span can raise a lower railway deck without disturbing traffic on the upper deck . Operators can raise both decks as high as 163 feet ( 50 m ) above the water . The Steel Bridge is " believed to be the world 's only double @-@ lift span that can raise its lower deck independently of the upper deck . "
The Broadway Bridge , slightly downstream of the Steel Bridge , was the world 's longest double @-@ leaf bascule drawbridge at the time of its construction in 1913 . Further downstream , the St. Johns Bridge , a steel suspension bridge built in 1931 , replaced the last of the Willamette River ferries in Portland . At about RM 6 ( RK 10 ) , it carries U.S. Route 30 Bypass . The bridge has two Gothic towers supporting the span . The adjacent park and neighborhood of Cathedral Park are named after the Gothic Cathedral @-@ like appearance of the bridge towers . It is the tallest bridge in Portland , with 408 ft ( 122 m ) tall towers and a 205 ft ( 62 m ) navigational clearance .
= = Flooding = =
Due to the volume and seasonality of precipitation in its valley , the Willamette River has often flooded . In 1861 , rainstorms and warm temperatures combined with a well @-@ above @-@ average snowpack in the Cascades created the largest Willamette River flood in recorded history . An observer of the flood wrote , " The whole Willamette valley [ sic ] was a sheet of water " . From Eugene to Portland , thousands of acres of rich riverside farmland were washed away and many towns in the valley were damaged or destroyed . The " Great Flood " , as it is sometimes called , was massively destructive to human development because most of that development was located in the river 's floodplain . Floodplain locations offer easy access to river transportation and the best soils for farming . The 1861 flood peaked at 635 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 18 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) — more than the Mississippi River usually discharges in the 21st century — and inundated some 353 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 430 km2 ) of land . This flood destroyed the town of Linn City . When the flood ended on December 14 , only three homes remained standing in Linn City . No one died in the Linn City flood , but the destruction was simply too great for the town to recover . The citizens gathered what few possessions were not swept away by the floodwaters and moved out of town . Linn City was abandoned . Today the city of West Linn stands about where Linn City once was .
In the summer of 1866 , the Willamette was measured at 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) above the " low water mark , " and there were more flooding worries . Upstream on the Columbia River , water was also high and the city of The Dalles was nearly flooded .
Flooding returned in the winter of early 1890 , when the river first rose very quickly and then fell very quickly . Portland 's main street was completely submerged , communication over the Cascades was cut off , and many rail lines were forced to shut down . In 1894 , another major flood occurred on the Willamette , and although it too caused huge damage , it was not as large as that of 1861 .
Throughout the 1940s the Willamette continued to flood its valley . It washed out five bridges in Lane County in December 1942 , caused seven deaths in Portland and forced people in Eugene to evacuate in January 1943 , caused minor flooding in Corvallis in November 1946 , contributed to the destruction of Vanport City and the death of about 15 of its residents in May 1948 , and nearly flooded parts of Salem in December 1948 .
Although the Willamette was , by mid @-@ century , heavily engineered and controlled by a complex system of dams , channels , and barriers , it experienced severe floods through the end of the century . Storms caused a major flood that swelled the Willamette and other rivers in the Pacific Northwest from December 1964 through January 1965 , submerging nearly 153 @,@ 000 acres ( 620 km2 ) of land . Before dawn on December 21 , 1964 , the Willamette reached 29 @.@ 4 feet ( 9 @.@ 0 m ) , which was higher than the Portland seawall . By this time , about 15 people had died as a result of the flooding and about 8 @,@ 000 Oregonians had been forced to evacuate their homes in search of other shelter .
On December 24 , President Lyndon B. Johnson ordered federal aid for the flooded areas . Meanwhile , the Willamette continued to rise . In the next couple of days , the river receded , but on December 27 , it was at 29 @.@ 8 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) , which was still nearly 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) above the flood stage . The Willamette continued to pose flooding threats through January 1965 , and more stormy weather occurred along the Pacific Coast .
In February 1996 , very heavy warm rains driven by a subtropical jet stream fell on a high , water @-@ heavy snowpack in the Willamette watershed . These conditions , similar to those that caused the 1861 flood , caused some of the costliest flooding in the river 's recorded history . An Associated Press journalist wrote , " The river crested at one town after another — at Corvallis 3 ½ feet above flood stage , Oregon City 18 feet above , Portland 10 @.@ 5 feet above — much like a meal moving through a boa constrictor . " The flood was serious enough to interrupt the progress of Oregon 's growing economy , but the inundated acreage was smaller than in 1964 — only about 117 @,@ 000 acres ( 470 km2 ) .
About 450 concrete flood @-@ protection walls in Portland that had been constructed during the February flood , each weighing about 5 @,@ 500 pounds ( 2 @,@ 500 kg ) , were removed in April . In October , they were replaced by a larger steel wall that cost the city about $ 300 @,@ 000 . The new wall had 0 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 6 @.@ 4 mm ) removable steel plates designed to better prevent future flooding .
= = Pollution = =
Since as early as 1869 , with the introduction of a federally funded " snag puller " designed to keep the waterway clear , human habitation has affected the ecology of the river basin . The construction of large federal dams on the Willamette 's tributaries between 1941 and 1969 damaged the spawning grounds for spring Chinook salmon and steelhead . Domestic and industrial waste from the cities built up along the river , " essentially turning the main @-@ stem river into an open sewer by the 1920s . "
A 1927 City Club of Portland report labeled the waterway " filthy and ugly " , and identified the City of Portland as the worst offender . The Oregon Anti @-@ Stream Pollution League brought a pollution @-@ abatement measure before the 39th Oregon Legislative Assembly in 1937 . The bill passed , but Governor Charles Martin vetoed it . The Izaak Walton League and the Oregon affiliate of the National Wildlife Federation countered the governor 's veto with a ballot initiative , which passed in November 1938 .
Shortly after he was elected in 1966 , Governor Tom McCall ordered water quality tests on the Willamette , conducted his own research on the water quality , and became head of the Oregon State Sanitary Authority . McCall learned that the river was heavily polluted in Portland . In a television documentary , Pollution in Paradise , he said that " the Willamette River was actually cleaner when the Oregon Sanitary Authority was created in 1938 than it was in 1962 . " He then discouraged tourism in the state and made it harder for companies to qualify for a permit to operate near the river . He also regulated how much those companies could pollute and closed plants that did not meet state pollution standards .
Despite earlier cleanup efforts , state studies in the 1990s identified a wide variety of pollutants in the river bottom , including heavy metals , polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) , and pesticides along the lower 12 miles ( 19 km ) of the river , in Portland . As a result , this section of the river was designated a Superfund site in 2000 , involving the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) in cleanup of the river bottom . The initial cleanup is focused on the portion between Swan Island and Sauvie Island . Pollution is exacerbated by combined sewer overflows , which the city has greatly reduced through its Big Pipe Project . Further upstream , the pressing environmental issues have mainly been variations in pH and dissolved oxygen . The Willamette is nevertheless clean enough to be used by cities such as Corvallis and Wilsonville for drinking water .
Since pollution concerns are primarily along the lower river , the Willamette in general scores relatively high on the Oregon Water Quality Index ( OWQI ) , which is compiled by the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality ( DEQ ) . The DEQ considers index scores of less than 60 to be very poor ; the other categories are 60 – 79 ( poor ) ; 80 – 84 ( fair ) ; 85 – 89 ( good ) , and 90 – 100 ( excellent ) . The Willamette River 's water quality is rated excellent near the source , though it gradually declines to fair near the mouth . Between 1998 and 2007 , the average score for the upper Willamette at Springfield ( RM 185 , RK 298 ) was 93 . At Salem ( RM 84 , RK 135 ) , the score was 89 , and good scores continued all the way to the Hawthorne Bridge in Portland ( RM 13 , RK 21 ) at 85 . Scores were in the " fair " category further downstream ; the least favorable reading was at the Swan Island Channel midpoint ( RM 0 @.@ 5 , RK 0 @.@ 8 ) at 81 . By comparison , sites on the Winchuck River , the Clackamas , and the North Santiam all scored 95 , and a site at a pump station on Klamath Strait Drain between Upper Klamath Lake and Lower Klamath Lake recorded the lowest score in Oregon at 19 .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Over the past 150 years , a significant change for the Willamette River has been the loss of its floodplain forests , which covered an estimated 89 percent of a 400 @-@ foot ( 120 m ) band along each river bank in 1850 . By 1990 only 37 percent of this zone was forested ; the rest had been converted to farm fields or cleared for urban or suburban uses . The remaining forests close to the river include large stands of black cottonwood , Oregon ash , willow , and bigleaf maple . The central valley — a former perennial grass prairie interspersed with oaks , ponderosa pines , and other trees — is devoted almost entirely to farming . Douglas fir , western hemlock , and western red cedar dominate the forest on the Coast Range side of the basin . Forests to the east in the Cascade Range include Pacific silver fir as well as western hemlock and western red cedar .
Fish in the Willamette basin include 31 native species , among them cutthroat , bull , and rainbow trout , several species of salmon , sucker , minnow , sculpin , and lamprey , as well as sturgeon , stickleback , and others . Among the 29 non @-@ native species in the basin , there are brook , brown , and lake trout , largemouth and smallmouth bass , walleye , carp , bluegill , and others . In addition to fish , the basin supports 18 species of amphibians , such as the Pacific giant salamander . Beaver and river otter are among 69 mammal species living in the watershed , also frequented by 154 bird species , such as the American dipper , osprey , and harlequin duck . Garter snakes are among the 15 species of reptiles found in the basin .
Species diversity is greatest along the lower river and its tributaries . Threatened , endangered , or sensitive species include spring Chinook salmon , winter steelhead , chum salmon , Coho salmon and Oregon chub . In the central valley , several projects have been done to restore and protect wetlands in order to provide habitat for bald eagles , Fender 's blue butterfly ( of which 6 @,@ 000 remain ) , Oregon chub , Bradshaw 's desert parsley , a variety of Willamette fleabane , and Kincaid 's lupine . In the early 21st century , osprey populations are increasing along the river , possibly because of a ban on the pesticide DDT and on the birds ' ability to use power poles for nesting . Beaver populations , presumed to be much lower than historic levels , are increasing throughout the basin .
= Widerstehe doch der Sünde , BWV 54 =
Widerstehe doch der Sünde ( Just resist sin ) , BWV 54 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed the solo cantata for alto in Weimar between 1711 and 1714 , and probably performed it on the seventh Sunday after Trinity , 15 July 1714 . It is Bach 's first extant church cantata for a solo voice .
The text of the short work was written by Georg Christian Lehms , for two arias and a connecting recitative . The topic is to resist sin , based on the Epistle of James . The text was published in a 1711 collection , dedicated to the Sunday Oculi . It is not known when Bach composed the work but is assumed that he performed it as part of his monthly cantata productions in 1714 on the seventh Sunday after Trinity , 15 July . The solo voice is accompanied by strings : two violin parts , two viola parts and continuo . The composition begins with a striking dissonant chord .
= = History and words = =
The history of the composition is not clear . The text was written by Georg Christian Lehms for Oculi , the third Sunday in Lent , and published in 1711 in Gottgefälliges Kirchen @-@ Opffer . It concentrates on avoiding sin , based on the Epistle of James . The first line of movement 3 quotes 1 John 3 : 8 . Bach may have composed the cantata already before taking up regular cantata compositions in Weimar . He was appointed concertmaster of the Weimar court capelle of the co @-@ reigning dukes Wilhelm Ernst and Ernst August of Saxe @-@ Weimar , on 2 March 1714 . As concertmaster , he assumed the principal responsibility for composing new works , specifically cantatas for the Schlosskirche ( palace church ) , on a monthly schedule .
The Bach scholar Alfred Dürr suggested that Bach performed the cantata for the Seventh Sunday after Trinity of 1714 . The prescribed readings for the Sunday are from the Epistle to the Romans , " the wages of sin is death ; but the gift of God is eternal life " ( Romans 6 : 19 – 23 ) , and from the Gospel of Mark , the feeding of the 4000 ( Mark 8 : 1 – 9 ) . The cantata text relates to the epistle of both Sundays , but shows no connection to either Gospel .
While Dürr assumes that Bach first performed the cantata on 15 July 1714 , other scholars arrive at different dates . John Eliot Gardiner and others assume Oculi that year which would make it the earliest cantata performed after the promotion . It is his first extant church cantata for a solo voice , followed by Mein Herze schwimmt im Blut , BWV 199 , for soprano . The cantata is the first of four written for a single alto soloist , the others , all composed in 1726 , being Geist und Seele wird verwirret , BWV 35 , Vergnügte Ruh , beliebte Seelenlust , BWV 170 , and Gott soll allein mein Herze haben , BWV 169 , two of which also have texts by Lehms .
There is some debate what sort of singer might have been the intended or actual first performer of Widerstehe doch der Sünde , especially given its low range and tessitura compared with other Alto solo writing by Bach such as Geist und Seele wird verwirret , BWV 35 or Vergnügte Ruh , beliebte Seelenlust , BWV 170 . If the cantata was written early in Bach 's ( second ) Weimar period , then perhaps the soloist could have been Adam Immanuel Weldig , the only falsettist in the Weimar court chapel in 1708 ( the other five singers being a bass , two tenors and two teenage discantists ) . However , Weldig 's designation as " falsettist " may indicate that he was a soprano and not an alto . Weldig left Weimar in 1713 so could not have sung if the first performance was as late as 1714 as suggested by Dürr . Nowadays the solo part in this cantata is usually taken by a contralto or countertenor .
= = Scoring and structure = =
The cantata , structured in three movements , is scored as chamber music for a solo alto voice , two violins ( Vl ) , two violas ( Va ) , and basso continuo ( Bc ) . The duration is given as 14 minutes . The manuscript title page reads : " Cantata.à 2 Violini , 2 Viole , Alto , Solo , è Cont . : del J.S.B. " .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbols for common time ( 4 / 4 ) and alla breve ( 2 / 2 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
= = = 1 = = =
The first movement , " Widerstehe doch der Sünde " ( Just resist sin ) is a da capo aria , which opens with a surprising dissonance and leaves its key of E @-@ flat major open until a cadence in measure 8 . Dürr describes it as a call to resistance and compares it to the beginning of the recitative " Siehe , ich stehe vor der Tür " , a call to be ready , in the cantata for Advent Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland , BWV 61 , composed in 1714 . Gardiner comments : " It is a deliberate shock tactic to rouse his listeners to the need to ' stand firm against all sinning , or its poison will possess you ' " . Bach used the first aria again in his St Mark Passion .
= = = 2 = = =
The recitative " Die Art verruchter Sünden " ( The way of vile sins ) is secco , accompanied by the continuo . The words " So zeigt sich nur ein leerer Schatten und übertünchtes Grab " ( It shows itself as only an empty shadow and a whitewashed grave ) are expressed in " pale " harmonies . The final lines are arioso and illustrate in " Sie ist als wie ein scharfes Schwert , das uns durch Leib und Seele fährt " ( It is like a sharp sword , that pierces through body and soul ) the movement of the sword by fast runs in the continuo .
= = = 3 = = =
The final aria " Wer Sünde tut , der ist vom Teufel " ( He who sins is of the devil ) is again a da capo aria , but shows elements of a four @-@ part fugue for the voice , the violins in unison , the violas in unison and the continuo . Gardiner describes the theme as " insinuating chromatic " and the " contorted counter @-@ subject to portray the wily shackles of the devil .
= = Selected recordings = =
The sortable listing is taken from the selection provided by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . The sortable table is based on the listing on the Bach Cantatas website . The type of orchestra is roughly shown as a large group by red background , and as an ensemble playing period instruments in historically informed performance by green background .
= Boulonnais horse =
The Boulonnais , also known as the " White Marble Horse " , is a draft horse breed . It is known for its large but elegant appearance and is usually gray , although chestnut and black are also allowed by the French breed registry . Originally there were several sub @-@ types , but they were crossbred until only one is seen today . The breed 's origins trace to a period before the Crusades and , during the 17th century , Spanish Barb , Arabian , and Andalusian blood were added to create the modern type .
During the early 1900s , the Boulonnais were imported in large numbers to the United States and were quite popular in France ; however , the European population suffered severe decreases during 20th @-@ century wars . The breed nearly became extinct following World War II , but rebounded in France in the 1970s as a popular breed for horse meat . Breed numbers remain low ; it is estimated that fewer than 1 @,@ 000 horses remain in Europe , mostly in France , with a few in other nations . Studies as early as 1983 indicated a danger of inbreeding within the Boulonnais population , and a 2009 report suggested that the breed should be a priority for conservation within France . The smallest type of Boulonnais was originally used to pull carts full of fresh fish from Boulogne to Paris , while the larger varieties performed heavy draft work , both on farms and in the cities . The Boulonnais was also crossbred to create and refine several other draft breeds .
= = Breed characteristics = =
The Boulonnais today stands from 14 @.@ 3 to 16 @.@ 3 hands ( 59 to 67 inches , 150 to 170 cm ) or more . It has a short , elegant head with a broad forehead and a short , muscular neck . Members of the breed have full chests , rounded rib cages and sloping shoulders . The legs are fairly short but robust and strong . Unlike other draft breeds such as the Shire or Clydesdale , it has no heavy feathering on its lower legs . The breed is generally branded with a small anchor mark on the left side of the neck . Due mostly to the many additions of Oriental blood , the Boulonnais has an elegant appearance that is not often seen in heavy draft breeds and it has been called " Europe 's noblest draft horse " . The fineness of the skin and delicate appearance of the veins has allowed the horse to be described as looking " like polished marble " , leading to its " White Marble Horse " nickname .
In 1778 , the French National Stud performed an initial survey of the breed and found that most were black or dark bay . During the 1800s , gray horses began to appear , and it was the predominating color by the end of the century . Gray became a popular color during this time due to the use of the horses to haul fish at night – gray horses were more visible in the dark , and therefore more valuable . In the later years of the 20th century , breeders again began to prefer darker colors such as bay and chestnut . Today , chestnut , gray and black are the only colors allowed by the French breed registry , with the vast majority of horses being gray – a popular phrase says that the horses have coats " the color of the clouds from the coast " .
= = = Sub @-@ types = = =
There were originally several types of Boulonnais . The Petit Boulonnais , Mareyeuse or Mareyeur was used in the rapid transport of cartloads of fresh fish ( la marée ) from the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais to Paris ; it stood 15 @.@ 1 to 15 @.@ 3 hands ( 61 to 63 inches , 155 to 160 cm ) and weighed 1 @,@ 210 to 1 @,@ 430 pounds ( 550 to 650 kg ) . The Picard draft came from the Picardy region , and was called the " horse of the bad land " , in comparison to the Cauchoix horse from the Pays de Caux area , which was called the " horse of the good land " . The " grand Boulonnais " , which stood 15 @.@ 3 to 16 @.@ 3 hands ( 63 to 67 inches , 160 to 170 cm ) high and weighed 1 @,@ 430 to 1 @,@ 650 pounds ( 650 to 750 kg ) , was bred in the 19th century for farm work in the sugar beet fields . All of these types were bred together to create the modern Boulonnais horse .
= = History = =
One theory states that the origins of the Boulonnais breed emerged from the crossbreeding of native French mares and stallions brought by the Numidian army in 55 – 54 BC . However , many equine scholars are skeptical of this theory , and state that , whatever the early origins , the later selective breeding and local climate and soil types had a greater influence on the breed than any early Oriental blood . During the Crusades , two breeders , Eustache , Comte de Boulogne , and later Robert , Comte d 'Artois , wanted to create a fast , agile , and strong warhorse for knights to ride in battle . They crossed the existing heavy French stallions with German Mecklenberg mares , similar to modern @-@ day Hanoverians . During the 17th @-@ century Spanish occupation of Flanders , a mixture of Spanish Barb , Arabian , and Andalusian blood was added to the breed , to create the modern Boulonnais . By the 17th century , horse dealers were coming into the Boulonnais district from Picardy and Upper Normandy to buy local horses , which enjoyed a good reputation among breeders . From the late 18th through the mid @-@ 19th century , the Boulonnais spread across France and Europe ; during this time , the breed increased in size as the Industrial Revolution called for larger horses that retained the active movement of the original type . Beginning in the 1830s , it was proposed to cross the Arabian with the Boulonnais to create a new type of cavalry horse , and in the 1860s , calls were put forth to add Thoroughbred blood for the same reason . However , breeders rejected these calls , stating that using the breed to create cavalry horses would make them poorer draft horses . Breed societies also discouraged crosses between the Boulonnais and the Brabant . In June 1886 , a studbook was created for the breed in France , and placed under the jurisdiction of the Syndicat Hippique Boulonnais ( SHB ) in 1902 .
During the early 20th century , the Boulonnais was imported into the United States in large numbers , where it was registered along with other French heavy horse breeds as the " French draft horse " . Breed members in the United States were registered with the Anglo @-@ Norman Horse Association ( or National Norman Horse Association ) beginning in 1876 , an association that was renamed the National French Draft Association in 1885 . This association declared in 1876 that the Boulonnais , Norman , Percheron and Picardy breeds were all essentially the same , and should all be known as the " Norman horse " . They later declared that all of the " Norman horses " were in fact " Percherons " , regardless of actual breeding . This was mostly designed to sell mixed breed draft horses to American consumers at higher prices , and the Illinois Board of Agriculture soon ruled that only those Percherons who came from proven Percheron stock were to be registered as such , and all other breeds , including the Boulonnais , were to be considered separately . Boulonnais were exported from France to Austria , although they saw little success there , and breeding stallions were sent to Argentina .
= = = 20th century and today = = =
The Boulonnais was once a popular workhorse in France , with an estimated population of over 600 @,@ 000 in the early 1900s . World War I and World War II almost destroyed the breed , as its home area saw heavy combat in both wars and the bands of broodmares were scattered . Between World War II and the 1970s , the breed almost became extinct , and only a few breeders kept it alive . In the 1970s , it became popular for horse meat , and consumers considered it to be some of the best meat available . However , by this point , there were fewer than 1 @,@ 000 mares remaining . During the mid @-@ 20th century , the stallions Fréthun ( foaled in 1949 ) , Select ( 1962 ) , Trésor ( 1963 ) , Astérix ( 1966 ) and Prince ( 1981 ) had a strong influence on the breed , although this contributed to the problem of inbreeding . Fréthun genes are found in 14 percent of the pedigrees of Boulonnais living today . In the early 1970s , Henry Blanc , the newly appointed director of the French National Stud , proposed that nine draft horse breeds , including the Boulonnais , be recategorized from pulling horses to meat horses . When enacted , this recategorization helped to preserve the gene pool of the Boulonnais by encouraging breeding , but it also changed its primary purpose , resulting in a dramatic weight increase by the 1980s .
The Boulonnais is still bred in small numbers , with the American Boulonnais Horse Association estimating a population of fewer than 1 @,@ 000 animals remaining in Europe . Many studs are government @-@ funded , to prevent the breed from dying out . The majority of the breed , 95 percent , are located in the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais and Normandy regions and 75 percent in just the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais department of Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais alone . Although most Boulonnais are in France , a few are exported . In 1999 , fifteen foals were exported to Brazil and one stallion to Argentina . On average , a little over a dozen horses a year are exported , mainly to Brazil and Belgium for breeding and to Germany for forestry work . A few horses live in the Netherlands , Switzerland and Luxembourg , as well as in North America . Since 2006 , twenty horses , including two registry @-@ approved breeding stallions , have been exported from France to Denmark to create a stud farm in that country .
The French national stud , the Haras Nationaux , allows the registration of horses bred using artificial insemination and embryo transfer , but does not allow the registration of cloned horses . It considers the breed to be endangered , along with several other French draft breeds . A 2009 study of French equine genetics proposed that the Boulonnais , along with four other French breeds , should be a conservation priority , with a goal of maintaining maximum genetic variability in France 's native horse population . This follows from studies done as early as 1983 that showed inbreeding and a lack of genetic diversity in the breed .
= = Uses = =
During the 17th century , the smaller Mareyeuse type was used for transporting fresh fish from Boulogne to Paris , a distance of almost 200 miles , in under 18 hours . This journey is remembered annually in the Route du Poisson race . Only mares pulled small carts full of ice and fish on the relay @-@ style trip . By 1884 , the Boulonnais was called the " largest and most valuable of that kind of horse in France " . At that time , they were used to move heavy blocks of building stone in Paris , with six to eight horses drawing blocks of several tons . During the 20th century , the larger Boulonnais type was utilized by the French army , and highly regarded for its ability to pull artillery and supply wagons . Falling demand for the breed means that today it is bred mainly for horsemeat . In 2010 , 60 percent of Boulonnais horses bred in France were intended for slaughter , and 80 percent of these were exported , mainly to Italy , to be fattened before being sent to slaughterhouses . However , the sector is in crisis due to falling prices , controversy and the importation of cheap meat ; despite a resurgence following the Mad Cow scares of the 1990s , the consumption of horse meat has fallen sharply , although the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region remains the largest consumer of horse meat in France .
The Boulonnais provided part of the base for the Anglo @-@ Norman breed , which was later to play a large role in the creation of the Selle Francais . It was also used in the creation and refinement of the Italian Heavy Draft , the post @-@ World War II improvement of the Schleswig horse , and the creation of the early 19th @-@ century Ardennes . Some equine scholars theorize that if the smaller Mareyeur had survived , it would have been an ideal horse to cross with the Thoroughbred or Anglo @-@ Arabian to produce a warmblood for competition . In France , a breeding program has been developed by the National Stud to cross Boulonnais and Arabian horses to create a fast , alert driving horse , called the Araboulonnais . This breeding program also brings new blood into the Boulonnais line as , if an Araboulonnais mare is bred to a Boulonnais stallion , and a resulting filly is bred to another Boulonnais stallion , the third generation horse may be inducted into the purebred Boulonnais studbook if it passes an inspection .
= Rowena Webster =
Rowena Evelyn Webster known as Rowie ( born 27 December 1987 in Melbourne , Victoria ) is an Australian water polo centre back and a London Olympian . She has attended Korowa Anglican Girls ' School and Arizona State University and completed a Bachelor of Physical Education Secondary Teaching . As youngster , she played Australian rules football and was involved with surf lifesaving at a National Level . She started playing water polo as a twelve @-@ year @-@ old . She has played for the Richmond Tigers , the Victorian State team , Arizona State University and a professional side in Greece and Russia . She has represented Australia as a member of Australia women 's national water polo team on both the junior and senior level . Webster is a London Olympic Bronze medalist , Junior World Champion , and has been rated in the top 3 players in the World two years in a row ( 2013 @,@ 2014 ) . Rowie Webster is the current Australian Women 's Water polo Vice Captain and is striving to compete at her second Olympics and win Gold in Rio 2016 .
= = Personal = =
Webster was born on 27 December 1987 in Melbourne , Victoria . Her grandfather was Warwick Wathen , who competed at the Davis Cup as a junior . Her mother is a physiotherapist , her father a builder . Webster is the youngest of four children and her oldest sister Larissa Webster also played water polo for Australia .
Webster is 177 cm ( 5 ft 10 in ) tall , weighs 81 kilograms ( 179 lb ) and is right handed . She has five tattoos and loves how she can express herself through body image and art .
Webster attended Korowa Anglican Girls ' School and used to play Australian rules football as a youngster . She has always been extremely competitive in Basketball and Surf Life Saving , and is the current Vice Captain of the National Women 's Water polo team . She took up surf lifesaving as a seven @-@ year @-@ old at the Anglesea Surf life saving club . She studied for her Victorian Certificate of Education in 2005 . She spent a year studying at Arizona State University on scholarship where she studied physical education secondary teaching and completed her degree here in Melbourne at Deakin University . She is currently on scholarship at the Victorian Institute of Sport , w Completed a Bachelor of physical education in secondary teaching , and living in Balwyn North , Victoria . Rowie has played in the Greek league and the Russian League and has truly made her mark on the international scene in Women 's Water polo .
Her Stingers teammates say she is a fierce competitor and loves to win . She has a huge Nike shoe collection and adds to it on every international tour .
= = Water polo = =
Webster started playing water polo as a ten @-@ year @-@ old , and more seriously as a twelve @-@ year @-@ old in Melbourne , Australia acting as a fill in for her older sister 's team at that age . In 2010 and 2011 , she had a water polo scholarship from the Victorian Institute of Sport . She prefers to wear cap number seven and is a utility player who can be found in the centre back position . She has scars on her back from opposition players biting her there during games . She feels a need to wear a mouth guard during every game she plays . Her water polo club is the Richmond Tigers . In 2003 , she played for the club at State League Level 1 , the highest ability league open to players of all ages . She first represented the state of Victoria in 2000 . In 2003 , she was Victorian team captain . In 2003 , she woke up at " 4 @.@ 40 am twice a week for training and swimming three afternoons a week " . In 2005 , she was putting in " three gym sessions , three swimming drills , [ and ] six rounds of water polo practice " a week . That year , she represented the state of Victoria at the Australian Water Polo Championships . She also represented the state in 2005 at the National Schoolgirls Water Polo Competition held Noosa , Queensland .
= = = Club water polo = = =
Webster currently plays for the Victorian Seals National Team and captains the side . She played for the Victorian Tigers of the National Water Polo League in 2004 during the team 's first year of existence . She also played for the team in 2005 , 2007 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 and 2012 .
= = = University water polo = = =
Webster attended Arizona State in Tempe , Arizona on a water polo scholarship when she was an eighteen @-@ year @-@ old but only spent a year with the team .
= = = Professional water polo = = =
As a nineteen @-@ year @-@ old , Webster played for a professional team in Greece for five months in 2008 . While playing in Greece , she had to deal with a culture of water polo that tolerated biting of other players during games . She left Greece to concentrate on making Australia 's national team for the Olympics .
= = = Junior national team = = =
Webster has represented Australia on the junior national level and Won the World Championships at the Fina World Champions in Portugal 2007 . She was a member of the Junior Team for 3 consecutive years .
= = = Senior national team = = =
Webster is the Vice Captain and a member of the Australia women 's national water polo team and has played over 200 games for Australia . She was a member of the London Olympic Team that won Bronze in 2012 and has been an integral part of the 2013 World Champs team winning Silver and the 2014 World Cup Team that also won silver . Webster is one of the most feared players in the world and was the highest goal scorer for Team Australia at the 2012 London Olympics . Rowie holds the Australian record for most goals in a National League Season ( 99 goals ) . She has also played over 250 games in the league .
= 1911 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1911 Atlantic hurricane season was relatively inactive , with only six known tropical cyclones forming in the Atlantic during the summer and fall . There were three suspected tropical depressions , including one that began the season in February and one that ended the season when it dissipated in December . Three storms intensified into hurricanes , two of which attained Category 2 status on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Storm data is largely based on the Atlantic hurricane database , which underwent a thorough revision for the period between 1911 and 1914 in 2005 .
Most of the cyclones directly impacted land . A westward @-@ moving hurricane killed 17 people and severely damaged Charleston , South Carolina , and the surrounding area in late August . A couple of weeks earlier , the Pensacola , Florida area had a storm in the Gulf of Mexico that produced winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) over land . The fourth storm of the season struck the coast of Nicaragua , killing 10 and causing extensive damage .
= = Season summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane database ( HURDAT ) officially recognizes six tropical cyclones from the 1911 season . Only three attained hurricane status , with winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) or greater . The third hurricane of the season was the most intense storm , with a minimum central air pressure of 972 mbar ( 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) . A week after its dissipation , another hurricane formed with wind speeds that matched the previous storm , but with unknown air pressure . Three weak tropical depressions developed and remained below tropical storm force ; the first formed in February and the third in December . The first storm to reach tropical storm intensity developed on August 4 , and the final tropical storm of the year dissipated on October 31 .
The early 1900s lacked modern forecasting and documentation . The hurricane database from these years is sometimes found to be incomplete or incorrect , and new storms are continually being added as part of the ongoing Atlantic hurricane reanalysis . The period from 1911 through 1914 was reanalyzed in 2005 . Two previously unknown tropical cyclones were identified using records including historical weather maps and ship reports , and information on the known storms was amended and corrected . These storms are referred to simply by their number in chronological order , since tropical cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean were not given official names until much later .
= = Timeline = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
Identified by its lack of associated frontal boundaries and closed circulation center , the first tropical cyclone of the 1911 season formed on August 4 over southern Alabama in the United States . At only tropical depression strength , it tracked eastward and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean the next day . Several days later , while located near Bermuda , the depression became a tropical storm and turned northeastward . The storm lasted several more days until dissipating on August 11 . The storm produced heavy rainfall on the Bermuda , but no gale @-@ force winds were reported . The storm was unknown until the 2005 Atlantic hurricane database revision recognized it as a tropical storm .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
Based on ship observations in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico , a low @-@ pressure area developed north of Key West in early August . It developed into a tropical depression at 12 : 00 UTC on August 8 , and strengthened into a tropical storm at 06 : 00 UTC on August 9 while moving northwestward off the west coast of Florida . Gradual intensification continued , and at 06 : 00 UTC on August 11 the storm strengthened to hurricane status . At 22 : 00 UTC on August 11 , the hurricane reached its peak intensity and concurrently made landfall near the border between Alabama and Florida as a small tropical cyclone . During this time , the storm 's maximum sustained winds were estimated at 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , making it the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane on the modern day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . A lull in the storm accompanied the nearby passage of its eye before conditions once again deteriorated . Although the lowest barometric pressure measured on land was 1007 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 74 inHg ) in Pensacola , Florida , the storm 's pressure was estimated to be much lower at 982 mbar ( hPa : 29 @.@ 00 inHg ) . After making landfall , the hurricane weakened and slowly drifted westward , weakening to a tropical depression over Louisiana on August 13 , before dissipating over Arkansas by 12 : 00 UTC the next day .
While developing in the Gulf of Mexico , the tropical cyclone brought light rainfall to Key West , amounting to 1 @.@ 82 in ( 46 mm ) over two days . The hurricane 's outer rainbands affected the Florida panhandle as early as August 10 , producing winds as strong as 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) in Pensacola , where it was considered the worst since 1906 . During the afternoon of August 11 , the United States Weather Bureau issued storm warnings for coastal areas of the gulf coast where the hurricane was expected to impact . Upon making landfall , the storm brought heavy precipitation , peaking at 10 in ( 250 mm ) in Molino , Florida , although the heaviest rainfall was localized from Mississippi to central Alabama . Some washouts occurred during brief episodes of heavy rain as the storm drifted westward after landfall . Strong winds in the Pensacola area downed telecommunication lines and disrupted power , cutting off communication to outside areas for 24 hours . A pavilion on Santa Rosa Island had a third of its roof torn , and some other buildings inland were also unroofed . Offshore , twelve barges were grounded after being swept by the rough surf . Heavy losses were reported to timber after they were swept away when log booms failed . Damage figures from the Pensacola area were conservatively estimated at US $ 12 @,@ 600 , considered lighter than expected , and there were some deaths .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
Over a week after the dissipation of the previous hurricane , the third storm of the season developed on August 23 and slowly tracked west @-@ northwestward . After attaining hurricane status , the storm turned more towards the northwest , and several days later reached its peak wind speeds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) ; a barometric pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ) was reported . The center passed inland a few miles south of Savannah , Georgia , on August 28 ; upon making landfall , the hurricane rapidly degenerated . It deteriorated into a tropical depression on August 29 and persisted over land until dissipating a couple of days later .
The hurricane , relatively small in size , caused widespread damage between Savannah and Charleston , South Carolina . Savannah itself received only minor damage , although the storm 's center passed close by . Along the coast of Georgia , torrential rainfall caused numerous washouts on railroads . Crops , livestock and roads in the area took heavy damage . At Charleston , winds were estimated at 106 mph ( 171 km / h ) after an anemometer , last reporting 94 mph ( 151 km / h ) , failed , and 4 @.@ 90 in ( 124 mm ) of precipitation fell over three days .
The storm raged for more than 36 hours , causing severe damage ; the winds unroofed hundreds of buildings , demolished many houses and had an extensive impact on power and telephone services . Tides 10 @.@ 6 ft ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) above normal left a " confused mass of wrecked vessels and damaged wharfs " , according to a local forecaster in Charleston , while six navy torpedo boats were ripped from their moorings and blown ashore . In total , 17 people were killed in the hurricane , and property damage in Charleston was estimated at $ 1 million ( 1911 USD , $ 25 @.@ 4 million 2014 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
The next storm formed well to the east of the Lesser Antilles on September 3 and moved westward , attaining tropical storm status about a day later . The storm slowed and curved toward the southwest , nearing the northern coast of Colombia before pulling away from land and strengthening into a hurricane . It further intensified to Category 2 status before striking Nicaragua on September 10 . Quickly weakening to a tropical storm , the cyclone continued westward across Central America and briefly entered the eastern Pacific Ocean . It dissipated shortly thereafter . In the town of Corinto , a report indicated the deaths of 10 people and 50 additional injuries . About 250 houses were destroyed , leaving approximately $ 2 million ( 1911 USD , $ 50 @.@ 8 million 2014 USD ) in damage . Data on this storm is extremely scarce ; as such , only minor revisions could be made to its chronology in the hurricane database .
= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =
The fifth official tropical cyclone of the year was also previously unknown until contemporary reassessments . It exhibited some hybrid characteristics , and may have qualified for subtropical cyclone status according to the modern classification scheme . On September 15 , the storm formed over the central Atlantic and initially moved westward . It gradually intensified as it turned northwestward , and on September 19 it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone southeast of New England . The system was subsequently absorbed by a more powerful frontal boundary approaching from the northwest .
= = = Tropical Storm Six = = =
The final storm was first observed as a disturbance near Puerto Rico in the Caribbean Sea in late October . The disturbance was the precursor to a tropical depression which developed over the southern Bahamas and headed west @-@ southwestward across Cuba , where , at Havana , winds blew from the southeast at 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) . It became a tropical storm on October 27 and drifted southwestward . Near the eastern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula , the storm turned sharply northward . An area of high pressure over the United States prevented the cyclone from turning eastward toward Florida , and it continued into the Gulf of Mexico . However , on October 31 , the storm curved eastward and moved ashore over northern Florida . The storm decreased in intensity as it passed into the Atlantic . The storm 's circulation center remained poorly defined throughout its course . It was long believed to have developed south of Cuba , although a reevaluation of ship data indicated the depression had actually formed east of the island . On October 26 , the Weather Bureau hoisted hurricane warnings along the east coast of Florida from Key West to West Palm Beach , and on the west coast up to Tampa .
= = = Tropical depressions = = =
In addition to the six officially recognized tropical storms and hurricanes , three tropical depressions in the 1911 season have been identified . The first developed in February from a trough of low pressure in the open Atlantic and progressed westward . Although a ship dubiously reported winds of over 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) in association with the system , a lack of supporting evidence precludes its designation as a tropical storm . The cyclone dissipated by February 21 . The second depression evolved from an extratropical cyclone in mid- to late May , becoming a tropical cyclone on May 22 northeast of Bermuda . It persisted for three days as it meandered around the same general area before being absorbed by another non @-@ tropical storm . The modern @-@ day documentation of this system was also hindered by a lack of data . On December 11 , the third tropical depression formed near the Turks and Caicos Islands . It progressed westward and was situated just north of eastern Cuba the next day . The system began to weaken on December 13 and dissipated shortly thereafter .
= Kabandha =
In Hindu mythology , Kabandha ( कबन ् ध , Kabandha , lit . " headless torso " ) is a Rakshasa ( demon ) who is killed and freed from a curse by the god Rama – an Avatar of Vishnu – and his brother Lakshmana . Kabandha 's legend appears in the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata , as well as in later Ramayana adaptations .
Kabandha was a gandharva ( celestial musician ) named Vishvavasu or Danu , who was cursed and made into an ugly , carnivorous demon by Indra , the king of the gods , and / or a sage . In an encounter with Rama and Lakshmana , the brothers sever his arms and proceed to cremate his corpse . Upon his death , Kabandha resumes his gandharva form and directs Rama to the Rsyamukha mountain , where the exiled monkey @-@ chief Sugriva is hiding . Kabandha advises Rama to form an alliance with Sugriva , who would be of assistance in the search for Rama 's wife Sita , who had been kidnapped by Ravana , the demon @-@ king of Lanka . Following Kabandha 's instructions , Rama befriends Sugriva and rescues Sita with his help .
= = Literary sources = =
The most detailed account of Kabandha appears in the third book , Aranya kanda , of the 4th century BCE epic Ramayana , Sargas ( cantos ) 69 @-@ 73 . However , Kabandha first appears in canto one of the first book Bala kanda of the Ramayana , in which the entire story is summarized .
The account of Kabandha also appears in the Ramopakhyana – the retelling of Rama 's story in the Aranya Parva – the third book of the Mahabharata ( composed over a period of 200 years , 5th century BCE to 3rd century BCE ) , and its appendix Harivamsa , as well as in later adaptations of the Ramayana such as Kalidasa 's Raghuvamsa ( composed between 4th to 6th century CE ) , Bhatti 's 7th century work Bhattikavya , Bhavabhuti 's 8th century play Mahaviracharita , Murari Mishra 's 10th century drama Anargharaghava , Kamban 's 12th century book Kamba Ramayana , Adhyatma Ramayana ( chapter 9 of Aranya kanda , dated between late 14th to early 15th century ) from Brahmanda Purana and Tulsidas 's 16th century work Ramacharitamanas .
= = Early life and curse = =
The Ramayana narrates : Kabandha was born as a gandharva ( celestial musician ) named Vishvavasu . He was the son of the gandharva Sri Vishvavasu or Sri and was also known as Danu ( दनु ) . Vishvavasu performed penance and got the boon of immortality from the creator @-@ god Brahma . He became arrogant due to his boon and attacked Indra , the god @-@ king of heaven . Indra used his celestial weapon the Vajra ( thunderbolt ) and drove Vishvavasu 's head and thighs into his body . Vishvavasu pleaded that he be given a way to find and eat food . Upon Vishvavasu 's beseeching , Indra gave him two long arms and a mouth on his belly . Indra also decreed that Kabandha would regain his original form when Rama severs his arms .
The Ramayana further adds : Kabandha spent his days near the hermitage of the sage Matanga in the Krauncha forest . There , he spent his time scaring sages . Once , Kabandha attacked the sage Stulashira , who cursed him to remain in his hideous form for eternity . Upon Kabandha 's pleading , the sage reduced his curse and said that Kabandha would be freed of his form , once Rama and Lakshmana sever his arms . So Kabandha waited in that forest for Rama 's arrival . Growse suspected the tale to be a later interpolation arguing that it does not appear in all versions / translations of the original Ramayana .
The Adhyatma Ramayana tells that Kabandha ( the name Vishvavasu is not used ) was a Gandharva chief , who was blessed by Brahma with immortality . He was " drunk with the wine of youth and beauty " and used to roam the universe enchanting beautiful maidens . Once , he laughed at the sage Ashtavakra ( " one who was eight deformities " ) , who cursed him to become a Rakshasa , though the sage assured him that Rama would free him of the curse . Still arrogant , Kabandha once chased Indra . The rest of the Indra episode mirrors the Ramayana telling .
The Mahabharata tells that Kabandha was a gandharva named Vishvavasu in his previous life and was cursed by Brahma to be born " from a Rakshasa womb " . The Mahavira @-@ charita calls Kabandha 's real form Danu , son of Sri . The Bhattikavya does not explicitly name Kabandha . He is introduced as " a dreadful demon that was always hungry and being endowed with long arms " . Later , he is identified as Sri 's son , who was cursed by an ascetic . The Ramacharitamanas tells that Kabandha was cursed by the sage Durvasa , who is known for his hot temper in Hindu mythology .
= = Etymology and description of the demonic form = =
The Mahabharata describes him thus : Kabandha was " as big as a mountain , dark as a black cloud , with pointed hairs all over his body and looked fierce with a voice as loud as thunder . He had an eye on his stomach , round and yellow , emitting a glare like a fire @-@ name . Looking wicked he thrust his big tongue out of his huge mouth licking the sides . " The Ramayana presents a similar description of Kabandha . Kabandha had a broad chest and was without a head or neck . He had only one eye on his chest and a mouth on his belly . He used his long arms to draw his prey closer . Kabandha is often depicted as a tree .
Since Vishvavasu now did not have a head , but just two arms and a mouth on his stomach , he came to be known as the Rakshasa ( demon ) Kabandha , the " headless torso " . The word Kabandha is often used to describe a large big @-@ bellied barrel or a headless trunk , shaped like a barrel , which retains its vitality .
Adhyatma Ramayana tells that Kabandha was a fierce cannibal and his arms were eight miles long . His huge face – which had no eyes or ears
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– was at his chest . He had no head or legs .
= = Encounter with Rama = =
The Ramayana narrates : Rama , his consort Sita and his brother Lakshmana were exiled to the forest for a 14 @-@ year period . While in the forest , Sita was kidnapped by the demon @-@ king Ravana . Rama was informed of Sita 's fate by the dying vulture Jatayu , who had been mortally wounded in trying to save her . Searching for Sita , Rama and Lakshmana reached the Krauncha forest , where Kabandha dwelt . The brothers first encountered a demoness , who tempted Lakshmana . Lakshmana cut off her nose , ears , and breasts , and the brothers moved deeper into the forest , where bad omens greeted them .
Suddenly , Kabandha appeared before them . The demon blocked the path of the brothers , who tried to escape by taking a different route , but were finally caught by Kabandha . The demon grabbed Rama in his right arm and Lakshmana in his left . Finding themselves helpless in Kabandha 's clutches , Lakshmana appeals to Rama to escape and find Sita , leaving him behind as a sacrifice to the demon . Rama consoled him . Kabandha declared that he was extremely hungry and asked them who they were who had come to sate his hunger . At this time , Lakshmana realized that the strength of the demon lay in his hands and suggested that they cut off the demon 's hands . Annoyed by the brothers ' conversation , Kabandha decided to eat them at once and drew them closer to his mouth . The brothers drew their swords and quickly cut off the arms of the demon , who fell down with a mighty roar .
The fallen Kabandha again asked for the names of his vanquishers . Lakshmana introduced himself and Rama and asked the demon who he was . Kabandha narrated his story to the brothers and declared that he recognized Rama by the very fact that Rama had severed his arms . Kabandha requested that Rama perform his cremation rites , offered him what information he could , and died .
While other adaptations tell a tale about the encounter similar to Ramayana , Mahavira @-@ charita is a notable exception . A woman called Shramana is caught in the clutches of Kabandha and calls for help . While roaming in the Dandaka forest , Rama hears her call and sends Lakshmana to check . Lakshmana kills Kabandha and leads Shramana to Rama . Shramana turns out to be a messenger of Vibhishana ( Bibhishana ) – brother of Ravana – who has joined forces with Sugriva against Ravana . Anargharaghava mirrors the Mahavira @-@ charita , replacing Shramana with Guha , a forest chief who leads them to Sugriva .
= = Counsel to Rama = =
The Ramayana narrates : the brothers burnt Kabandha 's corpse on a funeral pyre . As the pyre was lit , Kabandha 's demon form melted and from the flames Vishvavasu rose up in the air in his celestial form , dressed in spotless garments and finery as a chariot from heaven appears to get him . Vishvavasu told the brothers that to fight calamity there are six ways , one of which to nurture a friendship with someone , who is in trouble . He advised the brothers to find the monkey ( vanara ) king Sugriva , who would guide them in the quest for Sita . Vishvavasu informed Rama that Sugriva was driven out of his kingdom by his own brother Vali and that Rama should help Sugriva regain his kingdom . The deposed Sugriva dwelt at Rsyamukha hill . Vishvavasu then described in detail the route to Rsyamukha hill . He instructed Rama to travel in the western direction till he reached the Pampa lake in the region called Matangavana where sage Matanga 's hermitage once stood . Ram would meet vanaras at this lake and also sage Matanga 's aged female disciple Shabari , who is waiting for him and after Rama 's visit , would ascend to heaven . To east of Matangavana is the Rsyamukha hill , which has an arduous path up . Kabandha revealed that one who ascends to the top of this hill , his dreams come true . Kabandha also assured Rama that his sorrows would end after reaching this hill , where Sugriva dwelt in a cave on the side on the hill . Kabandha then disappears .
The Mahabharata corroborates the Ramayana account . Vishvavasu tells Rama to seek the help of Sugriva , who would know where Ravana stays . Kabandha also assured Rama that he would definitely meet Sita again . In the Mahavira @-@ charita , the divine person that leaves the funeral pyre informs Rama that he is Danu and a curse had turned him in a demon , who was manipulated by Malyavan – Ravana 's chief adviser – to create havoc in the region . He expresses his gratitude to Rama and cautions him that Malyavan has also set Vali against him .
In Bhattikavya , Jatayu dies in the arms of Rama without revealing that Sita is in the clutches of Ravana . After his arms are chopped , the unnamed demon – identified with Kabandha – falls and starts his counsel . The funeral pyre scene is dropped here . The demon tells Rama that Ravana abducted Sita and has taken her to Lanka . He advises Rama to form an alliance with Sugriva , without which Ravana will not be overcome . He instructs Rama to negotiate a deal with Sugriva as per which Rama will kill Vali and end Sugriva 's sorrows and in return , Sugriva would mobilize his forces to defeat Ravana . The demon praises Rama , who purified the demon by his sword . The demon urges Rama to believe him as he is telling the truth . At last , the demon transforms into a radiant divine being as he was telling the truth and plunges into the sky .
Kamba Ramayana concurs with the Ramayana account about the counsel , but adds a panegyric on Rama by the celestial Danu . Danu exalts Rama as an incarnation of Vishnu and even compares him to baby Krishna , another incarnation of Vishnu . Raghuvamsa , which is a summary of the lives of ancestors of Rama and his own , does not mention the details of the killing of Kabandha , however it acknowledges the counsel . In a passing reference , it notes : " At the advice of Kabandha , who by death escaped from curse , there grew up friendship between Rama and the monkey @-@ chief ( Sugriva ) " .
Rama and Lakshmana followed Kabandha 's instructions and reached Pampa Lake . There , as per Kabandha 's prophecy , they met Shabari and then Sugriva . An alliance with Sugriva would finally help Rama defeat Ravana and save Sita .
The Adhyatma Ramayana , the Mahavira @-@ charita , the Anargharaghava and the Ramacharitamanas do not discuss the counsel at all and credit Shabari or Shramana or Guha as the one who leads Rama to Sugriva . In the Adhyatma Ramayana , Kabandha appears from the pyre as a divine being and reveals his true identity as a cursed gandharva . He further extols Rama in a hymn stating that various worlds and deities are embedded in parts of his body and Rama is the Supreme being and then disappears .
= Ohio State Route 253 =
State Route 253 ( SR 253 , OH 253 ) is a very short east – west state highway in the southern part of the U.S. state of Ohio . With an overall length of just 0 @.@ 56 miles ( 0 @.@ 90 km ) , the majority of SR 253 is a part of the Jesse Stuart Memorial Bridge , which crosses over the Ohio River near Franklin Furnace , Ohio . The western terminus of SR 253 is at about the midspan of the bridge , where it crosses the Kentucky State Line and becomes Kentucky Route 10 ( KY 10 ) . The eastern terminus of the highway is at a diamond interchange with U.S. Route 52 ( US 52 ) near the eastern landing of the Ohio River crossing . The current SR 253 was established in the late 1980s . However , an earlier version of the highway existed in the Medina vicinity from the early 1920s until the late 1950s .
= = Route description = =
SR 253 runs exclusively within Green Township in southeastern Scioto County , near the community of Franklin Furnace . This short highway starts at the Kentucky state line on the two @-@ lane Jesse Stuart Memorial Bridge over the Ohio River , at the very point where KY 10 terminates . The highway departs the bridge to the east . After a short distance , it then crosses a shorter bridge over the Norfolk Southern Railway line . Right at the east end of that bridge , SR 253 comes to an end at a diamond interchange it has with the US 52 expressway . East of the interchange is a short connector to Scioto County Road 1 , which runs parallel to US 52 to the east through this area .
On a regular basis , the Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) conducts surveys to measure the amount of traffic that uses its highway system . These traffic counts are commonly given in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , a determination of the number of vehicles on a particular segment of roadway on any typical day of the year . A traffic count by ODOT in 2008 showed that 7 @,@ 210 cars and 710 trucks utilized SR 253 on a daily basis . The entirety of SR 253 is included within the National Highway System , a system of routes deemed most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the country .
= = History = =
The SR 253 designation has been utilized on two separate occasions . The first iteration of the highway began in 1925 . At the time , in the northern half of Medina County , a segment of what is now county @-@ maintained Fenn Road between the SR 18 / SR 57 concurrency and U.S. Route 42 was brought into the state highway system . This roadway , which is located less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the city limits of Medina , was given the designation of SR 253 . In 1937 , the route was extended east along Fenn Road to a new eastern terminus at SR 3 northeast of Medina . SR 253 's time of being routed along this stretch of roadway came to an end in 1958 when jurisdiction of Fenn Road was transferred from the state to Medina County .
By 1989 , SR 253 was re @-@ introduced to the state highway system . Coinciding with the completion of the Jesse Stuart Memorial Bridge across the Ohio River , the designation was applied to the brief alignment that it maintains to this day from the Kentucky state line on the bridge to the US 52 expressway .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Green Township , Scioto County .
= Treehouse of Horror VI =
" Treehouse of Horror VI " is the sixth episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season and the sixth episode in the Treehouse of Horror series . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 29 , 1995 , and contains three self @-@ contained segments . In " Attack of the 50 Foot Eyesores " , an ionic storm brings Springfield 's oversized advertisements and billboards to life and they begin attacking the town . The second segment , " Nightmare on Evergreen Terrace " is a parody of the A Nightmare on Elm Street film series , in which Groundskeeper Willie ( resembling Freddy Krueger ) attacks schoolchildren in their sleep . In the third and final segment , " Homer3 " , Homer finds himself trapped in a three dimensional world . It was inspired by The Twilight Zone episode " Little Girl Lost . " The segments were written by John Swartzwelder , Steve Tompkins and David S. Cohen respectively .
The first version of the episode was very long , so it featured a very short opening sequence and did not include several trademarks established in previous Treehouse of Horror episodes . " Homer3 " , pitched by executive producer Bill Oakley , features three dimensional computer animation provided by Pacific Data Images ( PDI ) . In the final scene of the episode , Homer is sent to the real world in the first ever live @-@ action scene in The Simpsons . " Attack of the 50 @-@ Foot Eyesores " includes a cameo appearance from Paul Anka , who sings the song " Just Don 't Look " .
In its original broadcast , the episode was watched by 22 @.@ 9 million viewers , acquired a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 9 , finishing 21st in the weekly ratings , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired . In 1996 , the " Homer ³ " segment was awarded the Ottawa International Animation Festival grand prize and the episode was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) .
= = Plot = =
= = = Attack of the 50 Foot Eyesores = = =
In a parody of the 1958 film , Attack of the 50 Foot Woman , Homer goes to Lard Lad Donuts to get a " colossal doughnut . " Upon realizing that the colossal doughnut is the name of the doughnut that Lard Lad holds and colossal doughnuts that size do not exist , he denounces the store and vows to get a colossal ( sized ) doughnut . That night , he steals the giant doughnut from the Lard Lad statue in front of the store . In the midst of a freak storm , Lard Lad and other giant advertising statues come to life to terrorize Springfield . Homer eventually returns the donut to Lard Lad , but that does not stop Lard Lad and his friends from causing any more destruction . Lisa goes to the ad agency that created those advertising characters , and an executive suggests the citizens stop paying attention to the monsters as they are advertising gimmicks , and attention is what keeps them motivated . He suggests a jingle will help distract people from watching the monsters . Lisa and Paul Anka later perform a catchy song and the citizens of Springfield stop looking at the monsters , who lose their powers and become lifeless , except for Lard Lad , who manages to tempt Homer into looking into his donut , stating that it now has sprinkles . Homer falls for it , but Bart and Lisa pull him away from it , threatening to poke out Homer 's eyes if he does not comply , much to Homer 's anger . This causes Lard Lad to lose his power and become lifeless .
= = = Nightmare on Evergreen Terrace = = =
In a parody of A Nightmare on Elm Street , Bart has a nightmare that Groundskeeper Willie is out to kill him . He is slashed with a rake , and the scratches are still on his body after he wakes up . Many other students at Springfield Elementary School also confide they were terrorized by Willie in their nightmares . When the students take a test , Martin falls asleep and is strangled to death by Willie in his dream , before waking up and dying in the real world . Bart and Lisa tell Marge , who explains Willie was burned to death ( on Homer 's part of turning up the heat and causing the furnace explosion that killed Willie , the school 's failure to upkeep essential maintenance such as replacing doorknobs and recharging fire extinguishers , and Homer 's misunderstanding ) while the parents of the students looked on and did nothing . Willie told the parents he would get his revenge by killing the children in their dreams , where the parents cannot protect them . Bart , Lisa and Maggie try not to fall asleep for several days , but eventually Bart decides that he is going to have to go to sleep and fight Willie in his dream . Lisa is supposed to stay awake and wake him up if he seems to be in trouble . Bart falls asleep and attempts to find Willie , who appears as a lawn mower / harvester . Bart , taunting Willie by calling him " Yard Boy " ( a parody of the lawn tractor company ) , manages to trick Willie into mowing over a sandbox containing quicksand , and Willie sinks . Willie recovers and turns into a giant bagpipe spider and is about to kill Bart when Lisa enters , trying to wake him up . Bart realizes that since she is in the dream , that means she has also fallen asleep . At that point , Willie grabs Lisa , intending to kill her too . They are about to lose the battle when Maggie appears and uses her pacifier to seal the vent on Willie 's spider body , resulting in Willie exploding . When they wake up , they find Willie is still alive and unsuccessfully attempts to both scare them and kill them .
= = = Homer3 ( Homer Cubed ) = = =
In a parody of the Twilight Zone episode , Little Girl Lost , Patty and Selma visit the Simpsons with two pillow cases full of seashells from their trip to " Sulphur Bay " from which they plan to pry hermit crabs . Homer tries to hide in a closet that Bart and Lisa have occupied , but they refuse to leave . After failing to find another hiding spot , Homer , desperate to avoid Patty and Selma , looks behind a bookcase and enters a mysterious new world in which everything is in 3D . Homer explores the peculiar area , being depicted as a 3D computer @-@ generated character . Bart and Lisa are found by Selma and are forced into the hermit crab work .
Through the wall , Homer calls Marge for help . Marge summons Ned Flanders , Reverend Lovejoy , Professor Frink , Chief Wiggum , and Dr. Hibbert to help Homer escape this alternate dimension , but they are of no help . Homer explains that the world he is in looks like something from Tron , but no one understands the reference to that computer @-@ generated film . Frink explains to the others that Homer is in a hypothetical " third dimension " .
Homer throws a cone into the floor and accidentally pierces the fabric of the space @-@ time continuum , causing it to collapse into a wormhole and threatening to pull Homer and the rest of the dimension into a black hole . Bart takes command and enters the third dimension to save Homer , after tying a safety rope around himself . Once there , Bart tells Homer to leap over the increasingly massive wormhole . Homer , declaring this to be a " piece of cake " , leaps and falls into the hole as the universe collapses on itself . Bart , however , is pulled back into the house . Lovejoy assures Marge that Homer has gone to a better place . Meanwhile , Homer lands in a dumpster in a live @-@ action West Hollywood . He is initially nervous and scared of his surroundings including the astonished passersby , but his troubles are soon put aside when he comes across an erotic cake shop and he goes inside .
Homer3 later became a segment in IMAX 's CyberWorld 3D .
= = Production = =
" Treehouse of Horror VI " was the first of two Treehouse of Horror episodes to be executive produced by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein . The episode was " so long " because , according to Oakley , " all three of these segments are very complex stories [ ... ] and it 's hard to fit three complete stories into 21 minutes . " Because of the length , the episode featured a very short opening sequence and did not include several trademarks established in previous Treehouse of Horror episodes , such as Marge 's warning or wraparounds . The first segment , " Attack of the 50 @-@ Foot Eyesores " was written by John Swartzwelder , who had previously worked at an advertising agency . " Nightmare on Evergreen Terrace " was written by Steve Tompkins and has been described by David X. Cohen as " one of the scariest [ segments ] . " " Homer3 " was written by Cohen , although the idea was pitched by Oakley . The original idea was that Homer would visit several dimensions , including one where everything was made of paper cut @-@ outs , but they decided that it would be too complicated .
The episode includes a cameo appearance from Paul Anka , who sings the song " Just Don 't Look " . Anka was briefly mentioned by Marge in " Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy . " In response , he sent a letter to the producers in which he thanked them for the mention . After receiving the letter , they decided to ask him to guest star . According to David Mirkin , he tried to get Al Gore to host the episode , but the producers got no response to their request . " There was an eerie silence , " Mirkin said . He added that " if the VP decides now to pursue this showbiz offer , it 's just too late [ ... ] He missed his chance . "
In the final scene of the episode , Homer is sent to the real world in the first ever live @-@ action scene in The Simpsons . It was filmed on Ventura Boulevard in Studio City and directed by David Mirkin , who later said that Fox " couldn 't have been less supportive " because they thought it would be too expensive . The scene involves a crane shot which pulls back as the credits are shown . Fox " begrudgingly " allowed Mirkin to use a crane for the ending . The scene was filmed on a sidewalk with the crane on the street and Mirkin was not able to fully stop traffic for the shot . Because of this , when the camera swings around , a line of cars can be seen backed up on the street . The erotic cakes store as well as the filming was located in 13567 Ventura Boulevard .
= = = Animation = = =
A large portion of " Homer3 " was three dimensional and computer animated . Supervising director David Silverman was aiming for something better than the computer animation used in the music video for " Money for Nothing " by Dire Straits . The animation was provided by Pacific Data Images ( PDI ) and overseen by Tim Johnson . The animators at PDI worked closely with the normal animators on The Simpsons and worked hard not to " reinvent the character [ s ] " . The Simpsons animators storyboarded the segments and showed the PDI animators how they would have handled the scenes . While designing the 3D model of Bart , the animators did not know how they would show Bart 's hair . However , they realized that there were vinyl Bart dolls in production and purchased one to use as a model . One of the most difficult parts for the PDI animators was to make Homer and Bart move properly without making them look robotic .
One of the key shots in the segment was where Homer steps into the 3D world and his design transitions into 3D . Executive producer Bill Oakley considers the shot the " money shot " and had a difficult time communicating his idea to the animators .
= = = Background jokes = = =
Several background jokes were inserted into " Homer3 " . The PDI animators inserted a Utah teapot , which was the first object to be rendered in 3D , and the numbers 734 ( which on a phone pad correspond to PDI ) . Several math equations were also inserted in the background , one of the equations that appears is 178212 + 184112 = 192212 . Although a false statement , it appears to be true when evaluated on a typical calculator with 10 digits of precision . If it were true , it would disprove Fermat 's last theorem , which had just been proven when this episode first aired . Cohen generated this " Fermat near @-@ miss " with a computer program . Other equations that appear are Euler 's identity and P = NP which is a reference to the famous P vs NP problem , and similarly contradicts the general belief that in fact P ≠ NP . The code 46 72 69 6E 6B 20 72 75 6C 65 73 21 is a string of hexadecimal numbers that , when interpreted as ASCII codes , decodes to " Frink rules ! " . There is a signpost with x , y and z , and many basic shapes littered across the screen .
= = Cultural references = =
The title of " Attack of the 50 @-@ Foot Eyesores " is a reference to the film Attack of the 50 Foot Woman . " Nightmare on Evergreen Terrace " is a parody of the film A Nightmare on Elm Street and its sequels , and Bart 's dream at the opening of the segment features many elements similar to the cartoons of Tex Avery . Willie changing shapes while sinking in the sand box is similar to the T @-@ 1000 's " death " in Terminator 2 : Judgment Day and Martin 's dream references The Pagemaster , while Willie being a shapeshifting monster whose final form is that of a giant spider is similar to Pennywise the Dancing Clown , the main antagonist of It . The segment " Homer3 " is a parody of The Twilight Zone episode " Little Girl Lost " , in which a girl travels through a portal to the 4th dimension . He even describes the series as " that twilighty show about that zone . " The film Tron is also mentioned by Homer as a means of describing his surroundings ( it is claimed that nobody in Springfield saw the film ) . The segment where Bart ties a rope around himself and enters the 3D world in an attempt to rescue Homer is a reference to the film Poltergeist . The building Homer encounters inside the third dimension is a recreation of the library from the PC game Myst accompanied with the library 's theme music briefly playing in the background . The three @-@ dimensional rotation shot of the dimensional vortex is a reference to the green glowing grid in the opening credits of the Disney film The Black Hole . In " Homer3 " , as he is about to fall in the black hole Homer says , " There 's so much I don 't know about astrophysics . I wish I 'd read that book by that wheelchair guy . " This is a reference to the bestseller A Brief History of Time by astrophysicist Stephen Hawking , who is quadraplegic . In " Attack of the 50 Foot Eyesores " , some of the mascots are parodies of real life mascots . For example , the giant walking unnamed peanut is a parody of Mr. Peanut . When the donut rolls by them on the highway Kang and Kodos use the word Shazbot from the television series Mork & Mindy .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Treehouse of Horror VI " finished 21st in the ratings for the week of October 23 to October 29 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 9 . It was watched in approximately 12 @.@ 4 million households . The episode was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . The " Homer3 " segment was later featured as part of the 2000 IMAX anthology film CyberWorld .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , described it as " Complex , very assured and very clever , [ ... ] The computer graphics are outstanding , and the final scene – as Homer enters our dimension – is one of the highlights of the entire series . " Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide said , " ' Attack of the 50 @-@ Ft . Eyesores ' stands as the strongest of the three segments . It doesn ’ t blast off the screen but it seems imaginative and fun . The Nightmare on Elm Street parody has its moments and comes across as generally entertaining . However , it lacks the bite the best pieces offer . Unfortunately , ' Homer3 ' gives us the weakest of the bunch . It tosses out a few funny bits , but it mostly feels like an excuse to feature some 3 @-@ D animation . " Ryan Budke of TV Squad listed " Homer3 " as the fourth best Treehouse of Horror segment and gave honorable mention to " Nightmare on Evergreen Terrace " . Will Pfeifer of the Rockford Register Star called the episode " the best of the annual Halloween episodes . "
In the July 26 , 2007 issue of Nature , the scientific journal 's editorial staff listed the " Homer3 " segment among " The Top Ten science moments in The Simpsons " , highlighting Cohen 's " 178212 + 184112 = 192212 " equation .
= = = Awards = = =
In 1996 , the " Homer ³ " segment was awarded the Ottawa International Animation Festival grand prize . The episode was also submitted for the Primetime Emmy Award in the " Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming less than One Hour ) " category because it had a 3D animation sequence , which the staff felt would have given it the edge . The episode would eventually lose to Pinky and the Brain . Bill Oakley later expressed regret about not submitting an episode with a more emotionally driven plot .
= Sweet Sweetback 's Baadasssss Song =
Sweet Sweetback 's Baadasssss Song is a 1971 American independent drama film , written , produced , scored , directed by , and starring Melvin Van Peebles , father of actor Mario Van Peebles ( who is also in the movie ) . It tells the picaresque story of a poor African American man on his flight from the white authority . Van Peebles began to develop the film after being offered a three @-@ picture contract for Columbia Pictures . No studio would finance the film , so Van Peebles funded the film himself , shooting it independently over a period of 19 days , performing all of his own stunts and appearing in several unsimulated sex scenes . He received a $ 50 @,@ 000 loan from Bill Cosby to complete the project . The film 's fast @-@ paced montages and jump @-@ cuts were unique features in American cinema at the time . The picture was censored in some markets , and received mixed critical reviews . However , it has left a lasting impression on African @-@ American cinema .
The musical score of Sweet Sweetback 's Baadasssss Song was performed by Earth , Wind & Fire . Van Peebles did not have any money for traditional advertising methods , so he released the soundtrack album prior to the film 's release in order to generate publicity . Initially , the film was screened only in two theaters in the United States . It went on to gross $ 4 @.@ 1 million at the box office . Huey P. Newton celebrated and welcomed the film 's revolutionary implications , and Sweetback became required viewing for members of the Black Panther Party . According to Variety , it demonstrated to Hollywood that films which portrayed " militant " blacks could be highly profitable , leading to the creation of the blaxploitation genre , although some do not consider this example of Van Peebles ' work to be an exploitation film .
= = Plot = =
A young African American orphan ( Mario Van Peebles ) is taken in by the proprietor of a Los Angeles brothel in the 1940s . While working there as a towel boy , he loses his virginity at a young age to one of the prostitutes . The women name him " Sweet Sweetback " in honor of his sexual prowess and large penis . As an adult , Sweetback ( Melvin Van Peebles ) works as a performer in the whorehouse , entertaining customers by performing in a sex show . One night , a pair of LAPD officers come in to speak to Sweetback 's boss , Beetle ( Simon Chuckster ) . A black man had been murdered , and there is pressure from the black community to bring in a suspect . The police ask permission to arrest Sweetback , blame him for the crime , and then release him a few days later for lack of evidence , in order to appease the black community . Beetle agrees , and the officers arrest Sweetback . On the way to the police station , the officers arrest a young Black Panther named Mu @-@ Mu ( Hubert Scales ) . They handcuff him to Sweetback , but when Mu @-@ Mu insults the officers , they take both men out of the car , undo the handcuff from Mu @-@ Mu 's wrist , and beat him . In response , Sweetback uses the handcuffs , still hanging from his wrist , to beat the officers into unconsciousness .
The remainder of the film chronicles Sweetback 's flight through South Central Los Angeles towards the United States – Mexico border . Sweetback is captured by the police and violently interrogated about his previous assault on the arresting officers , but he escapes when a riot breaks out . Sweetback goes to a woman who cuts his handcuffs off in exchange for sex . With his handcuffs off , Sweetback continues onward , only to be captured by a chapter of the Hells Angels . The female leader of the gang is impressed by the size of Sweetback 's penis , and agrees to help him and Mu @-@ Mu escape from the police in exchange for sex . The police find Sweetback and Mu @-@ Mu at the bikers ' hangout , but Sweetback escapes on foot while Mu @-@ Mu goes away with the bikers . Mu @-@ Mu and one of the bikers ( John Amos ) are killed . After his escape from the bikers ' hangout , a white man sympathetic to Sweetback 's cause agrees to switch clothes with him , allowing the usually velour @-@ clad Sweetback to blend in . The police find Sweetback 's former foster mother , who reveals that Sweetback 's birth name is Leroy . The film concludes in the desert , where the L.A. police send several hunting dogs after Sweetback . He makes it into the Tijuana River , and escapes into Mexico , swearing to return to " collect dues " .
= = Production = =
After Melvin Van Peebles had completed Watermelon Man for Columbia Pictures , he was offered a three @-@ picture contract . While the deal was still up in the air , Van Peebles developed the story for Sweet Sweetback 's Baadasssss Song . The initial idea for the film did not come clearly to him at first . One day , Van Peebles drove into the Mojave desert , turned off the highway , and drove over the rise of a hill . He parked the car , got out , and squatted down facing the sun . He decided that the film was going to be " about a brother getting the Man 's foot out of his ass . " Because no studio would finance the film , Van Peebles put his own money into the production , and shot it independently . Van Peebles was given a $ 50 @,@ 000 loan by Bill Cosby to complete the film . " Cosby didn 't want an equity part , " according to Van Peebles . " He just wanted his money back . " Van Peebles wound up with controlling ownership of the film . Several actors auditioned for the lead role of Sweetback , but told Van Peebles that they wouldn 't do the film unless they were given more dialogue . Van Peebles ended up playing the part himself .
According to Van Peebles , during the first day of shooting , director of photography and head cameraman Bob Maxwell told him he could not mix two different shades of mechanical film lights , because he believed the results would not appear well on film . Van Peebles told him to do it anyway . When he saw the rushes , Maxwell was overjoyed , and Van Peebles did not encounter that issue again during the shoot . Van Peebles shot the film over a period of 19 days in order to avoid the possibility of the cast , most of whom were amateurs , showing on some days with haircuts or clothes different from the prior day . He shot the film in what he referred to as " globs , " where he would shoot entire sequences at a time . Because Van Peebles couldn 't afford a stunt man , he performed all of the stunts himself , which also included appearing in several unsimulated sex scenes . At one point in the shoot , Van Peebles was forced to jump off a bridge . Bob Maxwell later stated , " Well , that 's great , Mel , but let 's do it again . " Van Peebles ended up performing the stunt nine times . Van Peebles contracted gonorrhea when filming one of the many sex scenes , and successfully applied to the Directors Guild in order to get workers ' compensation because he was " hurt on the job . " Van Peebles used the money to purchase more film .
Van Peebles and several key crew members were armed because it was dangerous to attempt to create a film without the support of the union . One day , Van Peebles looked for his gun , and failed to find it . Van Peebles found out that someone had put it in the prop box . When they filmed the scene in which Beetle is interrogated by police , who fire a gun next to both of his ears , it was feared that the real gun would be picked up instead of the prop . While shooting a sequence with members of the Hells Angels , one of the bikers told Van Peebles they wanted to leave ; Van Peebles responded by telling them they were paid to shoot until the scene was over . The biker took out a knife and started cleaning his fingernails with it . In response , Van Peebles snapped his fingers , and his crewmembers were standing there with rifles . The bikers stayed to shoot the scene .
Van Peebles had received a permit to set a car on fire , but had done so on a Friday ; as a result , there was no time to have it filed before shooting the scene . When the scene was shot , a fire truck showed up . This ended up in the final cut of the film .
= = = Directing = = =
Van Peebles stated that he approached directing the film " like you do the cupboard when you 're broke and hungry : throw in everything eatable and hope to come out on top with the seasoning , i.e. , by editing . " Van Peebles stated that " story @-@ wise , I came up with an idea , why not the direct approach . [ ... ] To avoid putting myself into a corner and writing something I wouldn 't be able to shoot , I made a list of the givens in the situation and tried to take those givens and juggle them into the final scenario . "
Van Peebles wanted " a victorious film [ ... ] where niggers could walk out standing tall instead of avoiding each other 's eyes , looking once again like they 'd had it . " Van Peebles was aware of the fact that films produced by major studios would appear to be more polished than low @-@ budget independently made features , and was determined to make a film that " [ looked ] as good as anything one of the major studios could turn out . "
Van Peebles knew that in order to spread his message , the film " simply couldn 't be a didactic discourse which would end up playing [ ... ] to an empty theater except for ten or twenty aware brothers who would pat me on the back and say it tells it like it is " and that " to attract the mass we have to produce work that not only instructs but entertains " . Van Peebles also wanted to make a film that would " be able to sustain itself as a viable commercial product [ ... ] [ The Man ] ain 't about to go carrying no messages for you , especially a relevant one , for free . "
Van Peebles wanted half of his shooting crew " to be third world people . [ ... ] So at best a staggering amount of my crew would be relatively inexperienced . [ ... ] Any type of film requiring an enormous technical sophistication at the shooting stage should not be attempted . " Van Peebles knew that gaining financing for the film would not be easy and expected " a great deal of animosity from the film media ( white in the first place and right wing in the second ) at all levels of filmmaking " , thus he had to " write a flexible script where emphasis could be shifted . In short , stay loose . "
= = = Editing = = =
The film 's fast @-@ paced montages and jump @-@ cuts were novel features for an American movie at the time . Stephen Holden from The New York Times commented that the film 's editing had " a jazzy , improvisational quality , and the screen is often streaked with jarring psychedelic effects that illustrate Sweetback 's alienation . " In The 50 Most Influential Black Films : A Celebration of African @-@ American Talent , Determination , and Creativity , author S. Torriano Berry writes that the film 's " odd camera angles , superimpositions , reverse @-@ key effects , box and matting effects , rack @-@ focus shots , extreme zooms , stop @-@ motion and step @-@ printing , and an abundance of jittery handheld camera work all helped to express the paranoid nightmare that [ Sweetback 's ] life had become . "
= = = Music = = =
Since Van Peebles did not have the money to hire a composer , he composed the film 's music score himself . Because he did not know how to read or write music , he numbered all of the keys on a piano so he could remember the melodies . Van Peebles stated that " Most filmmakers look at a feature in terms of image and story or vice versa . Effects and music [ ... ] are strictly secondary considerations . Very few look at film with sound considered as a creative third dimension . So I calculate the scenario in such a way that sound can be used as an integral part of the film . "
The film 's music was performed by the then @-@ unknown group Earth , Wind & Fire , who were living in a single apartment with hardly any food at the time . Van Peebles ' secretary was dating one of the bandmembers , and convinced him to contact them about performing the music for the film . Van Peebles projected scenes from the film as the band performed the music . By alternating hymn @-@ based vocalization and jazz rhythms , Van Peebles created a sound that foreshadowed the use of sampling in hip hop music .
Van Peebles recalls that " music was not used as a selling tool in movies at the time . Even musicals , it would take three months after the release of the movie before they would bring out an album . " Because Van Peebles did not have any money for traditional advertising methods , he decided that by releasing a soundtrack album in anticipation of the film 's release , he could help build awareness for the film with its music .
= = Release and alterations = =
The film was released on April 23 , 1971 . Melvin Van Peebles stated that " at first , only two theaters in the United States would show the picture : one in Detroit , and one in Atlanta . The first night in Detroit , it broke all the theater 's records , and that was only on the strength of the title alone , since nobody had seen it yet . By the second day , people would take their lunch and sit through it three times . I knew that I was finally talking to my audience . Sweet Sweetback 's Baadasssss Song made thousands of dollars in its first day . " The film grossed $ 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 + at the box office .
After Sweetback received an X rating from the Motion Picture Association of America , inspiring the advertising tagline " Rated X by an all @-@ white jury " , and a theater in Boston cut nine minutes out of the film , Van Peebles stated , " Should the rest of the community submit to your censorship that is its business , but White standards shall no longer be imposed on the Black community . " The Region 2 DVD release from BFI Video has the opening sex sequences altered . A notice at the beginning of the DVD states " In order to comply with UK law ( the Protection of Children Act 1978 ) , a number of images in the opening sequence of this film have been obscured . "
= = Response = =
The end of the film was shocking to black viewers who had expected that Sweetback would perish at the hands of the police — a common , even inevitable , fate of black men " on the run " in prior films . Film critic Roger Ebert cited the ending as a reason for the
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erhalder ) tells Hurley that James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) has the flight manifest from the plane , and that could help him take the census . Sawyer uncharacteristically gives it to Hurley without any objection . While Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) tries to help Claire move back to the beach , she starts having contractions . Charlie says he can deliver the baby , but after he accidentally confesses that he is a recovering drug addict , she yells at him to get Jack , which leaves her alone in the jungle . Charlie finds Ethan and tells him that Claire is in labor and to get Jack . Charlie goes back to comfort Claire , who tells him the story about the psychic . Charlie suggests that the psychic knew the flight was going to crash , and this was his way of forcing Claire to raise the baby by herself . Claire stops having contractions .
A badly wounded Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) returns to camp and tells the others about Danielle Rousseau ( Mira Furlan ) , and that other people live on the island , besides the plane survivors . Locke looks on from the shadows with his arms crossed . Hurley reveals to Jack that one of the survivors is not listed on the flight manifest , which means that someone was already on the island when the plane crashed . Claire 's contractions begin to stop . Claire and Charlie are then met by Ethan , who looks at them ominously .
= = Production = =
" Raised by Another " was written by consulting producer Lynne E. Litt . It was the first to feature Claire 's backstory before she arrived on the island . The episode 's story was developed in September 2004 , around the time that the series premiered on television . Series co @-@ creator Damon Lindelof later recalled that when the network realized Lost was going to be popular , they read the plans for " Raised by Another " and warned the writers not to endanger its success .
The first season contained flashbacks of main characters to develop their back stories to viewers . This approach was changed for " Raised by Another " , as the writers instead approached Claire 's flashbacks as a way to reveal the island 's mythology . According to Lindelof , " the network got really nervous , because that was a deep dive into mythology . "
The episode 's director , Marita Grabiak , had worked with Lost co @-@ creator J.J. Abrams on the television series Alias . She met with him to discuss the episode 's tone , and they also regularly talked over the phone once filming began . She explained , " He was involved in every aspect of the outline , the first draft , the second draft , just constant phone calls back and forth because , basically the challenge of that show was making the schedule . "
Emilie de Ravin , an Australian actress , originally auditioned for the role of Shannon , speaking her dialogue with an American accent . Instead , they offered her the part of Claire ; she accepted without reading the script , assuming it would just be a recurring role . While de Ravin had never been pregnant , she was able to learn of the experience from her two older sisters . She found the hot weather conditions in Hawaii difficult , later saying that " in many ways , the filming is actually like the drama . You endure the muggiest weather in the rainforest ... You 're really exposed to the elements . " The actress admitted being " creeped out " by the premise of " Raised by Another " , in which a psychic tricks Claire by sending her to the island to raise her baby .
= = Reception = =
" Raised by Another " first aired on December 1 , 2004 in the United States . An estimated 17 @.@ 15 million viewers watched the episode live , meaning it finished in first place that night and in tenth place for the week among all major American networks . Among 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old viewers , the episode earned a rating of 5 @.@ 9 / 16 making it the eleventh highest of the week among that age demographic .
Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Whitney Pastorek called it " a decent episode made much , much better by its absolutely bloodcurdling final moments . " Chris Carabott of IGN wrote in 2008 that while the episode was not the best of the first season , it was " noteworthy for its memorable reveal of the show 's first Other . " He praised the episode 's suspenseful climax , with Ethan 's revelation appearing alongside Sayid and Hurley warning them they are not alone . De Ravin 's performance was seen as another highlight . Zap2it columnist Ryan McGee , also writing in 2008 , praised the " stellar " episode for showing the first real antagonist of the series . McGee felt that Ethan 's reveal helped Lost turn " sharply in introducing an on @-@ Island , human threat for [ the ] survivors . " He concluded that it was among the top five best episodes of the first season .
Todd VanDerWerff of the Los Angeles Times rated the episode 58th of all Lost episodes ( apart from the series finale ) and commented positively on the " nicely spooky flashback to the psychic who was way too into getting her on that plane to L.A. " Rewatching the episode in 2014 , Myles McNutt stated that " Solitary " and " Raised by Another " felt like " the first that go all @-@ in on Lost as a serialized mystery , " in part as Claire 's story is the first to reveal a character 's destined voyage to the island in the form of flashbacks . In 2014 , MTV columnist Josh Wigler ranked it as the 76th @-@ best Lost episode , stating that " Ethan Rom ’ s episode @-@ closing reveal is one of the chilliest moments of early Lost . "
= Josh Beckett =
Joshua Patrick Beckett ( born May 15 , 1980 ) is an American former professional baseball pitcher . A three @-@ time Major League Baseball ( MLB ) All @-@ Star , he played for the Florida Marlins , Boston Red Sox , and the Los Angeles Dodgers .
After a stellar high school career , where he was regarded as one of the top prospects in the country , he was drafted by the Marlins with the second pick in the 1999 MLB draft . He won the 2003 World Series with the Marlins and the 2007 World Series with the Red Sox , and received the 2007 American League Championship Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) award and the 2003 World Series MVP award . He was traded from the Marlins to the Red Sox in 2006 and from the Red Sox to the Dodgers in 2012 , both as part of multi @-@ player transactions .
Beckett recovered from a serious injury that caused him to miss most of the 2013 season and pitched a no hitter against the Philadelphia Phillies on May 25 , 2014 for the Dodgers , becoming the 19th man to do so in Dodgers history . However , his season was again cut short due to an injury and he announced his retirement on October 7 , 2014 .
= = Early life = =
Beckett grew up idolizing fellow Texans Nolan Ryan and Roger Clemens . As a youth , he starred on Little League All @-@ Star teams . He later attended Spring High School in Spring , Texas . He had trouble with grades and not paying attention to his coach during his freshman year . His coach was so frustrated with him he threw him off the team . He went through a growth spurt before his sophomore year and added speed to his fastball . He also raised his GPA and was able to get back on the team , where he had a 9 – 3 record with a 1 @.@ 18 earned run average ( ERA ) as a sophomore , tossing three no @-@ hitters .
As a high school junior , Beckett was ranked by Baseball America as the top high school prospect in the country and his team as the top high school baseball team . He went 13 – 2 and struck out 2 @.@ 1 batters per inning while walking only 20 batters all season . His high school coach said " I ’ ve never seen a pitcher with his ability — ever . "
In his senior season , Beckett , by this point nicknamed " Kid Heat , " was named the High School player of the year by USA Today . Beckett signed a letter of intent to pitch for Texas A & M University , but he and Josh Hamilton were seen as the top two players available in the 1999 Major League Baseball draft . Concerned about Beckett 's perceived arrogance , the Tampa Bay Devil Rays picked Hamilton with the first pick . Beckett was selected with the second pick by the Florida Marlins . Marlins scouting director Al Avila said at the time , " Beckett has good size and has an overpowering fastball . He 's a bulldog on the mound . " Showing his confidence , Beckett predicted that he would make it to the Majors within two years and play in an All @-@ Star game by 2001 .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = Florida Marlins ( 1999 – 2005 ) = = =
= = = = Minor leagues = = = =
Beckett engaged in protracted negotiations with the Marlins , during which he briefly enrolled at Blinn Junior College , but he eventually signed on August 28 , 1999 to a four @-@ year $ 7 million contract that included a $ 3 @.@ 625 million signing bonus . His signing bonus was larger than what the Marlins were paying everyone on the Major League roster , except pitcher Alex Fernandez .
Beckett impressed the Marlins in his first Spring training with the team in March 2000 , with a fastball clocked at 94 to 96 miles per hour ( 151 – 154 km / h ) and a good curveball . He also showed his commitment to the team by donating $ 100 @,@ 000 to the team 's charitable foundation , more than any other player had donated . He was assigned to the Kane County Cougars of the Class A Midwest League to make his professional debut . As the Opening Day starter for the Cougars , he pitched four innings and allowed only one run , on a double by Albert Pujols . Beckett suffered from injuries that season , including shoulder tendinitis and a frayed rotator cuff , injuries which took longer to heal because he did too much weight lifting while on the disabled list . He would later say , " I tried to get too strong too quick and ended up making things worse . " He pitched in 13 games for the Cougars and finished with a record of 2 – 3 with a 2 @.@ 12 ERA and 61 strikeouts . He was selected by Baseball America as the Marlins best prospect and the 19th best in the entire minor leagues as well as having the best fastball in the Midwest League . He was also selected to play in the All @-@ Star Futures Game , a showcase for the best prospects .
The Marlins assigned Beckett to the Brevard County Manatees of the Florida State League at the start of the 2001 season . He didn 't allow an earned run in his first 38 2 ⁄ 3 innings and went 6 – 0 with a 1 @.@ 23 ERA and 101 strikeouts in 13 games . Marlins General Manager Dave Dombrowski remarked on his progress , " He pitched as well in the Florida State League as any prospect I 've ever been associated with " , leading to a promotion to the Double A Portland Sea Dogs of the Eastern League . Beckett struck out eight of the first nine batters he faced in his Sea Dogs debut on June 16 , 2001 . On August 13 , 2001 he combined with two other Sea Dogs pitchers to throw a no @-@ hitter against the Binghamton Mets . In 13 starts for the team , he had an 8 – 1 record , a 1 @.@ 82 ERA and struck out 102 batters .
He was selected by Baseball America , USA Today , and the Sporting News as the " Minor League Player of the Year " . Baseball America also ranked him as the Marlins best prospect and the third best in all of baseball and the Marlins awarded him as their organizational minor league player of the year .
= = = = Major leagues = = = =
Beckett 's Major League debut was on September 4 , 2001 , against the Chicago Cubs , in which he gave up one hit over six shutout innings to pick up his first Major League win . He also doubled and scored in the game . Beckett was quoted afterwards as saying , " It was fun . I 'm ready for my next one . " He did not allow a run in his first 10 innings before giving up a two @-@ run homer to Vladimir Guerrero on September 19 against the Montreal Expos . He finished 2001 with four games started , a 2 – 2 record , and an ERA of 1 @.@ 50 .
Hampered by blister problems in 2002 , Beckett 's highlight was on July 21 , when he struck out 12 Expos in one game , combining with a couple of relief pitchers on a Marlins record 17 strikeouts in a nine @-@ inning game . In 23 appearances for the Marlins in 2002 , which included two relief appearances , he was 6 – 7 with a 4 @.@ 10 ERA and 113 strikeouts .
Beckett was named the Marlins opening day starting pitcher in 2003 , and at 23 years old was the youngest opening day starter in the team 's history . However , he lasted just 2 2 ⁄ 3 innings in the game as the Philadelphia Phillies scored five unearned runs in the third as a result of two errors and a passed ball . He subsequently went on the disabled list ( DL ) with a sprained right elbow in mid @-@ May , part of a string of team injuries that contributed to the firing of Manager Jeff Torborg . He returned from his injury on July 1 and finished the season with a 9 – 8 record , a 3 @.@ 04 ERA and 152 strikeouts .
Beckett made his postseason debut in the opening game of the 2003 National League ( NL ) Division Series , where he allowed only one run in seven innings against the San Francisco Giants but picked up the loss as Jason Schmidt pitched a complete game shutout . However , the Marlins came back to win the series in four games . His next start , in game one of the 2003 NL Championship Series against the Chicago Cubs , did not go well as he allowed four runs in the first inning , two of them on a home run by Moisés Alou , and six runs in his 6 1 ⁄ 3 innings . The Marlins battled back and won the game in extra innings . The Cubs took the next three games and only needed one more win to take the series when Beckett returned to the mound in game five . He allowed only three Cubs to reach base in the game , on two singles and a walk , in the complete game shutout to keep his team alive . The Marlins took game six also , thanks partly to the infamous Steve Bartman incident . In game seven , on two days rest , Beckett came in out of the bullpen to pitch four innings and the Marlins won 9 – 6 to clinch the National League championship .
Beckett won the 2003 World Series MVP Award with two strong performances on three days ' rest as the Marlins defeated the New York Yankees . In game three , he struck out 10 and allowed only two runs in 7 1 ⁄ 3 innings and then in game six at Yankee Stadium , he shut out the Yankees in a complete game , striking out nine batters and clinching the series by making the tag for the final out .
Beckett made the opening day start for the Marlins again in 2004 , allowing one run in seven innings against the Expos . He made three trips to the DL during the season , but still pitched a career high 26 starts and 156 2 ⁄ 3 innings . He was 9 – 9 with a 3 @.@ 79 ERA and had 152 strikeouts for the second year in a row but the Marlins faltered down the stretch and did not make the postseason . In 2005 , he was 15 – 8 with a 3 @.@ 38 ERA and 166 strikeouts in 29 games .
In his five seasons with the Marlins , Beckett had a 41 – 34 record , a 3 @.@ 46 ERA and struck out a total of 607 batters in 106 games . In his final start as a Marlin , on September 23 , 2005 , against the Atlanta Braves , he struck out six in seven shutout innings but earned a no decision in a game the Marlins eventually lost .
= = = Boston Red Sox ( 2006 – 2012 ) = = =
In a deal that was made official on Thanksgiving Day 2005 , Beckett was traded to the Boston Red Sox along with third baseman Mike Lowell and relief pitcher Guillermo Mota for minor league shortstop Hanley Ramírez ( the top prospect in the Red Sox system at the time ) and pitchers Aníbal Sánchez , Jesús Delgado and Harvey García . Beckett and Lowell were among a prominent list of veterans the Marlins traded in an effort to shed salary . This was organizationally termed a market correction . In his first start with the Red Sox , Beckett allowed only one run in seven innings to pick up the win against the Texas Rangers on April 5 , 2006 .
Beckett was the first Red Sox pitcher to hit a home run in 35 years — since the advent of the designated hitter rule — when he took Phillies ' pitcher Brett Myers deep during an interleague game on May 20 , 2006 . On July 18 , he signed a three @-@ year , $ 30 million contract extension with a $ 10 million club option for 2010 . Beckett completed his first season with the Red Sox with a record of 16 – 11 and a 5 @.@ 01 ERA . In 204 2 ⁄ 3 innings , he gave up 191 hits and struck out 158 batters while walking 74 . He also allowed 36 home runs , tied for second most in the majors .
At the start of the 2007 season , Beckett adjusted to throwing more breaking pitches and fewer fastballs . At the same time , he learned to locate his pitches rather than simply get strikes by power . He reduced his walks and home runs allowed by nearly half , contributing to his success in 2007 . Beckett became one of six Red Sox pitchers in history to win their first seven starts . George Winter and Mickey Harris both won their first seven starts in a season , and Babe Ruth , Dave Ferriss and Roger Moret all won their first eight starts in a season . After a strong first half , posting a 12 – 2 record with a 3 @.@ 44 ERA , he was selected to the American League team in the 2007 MLB All @-@ Star Game . Beckett earned the victory in the game after pitching two innings , giving up only one hit , and striking out two . Beckett became the first pitcher to win 20 games in a season since 2005 , finishing the season with a record of 20 – 7 , a 3 @.@ 27 ERA , 194 strikeouts , a 1 @.@ 14 WHIP , and only 40 walks and 17 home runs allowed .
Beckett started the first game of the 2007 American League Championship Series ( ALCS ) and pitched six innings for the win and in game five he struck out 11 in eight innings . Beckett 's 2 – 0 record and 1 @.@ 93 ERA against the Cleveland Indians earned him the 2007 ALCS MVP Award . He then started and won the first game of the 2007 World Series against the Colorado Rockies , pitching seven innings , allowing one run on six hits , and striking out nine batters . Boston would go on to sweep the Rockies in the series .
On May 8 , 2008 , Beckett recorded his 1,000th career strikeout , when Brandon Inge of the Detroit Tigers struck out swinging in the seventh inning . He was 12 – 10 with a 4 @.@ 03 ERA in 27 starts . In game three of the 2008 American League Division Series against the Anaheim Angels he allowed four runs in five innings He then made two starts in the 2008 ALCS against the Tampa Bay Rays and was 1 – 0 but had a high 9 @.@ 64 ERA .
In 2009 , during his first Opening Day start with the Red Sox , Beckett struck out 10 through seven innings allowing only one run and two hits in a 5 – 3 victory over the Rays . On April 14 , 2009 , MLB fined and suspended him six games for intentionally throwing over the head of Angels outfielder Bobby Abreu . Beckett later appealed the suspension and got it reduced to five games . On June 20 , 2009 , he recorded his first complete game shutout in three years against the Atlanta Braves in a duel against former Red Sox pitcher Derek Lowe . The shutout was his first in a Red Sox uniform . On July 5 , 2009 , he was selected to represent Boston in the 2009 MLB All Star Game .
Beckett recorded his 100th career win on July 12 , 2009 , pitching a complete game shutout against the Kansas City Royals at Fenway Park . On August 7 , 2009 , against the New York Yankees , he engaged in a pitching duel with former Marlins teammate A. J. Burnett that turned into a fifteen @-@ inning , five @-@ hour @-@ and @-@ thirty @-@ three @-@ minute game . He threw seven shutout innings , Burnett threw seven and two thirds . The Red Sox eventually lost the game in the bottom of the 15th , when Alex Rodriguez hit a walk @-@ off two run home run . He was 17 – 6 on the season , with a 3 @.@ 86 ERA in 32 starts . He lost his one start in the postseason , to the Angels in game two of the 2009 ALDS .
On April 5 , 2010 , the Red Sox and Beckett agreed to a four @-@ year , $ 68 million contract extension , through 2014 . On May 7 , he allowed nine runs , struck out eight and also hit two batters . This was the first time a Major League pitcher had that combination of stats in a single game since Jack Coombs of the Philadelphia Athletics during the 1911 season . He was placed on the disabled list on May 19 with a lower back strain and returned from the injury on July 23 . On September 16 , he recorded his 1,000th strikeout as a member of the Red Sox against Tampa Bay 's Ben Zobrist in the sixth inning . In 21 starts in 2010 , he was 6 – 6 with a 5 @.@ 78 ERA .
In 2011 he posted career highs in ERA ( 2 @.@ 89 ) , opponent batting average ( .211 ) and WHIP ( 1 @.@ 03 ) . He was 13 – 7 in 30 games and was selected to his third All @-@ Star Game . At the end of the 2011 season , the Red Sox stumbled and failed to make the playoffs . Beckett and two more starting pitchers ( John Lackey and Jon Lester ) were in the center of a controversy where the three drank alcohol during games , where they weren 't pitching , and also ate fried chicken and played video games . Beckett was noted as the leader of this and some cited this behavior as part of the reason for the team 's poor play down the stretch .
Beckett struggled in the 2012 season , he went 5 – 11 with a 5 @.@ 23 ERA as a Red Sox . He was also the center of yet another controversy when it was reported that he played several rounds of golf despite having been scratched from his start due to a lat muscle injury . In what would turn out to be his final start with the Red Sox , he allowed four runs in six innings on August 19 , 2012 against the Yankees . Over seven seasons , he started 194 regular season games for the Red Sox with a 89 – 58 record , a 4 @.@ 17 ERA and 1 @,@ 108 strikeouts .
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers ( 2012 – 2014 ) = = =
On August 25 , 2012 , he was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers ( along with Adrian Gonzalez , Carl Crawford and Nick Punto and $ 11 million in cash ) for James Loney , Iván DeJesús , Jr . , Allen Webster , and two players to be named later ( Jerry Sands and Rubby De La Rosa ) . He started seven games for the Dodgers after the trade and was 2 – 3 with a 2 @.@ 93 ERA .
Beckett struggled in the early part of the 2013 season with an 0 – 5 record and 5 @.@ 19 ERA in eight starts . He was placed on the disabled list with a groin strain on May 15 . While on the disabled list he began to experience numbness and tingling in his hand so he went to see a nerve specialist and expressed doubt as to whether he would be able to pitch again . The Dodgers shut him down from pitching for a month while he underwent a rigorous rehabilitation program in an effort to avoid season @-@ ending surgery . However , the tingling sensation returned when he attempted to resume his throwing program in late June . He was diagnosed with thoracic outlet syndrome , which required him to undergo surgery on July 10 , 2013 that ended his 2013 season .
Beckett 's surgery , which included his having a rib removed , made him a question mark for the Dodgers heading into 2014 . He returned to the Dodgers on April 9 and made his first start since the previous May , allowing four runs in four innings . On May 13 , he picked up his first win since 2012 .
On May 25 , 2014 , Beckett pitched a no @-@ hitter against the Philadelphia Phillies at Citizens Bank Park , the 21st no @-@ hitter in Dodgers history , and the first since Hideo Nomo did so in the 1996 season . He threw 128 pitches , struck out six , and walked three en route to the victory . Beckett also became the oldest pitcher ( 34 ) to throw a no hitter since Randy Johnson ( 40 ) threw a perfect game in 2004 . He was honored as the National League Player of the Week as a result of that game .
On July 8 , 2014 , Beckett landed on the disabled list with a left hip impingement , an injury he said had gotten worse as the season went on . He returned to the rotation on July 22 , but struggled when he returned . In a start on August 3 , he was only able to pitch four innings against the Cubs . Afterward , Beckett told the team that he had experienced renewed discomfort in his injured hip . An MRI revealed that his hip impingement had resulted in a torn labrum and two cysts , possibly requiring season ending surgery . He was placed back on the 15 @-@ day disabled list on August 8 . On September 3 , 2014 , Dodgers manager Don Mattingly told reporters that Beckett 's season was likely over due to his injury . A couple of days later , Beckett confirmed that he would not pitch again in 2014 and added that he was also considering retirement . Beckett officially announced his retirement on October 7 , 2014 .
= = Pitching style = =
Beckett threw five pitches regularly : a four @-@ seam fastball ( 91 to 94 miles per hour ( 146 – 151 km / h ) ) , a two @-@ seam fastball ( 91 to 94 miles per hour ( 146 – 151 km / h ) ) , a cutter ( 89 to 91 miles per hour ( 143 – 146 km / h ) ) , a curveball ( 73 to 79 miles per hour ( 117 – 127 km / h ) ) , and a changeup ( 86 to 88 miles per hour ( 138 – 142 km / h ) ) . Beckett uses all five of his pitches against left @-@ handed hitters but drops the changeup against righties . He tends to use his curveball when ahead in the count , bolstered by its 34 % whiff rate . Beckett also began to experiment with a slider and splitter in 2012 .
= = Personal life = =
Beckett has been linked to such celebrities as model / sportcaster Leeann Tweeden and country singer Danielle Peck . On October 18 , 2007 , Peck was invited by the Cleveland Indians to sing the National Anthem prior to Game 5 of the American League Championship Series between the Red Sox and Indians . Beckett was the starting pitcher in that game , and some Red Sox fans theorized that her invitation was an attempt by the Indians organization to distract Beckett . The Indians denied this claim . It did not seem to affect Beckett , as he beat the Indians with eight innings pitched , five hits , one walk , one earned run , and eleven strikeouts . In a postgame interview with Beckett , when asked if he was affected by Peck 's presence , Beckett replied , " I don 't get paid to make those decisions . She 's a friend of mine . It doesn 't bother me at all . Thanks for flyin ' one of my friends to the game so she could watch it for free . " On January 22 , 2011 , he married Holly Fisher , an aeronautics engineer and former high school classmate . Josh and Holly have two daughters , Ryann and Sage .
Beckett is an avid deer hunter and has been since childhood . He was the 2002 winner of the Muy Grande Deer Contest for bringing down the largest buck during the Texas deer hunting season . He owns Herradura Ranch , a 7 @,@ 000 acres ( 28 km2 ) deer @-@ hunting ranch outside of Cotulla , Texas .
He was featured in a Kevin Fowler music video alongside his teammates John Lackey , Tim Wakefield , Jon Lester and Clay Buchholz .
= Cyril Bassett =
Cyril Royston Guyton Bassett VC ( 3 January 1892 – 9 January 1983 ) was a New Zealand recipient of the Victoria Cross ( VC ) , the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces . He was the first and only New Zealander to be awarded the VC in the Gallipoli Campaign of the First World War .
Born in Auckland , Bassett was a bank worker when the First World War began . A member of New Zealand 's Territorial Force , he volunteered for service abroad with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) and was posted to the New Zealand Divisional Signal Company as a sapper . He saw action on the opening day of the Gallipoli Campaign , and it was during the Battle of Chunuk Bair that he performed the actions that led to his award of the VC . Medically evacuated due to sickness shortly after the battle , he later served on the Western Front and finished the war as a second lieutenant . He returned to the banking profession but was recalled to active duty during the Second World War . He served on the Home Front and by the time he was taken off active duty in December 1943 , he had been promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel and was commander of signals in the Northern Military District . When he retired from his banking career he became a justice of the peace in Devonport . He died in 1983 at the age of 91 .
= = Early life = =
Cyril Bassett was born on 3 January 1892 in Auckland , New Zealand to a printer , Frederick Bassett , and his wife , Harriet . After completing his formal education , Bassett worked as a clerk for the National Bank of New Zealand . In 1909 , he joined what later became the Territorial Force and was assigned to the Auckland College Rifles . Two years later he transferred to the Auckland Divisional Signal Company .
= = First World War = =
When the First World War broke out , it was Bassett 's intention to join the Royal Navy . However , his mother , who was from a family with a history of service in the British Army , convinced him to enlist in the New Zealand Military Forces . Bassett was not particularly tall and was initially rejected due to his lack of height . He persisted with his attempt to enlist , and eventually joined the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) as a sapper in the Corps of New Zealand Engineers , assigned to the New Zealand Divisional Signal Company .
Bassett embarked with the main body of the NZEF for the Middle East in October 1914 . Initially based in Egypt , after a period of training , he landed at ANZAC Cove on 25 April 1915 , the opening day of the Gallipoli Campaign . Along with the other signallers of his unit , he was immediately set to work laying communication lines . In early May , his courage under fire was noted in consideration for a gallantry award .
Later in the campaign , Bassett was promoted to corporal . In August 1915 , a series of offensives against Turkish positions along the Gallipoli front were planned to break the stalemate that had developed since the initial landing . On 7 August , the New Zealand Infantry Brigade attacked Chunuk Bair , a prominent hill overlooking the battlefield . The battle lasted for three days , with Chunuk Bair captured by the brigade 's Wellington Infantry Battalion on the second day , during which Bassett , in command of a section of five other signallers of his unit , laid down and maintained telephone lines between brigade headquarters and the front lines . He braved continuous gunfire during this time . Although not wounded , two bullets passed through the fabric of his tunic during the fighting . After the battle , his name , along with those of the other five signallers of his section , was collected by Major Arthur Temperley of brigade headquarters , who nominated Bassett for the Victoria Cross ( VC ) .
The citation for Bassett 's Victoria Cross read as follows :
No. 4 / 515 Corporal Cyril Royston Guyton Bassett , New Zealand Divisional Signal Company . For most conspicuous bravery and devotion to duty on the Chunuk Bair ridge in the Gallipoli Peninsula on 7th August , 1915 . After the New Zealand Infantry Brigade had attacked and established itself on the ridge , Corporal Bassett , in full daylight and under a continuous and heavy fire , succeeded in laying a telephone line from the old position to the new one on Chunuk Bair . He has subsequently been brought to notice for further excellent and most gallant work connected with the repair of telephone lines by day and night under heavy fire .
The citation incorrectly refers to Bassett 's actions on 7 August ; it was not until the following day that the Wellington Infantry Battalion captured Chunuk Bair . A few days after the battle , Bassett was evacuated from Gallipoli due to poor health . Suffering from dysentery , he spent several months recuperating in England . In June 1916 , he rejoined his unit , by then on the Western Front in France as part of the New Zealand Division . Later that year , he participated in the Battle of the Somme and in 1917 was commissioned as a second lieutenant . He was wounded twice during his time in France . He returned to New Zealand in late 1918 as the New Zealand Division started demobilising and was formally discharged from the NZEF in 1919 .
= = Interwar period = =
Bassett returned to his banking career after the war , managing branches of the National Bank in Auckland and later in Paeroa . He retained a link to the military , rejoining the Territorial Force but was placed on the retired list of officers in 1929 . By 1939 he was manager of the Auckland Town Hall branch of the National Bank . He had also married , his union with Ruth Louise Grant producing two daughters .
= = Second World War = =
Called up for the National Military Reserve as a result of the outbreak of the Second World War , Bassett was placed on active duty in 1941 as a captain in the Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals . He was not required to serve overseas and instead he worked in signals while remaining in New Zealand . Promoted to major in February 1942 , his active war service ended in December 1943 . By then he had achieved the rank of lieutenant colonel and was commander of signals in the Northern Military District .
= = Later life and legacy = =
Bassett returned to the National Military Reserve from which he eventually retired in 1948 . As a civilian , he once again resumed his banking profession . He retired in 1952 but remained active in the community of Devonport , Auckland as a justice of the peace . He died in Stanley Bay , Auckland on 9 January 1983 , shortly after his 91st birthday , and his ashes were buried at North Shore Memorial Park . He was survived by his two daughters and his wife . His VC , gifted to the Corps of Signals upon his death , is displayed at the Auckland War Memorial Museum .
According to his daughter , Bassett rarely spoke about his achievements as " It just wasn 't done " , and in fact , she did not learn of her father 's award until she studied Gallipoli at primary school . He was modest of his achievements and expressed embarrassment at being the only New Zealand VC recipient of the Gallipoli Campaign .
Bassett remains the only signaller to have been awarded the VC and was a lifetime member of the Corps of Signals Association . In recognition of Bassett 's rank at the time he won the VC , the Bassett Memorial Trophy is awarded annually to the most outstanding corporal in the Corps of Signals . The trophy is a statue of Bassett on Chunuk Bair .
= Italian battleship Vittorio Veneto =
Vittorio Veneto was the second member of the Littorio class of battleships that served in the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) during World War II . Her keel was laid down in October 1934 , she was launched in July 1937 , and she was readied for service with the Italian fleet by August 1940 . She was named after the Italian victory at Vittorio Veneto during World War I , and she had three sister ships : Littorio , Roma , and Impero , though only Littorio and Roma were completed during the war . She was armed with a main battery of nine 381 @-@ millimeter ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) guns in three triple turrets , and could steam at a speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) .
Vittorio Veneto saw extensive service during the war and participated in the Battle of Cape Spartivento in November 1940 and the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941 . She was damaged by torpedoes several times , including in the engagement off Cape Matapan and by the British submarine HMS Urge in December 1941 , though she escaped undamaged during the British raid on Taranto in November 1940 . She spent 1941 and early 1942 attempting to attack British convoys to Malta , but crippling fuel shortages in the Italian fleet curtailed activity thereafter . Vittorio Veneto was among the Italian ships that were surrendered to the Allies in September 1943 after Italy withdrew from the war , and she spent the following three years under British control in Egypt . After the war , she was allocated as a war prize to Britain and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= = Description = =
Vittorio Veneto was 237 @.@ 76 meters ( 780 @.@ 1 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 32 @.@ 82 m ( 107 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 6 m ( 31 ft ) . She was designed with a standard displacement of 40 @,@ 724 long tons ( 41 @,@ 377 t ) , a violation of the 35 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) restriction of the Washington Naval Treaty ; at full combat loading , she displaced 45 @,@ 236 long tons ( 45 @,@ 962 t ) . The ship was powered by four Belluzo geared steam turbines rated at 128 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 95 @,@ 000 kW ) . Steam was provided by eight oil @-@ fired Yarrow boilers . The engines provided a top speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) and a range of 3 @,@ 920 mi ( 6 @,@ 310 km ; 3 @,@ 410 nmi ) at 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . Vittorio Veneto had a crew of 1 @,@ 830 to 1 @,@ 950 over the course of her career .
Vittorio Veneto 's main armament consisted of nine 381 @-@ millimeter ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) 50 @-@ caliber Model 1934 guns in three triple turrets ; two turrets were placed forward in a superfiring arrangement and the third was located aft . Her secondary anti @-@ surface armament consisted of twelve 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) / 55 Model 1934 / 35 guns in four triple turrets amidships . These were supplemented by four 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / 40 Model 1891 / 92 guns in single mounts ; these guns were old weapons and were primarily intended to fire star shells . Vittorio Veneto was equipped with an anti @-@ aircraft battery that comprised twelve 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) / 53 Model 1939 guns in single mounts , twenty 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / 54 guns in eight twin and four single mounts , and sixteen 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) / 65 guns in eight twin mounts . EC 3 ter Gufo radar , which could detect surface targets at a range of 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) and aircraft at 80 km ( 50 mi ) , was installed in July 1943 .
The ship was protected by a main armored belt that was 280 mm ( 11 in ) with a second layer of steel that was 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The main deck was 162 mm ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) thick in the central area of the ship and reduced to 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) in less critical areas . The main battery turrets were 350 mm ( 14 in ) thick and the lower turret structure was housed in barbettes that were also 350 mm thick . The secondary turrets had 280 mm thick faces and the conning tower had 260 mm ( 10 in ) thick sides . Vittorio Veneto was fitted with a catapult on her stern and equipped with three IMAM Ro.43 reconnaissance float planes or Reggiane Re.2000 fighters .
= = Service history = =
= = = Construction = = =
Vittorio Veneto was ordered under the 1934 construction program , and was named for the Battle of Vittorio Veneto , a decisive Italian victory over the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire in October – November 1918 during World War I. Her keel was laid on 28 October 1934 at Cantieri Riuniti dell 'Adriatico in Trieste , the same day as her sister ship Littorio . Vittorio Veneto was launched on 25 July 1937 , and major construction was completed by October 1939 . The fitting @-@ out process was greatly delayed due to repeated changes to the design and shortages of heavy armor plate . Before she could begin sea trials , Vittorio Veneto was moved to Venice on 4 October to have her bottom cleaned of the fouling that had accumulated during the long fitting @-@ out period , since the Venice Arsenal had the only drydock in Italy long enough to accommodate a ship the size of the Littorio class .
On 17 October , with the cleaning completed , the dockyard personnel flooded the drydock to conduct stability tests . The new battleship moved to Trieste on 19 October , and her trials began on 23 October . The trials , which also included tests for the ship 's weaponry , lasted until March 1940 , after which some additional fitting @-@ out work was completed . She was delivered on 28 April , though she was not yet complete . On 1 May , Vittorio Veneto was sent to La Spezia for final fitting @-@ out work , escorted by the destroyers Leone Pancaldo and Emanuele Pessagno . On 6 May , she was loaded with shells for her main battery ; the loading work for the main and secondary guns lasted until 20 May . Later that day , she was transferred to Taranto , escorted by the destroyers Ascari and Carabiniere , where she joined the 9th Division of the Italian fleet . The following month , Italy joined the war against Britain and France , though it wasn 't until 2 August that Vittorio Veneto and Littorio were formally declared operational .
= = = World War II = = =
On 31 August – 2 September 1940 , Vittorio Veneto sortied as part of an Italian force of five battleships , ten cruisers , and thirty @-@ four destroyers to intercept British naval forces taking part in Operation Hats and Convoy MB.3 , but contact was not made with either group due to poor aerial reconnaissance and no action occurred . In addition , British aerial reconnaissance detected the oncoming Italian fleet and was able to escape . On 6 September , the fleet sortied again to attack a British force that had been reported leaving Gibraltar , but the British ships instead steamed south into the Atlantic . A similar outcome resulted from the movement against British Operation " MB.5 " on 29 September - 1 October ; Vittorio Veneto , four other battleships , eleven cruisers , and twenty @-@ three destroyers had attempted to intercept the convoy carrying troops to Malta . In this operation , the Italian Regia Aeronautica ( Royal Air Force ) did locate the convoy , but the British were able to evade the Italian fleet .
On the night of 10 – 11 November , the British Mediterranean Fleet launched an air raid on the harbor in Taranto . Twenty @-@ one Swordfish torpedo bombers launched from the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious attacked the Italian fleet in two waves . The Italian base was defended by twenty @-@ one 90 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns and dozens of smaller 37 mm and 20 mm guns , along with twenty @-@ seven barrage balloons . The defenders did not possess radar , however , and so were caught by surprise when the Swordfish arrived . The first wave struck at 20 : 35 , followed by the second about an hour later . Vittorio Veneto was undamaged in the attack , but three other battleships were hit , two of which were severely damaged . The morning after the Taranto raid , Vittorio Veneto led the Italian fleet to Naples . There , she took over the role of fleet flagship , under the command of Admiral Inigo Campioni .
= = = = Battle of Cape Spartivento = = = =
On 17 November , Vittorio Veneto and Giulio Cesare — the only operational Italian battleships — participated in an attempt to intercept the British Operation White convoy to Malta , though the forces made no contact . On 26 November , the Italian fleet made another attempt to attack a British convoy , Operation Collar , which resulted in the Battle of Cape Spartivento ( known as the Battle of Cape Teulada to the Italians ) . Vittorio Veneto , Giulio Cesare , six cruiser , and fourteen destroyers attempted to catch a convoy steaming to Malta . The British escort included the aircraft carrier Ark Royal , the battleship Ramillies , and the battlecruiser Renown ; Italian aerial reconnaissance detected the escorts but exaggerated their strength and Campioni , under orders to not risk his two operational battleships against equal or stronger opponents , broke off the engagement shortly after it began . Vittorio Veneto briefly engaged several British cruisers and slightly damaged the light cruiser Manchester . During the engagement , Ark Royal launched torpedo bombers against Vittorio Veneto , but the latter successfully evaded the torpedoes .
Repeated British air attacks on Naples , one of which damaged the cruiser Pola , prompted the high command to move Vittorio Veneto and the rest of the major warships of the fleet to Sardinia on 14 December . They were returned to Naples six days later , however , after the high command concluded that removing the fleet to Sardinia would allow British convoys from Alexandria to reach Malta with relative ease . On the night of 8 – 9 January 1941 , the British launched an air raid with Vickers Wellington bombers on the Italian fleet in Naples , but the aircraft again failed to hit Vittorio Veneto ; Giulio Cesare was slightly damaged by several near misses . Both ships were moved to La Spezia the next day , with Vittorio Veneto providing cover for Giulio Cesare . Vittorio Veneto was now the only operational battleship in the fleet . Giulio Cesare was back in service by early February , as was Andrea Doria . The three battleships , along with eight destroyers , attempted to intercept Force H on 8 February , which was en route to bombard Genoa . The two forces did not encounter each other , and the Italian fleet returned to La Spezia .
= = = = Battle of Cape Matapan = = = =
Vittorio Veneto returned to Naples on 22 March , and four days later led an attempt to attack British shipping off Greece , in company with eight cruisers and nine destroyers . The fleet would be supported by the Regia Aeronautica and the German Fliegerkorps X ( 10th Air Corps ) . This operation resulted in the Battle of Cape Matapan ; the engagement began when the Italian 3rd Division — comprising the two Trento @-@ class heavy cruisers and Bolzano and commanded by Vice Admiral Luigi Sansonetti — encountered the British 15th Cruiser Squadron . Iachino attempted to maneuver Vittorio Veneto to the east of the British cruisers while they were distracted with Sansonetti 's cruisers , but HMS Orion spotted the battleship before she could close the trap . Vittorio Veneto immediately opened fire and quickly found the range , but only inflicted splinter damage on Orion , which fled to the south , back toward the main British fleet . Misfires in Vittorio Veneto 's forward @-@ most turret forced her to cease firing temporarily . The Italian gunners quickly returned the guns to action , however , and resumed their bombardment of the British cruisers . Poor visibility and smokescreens hampered the accuracy of Vittorio Veneto 's gunners and they scored no hits , though they straddled the cruisers several times . In the course of this phase of the battle , she had fired 92 rounds from her main battery .
During this period of the battle , torpedo bombers from the carrier HMS Formidable arrived on the scene , and their attack forced Vittorio Veneto to break off the engagement with the British cruisers to take evasive action . She evaded the torpedoes , but the attack convinced Iachino that the Mediterranean Fleet was at sea , which prompted him to end the operation and return to port . The British launched several air attacks against the Italian fleet in an attempt to slow down Vittorio Veneto , including land @-@ based Blenheim bombers from Greece and Crete . Later in the afternoon Formidable launched a second strike , and at 15 : 10 one of her Swordfish hit Vittorio Veneto on her port side , aft . The Italian anti @-@ aircraft gunners shot the plane down after it launched its torpedo . The hit sheared off the port side propeller , damaged the shaft , jammed the port rudder , and disabled the aft port pumps . It also caused severe flooding — some 4 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 100 t ) of water entered the ship — which gave her a 4 – 4 @.@ 5 degree list to port , and forced her to stop for about ten minutes . While she was immobilized , a Blenheim bomber dropped a bomb that landed near her stern ; the blast caused further , minor damage to stern .
The damage control parties had great difficulty in controlling and reducing the flooding , since they could only use emergency hand pumps . Some forward and starboard voids were counter @-@ flooded to reduce the list . In the meantime , engine room personnel were able to restart the starboard shafts and steering could be effected with the backup hand @-@ steering gear . After she got back underway , she was able to slowly increase her speed to 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) using only her starboard shafts . While the Italian fleet was withdrawing , Formidable launched another air strike of nine Swordfish in an attempt to slow Vittorio Veneto down . But instead of hitting the Italian battleship , they struck the cruiser Pola , leaving her dead in the water . Vittorio Veneto returned to port while two cruisers and several destroyers were detached to protect Pola ; all three cruisers and two destroyers were sunk in a furious night action at very close range with the battleships Valiant , Warspite , and Barham . Vittorio Veneto meanwhile reached Taranto on 29 March , where repairs lasted until July . She was not fully operational again until August .
= = = = Later operations = = = =
Vittorio Veneto and Littorio participated in an unsuccessful sortie to intercept British forces on 22 – 25 August . The British had intended to mine Livorno and launch an air raid on northern Sardinia , but Italian agents in Spain warned the Regia Marina of the British operation when it departed Gibraltar . The Italian fleet positioned itself too far to the south , however , and aerial reconnaissance failed to locate the British . A month later , Vittorio Veneto led the attack on the Allied convoy in Operation Halberd on 27 September 1941 , in company with Littorio , five cruisers , and fourteen destroyers . The British had hoped to lure out the Italian fleet and attack it with a powerful convoy escort centered on the battleships Rodney , Nelson , and Prince of Wales . It too ended without contact with the British fleet ; neither side located the other , but Italian torpedo bombers hit Nelson . At 14 : 00 , Iachino cancelled the operation and ordered the fleet to return to port .
On 13 December , she participated in another operation to escort a convoy to North Africa , but the attempt was broken off after a British radio deception effort convinced the Italians that the British fleet was in the area . While returning to port the following day , Vittorio Veneto was torpedoed by the British submarine HMS Urge in the Straits of Messina . Urge fired a spread of three torpedoes , but only one hit on her port side . The torpedo tore a hole 13 m ( 43 ft ) long and caused over 2 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ; 2 @,@ 200 short tons ) of water to flood the ship , though the ship 's Pugliese torpedo defense system successfully contained the explosion . Vittorio Veneto took on a 3 @.@ 5 degree list to port and was down by 2 @.@ 2 m ( 7 ft 3 in ) by the stern . Some counter flooding of a compartment on the starboard side abreast of the forward @-@ most turret reduced the list by a degree , and she was able to steam under her own power back to port . She returned to Taranto for repairs , which lasted until early 1942 .
On 14 June , Littorio participated in the interception of the Operation Vigorous convoy to Malta from Alexandria . Littorio , Vittorio Veneto , four cruisers and twelve destroyers were sent to attack the convoy . The British quickly located the approaching Italian fleet and launched several air strikes early on 15 June with Wellington and Bristol Beaufort bombers in an attempt to prevent them from reaching the convoy . The aircraft scored no hits on the battleships , but they did disable the cruiser Trento , which was later sunk by a British submarine . Later that morning another air attack , this time B @-@ 24 Liberators from the USAAF , occurred . The high @-@ level bombers scored one hit on Littorio and several near misses around her and Vittorio Veneto , but neither ship was seriously damaged . Another British strike with Beauforts arrived shortly thereafter , but Italian and German fighters had since arrived and they shot down two Beauforts and damaged five others . By the afternoon , Iachino had concluded that he would not reach the convoy before dark , and so he broke off the operation . On the return voyage , another British air attack succeeded in torpedoing Littoiro .
= = = Fate = = =
On 12 November , Vittorio Veneto was moved to Naples from Taranto in response to the Allied invasion of North Africa . While en route , the British submarine HMS Umbra unsuccessfully attacked Vittorio Veneto . An American air raid on the harbor on 4 December prompted the Italians to withdraw the fleet to La Spezia , where it remained for the rest of Italy 's active participation in the war . On 5 June 1943 , Vittorio Veneto was badly damaged by an American air raid on La Spezia ; she was hit by two large bombs toward the bow , though only one detonated . That bomb passed through the ship and exploded under the hull , causing serious structural damage . The damage forced her to be transferred to Genoa for repair work , since the dockyard in La Spezia had also been damaged by the attack . On 3 September , Italy signed an armistice with the Allies , ending her active participation in World War II . Six days later , Vittorio Veneto and the rest of the Italian fleet sailed for Malta , where they would be taken into internment for the remainder of the war . While en route , the German Luftwaffe ( Air Force ) attacked the Italian fleet using Dornier Do 217s armed with Fritz X radio @-@ controlled bombs . Vittorio Veneto was undamaged but Littorio — by now renamed Italia — was hit and damaged and her sister Roma was sunk in the attack .
Vittorio Veneto remained in Malta until 14 September , when she and Italia were moved to Alexandria , Egypt and then to the Great Bitter Lake in the Suez Canal on 17 October . The two battleships remained there until 6 October 1946 , when they were permitted to return to Italy . Vittorio Veneto went to Augusta , Sicily before moving to La Spezia on 14 October . In the Treaty of Peace with Italy , signed on 10 February 1947 , Vittorio Veneto was allocated as a war prize to Britain . She was paid off on 3 January 1948 , stricken from the naval register on 1 February , and subsequently broken up for scrap . Vittorio Veneto had been the most active Italian battleship of the war , having participated in eleven offensive operations . Twelve 90 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns taken from Vittorio Veneto were reused by the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) as armament of its Žirje Island coastal artillery battery . The battery surrendered without resistance to the Croatian National Guard on 14 September 1991 , during the Croatian War of Independence , and played a pivotal role in 16 – 22 September Battle of Šibenik , helping defend the city of Šibenik against the JNA .
= The Town That Dreaded Sundown =
The Town That Dreaded Sundown is a 1976 American slasher film by producer and director Charles B. Pierce who also co @-@ stars as a bumbling police officer named A.C. Benson , also known as " Sparkplug " . Pierce 's fifth film is narrated by Vern Stierman who had previously narrated Pierce 's 1972 film The Legend of Boggy Creek . Ben Johnson stars as Captain J.D. Morales , the fictionalized version of real @-@ life Texas Ranger Captain M. T. " Lone Wolf " Gonzaullas . Dawn Wells ( Mary Ann of Gilligan 's Island ) appears as one of the victims . Cindy Butler ( Pierce 's girlfriend at the time ) plays Peggy Loomis , the trombone victim . The Phantom is played by Bud Davis , who later worked as stunt coordinator on films such as Forrest Gump , Cast Away , and Inglourious Basterds . The film was mostly shot around Texarkana , and a number of locals were cast as extras . The world premiere was held in Texarkana on December 17 , 1976 , before its regular run in theaters on December 24 . The film is an early example of a slasher film , having been released two years before Halloween ( 1978 ) , and just two years after Black Christmas ( 1974 ) , a film considered as one of the earliest in the genre .
The film is somewhat loosely based on the actual crimes attributed to an unidentified serial killer known as the Phantom Killer ; it claims that " the incredible story you are about to see is true , where it happened and how it happened ; only the names have been changed . " The actual Phantom attacked eight people between February 22 , 1946 and May 3 , 1946 in or near the town of Texarkana , Texas , which is on the border of Texas and Arkansas . Most of the murders occurred in rural areas just outside Texarkana , in Bowie County , Texas , while the film has them occurring in Arkansas . However , the general outline of the murders largely follows the reality , with mostly minor artistic license taken . As in the film , the real killer was never identified nor apprehended .
The film is loose enough with the facts that one family member of a victim filed a lawsuit in 1978 , over its depiction of his sister . The fabricated facts in the film have also caused rumors and folklore to spread for generations around Texarkana . The film 's tagline claims that the man who killed five people " still lurks the streets of Texarkana , Ark . " , causing officials of that neighboring city to threaten Pierce over the ads in 1977 ; however , it remained on the posters . A meta @-@ sequel with the same name was released on October 16 , 2014 .
= = Plot = =
Before the " Phantom @-@ attacks " , which occurred about eight months after World War II , Texarkana was pleasant and citizens were preparing for a good future . On the night of Sunday , March 3 , 1946 , Sammy Fuller and Linda Mae Jenkins park on a lovers ' lane . Soon , the hood of the car opens and closes and a man with a bag over his head with holes cut out for his eyes is seen holding wires he had yanked from the engine . While Sammy tries starting the car , the man breaks his window and pulls him out , cutting him on the broken glass . The man then gets inside the car with Linda .
The next morning , Linda is found on the side of the road barely alive . While at the crime scene , Deputy Norman Ramsey reports that both victims are still alive . He leaves a message for Sheriff Barker to meet him at Michael @-@ Meagher Hospital . At the hospital , a doctor tells Sheriff Barker that Linda was not raped but that her back , stomach , and breasts were " heavily bitten ; literally chewed . " At the police station , Barker suggests to Police Chief Sullivan to warn teens and college students from parking on lonely roads .
On March 24 , while investigating a lovers ' lane in heavy rain , Ramsey hears gunshots and finds Howard W. Turner dead in a ditch and the corpse of his girlfriend , Emma Lou Cook , tied to a tree . Ramsey spots the hooded man escaping in a car . Panicked , the town sells out of guns and other home safety equipment . Sheriff Barker calls in help and tells Ramsey they are getting the most famous criminal investigator in the country , the " Lone Wolf " of the Texas Rangers , Captain J.D. Morales . After arriving , Morales explains he 'll be in charge of the investigation and calls the unidentified attacker a Phantom . Ramsey is assigned to assist Morales , and Patrolman A.C. Benson " Sparkplug " is to be his driver .
At the barber shop , Ramsey explains to Morales his theory that the Phantom attacks every 21 days . The next attack falls on the day of a high school prom , and decoys are set up on the edges of town . After the dance , on April 14 , trombone player Peggy Loomis leaves with her boyfriend Roy Allen . Despite her worries , they go to Spring Lake Park in the middle of town . When they leave , the Phantom jumps on the driver 's door and pulls Roy out of the car , causing Peggy to wreck . She flees as the Phantom beats Roy , but he catches her and ties her hands around a tree . Roy awakens but is shot to death while attempting to escape . The Phantom attaches a pocket knife to Peggy 's trombone and kills her while " playing " the instrument .
Morales and other officers meet with psychiatrist Dr. Kress at a restaurant where he explains that the Phantom is a highly intelligent sadist with a strong sex drive , between the ages of 35 and 40 . As Kress expresses his doubts about their chances of capturing the Phantom , the Phantom 's shoes are shown , revealing that he had heard the entire conversation . At the station , a man named Johnson says that he was robbed and forced to drive a man to Lufkin at gunpoint . While on the road , Ramsey receives a report about an armed suspect , and a brief chase ensues . The suspect , Eddie LeDoux , at first denies everything , then confesses to being the Phantom , but Morales is unconvinced . Johnson identifies him as his robber .
On May 3 , Helen Reed is seen by the Phantom leaving a grocery store . At home that night , Helen asks her husband Floyd , who is sitting in front of a window in his armchair , if he hears somebody walking outside . After he replies that he does not , the Phantom shoots him through their window . Helen inspects and sees Floyd dying . As she uses the telephone to call police , the Phantom breaks through the screen door and shoots her twice in the face . Despite her wounds , she drags herself out of the house and into a cornfield while the Phantom inspects Floyd 's body . The Phantom stalks her with a pickaxe , but leaves when she gets help at a nearby house . News of this attack causes the town to panic , and people begin boarding up their windows .
Later , Morales and Ramsey receive a report about a stolen car that matches the one from the Turner and Cook murders . While investigating a sand pit , they encounter the Phantom . Morales shoots at him but misses , causing him to run
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okies defensively for the rest of the game . Such was the defensive dominance of Mississippi in the last three quarters of the game that after Tech 's field goal in the first quarter , the Hokies had 11 offensive possessions and crossed into Ole Miss territory just once .
In addition to Steve Hindman 's selection as the game 's MVP , Mississippi had two other players recognized for their achievements in the game : Robert Bailey was named the game 's most outstanding defensive back and offensive tackle Worthy McClure was named the game 's most outstanding offensive lineman .
= Run Baby Run ( Garbage song ) =
" Run Baby Run " was a single released from Garbage 's fourth album Bleed Like Me in the summer of 2005 in Europe and Australia . It was released as joint @-@ second single from the album – around the same time the United Kingdom received a parallel release for " Sex Is Not The Enemy " and " Bleed Like Me " was released in the U.S.
Following on from the unexpectedly high chart positions for both the previous single " Why Do You Love Me " and the parent album Bleed Like Me , " Run Baby Run " failed to replicate their success . " Run Baby Run " was to be the third single release from Bleed Like Me in the United Kingdom , scheduled to be released at the same time as the band 's UK tour .
After the tour was cancelled , Garbage went on a self @-@ imposed hiatus and the single release was postponed and quietly cancelled . A U.S. single release was also considered .
= = Song = =
" Run Baby Run " was first written by the end of 2003 at Smart Studios in Madison , Wisconsin . The song began from an idea by guitarist Duke Erikson , and took a lot of work to complete . The band , while happy with the chorus , rebuilt the rest of the song around it ; most of the song 's original verses , lyrics and melody were re @-@ written . Garbage didn 't finish the song until the very end of the album sessions .
Shirley Manson later recalled , " " Run Baby Run " is about trying to engineer your own peace of mind and being unafraid to make changes in your life in order to try and facilitate that . [ It 's ] about escape and engineering your own path in life . We ’ re all too guilty of thinking that peace , love and healthiness are things that we ’ re all just given " . The singer added that fairy tales gave " this idea that somebody 's gonna come along and fix your life " , but eventually " I sort of came to the realization that actually nobody 's gonna fix your life for you , you have to do it yourself . And it 's about just making an effort to make your life good . If it sucks , do something about it . " Erikson added , " Being expected to go through life to behave a certain way ; I think " Run Baby Run " is a plea to run from that . Run with your life , take it wherever it takes you . It 's about not conforming . "
On 25 May , Garbage confirmed a list of fourteen songs being worked on for the record , including " Run " , and on 14 December confirmed that the song , now with final title of " Run Baby Run " , would be included on the finished album Bleed Like Me .
= = Single release = =
On 10 April Garbage drummer Butch Vig told fans in Los Angeles that " Run Baby Run " would be the second European single taken from Bleed Like Me ; and on 17 April Garbage debuted " Run Baby Run " live at Boston Avalon .
On 15 May , " Run Baby Run " was sent to European radio , and on 20 May was officially confirmed for physical single release . The " Run Baby Run " video was first shown online at the band 's website on 10 June , before being sent for airplay on 15 June . The initial European release date was 20 June .
The week " Run Baby Run " was provided to Australian radio , it was the # 2 Most Added track ; and on 10 July was released on CD maxi . Despite the top 20 success of previous single " Why Do You Love Me " , the single debuted at # 49 .
Garbage were completing European dates ; including a show broadcast Europe @-@ wide from Trieste ( Isle of MTV ) , during which " Run Baby Run " was performed prior to the rescheduled 1 August release of the single across Europe . Despite both a maxi and single CD format being planned ; only the maxi was ever issued . On 15 August , " Run Baby Run " charted at # 97 in the German singles chart .
By 30 June , " Run Baby Run " had received a number of adds to UK radio and TV ; and a tentative 12 September issue date . " Run Baby Run " was rescheduled for release in the UK on 24 October ; however the single was cancelled after the band 's UK tour was pulled . The " Run Baby Run " video was pulled from television ; despite adds to music channels .
A 20 March 2006 release date for a reworked version of " Run Baby Run " , upfront of a listed Absolute Garbage issue date was rumoured , but did not happen . On 22 May 2007 it was officially confirmed that " Run Baby Run " would not be included on Absolute Garbage .
= = Track listings = =
European CD Maxi A & E Records / WEA 50467 @-@ 8748 @-@ 2
Australian CD Maxi FMR 5046790012
" Run Baby Run " - 3 : 58
" Honeybee " - 4 : 02
" Never Be Free " - 4 : 28
" Badass ( October 2003 Ruff Demo ) " - 3 : 15
= = B @-@ sides = =
" Run Baby Run " was backed with b @-@ sides " Honeybee " and " Never Be Free " which had been previously been released on the UK " Sex Is Not The Enemy " single . Both tracks were recorded during the sessions for Bleed Like Me . An acetate of " Never Be Free " leaked from Chrysalis Music Group in 2003 , but the track did not end up on the internet . The single also contained a demo version of " Badass " ( once titled " Teach Me Tonight " ) , that had been left unfinished from album sessions in October 2003 . Exclusive to the " Run Baby Run " release , " Badass " leaked onto the internet on 13 June 2005 , a month before the single was issued .
While Vig describes " Honeybee " as " Neil Young @-@ esque , with a druggy feel " , Manson wrote the song was " pretty dark and twisted . It 's a lusty , yearning moan " . " Honeybee " featured drums performed by Matt Walker , while " Never Be Free " credited John5 with guitar . All three tracks were written and produced by Garbage , although " Never Be Free " may have originally been a John Lowery co @-@ write . Producer James Michael may have also worked on the track at one point .
= = Music video = =
On the weekend of 31 May , Manson and Muller filmed the video for " Run Baby Run " in London , Paris , Berlin and Istanbul . By 8 June , the video was ready to air , and on 12 June was premiered on Garbage 's official web @-@ site .
Locations filmed in include within Charles de Gaulle International Airport and on the Paris Métro ( France ) ; outside the Olympiastadion and in Mohrenstraße and Neu @-@ Westend stations on the Berlin U @-@ Bahn ( Germany ) ; and around and within Istanbul 's Hotel Pera Palas , Haydarpaşa Terminal and over the Bosphorus strait ( Turkey ) . Studio shots were filmed in London .
= = Critical reception = =
" Run Baby Run " was generally very well received by contemporary pop music critics , a number of whom , including NME , commented on the track as part of Bleed Like Me 's strong opening half . Rolling Stone felt the song recreated the 80s new wave sound better than efforts from bands like Kasabian and Bloc Party : " Surrounded by a black forest of power @-@ chord distortion , Manson pleads and prays like Deborah Harry atop a bouncing , throaty guitar riff that New Order would envy . " The New York Daily News also picked up on the New Order sound , commenting that the band had given the bass guitar " the best hook " . Peter Murphy , of Hot Press , described " Run Baby Run " as one of the band ’ s most positive songs ; " [ It ] glows with compassion , forgiveness and self @-@ acceptance . "
Rolling Stone felt that song 's " tender , dreamy verses " brought to mind " Just Like Heaven " by The Cure .
= = Release history = =
= = Comprehensive charts = =
= = Credits & personnel = =
= 1957 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1957 Pacific hurricane season was a moderately active year in which 13 tropical cyclones formed . The hurricane season ran through the summer and fall months which conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The first tropical cyclone developed on July 15 . The final storm dissipated on December 6 , becoming one of the few Pacific storms to exist outside of the seasonal dates . Of the season 's 13 storms , five of these formed or crossed into the central Pacific .
During the season , five storms impacted land . Hurricane Twelve was the deadliest , leaving eight casualties in Mazatlán and the costliest was Hurricane Nina , causing an estimated $ 100 @,@ 000 in losses . In addition to the damage , four people were killed by Nina in Hawaii . Hurricane Six killed seven people and Hurricane Ten killed two in Mexico .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Kanoa = = =
The first hurricane of the season was identified by the National Weather Bureau in San Francisco , California on July 15 . The previous day , the S.S. Garvel Park recorded sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) when it was situated roughly 75 mi ( 120 km ) south of Manzanillo , Mexico . Although listed as a Category 1 hurricane for its entire known existence by the hurricane database , the storm was not confirmed to have attained hurricane intensity until July 21 . The storm took a steady westward track during the early portion of its existence in response to a strong ridge located north of Hawaii . On July 18 , the National Weather Bureau discontinued advisories on the storm as no information on it was being received .
On July 21 , a vessel named Cape Horn relayed information regarding the storm to the National Weather Bureau , leading to them re @-@ issuing advisories on the storm , upgrading it to a hurricane . The following day , a reconnaissance mission from Oahu , Hawaii located the storm 's 40 mi ( 65 km ) wide eye and recorded sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and gusts up to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Shortly after , the storm likely attained its peak intensity as a high @-@ end Category 1 hurricane , with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Early on July 23 , warning responsibility of the storm was given to the National Weather Bureau in Honolulu , Hawaii .
Upon transferring responsibility , the hurricane was given the name Kanoa , the Hawaiian name meaning " the free one " . As the storm approached Hawaii , it began to weaken as convection filled the eye . The storm 's track mirrored that of the shipping lane between the Panama Canal and Hawaii , leading to several ships being affected . Colder air also began to enter the circulation , leading to further weakening . By the time the system reached Hawaii , it was no more than an area of disturbed weather . The remnants of Kanoa persisted until July 26 , at which time they dissipated over the Hawaiian Islands . The remnants of the storm brought beneficial rainfall to most of Hawaii , with heavy rains being reported in parts of the Big Island .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
Roughly two weeks after Kanoa dissipated , the season 's second hurricane was identified over the open waters of the eastern Pacific on August 6 . This storm traveled in a similar fashion to Kanoa in response to a high pressure system over the northern Pacific . By August 9 , the system turned northwest and weakened . Cold , dry air began to enter the storm as it accelerated over cooler waters . Several reconnaissance missions were flown into the storm due to rapid changes in the storm 's wind field and structure . Late on August 10 , the system intensified into a Category 1 hurricane and its forward motion slowed as it turned more westward .
Although at an unusual latitude , the storm maintained this intensity for over a day before weakening to a tropical storm . During the afternoon of August 13 , the small system re @-@ intensified into a hurricane . Reconnaissance reported that gale @-@ force winds extended no more than 100 mi ( 155 km ) from the storm 's eye . Shortly thereafter , the system further intensified into a Category 2 hurricane , attaining maximum winds of 105 mph ( 160 km / h ) . Weather maps at the time depicted the storm as having a minimum pressure of 987 mbar ( hPa ) . By August 14 , the storm began to weaken once more , gradually becoming a tropical storm on August 15 . After tunrning northward , the cyclone became extratropical at a high latitude of 39 @.@ 8 ° N.
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
As Hurricane Two intensified over open waters , the season 's third storm was identified on August 9 . Initially tracking westward , the hurricane turned sharply north , maintaining an intensity of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) during its known existence . Briefly slowing on August 11 , the system quickly picked up forward speed as it turned northwestward , paralleling the coastline of the Baja California Peninsula . On August 14 , the hurricane turned north once more ; however , it lost its identity the following day off the coast of Baja California .
= = = Hurricane Della = = =
Hurricane Della was first identified on September 1 southeast of Hawaii as a tropical depression . The depression quickly intensified into a tropical storm as it traveled northwest ; however , operational advisories were not issued until September 3 . By that time , a ship reported they had encountered a storm and recorded winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . Radar images also depicted an eye had developed within the storm . After becoming a hurricane , Della began a gradual turn towards the southwest . During the day on September 4 , the storm passed roughly 10 mi ( 15 km ) south of the French Frigate Shoals , bringing strong winds gusting up to 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . During the storm 's passage , a pressure of 980 mbar ( hPa ) was recorded , the lowest in relation to the storm . By September 9 , Della began to turn westward as it approached the International Date Line with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) .
During the day , the storm crossed 180 ° , entering the western Pacific basin and being re @-@ designated as a typhoon . The storm tracked steadily northwestward , attaining a peak intensity of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) , a high @-@ end Category 3 storm , before turning back towards the east . The storm gradually weakened , transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on September 17 and again crossing the International Date Line . The system dissipated shortly thereafter over open waters . Throughout its existence , Hurricane / Typhoon Della traveled roughly 5 @,@ 000 mi ( 8 @,@ 000 km ) , the longest known track of any Pacific hurricane at the time .
= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =
The fifth tropical cyclone of the season was first identified as a tropical storm several hundred miles southeast of Hawaii on September 9 . The storm quickly attained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) before weakening . By September 11 , the system weakened to a tropical depression . Later that day , the system entered an area with no ships available for reporting . However , no ships reported a storm in the region for several days , signifying the depression 's dissipation .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
On September 17 , a new hurricane was identified just off the southern coast of Mexico with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Moving northwestward , the storm eventually made landfall near Acapulco , Mexico at this intensity . Shortly after moving over land , the storm lost its identity .
High winds and heavy rains from the storm caused moderate damage to structures and vessels throughout Acapulco , Mexico . Several roads were washed out or flooded by the storm . Seven people were killed throughout the region by the storm , including one U.S. citizen who was electrocuted by a downed power line .
= = = Tropical Storm Seven = = =
Several days after Hurricane Six lost its identity over Mexico , a new tropical storm formed near the southern edge of the Gulf of California on September 20 . Some forecasters stated that the system may have been the remnants of the preceding storm which regenerated . However , the Hurricane Database did not confirm this . The system tracked nearly due north , attaining maximum winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , nearing the coastline of Mexico several times . However , the storm did not make landfall during its existence . On September 22 , it turned westward before dissipating just off the coast of Baja California Sur .
= = = Tropical Storm Eight = = =
The fifth tropical cyclone to form or enter the central Pacific was first identified on September 25 several hundred miles south of the Hawaiian Islands . Traveling nearly due west , the storm attained an intensity of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) before weakening . By September 27 , the storm weakened to a tropical depression and later dissipated on September 28 over open waters .
= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =
The shortest lived storm of the season , Tropical Storm Nine , formed south of Mexico on September 26 . The system attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) during its existence . Later that day , the center of the storm relocated several dozen miles to the west . Shortly thereafter , the storm dissipated on September 27 over open waters .
= = = Hurricane Ten = = =
The tenth known storm of the season was identified on October 1 several hundred miles southwest of the tip of the Baja California Peninsula . Maximum winds observed during the storm 's existence reached 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) ; however , no air pressure was recorded . Initially tracking westward , the system turned northwest and later northeast by October 3 . After a brief acceleration on October 4 , the hurricane slowed as it neared the coastline of Baja California . Early on October 5 , the storm crossed the Peninsula as a Category 1 hurricane before entering the Gulf of California . The hurricane made another landfall near Navojoa , Mexico later that day . Rapid weakening took place as the storm moved over the high terrain over northern Mexico . Early on October 6 , the system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over New Mexico before dissipating several hours later .
At least two people were killed after their home collapsed on them a result of the storm in Mexico . Severe cotton crop damage was reported in the Mexican states of Sonora and Baja California Sur and bridges were washed away by flood waters .
= = = Hurricane Eleven = = =
The season 's eleven known storm identified several hundred miles south of Mexico on October 17 . Quickly tracking northwestward , the storm attained an intensity of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) during its existence . Early on October 19 , the hurricane turned due north , brushing the coastline of Mexico before dissipating just offshore the following day .
= = = Hurricane Twelve = = =
The strongest storm of the season , Hurricane Twelve , was first identified as a tropical depression several hundred miles southwest of Sonora , Mexico on October 20 . Tracking northeastward , the system gradually intensified into a tropical storm . Late on October 21 , the storm underwent a brief period of explosive intensification , strengthening from a 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) tropical storm to a 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane in roughly six hours . The hurricane maintained this intensity for a further six hours before making landfall near Mazatlán . Rapid weakening took place as the hurricane moved inland , with the system dissipating during the afternoon of October 22 .
Throughout the affected region , eight people were killed by the storm . Extensive property damage was reported in the region , including the complete collapse of the local baseball stadium . Power lines and telegraph wires were downed throughout the region and high winds reportedly tossed vehicles into buildings . Many shrimp trawlers sank in the storm , leaving substantial losses in Mexico 's shrimping industry .
= = = Hurricane Nina = = =
The last storm of the 1957 season , Hurricane Nina , was an unusually late @-@ forming system . It was first identified on November 29 as a tropical storm to the southwest of Hawaii . Steadily tracking north @-@ northeast , the storm intensified into a Category 1 hurricane , by which time it was given the name Nina . As it approached Hawaii , the National Weather Bureau issued warnings for the storm , advising residents to take precaution and possibly evacuate . However , the storm turned westward before moving over the Hawaiian Islands with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Gradual weakening took place as the storm continued to move over open waters . Nina eventually dissipated after turning south on December 6 .
Waves up to 35 ft ( 11 m ) damaged up to 50 homes across Hawaii and roughly 12 of them being destroyed on Kauai alone . One person was killed on land after being electrocuted by a downed power line . Offshore , a sampan called the Setsu Maru sent a distress call reporting that the boat was sinking 10 miles east of Niihau . All three people aboard the boat were reported dead as a result . In all , damage from the hurricane was estimated at $ 100 @,@ 000 .
= = Storm names = =
During 1957 , hurricanes that formed east of 140 ° W were not given names by the local warning center . Those that either crossed or formed west of that point were named by the National Weather Bureau in Honolulu , Hawaii . These names were taken from the names used for Pacific typhoons . Three names were used in 1957 , they were Kanoa , Della and Nina . Due to the lack of major damage from these storms , their names were not retired . However , once the Central Pacific adopted its own naming scheme , these names were no longer used .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of the storms in 1957 and their landfall ( s ) , if any ; the table does not include storms that did not make landfall , which is defined as the center of the storm moving over a landmass . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still storm @-@ related . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low .
= Creek whaler =
The creek whaler ( Carcharhinus fitzroyensis ) is a common species of requiem shark , and part of the family Carcharhinidae , endemic to northern Australia . It frequents shallow waters close to shore , including estuaries . This small , stocky shark usually grows to 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 3 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 3 ft ) long and is brownish in color without conspicuous fin markings . It can be identified by its long snout , large , triangular pectoral fins , and large , anteriorly positioned first dorsal fin .
The diet of the creek whaler consists mainly of small teleost fishes and crustaceans . It is viviparous , with the unborn young being sustained through a placental connection . The defined mating season lasts from May to July . Females give birth to one to seven pups annually , following a gestation period of seven to 9 months . A small number of creek whalers are caught incidentally in inshore gillnets and used for food , but the effect of fishing on its population seems to be inconsequential . As a result , the IUCN has listed this species under Least Concern .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The creek whaler was described by Australian ichthyologist Gilbert Percy Whitley in a 1943 volume of Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales . He assigned the new species to the subgenus Uranganops of the genus Galeolamna , and gave it the specific epithet fitzroyensis because the type specimen , a 1 @.@ 2 @-@ m @-@ long female , was collected from Connor 's Creek in the Fitzroy River estuary . Subsequent authors have synonymized Galeolamna with Carcharhinus .
The evolutionary relationships of the creek whaler have yet to be fully resolved . In comparative morphological studies published by Jack Garrick in 1982 and Leonard Compagno in 1988 , it was tentatively placed in a grouping defined by the whitecheek shark ( C. dussumieri ) and the blackspot shark ( C. sealei ) . Shane Lavery , in a 1992 study based on allozymes , reported that this species was close to the nervous shark ( C. cautus ) and the blacktip reef shark ( C. melanopterus ) . Ximena Vélez @-@ Zuazoa and Ingi Agnarsson , in a 2011 study based on nuclear and mitochondrial genes , found it to be the basal member of a clade also containing the graceful shark ( C. amblyrhynchoides ) , the blacktip shark ( C. limbatus ) , and the Australian blacktip shark ( C. tilstoni ) .
= = Description = =
The body of the creek whaler is spindle @-@ shaped and rather stocky . The long snout has a narrowly parabolic shape and large nostrils preceded by small , nipple @-@ shaped flaps of skin . The eyes are circular and of medium size , and are equipped with nictitating membranes . The arched mouth has very short furrows at the corners . There are 30 upper and 28 – 30 lower tooth rows . The upper teeth are long and triangular with strongly serrated edges , and become increasing angled towards the sides of the jaw . The lower teeth are slender and upright with finely serrated edges . The five pairs of gill slits are short .
The pectoral fins are distinctively large and triangular , with rounded to pointed tips . The large first dorsal fin originates over the rear of the pectoral fin bases . The second dorsal fin is relatively tall and long , and originates over or slightly behind the anal fin origin . There is no ridge between the dorsal fins . The anal fin is larger than the second dorsal fin . There is a crescent @-@ shaped notch on the caudal peduncle just before the origin of the upper caudal fin lobe . The asymmetrical caudal fin has a well @-@ developed lower lobe and a longer upper lobe with a ventral notch near the tip . The skin is densely covered by overlapping dermal denticles , each bearing three to five horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth . This species is bronze to brownish gray above and pale below , and lacks an obvious lighter band on the flanks . Rarely , individuals may be light bluish gray above . It may reach 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in length , though 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 3 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 3 ft ) is typical .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The range of the creek whaler is restricted to northern Australia , between Gladstone in central Queensland and Cape Cuvier in Western Australia . It is a common species that inhabits estuaries and inshore waters from the intertidal zone to a depth of at least 40 m ( 130 ft ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The creek whaler feeds predominantly on small teleost fishes ( including threadfin breams and lizardfishes ) and crustaceans ( including penaeid prawns and mantis shrimps ) ; cephalopods are also infrequently consumed . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworm Callitetrarhynchus gracilis , and a nematode in the genus Pulchrascaris .
Like other members of its family , the creek whaler is viviparous , with the developing embryos receiving nourishment from the mother through a placental connection formed from the depleted yolk sac . Females produce litters of one to seven young every year . Mating occurs between May and July , with the females storing the sperm until ovulation takes place between July and September . After a gestation period of seven to 9 months , birthing occurs between February and May of the following year . The newborns measure 35 – 50 cm ( 14 – 20 in ) long and spend their first few months of life in shallow , inshore nursery areas such as Cleveland Bay in north Queensland . Males and females attain sexual maturity at lengths of around 83 – 88 cm ( 33 – 35 in ) and 90 – 100 cm ( 35 – 39 in ) , respectively .
= = Human interactions = =
The creek whaler is a minor bycatch of inshore gillnet fisheries operating in northern Australia ; the meat is sold for human consumption . Given its relatively high reproductive rate , its population appears capable of withstanding present levels of fishing . Therefore , the IUCN has listed this species under Least Concern .
= R. V. C. Bodley =
Ronald Victor Courtenay ( R. V. C. ) Bodley , MC ( 3 March 1892 – 26 May 1970 ) was a British Army officer , author and journalist . Born to English parents in Paris , he lived in France until he was nine , before attending Eton College and then the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst . He was commissioned into the King 's Royal Rifle Corps and served with them during the First World War . After the war he spent seven years in the Sahara desert , and then travelled through Asia . Bodley wrote several books about his travels . He was considered among the most distinguished British writers on the Sahara , as well as one of the main western sources of information on the South Pacific Mandates .
Bodley moved to the United States in 1935 , where he worked as a screenwriter . He re @-@ enlisted in the British Army at the outbreak of the Second World War and was sent to Paris to work for the Ministry of Information . He later immigrated to the United States , where he continued to work as a writer and also as an advisor to the United States Office of War Information .
= = Early life and First World War = =
Bodley was born in Paris on 3 March 1892 to civil servant and writer John Edward Courtenay Bodley and Evelyn Frances Bodley ( née Bell ) . He was the oldest of three children ; his brother Josselin and sister Ava were born in 1893 and 1896 respectively . Bodley was a cousin of Gertrude Bell , a writer and archeologist who helped establish the Hashemite dynasties , and he was also a descendant of diplomat and scholar Sir Thomas Bodley , founder of the Bodleian Library . He lived in France with his parents until he was nine . His grandfather owned a Turkish palace in Algiers , which Bodley often visited as a child .
Bodley was educated at a Lycée in Paris before he was sent to Eton College and then to the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst . Bodley showed interest as a writer during this time , writing poetry at Eton and for a cadet magazine at Sandhurst . From Sandhurst he was commissioned into the King 's Royal Rifle Corps as a second lieutenant in September 1911 . He spent three years serving in a regiment in India where he began to write and stage plays . His commanding officer once remarked " The plays are amusing . You 're a credit to the regiment and all that , but did you join the army to become a soldier or a comedian ? " Shortly thereafter the First World War commenced , and Bodley was sent to the Western Front for four years . He was wounded several times , including by chemical gas . At the age of 26 he was given the rank of lieutenant colonel and command of a battalion . He was appointed assistant military attaché to Paris on 15 August 1918 , and attended the 1919 Paris Peace Conference . What he heard there reportedly made him feel that he and the millions of other soldiers had fought for nothing ; he wrote later that " selfish politicians [ were ] laying the groundwork for the Second World War – each country grabbing all it could for itself , creating national antagonisms , and reviving the intrigues of secret . " Disillusioned with the military , Bodley considered a career in politics instead , on the advice of David Lloyd George .
Gertrude Bell introduced Bodley to T. E. Lawrence . Bodley ran into Lawrence one day outside the Paris Peace Conference and told him of his intent to move into politics . Lawrence responded furiously , calling him a moron and a traitor . When he replied that he had no other prospects now that the war was over and asking what he should do , Lawrence suggested " Go live with the Arabs . " Bodley said his conversation with Lawrence , which lasted " less than 200 seconds " , proved to be life @-@ changing . He promptly sorted his affairs and went to live in the Sahara . His bemused friends held him a farewell party . They all agreed he would be back in six weeks ; he stayed in the Sahara for seven years .
= = Travels through the Sahara and Asia = =
Bodley spent his seven years in the Sahara desert living with a nomad Bedouin tribe . He purchased a herd of sheep and goats and used them as a source of income . He hired 10 shepherds to care for his flock , and consistently earned 120 % on his investment . He wore Arab dress , spoke Arabic , practiced the Muslim faith and abstained from alcohol ; Bodley continued to be a non @-@ drinker after leaving the Sahara . He left the tribe on the advice of its chief , who told him there was no use in continuing to pretend to be an Arab . In 1927 he wrote Algeria From Within , after being encouraged to do so by publisher Michael Joseph . The book is based on his experiences living in the country . The book 's success greatly exceeded his expectations , prompting him to continue writing . His first novel , Yasmina , was published later that year ; it sold well and was reprinted . His next novel , Opal Fire , published the following year , was a commercial failure , though this did not discourage him from continuing to write . He regarded his time in the Sahara as " the most peaceful and contented years " of his life . He was considered amongst the most distinguished British writers on the Sahara .
After leaving the Sahara , Bodley spent three months in Java working on a tea plantation , before travelling to China and Japan . The success of Algeria From Within made it easy for him to obtain work as a journalist in Asia . He became a foreign correspondent for The Sphere in London and The Advertiser in Australia . Bodley was one of several westerners to be granted access to the South Pacific Mandates by Japan in the 1930s , and he has been cited as one of the main sources of information on the area at the time . Like other westerners allowed to visit the region , he reported that there was no evidence that Japan was militarising the area . Bodley 's movements were " carefully choreographed " by the Gaimu @-@ shō . He wrote about his experiences and findings in his 1934 book The Drama in the Pacific , in which he wrote , " having visited practically every island … I am convinced that nothing has been done to convert any place into a naval base " . In his 1998 book Nan 'yo : the Rise and Fall of the Japanese in Micronesia , 1885 – 1945 , Mark Peattie stated that while it is easy to accuse Bodley and the other writers of naivety , the militarisation of the area was complex and occurred in several stages . Bodley was a passenger aboard the ship Shizuoka Maru when it was wrecked on a reef north of Yap in April 1933 . The vessel was lost , though there were no injuries . Bodley was offered a job teaching English at Keio University , and did so for nine months ; he wrote about the experience in his 1933 book A Japanese Omelette . Bodley and Keio university Professor Eishiro Hori provided voluminous notes in the 1934 Japanese textbook version of Round the Red Lamp by Arthur Conan Doyle , and in 1935 Bodley published a biography of Tōgō Heihachirō .
= = Later life = =
In 1935 Bodley moved to the United States to work as a screenwriter , leaving Japan aboard the Chichibu Maru . In October 1936 Bodley was hired by Charlie Chaplin to adapt the D.L. Murray novel Regency into a feature film . It was the first time Chaplin had hired someone to write a script ; he had previously written his own scripts . Bodley had a rough draft ready by January 1937 , and completed his work in March , though in late May that year Chaplin abandoned the script , in favour of another project he was working on . Bodley also worked on the script for the 1938 film A Yank at Oxford . In the United States Bodley was known to his friends as " Ronnie " and was often referred to in the press as Bodley of Arabia .
When the Second World War commenced , Bodley immediately rejoined the King 's Royal Rifle Corps and was given the rank of major , though according to his book The Gay Deserters he was regarded as too old for active service in the infantry . He was instead sent to work for the Ministry of Information in Paris . He was in Paris when the German army invaded in 1940 . According to his book The Soundless Sahara after Paris fell he went to work behind the German lines until he came under suspicion of the Gestapo , then escaped across the Pyrenees on foot . He returned to the United States via Portugal . Upon his return he became a US citizen and an advisor to the Arabic desk of the US Office of War Information , and focused on a career in writing and lecturing . Bodley would go into complete isolation in order to write a book , spending about 10 weeks to complete his work . He wrote several of his books in York Harbor , Maine . Bodley frequently gave lectures while travelling the United States , speaking in almost every state and referring to himself as " Colonel " or " Major " . Having reached the mandatory age for retirement , he ceased to be a member of the British Army on 3 March 1943 .
In 1944 Bodley published Wind in the Sahara . By 1949 the book was in its seventh edition and had been translated into eight different languages . In 1945 he wrote the satire novel The Gay Deserters , which was inspired by his flight from the German army , though it was not well received . Robert Pick from the Saturday Review wrote " it isn 't even humorous at all . " He wrote an essay entitled I Lived in the Garden of Allah , which was featured in the 1948 book How to Stop Worrying and Start Living . In 1953 he wrote The Warrior Saint , a biography on Charles de Foucauld . John Cogley from The New York Times said Bodley had " written a clean , poetic and frankly admiring account " of Foucauld 's life . In 1955 he wrote the partly @-@ autobiographical self @-@ help book In Search of Serenity . Elsie Robinson from The Index @-@ Journal and Phyllis Battle from the Tipton Tribune gave favourable reviews , with Robinson calling it " a must for every rasped spirit " . His next and final book , The Soundless Sahara , was published in 1968 ; according to the book 's back cover he spent part of his years living in Massachusetts , and the rest in either England or France . He provided information for the book The Secret Lives of Lawrence of Arabia , which was published by Thomas Nelson in 1969 . He died on 26 May 1970 in a nursing home in Bramley , Surrey .
= = Personal life = =
Bodley married Ruth Mary Elizabeth Stapleton @-@ Bretherton on 30 April 1917 while on furlough . They had one son , Mark Courtenay Bodley , born 22 May 1918 . His wife filed for divorce on the grounds that Bodley was adulterous and drank excessively . He did not contest the petition and the divorce was finalised on 8 June 1926 . In his 1931 memoir Indiscretions of a Young Man , Bodley said the marriage was an " unfortunate action " which " proved the folly of very young people ignoring the advice of their parents . " In 1927 he married Australian Beatrice Claire Lamb , who he met while travelling in North Africa . She filed for divorce around 1939 . Bodley 's son , who became a lieutenant in the Royal Armoured Corps , was killed in action in Libya in 1942 ; Wind in the Sahara is dedicated to him . In November 1949 Bodley married American divorcee Harriet Moseley ; according to The Soundless Sahara , published in 1968 , they were still married . According to a biographical journal article on Bodley by William Snell from Keio University , there is very little information on his last years , but he believed that Bodley 's marriage to Moseley ended in divorce no later than 1969 .
= = Awards = =
Bodley was awarded the Military Cross in the 1916 King 's Birthday Honours . He was awarded the Croix de Chevalier of the Legion d 'Honneur by the President of France in 1919 , and appointed Officer of the Ordre de l 'Etoile Noire in 1920 , Knight Officer of The Order of the Crown by Ferdinand of Romania in 1920 , and the Order of Wen @-@ Hu ( 4th Class ) by the Republic of China in 1921 .
= = Publications = =
Bodley published 18 books during his career :
= Richard Neville , 16th Earl of Warwick =
Richard Neville , 16th Earl of Warwick KG ( 22 November 1428 – 14 April 1471 ) , known as Warwick the Kingmaker , was an English nobleman , administrator , and military commander . The son of Richard Neville , 5th Earl of Salisbury , Warwick was the wealthiest and most powerful English peer of his age , with political connections that went beyond the country 's borders . One of the leaders in the Wars of the Roses , originally on the Yorkist side but later switching to the Lancastrian side , he was instrumental in the deposition of two kings , a fact which later earned him his epithet of " Kingmaker " to later generations .
Through fortunes of marriage and inheritance , Warwick emerged in the 1450s at the centre of English politics . Originally a supporter of King Henry VI , a territorial dispute with the Duke of Somerset led him to collaborate with Richard , Duke of York , in opposing the king . From this conflict he gained the strategically valuable post of Captain of Calais , a position that benefited him greatly in the years to come . The political conflict later turned into full @-@ scale rebellion , where in battle York
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but an internal toroidal quadrupolar field , generated through differential rotation within the tachocline , is near its maximum strength . At this point in the dynamo cycle , buoyant upwelling within the convective zone forces emergence of toroidal magnetic field through the photosphere , giving rise to pairs of sunspots , roughly aligned east – west and having footprints with opposite magnetic polarities . The magnetic polarity of sunspot pairs alternates every solar cycle , a phenomenon known as the Hale cycle .
During the solar cycle ’ s declining phase , energy shifts from the internal toroidal magnetic field to the external poloidal field , and sunspots diminish in number . At solar @-@ cycle minimum , the toroidal field is , correspondingly , at minimum strength , sunspots are relatively rare , and the poloidal field is at its maximum strength . With the rise of the next 11 @-@ year sunspot cycle , differential rotation shifts magnetic energy back from the poloidal to the toroidal field , but with a polarity that is opposite to the previous cycle . The process carries on continuously , and in an idealized , simplified scenario , each 11 @-@ year sunspot cycle corresponds to a change , then , in the overall polarity of the Sun 's large @-@ scale magnetic field .
The solar magnetic field extends well beyond the Sun itself . The electrically conducting solar wind plasma carries the Sun 's magnetic field into space , forming what is called the interplanetary magnetic field . In an approximation known as ideal magnetohydrodynamics , plasma particles only move along the magnetic field lines . As a result , the outward @-@ flowing solar wind stretches the interplanetary magnetic field outward , forcing it into a roughly radial structure . For a simple dipolar solar magnetic field , with opposite hemispherical polarities on either side of the solar magnetic equator , a thin current sheet is formed in the solar wind . At great distances , the rotation of the Sun twists the dipolar magnetic field and corresponding current sheet into an Archimedean spiral structure called the Parker spiral . The interplanetary magnetic field is much stronger than the dipole component of the solar magnetic field . The Sun 's dipole magnetic field of 50 – 400 μT ( at the photosphere ) reduces with the inverse @-@ cube of the distance to about 0 @.@ 1 nT at the distance of Earth . However , according to spacecraft observations the interplanetary field at Earth 's location is around 5 nT , about a hundred times greater . The difference is due to magnetic fields generated by electrical currents in the plasma surrounding the Sun .
= = = Variation in activity = = =
The Sun 's magnetic field leads to many effects that are collectively called solar activity . Solar flares and coronal @-@ mass ejections tend to occur at sunspot groups . Slowly changing high @-@ speed streams of solar wind are emitted from coronal holes at the photospheric surface . Both coronal @-@ mass ejections and high @-@ speed streams of solar wind carry plasma and interplanetary magnetic field outward into the Solar System . The effects of solar activity on Earth include auroras at moderate to high latitudes and the disruption of radio communications and electric power . Solar activity is thought to have played a large role in the formation and evolution of the Solar System .
With solar @-@ cycle modulation of sunspot number comes a corresponding modulation of space weather conditions , including those surrounding Earth where technological systems can be affected .
= = = Long @-@ term change = = =
Long @-@ term secular change in sunspot number is thought , by some scientists , to be correlated with long @-@ term change in solar irradiance , which , in turn , might influence Earth 's long @-@ term climate . For example , in the 17th century , the solar cycle appeared to have stopped entirely for several decades ; few sunspots were observed during a period known as the Maunder minimum . This coincided in time with the era of the Little Ice Age , when Europe experienced unusually cold temperatures . Earlier extended minima have been discovered through analysis of tree rings and appear to have coincided with lower @-@ than @-@ average global temperatures .
A recent theory claims that there are magnetic instabilities in the core of the Sun that cause fluctuations with periods of either 41 @,@ 000 or 100 @,@ 000 years . These could provide a better explanation of the ice ages than the Milankovitch cycles .
= = Life phases = =
The Sun today is roughly halfway through the most stable part of its life . It has not changed dramatically for over four billion years , and will remain fairly stable for more than five billion more . However , after hydrogen fusion in its core has stopped , the Sun will undergo severe changes , both internally and externally .
= = = Formation = = =
The Sun formed about 4 @.@ 6 billion years ago from the collapse of part of a giant molecular cloud that consisted mostly of hydrogen and helium and that probably gave birth to many other stars . This age is estimated using computer models of stellar evolution and through nucleocosmochronology . The result is consistent with the radiometric date of the oldest Solar System material , at 4 @.@ 567 billion years ago . Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short @-@ lived isotopes , such as iron @-@ 60 , that form only in exploding , short @-@ lived stars . This indicates that one or more supernovae must have occurred near the location where the Sun formed . A shock wave from a nearby supernova would have triggered the formation of the Sun by compressing the matter within the molecular cloud and causing certain regions to collapse under their own gravity . As one fragment of the cloud collapsed it also began to rotate because of conservation of angular momentum and heat up with the increasing pressure . Much of the mass became concentrated in the center , whereas the rest flattened out into a disk that would become the planets and other Solar System bodies . Gravity and pressure within the core of the cloud generated a lot of heat as it accreted more matter from the surrounding disk , eventually triggering nuclear fusion . Thus , the Sun was born .
= = = Main sequence = = =
The Sun is about halfway through its main @-@ sequence stage , during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium . Each second , more than four million tonnes of matter are converted into energy within the Sun 's core , producing neutrinos and solar radiation . At this rate , the Sun has so far converted around 100 times the mass of Earth into energy , about 0 @.@ 03 % of the total mass of the Sun . The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10 billion years as a main @-@ sequence star . The Sun is gradually becoming hotter during its time on the main sequence , because the helium atoms in the core occupy less volume than the hydrogen atoms that were fused . The core is therefore shrinking , allowing the outer layers of the Sun to move closer to the centre and experience a stronger gravitational force , according to the inverse @-@ square law . This stronger force increases the pressure on the core , which is resisted by a gradual increase in the rate at which fusion occurs . This process speeds up as the core gradually becomes denser . It is estimated that the Sun has become 30 % brighter in the last 4 @.@ 5 billion years . At present , it is increasing in brightness by about 1 % every 100 million years .
= = = After core hydrogen exhaustion = = =
The Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a supernova . Instead it will exit the main sequence in approximately 5 billion years and start to turn into a red giant . As a red giant , the Sun will grow so large that it will engulf Mercury , Venus , and probably Earth .
Even before it becomes a red giant , the luminosity of the Sun will have nearly doubled , and Earth will be hotter than Venus is today . Once the core hydrogen is exhausted in 5 @.@ 4 billion years , the Sun will expand into a subgiant phase and slowly double in size over about half a billion years . It will then expand more rapidly over about half a billion years until it is over two hundred times larger than today and a couple of thousand times more luminous . This then starts the red @-@ giant @-@ branch phase where the Sun will spend around a billion years and lose around a third of its mass .
After the red @-@ giant branch the Sun has approximately 120 million years of active life left , but much happens . First , the core , full of degenerate helium ignites violently in the helium flash , where it is estimated that 6 % of the core , itself 40 % of the Sun 's mass , will be converted into carbon within a matter of minutes through the triple @-@ alpha process . The Sun then shrinks to around 10 times its current size and 50 times the luminosity , with a temperature a little lower than today . It will then have reached the red clump or horizontal branch , but a star of the Sun 's mass does not evolve blueward along the horizontal branch . Instead , it just becomes moderately larger and more luminous over about 100 million years as it continues to burn helium in the core .
When the helium is exhausted , the Sun will repeat the expansion it followed when the hydrogen in the core was exhausted , except that this time it all happens faster , and the Sun becomes larger and more luminous . This is the asymptotic @-@ giant @-@ branch phase , and the Sun is alternately burning hydrogen in a shell or helium in a deeper shell . After about 20 million years on the early asymptotic giant branch , the Sun becomes increasingly unstable , with rapid mass loss and thermal pulses that increase the size and luminosity for a few hundred years every 100 @,@ 000 years or so . The thermal pulses become larger each time , with the later pulses pushing the luminosity to as much as 5 @,@ 000 times the current level and the radius to over 1 AU . According to a 2008 model , Earth 's orbit is shrinking due to tidal forces ( and , eventually , drag from the lower chromosphere ) , so that it is engulfed by the Sun near the end of the asymptotic @-@ giant @-@ branch phase . Models vary depending on the rate and timing of mass loss . Models that have higher mass loss on the red @-@ giant branch produce smaller , less luminous stars at the tip of the asymptotic giant branch , perhaps only 2 @,@ 000 times the luminosity and less than 200 times the radius . For the Sun , four thermal pulses are predicted before it completely loses its outer envelope and starts to make a planetary nebula . By the end of that phase – lasting approximately 500 @,@ 000 years – the Sun will only have about half of its current mass .
The post @-@ asymptotic @-@ giant @-@ branch evolution is even faster . The luminosity stays approximately constant as the temperature increases , with the ejected half of the Sun 's mass becoming ionised into a planetary nebula as the exposed core reaches 30 @,@ 000 K. The final naked core , a white dwarf , will have a temperature of over 100 @,@ 000 K , and contain an estimated 54 @.@ 05 % of the Sun 's present day mass . The planetary nebula will disperse in about 10 @,@ 000 years , but the white dwarf will survive for trillions of years before fading to a hypothetical black .
= = Motion and location = =
= = = Orbit in Milky Way = = =
The Sun lies close to the inner rim of the Milky Way 's Orion Arm , in the Local Interstellar Cloud or the Gould Belt , at a distance of 7 @.@ 5 – 8 @.@ 5 kpc ( 25 @,@ 000 – 28 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ) from the Galactic Center . The Sun is contained within the Local Bubble , a space of rarefied hot gas , possibly produced by the supernova remnant Geminga . The distance between the local arm and the next arm out , the Perseus Arm , is about 6 @,@ 500 light @-@ years . The Sun , and thus the Solar System , is found in what scientists call the galactic habitable zone . The Apex of the Sun 's Way , or the solar apex , is the direction that the Sun travels relative to other nearby stars . This motion is towards a point in the constellation Hercules , near the star Vega . Of the 50 nearest stellar systems within 17 light @-@ years from Earth ( the closest being the red dwarf Proxima Centauri at approximately 4 @.@ 2 light @-@ years ) , the Sun ranks fourth in mass .
The Sun is orbiting the center of the Milky Way , going in the direction of Cygnus . The Sun 's orbit around the Milky Way is expected to be roughly elliptical with the addition of perturbations due to the galactic spiral arms and non @-@ uniform mass distributions . In addition the Sun oscillates up and down relative to the galactic plane approximately 2 @.@ 7 times per orbit . It has been argued that the Sun 's passage through the higher density spiral arms often coincides with mass extinctions on Earth , perhaps due to increased impact events . It takes the Solar System about 225 – 250 million years to complete one orbit through the Milky Way ( a galactic year ) , so it is thought to have completed 20 – 25 orbits during the lifetime of the Sun . The orbital speed of the Solar System about the center of the Milky Way is approximately 251 km / s ( 156 mi / s ) . At this speed , it takes around 1 @,@ 190 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light @-@ year , or 7 days to travel 1 AU .
The Milky Way is moving with respect to the cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMB ) in the direction of the constellation Hydra with a speed of 550 km / s , and the Sun 's resultant velocity with respect to the CMB is about 370 km / s in the direction of Crater or Leo .
= = Theoretical problems = =
= = = Coronal heating problem = = =
The temperature of the photosphere is approximately 6 @,@ 000 K , whereas the temperature of the corona reaches 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 K. The high temperature of the corona shows that it is heated by something other than direct heat conduction from the photosphere .
It is thought that the energy necessary to heat the corona is provided by turbulent motion in the convection zone below the photosphere , and two main mechanisms have been proposed to explain coronal heating . The first is wave heating , in which sound , gravitational or magnetohydrodynamic waves are produced by turbulence in the convection zone . These waves travel upward and dissipate in the corona , depositing their energy in the ambient matter in the form of heat . The other is magnetic heating , in which magnetic energy is continuously built up by photospheric motion and released through magnetic reconnection in the form of large solar flares and myriad similar but smaller events — nanoflares .
Currently , it is unclear whether waves are an efficient heating mechanism . All waves except Alfvén waves have been found to dissipate or refract before reaching the corona . In addition , Alfvén waves do not easily dissipate in the corona . Current research focus has therefore shifted towards flare heating mechanisms .
= = = Faint young Sun problem = = =
Theoretical models of the Sun 's development suggest that 3 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 5 billion years ago , during the Archean period , the Sun was only about 75 % as bright as it is today . Such a weak star would not have been able to sustain liquid water on Earth 's surface , and thus life should not have been able to develop . However , the geological record demonstrates that Earth has remained at a fairly constant temperature throughout its history , and that the young Earth was somewhat warmer than it is today . The consensus among scientists is that the atmosphere of the young Earth contained much larger quantities of greenhouse gases ( such as carbon dioxide , methane and / or ammonia ) than are present today , which trapped enough heat to compensate for the smaller amount of solar energy reaching it .
= = History of observation = =
The enormous effect of the Sun on Earth has been recognized since prehistoric times , and the Sun has been regarded by some cultures as a deity .
= = = Early understanding = = =
The Sun has been an object of veneration in many cultures throughout human history . Humanity 's most fundamental understanding of the Sun is as the luminous disk in the sky , whose presence above the horizon creates day and whose absence causes night . In many prehistoric and ancient cultures , the Sun was thought to be a solar deity or other supernatural entity . Worship of the Sun was central to civilizations such as the ancient Egyptians , the Inca of South America and the Aztecs of what is now Mexico . In religions such as Hinduism , the Sun is still considered a god . Many ancient monuments were constructed with solar phenomena in mind ; for example , stone megaliths accurately mark the summer or winter solstice ( some of the most prominent megaliths are located in Nabta Playa , Egypt ; Mnajdra , Malta and at Stonehenge , England ) ; Newgrange , a prehistoric human @-@ built mount in Ireland , was designed to detect the winter solstice ; the pyramid of El Castillo at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is designed to cast shadows in the shape of serpents climbing the pyramid at the vernal and autumn equinoxes .
The Egyptians portrayed the god Ra as being carried across the sky in a solar barque , accompanied by lesser gods , and to the Greeks , he was Helios , carried by a chariot drawn by fiery horses . From the reign of Elagabalus in the late Roman Empire the Sun 's birthday was a holiday celebrated as Sol Invictus ( literally " Unconquered Sun " ) soon after the winter solstice , which may have been an antecedent to Christmas . Regarding the fixed stars , the Sun appears from Earth to revolve once a year along the ecliptic through the zodiac , and so Greek astronomers considered it to be one of the seven planets ( Greek planetes , “ wanderer ” ) , after which the seven days of the week are named in some languages .
= = = Development of scientific understanding = = =
In the early first millennium BC , Babylonian astronomers observed that the Sun 's motion along the ecliptic is not uniform , though they did not know why ; it is today known that this is due to the movement of Earth in an elliptic orbit around the Sun , with Earth moving faster when it is nearer to the Sun at perihelion and moving slower when it is farther away at aphelion .
One of the first people to offer a scientific or philosophical explanation for the Sun was the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras , who reasoned that it is a giant flaming ball of metal even larger than the Peloponnesus rather than the chariot of Helios , and that the Moon reflected the light of the Sun . For teaching this heresy , he was imprisoned by the authorities and sentenced to death , though he was later released through the intervention of Pericles . Eratosthenes estimated the distance between Earth and the Sun in the 3rd century BC as " of stadia myriads 400 and 80000 " , the translation of which is ambiguous , implying either 4 @,@ 080 @,@ 000 stadia ( 755 @,@ 000 km ) or 804 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 stadia ( 148 to 153 million kilometers or 0 @.@ 99 to 1 @.@ 02 AU ) ; the latter value is correct to within a few percent . In the 1st century AD , Ptolemy estimated the distance as 1 @,@ 210 times the radius of Earth , approximately 7 @.@ 71 million kilometers ( 0 @.@ 0515 AU ) .
The theory that the Sun is the center around which the planets orbit was first proposed by the ancient Greek Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century BC , and later adopted by Seleucus of Seleucia ( see Heliocentrism ) . This view was developed in a more detailed mathematical model of a heliocentric system in the 16th century by Nicolaus Copernicus .
Observations of sunspots were recorded during the Han Dynasty ( 206 BC – AD 220 ) by Chinese astronomers , who maintained records of these observations for centuries . Averroes also provided a description of sunspots in the 12th century . The invention of the telescope in the early 17th century permitted detailed observations of sunspots by Thomas Harriot , Galileo Galilei and other astronomers . Galileo posited that sunspots were on the surface of the Sun rather than small objects passing between Earth and the Sun .
Arabic astronomical contributions include Albatenius ' discovery that the direction of the Sun 's apogee ( the place in the Sun 's orbit against the fixed stars where it seems to be moving slowest ) is changing . ( In modern heliocentric terms , this is caused by a gradual motion of the aphelion of the Earth 's orbit ) . Ibn Yunus observed more than 10 @,@ 000 entries for the Sun 's position for many years using a large astrolabe .
From an observation of a transit of Venus in 1032 , the Persian astronomer and polymath Avicenna concluded that Venus is closer to Earth than the Sun . In 1672 Giovanni Cassini and Jean Richer determined the distance to Mars and were thereby able to calculate the distance to the Sun .
In 1666 , Isaac Newton observed the Sun 's light using a prism , and showed that it is made up of light of many colors . In 1800 , William Herschel discovered infrared radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum . The 19th century saw advancement in spectroscopic studies of the Sun ; Joseph von Fraunhofer recorded more than 600 absorption lines in the spectrum , the strongest of which are still often referred to as Fraunhofer lines . In the early years of the modern scientific era , the source of the Sun 's energy was a significant puzzle . Lord Kelvin suggested that the Sun is a gradually cooling liquid body that is radiating an internal store of heat . Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz then proposed a gravitational contraction mechanism to explain the energy output , but the resulting age estimate was only 20 million years , well short of the time span of at least 300 million years suggested by some geological discoveries of that time . In 1890 Joseph Lockyer , who discovered helium in the solar spectrum , proposed a meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of the Sun .
Not until 1904 was a documented solution offered . Ernest Rutherford suggested that the Sun 's output could be maintained by an internal source of heat , and suggested radioactive decay as the source . However , it would be Albert Einstein who would provide the essential clue to the source of the Sun 's energy output with his mass @-@ energy equivalence relation E = mc2 . In 1920 , Sir Arthur Eddington proposed that the pressures and temperatures at the core of the Sun could produce a nuclear fusion reaction that merged hydrogen ( protons ) into helium nuclei , resulting in a production of energy from the net change in mass . The preponderance of hydrogen in the Sun was confirmed in 1925 by Cecilia Payne using the ionization theory developed by Meghnad Saha , an Indian physicist . The theoretical concept of fusion was developed in the 1930s by the astrophysicists Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and Hans Bethe . Hans Bethe calculated the details of the two main energy @-@ producing nuclear reactions that power the Sun . In 1957 , Margaret Burbidge , Geoffrey Burbidge , William Fowler and Fred Hoyle showed that most of the elements in the universe have been synthesized by nuclear reactions inside stars , some like the Sun .
= = = Solar space missions = = =
The first satellites designed to observe the Sun were NASA 's Pioneers 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 and 9 , which were launched between 1959 and 1968 . These probes orbited the Sun at a distance similar to that of Earth , and made the first detailed measurements of the solar wind and the solar magnetic field . Pioneer 9 operated for a particularly long time , transmitting data until May 1983 .
In the 1970s , two Helios spacecraft and the Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount provided scientists with significant new data on solar wind and the solar corona . The Helios 1 and 2 probes were U.S. – German collaborations that studied the solar wind from an orbit carrying the spacecraft inside Mercury 's orbit at perihelion . The Skylab space station , launched by NASA in 1973 , included a solar observatory module called the Apollo Telescope Mount that was operated by astronauts resident on the station . Skylab made the first time @-@ resolved observations of the solar transition region and of ultraviolet emissions from the solar corona . Discoveries included the first observations of coronal mass ejections , then called " coronal transients " , and of coronal holes , now known to be intimately associated with the solar wind .
In 1980 , the Solar Maximum Mission was launched by NASA . This spacecraft was designed to observe gamma rays , X @-@ rays and UV radiation from solar flares during a time of high solar activity and solar luminosity . Just a few months after launch , however , an electronics failure caused the probe to go into standby mode , and it spent the next three years in this inactive state . In 1984 Space Shuttle Challenger mission STS @-@ 41C retrieved the satellite and repaired its electronics before re @-@ releasing it into orbit . The Solar Maximum Mission subsequently acquired thousands of images of the solar corona before re @-@ entering Earth 's atmosphere in June 1989 .
Launched in 1991 , Japan 's Yohkoh ( Sunbeam ) satellite observed solar flares at X @-@ ray wavelengths . Mission data allowed scientists to identify several different types of flares , and demonstrated that the corona away from regions of peak activity was much more dynamic and active than had previously been supposed . Yohkoh observed an entire solar cycle but went into standby mode when an annular eclipse in 2001 caused it to lose its lock on the Sun . It was destroyed by atmospheric re @-@ entry in 2005 .
One of the most important solar missions to date has been the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory , jointly built by the European Space Agency and NASA and launched on 2 December 1995 . Originally intended to serve a two @-@ year mission , a mission extension through 2012 was approved in October 2009 . It has proven so useful that a follow @-@ on mission , the Solar Dynamics Observatory ( SDO ) , was launched in February 2010 . Situated at the Lagrangian point between Earth and the Sun ( at which the gravitational pull from both is equal ) , SOHO has provided a constant view of the Sun at many wavelengths since its launch . Besides its direct solar observation , SOHO has enabled the discovery of a large number of comets , mostly tiny sungrazing comets that incinerate as they pass the Sun .
All these satellites have observed the Sun from the plane of the ecliptic , and so have only observed its equatorial regions in detail . The Ulysses probe was launched in 1990 to study the Sun 's polar regions . It first travelled to Jupiter , to " slingshot " into an orbit that would take it far above the plane of the ecliptic . Once Ulysses was in its scheduled orbit , it began observing the solar wind and magnetic field strength at high solar latitudes , finding that the solar wind from high latitudes was moving at about 750 km / s , which was slower than expected , and that there were large magnetic waves emerging from high latitudes that scattered galactic cosmic rays .
Elemental abundances in the photosphere are well known from spectroscopic studies , but the composition of the interior of the Sun is more poorly understood . A solar wind sample return mission , Genesis , was designed to allow astronomers to directly measure the composition of solar material .
The Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory ( STEREO ) mission was launched in October 2006 . Two identical spacecraft were launched into orbits that cause them to ( respectively ) pull further ahead of and fall gradually behind Earth . This enables stereoscopic imaging of the Sun and solar phenomena , such as coronal mass ejections .
The Indian Space Research Organisation has scheduled the launch of a 100 kg satellite named Aditya for 2017 – 18 . Its main instrument will be a coronagraph for studying the dynamics of the Solar corona .
= = Observation and effects = =
The brightness of the Sun can cause pain from looking at it with the naked eye ; however , doing so for brief periods is not hazardous for normal non @-@ dilated eyes . Looking directly at the Sun causes phosphene visual artifacts and temporary partial blindness . It also delivers about 4 milliwatts of sunlight to the retina , slightly heating it and potentially causing damage in eyes that cannot respond properly to the brightness . UV exposure gradually yellows the lens of the eye over a period of years , and is thought to contribute to the formation of cataracts , but this depends on general exposure to solar UV , and not whether one looks directly at the Sun . Long @-@ duration viewing of the direct Sun with the naked eye can begin to cause UV @-@ induced , sunburn @-@ like lesions on the retina after about 100 seconds , particularly under conditions where the UV light from the Sun is intense and well focused ; conditions are worsened by young eyes or new lens implants ( which admit more UV than aging natural eyes ) , Sun angles near the zenith , and observing locations at high altitude .
Viewing the Sun through light @-@ concentrating optics such as binoculars may result in permanent damage to the retina without an appropriate filter that blocks UV and substantially dims the sunlight . When using an attenuating filter to view the Sun , the viewer is cautioned to use a filter specifically designed for that use . Some improvised filters that pass UV or IR rays , can actually harm the eye at high brightness levels . Herschel wedges , also called Solar Diagonals , are effective and inexpensive for small telescopes . The sunlight that is destined for the eyepiece is reflected from an unsilvered surface of a piece of glass . Only a very small fraction of the incident light is reflected . The rest passes through the glass and leaves the instrument . If the glass breaks because of the heat , no light at all is reflected , making the device fail @-@ safe . Simple filters made of darkened glass allow the full intensity of sunlight to pass through if they break , endangering the observer 's eyesight . Unfiltered binoculars can deliver hundreds of times as much energy as using the naked eye , possibly causing immediate damage . It is claimed that even brief glances at the midday Sun through an unfiltered telescope can cause permanent damage .
Partial solar eclipses are hazardous to view because the eye 's pupil is not adapted to the unusually high visual contrast : the pupil dilates according to the total amount of light in the field of view , not by the brightest object in the field . During partial eclipses most sunlight is blocked by the Moon passing in front of the Sun , but the uncovered parts of the photosphere have the same surface brightness as during a normal day . In the overall gloom , the pupil expands from ~ 2 mm to ~ 6 mm , and each retinal cell exposed to the solar image receives up to ten times more light than it would looking at the non @-@ eclipsed Sun . This can damage or kill those cells , resulting in small permanent blind spots for the viewer . The hazard is insidious for inexperienced observers and for children , because there is no perception of pain : it is not immediately obvious that one 's vision is being destroyed .
During sunrise and sunset , sunlight is attenuated because of Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering from a particularly long passage through Earth 's atmosphere , and the Sun is sometimes faint enough to be viewed comfortably with the naked eye or safely with optics ( provided there is no risk of bright sunlight suddenly appearing through a break between clouds ) . Hazy conditions , atmospheric dust , and high humidity contribute to this atmospheric attenuation .
An optical phenomenon , known as a green flash , can sometimes be seen shortly after sunset or before sunrise . The flash is caused by light from the Sun just below the horizon being bent ( usually through a temperature inversion ) towards the observer . Light of shorter wavelengths ( violet , blue , green ) is bent more than that of longer wavelengths ( yellow , orange , red ) but the violet and blue light is scattered more , leaving light that is perceived as green .
Ultraviolet light from the Sun has antiseptic properties and can be used to sanitize tools and water . It also causes sunburn , and has other biological effects such as the production of vitamin D and sun tanning . Ultraviolet light is strongly attenuated by Earth 's ozone layer , so that the amount of UV varies greatly with latitude and has been partially responsible for many biological adaptations , including variations in human skin color in different regions of the globe .
= Windows Server 2012 =
Windows Server 2012 , codenamed " Windows Server 8 " , is the sixth release of Windows Server . It is the server version of Windows 8 and succeeds Windows Server 2008 R2 . Two pre @-@ release versions , a developer preview and a beta version , were released during development . The software was generally available to customers starting on September 4 , 2012 .
Unlike its predecessor , Windows Server 2012 has no support for Itanium @-@ based computers , and has four editions . Various features were added or improved over Windows Server 2008 R2 ( with many placing an emphasis on cloud computing ) , such as an updated version of Hyper @-@ V , an IP address management role , a new version of Windows Task Manager , and ReFS , a new file system . Windows Server 2012 received generally good reviews in spite of having included the same controversial Metro @-@ based user interface seen in Windows 8 .
The successor to Windows Server 2012 , called Windows Server 2012 R2 , was released along with Windows 8 @.@ 1 in October 2013 . A service pack , formally designated Windows Server 2012 R2 Update , was released in April 2014 .
= = History = =
Windows Server 2012 , codenamed " Windows Server 8 " , is the sixth release of Windows Server family of operating systems developed concurrently with Windows 8 . It was not until April 17 , 2012 that the company announced that the final product name would be " Windows Server 2012 " .
Microsoft introduced Windows Server 2012 and its developer preview in the BUILD 2011 conference on September 9 , 2011 . However , unlike Windows 8 , the developer preview of Windows Server 2012 was only made available to MSDN subscribers . It included a graphical user interface ( GUI ) based on Metro design language and a new Server Manager , a graphical application used for server management . On February 16 , 2012 , Microsoft released an update for developer preview build that extended its expiry date from April 8 , 2012 to January 15 , 2013 .
Before Windows Server 2012 was finalized , two test builds were made public . A public beta version of Windows Server 2012 was released along with the Windows 8 Consumer Preview on February 29 , 2012 . The release candidate of Windows Server 2012 was released on May 31 , 2012 , along with the Windows 8 Release Preview .
The product was released to manufacturing on August 1 , 2012 and became generally available on September 4 , 2012 . However , not all editions of Windows Server 2012 were released at the same time . Windows Server 2012 Essentials was released to manufacturing on October 9 , 2012 and was made generally available on November 1 , 2012 . As of September 23 , 2012 , all students subscribed to DreamSpark program can download Windows Server 2012 Standard or Datacenter free of charge .
= = Features = =
= = = Installation options = = =
Unlike its predecessor , Windows Server 2012 can switch between " Server Core " and " Server with a GUI " installation options without a full reinstallation . Server Core - an option with a command @-@ line interface only - is now the recommended configuration . There is also a third installation option that allows some GUI elements such as MMC and Server Manager to run , but without the normal desktop , shell or default programs like File Explorer .
= = = User interface = = =
Server Manager has been redesigned with an emphasis on easing management of multiple servers . The operating system , like Windows 8 , uses the Metro @-@ based user interface unless installed in Server Core mode . Windows Store is available in this version of Windows but is not installed by default . Windows PowerShell in this version has over 2300 commandlets , compared to around 200 in Windows Server 2008 R2 .
= = = Task Manager = = =
Windows Server 2012 includes a new version of Windows Task Manager together with the old version . In the new version the tabs are hidden by default , showing applications only . In the new Processes tab , the processes are displayed in varying shades of yellow , with darker shades representing heavier resource use . It lists application names and status , as well as CPU , memory , hard disk and network utilization . The process information found in the older versions are now moved to the new Details tab . The Performance tab shows " CPU " , " Memory " , " Disk " , " Wi @-@ Fi " and " Ethernet " graphs . The CPU tab no longer displays individual graphs for every logical processor on the system by default , although that remains an option . Additionally , it can display data for each non @-@ uniform memory access ( NUMA ) node . When displaying data for each logical processor for machines with more than 64 logical processors , the CPU tab now displays simple utilization percentages on heat @-@ mapping tiles . The color used for these heat maps is blue , with darker shades again indicating heavier utilization . Hovering the cursor over any logical processor 's data now shows the NUMA node of that processor and its ID , if applicable . Additionally , a new Startup tab has been added that lists startup applications , however this tab does not exist in Windows Server 2012 . The new task manager recognizes when a Windows Store app has the " Suspended " status .
= = = IP address management ( IPAM ) = = =
Windows Server 2012 has an IP address management role for discovering , monitoring , auditing , and managing the IP address space used on a corporate network . The IPAM is used for the management and monitoring of Domain Name System ( DNS ) and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol ( DHCP ) servers . Both IPv4 and IPv6 are fully supported .
= = = Active Directory = = =
Windows Server 2012 has a number of changes to Active Directory from the version shipped with Windows Server 2008 R2 . The Active Directory Domain Services installation wizard has been replaced by a new section in Server Manager , and a GUI has been added to the Active Directory Recycle Bin . Multiple password policies can be set in the same domain . Active Directory in Windows Server 2012 is now aware of any changes resulting from virtualization , and virtualized domain controllers can be safely cloned . Upgrades of the domain functional level to Windows Server 2012 are simplified ; it can be performed entirely in Server Manager . Active Directory Federation Services is no longer required to be downloaded when installed as a role , and claims which can be used by the Active Directory Federation Services have been introduced into the Kerberos token . Windows Powershell commands used by Active Directory Administrative Center can be viewed in a " Powershell History Viewer " .
= = = Hyper @-@ V = = =
Windows Server 2012 , along with Windows 8 , includes a new version of Hyper @-@ V , as presented at the Microsoft BUILD event . Many new features have been added to Hyper @-@ V , including network virtualization , multi @-@ tenancy , storage resource pools , cross @-@ premises connectivity , and cloud backup . Additionally , many of the former restrictions on resource consumption have been greatly lifted . Each virtual machine in this version of Hyper @-@ V can access up to 64 virtual processors , up to 1 terabyte of memory , and up to 64 terabytes of virtual disk space per virtual hard disk ( using a new .vhdx format ) . Up to 1024 virtual machines can be active per host , and up to 8000 can be active per failover cluster . SLAT is a required processor feature for Hyper @-@ V on Windows 8 , while for Windows Server 2012 it is only required for the supplementary RemoteFX role .
= = = ReFS = = =
Resilient File System ( ReFS ) , codenamed " Protogon " , is a new file system in Windows Server 2012 initially intended for file servers that improves on NTFS in some respects . Major new features of ReFS include :
Improved reliability for on @-@ disk structures
ReFS uses B + trees for all on @-@ disk structures including metadata and file data . Metadata and file data are organized into tables similar to a relational database . The file size , number of files in a folder , total volume size and number of folders in a volume are limited by 64 @-@ bit numbers ; as a result ReFS supports a maximum file size of 16 Exabytes , a maximum of 18 @.@ 4 × 1018 folders and a maximum volume size of 1 Yottabyte ( with 64 KB clusters ) which allows large scalability with no practical limits on file and folder size ( hardware restrictions still apply ) . Free space is counted by a hierarchical allocator which includes three separate tables for large , medium , and small chunks . File names and file paths are each limited to a 32 KB Unicode text string .
Built @-@ in resilience
ReFS employs an allocation @-@ on @-@ write update strategy for metadata , which allocates new chunks for every update transaction and uses large IO batches . All ReFS metadata has built @-@ in 64 @-@ bit checksums which are stored independently . The file data can have an optional checksum in a separate " integrity stream " , in which case the file update strategy also implements allocation @-@ on @-@ write ; this is controlled by a new " integrity " attribute applicable to both files and directories . If nevertheless file data or metadata becomes corrupt , the file can be deleted without taking the whole volume offline . As a result of built @-@ in resiliency , administrators do not need to periodically run error @-@ checking tools such as CHKDSK when using ReFS .
Compatibility with existing APIs and technologies
ReFS does not require new system APIs and most file system filters continue to work with ReFS volumes . ReFS supports many existing Windows and NTFS features such as BitLocker encryption , Access Control Lists , USN Journal , change notifications , symbolic links , junction points , mount points , reparse points , volume snapshots , file IDs , and oplock . ReFS seamlessly integrates with Storage Spaces , a storage virtualization layer that allows data mirroring and striping , as well as sharing storage pools between machines . ReFS resiliency features enhance the mirroring feature provided by Storage Spaces and can detect whether any mirrored copies of files become corrupt using background data scrubbing process , which periodically reads all mirror copies and verifies their checksums then replaces bad copies with good ones .
Some NTFS features are not supported in ReFS , including named streams , object IDs , short names , file compression , file level encryption ( EFS ) , user data transactions , hard links , extended attributes , and disk quotas . Sparse files are supported . ReFS does not itself offer data deduplication . Dynamic disks with mirrored or striped volumes are replaced with mirrored or striped storage pools provided by Storage Spaces . However , in Windows Server 2012 , automated error @-@ correction is only supported on mirrored spaces , and booting from ReFS is not supported either .
= = = IIS 8 @.@ 0 = = =
Windows Server 2012 includes version 8 @.@ 0 of Internet Information Services ( IIS ) . The new version contains new features such as SNI , CPU usage caps for particular websites , centralized management of SSL certificates , WebSocket support and improved support for NUMA , but few other substantial changes were made .
= = = Scalability = = =
Windows Server 2012 supports the following maximum hardware specifications . Windows Server 2012 improves over its predecessor Windows Server 2008 R2 :
= = System requirements = =
Windows Server 2012 runs only on x64 processors . Unlike its predecessor , Windows Server 2012 does not support Itanium .
Upgrades from Windows Server 2008 and Windows Server 2008 R2 are supported , although upgrades from prior releases are not .
= = Editions = =
Windows Server 2012 has four editions : Foundation , Essentials , Standard and Datacenter .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of Windows Server 2012 have been generally positive . Simon Bisson of ZDNet described it as " ready for the datacenter , today , " while Tim Anderson of The Register said that " The move towards greater modularity , stronger automation and improved virtualisation makes perfect sense in a world of public and private clouds " but remarked that " That said , the capability of Windows to deliver obscure and time @-@ consuming errors is unchanged " and concluded that " Nevertheless , this is a strong upgrade overall . "
InfoWorld noted that Server 2012 's use of Windows 8 's panned " Metro " user interface was countered by Microsoft 's increasing emphasis on the Server Core mode , which had been " fleshed out with new depth and ease @-@ of @-@ use features " and increased use of the " practically mandatory " PowerShell . However , Michael Otey of Windows IT Pro expressed dislike with the new Metro interface and the lack of ability to use the older desktop interface alone , saying that most users of Windows Server manage their servers using the graphical user interface rather than PowerShell . The Australian construction company Kennards found the OS stable .
Paul Ferrill wrote that " Windows Server 2012 Essentials provides all the pieces necessary to provide centralized file storage , client backups , and remote access , " but Tim Anderson contended that " Many businesses that are using SBS2011 and earlier will want to stick with what they have " , citing the absence of Exchange , the lack of ability to synchronize with Active Directory Federation Services and the 25 @-@ user limit , while Paul Thurott wrote " you should choose Foundation only if you have at least some in @-@ company IT staff and / or are comfortable outsourcing management to a Microsoft partner or solution provider " and " Essentials is , in my mind , ideal for any modern startup of just a few people . "
= = Windows Server 2012 R2 = =
Windows Server 2012 R2 was released on October 18 , 2013 . It was unveiled on June 3 , 2013 at TechEd North America . According to Windows Server 2012 R2 datasheet published on May 31 , 2013 , there are four editions of this operating system : Foundation , Essentials , Standard and Datacenter . As with Windows Server 2012 , the Datacenter and Standard editions are feature identical , varying only based on licensing ( particularly licensing of virtual instances ) . The Essentials edition has the same features as the Datacenter and Standard products , with some restrictions .
A further update , formally designated Windows Server 2012 R2 Update , was released in April 2014 , a cumulative set of security updates , critical updates and updates .
Windows Server 2012 R2 is succeeded by Windows Server 2016 .
= = = Changes from Windows Server 2012 = = =
Microsoft has confirmed the following changes introduced by Windows Server 2012 R2 :
Automated Tiering : Storage Spaces stores most frequently accessed files on fastest physical media
Deduplication for VHD : Reduces the storage space for VHD files with largely similar contents by storing the similar contents only once
Windows PowerShell v4 , which now includes a Desired State Configuration ( DSC ) feature
Integrated Office 365 support ( Essentials edition )
User interface changes from Windows 8 @.@ 1 , including visible Start button .
UEFI @-@ based virtual machines
Upgrades from driver emulators to synthetic hardware drivers to minimize legacy support
Faster VM deployment ( approximately half the time )
Internet Information Services 8 @.@ 5 : Support for logging to Event Tracing for Windows and the ability to log any request / response headers . To improve scalability , if IIS is configured with 100 or more web sites , by default it will not automatically start any of them . Alongside this , a new " Idle Worker Process Page @-@ Out " configuration option has been added to application pools to instruct Windows to page @-@ out the process if it has been idle for the idle time @-@ out period ( by default , 20 minutes ) .
Server Message Block : Performance and event logging quality improvements , support for Hyper @-@ V Live Migration over SMB , bandwidth prioritization management , and the ability to remove SMB 1 @.@ 0 support
Windows Deployment Services : Support for managing WDS via PowerShell .
Windows Defender is available in a Server Core installation , and is installed and enabled by default .
IP Address Management ( IPAM ) : Extended to support role @-@ based access control , allowing for fine @-@ grained control over which users can view or change configurations for DHCP reservations , scopes , IP address blocks , DNS resource records , etc . Additionally , IPAM can integrate with System Center Virtual Machine Manager 2012 R2 to have coordinated IP policy across both physical and virtual environments . The IPAM database can be stored in a SQL Server instance instead of Windows Internal Database .
Group Policy has a new " Policy Cache " setting which allows domain @-@ joined machines to store a copy of the group policy settings on the client machine and , depending on the speed of access to the domain controller , use those at startup time instead of waiting for the policy settings to download . This can improve startup times on machines that are disconnected from the company network . New Group Policy settings have been added to cover new features in Windows 8 @.@ 1 and Internet Explorer 11 , such as enabling / disabling SPDY / 3 support , configuring start screen layouts , and detecting phone numbers in web pages .
TLS support is extended to support RFC 5077 , " Transport Layer Security ( TLS ) Session Resumption without Server @-@ Side State " , which improves performance of long @-@ running TLS @-@ secured connections that need to reconnect due to session expiration .
Hyper @-@ V role and Hyper @-@ V management console are added to the Essentials edition .
Windows Server Update Services was made available for Windows Server 2012 R2 Essentials edition .
= Darah dan Doa =
Darah dan Doa ( [ daˈrah ˈdan doˈa ] ; Indonesian for Blood and Prayer , released internationally as The Long March ) is a 1950 Indonesian war film directed and produced by Usmar Ismail . Telling the story of the Siliwangi Division and its leader Captain Sudarto on a march to West Java , Darah dan Doa is often cited as the first " Indonesian " film , and the film 's first day of shooting – 30 March – is celebrated in Indonesia as National Film Day .
Produced on a budget of 350 @,@ 000 rupiah and intended to be screened at the Cannes Film Festival , financial difficulties led production of Darah dan Doa to almost stop before the director received financial backing . After raising controversy for its subject material , the film underwent censorship and was finally released to commercial failure . Retrospective analysis has , however , been more positive , and Ismail has been dubbed the " father of Indonesian film " .
= = Plot = =
The Siliwangi Division , originally headquartered in West Java , is temporarily based in Central Java owing to the Renville Agreement . After putting down a communist rebellion in Madiun , killing numerous members of the Communist Party of Indonesia in the process , they are on a break . The division 's leader , Captain Sudarto , meets with an Indo woman named Connie , who is originally from Bandung . The two become friendly , but after a Dutch attack is launched on the capital at Yogyakarta , they must separate as the division heads westwards . Captain Sudarto leads his men – together with women and children – over more than 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) , resting during the day and travelling in the morning and evening . They face hunger , a shortage of supplies , and Dutch air strikes . Along the way , Sudarto begins falling in love with a nurse named Widya .
The division comes across a village which has been razed to the ground by Dutch forces , killing almost all of its inhabitants . Upon directions from the sole survivor , they go to a nearby village and are warmly received , being given much needed food . As the men settle for the night , Sudarto goes for a walk with Widya , raising the men 's ire . That night the men sleep comfortably in beds while the villagers stand guard . In the morning , however , the villagers – who are revealed to be related to the Darul Islam militant group – turn on them . The men successfully fight back , though Sudarto is shot by the village chief .
Sudarto orders the chief executed , a deed which ultimately falls on the man 's son . Afterwards the division continues west . One night , Sudarto 's second @-@ in @-@ command Adam tells him that the men are restless over his relationship with Widya . They argue , and Widya – who has overheard everything – says that she will go . The following morning Dutch soldiers launch an ambush in which many are killed , including Widya and Adam . The division in dire straits , Sudarto offers to go to nearby Bandung on his own for the much @-@ needed supplies , leaving his fellow officer Leo in charge . After meeting with resistance fighters who offer supplies , Sudarto goes to visit Connie and is captured by Dutch forces .
While in prison Sudarto is tortured and begins to regret his actions , especially his womanising . After the Dutch recognise Indonesia 's independence , Sudarto is released from prison , only to learn that his wife has left him and he is under investigation for poor leadership . After meeting with Leo , he realises that the division had reached safety . One night , as he reads his diary , Sudarto is accosted by a man whose relatives were killed in Madiun . After the two argue , Sudarto is shot dead .
= = Production = =
Darah dan Doa was directed by Usmar Ismail , a former soldier who had previously served as assistant director on Andjar Asmara 's Gadis Desa ( Village Maiden ) and directed two films on his own , Tjitra ( Image ) and Harta Karun ( Treasure ; all 1949 ) . Creative control for these works , all of which were produced for the Dutch @-@ sponsored South Pacific Film Corporation ( SPFC ) , was held by cameraman A.A. Denninghoff @-@ Stelling ; Ismail served more as a dialogue coach . When the Netherlands recognised Indonesia 's independence following several months of conferences in 1949 , Ismail and other SPFC staff discussed establishing their own studio , though steps were not taken to do so until the following year . For his first production , Ismail chose to adapt a short story by the poet Sitor Situmorang , which the latter man had brought to him ; Ismail later wrote that he considered it interesting because it " honestly told the story of a man without descending into cheap propaganda " .
Crew for the production consisted of cameraman Max Tera , a former SPFC employee , with makeup by Rancha ' , artistic design by Basuki Resobowo , G. R. W. Sinsu on music , and Sjawaludin and E. Sambas responsible for the sound effects . Ismail , using his military connections , received technical assistance from various members of the Indonesian Army , particularly Captain Sadono . The film 's cast mostly consisted of newcomers who had responded to newspaper advertisements , a conscious decision by Ismail who was searching for " new faces with fresh talent " Ismail adapted this technique from Italian directors such as Roberto Rossellini and Vittorio De Sica . Ultimately Del Juzar , a law student , was cast as Sudarto , with other spots going to Ella Bergen , Faridah , Aedy Muward , Awaluddin Djamin , Rd Ismail , Suzana , Muradi , and Rosihan Anwar .
Twenty @-@ nine years old , Ismail began shooting on 30 March 1950 in Subang , West Java . The following day he established his own studio , Perfini , to produce the film . Unlike his earlier films , Ismail had severe technical limitations . Though Tjitra had cost 67 @,@ 500 rupiah , when the filming of Darah dan Doa began Ismail had only collected 30 @,@ 000 – more than half of which was spent to rent the SPFC ( since renamed Produksi Film Negara [ State Film Company , or PFN ] ) studios and facilities . For their trip to Subang , the cast and crew rented a decrepit microbus ; filming was completed using an aged ( " decades @-@ old " ) Akeley camera ; and the crew had to hold more than one role .
Human factors also led to delays in production . Ismail and the other crew members attempted to achieve realism by ensuring everything in the film was as it was in life , a decision which he later recanted after realising that " film was truly the art of make @-@ believe , making people believe something , creating a new reality from what is . " Cast @-@ wise , three actors ( including the lead , Del Juzar ) , competed for the affections of Faridah , leading to frictions between the actors . The cast also argued about interpretations of their roles , with Ismail insisting on them following his direction .
During filming , Ismail typed his shooting scripts every night , expanding on the source material . After each day of filming had concluded , Ismail sent the results back to PFN in Jakarta and obtained rush prints which he screened for the cast and crew . One such showing spurred a deal between Ismail and local cinema owner Tong Kim Mew , in attendance at the time : Tong would lend funds the production , heavily in debt ( Ismail notes that , by this point , they had not paid their lodgings in " a while " ) , needed , while Ismail would allow Tong to handle distribution . This funding allowed the crew to finish shooting , including further scenes in Purwakarta . Upon returning to Jakarta , Ismail and the crew found that some of the footage was unusable , as the " story did not work " . As such , additional footage was shot in West Javan mountains , including Mounts Lawu and Gede . Other scenes were filmed at the banks of Citarum River . Ultimately the film cost 350 @,@ 000 rupiah ( then approximately $ 90 @,@ 000 USD ) , over three times that of an average contemporary production .
= = Release = =
Darah dan Doa was released in 1950 and distributed by Spectra Film Exchange . It was given the English title The Long March , which the American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider suggests is a reference to the Chinese Long March of 1934 . Not long after the film 's release , a two @-@ pronged controversy grew around it , which resulted in the film being banned in parts of the country . Members of other military divisions considered the film to put too much emphasis on Siliwangi 's role , while members of the general public had difficulty believing that Darul Islam could have betrayed the national cause . Ultimately the film required President Sukarno 's permission to be re @-@ released in September 1950 , after he received a private screening at the Presidential Palace in mid @-@ 1950 . However , several scenes had to be cut .
Domestic critical reception of Darah dan Doa , which was advertised as showing " fierce fighting against the colonials ! " and " the joys and sorrows in guerrilla warfare " , was predominantly negative . A review in the newspaper Merdeka considered Darah dan Doa unsatisfying , with only a few acceptable scenes . Armijn Pane , writing four years after the film 's release , criticised the troops ' neatness during their march , writing that their uniforms should have become progressively dirtier . Foreign reception , however , has been more positive . The Japanese film critic Tadao Sato , for instance , praised the film 's concept , comparing it to the work of Andrzej Wajda .
The Indonesian film critic Salim Said writes that Ismail intended to " not consider commercial aspects " and send the film to the Cannes Film Festival in France . Ultimately Darah dan Doa was both a financial failure , with losses that were not recouped until after Ismail released his next film the following year . The film was not screened at Cannes . In a 1960 retrospective , the company attributed the film 's failure to a conflict of what the people wanted and what was provided ; the write @-@ up stated that Ismail had not meant to portray the military as it should be , but as it was – as well as individuals within it .
= = Legacy = =
Ismail considered Darah dan Doa reflective of a " national personality " , and , in a 1962 letter , he wrote that he considered it his first film because he had had little creative control in his 1949 productions . After directing the film he went on to make twenty @-@ five more films as director , including two ( Enam Djam di Jogja [ Six Hours in Jogja ; 1951 ] and Pedjuang [ Warriors for Freedom ; 1959 ] ) dealing with the Indonesian National Revolution ; competing companies also released films in a similar vein , though Biran argues that they did not touch on the essence of the revolution . For his role as Darah dan Doa 's director and his subsequent work , Ismail has been dubbed the " father of Indonesian film " , though the film scholar Thomas Barker suggests that his role in the film industry 's development was exaggerated by the New Order for their anti @-@ communist , pro @-@ nationalistic purposes .
Darah dan Doa is often considered the first " national " Indonesian film , although the first movie produced in the area , L. Heuveldorp 's Loetoeng Kasaroeng , had been released 24 years prior . According to the Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran , the films released between 1926 and 1949 could not be called Indonesian films , for there was no sense of national identity . The film critic Nova Chairil stated likewise , considering the film the first to be " directed by a native Indonesian , produced by an Indonesian production house , and filmed in Indonesia " . Barker and the doctoral candidate Charlotte Setijadi @-@ Dunn , however , argue that films by ethnic Chinese producers – generally dismissed as profit oriented in mainstream studies – already contained an Indonesian identity , citing examples such as Njoo Cheong Seng 's Kris Mataram ( Keris of Mataram ; 1940 ) . They note that , unlike the homogenous national identity offered in Darah dan Doa , these Chinese @-@ produced films offered the possibility of a heterogeneous identity .
The Indonesian film community began celebrating the first day of Darah dan Doa 's shooting , 30 March , as National Film Day in 1950 . In a 1962 conference of the National Film Board of Indonesia , the date was given more formal recognition as National Film Day , and Darah dan Doa was recognised as the first " national film " . National Film Day was formally established in 1999 , when President B. J. Habibie passed Presidential Decree no . 25 / 1999 . According to actor turned film director Slamet Rahardjo , the commemoration is so that " Indonesians acknowledge their local film industry and are willing to develop it " .
The Siliwangi Division 's long march was the subject of another film , Mereka Kembali ( They Return ) in 1972 . Directed by Nawi Ismail , it starred Sandy Suwardi Hassan , Rahayu Effendi , Rina Hasyim , and Aedy Moward . Mereka Kembali won a single award , Runner @-@ Up for Best Actor ( Arman Effendy ) , at the 1972 Indonesian Film Festival . Heider , contrasting the two films , suggests that Darah dan Doa portrayed communists in a more sympathetic light and " ignored " Darul Islam , while Mereka Kembali did not depict the events in Madiun and demonised Darul Islam . He suggests that the earlier film was released in " a time for healing , a time to consolidate the new republic , to reincorporate even those who ... had fought against it . " He further suggests that Darah dan Doa was more Europeanised and individualistic , with a focus of Sudarto , while Mereka Kembali emphasised the importance of the group and represented an " Indonesianization of the national cinema " .
The Indonesian video archive Sinematek Indonesia holds both 35 mm and VHS copies of Darah dan Doa . It is also held at the Cinémathèque Française . The film continues to be screened at festivals .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Brian McGrattan =
Brian McGrattan ( born September 2 , 1981 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey player . He is currently an unrestricted free agent who most recently was a member within the Anaheim Ducks organization of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . McGrattan was a fourth round selection of the Los Angeles Kings ( 104th overall ) at the 1999 NHL Entry Draft but never signed with the team . He signed with the Ottawa Senators organization in 2002 and made his NHL debut with the team three years later . McGrattan has also played in the NHL with the Phoenix Coyotes , Nashville Predators and Calgary Flames , and as a career journeyman , with five American Hockey League ( AHL ) teams .
An enforcer , he holds the AHL record for most penalty minutes in one season with 5
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of Velbazhd ; Michael Shishman is mortally wounded and dies
= Cloud Gate =
Cloud Gate is a public sculpture by Indian @-@ born British artist Anish Kapoor , that is the centerpiece of AT & T Plaza at Millennium Park in the Loop community area of Chicago , Illinois . The sculpture and AT & T Plaza are located on top of Park Grill , between the Chase Promenade and McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink . Constructed between 2004 and 2006 , the sculpture is nicknamed The Bean because of its shape . Made up of 168 stainless steel plates welded together , its highly polished exterior has no visible seams . It measures 33 by 66 by 42 feet ( 10 by 20 by 13 m ) , and weighs 110 short tons ( 100 t ; 98 long tons ) .
Kapoor 's design was inspired by liquid mercury and the sculpture 's surface reflects and distorts the city 's skyline . Visitors are able to walk around and under Cloud Gate 's 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) high arch . On the underside is the " omphalos " ( Greek for " navel " ) , a concave chamber that warps and multiplies reflections . The sculpture builds upon many of Kapoor 's artistic themes , and it is popular with tourists as a photo @-@ taking opportunity for its unique reflective properties .
The sculpture was the result of a design competition . After Kapoor 's design was chosen , numerous technological concerns regarding the design 's construction and assembly arose , in addition to concerns regarding the sculpture 's upkeep and maintenance . Various experts were consulted , some of whom believed the design could not be implemented . Eventually , a feasible method was found , but the sculpture 's construction fell behind schedule . It was unveiled in an incomplete form during the Millennium Park grand opening celebration in 2004 , before being concealed again while it was completed . Cloud Gate was formally dedicated on May 15 , 2006 , and has since gained considerable popularity , both domestically and internationally .
= = Design = =
Lying between Lake Michigan to the east and the Loop to the west , Grant Park has been Chicago 's front yard since the mid @-@ 19th century . Its northwest corner , north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute , east of Michigan Avenue , south of Randolph Street , and west of Columbus Drive , had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997 , when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park . For 2007 , the park was Chicago 's second largest tourist attraction , trailing only Navy Pier .
In 1999 , Millennium Park officials and a group of art collectors , curators and architects reviewed the artistic works of 30 different artists and asked two for proposals . American artist Jeff Koons submitted a proposal to erect a permanent 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) sculpture of a playground slide ; his glass and steel design featured an observation deck 90 feet ( 27 m ) above the ground that was accessible via an elevator . The committee chose the second design by internationally acclaimed artist Anish Kapoor . Measuring 33 by 66 by 42 feet ( 10 by 20 by 13 m ) and weighing 110 short tons ( 100 t ; 98 long tons ) , the proposal featured a seamless , stainless steel surface inspired by liquid mercury . This mirror @-@ like surface would reflect the Chicago skyline , but its elliptical shape would distort and twist the reflected image . As visitors walk around the structure , its surface acts like a fun @-@ house mirror as it distorts their reflections .
In the underside of the sculpture is the omphalos , an indentation whose mirrored surface provides multiple reflections of any subject situated beneath it . The apex of the omphalos is 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) above the ground . The concave underside allows visitors to walk underneath to see the omphalos , and through its arch to the other side so that they view the entire structure . During the grand opening week in July 2004 , press reports described the omphalos as the " spoon @-@ like underbelly " . The stainless steel sculpture was originally envisioned as the centerpiece of the Lurie Garden at the southeast corner of the park . However , Park officials believed the piece was too large for the Lurie Garden and decided to locate it at AT & T Plaza , despite Kapoor 's objections . Skyscrapers to the north along East Randolph Street , including The Heritage , the Smurfit @-@ Stone Building , Two Prudential Plaza , One Prudential Plaza , and Aon Center are visible , reflected on both the east and west sides of the sculpture .
Although Kapoor does not draw with computers , computer modeling was essential to the process of analyzing the complex form , which created numerous issues . Since the sculpture was expected to be outdoors , concerns arose that it might retain and conduct heat in a way that would make it too hot to touch during the summer and so cold that one 's tongue might stick to it during the winter . The extreme temperature variation between seasons was also feared to weaken the structure . Graffiti , bird droppings and fingerprints were also potential problems , as they would affect the aesthetics of the surface . The most pressing issue was the need to create a single seamless exterior for the external shell , a feat architect Norman Foster once believed to be nearly impossible .
While the sculpture was being constructed , public and media outlets nicknamed it " The Bean " because of its shape , a name that Kapoor described as " completely stupid " . Months later , Kapoor officially named the piece " Cloud Gate " . Critical reviews describe the sculpture as a passage between realms . Three @-@ quarters of the sculpture 's external surface reflects the sky and the name refers to it acting as a type of gate that helps bridge the space between the sky and the viewer . The sculpture and plaza are sometimes referred to jointly as " Cloud Gate on the AT & T Plaza " . It is Kapoor 's first public outdoor work in the United States , and is the work by which he is best known in the country according to the Financial Times .
= = Construction and maintenance = =
The British engineering firm Atelier One and freelance engineer Chris Hornzee @-@ Jones ( who later went on to form the engineering firm Aerotrope in 2005 ) provided the sculpture 's structural design , and Performance Structures , Inc . ( PSI ) was chosen to fabricate it because of their ability to produce nearly invisible welds . The project began with PSI attempting to recreate the design in miniature . A high @-@ density polyurethane foam model was selected by Kapoor , which was then used to design the final structure , including the interior structural components . Initially , PSI planned to build and assemble the sculpture in Oakland , California , and ship it to Chicago through the Panama Canal and St. Lawrence Seaway . However , this plan was discarded after park officials deemed it too risky , so the decision was made to transport the individual panels by truck and to assemble the structure on @-@ site , a task undertaken by MTH Industries .
The sculpture 's weight raised concerns . Estimating the thickness of the steel needed to create the sculpture 's desired aesthetics before fabrication was difficult . Cloud Gate was originally estimated to weigh 60 short tons ( 54 t ; 54 long tons ) when completed . However , the final figure was almost twice as heavy at 110 short tons ( 100 t ; 98 long tons ) . This extra weight required engineers to reconsider the sculpture 's supporting structures . The roof of the Park Grill , upon which Cloud Gate sits , had to be built strong enough to bear the weight . The large retaining wall separating Chicago 's Metra train tracks from the North Grant Park garage supports much of the weight of the sculpture and forms the back side of the restaurant . This wall , along with the rest of the garage 's foundation , required additional bracing before the piece was erected . Cloud Gate is further buttressed by lateral members underneath the plaza that are anchored to the sculpture 's interior structure by tie rods .
Inside Cloud Gate 's polished exterior shell are several steel structures that keep the sculpture standing . The first structural pieces , two type 304 stainless steel rings , were put into place in February 2004 . As construction continued , crisscrossing pipe trusses were assembled between the two rings . The trusses and supporting structures were only present for the construction phases . The finished sculpture has no inner bracing . The supporting structural components were designed and constructed to ensure that no specific point was overloaded , and to avoid producing unwanted indentations on the exterior shell . The frame was also designed to expand and contract with the sculpture as temperatures fluctuate . As a result , the two large rings supporting the sculpture move independently of each other , allowing the shell to move independently of the rings .
When Cloud Gate 's interior components were completed , construction crews prepared to work on the outer shell ; this comprises 168 stainless steel panels , each 3 ⁄ 8 inch ( 10 mm ) thick and weighing 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 to 910 kg ) . They were fabricated using three @-@ dimensional modeling software . Computers and robots were essential in the bending and shaping of the plates , which was performed by English wheel and a robotic scanning device . Metal stiffeners were welded to each panel 's interior face to provide a small degree of rigidity . About a third of the plates , along with the entire interior structure , were fabricated in Oakland . The plates were polished to 98 percent of their final state and covered with protective white film before being sent to Chicago via trucks . Once in Chicago , the plates were welded together on @-@ site , creating 2 @,@ 442 linear feet ( 744 m ) of welded seams . Welders used keyhole welding machines rather than traditional welding guns . The plates were fabricated so precisely that no on @-@ site cutting or filing was necessary when lifting and fitting them into position .
When construction of the shell began in June 2004 , a large tent was erected around the piece to shield it from public view . Construction began with the omphalos , where plates were attached to the supporting internal steel structure , from the inside ( underside ) of the sculpture downward to the outermost surfaces . This sequence caused the structure to resemble a large sombrero when the bottom was complete .
The shell of Cloud Gate was fully erected for the grand opening of Millennium Park on July 15 , 2004 , although it was unpolished and thus unfinished , because its assembly had fallen behind schedule . The piece was temporarily uncovered on July 8 for the opening , although Kapoor was unhappy with this as it allowed the public to see the sculpture in an unfinished state . The original plan was to re @-@ erect the tent around the sculpture for polishing on July 24 , but public appreciation for the piece convinced park officials to leave it uncovered for several months . The tent was again erected in January 2005 as a 24 @-@ person crew from Ironworkers Local 63 polished the seams between each plate . In order to grind , sand and polish the seams , six levels of scaffolding were erected around the sides of the sculpture , while climbing ropes and harnesses were used to polish harder @-@ to @-@ reach areas . When the upper and side portions of the shell were completed , the tent was once again removed in August 2005 . On October 3 , the omphalos was closed off as workers polished the final section . Every weld on the Cloud Gate underwent a five @-@ stage process , required to produce the sculpture 's mirror @-@ like finish .
The sculpture was finally completed on August 28 , 2005 , and officially unveiled on May 15 , 2006 . The cost for the piece was first estimated at $ 6 million ; this had escalated to $ 11 @.@ 5 million by the time the park opened in 2004 , with the final figure standing at $ 23 million in 2006 . No public funds were involved ; all funding came from donations from individuals and corporations .
Kapoor 's contract states that the constructed piece should be expected to survive for 1 @,@ 000 years . The lower 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of Cloud Gate is wiped down twice a day by hand , while the entire sculpture is cleaned twice a year with 40 U.S. gallons ( 33 imp gal ; 150 L ) of liquid detergent . The daily cleanings use a Windex @-@ like solution , while the semi @-@ annual cleanings use Tide . A notable February 2009 rare incident saw two names etched in letters about 1 inch ( 25 mm ) tall on the northeast side of the curved sculpture . The graffiti was removed by the same firm that did the original polishing .
= = Reception = =
Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley declared the day of the sculpture 's dedication , May 15 , 2006 , to be " Cloud Gate Day " . Kapoor attended the celebration , while local jazz trumpeter and bandleader Orbert Davis and the Chicago Jazz Philharmonic played " Fanfare for Cloud Gate " , which Davis composed . The public took an instant liking to the sculpture , affectionately referring to it as " The Bean " . Cloud Gate has become a popular piece of public art and is now a fixture on many souvenirs such as postcards , sweatshirts , and posters . The sculpture has attracted a large number of locals , tourists , and art aficionados from around the world . The sculpture is now the piece by which Kapoor is most identified in the United States .
Time describes the piece as an essential photo opportunity , and more of a destination than a work of art.The New York Times writes that it is both a " tourist magnet " and an " extraordinary art object " , while USA Today refers to the sculpture as a monumental abstract work . Chicago art critic Edward Lifson considers Cloud Gate to be among the greatest pieces of public art in the world . The American Welding Society recognized Cloud Gate , MTH Industries and PSI with the group 's Extraordinary Welding Award . Time named Millennium Park one of the ten best architectural achievements of 2004 , citing Cloud Gate as one of the park 's major attractions .
When the park first opened in 2004 , Metra police stopped a Columbia College Chicago journalism student who was working on a photography project in Millennium Park and confiscated his film because of fears of terrorism . In 2005 , the sculpture attracted some controversy when a professional photographer without a paid permit was denied access to the piece . As is the case for all works of art currently covered by United States copyright law , the artist holds the copyright for the sculpture . This allows the public to freely photograph Cloud Gate , but permission from Kapoor or the City of Chicago ( which has licensed the art ) is required for any commercial reproductions of the photographs . The city first set a policy of collecting permit fees for photographs . These permits were initially set at $ 350 per day for professional still photographers , $ 1 @,@ 200 per day for professional videographers and $ 50 per hour for wedding photographers . The policy has been changed so permits are only required for large @-@ scale film , video and photography requiring ten @-@ person crews and equipment .
In addition to restricting photography of public art , closing a public park for a private event has also been controversial . In 2005 and 2006 , almost all of Millennium Park was closed for a day for corporate events . On both occasions , as one of the park 's primary attractions , Cloud Gate was the focus of controversy . On September 8 , 2005 , Toyota Motor Sales USA paid $ 800 @,@ 000 to rent most venues in the park including Cloud Gate on AT & T Plaza from 6 a.m. to 11 p.m. On August 7 , 2006 , Allstate paid $ 700 @,@ 000 to rent the park . For this price , Allstate acquired the visitation rights to a different set of features and only had exclusive access to Cloud Gate after 4 p.m. These corporate closures denied tourists access to Kapoor 's public sculpture , and commuters who walk through the park were forced to take alternative routes . City officials stated that the money would help to finance free public programs in Millennium Park .
In 2015 , a sculpture similar to Cloud Gate was reported in Karamay , China at the site of an oil discovery , which according to Eduardo Peñalver , the Dean of Cornell Law School , " very probably " is a copyright infringement against Cloud Gate . Though designed to resemble an oil bubble , Kapoor hoped that legal action would be taken against what he termed a Chinese knockoff . Mayor Rahm Emanuel was less concerned and said that it was a flattering imitation .
= = Artistic themes = =
= = = Relevant Kapoor themes = = =
Anish Kapoor has a reputation for creating spectacles in urban settings by producing works of extreme size and scale . Before creating Cloud Gate , Kapoor had created art that distorted images of the viewer instead of portraying images of its own . In so doing , he acquired experience blurring the boundary between the limit and the limitless . Kapoor drew on past experience to design Cloud Gate , in particular the designing of Sky Mirror ( 2001 ) , a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) 10 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 9 t ; 9 @-@ long @-@ ton ) concave stainless steel mirror that also used a theme of distorted perception on a grand scale .
Kapoor 's objects often aim to evoke immateriality and the spiritual , an outcome he achieves either by carving dark voids into stone pieces , or more recently , through the sheer shine and reflectivity of his objects . This Indian artist 's works have no fixed identity , but rather occupy an illusionary space that is consistent with eastern theologies shared by Buddhism , Hinduism and Taoism , as well as Albert Einstein 's views of a non @-@ three @-@ dimensional world . Kapoor explores the theme of ambiguity with his works that place the viewer in a state of " in @-@ betweenness " . The artist often questions and plays with such dualities as solidity – emptiness or reality – reflection , which in turn allude to such paired opposites as flesh – spirit , the here – the beyond , east – west , sky – earth , etc. that create the conflict between internal and external , superficial and subterranean , and conscious and unconscious . Kapoor also creates a tension between masculine and feminine within his art by having concave points of focus that invite the entry of visitors and multiplies their images when they are positioned correctly .
= = = Cloud Gate themes = = =
Kapoor often speaks of removing both the signature of the artist from his works as well as any traces of their fabrication , or what he refers to as " traces of the hand " . He aspires to make his works look like they have independent realities that he reveals rather than creates . For him , removing all the seams from Cloud Gate was necessary in order to make the sculpture seem as though it was " perfect " and ready @-@ made . These effects increase the viewer 's fascination with it and makes them wonder what it is and where it came from . His attempts to hide his works ' seams as an artist stand in contrast to Frank Gehry 's architectural designs in the park , Jay Pritzker Pavilion and BP Pedestrian Bridge , which display their seams prominently .
Cloud Gate is described as a transformative , iconic work . It is similar to many of Kapoor 's previous works in the themes and issues it addresses . While the sculpture 's mirror effects are reminiscent of fun @-@ house fairground mirrors , they also have a more serious intent ; they help dematerialize this very large object , making it seem light and almost weightless . Cloud Gate is considered Kapoor 's most ambitious use of complex mirrored form dynamics . Kapoor challenges his viewers to internalize his work through intellectual and theoretical exercise . By reflecting the sky , visiting and non @-@ visiting pedestrians and surrounding architecture , Cloud Gate limits its viewers to partial comprehension at any time . The interaction with the viewer who moves to create his own vision gives it a spiritual dimension . The sculpture is described as a disembodied , luminous form , which is also how his earlier 1000 Names ( 1979 – 80 ) was described when it addressed the metaphysical and mystical .
The viewer physically enters the art when he walks underneath it into its " navel " . The omphalos is a " warped dimension of fluid space " . In this dimension , solid is transformed into fluid in a disorienting multiplicative manner that intensifies the experience . It is emblematic of Kapoor 's work to deconstruct empirical space and venture into manifold possibilities of abstract space . The experience is described as a displaced or virtual depth that is composed of multiplied surfaces .
According to project manager Lou Cerny of MTH Industries , " When the light is right , you can 't see where the sculpture ends and the sky begins . " The sculpture challenges perception by distorting and deforming the surrounding architecture . The skyscrapers along East Randolph Street to the northeast ( Two Prudential Plaza , and Aon Center ) , north ( One Prudential Plaza ) and northwest ( The Heritage , Crain Communications Building ) are reflected on Cloud Gate 's surface when viewed from either the east or the west . The sculpture also warps viewers ' perception of time by changing the speed of movements such as the passing of clouds .
Although in the conventional sense Cloud Gate is not an opening that leads anywhere in the same way that monumental gates do , it frames a view and is celebratory in the way it creates a ceremonial place . The work is credited with achieving a new level or understanding described as a transubstantiation of material , reminiscent of that which the artist experienced during a 1979 trip to India . Kapoor 's 1000 Names evolved immediately after this trip ; twenty @-@ five years later he created Cloud Gate , an object that emerged from material forms to become immaterial .
Kapoor often relies on tenets of Hinduism in his art and says that " The experience of opposites allows for the expression of wholeness . " Primal dualities that are one , such as the lingam and yoni , are important to Indian culture , and Cloud Gate represents both the male and female in one entity by symbolizing both the vagina and testicles . Thus , it represents the tension between the masculine and the feminine .
= = In popular culture = =
The sculpture has been used as a backdrop in commercial films , notably in the 2006 Hollywood film The Break @-@ Up , which had to reshoot several scenes because the sculpture was under cover for the initial filming . It is also prominently featured in the ending scene of Source Code . Director Duncan Jones felt the structure was a metaphor for the movie 's subject matter and aimed for it to be shown at the beginning and end of the movie . The sculpture served as an aesthetic and symbolic setting for the 2012 film The Vow when the lead characters share a kiss under it . It also appears in the video to " Homecoming " , a song by Chicago native Kanye West , featuring Chris Martin of the band Coldplay . The sculpture is also featured in the 2008 mumblecore film Nights and Weekends . It was also featured in the Bollywood film Dhoom 3 and the 2014 movie , Transformers : Age of Extinction , the fourth installment in the Transformers series . A modified reproduction of Cloud Gate is also included in Watch Dogs , a video game released in 2014 that takes place in Chicago . Unlike the real sculpture , the in @-@ game replica is a curved , white torus .
= Anfield =
Anfield is a football stadium in Anfield , Liverpool , England which has a seating capacity of 44 @,@ 742 making it the seventh largest football stadium in England . It has been the home of Liverpool F.C. since their formation in 1892 . It was originally the home of Everton F.C. from 1884 to 1891 , before they moved to Goodison Park after a dispute with the club president .
The stadium has four stands : the Spion Kop , Main Stand , Centenary Stand and Anfield Road . The record attendance of 61 @,@ 905 , was set at a match between Liverpool and Wolverhampton Wanderers in 1952 . The ground converted to an all @-@ seater stadium in 1994 as a result of the Taylor Report which greatly reduced its capacity .
Two gates at the ground are named after former Liverpool managers : Bill Shankly and Bob Paisley . A statue of Shankly is situated outside the stadium . The ground is 2 miles ( 3 km ) from Liverpool Lime Street railway station . It was proposed in 2002 to replace the stadium with a new one in the adjacent Stanley Park , but after the acquisition of Liverpool F.C. by Fenway Sports Group in 2010 it was made clear this would not happen .
Construction for an extension to the Main Stand began on Monday , 8 December 2014 . This will increase the stadium size to around 54 @,@ 000 , and there are future plans to expand the Anfield Road Stand which would bring the stadium capacity to around 59 @,@ 000 .
= = History = =
Opened in 1884 , Anfield was originally owned by John Orrell , a minor land owner who was a friend of Everton F.C. member John Houlding . Everton , who previously played at Priory Road , were in need of a new venue owing to the noise produced by the crowd on match days . Orrell lent the pitch to the club in exchange for a small rent . The first match at the ground was between Everton and Earlestown on 28 September 1884 , which Everton won 5 – 0 . During Everton 's tenure at the stadium , stands were erected for some of the 8 @,@ 000 @-@ plus spectators regularly attending matches , although the ground was capable of holding around 20 @,@ 000 spectators and occasionally did . The ground was considered of international standard at the time , playing host to the British Home Championship match between England and Ireland in 1889 . Anfield 's first league match was played on 8 September 1888 , between Everton and Accrington F.C. Everton quickly improved as a team , and became Anfield 's first league champions in the 1890 – 91 season .
In 1892 , negotiations to purchase the land at Anfield from Orrell escalated into a dispute between Houlding and the Everton F.C. committee over how the club was run . Events culminated in Everton 's move to Goodison Park . Houlding was left with an empty stadium , and decided to form a new club to occupy it . The new team was called Liverpool F.C. and Athletic Grounds Ltd , and the club 's first match at Anfield was a friendly played in front of 200 people on 1 September 1892 , against Rotherham Town . Liverpool won 7 – 1 .
Liverpool 's first Football League match at Anfield was played on 9 September 1893 , against Lincoln City . Liverpool won 4 – 0 in front of 5 @,@ 000 spectators . A new stand capable of holding 3 @,@ 000 spectators was constructed in 1895 on the site of the present Main Stand . Designed by architect Archibald Leitch , the stand had a distinctive red and white gable , and was similar to the main stand at Newcastle United 's ground St James ' Park . Another stand was constructed at the Anfield Road end in 1903 , built from timber and corrugated iron . After Liverpool had won their second League championship in 1906 , a new stand was built along the Walton Breck Road . Local journalist Ernest Edwards , who was the sports editor of newspapers the Liverpool Daily Post and Echo , christened it the Spion Kop ; it was named after a famous hill in South Africa where a local regiment had suffered heavy losses during the Boer War in 1900 . More than 300 men had died , many of them from Liverpool , as the British army attempted to capture the strategic hilltop . Around the same period a stand was also built along Kemlyn Road .
The ground remained much the same until 1928 , when the Kop was redesigned and extended to hold 30 @,@ 000 spectators , all standing . A roof was erected as well . Many stadia in England had stands named after the Spion Kop . Anfield 's was the largest Kop in the country at the time — it was able to hold more supporters than some entire football grounds . In the same year the topmast of the SS Great Eastern , one of the first iron ships , was rescued from the ship breaking yard at nearby Rock Ferry , and was hauled up Everton Valley by a team of horses , to be erected alongside the new Kop . It still stands there , serving as a flag pole .
Floodlights were installed at a cost of £ 12 @,@ 000 in 1957 . On 30 October they were switched on for the first time for a match against Everton to commemorate the 75 @-@ year anniversary of the Liverpool County Football Association . In 1963 the old Kemlyn Road stand was replaced by a cantilevered stand , built at a cost of £ 350 @,@ 000 , and able to hold 6 @,@ 700 spectators . Two years later alterations were made at the Anfield Road end , turning it into a large covered standing area . The biggest redevelopment came in 1973 , when the old Main Stand was demolished and a new one constructed . At the same time , the pylon floodlights were pulled down and new lights installed along the top of the Kemlyn Road and Main Stands . The new stand was officially opened by the Duke of Kent on 10 March 1973 . In the 1980s the paddock in front of the Main Stand was turned into seating , and in 1982 seats were introduced at the Anfield Road end . The Shankly Gates were erected in 1982 , a tribute to former manager Bill Shankly ; his widow Nessie unlocked them for the first time on 26 August 1982 . Across the Shankly Gates are the words You 'll Never Walk Alone , the title of the hit song by Gerry and the Pacemakers adopted by Liverpool fans as the club 's anthem during Shankly 's time as manager .
Coloured seats and a police room were added to the Kemlyn Road stand in 1987 . After the Hillsborough disaster in 1989 where overcrowding led to the deaths of 96 Liverpool fans , the Taylor Report recommended that all grounds in the country should be converted into all @-@ seater grounds by May 1994 . A second tier was added to the Kemlyn Road stand in 1992 , turning it into a double @-@ decker layout . It included executive boxes and function suites as well as 11 @,@ 000 seating spaces . Plans to expand the stand had been made earlier , with the club buying up houses on Kemlyn Road during the 1970s and 1980s , but had to be put on hold until 1990 because two sisters , Joan and Nora Mason , refused to sell their house . When the club reached an agreement with the sisters in 1990 , the expansion plans were put into action . The stand — renamed the Centenary Stand — was officially opened on 1 September 1992 by UEFA president Lennart Johansson . In 1993 , Liverpool fans gestured their support for James Bulger during a two @-@ minute silence at the Kop , held before a game against Ipswich . The Kop was rebuilt in 1994 after the recommendations of the Taylor Report and became all seated ; it is still a single tier , and the capacity was significantly reduced to 12 @,@ 390 .
On 4 December 1997 , a bronze statue of Bill Shankly was unveiled at the visitors ' centre in front of the Kop . Standing at over 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) tall , the statue depicts Shankly with a fan 's scarf around his neck , in a familiar pose he adopted when receiving applause from fans . Inscribed on the statue are the words " Bill Shankly – He Made The People Happy " . The Hillsborough memorial is situated alongside the Shankly Gates , and is always decorated with flowers and tributes to the 96 people who died in 1989 as a result of the disaster . At the centre of the memorial is an eternal flame , signifying that those who died will never be forgotten . Since 2014 , the memorial was temporarily removed during the expansion of the Main Stand of the stadium .
The most recent structural change to Anfield came in 1998 when the new two @-@ tier Anfield Road end was opened . The stand has encountered a number of problems since its redevelopment ; at the beginning of the 1999 – 2000 season , a series of support poles and stanchions had to be brought in to give extra stability to the top tier of the stand . During Ronnie Moran 's testimonial match against Celtic , many fans complained of movement of the top tier . At the same time that the stanchions were inserted , the executive seating area was expanded by two rows in the main stand , lowering the seating capacity in the paddock .
= = Structures and facilities = =
Anfield comprises 45 @,@ 276 seats split between four stands : the Anfield Road end , the Centenary Stand , the Kop , and the Main Stand . The Anfield Road end and Centenary Stand are two @-@ tiered , while the Kop and Main Stand are single @-@ tiered . Entry to the stadium is gained by radio @-@ frequency identification ( RFID ) smart cards rather than the traditional manned turnstile . This system , used in all 80 turnstiles around Anfield , was introduced in 2005 .
Plans to replace Anfield with a new 60 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity stadium in adjacent Stanley Park were initiated in 1971 . The plans were revisited under the ownership of Tom Hicks and George Gillett . Following the acquisition of Liverpool F.C. by Fenway Sports Group in 2010 , the owners have abandoned the proposed new stadium in Stanley Park , preferring instead to redevelop and expand Anfield , thus echoing their decision to renovate Fenway Park . The Kop is a large single @-@ tiered stand . Originally a large terraced banking providing accommodation for more than 30 @,@ 000 spectators , the current incarnation was constructed in 1994 – 95 and is single @-@ tiered with no executive boxes . The Kop houses the club 's museum , the Reducate centre and the official club shop . The Kop is the most @-@ renowned stand at Anfield among home and away supporters , with the people who occupy the stand referred to as kopites . Such was the reputation that the stand had it was claimed that the crowd in the Kop could suck the ball into the goal . Traditionally , Liverpool 's most vocal supporters congregate in this stand .
The oldest stand at Anfield is the Main Stand , taking 76 years to complete . The stand was completed in 1982 , however the 1906 structure is the lower section . Single @-@ tiered the stand houses the dressing rooms and directors ' box . The press and directors VIP box are located in the middle of the stand . The large roof is supported by two thin central uprights , with a large suspended television camera gantry . The players ' tunnel and the technical area where the managers and substitutes sit during the match are in the middle of the stand at pitch level . Above the stairs leading down to the pitch hangs a sign stating " THIS IS ANFIELD " . Its purpose is to both intimidate the opposition and to bring the Liverpool players who touch it good luck . Accordingly , Liverpool players and coaching staff reach up and place one or both hands on it as they pass underneath .
The Centenary Stand is a two @-@ tiered stand . Originally a single @-@ tiered stand called the Kemlyn Road Stand , the second tier was added in 1992 to coincide with the club 's centenary . It is located opposite of the Main Stand and houses directors ' boxes , which are between the two tiers . The stand also houses the ground 's police station .
The Anfield Road stand , on the left side of the Main Stand , houses the away fans during matches . The Anfield Road End was rebuilt in 1965 , and multi @-@ coloured seats were added in 1982 . Originally a single @-@ tier stand , a further revamp , which was completed in 1998 , gave the stand a second @-@ tier providing additional seating .
There are 59 spaces available in the stadium to accommodate wheelchair users who have season tickets ; a further 33 spaces are available for general sale and 8 are allocated to away supporters . These spaces are located in the Main Stand , Anfield Road Stand and The Kop . There are 38 spaces available for the visually impaired , which are situated in the paddock area of the Main Stand , with space for one personal assistant each . A headset with full commentary is provided .
The stadium features tributes to two of the club 's most successful managers . The Paisley Gateway is a tribute to Bob Paisley , who guided Liverpool to three European Cups and six League Championships in the 1970s and 1980s . The gates were erected at the Kop ; their design includes representations of the three European Cups Paisley won during his tenure , the crest of his birthplace in Hetton @-@ le @-@ Hole , and the crest of Liverpool F.C. The Shankly Gates , in tribute of Bill Shankly , Paisley 's predecessor between 1959 and 1974 , are at the Anfield Road end . Their design includes a Scottish flag , a Scottish thistle , the Liverpool badge , and the words " You 'll Never Walk Alone " .
Anfield stadium is a UEFA category 4 stadium .
= = Future = =
Plans to replace Anfield were originally initiated by Liverpool F.C. in May 2002 . The proposed capacity was 55 @,@ 000 , but it was later revised to 61 @,@ 000 , with 1 @,@ 000 seats given for segregation between home and away fans . Several attempts were made between 2003 and 2007 by the Liverpool City Council to instigate a groundshare of the proposed stadium with local rivals Everton , but this move was rejected , as neither club favoured it . On 30 July 2004 Liverpool was granted planning permission to build a new stadium 300 yards ( 270 m ) away from Anfield at Stanley Park . On 8 September 2006 Liverpool City Council agreed to grant Liverpool F.C. a 999 @-@ year lease of the land on the proposed site .
Following the takeover of Liverpool F.C. on 6 February 2007 by George Gillett and Tom Hicks , the proposed stadium was redesigned . In November 2007 the redesigned layout was approved by the council , and construction was due to start in early 2008 . The new stadium , provisionally called Stanley Park Stadium , was to be built by HKS , Inc .. It was scheduled to open in August 2011 with a capacity of 60 @,@ 000 . If the new stadium is built , Anfield would be demolished . The land would become home to the centrepiece for the Anfield Plaza development , which would include a hotel , restaurants , and offices . However , the construction of Stanley Park was delayed following the economic crisis of 2008 and the subsequent recession , which directly affected the then American owners . The situation was worsened because the club was bought with borrowed money , not the owners ' capital , and interest rates were higher than expected . Hicks and Gillett promised to begin work on the stadium within 60 days of acquisition of the club , but had trouble financing the estimated £ 500 million needed for the Stanley Park development . The deadline passed and the plan was eventually cancelled by the Fenway Sports Group , as their preference was to re @-@ develop the Anfield .
= = = Stadium expansion = = =
The acquisition of Liverpool F.C. by Fenway Sports Group in October 2010 put into question whether Liverpool would leave Anfield . In February 2011 the new club owner , John W. Henry , stated he had a preference for remaining at Anfield and expanding the capacity . After attending a number of games at Anfield , Henry stated that " the Kop is unrivalled " , adding " it would be hard
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's units or capture their headquarters . The battle system is turn @-@ based . Two to four forces , each headed by a commanding officer ( CO ) , take turns building and commanding units on grid @-@ based maps . Every turn , units , which consist of ground , sea and air units , can move across the different types of terrain and attack enemy units or perform other actions , such as submerging a submarine or resupplying friendly units . Many factors can affect the battle , such as Fog of War , a phenomenon that prevents players from seeing enemy units other than those in the visual range of their units ; various weather conditions ; and CO powers .
= = = COs and CO powers = = =
The entire cast from the previous games has been replaced with new characters . CO powers have been toned down , and no longer affect all units or the whole battle or the whole map . Tag powers from Dual Strike which allowed players to move twice in one turn have been removed . Players gain CO powers much later in the campaign than before , and they have a much less significant role in overall gameplay .
At the HQ or any unit @-@ producing property , COs can join with a specific unit , and automatically promote that unit to Vet level , but at the cost of half of that unit 's value . The CO 's unit confers an advantage on friendly units within a certain range , the " CO zone . " These effects are generally minor advantages such as attack or defense boosts . CO effects are constant and , unlike previous games , only benefit units within the CO zone .
As damage is dealt by units within the CO zone , the CO 's power meter fills slightly , at a rate of one bar per five hit points worth of damage inflicted . As the CO power meter is filled , the CO zone grows larger . When the meter is full , the CO can activate his power which has an effect on the whole battlefield , such as repairing allied units , damaging enemy units , or temporarily altering weather conditions . In addition , the offensive and defensive boosts that normally apply only in the CO zone , also applies to all allied units on the whole battlefield for the turn that the CO power is active . If the CO unit is destroyed , the CO meter empties and the CO returns to the HQ , able to be redeployed with another unit .
= = = New units , properties , and terrain = = =
Units can now level up in battle , increasing their capabilities . Units increase their level once for each enemy unit that they destroy . The level of each unit is identified as I , II , or Vet , with Vet being the highest level . While units with higher levels are more powerful than new units , the power increase is slight . Unit experience is not persistent , and the player begins each mission with new units .
Unit prices have been readjusted and some units renamed , as well as new ones introduced . New land units include the Bike , a highly mobile infantry unit that can capture properties ; the Flare , an armored vehicle unit that can reveal areas affected by the Fog of War ; the Anti @-@ Tank , an indirect @-@ fire unit strong against tanks with the ability to counter @-@ attack during direct attacks ; and the War Tank ( formerly the Mega Tank ) , the strongest ground unit in the game . New air units include the Duster , a weaker , lower @-@ cost interceptor that can strike ground units ; and the Seaplane , which is produced by Carriers and can attack any unit , but has limited ammo and fuel reserves . Additionally , there is a single new sea unit , the Gunboat , which is armed with a missile salvo that must be resupplied after each use , and can transport one infantry / mech unit . Also , the Battleship was given the ability to move and fire in the same turn , making it the only indirect @-@ combat unit able to do so .
New properties have also been introduced , including temporary properties which are constructed by the Rig unit ( formerly known as the APC ) . Temporary properties cannot build new units like other properties can , but can only be used as stationary resupply bases providing some defensive cover for units , and can be captured . Each Rig unit can construct one of two temporary properties , the Temporary Port and Temporary Airport . Additionally , the new Radar property has been added ; when captured it clears a five @-@ tile radius of Fog of War .
New terrain is available in the game : Wasteland , which impedes the movement of ground vehicles ; Ruins , which provide a minor defense bonus for ground units and hiding places in Fog of War ; Fire , which is impassable and illuminates the surrounding area during Fog of War ; Rough Sea , which impedes the movement of naval units ; Mist , which provides a defense bonus and hiding places for naval units ; and Meteors and Plasma . Plasma forms an impassable wall that no unit can cross , and is generated by Meteors . Once a Meteor is destroyed , any Plasma in contact with it disappears , allowing units to pass . Plasma that is not in contact with a meteor cannot be destroyed .
= = = Campaign = = =
The campaign plays out through 26 missions , with story scenes that tie the plot together occurring between and during the battles . In addition , 38 training missions are unlocked as the missions are completed . The training missions are more challenging , entirely optional , and can be played separately from the campaign . One new feature in Days of Ruin is that campaign missions can now be played individually as the player completes them . Like the training missions , campaign missions can be selected from the main menu at any time .
Upon completing a mission , the player is awarded a rank , starting with the lowest at C and going to B , A and S , which is the highest . The ranks are based on three categories : Power , Technique , and Speed , each determined by meeting certain conditions in a battle . All three categories are rated on a scale from 0 @-@ 150 , and added together to form a numerical ranking from 0 @-@ 450 in addition to their letter ranking ; for example , any score between 300 @-@ 450 earns an S ranking . Unlike previous games , the numerical score is not converted into points that can be redeemed to purchase new maps and COs ; instead , COs are unlocked after the completion of certain missions and all maps ( with the exception of training missions ) are available at the beginning of gameplay .
In a departure from the previous games , which included five factions in the campaign , Days of Ruin features only four : the Rubinelle 12th Battalion ( Red ) , Lazurian Army ( Blue ) , New Rubinelle Army ( Yellow ) , and Intelligent Defense Systems ( Black ) , although The Beast ( also Black and also allied with IDS ) could be considered a separate faction . These factions have different names in the American , European , and Japanese versions of the game .
= = Multiplayer = =
In a first for the series , Days of Ruin includes online multiplayer over Nintendo 's Wi @-@ Fi Connection service , as well as a feature for players to share their own custom map designs and download maps made by others ( custom maps and sharing custom maps is a feature present in all Advance Wars games ) . Over 150 premade maps are included in the game for use in local multiplayer , and designed for two , three , and four @-@ player matches . Multiplayer games can be played with only one DS game card : each player can pass the game to the next player when it is their turn . Of course , you can still do it with 2 or 3 or 4 DS systems . It is also possible to set all sides to CPU , which is useful for studying the AI .
Commanding Officers
The above table also includes PAL names for the characters in question if they have them ( on the right @-@ hand side of the forward slash ) .
= = = Custom maps = = =
When players create and upload their own custom maps to the Wi @-@ Fi Connection , these maps can be tested and given approval ratings by other players from around the world . Players can download randomly selected maps from the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection , or can choose maps based on their approval ratings . In order to upload a map , the player must win it once , and rate it based on its difficulty . The maximum size for uploadable maps is 10x10 tiles , and the player can only upload one at a time ; if the player uploads another map , then the original one is replaced . Maps can have any dimensions between 30x30 and 5x5 tiles , and the game is able to store up to 50 custom maps .
= = = Online multiplayer = = =
When using Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection for online multiplayer , the player can choose between a match with a random opponent from around the world , or a match with someone that the player has exchanged friend codes with . Worldwide matches are limited to two players , with the weather conditions being randomly generated and a map randomly chosen from a set list . Worldwide match players can choose if they want an opponent close to their skill level or to play against an opponent regardless of skill level . When playing with a friend , more options are opened up to allow greater customization of the match , such as the type of weather and the duration of the match . Voice chat is only supported when playing with a friend , and is unavailable during worldwide online play . However , Caulder can not be used in ONLINE multiplayer due to his extreme advantages .
= = = Local multiplayer = = =
Players also have the option of using local multiplayer , which requires that each player have his or her own DS game card and increases the limit of those who can participate to between 2 @-@ 4 players . 28 classic maps from previous Advance Wars games , 70 two @-@ player maps , 32 three @-@ player maps , and 30 four @-@ player maps are all playable with local multiplayer . Custom maps can also be used in multiplayer . The conditions of these maps can also be customized by the players . Also , like in previous games , there is an option to use one DS and game card to play with up to four players . This is accomplished by passing the DS to the next player after a player has completed his / her turn .
= = Plot = =
The plot of Days of Ruin is considerably darker than , and unrelated to , the plots of previous games . Almost 90 % of humanity has been killed off following devastating meteor strikes which have destroyed much of civilization and caused a massive dust cloud to blot out the sun , preventing photosynthisis and thereby preventing the growing of crops . Scattered survivors pick through the wreckage , and the remnants of several military superpowers patrol the ravaged landscape , some factions protecting the innocent while the others prey upon them .
Following the disaster , which obliterated much of the warring nations of Rubinelle and Lazuria , a young cadet from the Rubinelle military academy named Will escapes the ruins of the academy 's mess hall and is confronted by The Beast , a former sergeant gone rogue who leads a small band of raiders . Will is rescued by Brenner and Lin of Rubinelle 's 12th Battalion ( nicknamed " Brenner 's Wolves " ) , and takes on the group 's cause of saving as many survivors of the meteor strikes as possible . During a search , Will discovers a mysterious amnesiac who does not remember her own name , but somehow knows detailed military information . Will later names her Isabella , and she becomes a vital part of the battalion as they put an end to the Beast 's reign of terror .
One year after the meteor strikes , the 12th Battalion comes into contact with the New Rubinelle Army , and learns of the war raging between the Lazurian Army and the NRA . Brenner reluctantly sides with Greyfield , leader of the NRA , and advances on the Lazurian force , eventually defeating them at Fort Lazuria . Distraught by the ruthless execution of the Lazurian commander , Forsythe , Brenner and the 12th Battalion break the Lazurian prisoners out of an NRA internment camp before they can be executed . While the group escapes , Brenner stays behind and hides in an abandoned city to buy them some time . An infuriated Greyfield orders the use of a new weapon which completely destroys the city , killing Brenner and the NRA troops searching for him . Lin later leads a force against Greyfield , preventing the launch of a wave of deadly Caulder missiles and defeating the NRA once and for all . In the process , Lin personally shoots and kills Greyfield , avenging Brenner 's death .
The 12th Battalion is unexpectedly attacked soon after by Intelligent Defense Systems , a private military contractor that had secretly supported first the Lazurians , then the NRA by supplying them with weapons of mass destruction . Dr. Caulder , leader of the IDS , had taken advantage of the world 's devastation to carry out horrific biological and psychological experiments that he would have been unable to undertake otherwise , such as creating and spreading a terrible new disease called the Creeper , which causes flowers to bloom from infected individuals , for the sole purpose of studying the survivor 's reactions . Despite numerous demoralizing attacks by IDS and its massive bomber , the Great Owl , the battalion survives and infiltrates and brings down The Great Owl , eventually pursuing Caulder to his main laboratory and fortress , The Nest . In the end , Caulder is killed in the destruction of his lab , and the war is finally brought to an end . One year later , the village of New Hope , founded by the 12th Battalion after the conflict , begins to flourish in the new @-@ found peace . The sun is seen rising above the nearby hills for the first time since the meteor strikes , giving hope of a brighter future .
= = Development = =
Days of Ruin was announced as Advance Wars DS 2 during the 2007 E3 Media and Business Summit . No other details for this installment were given other than the tentative name , but two months later in October a playable demo version was showcased at the Micromania Games Show in Paris , France , where the new darker style was first revealed . On October 12 , 2007 , the game 's title was officially released as Advance Wars : Days of Ruin for the North American version , with a planned shipping date of January 21 , 2008 ; the alternate name of Advance Wars : Dark Conflict for European and Australian versions was released in early December .
Advance Wars : Days of Ruin features a style unlike previous entries in the series . When asked why it was changed , the developers stated that they wanted to surprise people . One of the people who localized Days of Ruin into English , Tim O 'Leary , commented that the design change also came from reading comments from people that state to the effect : " We like the game , we love the game , but it 's the same thing . " In designing the new style , setting , and plot , the developers discovered that Japanese people have a different view on war than American people do , citing the previous titles ' lighthearted take on war . As a result , they designed the game to be " grittier " and " more somber " . Another influence on the new setting was that Advance Wars was more successful in North America than it was in Japan . The developers discussed the kinds of people that would exist in this world - people who seek out others to help them ; people who attempt to further their own agendas by taking control of pieces of land ; and those who attempt to hoard supplies and kill anyone who gets in their way . They added that they also wanted to make an Advance Wars title that even veterans of the series would find fresh . The setting was also a reason for the design change , being a " not @-@ so @-@ distant future science fiction " setting , which the developers felt didn 't fit well with the style of previous titles . When asked whether they feared that gamers would be turned off by the changes , the developers responded by saying that they have to " fight against " this fear . The developers felt that without innovation , the series would turn players off , so they introduced new gameplay mechanics as well as the new setting .
In discussing the more lighthearted elements of the plot , such as Dr. Morris , a character who tells corny jokes , the developers commented that these elements accentuated the dark elements of the game rather than detracted from them , as well as showing the stability of the survivors ' mental conditions . The decision to include more dialogue than previous entries in the series was to ensure that this new world and the new characters were understandable by the player , though the developers acknowledge that it could also distract from the strategic gameplay . The developers felt that the dialogue made the story more enjoyable for the players , as opposed to being a vehicle to move the gameplay forward . When asked if Days of Ruin was an attempt to bridge this series with fellow Intelligent Systems series Fire Emblem , developers commented that while the increase in volume may make it seem like this , it was not their intention . They explained that while Fire Emblem placed importance on individual units , Advance Wars was about improving as a Commanding Officer .
The developers intended to require the players to employ more tactical approaches to maps , in their introduction of such units as the Flare Gun , a vehicle that could reveal parts of the map hidden by fog of war , and the Commanding Officers , who have had their " CO Powers " reduced in importance from the previous titles . However , the developers added that one does not have to be a " master strategist " to play the game , commenting that the Flare Gun could be used by a casual gamer to quickly move across a map covered in fog of war , while a more advanced player may use it for more strategic means . This unit was added as a means to speed up stages with fog of war . Other new units include the Bike , which was a means of achieving a faster tempo to the game . When asked why the Duster , a modification of a crop duster , was added in favor of the stealth jet from Advance Wars : Dual Strike , the developers commented that the Duster was an inexpensive aerial unit that was not only easy @-@ to @-@ use , but could attack ground units as well . The unit was also added to be a throwback to an older era , as well as demonstrating how people in this world use anything they can as a means of survival . Other additions include the Rig and the Anti @-@ Tank ; the Rig is a modified version of an APC from the previous titles modified to be able to build temporary buildings , while the Anti @-@ Tank is both a direct and long @-@ range weapon specifically designed to do damage to tanks . Two modifications include the Battleship , which can now move and attack in one round , and the Aircraft Carrier , which can produce low @-@ fuel aircraft called Seaplanes . Another new unit is the Gunship , which can attack and carry units as well . In discussing the online play of the game , the developers felt that it was necessary to limit online battles to only two people per battle , explaining that they felt it would be too boring for a player to have to sit and stare at a screen while three other people made their moves .
When asked why the mechanism of unlocking maps and characters - accomplished in previous titles by purchasing them with points or coins won through battle - was removed , the developers apologized , commenting that after long deliberation , they felt that such a mechanic was detrimental to the enjoyment of gamers who are too busy to take the time to unlock all of these things . As a result , they designed this game in a way that allowed players to play any non @-@ story based map they wanted , introducing other mechanics to encourage players to keep playing . The developers commented that Days of Ruin had more strategy than previous entries in the series due to the changes and removals made to the game compared to the other titles . Another interviewer further asked of the developers of the removals of other features from previous entries in the series , including dual screen play , leveling up , Survival mode , Combat mode , and Hard mode . The dual @-@ screen play was removed , with the developers commenting that while it could have been implemented , it did not need to be , and the full use of the dual screens for viewing intel on units and terrain allowed the gameplay to proceed more seamlessly . The ability to level up players ' Commanding Officers was introduced in Days of Ruin 's predecessor , Advance Wars : Dual Strike , the developers commenting that the gameplay centered around how well players used their Commanding Officer . This mechanic was replaced by the ability to level up individual units , commenting that this mechanic required players to work strategically with how they deploy their units . The Survival and Combat modes were removed due to not fitting with the redesign of the world , preferring to have a more focused game . Finally , Hard mode was removed due to the developers feeling that the Normal mode was designed in such a way that a widespread audience could enjoy it . They also commented that earning a high ranking in this mode by doing a good job was effectively the same as Hard mode .
= = = Regional differences = = =
The European / Australian release , Dark Conflict , is identical to the North American release , Days of Ruin , in terms of the storyline , gameplay , and features . Several minor details distinguish each version , such as differences in the names of the factions , characters , chapter names and units , as well as significant dialogue changes . This is due to Nintendo of America and Nintendo of Europe receiving Japanese copies of the game to translate independently , resulting in unique versions for each region .
= = Reception = =
Advance Wars : Days of Ruin has received generally positive reviews , having aggregate scores of 85 and 86 on GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively . Nintendo Power gave a positive rating , calling the game " comfortingly familiar " with battles that are " more approachable than before . " Online multiplayer was noted as taking " wireless connectivity and Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection further than any game that has preceded it . " One of the main flaws of Days of Ruin was identified as a lack of gameplay innovation . Game Informer 's Adam Biessener called it " an excellent game " , but criticized its change from " charming , cartoony roots " to a " dreary post @-@ apocalyptic setting " .
1UP.com praised the new turn Days of Ruin has taken for the series , but noted that the storyline , while darker than before , was still close in tone to the humor of the previous games . The new CO deployment feature was called the biggest change to the gameplay . The game was criticized for the removal of several staple features of the series , but complimented the new online play feature as being " the most balanced Advance Wars experience . " IGN gave the game a high rating for taking risks with its artistic design , but also criticized the loss of old single @-@ player modes in favor of new multiplayer content . IGN named Advance Wars : Days of Ruin the Best Online Multiplayer Game of 2008 for the Nintendo DS . The game was also a nominee for other awards from IGN , including Best Strategy Game and Best Artistic Design . GameSpot 's Ryan Davis praised the game for its online support , the map editor , and sharper visuals , but criticized it for its difficult campaign mode and felt that the story wasn 't strong enough to support the darker tone of the game .
In North America , Days of Ruin sold over 81 @,@ 000 copies in January after its release , and close to 50 @,@ 300 copies in February , bringing total sales in the region to over 130 @,@ 000 as of March 2008 .
= Tawny owl =
The tawny owl or brown owl ( Strix aluco ) is a stocky , medium @-@ sized owl commonly found in woodlands across much of Eurasia . Its underparts are pale with dark streaks , and the upperparts are either brown or grey . Several of the eleven recognised subspecies have both variants . The nest is typically in a tree hole where it can protect its eggs and young against potential predators . This owl is non @-@ migratory and highly territorial . Many young birds starve if they cannot find a vacant territory once parental care ceases .
This nocturnal bird of prey hunts mainly rodents , usually by dropping from a perch to seize its prey , which it swallows whole ; in more urban areas its diet includes a higher proportion of birds . Vision and hearing adaptations and silent flight aid its night hunting . The tawny owl is capable of catching smaller owls , but is itself vulnerable to the eagle owl or northern goshawk .
Although many people believe this owl has exceptional night vision , its retina is no more sensitive than a human 's . Rather , it is its asymmetrically placed ears that are key to its hunting because they give the tawny owl excellent directional hearing . Its nocturnal habits and eerie , easily imitated call , have led to a mythical association of the tawny owl with bad luck and death .
= = Description = =
The tawny owl is a robust bird , 37 – 46 cm ( 15 – 18 in ) in length , with an 81 – 105 cm ( 32 – 41 in ) wingspan . Weight can range from 385 to 800 g ( 0 @.@ 849 to 1 @.@ 764 lb ) . Its large rounded head lacks ear tufts , and the facial disc surrounding the dark brown eyes is usually rather plain . The nominate race has two morphs which differ in their plumage colour , one form having rufous brown upperparts and the other greyish brown , although intermediates also occur . The underparts of both morphs are whitish and streaked with brown . This species is sexually dimorphic ; the female is much larger than the male , 5 % longer and more than 25 % heavier .
The tawny owl flies with long glides on rounded wings , less undulating and with fewer wingbeats than other Eurasian owls , and typically at a greater height . The flight of the tawny owl is rather heavy and slow , particularly at takeoff . As with most owls , its flight is silent because of its feathers ' soft , furry upper surfaces and a fringe on the leading edge of the outer primaries . Its size , squat shape and broad wings distinguish it from other owls found within its range ; great grey , eagle owl and Ural owls are similar in shape , but much larger .
An owl 's eyes are placed at the front of the head and have a field overlap of 50 – 70 % , giving it better binocular vision than diurnal birds of prey ( overlap 30 – 50 % ) . The tawny owl 's retina has about 56 @,@ 000 light @-@ sensitive rod cells per square millimetre ( 36 million per square inch ) ; although earlier claims that it could see in the infrared part of the spectrum have been dismissed , it is still often said to have eyesight 10 to 100 times better than humans in low @-@ light conditions . However , the experimental basis for this claim is probably inaccurate by at least a factor of 10 . The owl 's actual visual acuity is only slightly greater than that of humans , and any increased sensitivity is due to optical factors rather than to greater retinal sensitivity ; both humans and owl have reached the limit of resolution for the retinas of terrestrial vertebrates .
Adaptations to night vision include the large size of the eye , its tubular shape , large numbers of closely packed retinal rods , and an absence of cone cells , since rod cells have superior light sensitivity . There are few coloured oil drops , which would reduce the light intensity . Unlike diurnal birds of prey , owls normally have only one fovea , and that is poorly developed except in daytime hunters like the short @-@ eared owl .
Hearing is important for a nocturnal bird of prey , and as with other owls , the tawny owl 's two ear openings differ in structure and are asymmetrically placed to improve directional hearing . A passage through the skull links the eardrums , and small differences in the time of arrival of a sound at each ear enables its source to be pinpointed . The left ear opening is higher on the head than the larger right ear and tilts downward , improving sensitivity to sounds from below . Both ear openings are hidden under the facial disk feathers , which are structurally specialized to be transparent to sound , and are supported by a movable fold of skin ( the pre @-@ aural flap ) .
The internal structure of the ear , which has large numbers of auditory neurons , gives an improved ability to detect low @-@ frequency sounds at a distance , which could include rustling made by prey moving in vegetation . The tawny owl 's hearing is ten times better than a human 's , and it can hunt using this sense alone in the dark of a woodland on an overcast night , but the patter of raindrops makes it difficult to detect faint sounds , and prolonged wet weather can lead to starvation if the owl cannot hunt effectively .
The commonly heard contact call is a shrill , kew @-@ wick but the male has a quavering advertising song hoo ... ho , ho , hoo @-@ hoo @-@ hoo @-@ hoo . William Shakespeare used this owl 's song in Love 's Labour 's Lost ( Act 5 , Scene 2 ) as " Then nightly sings the staring owl , Tu @-@ whit ; Tu @-@ who , a merry note , While greasy Joan doth keel the pot " , but this stereotypical call is actually a duet , with the female making the kew @-@ wick sound , and the male responding hooo . The call is easily imitated by blowing into cupped hands through slightly parted thumbs , and a study in Cambridgeshire found that this mimicry produced a response from the owl within 30 minutes in 94 % of trials . A male 's response to a broadcast song appears to be indicative of his health and vigour ; owls with higher blood parasite loads use fewer high frequencies and a more limited range of frequencies in their responses to an apparent intruder .
= = = Geographical variation = = =
Although both colour morphs occur in much of the European range , brown birds predominate in the more humid climate of western Europe , with the grey phase becoming more common further east ; in the northernmost regions , all the owls are a cold @-@ grey colour . Siberian and Central Asian subspecies have grey and white plumage , the North African race is dark grey @-@ brown , and South and East Asian birds have barred , not striped , underparts , and fine lines around the facial disc . The Siberian and Scandinavian subspecies are 12 % larger and 40 % heavier , and have 13 % longer wings than western European birds , in accordance with Bergmann 's rule which predicts that northern forms will typically be bigger than their southern counterparts .
The plumage colour is genetically controlled , and studies in Finland and Italy indicate that grey @-@ morph tawny owls have more reproductive success , better immune resistance , and fewer parasites than brown birds . Although this might suggest that eventually the brown morph could disappear , the owls show no colour preference when choosing a mate , so the adverse selection pressure is reduced . There are also environmental factors involved . The Italian study showed that brown @-@ morph birds were found in denser woodland , and in Finland , Gloger 's rule would suggest that paler birds would in any case predominate in the colder climate .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae in 1758 under its current scientific name . The binomial derives from Greek strix " owl " and Italian allocco , " tawny owl " ( from Latin ulucus " screech @-@ owl " ) .
The tawny owl is a member of the wood @-@ owl genus Strix , part of the typical owl family Strigidae , which contains all species of owl other than the barn owls . Within its genus , the tawny owl 's closest relatives are Hume 's owl , Strix butleri , ( formerly considered to be conspecific ) , the Himalayan owl , Strix nivicolum , ( sometimes considered conspecific ) , its larger northern neighbour , the Ural owl , S. uralensis , and the North American barred owl , S. varia . The Early – Middle Pleistocene Strix intermedia is sometimes considered a paleosubspecies of the tawny owl , which would make it that species ' immediate ancestor .
The tawny owl subspecies are often poorly differentiated , and may be at a flexible stage of subspecies formation with features related to the ambient temperature , the colour tone of the local habitat , and the size of available prey . Consequently , various authors have historically described between 10 and 15 subspecies . The currently recognised subspecies are listed below .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The tawny owl has a distribution stretching discontinuously across temperate Eurasia from Great Britain and the Iberian Peninsula eastwards to western Siberia , and India . The subspecies S. a. mauritanica extends the range into northwest Africa . This essentially non @-@ migratory owl is absent from Ireland ( probably because of competition from the long @-@ eared owl ) , and only a rare vagrant to the Balearic and Canary Islands .
This species is found in deciduous and mixed forests , and sometimes mature conifer plantations , preferring locations with access to water . Cemeteries , gardens and parks have allowed it to spread into urban areas , including central London . The tawny owl is mainly a lowland bird in the colder parts of its range , but breeds to 550 metres ( 1 @,@ 800 ft ) in Scotland , 1 @,@ 600 m ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) in the Alps , 2 @,@ 350 m ( 7 @,@ 710 ft ) in Turkey , and up to 2 @,@ 800 m ( 9 @,@ 200 ft ) in Burma .
The tawny owl has a geographical range of at least 10 million km2 ( 3 @.@ 8 million mi2 ) and a large population including an estimated 970 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 individuals in Europe alone . Population trends have not been quantified , but there is evidence of an overall increase . This owl is not believed to meet the IUCN Red List criterion of declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations and is therefore evaluated as being of least concern . This species has expanded its range in Belgium , the Netherlands , Norway and Ukraine , and populations are stable or increasing in most European countries . Declines have occurred in Finland , Estonia , Italy and Albania .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Tawny owls pair off from the age of one year , and stay together in a usually monogamous relationship for life . An established pair 's territory is defended year @-@ round and maintained with little , if any , boundary change from year to year . The pair sit in cover on a branch close to a tree trunk during the day , and usually roost separately from July to October . Roosting owls may be discovered and " mobbed " by small birds during the day , but they normally ignore the disturbance .
The tawny owl typically nests in a hole in a tree , but will also use old European magpie nests , squirrel drey or holes in buildings , and readily takes to nest boxes . It nests from February onwards in the south of its range , but rarely before mid @-@ March in Scandinavia . The glossy white eggs are 48 mm × 39 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in × 1 @.@ 5 in ) in size and weigh 39 @.@ 0 g ( 1 @.@ 38 oz ) of which 7 % is shell . The typical clutch of two or three eggs is incubated by the female alone for 30 days to hatching , and the altricial , downy chicks fledge in a further 35 – 39 days . The young usually leave the nest up to ten days before fledging , and hide on nearby branches .
This species is fearless in defence of its nest and young , and , like other Strix owls , strikes for the intruder 's head with its sharp talons . Because its flight is silent , it may not be detected until it is too late to avoid the danger . Dogs , cats and humans may be assaulted , sometimes without provocation . Perhaps the best @-@ known victim of the tawny owl 's fierce attack was the renowned bird photographer Eric Hosking , who lost his left eye when struck by a bird he was attempting to photograph near its nest in 1937 . He later called his autobiography An Eye for a Bird .
The parents care for young birds for two or three months after they fledge , but from August to November the juveniles disperse to find a territory of their own to occupy . If they fail to find a vacant territory , they usually starve . The juvenile survival rate is unknown , but the annual survival rate for adults is 76 @.@ 8 % . The typical lifespan is five years , but an age of over 18 years has been recorded for a wild tawny owl , and of over 27 years for a captive bird .
Predators of the tawny owl include large birds such as Ural owls , eagle owls , northern goshawks , golden eagles , and common buzzards . Pine martens may raid nests , especially where artificial nest boxes make the owls easy to find , and several instances have been recorded of Eurasian jackdaws building nests on top of a brooding female tawny owl leading to the death of the adult and chicks . A Danish study showed that predation by mammals , especially red foxes , was an important cause of mortality in newly fledged young , with 36 % dying between fledging and independence . The mortality risk increased with fledging date from 14 % in April to more than 58 % in June , and increasing predation of late broods may be an important selective agent for early breeding in this species .
This species is increasingly affected by avian malaria , the incidence of which has tripled in the last 70 years , in parallel with increasing global temperatures . An increase of one degree Celsius produces a two- to three @-@ fold increase in the rate of malaria . In 2010 , the incidence in British tawny owls was 60 % , compared to 2 – 3 % in 1996 .
= = = Feeding = = =
The tawny owl hunts almost entirely at night , watching from a perch before dropping or gliding silently down to its victim , but very occasionally it will hunt in daylight when it has young to feed . This species takes a wide range of prey , mainly woodland rodents , but also other mammals up to the size of a young rabbit , and birds , earthworms and beetles . In urban areas , birds make up a larger proportion of the diet , and species as unlikely as mallard and kittiwake have been killed and eaten .
Prey is typically swallowed whole , with indigestible parts regurgitated as pellets . These are medium @-@ sized and grey , consisting mainly of rodent fur and often with bones protruding , and are found in groups under trees used for roosting or nesting .
Less powerful woodland owls such as the little owl and the long @-@ eared owl cannot usually co @-@ exist with the stronger tawny owls , which may take them as food items , and are found in different habitats ; in Ireland the absence of the tawny owl allowed the long @-@ eared owl to become the dominant owl . Similarly , where the tawny owl has moved into built @-@ up areas , it tends to dis
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is sentenced to be put down by a lethal injection , which shocks everyone . While Peter works on Brian 's appeal , Brian decides to study the Law as much as he can , and goes to court to defend himself , and finally gets the chance to plead his case before the Quahog City Council . During his parole hearing , he references the court case Plessy v. Ferguson , but unfortunately for him , the council believes that it 's stupid to listen to a dog . Just when Brian is about to be dismissed , Peter steps in and delivers a last @-@ ditch emotional appeal on his behalf . The city council members remain unmoved until Peter bribes them with $ 20 each , and Brian is immediately freed . The charges against him are finally dropped and the town shows him new respect , allowing him to finally drink out of a water fountain , showing his status to be the same as that of the other citizens of the community . The family returns home and Stewie , in an unusual ( at the time ) display of respect towards Brian , bows ever so slightly towards him . Brian and Peter are then left alone . Brian licks Peter 's face in an endearing dog gesture , and threatens to kill him if he ever tells anyone about it .
= = Production = =
" Brian : Portrait of a Dog " was written by Gary Janetti , his first time writing for the series , and directed by former King of the Hill director Michael Dante DiMartino , who was a newcomer to the show at the time , having directed " I Never Met the Dead Man " . DiMartino would later go on to co @-@ create and produce Avatar : The Last Airbender with Bryan Konietzko at Nickelodeon Animation Studios . Roy Allen Smith and Peter Shin ( who have been supervising other episodes of the show ) , acted as supervising directors . Mike Henry , Neil Goldman , Andrew Gormley and Garrett Donovan worked in the episode as story editors and staff writers . Series creator Seth MacFarlane , David Zuckerman , Lolee Aries , David Pritchard and Mike Wolf worked as executive producer , while Craig Hoffman , Danny Smith and Gary Janetti worked as supervising producers . In addition to the regular cast , the episode featured the voices of actress and comedian Mary Scheer , actors Dick Van Patten , Joey Slotnick , and actress and sister of show creator Seth MacFarlane , Rachael MacFarlane . Recurring guest voice actors included actress Lori Alan , writer and animator Butch Hartman , and voice actor Wally Wingert .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode makes references to the U.S. African @-@ American Civil Rights Movement . While arguing his case before the city council , Brian tries to reference the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson , before being cut off . Another reference comes after Brian is freed , he drinks from a drinking fountain in a defiant manner , a reference to the 1974 television movie , The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman . Other media references include the Griffins watching the TV show Eight is Enough and Peter writing a letter to Angus MacGyver , from the show MacGyver , asking him to rescue Brian from jail . When Brian puts eye drops into his eyes before the dog show , he says " Showtime " with jazz hands . This ritual and phrase are a reference to Joe Gideon in All That Jazz
= = Reception = =
Ahsan Haque of IGN rated the episode a 9 @.@ 6 / 10 , praising the random jokes and calling it " yet another finely crafted early episode that tells a great cohesive story , has some great random jokes , and throws in a bucket of social satire for good measure . This was also the final episode of the extremely short but groundbreaking first season , and definitely ranks amongst the best in the series . "
" Portrait of a Dog " , along with the twenty @-@ seven other episodes from Family Guy 's first and second season , were released on a 4 @-@ disc DVD set in the U.S. on April 15 , 2003 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Seth MacFarlane and various crew and cast members for several episodes . It also features French and Spanish versions of the episodes , an alteration of an episode , and deleted scenes of some episodes .
= Zero Hour ( Stargate SG @-@ 1 ) =
" Zero Hour " is the fourth episode from Season 8 of the military science fiction television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 . It was written by producer Robert C. Cooper and directed by Peter Woeste . Clips of the episode were shown on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien before Season 8 began , with Late Night graphic designer Pierre Bernard making a cameo appearance in the episode . The first airing of " Zero Hour " on July 30 , 2004 on the American Sci Fi Channel was viewed by 3 million Americans . The episode received mixed reviews .
" Zero Hour " takes place shortly after the promotion of main character Jack O 'Neill from Colonel to Brigadier General . With O 'Neill being the new leader of Stargate Command ( SGC ) , Lt. Col. Samantha Carter has assumed O 'Neill 's old position as leader of the SG @-@ 1 unit . The idea to have the episode focus on General O 'Neill solving various problems at his new job came from the writers ' wondering what the general of the SGC does while his teams are on missions .
= = Plot = =
The episode takes place over the course of five days , counting down to an at first unrevealed event named " Zero Hour " . Five days to Zero Hour , General O 'Neill is introduced to his new administrative aide , Mark Gilmor , who makes a suspicious phone call . Meanwhile , O 'Neill 's new position as a general is twofold . He needs to decide decorations for an upcoming official visit , and prepare SG @-@ 1 for its next offworld trip . A quickly growing alien plant and the arrival of two brawly Amrans , possible trade partners from another world , lead O 'Neill to write a letter to General Hammond , his predecessor .
At four days to Zero Hour , the alien plant has grown to cover many areas of the base . After SG @-@ 1 go missing on their off @-@ world mission , a Goa 'uld named Ba 'al contacts Stargate Command and suggests an exchange of the captured SG @-@ 1 against Camulus , another Goa 'uld who requested asylum on Earth several episodes before . With the help of Camulus , a potent power source is found and brought back to Stargate Command , only to find it tainted by Camulus ( powering it up could result in the destruction of the Solar system ) . With the SGC suffering from a temporary electricity failure caused by the alien plants , Ba 'al 's renewed contacting only results in O 'Neill 's mocking . Exhausted by sleep deprivation two days to Zero Hour , O 'Neill finishes his letter to General Hammond to inform him of his resignation .
Although Camulus leaves Earth , Ba 'al does not send back SG @-@ 1 . When all SG teams announce their trust and support for the general , SG @-@ 1 dial the Stargate from offworld , revealing that they were never captured by Ba 'al but instead were trapped in a secret base . After their safe return , O 'Neill attests new SG @-@ 1 leader Samantha Carter 's positive leadership skills . It is revealed that the ZPM Camulus was given to supposedly kill Ba 'al ( which Ba 'al would use to destroy Earth ) was actually the dead one from Antarctica . Zero Hour makes up the last minutes of the episode . The President is about to arrive , and Gilmor announces that his special assignment , initiated by the President 's order , will end the next day . Gilmor expresses his respect , and as they leave to greet the President , the camera zooms in on the resignation letter on O 'Neill 's desk , with the last words , " Never mind " .
= = Production = =
Despite being fourth in the airing order , " Zero Hour " was filmed as the seventh out of the twenty episodes of Season 8 . The limited availability of Richard Dean Anderson ( Jack O 'Neill ) , who only worked 3 @.@ 5 days out of five working days a week during the eighth season , extended the seven @-@ day filming period to four weeks . With " Zero Hour " being a bottle episode to save money , director Peter Woeste filmed the majority of the episode on the standing SGC sets at The Bridge Studios , Vancouver , Canada . The labs of Dr. Lee and Carter were filmed in the same room of the standing set , and a storage room for filming equipment was remodeled into the office of Gilmor . Second unit director Andy Mikita was responsible for the off @-@ world scenes of the SG teams , filmed in Tynehead Park , one of the few undeveloped Vancouver locations that still allows filming . O 'Neill in his sleeping quarters was the episode 's last filmed scene , shot in two takes to allow Anderson to catch his flight home to Los Angeles .
The inspiration for the episode came from the SG @-@ 1 writers wondering for years what George Hammond , the SGC leader from seasons one through seven , does while SG @-@ 1 is away on missions . Imagined scenarios ranged from the general dealing with minor decisions like bunting and lunch buffet , to averting major emergencies and threats . The episode 's working title was " A Day in the Life of General O 'Neill " , but writer Robert C. Cooper felt " Zero Hour " was more appropriate , referring to the President 's visit at the end of the episode . The subplot of the SGC being overrun with plant life originates in a Season 4 idea by writer and producer Brad Wright . To not interrupt the shooting process , the set was decorated with various plants and vines overnight . Some plants were plastic , but real plants were used for the torching scenes , sprayed to be flame retardant so as not to burn the whole set . Jim Menard as the director of photography was responsible for the green lighting when the emergency lighting goes off . He achieved depth by using differently @-@ colored lights in the control room and near the gate .
" Zero Hour " features several guest stars . Los Angeles actor David Kaufman was brought in to play the part of Mark Gilmor , a red herring to the story . Cliff Simon , flown in from L.A. for a day 's work , filmed most of his scenes as Ba 'al against green @-@ screen in the gateroom for a " hologram feel " . Bill Dow ( Dr. Lee ) was doing theater work in Vancouver during the filming of this episode , necessitating the producers to schedule around his availability . Gary Jones 's character , an SG @-@ 1 semi @-@ regular technician who sported the name " Norman Davis " on his uniform for years , received a new name in this episode : " Walter Harriman " . After O 'Neill had referred to him as " Walter " in the Season 4 episode " 2010 " , the producers could not get clearance for a renaming into " Walter Davis " . The new name is based on General Hammond referring to Jones 's character as " Airman " ( sounding like " Harriman " ) in the pilot episode , and SG @-@ 1 writer Joseph Mallozzi explained the resulting incongruity as a married @-@ name issue . One scene in " Zero Hour " features Pierre Bernard , a graphic designer for the NBC show Late Night with Conan O 'Brien , as technician O 'Brien . The SG @-@ 1 producers saw Bernard ranting on Late Night about Stargate SG @-@ 1 being better without Daniel Jackson ( actor Michael Shanks was not part of SG @-@ 1 during Season 6 ) , and gave him a cameo spot .
= = Reception = =
Producer Robert C. Cooper was satisfied with " Zero Hour " , claiming that Richard Dean Anderson " is fantastic in this episode . It 's new @-@ yet @-@ classic O 'Neill and fans of the character will be forever pleased with this . " When " Zero Hour " first aired on the Sci Fi Channel on July 30 , 2004 , it achieved a 2 @.@ 2 Household rating , equaling approximately 3 million viewers . Tied with " Icon " , this marked the sixth @-@ highest rating for any Season 8 episode of Stargate SG @-@ 1 .
DVD Talk called " Zero Hour " " a playful episode " with a " funny sub @-@ plot involving an alien plant " , but recognized the episode 's contribution to the overall story arc . TV Zone considered the plant threat " a nice change " but regretted that it was only a red herring for a later plot revelation . Bringing the plants to the SGC at all was regarded irritating , as the " obvious move [ to build a secure lab on an uninhabited planet ] doesn 't make for such good drama . " O 'Neill acting as the new leader made " the Goa 'uld threat [ ... ] a laugh " and " an amazing change from the events from the series ' early days " where O 'Neill took this race more seriously . The actual zero hour plot concerning the " harassed " O 'Neill was considered " a nice touch " . Conan O 'Brien , who had shown a clip of Pierre Bernard 's scene in his late night show before the first airing , congratulated Bernard for doing a good job , and Bernard would be invited back to the Stargate SG @-@ 1 set for a scene in the 200th episode of the show .
= Pendennis Castle =
Pendennis Castle is an artillery fort constructed by Henry VIII near Falmouth , Cornwall , between 1540 and 1542 . It formed part of the King 's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire , and defended the Carrick Roads waterway at the mouth of the River Fal . The original , circular keep and gun platform was expanded at the end of the century to cope with the increasing Spanish threat , with a ring of extensive stone ramparts and bastions built around the older castle . Pendennis saw service during the English Civil War , when it was held by the Royalists , and was only taken by Parliament after a long siege in 1646 . It survived the interregnum and Charles II renovated the fortress after his restoration to the throne in 1660 .
Ongoing concerns about a possible French invasion resulted in Pendennis 's defences being modernised and upgraded in the 1730s and again during the 1790s ; during the Napoleonic Wars , the castle held up to 48 guns . In the 1880s and 1890s an electrically operated minefield was laid across the River Fal , operated from Pendennis and St Mawes , and new , quick @-@ firing guns were installed to support these defences . The castle saw service during both the First and Second World Wars , but in 1956 , by now obsolete , it was decommissioned . It passed into the control of the Ministry of Works , who cleared away many of the more modern military buildings and opened the site to visitors . In the 21st century , the castle is managed by English Heritage as a tourist attraction , receiving 74 @,@ 230 visitors in 2011 – 12 . The heritage agency Historic England considers Pendennis to be " one of the finest examples of a post @-@ medieval defensive promontory fort in the country " .
= = History = =
= = = 16th – 17th centuries = = =
= = = = Construction = = = =
Pendennis Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Basic defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale .
In 1533 , Henry broke with Pope Paul III in order to annul the long @-@ standing marriage to his wife , Catherine of Aragon and remarry . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , and he took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England appeared certain . In response , Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline .
The stretch of water known as Carrick Roads at the mouth of the River Fal was an important anchorage serving shipping arriving from the Atlantic and the Mediterranean . A small gun tower , called the Little Dennis Blockhouse , was built in 1539 overlooking the entrance , and plans were made to protect the anchorage further with five additional castles . In the event , only two of these were constructed , Pendennis and St Mawes Castle , positioned on each side of Carrick Roads and able to provide overlapping fire across the water . John Killigrew , a prominent member of the local Cornish gentry , probably oversaw the construction of Pendennis ; it was built on his land and he was appointed as its first captain . Pendennis Castle cost £ 5 @,@ 614 to construct .
= = = = Initial operation = = = =
The Killigrews controlled the castle for several decades , with John Killigrew 's son and grandson continuing in turn as the captain there until 1605 . The captains of Pendennis frequently argued with those of St Mawes and in 1630 a legal dispute broke out about the rights to search and detain incoming shipping : both castles argued that they had a traditional right to do so . The Admiralty eventually issued a compromise , proposing that the castles share the searching of the traffic .
Meanwhile , a lasting peace with France was made in 1558 and the initial invasion threat passed . The Spanish threat to the south @-@ west of England became more serious , however , and war broke out in 1569 . As a result , a defensive earthwork was constructed north @-@ west of the castle to protect it against an attack from the land , and an additional gun battery facing upriver was installed alongside the blockhouse . The levels of the garrison varied considerably during the period . Pendennis had a garrison of 100 men in 1578 , and could have mustered around 500 men in 1596 , while in 1599 it was reportedly guarded by 200 soldiers .
The Spanish threat continued ; raiding parties destroyed the Killigrews ' family home at Arwenack in 1593 , and four Spanish ships attacked the towns along the coast in 1595 . In 1597 a Spanish fleet with 20 @,@ 000 men set out to assault Pendennis and invade England , only being prevented from landing by bad weather . The failed attack caused considerable concern inside government and the Privy Council were informed that the castle was not sufficient to prevent a Spanish landing along the coast . A subsequent review carried out by Sir Nicholas Parker , Sir Walter Raleigh and Sir Ferdinando Gorges recommended that the castle 's defences should be significantly extended . The military engineer Paul Ive constructed an Italian @-@ styled ring of earthworks , embrasures , bastions and a stone @-@ revetted ditch around the original Henrician castle between 1597 and 1600 , using a team of 400 local workers , costing around £ 80 a week in wages .
In the early 1600s England was at peace and Pendennis was neglected ; reportedly the garrison 's pay was two years in arrears , forcing them to gather limpets from the shoreline for food . Nonetheless , a new Italian @-@ styled gatehouse was added to the castle , probably in 1611 . War with Spain broke out again 1624 and a new defensive line , with bastions and artillery , was built across the peninsula in 1627 .
= = = = English Civil War and Restoration = = = =
When civil war broke out in 1642 between King Charles I and Parliament , Pendennis and the south @-@ west of England were held by the Royalists . The growing town of Falmouth was a strategically important part of their supply route to the Continent , while Carrick Roads formed a base for Royalist piracy in the English Channel . As the war turned in favour of the Parliamentarians , preparations were made for Prince Charles to shelter there over the winter of 1645 – 46 , as part of which the surrounding fortifications were improved ; in the event , Charles stayed in the castle only briefly in early 1646 .
Shortly after Charles left Pendennis for the Isles of Scilly on 2 March , Thomas Fairfax entered Cornwall with a substantial army . Almost all the other Royalist positions in England had by now fallen and St Mawes Castle surrendered immediately as Fairfax approached . Pendennis Castle , however , continued to hold out , defended by around 1 @,@ 000 soldiers under the command of Sir John Arundell . They were determined to hold out against the besiegers and Arundell announced that he would die rather than surrender . Two Parliamentary colonels , Fortescue and Hammond , directed the bombardment of the castle from the land , while Captain Batten , with a flotilla of ten ships , blockaded it by sea , preventing fresh supplies from arriving .
The garrison 's defences were supported with artillery fire from a Royalist warship that was deliberately run aground north of the castle to produce an additional gun platform . By July , food had begun to run short and some of the garrison unsuccessfully attempted to break out by sea to acquire supplies . Arundell agreed to an honourable surrender on 15 August , and around 900 survivors left the fort two days later , some terminally ill from malnutrition . Pendennis was the penultimate Royalist fortification to hold out in the war .
Parliament maintained a garrison at the castle , but in 1647 it cut the levels of the armed forces across the country ; most soldiers who lost their posts were offered two months pay , but at Pendennis only one month 's pay was offered . The garrison , led by Colonel Richard Fortescue , mutinied , seized the visiting Parliamentary commissioners and refused to leave the castle until the additional pay was granted to them . Fearing a wider uprising , Parliament negotiated an end to the confrontation , paying off the garrison in full and offering Fortescue fresh employment elsewhere . A smaller , more reliable garrison was then installed . During the interregnum , the castle was used to imprison the radical pamphleteer William Prynne .
Just before the restoration of King Charles II to the throne in 1660 , the Royalist Sir Peter Killigrew became the new captain of the castle . Fears of an invasion continued , and an additional gun battery was constructed at Crab Quay , to the south @-@ east of the main fortification . At the end of the century , a new guard barracks and gate were constructed , probably emulating those being constructed in France .
= = = 18th – 19th centuries = = =
Pendennis Castle continued in use through the 18th and 19th centuries under the command of successive captains , still operating in partnership with St Mawes . In 1714 , Colonel Christian Lilly carried out an inspection of the fortification , finding it to be " in a very precarious condition " and noting that " the body of the fort having been for many years neglected is now is in a very ruinous condition " . The parapets had collapsed , the ramparts could easily be scaled and the ditches were filled with brambles . Little was done to remedy this , however , until the 1730s , when the castle was extensively modernised . The interior was redesigned , the ramparts were rebuilt and the castle 's guns were replaced , incorporating new 18 @-@ pounder cannons .
During the American Revolutionary War , France allied itself with the revolutionaries , causing war with Britain to break out in 1778 . The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars followed , during which period Falmouth became an important military depot . In 1795 , the Crown purchased the castle 's land from the Killigrew family , and reinforced the fortress to deal with the fresh threat of invasion . The government installed more guns and built a new gun position called the Half @-@ Moon Battery just outside the 16th @-@ century walls ; the landward defences of Pendennis were reinforced , and a new barracks and other ancillary buildings were built inside the fortress . At its peak , the castle was equipped with up to 48 artillery pieces . A new volunteer unit of artillery was formed in Falmouth to support the forts around the harbour , many of them carrying out training using Pendennis 's guns before then deploying elsewhere across Cornwall .
After the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 , Pendennis was neglected ; many of its guns became unserviceable and some buildings fell into ruin . The old post of captain of Pendennis Castle was abolished in 1837 , with the fortification commanded by a conventional military appointment . In the 1850s , renewed fears of a French invasion led to investment in new artillery at the castle , and nineteen 32- and 56 @-@ pounder ( 14 @.@ 5 and 24 @.@ 5 kg ) guns were installed . Falmouth continued to be an important harbour , particularly for the Royal Navy . When new concerns about France emerged , an electronically operated minefield was laid across Carrick Roads in 1885 , jointly controlled from Pendennis and St Mawes . New 6- and 12 @-@ pounder ( 2 @.@ 7 and 5 @.@ 4 kg ) quick @-@ firing guns , supported by machine @-@ guns for close defence , were assigned to the castle to deal with the emerging threat from enemy torpedo boats .
= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =
The 105th Regiment Royal Garrison Artillery took over the manning of Pendennis Castle in 1902 . A new barracks was built to house them , and a signal station was constructed on top of the old keep to coordinate operations with shipping , while the 16th @-@ century guardhouse alongside the keep was demolished . The castle was reinforced by territorial soldiers during the First World War and additional defences were constructed on the landward side . It continued to defend the harbour and was also used for training purposes . After the war , Pendennis continued to be used for training gunners , but its 16th @-@ century buildings were placed into the guardianship of the Ministry of Works in 1920 , and by 1939 the fortification 's artillery had all been removed .
The castle was rearmed at the beginning of the Second World War . Twin 6 @-@ pounder guns and longer range artillery were installed , zig @-@ zag trenches dug for protection , and new buildings added across the site . The 16th @-@ century fort was used as the headquarters of Falmouth Fire Command , which managed the artillery across the area . New radar @-@ controlled , 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Mark 24 guns followed in 1943 . Falmouth played an important role in supporting the D @-@ Day invasion of France in 1944 , and during the preparations for the invasion , the gun batteries at Pendennis were used to defend against German E @-@ boats . After the war , Pendennis was initially still used for training , but the castle was now obsolete and it was decommissioned in 1956 .
The whole of the Pendennis site was placed in the guardianship of the Ministry of Works and opened to visitors ; the Ministry focused its attention on the 16th @-@ century castle and many of the more modern buildings were destroyed . The barracks were used as a youth hostel between 1963 and 2000 . The heritage agency English Heritage took over control of the castle in 1984 , and placed a greater priority on the conservation of its more modern features . Extensive work was carried out across the castle in the 1990s to refurbish the fortifications and open new facilities for visitors , accompanied by archaeological surveys and excavations ; in the 2000s , the sergeant 's mess and the custodian 's house were converted into holiday cottages .
In the 21st century , the castle is managed by English Heritage as a tourist attraction , receiving 74 @,@ 230 visitors in 2011 – 12 . It is protected under UK law as a grade I listed building and as a scheduled monument .
= = Architecture = =
Pendennis Castle is located at the end of a peninsula , overlooking Carrick Roads and the sea . It includes the original 16th @-@ century Device Fort , surrounded by a ring of outer defences , based on the Elizabethan ramparts and later adapted during the 18th , 19th and 20th centuries . Further gun batteries and a blockhouse are located closer to the shore . The heritage agency Historic England considers Pendennis to be " one of the finest examples of a post @-@ medieval defensive promontory fort in the country " , demonstrating a long history of different defensive approaches , and English Heritage describes the site as " one of the finest surviving examples of a coast fortress in England " .
= = = Ramparts = = =
The gatehouse to the castle is located on the western side of the ramparts and dates from around 1700 . It has a classical facade , with a mid @-@ 19th century stone bridge reaching across the external ditch . The ramparts are built from stone with protective ditches , and have angular bastions to provide overlapping fire , an innovative design in England when they were first constructed in 1600 . North of the gatehouse are the Smithwick and Carrick Mount bastions , the latter holding a quick @-@ firing gun battery from 1903 . Further around the ramparts , the East Bastion also has two emplacements for quick @-@ firing guns , dating from 1902 , and underground magazines , which were converted into a battery plotting room in the Second World War . Just to the south , the Nine @-@ Gun Battery was built in the 1730s and comprises a fixed line of nine gun embrasures .
In the south @-@ east corner of the ramparts is the One @-@ Gun Battery , which originally held a " disappearing gun " , designed to pivot back under a steel shield when fired . Built in 1895 , the approach proved unsuccessful and the gun was removed in 1913 , but the emplacement still remains and is a rare survival of this type of weapon . The Bell Bastion , the Ravelin , the Pig 's Pound Bastion and the Horse Pool Bastion protect the southern and western parts of the ramparts . A range of artillery and anti @-@ aircraft guns are on show around the defences , including 19th @-@ century carronades , and 20th @-@ century pieces such as a 155 mm ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) Long Tom field gun , a Quick Firing 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt ( 76 mm 102 kg ) anti @-@ aircraft gun and two Ordnance Quick @-@ Firing 25 @-@ pounder ( 11 kg ) howitzers .
= = = Inner castle = = =
At the heart of the castle is the 16th @-@ century Henrician fortification . Built of a combination of granite ashlar and rubble , it comprises a circular keep surrounded by a gun platform , entered through a bridge and a forebuilding . The keep has 3 @.@ 36 @-@ metre ( 11 @.@ 0 ft ) thick walls and on in the inside is octagonal . The basement was originally a kitchen , cellar and larder for the castle . The ground floor was initially designed to be a gun room , complete with gun embrasures , but was altered during the initial construction project to form living accommodation for the garrison instead . Another gun room occupies the first floor , with seven gun embrasures , and is dressed to appear as it would have done in the 16th century . The roof has seven gun embrasures and a lookout turret .
The polygonal gun platform around the keep has 16 sides , with a total of 14 gun embrasures . The two @-@ storey forebuilding dates from the second half of the 16th century , with three rooms on each level linked by a spiral @-@ staircase , and was originally used to house the captain of the castle . Its entrance was guarded with a portcullis , and the roof was designed to be defendable with handguns . The stone bridge that stretches across the ditch that protects the castle dates from 1902 ; it would originally have been protected at the front by a rectangular gatehouse , but this was demolished at the start of the 20th century .
The rest of the interior of the fortress was , at various times , occupied by a range of different military buildings , but they have mostly been demolished and grassed over to form a large parade ground . Among the surviving buildings are the Royal Garrison Artillery barracks , located to the north of the parade ground . Built between 1900 and 1902 , it could hold 140 soldiers in 12 man barrack @-@ rooms . Alongside the barracks are bungalows , originally for the use of senior non @-@ commissioned officers , a storehouse dating from the Napoleonic Wars , and two guard barracks from 1700 , which form a very early example of this form of military architecture in England . Other buildings that have survived include a 19th @-@ century field train shed , and an 18th @-@ century gunpowder magazine , since converted into a shelter for gunners .
= = = External defences = = =
Three defensive positions are positioned outside the main ramparts of the castle . To the south , reached by an underground passage , is the Half @-@ Moon Battery , constructed in 1793 and redesigned in 1895 and 1941 . This has two camouflaged gun houses and 6 @-@ inch guns dating from the Second World War , when it held a team of 99 soldiers . Further south , near the waterline , is the Little Dennis Blockhouse , a D @-@ shaped gun position dating from 1539 , altered in the 1540s and then adapted to form part of a larger fortification covering the whole of Pendennis Point in the late 16th century . Built from Killas rubble , the exterior of the blockhouse and its lookout turret still survive intact . Just along the shoreline to the north @-@ east is the Crab Quay Battery , a set of defences originating in the 16th century , intended to prevent an amphibious landing on the headland , and modernised extensively in 1902 .
= Château de Verteuil , Charente =
The Château de Verteuil is a historical building in Charente , France . It dates back to 1080 and has since been extensively rebuilt , although 12th century walls remain . The château has always been in the property of the La Rochefoucauld family .
During the Hundred Years ' War ( 1337 – 1453 ) the château was occupied several times by the English . It was demolished in 1442 , but was soon rebuilt using the original stones . In the religious wars of 16th and 17th centuries the château was a base for Huguenot forces , and in 1650 it was partly demolished by royal troops . Another château was erected but it received extensive damage in a fire in 1793 during the French Revolution . The château was renovated in the romantic style after the Bourbon Restoration of 1815 , and has been extensively modified since then . During World War II ( 1939 – 45 ) the château housed French troops and refugees from Alsace @-@ Lorraine in 1940 and for several months it was partially occupied by some German units . In 1944 some members of the maquis were hidden there . The château was listed as a monument historique on 31 March 1966 , and obtained full protection on 19 November 2010 .
The present château , designed on a triangular plan , has five conical towers and a watchtower capped by slate roofs . Archaeologists have uncovered traces of the older buildings on the site dating back to the 11th century . The architect Frantz Jourdain renovated the interior of the 14th century tower as a library for the Rochefoucault family in 1893 . The Hunt of the Unicorn tapestries of the building , which hung in the master bedroom , were rediscovered in 1850 ; they were later sold to John D. Rockefeller , Jr. in 1923 .
= = Location = =
The castle is in a strategic position , dominating the village of Verteuil @-@ sur @-@ Charente and the Charente valley . In the past it controlled the road from Limoges to La Rochelle , on the route between the courts of France and Spain . The word " Verteuil " was often used in the Middle Ages to designate a fortified place . Jean Froissart ( c . 1337 – 1405 ) described it as " un meult fort chasteau en Poictou sur les marches du Limousin et de la Saintonge " ( a strong castle in Poitou on the borders of Limousin and Saintonge ) . The château , a few miles north of Angoulême and in fact in Angoumois , was later used as the country seat of the La Rochefoucauld family .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
The Château de Verteuil is recorded in 1080 as the property of the Lord of La Rochefoucauld . Since then the castle has almost always belonged to a member of this family . The first recorded successful siege was in 1135 , by Count Wulgrin II of Angoulême ( c . 1089 – 1140 ) , when the castle belonged to Aymar II de la Rochefoucauld . Hostilities continued between their descendants , William VI of Angoulême ( died 1179 ) and Guy IV of la Rochefoucauld , but had ceased by 1170 when they both attended the dedication of the church of Saint @-@ Amant @-@ de @-@ Boixe . Louis VII of France ( 1120 – 80 ) and Eleanor of Aquitaine ( 1122 – 1204 ) may have stayed at Verteuil in 1137 . Eleanor 's mother was a Rochefoucauld , and due to the unsettled state of the country the young couple only stayed in safe and preferably well @-@ fortified places in their journey from Bordeaux to Paris .
King Philip VI of France ( 1293 – 1350 ) stayed at the castle in 1332 . Due to the Anglo @-@ French hostilities the castle was playing an increasingly important role . During the Hundred Years ' War the English were given the castle from 1360 to 1385 by the Treaty of Brétigny . The castle was yielded reluctantly to Edward III of England 's regent in France , John Chandos , on 25 October 1361 . He had brought the brother of the keeper to the castle and threatened to behead him unless there was an immediate capitulation . French troops commanded by the Duke of Bouillon and Geoffroy III of Rochefoucauld laid siege to the castle in 1380 , but it did not yield until five years later . The English later regained the castle , but in 1442 Charles VII of France ( 1403 – 61 ) finally captured it from the English .
The Rochefoucaulds , who had played a major role in the fight against the English , now began to ravish Angoulême . Charles VII returned , and this time destroyed the castle , largely by fire . However , the stones were recovered and the castle rebuilt . In 1446 the Rochefoucaulds managed to obtain the king 's pardon and permission to build a defensive wall and two towers in Verteuil to restore the traditional refuge of the villagers . Under this pretext they made the castle among the best defended in France . The walls were not just restored but also reinforced using the latest techniques .
François I de La Rochefoucauld ( died 1541 ) was the godfather of Francis I of France ( 1494 – 1547 ) , who visited Verteuil in 1516 . Anne de Polignac , widow of Count François II de la Rochefoucauld , received the Emperor Charles V ( 1500 – 1558 ) in Verteuil on 6 December 1539 . Her mother 's sister was the wife of the historian Philippe de Commines . She made many improvements to the château , and built the famous library . In 1558 King Henry II of France ( 1519 – 59 ) stayed at Verteuil with his son Charles , Duke of Orleans ( 1550 – 74 ) , and his daughter Elizabeth ( 1545 – 68 ) , the future wife of Philip II of Spain ( 1527 – 98 ) .
= = = Religious wars and Bourbon monarchy = = =
François III de La Rochefoucauld ( 1521 – 72 ) became brother @-@ in @-@ law of the Protestant Louis , Prince of Condé ( 1530 – 1569 ) , and in 1560 organized a meeting at Verteuil between Condé and the Cardinal Georges d 'Armagnac ( c . 1501 – 1585 ) legate of Pope Pius IV , in an attempt to prevent further conflict . Two years later François III had thrown in his lot with the Protestants . In 1567 the 6th national synod of the Reformed Church of France was held at the château , and the next year it was a rallying point for Huguenot troops that came to the aid of La Rochelle when it was besieged by Catholics . The château was visited by the future king Henry IV of France ( 1553 – 1610 ) , Catherine de ' Medici ( 1519 – 89 ) and her daughter , Margaret ( 1553 – 1615 ) , Louis XIII of France ( 1601 – 43 ) , Anne of Austria ( 1601 – 66 ) and the Queen Mother Marie de ' Medici ( 1575 – 1642 ) .
In 1650 François VI , Duc de La Rochefoucauld ( 1613 – 1680 ) gathered more than 2 @,@ 000 knights whom he led to Bordeaux to help the nobles in the second Fronde revolt . Soon after Charles de La Porte , Marshall of France and Duc de la Meilleraye ( 1602 – 64 ) attacked and took the castle with royal troops . He destroyed the Orangery and partially demolished the castle . The walls of the north wing were badly damaged , the towers dismantled , the drawbridge removed and the deep ditch that defended the northwest of the castle was partly filled . The castle remained habitable , and in 1651 was visited by the Prince de Conti , but he was forced to withdraw by soldiers of the Queen 's regiment . They installed a garrison of 150 men at Verteuil .
François VI was exiled by Louis XIV of France ( 1638 – 1715 ) after the revolt . In 1652 François VI returned to the Château de Verteuil , where he spent most of his time until 1659 writing his Mémoires . He was restored to favor in 1662 and in 1665 published his Maximes . François died in Paris in 1680 but was buried in the Franciscan chapel of Verteuil , which had been founded in 1470 by his ancestor , John , 16th lord of Rochefoucauld and 13th lord of Verteuil . All of John 's successors were buried in this chapel until the Reign of Terror began in 1793 .
There were some distinguished visitors during the reign of Louis XV of France ( 1710 – 1774 ) . Elisabeth Farnese ( 1692 – 1766 ) the second wife of Philip V of Spain ( 1683 – 1746 ) , spent time at Verteuil . The English agronomist Arthur Young in his account of a Journey to France in 1787 gave a detailed and flattering description of Verteuil , praising the agricultural improvements and the life of the population .
= = = French Revolution = = =
At the time of the outbreak of the French Revolution ( 1789 – 99 ) there were excellent relations between the La Rochefoucauld family and the people of Verteuil . According to Marquis de Amodio , nothing might have happened to the château if it had not been for Ruffec 's Committee of Public Safety and the Convention member Gilbert Romme , who is credited with burning most of the archives at Verteuil and thirty portraits . A fire accident occurred in 1793 that destroyed the large gallery that connected the chapel to the north tower , and the west face of the large central tower was seriously damaged . The fire spread along the roofs and turrets of the northwest wing , and the upper part of the north tower was also burned . The chapel was sacked , and the flames destroyed its facade and part of its north wall . The crypt was not damaged . Most of the floors and fireplaces in the château and all the doors , windows and woodwork were irreparably destroyed .
= = = Later years = = =
After the Revolution the senior branch of the Rochefoucauld family regained possession . The château was renovated in the first half of the 19th century . The work was undertaken by the La Villéons in the romantic style that accompanied the Bourbon Restoration after 1815 . They added decorations to the windows and made false arrow slots , added two towers to the south facade , added a flamboyant balustrade and dormer windows , and made changes to part of the chapel .
During the Second French Empire ( 1852 – 70 ) further changes were made , mainly to the interior . Hippolyte de La Rochefoucauld ( 1804 – 63 ) , who had been minister plenipotentiary in Germany and Florence , brought a fine collection of furniture and 18th century Venetian glass chandeliers when he retired . He restored the great stone staircase . Influenced by Eugène Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc he decided to transform the large East tower into a library . He blocked up the old openings and pierced large new windows in the old walls . He commissioned a copy of the statue by Didier Début on the facade of the Hôtel de Ville , Paris of the author of the Maximes .
During World War II ( 1939 – 45 ) the château housed French troops and refugees from Alsace @-@ Lorraine in 1940 . For several months it was partially occupied by some German units . In 1944 some members of the maquis were hidden there . Various extremely interesting archaeological finds have been made since the war . Research started by Count Gabriel de La Rochefoucauld , which had been interrupted by the war , uncovered a buried part of the castle dating to the 12th and 13th centuries , including the room that housed the drawbridge mechanism . A 12th century stairway was discovered that led down to a lower chapel from the 11th century , in excellent condition , whose existence was completely unknown before 1958 . Various other traces of the early buildings have been found .
The château was listed as a monument historique on 31 March 1966 , with the facades , roofs and substructure protected . The site was completely protected on 19 November 2010 as it was believed that the château , the interior courtyard and the land to the north may hold archaeological remains .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The present château with its five conical towers and watchtower capped by slate roofs began to be built in the 15th century , and was altered and extended several times since then . A park was built in the 19th century through which a wide driveway brought visitors to the main building . This is based on a central square tower with a pyramidal roof . The square keep is the main remaining part of the medieval structure . The present building is designed on a triangular plan . The large tower at the tip of the triangle is the medieval gatehouse , from which wings extend on either side . An isolated tower that now has the library on two floors divides the curtain wall on the east .
The buildings in the southeast were scarcely affected by the 19th century restoration apart from the chapel . Many of the walls of the 12th century tower have survived , partly rebuilt in the 15th century , and there are traces of a Romanesque chapel . The park was redesigned in the 19th century , enclosed in dry stone walls with several entrances . These have since been removed , as have the luxuriant gardens of the 18th century . Some traces remain in the form of boxwood , some alleys , the pools on the two terraces and the rockery .
= = = Interior = = =
An inventory was made in 1728 after the death of Duke Francois VIII . The library contained 1 @,@ 069 works . The master bedroom included an elegant bed with sumptuous fittings of violet velvet embroidered in gold and silver , armchairs upholstered in the same velvet , a large Turkish rug in an alcove , a walnut table and other items . The architect Frantz Jourdain renovated the interior of the 14th century tower as a library for the Rochefoucault family in 1893 . He designed it as a " chapelle intellectuelle " to display memorabilia of the famous author . Adrien Karbowsky contributed decorative murals to the room . Hippolyte 's son , Count Aimery de La Rochefoucauld continued to collect the souvenirs of his ancestors , turning the château into a sort of family museum . He redecorated the chapel and added stained glass windows .
= = The Hunt of the Unicorn Tapestries = =
Seven of The Hunt of the Unicorn tapestries were recorded in a 1680 inventory of the Paris possessions of Duke Francois VI . From various symbolic motifs the tapestries seem to have been made to celebrate a marriage , probably that of Anne of Brittany ( 1477 – 1514 ) and Louis XII of France ( 1462 – 1515 ) . The royal arms of Louis and Anne would have once decorated the sky in most of the tapestries . The 1728 inventory recorded five of The Hunt of the Unicorn tapestries hanging in the château 's master bedroom . The tapestries , which were well over two hundred years old , were almost half worn out . Two more of the tapestries were in " a large lower hall near the chapel , presently serving as a storage place for furniture . " They were described as " two pieces of tapestry of the Unicorn , torn in various places . "
During the French Revolution Ruffec 's Comité de Surveillance ruled that the old tapestries of the château could be preserved , since they bore no royal insignia . It seems that the insignia had been cut out so the tapestries would not be destroyed by the mob when the château was looted in 1793 . They were taken by peasants who used them to protect their potatoes from freezing and to cover their Espalier trees . Count Hippolyte rediscovered the Unicorn tapestries of the château in the 1850s , being used by a peasant to cover vegetables in his barn . After being restored they were hung in a salon of the château in 1856 . Xavier Barbier de Montault saw the tapestries at Verteuil in the 1880s , and said that although " somewhat restored , [ they ] are of a freshness and of an incomparable grace " . In 1923 the tapestries were sold to John D. Rockefeller Jr. and shipped to New York .
= Jim Gilmore presidential campaign , 2008 =
The presidential campaign of Jim Gilmore was notable as much for its shortness as its inimitable episodes . The former Governor of Virginia and Chairman of the Republican National Committee was drafted successfully to run by his peers in January 2007 , and officially began the campaign in April after filing papers with the Federal Elections Commission . Gilmore was committed to conservative principles throughout his run , which ultimately ended in July 2007 due to a lack of sufficient funding . The campaign led to Gilmore 's decision to run in the 2008 Virginia Senatorial race , which he lost to Democrat Mark Warner .
= = Early stages = =
In August 2006 , an effort arose to convince Jim Gilmore to run for president of the United States in 2008 . The volunteers cited Gilmore 's past experiences as qualifications for the job including his service as a counter @-@ intelligence officer for the U.S. army , his post of attorney general of Virginia , his services as chairman of the Gilmore Commission and the National Council on Readiness and Preparedness , as well as his role as president of the non @-@ profit homeland security think @-@ tank USA Secure .
Gilmore decided to listen to the draft efforts , and weighed a possible presidential run when he became the sixth Republican to enact an exploratory committee on January 10 , 2007 . During his announcement , Gilmore cast himself as a " mainstream Reagan conservative that has always kept his promises " alluding to his record of tax cuts as Governor of Virginia .
On March 14 , Gilmore attended his first forum along with other , mostly Democratic presidential candidates . The meeting addressed the International Association of Fire Fighters labor union . Gilmore discussed how his policies as president would " be supportive of the troops " in Iraq and Afghanistan , and that he agreed with the policy for a troop surge in Iraq . Gilmore received no applause from the crowd after making the latter comment .
Later in March , Gilmore was interviewed by the Associated Press where he affirmed his pro @-@ life , pro @-@ gun , and anti @-@ tax positions on the issues . He stated that " The moment is there for a candidacy such as mine " while criticizing the frontrunners for the Republican nomination for their views . He stated that Arizona Senator John McCain " hasn 't made his reputation as a conservative " , he reminded his audience that former New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani is " for gun control , ... gay marriage , ... [ and is ] pro @-@ choice " and described former Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney as a " very liberal Northeast Republican " . At the end of March , it was revealed that Gilmore had raised $ 200 @,@ 000 for his exploratory committee .
Early in April , Gilmore coined the term " Rudy McRomney " to describe the three Republican frontrunners , whom he labeled as liberals during a forum in Des Moines , Iowa . On April 16 , ten days prior to his official announcement , polling results revealed that Gilmore hovered between 1 % and 2 % support among the Republican electorate . A Washington Post @-@ ABC News poll found that Gilmore was in twelfth place among Republicans with 1 % of participants , compared to 0 % in February and 1 % in January . Somewhat promising results showed that among Newt Gingrich supporters , Gilmore had 2 % support ; up from 0 % in February .
= = Campaign developments = =
On April 26 , 2007 , Gilmore announced his candidacy for president via webcast on his campaign website . He described this method of communication as the " wave of the future " through which he could " talk directly to the people as [ he ] develop [ ed ] the campaign . " Gilmore stated that as a dark horse candidate it would be beneficial for him to take advantage of the internet as a campaign tool to reach larger audiences without the cost associated with travel .
On May 3 , Gilmore participated in the first televised GOP debate featured on MSNBC at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley , California . The first question he received regarded the Iraq War , which he defended , stating that it represented the " entire Middle East issue " which he described as a " fundamental problem " that he connected to the conflict between Palestinians and Israelis . During an exchange with California Representative Duncan Hunter , Gilmore expressed the responsibility to capture Osama bin Laden and to fight terrorism with the help from allies and to use diplomacy to end the " sea of hostility " that he believed existed from " Morocco , all the way through the Middle East , [ and ] all the way to the Philippines . " Later in the debate , he announced his disagreement with a possible constitutional amendment to give naturalized citizens such as California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger , the ability to run for president . On abortion , Gilmore confirmed his support for a woman 's right to an abortion in the first eight to twelve weeks of pregnancy , but commented that he operated as a pro @-@ life governor . He affirmed his opposition to stem @-@ cell research . At the end of the debate , Gilmore asserted his attributes as a " consistent Conservative " while surprising many when he stated that he would not pardon Scooter Libby . He established his opposition to a National Identification Card , and highlighted the need to be " vigorous on the war on terror " , focus on homeland security , and become energy independent in the next presidency .
Gilmore participated in his second debate on May 15 in South Carolina broadcast by Fox News . His first question concerned the perceived growing threat of a nuclear armed Iran . Gilmore thanked the questioner on the basis that he believed the " Middle East issue " should be looked at beyond Iraq . He stated that as president he would join with American allies to put " serious mandatory sanctions " on the regime to let them know " that it is better for them to give up this sort of plan ( Nuclear proliferation ) . " After receiving a question about Social Security , Gilmore changed the subject to address his record of cutting taxes as Governor of Virginia . He would later attack fellow candidates : Rudy Giuliani for his pro @-@ choice positions , former Arkansas Governor Mike Huckabee for his record on taxes , and Mitt Romney for his position on health care . When asked about potential terrorist attacks , Gilmore reminded the audience that he was governor when The Pentagon was attacked on 9 / 11 and that he has " the experience to deal with these issues . " At the end of the debate , Gilmore addressed the issue of race when asked why no minorities where present on the stage running for the presidency , he reacted to this question by declaring that the Republican Party has " people that are prepared to [ run ] in the immediate future " . He also cited his own credentials on race stating that as attorney general of Virginia he faced the issue when he had to deal with the burning of African @-@ American churches , which gave him a good standing with the African @-@ American community in his own judgment .
On May 18 , Gilmore appeared on the MSNBC program Tucker , hosted by Tucker Carlson . When alerted about the situation in Iraq , Gilmore made the assessment that when Iraq was invaded the president probably did not think American troops would be trying to control the streets in Baghdad at this point . He stated that it is in the interest of Americans to remain in Iraq and be involved in the " Middle East issue " because if not , America is " going to end up with a major war " . Later in the interview when Gilmore was asked if he believed Attorney General Alberto Gonzales was credible , he stated , " No , I don ’ t think he is particularly credible " . On May 27 , Gilmore appeared on ABC 's This Week and continued the strategy of attacking his opponents in the race for president . On the show , he criticized the credentials of former Senator and potential candidate Fred Thompson of Tennessee . He reminded the audience that Thompson is " a one @-@ term senator " and that " he 's well known because of his Law & Order appearance . But the question is , is there a solid , consistent record there of supporting conservative principles ? "
Gilmore participated in his final debate on June 5 in Goffstown , New Hampshire telecast by CNN . During this debate , Gilmore spoke less than all of his nine fellow candidates . After Kansas Senator Sam Brownback stated that he did not read the National Intelligence Estimate on weapons of mass destruction in Iraq prior to his vote to authorize the 2003 invasion of Iraq , Gilmore stated that those " who are responsible for sending this country to war ... ought to read at least that kind of material " . When asked if he had a problem with oil companies making a profit , Gilmore stated that he saw no problems with it and that he believed this was " an appropriate thing to do . " He later confirmed his opposition to the Kyoto Protocol because it " was going to basically just transfer money directly to Russia for nothing " and that it must include " every nation of the world in this entire project ... includ [ ing ] China and India " to meet his approval . But at the end of the debate when asked if he believed a conservative could include conservationist principles , he answered that he believed it could be a part of the platform because " energy independence ... is a national security issue " which serves the interests of Conservatives by preserving a " clean society that is also safe and secure for the nation . "
On June 17 , Gilmore was featured as the spotlight guest on CNN . He discussed economic policies of the Bush Administration that he disagreed with including " the prescription drug program " , but he applauded the president 's record on cutting taxes and stated that the handling of the economy was " not the source of the president 's unpopularity . " He assessed that " there are other areas " that have caused the low polling numbers including " the Iraq war " . He confirmed that he was " very uncomfortable with " the handling of the war , but strongly disagreed with some Democratic leaders who called for a timetable for withdrawal . He argued that these politicians were " not taking the best interest of this country ( The United States ) into effect . "
Later in June , Fox News did a report on the families of the candidates running for President . Jim Gilmore 's family was described as being busy with school and employment , limiting them from full @-@ time campaigning . Two of the candidate 's sons , Ashton and Jay were examined for the report . Ashton Gilmore worked full @-@ time for his father 's campaign headquarters , and Jay Gilmore worked in Washington and was only able to campaign as his schedule allowed . In election polling , unpromising results surfaced for the Gilmore campaign . In a CNN / Opinion Research Corporation poll , Gilmore failed to register half a percentage point among Republican voters . A grimmer portrait was painted for the campaign when end of the month finances revealed it was nearly broke with only $ 61 @,@ 765 cash on hand from the $ 391 @,@ 693 that had been raised overall .
Early in July , Gilmore was rushed to the emergency room after suffering from vision problems . He was immediately hospitalized and compelled to undergo surgery after he was diagnosed with a detached retina . Gilmore 's campaign was stalled as the candidate was ordered by doctors to restrict travel for an indefinite period . The doctors revealed that Gilmore 's vision problems could have deteriorated to the loss of eyesight .
On July 14 , Gilmore ended his campaign citing a late start , which " made it impractical to continue to pursue this path towards further public service " . The withdrawal was tied to a lack of funds and his diagnosis of a detached retina , which cut short at least a week of scheduled campaign appearances . In his final address of the campaign , Gilmore stated :
= = Campaign staff = =
Gilmore selected Kieran Mahoney to serve as the national consultant of the campaign . He was employed as the managing partner of Mercury Public Affairs , and worked on Bob Dole 's presidential campaign in 1996 , George Pataki 's three gubernatorial runs and Al D 'Amato 's 1992 Senatorial campaign .
Tom Bunnell served as Gilmore 's deputy campaign manager . He previously served as the campaign manager for Conrad Burns ' unsuccessful 2006 Senatorial re @-@ election campaign and worked as the political director for Oliver North 's 1994 Senatorial run .
Gilmore 's policy director was Dick Leggitt who previously served as the consultant on Gilmore 's 1997 gubernatorial campaign . Director of Administrative Affairs was Egan Crover , who was formally a Legislative Aide to Maryland Senator Richard F. Colburn . Danny Adams served as Gilmore 's treasurer , and Boyd Marcus and Christian Josi both served as consultants for the campaign . Marcus worked on George Allen 's 1991 congressional campaign , and served as the Virginia state coordinator for President George H.W. Bush 's 1988 presidential campaign . Josi worked on Dan Quayle 's 1999 campaign for president and Gilmore 's 1997 gubernatorial run . Troy Bishop served as the Iowa campaign director for Gilmore 's campaign .
= = Endorsements = =
Former Treasury Secretary John W. Snow
Former Congressional candidate Paul Jost
= = Aftermath = =
Following his presidential campaign , Gilmore announced on November 19 , 2007 that he had begun a campaign to fill the United States Senate seat of retiring Republican Senator John Warner in his homestate of Virginia . In his four @-@ minute announcement video , Gilmore stated that the Senatorial race " is going to be a campaign about national security , about transportation , about education and about illegal immigration . " His Democratic challenger was former Virginia Governor Mark Warner who was previously mentioned as a potential candidate for president in 2008 . Gilmore would later lose the race to Warner in a landslide .
On February 9 , 2008 , Gilmore endorsed presumptive Republican Party nominee John McCain for the presidency . In a statement , Gilmore described McCain as " a proven conservative leader with a track record of cutting taxes , eliminating wasteful government spending , upholding our traditional values and promoting a strong national defense . "
= John F. Bolt =
John Franklin Bolt ( 19 May 1921 – 8 September 2004 ) was a United States Marine Corps aviator and a decorated flying ace who served during World War II and the Korean War . He remains the only U.S. Marine to achieve ace status in two wars and was also the only Marine jet fighter ace . He rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel during his military career .
Born to a poor family in Laurens , South Carolina , Bolt was a self @-@ described " workaholic " and was involved in numerous groups and social activities throughout his life . After dropping out of the University of Florida for financial reasons in 1941 , he joined the US Navy and trained as a Marine Corps pilot . Sent to the Pacific Theater of Operations , he flew an F4U Corsair during the campaigns in the Marshall Islands and New Guinea , claiming six victories against Japanese A6M Zeros .
Bolt continued his service through the Korean War , entering combat through an exchange program with the United States Air Force ( USAF ) in late 1952 . Over a period of several weeks in mid @-@ 1953 , he led flights of F @-@ 86 Sabres into combat with MiG @-@ 15s of the Chinese Air Force , scoring six victories during fights along the northern border of North Korea , commonly known as " MiG Alley , " giving him a total of 12 victories over his career .
Bolt stayed in the Marine Corps until 1962 , serving as an analyst and instructor in his later career , before retiring and earning a Juris Doctor degree from the University of Florida . He subsequently settled down in Florida and began a private real estate law practice ; he continued to be active in law until 1991 . He died from leukemia in 2004 .
= = Early years = =
John Bolt was born on 19 May 1921 in Laurens , South Carolina , to Thomas Crews Bolt and Brucie Bolt ( née Bagwell ) . John had a younger brother , Bruce . In 1924 the family moved to Sanford , Florida . In his youth , John Bolt gained the nickname " Jack " from his friends and family . His family was poor and he was for the most part responsible for providing his own clothes and social expenses from the time he was ten years old . He worked several part @-@ time jobs , at one point working 30 to 40 hours a week at a local creamery in addition to attending school . He also enrolled in the Boy Scouts , eventually attaining the rank of Star Scout .
In June 1939 , Bolt began attending Seminole High School . Described as modest and hardworking by his high school classmates , he was elected class president in his final two years in school .
Bolt attended the University of Florida , majoring in accounting and meeting most of the costs himself using money that he had saved while working through high school . He joined Phi Eta Sigma , an honor society and professional fraternity , and Alpha Tau Omega , a social fraternity . In 1941 , his brother Bruce also enrolled at Florida , straining the family 's expenses ; John dropped out after his second year so that his brother could complete his degree . Bolt enlisted in the Marine Corps Reserve in April 1941 to train as a pilot , but deferred his training when the Marine Corps offered him the chance to finish college and attend law school , paying him US $ 500 a year to do so .
= = World War II = =
Bolt left for basic training in June 1941 . Though he intended to join the US Marine Corps , he signed up for the US Navy Flight Training Program , which would allow him to fly for the Marines . On completion of his basic training in November 1941 , he was selected as a pilot , and moved to Naval Air Station Atlanta , Georgia in February 194
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been caused by comets . A recent collision of a comet with a planet occurred in July 1994 when Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 broke up into pieces and collided with Jupiter .
= = Nomenclature = =
The names given to comets have followed several different conventions over the past two centuries . Prior to the early 20th century , most comets were simply referred to by the year when they appeared , sometimes with additional adjectives for particularly bright comets ; thus , the " Great Comet of 1680 " , the " Great Comet of 1882 " , and the " Great January Comet of 1910 " .
After Edmund Halley demonstrated that the comets of 1531 , 1607 , and 1682 were the same body and successfully predicted its return in 1759 by calculating its orbit , that comet became known as Halley 's Comet . Similarly , the second and third known periodic comets , Encke 's Comet and Biela 's Comet , were named after the astronomers who calculated their orbits rather than their original discoverers . Later , periodic comets were usually named after their discoverers , but comets that had appeared only once continued to be referred to by the year of their apparition .
In the early 20th century , the convention of naming comets after their discoverers became common , and this remains so today . A comet can be named after its discoverers , or an instrument or program that helped to find it .
= = History of study = =
= = = Early observations and thought = = =
From ancient sources , such as Chinese oracle bones , it is known that their appearances have been noticed by humans for millennia . Until the sixteenth century , comets were usually considered bad omens of deaths of kings or noble men , or coming catastrophes , or even interpreted as attacks by heavenly beings against terrestrial inhabitants .
Aristotle believed that comets were atmospheric phenomena , due to the fact that they could appear outside of the Zodiac and vary in brightness over the course of a few days . Pliny the Elder believed that comets were connected with political unrest and death .
In the 16th century Tycho Brahe demonstrated that comets must exist outside the Earth 's atmosphere by measuring the parallax of the Great Comet of 1577 from observations collected by geographically separated observers . Within the precision of the measurements , this implied the comet must be at least four times more distant than from the Earth to the Moon .
= = = Orbital studies = = =
Isaac Newton , in his Principia Mathematica of 1687 , proved that an object moving under the influence of his inverse square law of universal gravitation must trace out an orbit shaped like one of the conic sections , and he demonstrated how to fit a comet 's path through the sky to a parabolic orbit , using the comet of 1680 as an example .
In 1705 , Edmond Halley ( 1656 – 1742 ) applied Newton 's method to twenty @-@ three cometary apparitions that had occurred between 1337 and 1698 . He noted that three of these , the comets of 1531 , 1607 , and 1682 , had very similar orbital elements , and he was further able to account for the slight differences in their orbits in terms of gravitational perturbation by Jupiter and Saturn . Confident that these three apparitions had been three appearances of the same comet , he predicted that it would appear again in 1758 – 9 . Halley 's predicted return date was later refined by a team of three French mathematicians : Alexis Clairaut , Joseph Lalande , and Nicole @-@ Reine Lepaute , who predicted the date of the comet 's 1759 perihelion to within one month 's accuracy . When the comet returned as predicted , it became known as Halley 's Comet ( with the latter @-@ day designation of 1P / Halley ) . It will next appear in 2061 .
= = = Studies of physical characteristics = = =
Isaac Newton described comets as compact and durable solid bodies moving in oblique orbit and their tails as thin streams of vapor emitted by their nuclei , ignited or heated by the Sun . Newton suspected that comets were the origin of the life @-@ supporting component of air .
As early as the 18th century , some scientists had made correct hypotheses as to comets ' physical composition . In 1755 , Immanuel Kant hypothesized that comets are composed of some volatile substance , whose vaporization gives rise to their brilliant displays near perihelion . In 1836 , the German mathematician Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel , after observing streams of vapor during the appearance of Halley 's Comet in 1835 , proposed that the jet forces of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet 's orbit , and he argued that the non @-@ gravitational movements of Encke 's Comet resulted from this phenomenon .
In 1950 , Fred Lawrence Whipple proposed that rather than being rocky objects containing some ice , comets were icy objects containing some dust and rock . This " dirty snowball " model soon became accepted and appeared to be supported by the observations of an armada of spacecraft ( including the European Space Agency 's Giotto probe and the Soviet Union 's Vega 1 and Vega 2 ) that flew through the coma of Halley 's Comet in 1986 , photographed the nucleus , and observed jets of evaporating material .
On 22 January 2014 , ESA scientists reported the detection , for the first definitive time , of water vapor on the dwarf planet Ceres , the largest object in the asteroid belt . The detection was made by using the far @-@ infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory . The finding is unexpected because comets , not asteroids , are typically considered to " sprout jets and plumes " . According to one of the scientists , " The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids . " On 11 August 2014 , astronomers released studies , using the Atacama Large Millimeter / Submillimeter Array ( ALMA ) for the first time , that detailed the distribution of HCN , HNC , H
2CO , and dust inside the comae of comets C / 2012 F6 ( Lemmon ) and C / 2012 S1 ( ISON ) .
= = = Spacecraft missions = = =
The Halley Armada describes the collection of spacecraft missions that visited and / or made observations of Halley 's Comet 1980s perihelion .
Deep Impact . Debate continues about how much ice is in a comet . In 2001 , the Deep Space 1 spacecraft obtained high @-@ resolution images of the surface of Comet Borrelly . It was found that the surface of comet Borrelly is hot and dry , with a temperature of between 26 to 71 ° C ( 79 to 160 ° F ) , and extremely dark , suggesting that the ice has been removed by solar heating and maturation , or is hidden by the soot @-@ like material that covers Borrelly 's . In July 2005 , the Deep Impact probe blasted a crater on Comet Tempel 1 to study its interior . The mission yielded results suggesting that the majority of a comet 's water ice is below the surface and that these reservoirs feed the jets of vaporised water that form the coma of Tempel 1 . Renamed EPOXI , it made a flyby of Comet Hartley 2 on 4 November 2010 .
Stardust . Data from the Stardust mission show that materials retrieved from the tail of Wild 2 were crystalline and could only have been " born in fire , " at extremely high temperatures of over 1 @,@ 000 ° C ( 1 @,@ 830 ° F ) . Although comets formed in the outer Solar System , radial mixing of material during the early formation of the Solar System is thought to have redistributed material throughout the proto @-@ planetary disk , so comets also contain crystalline grains that formed in the hot inner Solar System . This is seen in comet spectra as well as in sample return missions . More recent still , the materials retrieved demonstrate that the " comet dust resembles asteroid materials " . These new results have forced scientists to rethink the nature of comets and their distinction from asteroids .
Rosetta . The Rosetta probe is presently in erratic orbit around Comet Churyumov – Gerasimenko . On 12 November 2014 , its lander Philae successfully landed on the comet 's surface , the first time a spacecraft has ever landed on such an object in history .
= = = Great comets = = =
Approximately once a decade , a comet becomes bright enough to be noticed by a casual observer , leading such comets to be designated as great comets . Predicting whether a comet will become a great comet is notoriously difficult , as many factors may cause a comet 's brightness to depart drastically from predictions . Broadly speaking , if a comet has a large and active nucleus , will pass close to the Sun , and is not obscured by the Sun as seen from the Earth when at its brightest , it has a chance of becoming a great comet . However , Comet Kohoutek in 1973 fulfilled all the criteria and was expected to become spectacular but failed to do so . Comet West , which appeared three years later , had much lower expectations but became an extremely impressive comet .
The late 20th century saw a lengthy gap without the appearance of any great comets , followed by the arrival of two in quick succession — Comet Hyakutake in 1996 , followed by Hale – Bopp , which reached maximum brightness in 1997 having been discovered two years earlier . The first great comet of the 21st century was C / 2006 P1 ( McNaught ) , which became visible to naked eye observers in January 2007 . It was the brightest in over 40 years .
= = = Sungrazing comets = = =
A sungrazing comet is a comet that passes extremely close to the Sun at perihelion , generally within a few million kilometres . Although small sungrazers can be completely evaporated during such a close approach to the Sun , larger sungrazers can survive many perihelion passages . However , the strong tidal forces they experience often lead to their fragmentation .
About 90 % of the sungrazers observed with SOHO are members of the Kreutz group , which all originate from one giant comet that broke up into many smaller comets during its first passage through the inner Solar System . The remainder contains some sporadic sungrazers , but four other related groups of comets have been identified among them : the Kracht , Kracht 2a , Marsden , and Meyer groups . The Marsden and Kracht groups both appear to be related to Comet 96P / Machholz , which is also the parent of two meteor streams , the Quadrantids and the Arietids .
= = = Unusual comets = = =
Of the thousands of known comets , some exhibit unusual properties . Comet Encke ( 2P / Encke ) orbits from outside the asteroid belt to just inside the orbit of the planet Mercury whereas the Comet 29P / Schwassmann – Wachmann currently travels in a nearly circular orbit entirely between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn . 2060 Chiron , whose unstable orbit is between Saturn and Uranus , was originally classified as an asteroid until a faint coma was noticed . Similarly , Comet Shoemaker – Levy 2 was originally designated asteroid 1990 UL3 . ( See also Fate of comets . )
= = = Centaurs = = =
Centaurs typically behave with characteristics of both asteroids and comets . Centaurs can be classified as comets such as 60558 Echeclus , and 166P / NEAT . 166P / NEAT was discovered while it exhibited a coma , and so is classified as a comet despite its orbit , and 60558 Echeclus was discovered without a coma but later became active , and was then classified as both a comet and an asteroid ( 174P / Echeclus ) . One plan for Cassini involved sending it to a centaur , but NASA decided to destroy it instead .
= = Observation = =
A comet may be discovered photographically using a wide @-@ field telescope or visually with binoculars . However , even without access to optical equipment , it is still possible for the amateur astronomer to discover a sungrazing comet online by downloading images accumulated by some satellite observatories such as SOHO . SOHO 's 2000th comet was discovered by Polish amateur astronomer Michał Kusiak on 26 December 2010 and both discoverers of Hale @-@ Bopp used amateur equipment ( although Hale was not an amateur ) .
= = = Lost = = =
A number of periodic comets discovered in earlier decades or previous centuries are now lost comets . Their orbits were never known well enough to predict future appearances or the comets have disintegrated . However , occasionally a " new " comet is discovered , and calculation of its orbit shows it to be an old " lost " comet . An example is Comet 11P / Tempel – Swift – LINEAR , discovered in 1869 but unobservable after 1908 because of perturbations by Jupiter . It was not found again until accidentally rediscovered by LINEAR in 2001 . There are at least 18 comets that fit this category .
= = Gallery = =
Videos
= = In popular culture = =
The depiction of comets in popular culture is firmly rooted in the long Western tradition of seeing comets as harbingers of doom and as omens of world @-@ altering change . Halley 's Comet alone has caused a slew of sensationalist publications of all sorts at each of its reappearances . It was especially noted that the birth and death of some notable persons coincided with separate appearances of the comet , such as with writers Mark Twain ( who correctly speculated that he 'd " go out with the comet " in 1910 ) and Eudora Welty , to whose life Mary Chapin Carpenter dedicated the song " Halley Came to Jackson " .
In times past , bright comets often inspired panic and hysteria in the general population , being thought of as bad omens . More recently , during the passage of Halley 's Comet in 1910 , the Earth passed through the comet 's tail , and erroneous newspaper reports inspired a fear that cyanogen in the tail might poison millions , whereas the appearance of Comet Hale – Bopp in 1997 triggered the mass suicide of the Heaven 's Gate cult .
In science fiction , the impact of comets has been depicted as a threat overcome by technology and heroism ( Deep Impact , 1998 and Armageddon , 1998 ) , or as a trigger of global apocalypse ( Lucifer 's Hammer , 1979 ) or zombies ( Night of the Comet , 1984 ) . In Jules Verne 's Off on a Comet a group of people are stranded on a comet orbiting the Sun , while a large manned space expedition visits Halley 's Comet in Sir Arthur C. Clarke 's novel 2061 : Odyssey Three .
= Mississippi Highway 350 =
Mississippi Highway 350 ( MS 350 ) is a highway in extreme northern Mississippi . Its western terminus is at MS 2 near Corinth . The road travels near the Tennessee state line to its eastern terminus at MS 25 . The route was designated in 1981 , and no significant changes have been made since .
= = Route description = =
MS 350 is located in northeastern Alcorn and northern Tishomingo counties . In 2012 , Mississippi Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) calculated as many as 2 @,@ 900 vehicles traveling east of County Road 159 ( CR 159 ) , and as few as 1 @,@ 500 vehicles traveling east of CR 363 . All of the road is maintained by MDOT . MS 350 is not included as a part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation . MS 350 is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 .
MS 350 starts at a T @-@ intersection with MS 2 and travels eastward . The route goes through small groups of trees , and turns northeast east of CR 154 . The road enters a larger forest and curves back east two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) later . There , MS 350 was less than 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) from the Tennessee state line . The two @-@ lane road intersects a few roads leading to the state border , such as Kendrick Road . MS 350 soon enters Tishomingo County , curving around some hills . It remains parallel from the state line , until at CR 375 , where it starts to travel southeast . The route temporarily travels east at CR 355 , before heading southeast again . MS 350 ends about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , at a T @-@ intersection with MS 25 .
= = History = =
In 1974 , a paved road was built from MS 2 to the Alcorn – Tishomingo county line . It was later extended to MS 25 in 1981 , and was designated as MS 350 in the same year . No significant changes have been made to the route since .
= = Major intersections = =
= Edward Milford =
Major General Edward James Milford CB , CBE , DSO ( 10 December 1894 – 10 June 1972 ) was an Australian Army officer who fought in the First and the Second World Wars .
Born in Melbourne , Milford graduated from the Royal Military College in 1915 . Commissioned as a lieutenant in the Australian Imperial Force , he served with the Field Artillery of the 2nd Division for most of the First World War . Remaining in the military for the interwar period , he held a number of postings in ordnance and artillery in Australia and England . During the early years of the Second World War , he served as master @-@ general of the ordnance . He later commanded the 5th and 7th Divisions during the New Guinea and Borneo campaigns . He accepted the surrender of Japanese forces in Dutch Borneo on 8 September 1945 . He retired from the army in 1948 , due to an illness which was later found to be a misdiagnosis , and died in 1972 at the age of 77 .
= = Early life = =
Milford was born to immigrants from England on 10 December 1894 in Melbourne . He attended Wesley College and then in 1913 , encouraged by his headmaster , entered the Royal Military College at Duntroon .
= = Military career = =
= = = First World War = = =
Following graduation from Duntroon in 1915 , Milford was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) and was assigned to the 4th Field Artillery Brigade , 2nd Division . Serving initially in the Middle East , he was posted to the Western Front in March 1916 . He held regimental and staff positions until being wounded in September 1917 , by which time he had been promoted to major . His wounds were such that he was evacuated to England for treatment . Upon recovery , he returned to the 4th Field Artillery Brigade . In command of the 11th Battery from February 1918 , he was recommended and awarded the Distinguished Service Order as well as a mention in despatches for his efforts in controlling artillery support during operations on the Somme and the Battle of Amiens .
= = = Interwar period = = =
Milford opted to undertake training in ordnance in England after the war , and also became married at this time . He held a number of ordnance related postings in both England and Australia , and attended the British Army Staff College at Camberley . He served for a time as chairman of the Resource Committee dedicated to " hardware , general stores and clothing " ( there were seven such committees , each dedicated to a specific area of defence resources ) , which reported to the Defence Resources Board . At the time of the outbreak of the Second World War , he was director of artillery at Army headquarters in Melbourne , where he had been posted for four years .
= = = Second World War = = =
In March 1940 , Milford was assigned to the newly formed 7th Division as commander of the division 's artillery , one of a number of officers from the Staff Corps appointed to the division . He traveled to the Middle East in October but was destined to spend only a few weeks in his position before being recalled to Australia in January 1941 to take up the post of master @-@ general of the ordnance . He was also promoted to temporary major general , the first Duntroon graduate to reach the rank of general . In his new appointment , he was tasked with co @-@ ordination of private and government manufacturers and producers to provide logistic support for Australia 's soldiers , both at home and overseas . He was also involved with a committee investigating the supply requirements of each of the services and the available resources , as well as the development of new weapons . When the Owen gun , an Australian designed and manufactured submachine gun , was brought to his attention , he initially favoured the use of the Sten , even though it proved to be less reliable than the Owen .
= = = = New Guinea campaign = = = =
In 1942 , Milford was commander of the 5th Division , then based in Queensland and intended for operations against the Japanese Empire . He landed with elements of his division at Milne Bay on the eastern tip of New Guinea on 14 January 1943 and began operations on nearby Goodenough Island . The island had recently been captured from the Japanese but only a small Australian garrison was present to guard against any attempt by the enemy to take it back . Dummy buildings and fortifications were built to give the Japanese the impression that the Australian presence on Goodenough was greater than it actually was , and may have deterred them from attempting to retake the island . By April the Japanese threat to Goodenough had receded and an air strip was under construction .
In late August 1943 , the 5th Division moved to the Morobe Province of New Guinea to replace the 3rd Division , which was then participating in the Salamaua – Lae campaign . Milford was tasked with continuing offensive operations against the Japanese around Salamaua to divert resources away from the nearby Japanese base in the town of Lae . Once the neighbouring 9th Division commenced their attack to capture Lae on 4 September by landing east of the town to begin an encircling movement , the 5th Division moved to take Salamaua , which eventually fell to the Australians on 11 September .
Salamaua was intended to become a large base for the Allied forces in the region , but when Lieutenant General Edmund Herring inspected the area immediately following its capture it was deemed not suitable . Instead , Herring directed Milford to establish the base at newly captured Lae . Milford supervised the construction of roads and supply depots of the " Lae Fortress " until 3 November , when he was made general staff officer of the New Guinea Force ( NGF ) . He would be recommended for an appointment as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his leadership and service in Lae and with the NGF .
= = = = Borneo campaign = = = =
In July 1944 , he succeeded his friend ( and fellow Duntroon classmate ) Major General George Vasey as commander of the 7th Division . The division had been resting and refitting in Australia since its withdrawal in early 1944 from New Guinea following the Ramu Valley campaign , which had been conducted in the aftermath of the capture of Lae .
In early 1945 , planning was underway for Operation Oboe Two , an amphibious assault to capture Balikpapan , a seaport on Borneo . The 9th Division was originally designated for the operation , but in April it was decided to utilise the 7th Division instead , and it duly embarked from Cairns to Morotai , the staging post for the assault . Operation Oboe Two would transpire to be the largest amphibious operation mounted by the Australian military . Despite opposition from the American naval commanders providing support for the operation , Milford decided to land his forces at Klandasan , a southern suburb of Balikpapan which although heavily defended , had suitable beaches for landing troops . By landing at Klandasan , Milford hoped to achieve tactical surprise and anticipated fire support from the United States Navy would help counter the coastal defences of the Japanese . The battle of Balikpapan began on 1 July with a naval barrage of the landing area , supported by bombers of the Royal Australian Air Force , with the division landing relatively unopposed by mid morning . By 1pm , the beachhead was secure and Milford , together with Generals Douglas MacArthur and Leslie Morshead made an inspection of the area . At this late stage of the war it was clear that the war would soon end , and extensive use was made of divisional artillery ( which Milford had raised during his earlier spell with the division in 1940 ) rather than needlessly risk soldiers ' lives . By 21 July , Balikpapan was secure and the Japanese were retreating into Borneo . Milford ordered a halt to further offensive action and instructed his outlying forces to hold their position , thus concluding a successful operation .
The war was now rapidly drawing to a close and upon the surrender of the Japanese Empire in August , Milford was ordered to accept the surrender of the representative commander of the Japanese forces , which numbered around 8 @,@ 500 troops , in Dutch @-@ Borneo . On 8 September , Milford observed the surrender of the Japanese military governor of the area , Vice Admiral Michiaki Kamada , in a ceremony held aboard HMAS Burdekin which was anchored off the coast of Dutch Borneo .
= = Later life = =
Milford remained the commander of the 7th Division , as well as the Morotai occupation force , until March 1946 . He returned to Melbourne , replacing Major General John Chapman as Deputy Chief of General Staff on 11 March . An appointment as adjutant general followed in May . He retired on 23 April 1948 due to ill health but this was due to an incorrect diagnosis of prostate cancer . In 1946 , he had been recommended for appointment as a Companion of the Order of the Bath for his leadership during Operation Oboe Two , and was duly presented with the Order in 1949 .
Milford died in Macleod , Melbourne on 10 June 1972 , and was survived by his son ( a 1944 graduate of the Royal Military College at Duntroon ) .
= Live and Let Die ( film ) =
Live and Let Die ( 1973 ) is the eighth spy film in the James Bond series to be produced by Eon Productions , and the first to star Roger Moore as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond . Produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman , it was the third of four Bond films to be directed by Guy Hamilton . Although the producers had wanted Sean Connery to return after his role in the previous Bond film Diamonds Are Forever , he declined , sparking a search for a new actor to play James Bond . Moore was signed for the lead role .
The film is adapted from the novel of the same name by Ian Fleming . In the film , a Harlem drug lord known as Mr. Big plans to distribute two tons of heroin free to put rival drugs barons out of business . Mr. Big is revealed to be the disguised alter ego of Dr. Kananga , a corrupt Caribbean dictator , who rules San Monique , the fictional island where the heroin poppies are secretly farmed . Bond is investigating the deaths of three British agents , leading him to Kananga , and is soon trapped in a world of gangsters and voodoo as he fights to put a stop to the drug baron 's scheme .
Live and Let Die was released during the height of the blaxploitation era , and many blaxploitation archetypes and clichés are depicted in the film , including derogatory racial epithets ( " honky " ) , black gangsters , and pimpmobiles . It departs from the former plots of the James Bond films about megalomaniac super @-@ villains , and instead focuses on drug trafficking , a common theme of blaxploitation films of the period . It is set in African American cultural centres such as Harlem and New Orleans , as well as the Caribbean Islands . It was also the first James Bond film featuring an African American Bond girl to be romantically involved with 007 , Rosie Carver , who was played by Gloria Hendry . The film was a box office success and received generally positive reviews from critics . It was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song for " Live and Let Die " , written by Paul and Linda McCartney and performed by their band Wings .
= = Plot = =
Three MI6 agents , including one " on loan " to the American government , are killed under mysterious circumstances within 24 hours of each other in the United Nations , New Orleans and a Caribbean nation , San Monique , while monitoring the operations of the island 's dictator Dr. Kananga . James Bond , agent 007 , is sent to New York City to investigate the first murder . Kananga is also in New York , visiting the United Nations and representing San Monique . Just after Bond arrives , his driver is shot dead by Whisper , one of Kananga 's men , while taking Bond to meet Felix Leiter of the CIA . Bond is nearly killed in the ensuing car crash .
A trace on the killer 's licence plate eventually leads Bond to Mr. Big , a ruthless gangster who runs a chain of Fillet of Soul restaurants throughout the United States . It is here that Bond first meets Solitaire , a beautiful tarot expert who has the power of the Obeah and can see both the future and remote events in the present . Mr. Big , who is actually Kananga in disguise , demands that his henchmen kill Bond , but Bond overpowers them and escapes unscathed . Bond flies to San Monique , where he meets Rosie Carver , a CIA double agent . They meet up with a friend of Bond 's , Quarrel Jr . , who takes them by boat near Solitaire 's home . Bond suspects Rosie of working for Kananga . She is shot dead , remotely , by Kananga , to stop her confessing the truth to Bond . Inside Solitaire 's house , Bond uses a stacked tarot deck of cards , that show only " The Lovers " , to trick her into thinking that seduction is in her future , and then seduces her . Solitaire loses her ability to foretell the future when she loses her virginity to Bond , and decides to co @-@ operate with Bond as she has feelings for him and has grown tired of being controlled by Kananga .
Bond and Solitaire escape by boat and fly to New Orleans . There , Bond is captured by Kananga . It transpires that Kananga is producing two tons of heroin and is protecting the poppy fields by exploiting San Monique locals ' fear of voodoo priest Baron Samedi , and the occult . Through his alter ego , Mr. Big , Kananga plans to distribute the heroin free of charge at his Fillet of Soul restaurants , which will increase the number of addicts . Kananga also believes that other drug dealers , namely the Mafia , cannot compete with his giveaway , to which Kananga can later charge high prices for the heroin , after he has simultaneously cultivated huge drug dependencies and bankrupted his competitors .
When Kananga finds out that Bond slept with Solitaire , he turns her over to Baron Samedi to be sacrificed . He is angry because her ability to read tarot cards is gone , and he wanted to be the one to take her powers away . Meanwhile , Kananga 's one @-@ armed henchman , Tee Hee Johnson , leaves Bond to be eaten by aligators at a farm in the Louisiana backwoods . Bond escapes by running along the animals ' backs to safety . He sets a drug lab on fire and steals a speedboat . He is then pursued by Kananga 's men , as well as Sheriff J.W. Pepper and the Louisiana State Police .
Back in San Monique , Bond has set timed explosives throughout the poppy fields . He rescues Solitaire from the voodoo sacrifice and throws Samedi into a coffin of poisonous snakes . Bond and Solitaire escape below ground into Kananga 's lair . Kananga captures them both and proceeds to lower them into a shark tank . Bond escapes and forces a shark gun pellet into Kananga 's mouth , causing him to inflate like a balloon , float to the top of the cave , and explode .
After the job is done , Leiter puts Bond and Solitaire onto a train and out of the country . Tee Hee Johnson follows Bond and Solitaire onto the train and tries to kill Bond , but loses his prosthetic arm in a fight with him and is flung out of the window . As the film ends , a laughing Samedi is revealed to be perched on the front of the speeding train .
= = Cast = =
Roger Moore as James Bond : A British agent who is sent on a mission to investigate the murder of three fellow agents .
Yaphet Kotto as Dr. Kananga and Mr. Big . A corrupt Caribbean Prime Minister who doubles as a drug lord .
Jane Seymour as Solitaire : Kananga 's psychic and the love interest of Bond .
Julius Harris as Tee Hee Johnson : Kananga 's henchman who has a pincer for a hand .
David Hedison as Felix Leiter : Bond 's CIA colleague . Leiter is also investigating Mr. Big .
Gloria Hendry as Rosie Carver : A CIA agent in San Monique .
Clifton James as Sheriff J.W. Pepper : An uncouth Louisiana sheriff .
Geoffrey Holder as Baron Samedi : Kananga 's henchman who has ties to the Voodoo occult .
Bernard Lee as M : The Head of the Secret Intelligence Service
Roy Stewart as Quarrel Jr . : Bond 's ally in San Monique and son of Quarrel from Dr. No .
Earl Jolly Brown as Whisper : Kananga 's henchman who only whispers .
Tommy Lane as Adam : One of Dr. Kananga 's henchmen who pursues 007 through the Louisiana Bayou
Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny : M 's secretary .
Madeline Smith as Miss Caruso : An Italian agent whom Bond romances and strips of her clothing by way of his magnetic watch .
= = Production = =
While filming Diamonds Are Forever , Live and Let Die was chosen as the next Ian Fleming novel to be adapted because screenwriter Tom Mankiewicz thought it would be daring to use black villains , as the Black Panthers and other racial movements were active at this time . Guy Hamilton was again chosen to direct , and since he was a jazz fan , Mankiewicz suggested he film in New Orleans . Hamilton did not want to use Mardi Gras since Thunderball featured Junkanoo , a similar festivity , so after more discussions with the writer and location scouting with helicopters , he decided to use two well @-@ known features of the city , the jazz funerals and the canals .
To develop a better feel of how Voodoo was practised , Saltzman and Broccoli escorted Hamilton , Mankiewicz and production designer Syd Cain to scout New Orleans further and then the islands of the West Indies . Haiti was an important destination of the tour and not only did Fleming connect it with the religion , there were many practitioners available to witness . Despite viewing actual demonstrations , due to political unrest in the country at the time , it was decided not to film in Haiti .
While searching for locations in Jamaica , the crew discovered a crocodile farm owned by Ross Kananga , after passing a sign warning that " trespassers will be eaten . " The farm was put into the script and also inspired Mankiewicz to name the film 's villain after Kananga .
= = = Casting = = =
Broccoli and Saltzman tried to convince Sean Connery to return as 007 , but he declined . The two producers then approached Clint Eastwood , who was fresh from his success as Dirty Harry , also turned down the offer , stating that 007 should be played by an Englishman . Among the actors to test for the part of Bond were Julian Glover , John Gavin , Jeremy Brett , Simon Oates , John Ronane , and William Gaunt . The main frontrunner for the role was Michael Billington . United Artists wanted an American to play Bond ; Burt Reynolds , Paul Newman and Robert Redford were all considered . Producer Albert R. Broccoli , however , insisted that the part should be played by a British actor and put forward Roger Moore . After Moore was chosen , Billington remained on the top of the list in the event that Moore would decline to come back for the next film . Billington ultimately played a brief villainous role in the pre @-@ credit sequence of The Spy Who Loved Me ( 1977 ) . Moore , who had been considered by the producers before both Dr. No and On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , was ultimately cast . He tried not to imitate either Connery 's or his own prior performance as Simon Templar in The Saint , and Mankiewicz fitted the screenplay into Moore 's persona by giving more comedy scenes and a light @-@ hearted approach to Bond .
Mankiewicz had thought of turning Solitaire into a black woman , with Diana Ross as his primary choice . However , Broccoli and Saltzman decided to stick to Fleming 's description of a white woman , and after thinking of Catherine Deneuve , Jane Seymour , who was in the TV series The Onedin Line , was cast for the role . Yaphet Kotto was cast while doing another movie for United Artists , Across 110th Street . Kotto reported one of the things he liked in the role was Kananga 's interest in the occult , " feeling like he can control past , present and future " .
Mankiewicz created Sheriff J.W. Pepper to add a comic relief character . Portrayed by Clifton James , Pepper appeared again in The Man with the Golden Gun . Live and Let Die is also the first of two films featuring David Hedison as Felix Leiter , who reprised the role in Licence to Kill . Hedison had said " I was sure that would be my first and last " , before being cast again .
Madeline Smith , who played Miss Caruso , sharing Bond 's bed in the film 's opening , was recommended for the part by Roger Moore after he had appeared with her on TV . Smith said that Moore was extremely polite to work with , but she felt very uncomfortable being clad in only blue bikini panties while Moore 's wife was on set overseeing the scene .
This was the only Bond film until 2006 not to feature ' Q ' , played at this stage by Desmond Llewelyn . He was then appearing in the TV series Follyfoot , but was written out of three episodes to appear in the film . By then , Saltzman and Broccoli decided not to include the character , feeling that " too much was being made of the films ' gadgets " , and decided to downplay this aspect of the series , much to Llewelyn 's annoyance .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began in October 1972 , in Louisiana . For a while only the second unit was shot after Moore was diagnosed with kidney stones . In November production moved to Jamaica , which doubled for the fictional San Monique . In December , production was divided between interiors in Pinewood Studios and location shooting in Harlem . The producers were reportedly required to pay protection money to a local Harlem gang to ensure the crew 's safety . When the cash ran out , they were " encouraged " to leave . Some exteriors were in fact shot in Manhattan 's Upper East Side as a result of the difficulties of using real Harlem locations .
Ross Kananga suggested the stunt of Bond jumping on crocodiles , and was enlisted by the producers to perform it . The scene took five takes to be completed , including one in which the last crocodile snapped at Kananga 's heel , tearing his trousers . The production also had trouble with snakes . The script supervisor was so afraid that she refused to be on set with them ; an actor fainted while filming a scene where he is killed by a snake ; Jane Seymour became terrified as a reptile got closer , and Geoffrey Holder only agreed to fall into the snake @-@ filled casket because Princess Alexandra was visiting the set .
The boat chase was filmed in Louisiana around the Irish Bayou area , with some interruption caused by flooding . Twenty @-@ six boats were built by the Glastron boat company for the film . Seventeen were destroyed during rehearsals . The speedboat jump scene over the bayou , filmed with the assistance of a specially @-@ constructed ramp , unintentionally set a Guinness World Record at the time with 110 feet ( 34 m ) cleared . The waves created by the impact caused the following boat to flip over .
The chase involving the double @-@ decker bus was filmed with a second @-@ hand London bus adapted by having a top section removed , and then placed back in situ running on ball bearings to allow to slide off on impact . The stunts involving the bus were performed by Maurice Patchett , a London Transport bus driving instructor .
= = = Music = = =
John Barry , who had worked on the previous five themes and orchestrated the " James Bond Theme " , was unavailable during production . Broccoli and Saltzman instead asked Paul McCartney to write the theme song . Since McCartney 's salary was high and another composer could not be hired with the remainder of the music budget , George Martin , who had been McCartney 's producer while with The Beatles , was chosen to write the score for the film . " Live and Let Die " , written by McCartney along with his wife Linda and performed by their group Wings , was the first true rock and roll song used to open a Bond film , and became a major success in the UK ( where it reached number nine in the charts ) and the US ( where it reached number 2 , for three weeks ) . It was nominated for an Academy Award but lost to " The Way We Were " . Producers hired B. J. Arnau to record and perform the title song , not realising McCartney intended to perform it himself . Arnau 's version was featured in the film itself , when the singer performed it in a night club which Bond attends .
The Olympia Brass Band has a notable part in " Live and Let Die " , where they lead a funeral march for a ( soon to be ) assassination victim . Trumpeter Alvin Alcorn plays the killer . The piece of music the band plays at the beginning of the funeral march is " Just a Closer Walk with Thee " . After the agent is stabbed , the band starts playing the more lively " Joe Avery 's Piece " ( aka " New Second Line " ) .
= = Release = =
The film was released in the United States on 27 June 1973 . The world premiere was at Odeon Leicester Square in London on 6 July 1973 , with general release in the United Kingdom on the same day . From a budget of around $ 7 million , ( $ 37 million in 2016 dollars ) the film grossed $ 161 @.@ 8 million ( $ 862 million in 2016 dollars ) worldwide .
The film holds the record for the most viewed broadcast film on television in the United Kingdom by attracting 23 @.@ 5 million viewers when premiered on ITV on 20 January 1980 .
= = Reception = =
Despite poor reaction to the racial overtones , reviews were mostly positive , with praise for the action scenes , and Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a 66 % " fresh " rating .
Ian Nathan of Empire magazine wrote " This is good quality Bond , managing to reinterpret the classic moves - action , deduction , seduction - for a more modern idiom without breaking the mould . On one side we get the use of alligators as stepping stones and the pompous pitbull of rootin ' tootin ' Sheriff Pepper caught up in the thrilling boat chase . On the other , the genuine aura of threat through weird voodoo henchman Tee Hee and the leaning toward - what 's this ? - realism in Mr Big 's plot to take over the drug trade from the Mafia . " He concluded that " Moore had got his feet under the table . "
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times stated that Moore " has the superficial attributes for the job : The urbanity , the quizzically raised eyebrow , the calm under fire and in bed " . However , he felt that Moore wasn 't satisfactory in living up to the legacy left by Sean Connery in the preceding films . He rated the villains " a little banal " , adding that the film " doesn 't have a Bond villain worthy of the Goldfingers , Dr. Nos and Oddjobs of the past . " Chris Nashawaty similarly argues that Dr. Kananga / Mr. Big is the worst villain of the Roger Moore James Bond films . BBC Films reviewer William Mager praised the use of locations , but said that the plot was " convoluted " . He stated that " Connery and Lazenby had an air of concealed thuggishness , clenched fists at the ready , but in Moore 's case a sardonic quip and a raised eyebrow are his deadliest weapons " . Reviewer Leonard Maltin rated the film two and a half stars out of four , describing it as a " barely memorable , overlong James Bond movie " that " seems merely an excuse to film wild chase sequences " . Danny Peary noted that Jane Seymour portrays " one of the Bond series 's most beautiful heroines " but had little praise for Moore , whom he described as making " an unimpressive debut as James Bond in Tom Mankiewicz 's unimaginative adaptation of Ian Fleming 's second novel … The movie stumbles along most of the way . It 's hard to remember Moore is playing Bond at times – in fact , if he and Seymour were black , the picture could pass as one of the black exploitation films of the day . There are few interesting action sequences – a motorboat chase is trite enough to begin with , but the filmmakers make it worse by throwing in some stupid Louisiana cops , including pot @-@ bellied Sheriff Pepper . "
IGN ranked Solitaire as 10th in a Top 10 Bond Babes list . In November 2006 , Entertainment Weekly listed Live and Let Die as the third best Bond film . MSN chose it as the thirteenth best Bond film and IGN listed it as twelfth best .
= Coandă @-@ 1910 =
The Coandă @-@ 1910 , designed by Romanian inventor Henri Coandă , was an unconventional sesquiplane aircraft powered by a ducted fan . Called the " turbo @-@ propulseur " by Coandă , its experimental engine consisted of a conventional piston engine driving a multi @-@ bladed centrifugal blower which exhausted into a duct . The unusual aircraft attracted attention at the Second International Aeronautical Exhibition in Paris in October 1910 , being the only exhibit without a propeller , but the aircraft was not displayed afterward and it fell from public awareness . Coandă used a similar turbo @-@ propulseur to drive a snow sled , but he did not develop it further for aircraft .
Decades later , after the practical demonstration of motorjets and turbojets , Coandă began to tell various conflicting stories about how his early experiments were precursors to the jet , even that his turbo @-@ propulseur was the first motorjet engine complete with fuel combustion in the airstream . He also claimed to have made a single brief flight in December 1910 , crashing just after takeoff , the aircraft being destroyed by fire . Two aviation historians countered Coandă 's version of events , saying there was no proof that the engine had combustion in the airstream , and no proof that the aircraft ever flew . In 1965 , Coandă brought drawings forward to prove his claim of combustion ducting but these were shown to be recently reworked , differing substantially from the originals . Many aviation historians were dismissive , saying that Coandă 's turbo @-@ propulseur design involved a weak stream of " plain air " , not a powerful jet of air expanding from fuel combustion .
In 2010 , based on the notion that Coandă invented the first jet , the centennial of the jet aircraft was celebrated in Romania . A special coin and stamp were issued , and construction began on a working replica of the aircraft . At the European Parliament , an exhibition commemorated the building and testing of the Coandă @-@ 1910 .
= = Early developments = =
Coandă was interested in achieving reactive propelled flight as early as 1905 , conducting tests of rockets attached to model aircraft at the Romanian Army arsenal in Bucharest . In secret , at Spandau in Germany , Coandă successfully tested a flying machine equipped with a single tractor propeller , and two counter @-@ rotating propellers providing lift , powered by a 50 @-@ horsepower ( 37 kW ) Antoinette engine . Positioned along the fuselage centreline , the smaller rear lift propeller was mounted vertically , while the larger front one was inclined slightly forwards at 17 degrees . According to later claims , Coandă tested the aircraft at Cassel , witnessed by the Chancellor of the German Empire Bernhard von Bülow . It was around this time that Coandă 's interest in jet propulsion began , claiming that the aircraft and a jet @-@ propelled model were displayed in December 1907 at the Sporthalle indoor sports arena in Berlin . Coandă continued his studies at Liege , Belgium , where together with his roommate and friend Giovanni Battista Caproni he built the Coandă @-@ Caproni box glider , based on the plans of gliders designed by Otto Lilienthal and Octave Chanute which he previously studied at Charlottenburg and Spandau . In 1909 he was employed as technical director of the Liège @-@ Spa Aeroclub , and at the end of that year , with the help of car manufacturer Joachim he built the Coandă @-@ Joachim glider . Caproni was present when the glider was flown at Spa @-@ Malchamps , Belgium .
= = 1910s = =
With the opening of the École supérieure d 'aéronautique et de constructions mécaniques on 15 November 1909 , Coandă moved to Paris . As a continuation of his Belgian experiments , and especially looking for a way to test wing airfoils at higher speeds , he contacted Ernest Archdeacon , the co @-@ founder of L 'Aero @-@ Club de France , who in turn directed Coandă to Gustav Eiffel and Paul Painlevé . With their assistance , he gained approval to test different wing configurations and air resistance on a platform built by Eiffel at the front of a locomotive on the North of France railway . In March , he started flying lessons at Reims in a Hanriot monoplane .
Helped by his schoolfriend Cammarotta @-@ AdornoIn , Coandă started to build his slender sesquiplane and the unusual powerplant in a workshop in the courtyard of his house where he tested the thrust of the powerplant on a dynamometer , tests which are described in detail in the April 1910 edition of La Technique Aéronautique . He filed for several patents for the mechanism and aircraft on 30 May 1910 , with later additions to the existing patents .
Coandă exhibited the aircraft at the Second International Aeronautical Exhibition ( commonly referred to as the Paris salon , or Paris flight salon ) held from 15 October to 2 November 1910 . Together with Henri Fabre 's Hydravion , the first floatplane , Coandă 's aircraft and devices used for aerodynamic experiments were placed " in solitary state " in an upstairs gallery , separated from the more usual types of aircraft on the main exhibition floor .
The aircraft 's construction was a novelty for the time . In contrast to the monoplane described in the July 1910 patent application , the exhibit was a sesquiplane which complicated the construction , but in return solved lateral stability control issues . The cantilevered wings were held in place at three points by tubular steel struts without any bracing from flying wires . According to Coandă 's description the wings were built with metal spars , but existing photographs of the construction show a completely wooden internal structure . The trailing edges of the upper wing could be twisted separately or together for lateral control or braking during landing , and were controlled by pedals in the two @-@ seat open cockpit . The fuselage , painted reddish @-@ brown and highly polished , was described by The Technical World magazine as having a framework of steel , though the construction photographs indicate that it had a wooden framework . This was triangular in cross @-@ section with convex ribs edged with strips of steel , and strengthened with a covering of heat @-@ shaped moulded plywood . Tubular radiators for engine cooling were located on either side of the cockpit . The vertical struts from the wings were secured to the fuselage with steel collars fixed with screws . The fuselage terminated in a cruciform empennage with control surfaces at 45 ° angles to vertical and horizontal . Four triangular surfaces at the rear of the tail were controlled using a pair of large Antoinette VII @-@ style steering wheels mounted outside of the cockpit , one on each side , and were used for pitch and directional control . It was an early instance of what are now known as ruddervators . Forward of the tail was a small horizontal stabiliser . The fuel tank was located in the fuselage between the engine and the cockpit .
The most remarkable feature of the aircraft was its powerplant . Instead of a propeller , a 50 hp ( 37 kW ) inline water @-@ cooled internal combustion engine built by Pierre Clerget at the Clément @-@ Bayard workshop with funding from L 'Aero @-@ Club de France , placed in the forward section of the fuselage drove a rotary compressor through a 1 : 4 gearbox ( 1 @,@ 000 rpm on the Clerget turned the compressor at 4 @,@ 000 rpm ) , which drew air in from the front and expelled it rearward under compression and with added heat . The compressor , with a diameter of 50 centimetres ( 20 in ) , was located within a cowling at the front of the fuselage . According to later Coandă descriptions , cast aluminium components were also made by Clerget to create a powerplant with a weight of 1 @.@ 8 kilograms per kilowatt ( 2 @.@ 9 lb / hp ) – equivalent to a power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio of 0 @.@ 59 kilowatts per kilogram ( 0 @.@ 36 hp / lb ) , a considerable achievement at the time .
Coandă 's 1910s @-@ era patents describe the inline piston engine 's exhaust gases as being routed through heating channels or heat exchangers in contact with the central air flow , then sucked into the compressor inlet to reduce back @-@ pressure on the engine while adding more heat and mass to the airflow . The turbo @-@ propulseur was claimed to be capable of generating 2 @.@ 20 kilonewtons ( 220 kgf ; 490 lbf ) of thrust . The powerplant was referred to in reports at the time by different terms : a turbine without propellers , turbo @-@ propulseur , ducted fan or a suction turbine .
Aviation reporters from The Aero and La Technique Aeronautique were doubtful that the powerplant could provide sufficient thrust . The engine was noted in The Aero , reprinted in Aircraft , as being " of remarkably small proportions in relation to the size of the machine . " The writer said the turbo @-@ propulseur was " claimed to give an enormous wind velocity " , but the intake area seemed too small to produce the stated thrust , and that " it also appears as if enormous power would be necessary to drive it " , more than supplied by the Clerget .
The Coandă @-@ 1910 was reportedly sold to Charles Weymann in October 1910 . A daily newspaper from Bucharest wrote in 1910 that the aircraft was constructed in Clerget 's workshops and that it " will fly in 6 – 7 weeks near Paris , piloted by Weymann , one of the pilots celebrated at the Rennes aviation meeting . " Another Bucharest newspaper listed the aircraft in November as " sold twice @-@ over " . It may be that Weymann expressed his willingness to buy the aircraft once tests had been carried out .
At the exhibition , reaction among observers was mixed . Some doubted the aircraft would fly , and focused on more likely machines such as the Sloan , the Voisin , or Louis Paulhan 's design . Others gave special notice to the Coandă @-@ 1910 , calling it original and ingenious . The reporter from La Technique Aeronautique wrote , " In the absence of definitive trials , permitting the precise yield of this machine , it is without doubt premature to say it will supersede the propeller ... the tentative is interesting and we watch it closely . " The official exhibition report ignored the turbo @-@ propulseur engine and instead described Coandă 's novel wing design , and the unusual empennage . On 15 November 1910 , L 'Aérophile wrote that if the machine were ever to develop as the inventor hoped , it would be " a beautiful dream " .
After the exhibition the aircraft was moved to a Clément @-@ Bayard workshop at Issy @-@ les @-@ Moulineaux for further testing . This work is reflected by additions to the powerplant @-@ related patents of 3 December . A group of modern @-@ day Romanian investigators led by Dan Antoniu , having examined photographs from 1910 , concluded that the rotary compressor featured at the exhibition was a hybrid between the one described in the initial 30 May 1910 patent and that shown in a later patent application . They felt that the exhibition machine had a simpler director system , a different rotor with a smaller intake cone , and that the exhaust gas heat transfer system had not been implemented . According to Gérard Hartmann in his Dossiers historiques et techniques aéronautique française , the propulsion system generated only 170 N ( 17 kgf ; 38 lbf ) of thrust , and to generate enough thrust for the aircraft to take off ( estimated by Coandă at 240 N ( 24 kgf ; 54 lbf ) ) Coandă would have had to spin the " turbine " ( the rotary compressor ) at a speed of 7 @,@ 000 rpm with the risk of it exploding . This was not tried , but Hartmann concluded that the experiment proved that the solution worked perfectly .
Henri Mirguet writing for L 'Aérophile magazine in January 1912 , recalled the previous exhibition 's machine as the " chief attraction " of the 1910 salon . He wrote that Coandă answered his " pressing — and indiscreet — questions " about the turbo @-@ propulseur @-@ powered aircraft at that earlier exhibit , telling him that the machine had attained a speed of 112 kilometres per hour ( 70 mph ) during several " flight tests " , an improbable answer about which Mirguet " reserved judgment " , waiting for confirmation that never materialised .
= = Related developments = =
The additional turbo @-@ propulseur patent application 13 @.@ 502 , dated 3 December 1910 , was implemented on a double @-@ seat motorised sled commissioned by Cyril Vladimirovich , Grand Duke of Russia . With the help of Despujols , a boat maker , and the motor manufacturer Gregoire , Coandă supervised the building of a motor sled , powered by a 30 hp ( 22 kW ) Gregoire engine driving the turbo @-@ propulseur . The sled was blessed by Russian Orthodox priests at the Despujols plant near Paris on 2 December 1910 . Starting the next day , it was exhibited for two weeks at the 12th Automobile Salon of France , alongside Gregoire @-@ powered automobiles on the Gregoire stand . A number of automobile and general interest magazines published photographs or sketches of the sled . This was the second time in the autumn of 1910 that a version of Coandă 's turbo @-@ propulseur design was shown at the Grand Palais of Paris . One of the periodicals reported an expected speed of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , but no account exists of the sled being tested .
Coandă continued to work on the Coandă @-@ 1910 project at the beginning of 1911 , aiming to improve stability , increase the power of the turbo @-@ propulseur , and to implement airfoil improvements . He applied for new patents for aerodynamic investigations and improvements of the Coandă @-@ 1910 . Coandă described a different , more sturdy system for the attachment of the wings , which also enabled changes in the angle of attack and the centre of gravity . He aimed to obtain more power from the propulsion system , and design drawings show the arrangement of two air @-@ cooled rotary engines on the sides of the fuselage . The placement of the engines indicates that Coandă did not intend to inject fuel into the jet stream and ignite it as the cooling of the engines would have been compromised . The patent was annotated with an additional claim on 19 July 1911 which brought significant changes including the addition of retractable landing gear with dampers inside aerodynamic fairings with skids , removal of the horizontal stabiliser , a supporting surface was provided for each engine and their accessories were covered to improve aerodynamics . Though Coandă continued to study rotary propulsion mechanisms , Antoniu believes that Coandă never implemented a practical solution because of the lack of funds . In May 1911 Coandă filed English @-@ language patents on the turbo @-@ propulseur design in the United Kingdom and the United States , as well as a second French @-@ language patent filed in Switzerland , and he described it for the 1911 publication of L 'Annuaire de l 'Air .
The very expensive project of 1910 , costing Coandă about one million francs , left him with limited funds . The possibility of a new contract with the French government lead Coandă to build the Coandă @-@ 1911 . He wished to win an army @-@ organised competition at Reims in October , one that required two engines in each aircraft as a fail @-@ safe strategy . At the third aviation salon in Paris 1911 , Coandă displayed a scale model of the aircraft which used two Gnome rotary engines mounted back to back , connected by a bevel gear to a single two @-@ bladed propeller . The strange combination of two engines connected to one propeller was originally intended to drive a new turbine , but Coandă was unable to fund one . During trials the assembly did not provide enough traction and a four @-@ bladed propeller was ordered . The mounting support of the engines , initially intended for a jet propulsion version , was not adequate for the new configuration so the forward chassis had to be modified . Henri Mirguet writing for L 'Aérophile magazine in January 1912 said that the new 1911 aircraft retained the fuselage , the frame and the wing of Coandă 's 1910 design , but did not keep the turbo @-@ propulseur or " the wooden wingloading surface including the forward longitudinal ribs " . The aircraft was flown on 21 October 1911 , but with modest results as the latest modifications , especially those related to the powerplant , did not compensate for the increased total weight of the aircraft . At the military contest , it did not meet the requirements for independent operation of each engine .
Following the 1911 exhibition , at the personal request of Sir George White , Coandă moved to the United Kingdom to take a position as chief engineer or chief designer at British and Colonial Aeroplane Company for a few years . In the next four decades Coandă worked on a great variety of inventions . During World War II he revived his earlier turbo @-@ propulseur engine when he was contracted by the German Army in late 1942 to develop an air propulsion system for military ambulance snow sleds much like the one made for the Russian Grand Duke . The German contract concluded after one year , yielding no plans for production . Though Coandă had experimented with a variety of nozzles , and said that he had achieved a degree of success , no turbojet @-@ engine @-@ style fuel injection or combustion in the air stream was attempted .
Coandă and his 1910 aircraft were absent from much of aviation literature of the day . None of the annual issues of Jane 's All the World 's Aircraft ever mentioned the Coandă @-@ 1910 or its turbo @-@ propulseur powerplant . As well , the Soviet engineer Nikolai Rynin made no mention of Coandă at all in his exhaustive nine @-@ volume encyclopaedia on jet and rocket engines , written in the late 1920s and early ' 30s .
= = Later claims = =
At the beginning of the jet age , when the potential of reactive engines was recognised , a number of histories of the jet engine were written . A once @-@ classified Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory and Jet Propulsion Laboratory study completed in 1946 described the Coandă @-@ 1910 as " probably not flown " but featuring " a mechanical jet propulsion device with a centrifugal blower " , one in which heat from the Clerget piston engine " furnished auxiliary jet propulsion . " In the editorial lead to their 1946 article on Coandă 's " Augmented Flow " , Flight terms it , " scarcely a jet " . In the same year Geoffrey G. Smith chronicled technological development in his book Gas Turbines and Jet Propulsion for Aircraft , but did not mention Coandă .
In 1950 's l 'aviation d 'Ader et des temps héroiques , the authors assert that Coandă flew the first jet aircraft at Issy @-@ les @-@ moulineaux for 30 metres ( 100 ft ) , ending with a crash . In 1953 , Flight 's treatment of aircraft in the 50 years since the Wright brothers ' flight included the Coandă @-@ 1910 " ducted fan " and said of Coandă that he " believes that he ' took off for a few feet , then came down hurriedly and broke two teeth ' " , quoting J.W. Adderley 's 1952 letter to the editor of Flight after Adderley 's discussion with Coandă in Paris at the end of World War II . Adderley said he " can definitely confirm that the power unit was of the ducted @-@ fan type , similar in basic principles to the Caproni @-@ Campini aircraft of the 1930s " ( referring to the Caproni Campini N.1 ) .
In the early 1950s Coandă began to claim that he had flown his 1910 aircraft himself , and that the 1910 powerplant was the first motorjet , using fuel injection and combustion to create its thrust . In 1955 and 1956 , a number of aviation articles presented the Coandă version of 1910 events . He said he took off and crashed in December 1910 in the presence of aircraft makers Louis Charles Breguet and Gabriel Voisin . Coandă himself spoke on the subject , notably before the Wings Club at New York 's Biltmore Hotel on 18 January 1956 where he said " I intended to inject fuel into the air stream which would be ignited by the exhaust gases also channelled through the same circular vent " , implying that he never finished the powerplant . Martin Caidin wrote " The Coanda Story " for the May 1956 issue of Flying , based on a personal interview . For his article " He Flew in 1910 " , René Aubrey interviewed Coandă and wrote a contradictory story in the September 1956 Royal Air Force Flying Review , saying that Coandă had flown his unusual aircraft on 16 December 1910 , that fuel was certainly injected , and that it was " the first jet flight in the world " . In Aubrey 's relation of the interview , the aircraft stalled after take @-@ off , throwing Coandă clear , and " gently collapsed to the ground " where it burned . Aubrey wrote that the aircraft engine was " designed by a friend to Coandă 's specification " , and that its burning exhaust was " directed below and to each side of the fuselage , which was protected by asbestos in vulnerable places . "
In Jet Age Airlanes of 1956 , Coandă himself published an article entitled " The First Jet Flight " . He submitted the same text that Caidin had written for Flying in May :
" In December , we brought the airplane out of its hangar at Issy @-@ les @-@ Moulineaux and , after a bit of coaxing , started the motor . I must admit that I was never a very outstanding pilot . I always seemed unable to shake off a vague apprehension and , that morning , in addition to my usual uneasiness , I was rather excited . I climbed into the cockpit , accelerated the motor , and felt the power from the jet thrust straining the plane forward . I gave the signal to remove the wheel blocks , and the plane started moving slowly ahead . I had anticipated that I would not attempt to fly today , but would make only ground tests on the small field at Issy @-@ les @-@
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as Durandus ; the gate to Heaven in this work resembles the entrance to the Beaune hospice . The way to Heaven is shown clearly as a gilded church – the saved ascend a set of steps , turn right , and disappear from sight . It is fully enclosed in a single panel , whereas Hell extends onto the adjoining panel , perhaps hinting that sin contaminates all around it .
Van der Weyden depicts Hell as a gloomy , crowded place of both close and distant fires , and steep rock faces . The damned tumble helplessly into it , screaming and crying . The sinners descend into Hell with heads mostly bowed , dragging each other along as they go . Traditionally , a Last Judgement painting would depict the damned tormented by malevolent spirits ; yet here the souls are left alone , the only evidence that they are tormented is in their expressions . The hellscape is painted so as to instil terror , but without devils . Erwin Panofsky was the first to pick up on this absence , and proposed that van der Weyden had opted to convey torment in an inward manner , rather than through elaborate descriptions of devils and fiends . He wrote , " The fate of each human being ... inevitably follows from his own past , and the absence of any outside instigator of evil makes us realize that the chief torture of the Damned is not so much physical pain as a perpetual and intolerably sharpened consciousness of their state " . According to Bernhard Ridderbos , van der Weyden accentuated the theme by " restricting the number of the dead and treating them almost as individuals . As the damned approach the abyss of hell they become more and more compressed . "
= = = Exterior panels = = =
The exterior consists of the two donor wings , a pair of saints , and two panels with Gabriel presenting himself to Mary . The donors are on the outer wings , kneeling in front of prayer books . Four imitation statues in grisaille make up the inner panels . The lower two depict Saint Sebastian and Saint Anthony . Sebastian was the saint of plagues and an intercessory against epidemics , Anthony the patron saint of skin diseases and ergotism , known in medieval times as St Anthony 's Fire . The two saints had strong associations with the Burgundian court as well : Philip the Good was born on St Anthony 's day , he had an illegitimate son named Anthony , and two of Rolin 's sons were named Anthony . St Sebastian was the patron saint of Philip the Good 's chivalric Order of the Golden Fleece , of which Rolin was a member .
The two small upper register panels show a rather traditional Annunciation scene , with the usual dove representing the Holy Spirit near Mary . The two sets of panels , unlike those on the interior , are compositionally very different . The figures occupy distinctly separate niches and the colour schemes of the grisaille saints and donors contrast sharply .
Like many mid @-@ 15th century polyptychs , the exterior panels borrow heavily from the Ghent Altarpiece , which was completed in 1432 . The combination of naturalistic donor portraits with grisaille imitation statues of saints is borrowed from that work , as is the treatment of the Annunciation . Van der Weyden used iconography in the Beaune exterior panels not found in his other works , which suggests Rolin may have commissioned the altarpiece to follow van Eyck 's example . Van der Weyden was not inclined merely to imitate though , and arranged the panels and figures in a concentrated and compact format . Jacobs writes that " the exterior presents the most consistent pictorial rendering of trompe l 'oeil sculpture to date " . Gabriel 's scroll and Mary 's lily appear to be made of stone ; the figures cast shadows against the back of their niches , creating a sense of depth which adds to the illusion .
The exterior panels are drab , according to Blum , who writes that on Rolin 's panel the most colourful figure is the red angel , which , with its gold helmet and keys , " emerges like an apparition " . Rolin and de Salins can be identified by the coats @-@ of @-@ arms held by the angels ; husband and wife kneel at cloth @-@ covered prie @-@ dieux ( portable altars ) displaying their emblems . Although De Salins was reputedly pious and charitable , and even perhaps the impetus for the building of the hospice , she is placed on the exterior right , traditionally thought of as an inferior position corresponding to Hell , linking her to Eve , original sin and the Fall of man .
Van Eyck had earlier portrayed Rolin in the c . 1435 Madonna of Chancellor Rolin , and the patron is recognizable from that work ; both portraits show similar lips , a large chin and somewhat pointed ears . In van Eyck 's portrait , Rolin is presented as perhaps pompous and arrogant ; here – ten years later – he appears more thoughtful and concerned with humility . Campbell notes wryly that van der Weyden may have been able to disguise the sitter 's ugliness and age , and that the unusual shape of his mouth may have been downplayed . He writes that while " van Eyck impassively recorded , van der Weyden imposed a stylised and highly personal vision of the subject " . Van Eyck 's depiction was most likely the more accurate ; van der Weyden embellished , mainly by lengthening the nose , enlarging the eyes and raising the eyebrows .
= = Inscriptions = =
The panels contain quotations in Latin from several biblical texts . They appear either as lettering seemingly sewn into the edges of the figures ' clothes ( mostly hidden in the folds ) , or directly on the surface of the central inner panel . The latter occur in four instances ; two pairs of text float on either side of Christ , two around Michael . Beneath the lily , in white paint are the words of Christ : VENITE BENEDICTI PATRIS MEI POSSIDETE PARATUM VOBIS REGNUM A CONSTITUTIONE MUNDI ( " Come ye blessed of my father , inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundations of the world " ) . The text beneath the sword reads : DISCEDITE A ME MALEDICTI IN IGNEM ÆTERNUM QUI PARATUS EST DIABOLO ET ANGELIS EJUS ( " Depart from me ye cursed , into everlasting fire , prepared for the devil and his angels " ) .
The inscriptions follow the 14th @-@ century convention of showing figures , imagery and motifs associated with the saved to Christ 's right , and those of the damned to his left . The words beneath the lily ( the benedicti ) read upwards towards Heaven , their curves leaning in towards Christ . The text to the left ( the maledicti ) flows in the opposite direction ; from the highest point downwards . The inscriptions to Christ 's right are decorated in light colours , to the extent that they are usually difficult to discern in reproductions . The lettering opposite faces downwards , and is applied with black paint .
= = Condition = =
A number of panels are in poor condition , owing variously to darkening of the colours , accumulated dirt , and poor decisions during early restorations . The altarpiece stayed in the chapel from the time of its installation until the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution , when it was hidden in the attic for decades . When it was brought out , the nude souls – thought to be offensive – were painted over with clothing and flames ; it was moved to a different room , hung 3 metres ( 10 ft ) from the ground , and portions were whitewashed . In 1836 , the Commission of Antiquities retrieved it and began plans to have it restored . Four decades later it underwent major restoration – between 1875 and 1878 – when many of these additions were removed , but not without significant damage to the original paintwork , such as the loss of pigment to the wall @-@ hangings in the donor panels , which were originally red and gold . In general , the central inside panels are better preserved than the interior and exterior wings . De Salins ' panel is damaged ; its colours have darkened with age ; originally the niche was a light blue ( today it is light green ) and the shield held by the angel was painted in blue .
The panels were laterally divided so that both sides could be displayed simultaneously , and a number of the panels were transferred to canvas .
= The Bubble ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" The Bubble " is the fifteenth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 45th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 19 , 2011 . In the episode , Leslie becomes nervous when her new boyfriend Ben has a business meeting with her tough mother , Marlene . Meanwhile , Chris tries to make some changes in the parks department , much to the chagrin of the staff .
Written by Greg Levine and Brian Rowe and directed by Matt Sohn , " The Bubble " originally aired back @-@ to @-@ back along with " Lil ' Sebastian " . The two are stand @-@ alone episodes not originally meant to run together , but because the third season premiered late , they had to be shown together so the series ' season would conclude by the end of the television season . The episode featured a guest appearance by Pamela Reed as Leslie 's mother Marlene , her first appearance since the second season episode " Galentine 's Day " .
" The Bubble " marked a major progression for the character Tom Haverford , who starts considering if he should leave his city hall position , which sets the stage for him to leave the position in " Li 'l Sebastian " . " The Bubble " received generally positive reviews and , according to Nielsen Media Research , was seen by an estimated 4 @.@ 27 million household viewers . Combined with an estimated 3 @.@ 72 million household viewers with " Li 'l Sebastian " , the two episodes ' ratings were about even with the previous week 's episodes , " The Fight " and " Road Trip " .
= = Plot = =
In a cold open scene , the parks department welcomes Ann ( Rashida Jones ) to her new office in city hall and fill it with balloons , much to the chagrin of her cranky officemate Stuart ( Jim Jansen ) . Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) and Ben ( Adam Scott ) are dating , but they are keeping their relationship a secret due to a no @-@ dating policy at work . They are enjoying what Leslie calls " the bubble " , or the beginning of a relationship when everything is simple and fun . It is suddenly threatened , however , when Ben has a meeting with Leslie 's mother Marlene ( Pamela Reed ) , a notoriously tough politician in the Pawnee school system , who wants Ben to approve the purchase of four new school buses despite a difficult budget season . Afraid of ruining the bubble , Leslie initially tells Ben she is not related to Marlene . Right before Ben 's meeting , however , Leslie admits Marlene is her mother , making him nervous and causing him to capitulate to all of her demands during the meeting . Marlene considers Ben weak , so Leslie becomes determined to prove that he is a tough boss to impress Marlene .
Meanwhile , Chris ( Rob Lowe ) has enacted numerous changes to the parks department ; he promotes Jerry ( Jim O 'Heir ) to public relations director , appoints April ( Aubrey Plaza ) as everyone 's assistant , places Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) on the nightmarish fourth floor with Andy ( Chris Pratt ) as his temporary assistant , and makes Ron ( Nick Offerman ) sit in the middle of a circular desk after the removal of his office , to force him to interact with people . Ron believes everything will eventually go back to normal as it has with past city managers that implemented drastic changes . However , Donna ( Retta ) is concerned the overly @-@ determined Chris will not do so and demands that Ron talk to him . On the fourth floor , Tom 's attempts to charm some of the elderly women into doing his work fails miserably , as they ignore him and all adore Andy .
Leslie trains Ben for his next meeting with her mother . He impresses Marlene so much with his tough negotiation skills that she becomes flirtatious with him . An uncomfortable Ben tells Leslie they should tell her about their relationship , but Leslie does not want to lose the bubble . Fed up , Ben storms into Marlene 's office and tells her that he is dating her daughter and asks her to keep it secret . Marlene laughs off the situation and tells Leslie that she approves of Ben . Meanwhile , Ron tells Chris the changes do not play to his staff 's strengths because Jerry only does well in the background , Tom only does well if people are all aware of his activities , and April only does well if people leave her the hell alone . Chris takes in Ron 's well @-@ reasoned arguments and they cut a deal where Chris will return everything to the way it was after Ron does one more week of interacting with the public . Nevertheless , Tom is frustrated with the experience and begins to contemplate leaving his city hall job to pursue his own entrepreneurial interests .
= = Production = =
" The Bubble " was directed by Matt Sohn and written by Brian Rowe and Greg Levine , the latter of whom regularly works as a writers assistant on the series . The episode was originally broadcast on May 19 , 2011 , and ran back @-@ to @-@ back with the Parks and Recreation episode " Li 'l Sebastian " , which aired immediately afterward . The two are stand @-@ alone episodes that were not originally designed to be shown together . However , because the show premiered late as a mid @-@ season replacement in January , the two episodes aired together so the third season could conclude at the end of the television season . The concept of the fourth floor of Pawnee 's town hall as a dark and horrifying place was introduced in the second season episode " Tom 's Divorce " , and has been a running joke with the show ever since .
" The Bubble " featured a guest appearance by Pamela Reed as Leslie 's mother Marlene Griggs @-@ Knope , her first appearance on the show since the second season " Galentine 's Day " . Comedian Dana Gould , who previously worked as a producer on Parks and Recreation , made an uncredited cameo appearance as a man on the fourth floor who enters Tom 's fourth floor office looking for a man named Mort , then smashes a coffee pot and says , " Tell Mort I said , ' Your move . ' " " The Bubble " marked a progression of the Tom Haverford that had been building throughout the third season , in which the character begins to consider leaving his city hall position to pursue his own business ambitions . That storyline is advanced in " The Bubble " through Tom 's frustration with his assignment by Chris , and culminates in the season finale " Li 'l Sebastian " , in which he ultimately quits the parks department .
= = Cultural references = =
Leslie refers to the cable television network History while she describes why she enjoys the early part of romantic relationships : " White wine , cuddling , and crazy amounts of History Channel documentaries . " In one scene , Leslie refers to a mixtape for Ben that included five straight songs by singer and songwriter Sarah McLachlan . Leslie prepares Ben for her meeting with Marlene by describing some of her favorite conversation topics , including industrialist Andrew Carnegie and Calvin and Hobbes cartoonist Bill Watterson . Leslie claims her mother loves actor Daniel Craig and Mark Sloan , a character from the medical drama series Grey 's Anatomy nicknamed " McSteamy " , and she makes a music box with a picture of the latter character in it for Ben to give her as a gift .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Due to the 9 p.m. broadcast of " Search Committee " , the one @-@ hour seventh season finale of comedy series The Office , Parks and Recreation was not shown in its regular 9 : 30 p.m. broadcast on May 19 . " The Bubble " aired at 10 p.m. , while " Li 'l Sebastian " immediately followed it at 10 : 30 p.m. In its original American broadcast , " The Bubble " was seen by an estimated 4 @.@ 27 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , with a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 6 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 . A rating point represents one percent of the total number of television sets in American households , and a share means the percentage of television sets in use tuned to the program . Viewership for Parks and Recreation progressively dropped for the night , as " Li 'l Sebastian " was seen by an estimated 3 @.@ 72 million households . Combined , the ratings were about even with the average ratings for the previous week , in which two Parks and Recreation episodes were also shown back @-@ to @-@ back , although from a 9 : 30 p.m. to 10 : 30 p.m. time block : " The Fight " had been seen by an estimated 4 @.@ 55 million household viewers , while " Road Trip " was seen by 3 @.@ 54 million households . In its 10 p.m. timeslot , " The Bubble " was outperformed by the fourth season finale of the ABC medical drama series Private Practice , which was seen by 7 @.@ 45 million household viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Bubble " received generally positive reviews . The Atlantic writer Scott Meslow called the episode " a fine example of Parks and Recreation at its funniest " and along with " Li 'l Sebastian " served as an " ideal capper to a remarkably strong third season of the series " . Meslow added that Ron 's intervention on behalf of his co @-@ workers demonstrates he is a " much better manager than he lets on " . Henry Hanks of CNN called it a very funny episode and said scenes of Ron swiveling around his circular desk to avoid talking to members of the public were " masterfully executed " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said he enjoyed Marlene 's attempts to seduce Ben , and especially loved the subplot with Chris making changes to the parks department . He praised Nick Offerman 's " marvelously minimalist " performance , especially while trying to avoid people in his swivel desk . Matt Fowler of IGN said the episode was hilarious and demonstrated " how marvelously great this series is at creating a truly lovable ensemble " . He also praised the subplot with Pamela Reed and the " ridiculous filthiness " of the fourth floor .
Eric Sundermann of Hollywood.com called it a " great little episode " and strong setup for the season finale . Although Sundermann initially had reservations about Leslie and Ben getting together , he now said it felt real because Leslie was willing to risk a job she loved so much to be with him . Paste magazine writer Garrett Martin said although the idea of pairing two co @-@ workers felt like a conventional television move , he did not mind with Leslie and Ben because they are such a " charming and well @-@ matched pair " . Martin also said Pamela Reed " absolutely kills it " as Leslie 's mother . Rick Porter of Zap2it said Parks and Recreation was at the " top of its game " , and that " The Bubble " worked well paired along with the season finale " Li 'l Sebastian " . He praised the comedic and romantic chemistry between Amy Poehler and Adam Scott , and said the subplot with Chris imposing changes on the parks department was " great fun " .
Joel Keller of TV Squad said he enjoyed seeing Ron stand up for the parks department , which proved that despite his hatred of government , he knows his co @-@ workers well and is a good boss . Keller also praised Pamela Reed 's performance and said she works well with Amy Poehler . Nick McHatton of TV Fanatic said although he believed the no @-@ dating policy was little more than an unnecessary device meant to create friction between Leslie and Ben , he enjoyed the lengths with which they were going to keep their relationship secret . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club called " The Bubble " an excellent episode that went a long way in fleshing out the Leslie and Ben romance , but primarily set the scene for the superior " Li 'l Sebastian " . Time magazine writer James Poniewozik said " The Bubble " was not as funny as some of the better third season episodes like " Harvest Festival " or " Andy and April 's Fancy Party " , but was nonetheless enjoyable and " perfectly funny " .
= Capture of Saint Vincent =
The Capture of Saint Vincent was a French invasion took place on 16 – 18 June 1779 during the Anglo @-@ French War . A French force commanded by Charles Marie de Trolong du Rumain , landed on the West Indies isle of Saint Vincent , and quickly took over much of the British @-@ controlled part of the island , assisted by the local Black Caribs who held the northern part of the island .
British Governor Valentine Morris and military commander Lieutenant Colonel George Etherington disagreed on how to react , and ended up surrendering without significant resistance . Both leaders were subjected to inquiries over the surrender . The period of French control begun by the capture resulted in solidified Black Carib control over northern parts of the island . The area remained in Carib hands until the Second Carib War of 1795 .
= = Background = =
Following the entry of France into the American War of Independence as an American ally in early 1778 , French Admiral the Comte d 'Estaing arrived in the West Indies in early December 1778 in command of a fleet consisting of 12 ships of the line and a number of smaller vessels . At about the same time a British fleet under Admiral William Hotham also arrived , augmenting the fleet of Admiral Samuel Barrington . The British then captured French @-@ held St. Lucia , despite d 'Estaing 's attempt at relief . The British used St. Lucia to monitor the major French base at Martinique , where d 'Estaing was headquartered .
The British fleet was further reinforced in January 1779 by ten ships of the line under Admiral John Byron , who assumed command of the British Leeward Islands station . Throughout the first half of 1779 both fleets received further reinforcements , after which the French fleet was slightly superior to that of the British . Furthermore , Byron departed St. Lucia on June 6 in order to provide escort services to British merchant ships gathering at St. Kitts for a convoy to Europe , leaving d 'Estaing free to act . D 'Estaing and Governor the marquis de Bouillé seized the opportunity to begin a series of operations against nearby British possessions . Their first target was the isle of Saint Vincent , just south of St. Lucia .
The political situation on Saint Vincent was somewhat tense . The island was divided roughly in half between land controlled by white ( principally British ) planters and that controlled by the local Black Carib population . The line dividing these territories ran from the island 's north @-@ west to its south @-@ east , and had been agreed in a treaty signed in 1773 after the First Carib War . Neither side had been happy with the compromise agreement , and its terms were a continuing source of friction . The British had , uniquely among its Caribbean possessions , had to establish a chain of outposts to protect the planter population .
Saint Vincent 's colonial government and defences were in some disarray . Governor Valentine Morris had assumed office in 1776 when the isle was granted a separate government , and reported then that it had virtually no defences . In addition to the difficult relations with the Caribs , the British population was also sympathetic to the cause of colonial independence . The French capture of Dominica in 1778 had raised constitutional questions surrounding the imposition of martial law , and the colonial assembly had consequently refused to appropriate funds for improving the island defences . Governor Morris had spent his own funds instead on improvements , contributing to financial difficulties he would run into later .
The only British military presence on the island was a garrison of about 450 men from the Royal American Regiment under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Etherington , most of whom were poorly trained recruits and about half of whom were unfit for duty . Etherington , rather than training and drilling his troops , or fully staffing the island 's outposts , was employing significant numbers of them to clear land on an estate on the north @-@ west side of the island . Etherington 's estate was on territory on the Carib side of the island , and its grant ( for Etherington 's service in the Seven Years ' War , but made under circumstances the Caribs viewed as illegal ) was a major source of annoyance to the Caribs . Governor de Bouillé had established regular contact with the Caribs , and was supplying them with arms . In late August 1778 French officials met with Carib leader Joseph Chatoyer , and in early September Governor Morris was confronted by Caribs bearing new French muskets on a tour of the border areas .
= = Capture = =
D 'Estaing organized a force of 300 to 500 troops , including French regulars drawn from the regiments Champagne , Viennois , and Martinique , and about 200 volunteer militia from Martinique . The invasion force was placed under the command of Lieutenant de vaisseau Charles Marie de Trolong du Rumain , who had recently distinguished himself by taking over British @-@ controlled Saint Martin in March 1779 . The force was embarked on a fleet consisting of the frigate Lively , the corvettes Lys and Balleastre , and two privateers . Du Rumain sailed from Martinique on 9 June , and reached the waters off Saint Vincent on the 16th . One of the privateers was driven ashore on the windward side of the island , losing 82 men .
Two of the ships anchored in Young 's Bay , near Calliaqua , while the third anchored off Kingstown . The ships flew no national colours , leading to local speculation as to their intent . Local planters who thought they might be merchant vessels expected to pick up the sugar harvest prevented a sentry at one of the island 's coastal fortifications from firing a signal cannon , and one man sent out to one of the ships was taken prisoner . As the French began landing their troops , a small company under Captain Percin de la Roque was landed on the eastern shore to mobilise the Caribs . These irregular forces , which grew to number about 800 , quickly overran British settlements near the borders between the British lands and those of the Caribs , while du Rumain led his main body of troops toward Kingstown .
The alarm was eventually raised , and Governor Morris thought it would be possible to make a stand against the French in the hills above Kingstown , in hopes that the Royal Navy would bring relief . Lieutenant Colonel Etherington was however opposed to this , especially when the size of the approaching Carib force became apparent , and a truce flag was sent to the French . Du Rumain demanded an unconditional surrender , which Morris rejected . During the negotiations , three ships were spotted flying British flags . Du Rumain returned to his ship , and quickly determined that the strangers were supply ships ; two he captured , but the third got away . After further negotiations terms were agreed that were similar to those granted by de Bouillé in the 1778 capture of Dominica .
= = Aftermath = =
After du Rumain 's success , d 'Estaing sailed with his entire fleet for Barbados at the end of June , but was unable to make significant progress against the prevailing winds . He gave up the attempt , sailing instead for Grenada , which he captured on 5 July . Admiral Byron had been alerted to the capture of Saint Vincent on 1 July , and was preparing a force to retake it when he learnt of the attack on Grenada . He immediately sailed there , arriving on the morning of 6 June . The fleets battled off Grenada , with d 'Estaing prevailing over Byron 's disorganized attack . Both Grenada and Saint Vincent remained in French hands until the end of the war , when they were returned to Britain under the terms of the 1783 Treaty of Paris .
Admiral George Brydges Rodney made an attempt to recover Saint Vincent in December 1780 . Arriving in the Caribbean after one of the worst hurricane seasons on record , Rodney acted on rumours that Saint Vincent 's defences had been devastated by an October hurricane that wrought havoc throughout the West Indies , and sailed to Saint Vincent with ten ships of the line and 250 soldiers under General John Vaughan . Although Saint Vincent had suffered significant damage ( most of the buildings in Kingstown were destroyed ) , the defences above Kingstown were in good condition and defended by 1 @,@ 000 French and Carib soldiers . Vaughan 's troops were landed , but they found the going difficult due to the conditions , and were re @-@ embarked after only one day .
Lieutenant Colonel Etherington was subjected to an enquiry at St. Lucia in 1781 over his conduct during the invasion , and exonerated . Governor Morris , a long @-@ time resident of the island , demanded an inquiry into his behaviour , alleging it had been misrepresented in the press and other writings ; he was also vindicated . He never returned to the island , dying in England in 1789 after spending seven years in King 's Bench Prison over debts incurred in part due to spending on Saint Vincent 's defences .
The Black Caribs actively harassed British settlers during the French occupation , at times requiring intervention of the French military to minimize bloodshed . After the return to British control , an uneasy peace existed between the British and Caribs until the 1790s , when the Caribs again rose up in the Second Carib War ( part of radical French efforts to export the French Revolution ) . The Caribs were then deported by the British to Roatán , an island off the coast of present @-@ day Honduras , where their descendants are now known as the Garifuna people . Saint Vincent and the Grenadines gained its independence from Britain in 1979 .
= Thirty Minutes over Tokyo =
" Thirty Minutes Over Tokyo " is the twenty @-@ third episode and season finale of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 16 , 1999 . In the episode , after being robbed by Snake Jailbird , the Simpsons visit a money @-@ saving seminar , where they learn ways to limit their expenses . Soon , the family can afford a cheap last @-@ minute flight to another country , the only disadvantage being that they do not know where their plane tickets will bring them , which leads them to spend their vacation in Japan .
The episode was written by Donick Cary and Dan Greaney , while Jim Reardon served as director . It was one of the last episodes written in its production line , and its title is a reference to the war film 30 Seconds Over Tokyo . Several guest @-@ stars appeared in the episode , including George Takei as the host for The Happy Smile Super Challenge Family Wish Show . The episode mocks several aspects of the Japanese culture , including the perceived cruelty of Japanese game shows .
The episode was seen by approximately 8 million viewers in its original broadcast . In 2005 , the episode was first released on home video , and in 2007 , it was released as part of the tenth season DVD box set . Following the tenth season 's home video release , " Thirty Minutes over Tokyo " received mixed reviews from critics . Because of a scene in which the Emperor of Japan is thrown into a trunk filled with sumo thongs , the episode has never aired in Japan , as the scene was considered disrespectful .
= = Plot = =
The family , on Lisa 's suggestion , visits a cyber café named The Java Server . However , when Homer looks at his bank account online , he is cyber @-@ robbed by Snake , which saddens Marge because they were saving the money for their family vacation . When Ned Flanders catches Homer burgling his house to recover the lost money , he says that he got more for less by attending the Chuck Garabedian Mega @-@ Savings Seminar . After considering Ned 's advice , Homer steals Ned 's tickets ( and his Jesus fish fridge magnet ) , and the Simpsons attend the seminar , in which Chuck explains many money @-@ saving strategies . Later , in order to save money , the family goes to a 33 ¢ store where Homer eats a can of plankton which had expired two years before and contains red tide poisoning , as warned by “ the Mexican Council of Food . ” Then , when they snag mega @-@ saver tickets from the Flanders family at the airport , they decide to go to Tokyo .
The Simpsons arrive in Japan and , although Lisa wants to explore Japanese culture , Homer prompts the family to eat at an American @-@ themed restaurant named Americatown . Afterwards , Homer and Bart encounters Woody Allen , who is in Japan filming a commercial for rice crackers . Later on , Homer and Bart attend a sumo match . While there , Homer asks a sumo wrestler who is throwing salt for some of his pretzel , only for the wrestler to steal it . He and Bart knock him out , and the Emperor of Japan Akihito , comes to congratulate Homer . However , Homer thinks he is another wrestler and throws him into a dumpster of worn mawashi . As a result , he and Bart are put in jail , where they learn Japanese and explore its culture until Marge pays the bail . Consequently , the only money the family has left is a one @-@ million yen bill , which Lisa loses in the wind after Homer makes an origami crane from it ( prompting him to say " D 'oh ! " in Japanese ) .
Now broke , the family goes to the US Embassy , where the Ambassador suggests that they get jobs . They eventually find work in a fish @-@ gutting factory in Osaka , but are dissatisfied , except for Bart , who believes he has found his purpose in life . Then , they notice a TV game show called The Happy Smile Super Challenge Family Wish Show . They decide to appear on the show , telling the game 's Japanese host Wink that what they wish for is plane tickets back to Springfield , but to get them they have to go through physical torture ( particularly Homer ) . Eventually , the tickets are theirs , but they have to pick them up from a rickety bridge over an active volcano . Lisa is able to get the tickets , but the bridge breaks and the whole family falls into the volcano , which is actually only orangeade with lots of wasabi added . Homer scolds the Japanese for their lack of ethics , making them feel ashamed of themselves . The program 's sadistic policy does not change however , as they then show an arachnophobic Canadian couple being showered with scorpions . As the Simpsons leave Japan , their plane is confronted by four giant monsters – Godzilla , Mothra , Gamera and Rodan – but Lisa goes to sleep and the monsters let the plane fly off on the journey back to Springfield .
A scene from Battling Seizure Robots is played throughout the end credits .
= = Production = =
The episode , which was originally titled " Fat Man and Little Boy " ( which went on to be used for the name of a Season 16 episode ) , was directed by Jim Reardon and written by Donick Cary and Dan Greaney . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on May 16 , 1999 . " Thirty Minutes Over Tokyo " was one of the last episodes produced for the series ' tenth season . Staff writers Cary and Greaney wrote the draft in a couple of days , and it was then rewritten " extensively " with The Simpsons ' writing staff . Originally , there would be a long scene about how Homer had bought a " pre @-@ Columbian vase " on the Internet , however the scene was ultimately cut from the episode . The episode 's title is a reference to the 1944 war film 30 Seconds Over Tokyo . Originally , the staff wanted the title to be " Twenty @-@ two Minutes Over Tokyo " , since an episode of The Simpsons is approximately twenty @-@ two minutes long , but they eventually changed it to its current rendition because it “ sounds closer to ” the title of the film it references . According to Cary , the writers did a lot of research in order to accurately depict the Japanese language for the episode . For example , the three categories in The Happy Smile Super Challenge Family Wish Show are written in Japanese .
In the scene at the seminar , a character closely resembling the mascot of Hasbro 's Monopoly can be seen sitting next to Mr. Burns . Because the design is slightly different from the real @-@ life mascot , the Simpsons staff did not have to pay Hasbro for using their character in the episode . The design of Homer in a Jamaican attire was very popular among the staff , and Mike Scully , the showrunner for the episode , called the design " great " . A scene in the episode shows Homer buying a square watermelon , which turns out to be round and slips out of his hands . In the background , cars are driving on the left side of the street . Originally , the animators had drawn the cars driving on the right side . However , Tomi Yamaguchi , a Simpsons layout artist at the time , pointed out that cars in fact drive on the left side of the street in Japan . Because of this , the animators had to redraw the whole scene , and Yamaguchi received a technical advisor credit for the episode . The speech that Homer gives to the audience in The Happy Smile Super Challenge Family Wish Show was originally much longer , and would partially involve kitchenettes from Broyhill . The design of the male Canadian in the game show was based on Canadian Simpsons director Neil Affleck .
The cartoon version of The Simpsons ' theme song that plays at the end of the episode was conceived by composer Alf Clausen . Chuck Garabedian , the speaker at the seminar , was portrayed by series regular voice actor Hank Azaria , who plays Moe Szyslak among other characters . The Japanese waiter in Americatown was played by American actor Gedde Watanabe . Wink , the host for the The Happy Smile Super Challenge Family Wish Show , was portrayed by George Takei . Takei has appeared on The Simpsons several times before , and he is , according to Scully , one of the staff 's favorite guest @-@ stars . The episode also features the voices of Tress MacNeille , Denice Kumagai as Japanese mother , Karen Maruyama as Japanese stewardess , Keone Young as the sumo wrestler , Karl Wiedergott as Mr. Monopoly and Woody Allen as himself .
= = Themes and cultural references = =
In his book Gilligan Unbound , American literary critic Paul Cantor described how " Thirty Minutes Over Tokyo " references and mocks several aspects of Japanese and American culture , as well as differences between the two . At a sumo wrestling match , Bart and Homer encounter the Japanese emperor , Akihito . After Homer throws him into a trunk of sumo thongs , Bart and Homer are put in jail , where they have to re @-@ enact a kabuki play about the forty @-@ seven Ronin , do origami , flower arranging and meditation . After Marge bails them out , Bart and Homer can speak fluent Japanese , and have fully absorbed , as Cantor writes , the " exclusionary " character of the Japanese culture , as Homer asks Bart ( in Japanese , with English subtitles ) : " Should we tell them [ Marge and Lisa ] the secret to inner peace ? " , to which Bart replies ( still in Japanese ) , " No , they are foreign devils . " The episode also references the Japanese 's adaption to American culture , and is , according to Cantor , " filled " with signs of how eagerly Japanese have taken to American culture . In one scene , the Simpsons eat at a restaurant called Americatown , filled with US memorabilia and having only American items on the menu . Another scene shows director Woody Allen filming a commercial for Japanese television .
In order to get back to the United States , the Simpsons have to enter a humiliating game show called The Happy Smile Super Challenge Family Wish Show . According to Cantor , this is where the family find a difference between Japanese and American culture , as Wink , the game @-@ show host , explains to them : " Our game shows are a little different from yours . Your shows reward knowledge . We punish ignorance . " The game show is partly based on the Japanese show Za Gaman , as well as the British show Family Fortunes . As with many other episodes in the series , " Thirty Minutes Over Tokyo " suggests that , in the end , the Simpsons are more attached to the local than to the global , and , as Cantor writes : " indeed the global is ultimately important in the series only insofar as it can be made local , that is , part of Springfield . For all its cosmopolitanism , the show keeps returning to the American theme of ' there 's no place like home ' " .
The computers seen in the internet cafe that the Simpsons visit in the beginning of the episode are based on the Apple iMac computers . In a scene inside Flanders ' kitchen , a note which reads " 1 COR 6 : 9 @-@ 11 " can be seen . This refers to the Bible , First Corinthian , chapter 6 , verses 9 to 11 : " Or do you not know that the unrighteous will not inherit the kingdom of God ? Do not be deceived : neither the sexually immoral , nor idolaters , nor adulterers , nor men who practice homosexuality , nor thieves , nor the greedy , nor drunkards , nor revilers , nor swindlers will inherit the kingdom of God . And such were some of you . But you were washed , you were sanctified , you were justified in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and by the Spirit of our God . " The cups in the 33 cent store read That 70 's Show , a reference which Danny Masterson , one of the lead actors in That 70 's Show , was entertained by , according to Scully . Battling Seizure Robots , the seizure @-@ inducing television show that the Simpsons watch in their hotel room , is based on an episode of Pokémon , called " Dennō Senshi Porygon " , which caused several hundred children to develop epileptic seizures . According to Scully , the staff received " several angry letters " from people for the scene . After the cartoon , an advertisement for Mr. Sparkle , a character that first appeared in the season 8 episode " In Marge We Trust " , can be seen on the television screen . Barney , while impersonating Homer , says " That boy ain 't right " , a line frequently used by Hank Hill , the main character of the animated television series King of the Hill . The giant monsters attacking at the end of the episode are Godzilla , Gamera , Rodan and Mothra , all of which are famous from Japanese monster movies . The scene was included as a reference to the 1998 action science fiction film Godzilla , in which three of the main The Simpsons cast members ( Azaria , Cartwright and Shearer ) had a live @-@ action role .
= = Release and reception = =
In its original American broadcast on May 16 , 1999 , " Thirty Minutes Over Tokyo " received an 8 @.@ 0 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 8 million viewers . On May 23 , 2005 , the episode was released along with the season 12 episode " Simpson Safari " , the season 13 episode " Blame It on Lisa " and the season 15 episode " The Regina Monologues " , as part of a DVD set called The Simpsons – Around The World In 80 D 'Oh 's . On August 7 , 2007 , the episode was again released as part of The Simpsons – The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . Matt Groening , Mike Scully , Donick Cary , George Meyer , Ron Hauge , Matt Selman and Jim Reardon participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , gave the episode a positive review , and wrote that it was " A magnificent end to the season . " They wrote that the episode was " thoroughly racist " but " completely inoffensive because it 's simply very funny . " Jake MacNeill of Digital Entertainment News was also favourable , considering it to be one of the better episodes of the season . James Plath of DVD Town wrote that the episode has " some funny moments . " Aaron Roxby of Collider was more critical , denouncing the episode 's dated references . He wrote : " I am going to go ahead and give this one the benefit of the doubt and assume that making fun of Japanese junk culture and game shows felt fresher in 1999 than it does do now . " Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide called the episode " mediocre " . He wrote that , though the episode 's concept should " open up lots of interesting possibilities " , it " doesn ’ t explore them particularly well " . While he did not consider it to be a bad episode , he thought it " fail [ ed ] to live up to its potential " .
= = = Banning in Japan = = =
Although all other episodes of The Simpsons have been dubbed and broadcast on Japanese television , " Thirty Minutes Over Tokyo " has never aired in Japan . The reasoning behind this was that a scene in the episode , which shows Homer throwing Akihito , the current emperor of Japan , into a box filled with sumo thongs , was considered disrespectful . There was also a rumor that Sanrio objected to the portrayal of the Hello Kitty factory featured briefly in the episode . The episode has become study material for sociology courses at University of California Berkeley , where it is used to " examine issues of the production and reception of cultural objects , in this case , a satirical cartoon show " , and to figure out what it is " trying to tell audiences about aspects primarily of American society , and , to a lesser extent , about other societies " . Some questions asked in the courses include :
• What aspects of American society are being addressed in the episode ?
• What aspects of them are used to make the points ?
• How is the satire conveyed : through language ? drawing ? music ?
• Is the behavior of each character consistent with his / her character as developed over the years ?
• Can we identify elements of the historical / political context that the writers are satirizing ?
• What is the difference between satire and parody ?
= Road to Perdition =
Road to Perdition is a 2002 American crime thriller film directed by Sam Mendes . The screenplay was adapted by David Self , from the graphic novel of the same name by Max Allan Collins . The film stars Tom Hanks , Paul Newman , Jude Law , and Daniel Craig . The plot takes place in 1931 , during the Great Depression , following a mob enforcer and his son as they seek vengeance against a mobster who murdered the rest of their family .
Filming took place in the Chicago area . Mendes , having recently finished 1999 's acclaimed American Beauty , pursued a story that had minimal dialogue and conveyed emotion in the imagery . Cinematographer Conrad L. Hall took advantage of the environment to create symbolism for the film , for which he won several awards , including a posthumous Academy Award for Best Cinematography . The film explores several themes , including the consequence of violence and father @-@ son relationships .
The film was released on July 12 , 2002 , and eventually grossed over $ 180 million worldwide . The cinematography , setting , and the lead performances by Hanks and Newman were well received by critics . A home media release debuted on February 25 , 2003 .
= = Plot = =
In 1931 , during the Great Depression , Michael Sullivan Sr. ( Hanks ) is an enforcer for Irish mob boss John Rooney ( Newman ) in Rock Island , Illinois . Rooney raised the orphan Sullivan and loves him more than his own biological son , the unstable Connor ( Craig ) . Connor snaps and kills disgruntled associate Finn McGovern when meeting him with Sullivan , resulting in Sullivan gunning down McGovern 's men . Sullivan 's twelve @-@ year @-@ old son Michael Sullivan , Jr ( Tyler Hoechlin ) had hidden in his father 's car and witnesses the event . Despite Sullivan swearing his son to secrecy and Rooney pressuring Connor to apologize for the reckless action , Connor murders Sullivan 's wife Annie and younger son Peter , mistaking him for Sullivan , Jr . He then sends Sullivan to an ambush at a speakeasy but Sullivan realizes and escapes to Chicago with his son to seek Al Capone , for work and to discover the location of Connor , who has gone into hiding .
Capone 's underboss Frank Nitti ( Tucci ) rejects Sullivan 's proposals , before informing Rooney of the meeting . Rooney reluctantly allows Nitti to dispatch assassin Harlen Maguire ( Law ) , who is also a crime scene photographer , to kill Sullivan . Maguire tracks him and his son to a roadside diner , but fails to kill Sullivan ; realizing Maguire 's intentions , Sullivan escapes through the bathroom and punctures Maguire 's car tire before fleeing .
In reaction to the ordered hit , Sullivan begins robbing banks that hold Capone ’ s laundered money , hoping to trade it for Connor while teaching Michael to drive their getaway car . Sullivan is impeded when the mob withdraws its money , so he visits Rooney 's accountant Alexander Rance ( Baker ) at his hotel . The encounter is a set @-@ up , with Rance stalling Sullivan until Maguire enters with a shotgun . In the ensuing crossfire , Rance is killed by the shot from Maguire 's shotgun , Maguire is injured by flying glass shards , and Sullivan escapes with the ledgers ; as Sullivan flees , Maguire shoots him in his left arm .
When his father collapses from his wound , Michael Jr. drives his father to a farm , where a childless elderly couple help him recover . Sullivan bonds with his son and discovers from the ledgers that Connor has been embezzling from his father for years , using the names of dead men . As the Sullivans depart , they give the couple much of the stolen money . Sullivan confronts Rooney with the information while they attend Mass . Rooney already knew about the embezzlement and that Connor was likely to die , if not by Sullivan 's hand then by Chicago once Rooney dies and they discover Connor had been stealing money ; however , he refuses to give up his son . He encourages Sullivan to leave with his son , while mourning his departure .
Later one night , cloaked by darkness and rain , Sullivan dispatches Rooney 's entire entourage with his Thompson submachine gun and walks directly up to Rooney . As Rooney mutters that he is glad his killer is Sullivan , an emotionally reluctant Sullivan pulls the trigger . Seeing no further reason to protect Connor , Nitti reveals his location to Sullivan , after making the latter promise to end the feud . Sullivan goes to the hotel where Connor is hiding and kills him .
Sullivan drives his son to stay at his Aunt Sara 's beach house in Perdition , a town on the shore of Lake Michigan . However , he is ambushed and shot by a disfigured Maguire . As Maguire prepares to photograph the dying Sullivan , Michael Jr. appears and points a gun at Maguire , but cannot muster the will to fire . Sullivan pulls out his gun and kills Maguire , before dying in his son 's arms . Mourning his father 's death , Michael Jr. returns to the elderly farm couple to live with them . While growing up , Michael Jr. reflects that his father 's only fear was that his son would become like him . Michael states he has never held a gun since the fatal encounter between Maguire and his father . When asked if Sullivan was a good or bad man , he says he replies " he was my father . "
= = Cast = =
Tom Hanks as Michael Sullivan , Sr. , a top @-@ notch hitman who works for John Rooney . Hanks was sent a copy of the graphic novel Road to Perdition by Steven Spielberg while he was filming Cast Away ( 2000 ) . Initially too busy to make sense of the story , he later received David Self 's adapted screenplay , to which he became attached . Hanks , a father to four children , described Michael Sullivan 's role , " I just got this guy . If you 're a man , and you 've got offspring ... emotionally , it 's devastating . "
Tyler Hoechlin as Michael Sullivan , Jr . , Hoechlin was chosen from over 2 @,@ 000 candidates to portray Michael Sullivan 's son . The actor was 14 years old at the time of filming . For scenes in which Hoechlin 's character assisted his father as a getaway driver , Hoechlin was trained by a driving instructor .
Paul Newman as John Rooney , a crime boss who treats Sullivan as a surrogate son . Newman was unanimously the first choice for the role . The actor prepared by requesting Frank McCourt , the Irish @-@ American author of Angela 's Ashes , to record a tape of his voice .
Jude Law as Harlen Maguire , a crime scene photographer who moonlights as an assassin . Self , who created this character ( who did not exist in the graphic novel ) , explained , " He gets so jaded from exposure to this world , he steps over the line from being the storyteller to being the story maker . " To capture the " seedy countenance " of the character , Law was given a sallow skin tone that reflected the wear from working in a darkroom . Law 's teeth also received a lower gumline and had a rotted look . He was also given a weak , thinning hairline . Maguire 's apartment also displays a collection of photographs of dead bodies , some of them actual police stills from the 1930s .
Daniel Craig as Connor Rooney , the unstable , violent son of John Rooney . He ’ s deeply jealous of his father 's affection for Sullivan .
Stanley Tucci as Frank Nitti , the underboss for the Al Capone Outfit . Tucci was selective about roles in gangster films ( playing a mob soldier in Prizzi 's Honor and playing Lucky Luciano in Billy Bathgate ) , believing that Hollywood stereotyped all Italian @-@ Americans as gangsters . However , attracted by the prospect of working with Mendes and his crew , the actor accepted the role of Nitti , a real @-@ life Mob boss from Chicago .
Jennifer Jason Leigh as Annie Sullivan , the wife of Michael Sullivan , Sr.
Liam Aiken as Peter Sullivan , the doomed younger son of Michael Sullivan , Sr.
Dylan Baker as Alexander Rance , an accountant who holds the ledgers for the Rooney crime syndicate .
Ciarán Hinds as Finn McGovern , the man whose murder by Connor Rooney is witnessed by Sullivan 's son .
Anthony LaPaglia as Al Capone , the notorious crime boss . This character was filmed for a single scene , which was omitted from the final cut , and can be found in the DVD 's deleted scenes . Mendes believed that Capone was more menacing as an unseen presence . Actor Alfred Molina was approached to portray Capone , but Molina was forced to turn the role down due to scheduling conflicts with Frida ( 2002 ) .
= = Production = =
When Max Allan Collins wrote the graphic novel Road to Perdition , his book agent saw potential in the story as a film adaptation and showed it to a film agent . By 1999 , the novel had reached Dean Zanuck , who was the vice president of development at the company owned by his father , producer Richard D. Zanuck . The novel was sent to the elder Zanuck in Morocco , who was there producing Rules of Engagement ( 2000 ) . The Zanucks agreed on the story 's prospect and sent it to director @-@ producer Steven Spielberg . Shortly afterward , Spielberg set up the project at his studio DreamWorks , though he did not pursue direction of the film due to his full slate .
Mendes sought a new project after completing American Beauty ( 1999 ) and explored prospects including A Beautiful Mind , K @-@ PAX , The Shipping News , and The Lookout . DreamWorks sent Mendes Road to Perdition as a prospect , and Mendes was attracted to the story , considering it " narratively very simple , but thematically very complex " . One theme that he saw in the story was of the parents ' world that is inaccessible to their children . Mendes considered the story 's theme to be about how children deal with violence , and whether exposure to violence would render children violent themselves . Mendes described the script as having " no moral absolutes " , a factor that appealed to the director .
= = = Writing = = =
Spielberg first contacted screenwriter David Self to adapt the story into a feature film . Self wrote an initial draft that remained close to the source material and retained most of its dialogue . The screenplay was then rewritten by uncredited writers , distancing the script from the graphic novel and leaving the core elements of the story . Some of the harsher aspects of the story were toned down as the script became more streamlined ; for example , in some early drafts of the screenplay , Sullivan became an alcoholic , but this element was ultimately absent from the final version .
The story itself is deeply informed by the Lone Wolf and Cub manga series . Novelist Max Allan Collins acknowledged the influence of Lone Wolf and Cub on his graphic novel Road to Perdition in an interview to the BBC , declaring that " Road To Perdition is ' an unabashed homage ' to Lone Wolf And Cub " .
Some of the characters ' names were slightly changed from their original versions from the graphic novel : the surname of the real @-@ life gangsters John Looney and his son Connor were changed to Rooney , and the surname of Tom Hanks ' character and his family was streamlined from the original O 'Sullivan to simply Sullivan . One significant addition to the script was the creation of Maguire to provide a persistent element of pursuit to the Sullivans ' departure from the old world .
Hanks and cinematographer Conrad Hall requested Mendes to limit violence in the film to meaningful acts , rather than gratuitous carnage . Hanks ' character , Michael Sullivan , is known as " The Angel of Death " in the graphic novel and invokes fear in those around him , but his infamy is downplayed in the film . Mendes , who described the graphic novel as " much more pulpy " , sought to reduce the graphic novel 's background to its essence , seeking the " nonverbal simplicity " of films like Once Upon a Time in America ( 1984 ) , Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid ( 1973 ) , and films by Akira Kurosawa that lack dialogue . Duplicate language in characters ' confrontations in Road to Perdition was trimmed to the absolute minimum . Mendes described Road to Perdition as a " poetic , elegiac story , in which the pictures tell the story " . An example of one such unspoken scene in the film was the piano duet between Rooney and Michael Sr. , intended to convey their relationship without words . In the final 20 minutes of Road to Perdition , the script was written to have only six lines of dialogue .
The author of the Perdition graphic novel , Max Allan Collins , originally wanted to write the adapted screenplay for the feature film , but was not given the opportunity . He chose to stay out of the scripting process out of respect for the different style of writing for a different medium , though he served as a consultant in the process . Collins praised the addition of Maguire and considered the minimalist use of dialogue to be appropriate . The author also applauded the film 's version of Rooney as " more overtly a father figure " to Sullivan .
Collins opposed the profanity in the script , as the vulgar language did not fit his vision of the 1930s . He also contested the path of Sullivan 's son in the film . In the graphic novel , the son kills once , and in the film , he does not kill anyone . Collins also disagreed with the narration technique of the film . In the novel , the son narrates the story as an adult , becoming a priest , while in the film , he narrates while still a young boy .
= = = Filming = = =
Before filming , Mendes sought to produce a period film that would avoid clichés in the gangster genre . He chose to film Road to Perdition on location in downtown at the University Club of Chicago , the Chicago neighborhood of Pullman as well as the Chicago suburb of Geneva , Illinois . The Armory , the state 's largest location mainstay which houses the Illinois State National Guard , was provided to the studio by the Illinois State Film Commission . Sets were built inside the Armory , including interiors of the Sullivan family 's home and the Rooney mansion . The availability of an inside location provided the crew complete control over the lighting environment , which was established with the rigging of scaffoldings .
Mendes collaborated with costume designer Albert Wolsky , production designer Dennis Gassner , and cinematographer Conrad Hall to design the film 's style . Wolsky designed costumes that were " very controlled , with soft outlines and very soft silhouettes " . Gassner built sets that could capture the cold look of the era . Mendes sought a muted palette for the film , having dark backgrounds and sets with dark , muted greens and grays . Mendes filmed Road to Perdition using the Super 35 format .
The director filmed exterior scenes in Illinois in the winter and the spring of 2001 , using real weather conditions such as snow , rain , and mud for the scenes . Mendes considered the usage of bleak weather conditions and the intended coldness of Gassner 's exterior locations to define the characters ' emotional states . Pullman became a key location to reflect this theme , having several settings , including the town 's historic Florence Hotel , easily redressed by the crew for the film . Filming concluded in June 2001 .
= = = Cinematography = = =
To establish the lighting of scenes in Road to Perdition , Mendes drew from the paintings of Edward Hopper as a source of inspiration , particularly Hopper 's New York Movie ( 1939 ) . Mendes and cinematographer Conrad Hall sought to convey similar atmospheric lighting for the film 's scenes , applying a " less is more " mantra . Hall also shot wide open scenes that retained one point in the depth of field sharply focused . Hall considered the technique to provide an emotional dimension to the scenes . The cinematographer also used unconventional techniques and materials to create unique lighting effects . One of Hall 's methods was to use black silk in daylight exterior scenes to filter the light enough to create an in @-@ shade look .
Hall purposely distanced the camera from Hanks ' character , Michael Sullivan , Sr. , at the beginning of the film to establish the perspective of Sullivan 's son , who is unaware of his father 's true nature . Hanks ' character was filmed as partially obscured and seen through doorways , and his entrances and exits took place in shadows . A wide lens was used to maintain a distance from the character .
Shots in the film were drawn directly from panels in the graphic novel , illustrated by Richard Piers Rayner . An instance of the direct influence is the scene in which Michael , Jr. looks up at the Chicago skyline from the vehicle , with the skyline reflected in the vehicle 's glass .
A seamless 40 @-@ second driving scene , in which Michael Sullivan and his son travel into Chicago from the countryside , was aided by visual effects . The live @-@ action part of the scene was filmed at LaSalle Street , and due to the lack of scenery for part of the drive down LaSalle Street , the background of Balbo Drive was included with the use of visual effects .
= = Themes = =
= = = Consequences of violence = = =
The film 's title , Road to Perdition , is both Michael Sullivan and his son 's destination town and a euphemism for Hell , a road that Sullivan desires to prevent his son from traveling . Sullivan , who chooses his violent path early on in life , considers himself irredeemable and seeks to save his son from a similar fate . Said Mendes , " [ Sullivan ] is in a battle for the soul of his son . Can a man who has led a bad
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? " as second single from the album Rihanna created " a perfect little tropical storm " . He continued : " [ ... ] Over dark , humid synths and swirling snare skitters , she 's in full @-@ on Caribbean @-@ queen mode , dialing up her islander accent and rolling out a to @-@ do list for any adult male seeking entrance into her chambers " . However , he also criticized Drake 's " Square root of 69 " line , stating that Drake sounds like a nerdy guy from a fraternity while he raps it .
= = Chart performance = =
" What 's My Name ? " debuted at number sixty @-@ seven on Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart for the chart week of October 30 , 2010 and steadily rose to a peak of number two . The song debuted at number eighty @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 after being sent to mainstream radio , and in the third week it jumped to number one , after being released digitally ; becoming Rihanna 's eighth number @-@ one single on the chart and Drake 's first . " What 's My Name ? " managed to reach number one on the chart , before the lead single " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , which topped the chart after two weeks . In the same week , it reached the top spot on US Hot Digital Songs with first week sales of 235 @,@ 000 . Rihanna became the first artist in Billboard Hot 100 history to have their first single go to number one after their second single ( " Whats My Name ? " followed by " Only Girl ( In the World ) " ) . Also , Rihanna became the first artist to score a trio of Hot 100 leaders in a year since 2008 , when she achieved the same feat with " Take a Bow " , " Disturbia " and featured vocals on T.I. ' s " Live Your Life . " By its seventh week of digital release , the single crossed the one million mark . The song has sold more than 3 million downloads in the United States alone , and has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America .
In the United Kingdom , following the release of Loud , " What 's My Name ? " debuted at number eighteen on the UK Singles Chart on November 27 , 2010 . The other week , on December 5 , 2010 the song reached a new peak of number eight , and during the same week , Rihanna had two other top @-@ ten singles with " Only Girl ( In the World ) " at number seven and " Who 's That Chick ? " ( by David Guetta featuring Rihanna ) at number nine . With that , Rihanna became the fourth artist in UK chart history to make this achievement . On December 19 , 2010 , the song reached a new peak of number two , where it remained for three weeks before reaching number one on January 9 , 2011 . As a result , Rihanna became the first female artist in UK chart history to have a number @-@ one single in five consecutive years and only the second artist overall to do so ; the first was Elvis Presley , who posted number one singles from 1959 – 63 . It is also Rihanna 's fourth number @-@ one single in the UK . It was also the second time in her career that Rihanna simultaneously topped the singles and albums charts in the UK , the first time being in May 2007 when " Umbrella " and Good Girl Gone Bad topped the UK Singles and UK Album chart , respectively . Rihanna would score another chart double later that year , this time , with " We Found Love " and Talk That Talk . " What 's My Name ? " was also Drake 's first UK number one and remains his highest charting single to date . As of January 2016 , the song has sold 847 @,@ 800 copies in the UK .
= = Music video = =
Rihanna shot the music video for the song on September 26 , 2010 in the Lower East Side of New York City and also a small scene in India , Mumbai with Raam Kapoor and director Philip Andelman . Parts of the video shot with Drake were filmed on October 27 , 2010 . The music video premiered on November 12 , 2010 on Rihanna 's Vevo channel on YouTube .
The video starts with different views from the city , then shifts to a store where Drake is speaking to the cashier . Rihanna enters , grabbing his attention . She smiles at him and walks towards a fridge and grabs a milk package . Drake follows her and his verse begins . He holds her hand as he raps his verse , the milk package falls from her hand as she holds his , thus spilling milk on the floor . When Drake 's verse is over , Rihanna pushes him and walks away with a smile .
When Rihanna 's verse starts , she is shown walking on the street and dancing . Views of people holding instruments and walking on the street are shown , in addition to scenes where Rihanna and Drake are in a bedroom together , flirting , talking and drinking champagne . The final scene shows Rihanna in an outdoor reggae @-@ inspired night party with the people previously shown are now playing instruments as Rihanna sings and dances . The video ends with Drake kissing Rihanna on her cheek in the bedroom .
= = Live performances = =
" What 's My Name ? " was performed for the first time ( without Drake ) on October 30 , 2010 , during Rihanna 's stint on the television show Saturday Night Live . Her outfit for the performance ( high @-@ waisted Daisy Dukes and a bikini top ) drew comparisons to an outfit worn by Rihanna 's friend , singer Katy Perry . Then on November 15 , prior to the album 's release , Rihanna reprised her performance of " What 's My Name ? " for MTV 's The Seven , Live from Times Square , New York . Just a day later , she performed the single again , this time on the Late Show with David Letterman . On November 17 , 2010 , she was interview for and performed the song as part of her set list for her appearance on Good Morning America . At the American Music Awards of 2010 on November 21 , 2010 , Rihanna performed a mini medley of her recent hits which included " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " , " What 's My Name ? " and concluded with " Only Girl ( In the World ) " .
In the United Kingdom , Rihanna was invited back to series seven of The X Factor on December 11 , 2010 , to perform " Unfaithful " with finalist Matt Cardle and a solo performance of " What 's My Name ? " . The finale was watched by fifteen million viewers but attracted complaints , in the thousands , about Rihanna 's choice of outfit and sexual performance . Vivienne Patterson , director of Mediawatch UK , said " I don ’ t think it was suitable for a pre @-@ watershed broadcast , I think that ’ s quite clear " . Britain 's media regulator , Ofcom , later confirmed that it had launched an investigation into the matter after four thousand complaints were registered regarding Rihanna and Christina Aguilera 's appearances at The X Factor finale . Rihanna performed the song with Drake for the first time at the 53rd Grammy Awards on February 13 , 2011 , as well as performing the song as a part of a medley with " Only Girl ( In the World ) " and " S & M " live at the 2011 Brit Awards on February 15 , 2011 . Rihanna also performed the song with Drake at the NBA All Star Game on February 20 , 2011 as well as performing the song as a part of a medley of " Umbrella " / " Only Girl ( In the World ) " / " Rude Boy " / " All of the Lights " ( with Kanye West ) . The song was part of the set list for the Australian leg of the Last Girl on Earth Tour , Loud Tour and the Diamonds World Tour . In May 2011 Rihanna gave a performance of " What 's My Name ? " on NBC 's Today show , as a part of the Summer Concert Series , along with " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , " S & M " and " California King Bed " . Rihanna performed " What 's My Name ? " at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24 , 2012 , as the sixth song on the set list .
= = Formats and track listings = =
Digital download
" What 's My Name ? " ( featuring Drake ) – 4 : 24
Digital Remixes EP
" What 's My Name ? " ( Low Sunday Up On It Extended ) – 5 : 03
" What 's My Name ? " ( Low Sunday Up On It Instrumental ) – 5 : 00
" What 's My Name ? " ( Kik Klap Mixshow ) – 4 : 10
" What 's My Name ? " ( Original Version Clean ) – 4 : 27
German CD single
" What 's My Name ? " ( featuring Drake ) – 4 : 24
" What 's My Name ? " ( Low Sunday " Up On It " Radio ) – 3 : 47
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Loud .
Locations
Recorded at Roc the Mic Studios , New York City ; Westlake Recording Studios , Los Angeles ; The Hit Factory , Miami
Mixed at Ninja Beat Club , Atlanta
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Nude per l 'assassino =
Nude per l 'assassino is a 1975 giallo film directed by Andrea Bianchi . Written by Massimo Felisatti , the film stars Nino Castelnuovo , Edwige Fenech and Solvi Stubing , and features music by Berto Pisano . Nude per l 'assassino has received mixed to negative reviews from critics .
After a model dies while undergoing an illegal abortion , a killer disguised in a motorcycle helmet tracks down and kills the doctor involved . Several models and photographers working at the same agency as the dead girl are also murdered , leading two surviving photographers to fear for their lives as they try to track down the killer .
Nude per l 'assassino is one of several collaborations between Bianchi , Felisatti and cinematographer Franco Delli Colli . The films has been described as a formulaic giallo thriller , and has been cited as an influence on the development of the American slasher film genre .
= = Plot = =
After a fashion model dies while undergoing an illegal abortion , the attending doctor moves her body back to her home , staging her death to remove any trace of his involvement . However , he is murdered by a stranger disguised in racing leathers and a motorcycle helmet . At the Albatross Modelling Agency , womanising photographer Carlo ( Nino Castelnuovo ) embarks on an affair with fellow photographer Magda ( Edwige Fenech ) . Meanwhile , a newly hired model , Patrizia ( Solvi Stubing ) , fends off the unwanted advances of Maurizio ( Franco Diogene ) , whose wife owns the agency . One evening , Mario ( Claudio Pellegrini ) , who also works at the agency , invites a woman in racing leathers into his home for a drink , and is stabbed to death . The police question the agency 's owner Gisella ( Lia Amanda ) and another model , Lucia ( Femi Benussi ) about the killing , but learn very little . Gisella and Lucia are sleeping together ; one night when Gisella leaves after a fight , Lucia is attacked and killed .
Maurizio propositions another model , Doris ( Erna Schürer ) , but when she refuses to sleep with him for money , he attempts to rape her . However , he suffers from premature ejaculation and Doris leaves unharmed . Shortly afterwards , Maurizio is stabbed by the killer . Carlo later witnesses Gisella being murdered , and is able to photograph the attack ; however , he runs off and is injured in a hit and run accident . While he is in hospital , Magda recovers his camera and attempts to develop the film , but the killer breaks in and destroys the negatives . Carlo hurries home , but the killer has gone — going instead to kill Doris and her abusive boyfriend Stefano . Carlo finds Madga alive , but the killer returns to attack them both . During the struggle , the killer is knocked down a flight of stairs . The killer is unmasked and revealed to be Patrizia , who accuses Carlo of causing the death of her sister — the girl who died in the botched abortion , and whose death it is revealed Carlo helped to conceal . However , Patrizia dies of her injuries , leaving no trace of Carlo 's involvement .
= = Production = =
Writer Massimo Felisatti did not wish to be seen as having solely written the film , and gave director Andrea Bianchi credit for the story in order to " deflect his role and not have to bear full responsibility " for the script . Bianchi , Felisatti and cinematographer Franco Delli Colli would collaborate again the following year in La moglie di mio padre . Nude per l 'assassino 's score was written by Berto Pisano , who would also go on to write the score for Bianchi 's 1979 film Malabimba . Bianchi would later cast Femi Benussi , who portrayed one of the slain models , in two other films — La moglie di mio padre and Cara dolce niopte .
Nude per l 'assassino has been described as following " the giallo formula almost to the letter " , demonstrating that " the giallo conventions established by Bava and Argento and elaborated upon by a number of directors in the early 1970s had become well codified " by the time the film was produced . The film has also been cited as being " the perfect bridge to the American slasher film " , with its emphasis on " violence and sex " and a plot " dumbed down to the barest minimum " .
= = Release = =
Nude per l 'assassino was released in Italy on August 26 , 1975 . Upon release in the United Kingdom on October 4 , 1979 , it was rated X by the British Board of Film Classification , following the removal of five minutes of material from the film . It has subsequently received home media releases in English by Blue Underground as Strip Nude for Your Killer , first on DVD on October 25 , 2005 , and on Blu @-@ ray Disc on March 27 , 2012 . Shameless Screen Entertainment also released a DVD version under the title Strip Nude for Your Killer on October 27 , 2008 . The film has also been distributed under the titles Tenebre braccia della morte and Strip Naked for Your Killer .
= = Reception = =
Nude per l 'assassino has been met with mixed to negative reviews . Writing for Allrovi , Jason Buchanan rated the film two stars out of five , calling it " unabashedly sadistic " . Budd Wilkins , writing for Slant magazine , rated the film three stars out of five , calling it " one of the more sordid examples " of the giallo genre . Wilkins noted that the film 's violence " isn 't necessarily stronger than in contemporary giallo films like Argento 's Deep Red " , but that it is " more resolutely tied to aberrant sexuality than almost anywhere else in the genre " . Wilkins also compared the film 's central premise — that of revenge for a failed abortion — to that of Massimo Dallamano 's 1972 film What Have You Done to Solange ? . DVD Talk 's Adam Tyner also gave the film two stars out of five , summarising it as " not much of a movie " . Tyner noted that Nude per l 'assassino " doesn 't set out to be revered as an artistic triumph " , and described it as " worth at least a rental " for fans of the genre .
Writing for The A.V. Club , Noel Murray compared the film to Sergio Martino 's 1972 film Your Vice Is a Locked Room and Only I Have the Key ( Il tuo vizio è una stanza chiusa e solo io ne ho la chiave ) , noting that " both take place among the idle European aristocracy , with vapid models , rugged motocross drivers , bigoted executives , and debauched artists wandering through a world of soft fabrics and bloody , gashed skin " . Bloody Disgusting 's Mike Pereira rated Nude per l 'assassino 0 @.@ 5 out of 5 , writing that it " reeks of amateur hour " . Pereira felt that the film featured " dead @-@ on @-@ arrival pacing " and " terrible filmmaking and acting A staff review for the Italian magazine Nocturno rated the film four out of five , describing it as " one of the most daring " giallo films of the 1970s . Previewing the film 's Blu @-@ ray release , IGN 's David McCutcheon described Nude per l 'assassino as an " infamous shocker that packs more grisly violence and sexual depravity into each frame than just about any other film " .
= Hot n Cold =
" Hot n Cold " is a song by American singer Katy Perry . The song was written by Perry , Dr. Luke and Max Martin and produced by Dr. Luke and Benny Blanco for her second studio album , One of the Boys ( 2008 ) . The track was released as the album 's second single on September 9 , 2008 . The lyrics address an unstable romantic relationship caused by a partner 's mood swings .
The song reached number three on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Perry 's second consecutive top three single , following " I Kissed a Girl " . It also became Perry 's second top five single in the United Kingdom , Australia , Ireland and New Zealand , and topped the charts in Finland , Germany , Canada , Norway , Spain and Denmark , among others . To date , " Hot n Cold " has sold over 5 @.@ 6 million copies in the US , making it one of Perry 's highest @-@ selling singles in the nation .
To promote " Hot n Cold " , Perry marked the song 's live debut with a performance on NBC 's Today . She also performed the song at the 2008 MTV Europe Music Awards , which she hosted . The song 's music video , which was directed by Alan Ferguson , was released on October 1 , 2008 and features Perry as a bride who is about to get married to her fiancée , who experiences a daydream in which she pursues him after he flees from the wedding . " Hot n Cold " was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards . Perry also performed the song on the Hello Katy Tour , California Dreams Tour , and Prismatic World Tour .
= = Background and composition = =
" Hot n Cold " was written by Perry , Dr. Luke and Max Martin and produced by Dr. Luke and Benny Blanco . It was recorded in December 2007 in three studios : Dr. Luke 's Studios in New York City , Conway Recording Studio in Hollywood , California and Legacy Recording Studios in New York ; and was mixed in MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach . The collaboration between Perry and Dr. Luke was set up by record executives at Capitol Records , who felt that One of the Boys was lacking an " undeniable smash or two " at the time , and the two co @-@ wrote " I Kissed a Girl " and " Hot n Cold " as a result . Perry revealed that the song was originally considered for release as the album 's first single , before " I Kissed a Girl " was chosen .
Written in the key of G major , " Hot n Cold " is a pop and dance @-@ pop song which utilizes guitars and synthesizers . It has a length of three minutes and forty seconds ( 3 : 40 ) , and runs at a moderately fast tempo of 132 beats per minute . The lyrics of the song address a lover of Perry whose mood swings are affecting the couple 's relationship . The song opens with Perry confronting her former partner over his frequent changes of mind , singing " You change your mind like a girl changes clothes / Yeah you PMS like a bitch " . In the chorus , she uses antonyms to describe her partner 's mood changes , with the chorus of the song including the lines " You 're hot then you 're cold / You 're yes then you 're no / You 're in then you 're out / You 're up then you 're down " .
= = Critical reception = =
Alex Fletcher of Digital Spy gave the song 3 out of 5 stars , saying " this track doesn 't live up to the hype surrounding its singer , but the choppy guitars and whooshing synths have a certain charm . " In his review for MusicOMH , Darren Harvey called " Hot n Cold " a " Tiffany @-@ style ' 80s pop number " . ChartAttack noted the " frenetic dance @-@ pop " of the track . In a less positive review , Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine criticized the song , saying " Perry confuses political incorrectness with being subversive on tracks like " Hot n Cold , " in which she , in the process of skewering guys who change their minds ' like girls change clothes , ' just winds up sounding mildly sexist . " Jon Caramanica of the The New York Times compared the song to " U + Ur Hand " by Pink , which was also produced by Dr. Luke , saying that it does not share the latter 's " passion " . Lizzie Ennever of BBC felt the track was not " the most single @-@ worthy song " . The Guardian wrote that the song " didn 't seem to capture the public 's imagination " the way her previous single " I Kissed a Girl " did . The song was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards , but lost to Beyoncé 's " Halo " .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Hot n Cold " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 88 on June 28 , 2008 , due to strong digital downloads after the album 's release , falling off the chart the next week . It re @-@ entered the Hot 100 on August 23 , again at number 88 . The song peaked at number three on the Hot 100 on November 22 , making it her second top @-@ three hit after " I Kissed a Girl " . " Hot n Cold " was in the top ten for 18 weeks , spending more time in the top ten than Perry 's previous single " I Kissed a Girl " , which spent 14 weeks . The song was also a bigger radio hit than " I Kissed a Girl " , becoming Perry 's first number one on both US Mainstream Top 40 and Adult Top 40 radio charts . It remained in the Hot 100 for a total of 39 weeks . As of January 2015 , " Hot n Cold " has sold 5 @.@ 6 million copies in the United States , making it Perry 's sixth best @-@ selling single in the country .
In Canada , the song debuted at number 73 and reached the number one position on the chart on November 20 . It was later certified six @-@ times @-@ platinum . The song peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart on December 7 , and was certified platinum . In Ireland , the song peaked at number three . " Hot n Cold " debuted on the German Singles Chart at number two due to strong digital download sales , before topping the chart and spending eight consecutive weeks at number one in Germany . In Australia , the single debuted in the top 50 , before reaching its peak at number four . It has since been certified five @-@ times @-@ platinum in the country . The song peaked at number one in the Czech Republic , and spent ten consecutive weeks at the top of the chart . " Hot n Cold " reached the number one position in Denmark , later being certified two @-@ times @-@ platinum , and hit number one in Austria before being certified platinum .
= = Music video = =
The video begins with Perry at a wedding , about to exchange vows with her diffident fiancé Alexander ( played by actor / model Alexander Rodriguez ) . Perry says her vows , but Alexander hesitates and the church anxiously waits on him to say " I do " . Perry appears frustrated and the music begins to play , with the congregation dancing as disco lights flash . Perry begins to sing the song to Alexander before he flees the altar . She pursues him , and they proceed to play a cat @-@ and @-@ mouse game . Perry corners him in a warehouse , and Alexander is pulled into an audience and forced to crowd @-@ surf while watching Perry perform the song on stage . He manages to escape , but walks out to find Perry in her wedding dress surrounded by several other brides carrying baseball bats . Perry confronts him , but he is able to get away .
Perry and the other brides chase after him . When Alexander pulls out his phone , Perry is on the screen singing to him . He flees the warehouse and finds Perry outside wearing urban clothing , surrounded by dancers dressed similarly . When he turns around , he discovers that he has been cornered by Perry and the group of angry brides . He stumbles and the dancers surround him as he lies on the ground , before Perry approaches him leading a zebra on a leash . Alexander blinks and finds himself back at the altar in the church , revealing that the previous events were just his fantasy . The priest asks him again if he accepts his vows , and this time he says " I do " . The crowd in the church breaks out into cheers and sighs of relief as Perry runs victoriously down the aisle with him .
Perry 's friend Jadyn Maria appears in the music video as a bridesmaid , and her parents Keith and Mary Hudson also make cameos . The video for " Hot n Cold " was recorded in Los Angeles in September 2008 and released on October 1 , 2008 . It was directed by Alan Ferguson . Rolling Stone described the music video as " a colorful cat @-@ and @-@ mouse chase that 's equal parts goofy and glam . " Capital FM wrote that the video " had us in stitches " .
= = Live performances = =
Perry made the live television premiere performance of " Hot n Cold " on NBC 's Today on August 29 , 2008 . Perry performed the song live at the 2008 MTV Europe Music Awards in Liverpool , which she also hosted , on November 6 to close the show . The song was also performed as the opener at the 2008 YouTube Live event on November 22 , 2008 . Perry performed the song with Taylor Swift at the Staples Center show during the Fearless Tour on April 15 , 2010 . The song has been included in the setlists of Perry 's Hello Katy , California Dreams , and Prismatic World tours . During the California Dreams Tour , Perry performed a " magic trick " that involved her changing into 7 different outfits during the number . Perry performed the song on her The Prismatic World Tour in a slow jazz version with her dressing in a pink @-@ catsuit with her dancers dressed in a similar way .
= = Usage in media = =
Perry filmed a performance of a version of the song with puppet character Elmo from Sesame Street , which was intended to teach children about antonyms . The clip was originally scheduled to run on the 41st @-@ season premiere of the educational children 's program on September 27 , 2010 , however the performance , which was uploaded to YouTube earlier , garnered controversy over the amount of cleavage Perry had on display in the video . Before the scheduled airing , Sesame Workshop announced that after controversy over the clip , " We have decided we will not air the segment on the television broadcast of Sesame Street , which is aimed at preschoolers . Katy Perry fans will still be able to view the video on YouTube . " Perry mocked the controversy shortly afterwards in a skit during her appearance on Saturday Night Live as a musical guest , wearing an Elmo @-@ themed shirt which showed large amounts of cleavage .
The song was used as the theme music for MasterChef Australia and its associated TV ads .
" Hot n Cold " was featured in the opening sequence for the film The Ugly Truth .
The song was featured in the trailer for the film The Proposal and the final trailer for Inside Out .
Perry recorded a cover version in the fictional language of " Simlish " which was used in the video game The Sims 2 .
The song appeared in the second iCarly soundtrack , iSoundtrack II .
During the 2010 Sant Jordi festivities in Barcelona , the ( 350 + ) staff in one of the main buildings of the Polytechnic University of Catalonia used the ostensibly massive amounts of free time available to them to perform a notorious lip dub of the song that reached over 150000 views on YouTube .
= = Track listing = =
Remixes
" Hot n Cold " ( Party Rock Remix ) ( ft LMFAO ) – 3 : 41
= = Credits and personnel = =
Katy Perry - composer , vocals
Dr. Luke – bass , composer , drums , guitars , programming
Max Martin - composer , guitars
Benny Blanco - drums , programming
Steven Wolf - programming
Serban Ghenea - mixing
John Hanes - mix engineer
Emily Wright - engineer
Sam Holland - engineer
Nick Banns - engineer
Tatiana Gottwald - engineer
Tina Kennedy - engineer
Credits adapted from One of the Boys album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on @-@ demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads .
= = Release history = =
= = Covers = =
= = = Woe , Is Me version = = =
Atlanta @-@ based metalcore band , Woe , Is Me covered the track for the compilation album Punk Goes Pop 3 , which was released on November 2 , 2010 . The song was leaked on October 6 , 2010 , and was officially released as a single for digital download on October 21 , 2010 . MTV News described the band 's cover as " 50 percent faithful to the original and ..... 50 percent punishing , metal and gravel @-@ throated growls . It must be heard to be believed . "
= = = The Baseballs version = = =
" Hot n Cold " was covered by the German rockabilly cover band The Baseballs in 2009 from their debut album Strike ! . Their cover charted in the band 's home country of Germany , as well as in Finland and Switzerland .
= = = = Charts = = = =
= = = Other cover versions = = =
The song was covered by British ska and indie band Kid British on their 2009 EP iTunes Live : London Festival ' 09 .
The Chipettes covered the song for the movie Alvin and the Chipmunks : The Squeakquel and the movie 's soundtrack . In this version the line " You PMS , like a bitch , I would know " is changed to " You always stress like a chick , I would know " .
Selena Gomez & the Scene performed the song during their 2009 Selena Gomez & the Scene : Live in Concert tour .
= Maryland Route 70 =
Maryland Route 70 ( MD 70 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known for most of its length as Roscoe Rowe Boulevard , the highway runs 2 @.@ 31 miles ( 3 @.@ 72 km ) from MD 450 in Annapolis north to Bestgate Road in Parole . MD 70 is the primary highway connecting U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) and US 301 with downtown Annapolis . The highway also serves several sets of Maryland state government offices and Navy @-@ Marine Corps Memorial Stadium . MD 70 was constructed in the mid @-@ 1950s contemporaneously with the US 50 freeway . The highway was extended north to Bestgate Road in the early 1990s .
= = Route description = =
MD 70 begins at an intersection with MD 450 ( College Avenue ) in downtown Annapolis . This intersection is next to Government House , the residence of the Governor of Maryland , and one block north of the Maryland State House . MD 70 heads northwest for two blocks as Bladen Street , a four @-@ lane divided boulevard that passes between state office buildings , including the offices of members of the Maryland General Assembly . At Calvert Street , the highway 's name changes to Roscoe Rowe Boulevard . A two @-@ lane ramp splits from southbound MD 70 just south of the southern end of the highway 's bridge over College Creek , the point at which maintenance responsibility changes from the city of Annapolis to the state . The highway passes between several sets of government offices , including the Maryland Court of Appeals and the Maryland State Archives , leading up to its intersection with MD 435 ( Taylor Avenue ) . MD 70 passes to the east of Navy @-@ Marine Corps Memorial Stadium before crossing Weems Creek and leaving the city of Annapolis . The highway meets US 50 and US 301 ( John Hanson Highway ) at a partial cloverleaf interchange . Beyond the interchange , MD 70 curves to the west and intersects Bestgate Road and Tidewater Colony Drive ; the latter street leads to the historic home Howard 's Inheritance . The highway continues along Bestgate Road and becomes a four @-@ lane road with a center turn lane before reaching its northern terminus at an arbitrary point west of Compton Drive and Willie Drive . Bestgate Road continues west as a county highway toward the Annapolis Mall in the center of Parole .
= = History = =
MD 70 from College Avenue to US 50 and US 301 is named for Roscoe C. Rowe , the mayor of Annapolis from 1949 until his 1952 death . Rowe was credited with organizing the city of Annapolis 's financial contribution to construct the boulevard and for persuading the Maryland State Roads Commission to finance the construction of the bridge across College Creek . Construction of MD 70 began from US 50 , then also under construction , to Weems Creek , including the bridge over the creek , in October 1952 . Construction on the highway resumed in May 1954 ; the section from Weems Creek to College Avenue was completed in November 1954 , five months after the US 50 freeway opened from MD 450 to MD 2 east of the Severn River . The boulevard 's interchange with US 50 was originally a trumpet interchange . MD 70 's southern end was originally a one @-@ way pair ; traffic leaving Annapolis followed Bladen Street from College Avenue toward College Creek and traffic entering Annapolis veered south onto Northwest Street to end at Church Circle . Bladen Street was expanded to a two @-@ way boulevard in 1983 . MD 70 was extended north to its present terminus and its junction with US 50 and US 301 was changed to a partial cloverleaf interchange in 1991 . The state highway 's bridges over Weems Creek and College Creek were replaced between 2004 and 2006 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Anne Arundel County .
= = Auxiliary routes = =
MD 70 has two existing auxiliary routes and one former route . All three routes were established in 2002 along county highways relocated as part of the extension of MD 70 north to Bestgate Road .
MD 70A is the designation for the 0 @.@ 15 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 24 km ) stretch of North Lawrence Road north from MD 70 .
MD 70B was the designation for the 0 @.@ 09 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 14 km ) portion of Tidewater Colony Drive south from the intersection between Roscoe Rowe Boulevard and Bestgate Road . MD 70B was transferred to county maintenance in 2009 .
MD 70C is the designation for the 0 @.@ 08 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 13 km ) segment of Bestgate Road east from the intersection of MD 70 and Tidewater Colony Drive .
= Pennsylvanian ( train ) =
The Pennsylvanian is a 444 @-@ mile ( 715 km ) daytime Amtrak train running between New York and Pittsburgh via Philadelphia . The trains travel across the Appalachian Mountains , through Pennsylvania 's capital Harrisburg , the Pennsylvania Dutch Country , suburban and central Philadelphia , and New Jersey en route to New York . Trains run once daily in each direction . The entire train ride takes about 9 hours total , with 1 @.@ 5 hours between New York and Philadelphia , 2 hours between Philadelphia and Harrisburg , and 5 @.@ 5 hours between Harrisburg and Pittsburgh .
The Pennsylvanian is a once a day replacement of the Keystone service between New York and Harrisburg , offering Business Class seating as an upgrade to the coach @-@ only seating on Keystone trains . Prior to Amtrak , the route was known as the Duquesne , named after Fort Duquesne in Pittsburgh , and operated by the Pennsylvania Railroad . The Pennsylvanian began on April 27 , 1980 , as a state @-@ supported daylight train between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh , with connecting service to New York . Amtrak would later extend the train to serve New York directly . Between November , 1998 and January , 2003 , Amtrak shifted the endpoints west to Chicago and Philadelphia , providing daylight service to Cleveland , Ohio . In 2003 the Pennsylvanian reverted to a Pittsburgh – New York schedule . On its inauguration the Pennsylvanian used Amfleet equipment and continues to be so equipped .
= = History = =
The Pennsylvanian is the replacement of the former Keystone service between New York and Pittsburgh . Prior to Amtrak , the route was known as the Duquesne , named after Fort Duquesne in Pittsburgh , and operated by the Pennsylvania Railroad . The Duquesne had a long history , finally becoming a daily New York — Pittsburgh train on October 25 , 1959 , numbered 16 eastbound and 25 westbound . With the start of Amtrak operations on May 1 , 1971 , the Duquesne was renamed the Keystone and renumbered 42 westbound and 43 eastbound with the first Amtrak timetable on November 14 , 1971 . The Keystone was discontinued on April 30 , 1972 .
The immediate impetus for the Pennsylvanian was the discontinuance of the National Limited , a New York – Kansas City train which had provided service over the corridor . The Pennsylvanian began on April 27 , 1980 , as a state @-@ supported daylight train between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh , with connecting service to New York via the Philadelphian ( a Clocker ) westbound and the Montrealer eastbound . At the time the Pennsylvanian was inaugurated , the Broadway Limited was departing Pittsburgh at an inconvenient early morning hour . The new train ran with Amfleet equipment , including a cafe car . Pennsylvania agreed to pay 20 % of the train 's costs for the first year , or $ 580 @,@ 000 , with the state and Amtrak eventually splitting the costs 50 / 50 by the third year .
Between 1981 and 1983 , Pennsylvanian equipment was turned every night to operate a second state @-@ supported train , the Fort Pitt , which ran from Pittsburgh to Altoona . Amtrak withdrew this train in early 1983 after the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation ( PennDOT ) declined to continue subsidizing the increased operation . At the time the Fort Pitt carried 30 passengers per day .
After significant ridership gains in 1984 , PennDOT proposed that a second train be added to the route . PennDOT and Amtrak would have split the costs evenly . Amtrak officials were favorable , but budget problems stalled the plan .
In the late 1980s passenger @-@ rail groups urged Amtrak to extend the Pennsylvanian to Cleveland , Ohio . Proposals included new stations in Sewickley and Beaver Falls . Pressure increased in 1989 when Amtrak announced the re @-@ routing of the Broadway Limited and Capitol Limited over that same route as part of a restructuring of routes in Indiana . As part of this change , the Capitol Limited began serving the Cleveland — Pittsburgh route , albeit in the middle of the night . Amtrak and PennDOT considered two routes for an extended Pennsylvanian : one via Alliance , Ohio ( following the route of the Capitol Limited ) and one via Youngstown , Ohio ( partially following the Broadway Limited ) with a new stop in New Castle , Pennsylvania .
On November 7 , 1998 , Amtrak extended the Pennsylvanian through to Chicago along the route of the Capitol Limited via Toledo , finally bringing a daylight connection to Cleveland . The Three Rivers continued to run over a different schedule via Akron and Fostoria . As part of the change Amtrak truncated the eastern end to Philadelphia , enabling the train to complete the run within a single day . Amtrak returned the Pennsylvanian to the New York — Pittsburgh route on January 27 , 2003 , citing low ridership and Amtrak 's withdrawal from the express freight business . On November 1 , 2004 , Amtrak merged the Pennsylvanian and Three Rivers , keeping the latter name with a western terminus in Chicago . Amtrak had sought $ 2 @.@ 5 million in assistance from Pennsylvania to keep both trains running . On March 8 , 2005 , Amtrak truncated service to Pittsburgh — New York and restored the Pennsylvanian name to the route .
As of 2010 there is no through service west of Pittsburgh ; the Capitol Limited continues to provide service to Chicago , though as part of its federally mandated analysis of the worst @-@ performing long @-@ distance routes , Amtrak determined that reinstating a through @-@ car connection with the Pennsylvanian would result in the highest gain in monetary and customer service measurements of possible options . To implement this , Amtrak plans to operate a Viewliner sleeper car , an Amfleet cafe car and two Amfleet coaches between Chicago and New York approximating the historic Broadway Limited , via the Capitol Limited and Pennsylvanian . This would begin when funding and equipment is available .
On January 28 , 2011 , it was announced that Pennsylvania had received a $ 750 @,@ 000 grant from the federal government to study expanding service westwards from Harrisburg to Pittsburgh along the route of the Pennsylvanian , including higher speeds and additional frequencies .
During fiscal year 2011 , the Pennsylvanian carried over 200 @,@ 000 passengers , a 2 % increase over FY2010 . The train had a total revenue of $ 8 @,@ 856 @,@ 539 during FY2011 , up 4 @.@ 8 % from FY2010 . In Fiscal Years 2012 and 2013 , ridership increased to 212 @,@ 006 and 218 @,@ 997 respectively . Likewise , revenue increased to $ 9 @.@ 28 and $ 10 @.@ 4 million respectively . In May 2013 the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania agreed to $ 3 @.@ 8 million in funding to subsidize the service .
In November 2013 , The Pennsylvania Department of Transportation announced that funding would be provided for the train to operate until October 1 , 2014 . The change in subsidiary resulted from PRIIA laws passed in 2009 that requires states to subsidize Amtrak routes less than 750 miles in length
= = Equipment = =
On its inauguration the Pennsylvanian ran with then @-@ new Amfleet equipment : two coaches and a cafe . Today the Pennsylvanian continues to use an all @-@ Amfleet consist although the number of coaches has grown to six . The train consists of an Amfleet I business class car , an Amfleet I cafe car , an Amfleet I coach , and three Amfleet II long @-@ distance coach cars . Motive power is usually a Genesis diesel @-@ electric locomotive west of Philadelphia . East of Philadelphia , the motive power is a Siemens ACS @-@ 64 electric locomotive ; an engine swap is made at 30th Street Station in Philadelphia . Since the Keystone Corridor is now equipped with ACSES , or Amtrak 's version of Positive Train Control , only ACSES @-@ equipped locomotives are able to lead between Philadelphia and Harrisburg . This requires either an Siemens ACS @-@ 64 ahead of the Genesis locomotive or a Genesis equipped with ACSES .
= = Route = =
The Pennsylvanian follows the Pennsylvania Railroad 's Main Line over the following trackage :
Amtrak : New York @-@ Philadelphia @-@ Harrisburg
Northeast Corridor
Keystone Corridor
Norfolk Southern Railway : Harrisburg @-@ Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh Line
= Stephen I of Hungary =
Stephen I , also known as King Saint Stephen ( Hungarian : Szent István király ; Latin : Sanctus Stephanus ; Slovak : Štefan I. or Štefan Veľký ; c . 975 – 15 August 1038 AD ) , was the last Grand Prince of the Hungarians between 997 and 1000 or 1001 , and the first King of Hungary from 1000 or 1001 until his death in 1038 . The year of his birth is uncertain , but many details of his life suggest that he was born in or after 975 in Esztergom . At his birth , he was given the pagan name Vajk . The date of his baptism is unknown . He was the only son of Grand Prince Géza and his wife , Sarolt , who was descended from the prominent family of the gyulas . Although both of his parents were baptized , Stephen was the first member of his family to become a devout Christian . He married Gisela of Bavaria , a scion of the imperial Ottonian dynasty .
After succeeding his father in 997 , Stephen had to fight for the throne against his relative , Koppány , who was supported by large numbers of pagan warriors . He defeated Koppány mainly with the assistance of foreign knights , including Vecelin , Hont and Pázmány , but also with help from native lords . He was crowned on 25 December 1000 or 1 January 1001 with a crown sent by Pope Sylvester II . In a series of wars against semi @-@ independent tribes and chieftains — including the Black Hungarians and his uncle , Gyula the Younger — he unified the Carpathian Basin . He protected the independence of his kingdom by forcing the invading troops of Conrad II , Holy Roman Emperor , to withdraw from Hungary in 1030 .
Stephen established at least one archbishopric , six bishoprics and three Benedictine monasteries ; thus the Church in Hungary developed independently of the archbishops of the Holy Roman Empire . He encouraged the spread of Christianity with severe punishments for ignoring Christian customs . His system of local administration was based on counties organized around fortresses and administered by royal officials . Hungary , which enjoyed a lasting period of peace during his reign , became a preferred route for pilgrims and merchants traveling between Western Europe and the Holy Land or Constantinople .
He survived all of his children . He died on 15 August 1038 and was buried in his new basilica , built in Székesfehérvár and dedicated to the Holy Virgin . His death caused civil wars which lasted for decades . He was canonized by Pope Gregory VII , together with his son , Emeric , and Bishop Gerard of Csanád , in 1083 . Stephen is a popular saint in Hungary and the neighboring territories . In Hungary , his feast day ( celebrated on 20 August ) is also a public holiday commemorating the foundation of the state .
= = Early years ( c . 975 – 997 ) = =
Stephen 's birth date is uncertain because it was not recorded in contemporaneous documents . Hungarian and Polish chronicles written centuries later give three different years : 967 , 969 and 975 . The unanimous testimony of his three late 11th @-@ century or early 12th @-@ century hagiographies and other Hungarian sources , which state that Stephen was " still an adolescent " in 997 , substantiate the reliability of the later year ( 975 ) . Stephen 's Lesser Legend adds that he was born in Esztergom , which implies that he was born after 972 because his father , Géza , Grand Prince of the Hungarians , chose Esztergom as royal residence around that year . Géza promoted the spread of Christianity among his subjects by force , but
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languages are thus in some way related , even if that relation can no longer be recovered ... because of limitations on the methods available for reconstruction .
Because language emerged in the early prehistory of man , before the existence of any written records , its early development has left no historical traces , and it is believed that no comparable processes can be observed today . Theories that stress continuity often look at animals to see if , for example , primates display any traits that can be seen as analogous to what pre @-@ human language must have been like . And early human fossils can be inspected for traces of physical adaptation to language use or pre @-@ linguistic forms of symbolic behaviour . Among the signs in human fossils that may suggest linguistic abilities are the size of the brain relative to body mass , the presence of a larynx capable of advanced sound production and the nature of tools and other manufactured artifacts .
It is mostly undisputed that pre @-@ human australopithecines did not have communication systems significantly different from those found in great apes in general , but scholarly opinions vary as to the developments since the appearance of the genus Homo some 2 @.@ 5 million years ago . Some scholars assume the development of primitive language @-@ like systems ( proto @-@ language ) as early as Homo habilis ( 2 @.@ 3 million years ago ) while others place the development of primitive symbolic communication only with Homo erectus ( 1 @.@ 8 million years ago ) or Homo heidelbergensis ( 0 @.@ 6 million years ago ) , and the development of language proper with Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens with the Upper Paleolithic revolution less than 100 @,@ 000 years ago .
= = The study of language = =
The study of language , linguistics , has been developing into a science since the first grammatical descriptions of particular languages in India more than 2000 years ago , after the development of the Brahmi script . Modern linguistics is a science that concerns itself with all aspects of language , examining it from all of the theoretical viewpoints described above .
= = = Subdisciplines = = =
The academic study of language is conducted within many different disciplinary areas and from different theoretical angles , all of which inform modern approaches to linguistics . For example , descriptive linguistics examines the grammar of single languages , theoretical linguistics develops theories on how best to conceptualize and define the nature of language based on data from the various extant human languages , sociolinguistics studies how languages are used for social purposes informing in turn the study of the social functions of language and grammatical description , neurolinguistics studies how language is processed in the human brain and allows the experimental testing of theories , computational linguistics builds on theoretical and descriptive linguistics to construct computational models of language often aimed at processing natural language or at testing linguistic hypotheses , and historical linguistics relies on grammatical and lexical descriptions of languages to trace their individual histories and reconstruct trees of language families by using the comparative method .
= = = Early history = = =
The formal study of language is often considered to have started in India with Pāṇini , the 5th century BC grammarian who formulated 3 @,@ 959 rules of Sanskrit morphology . However , Sumerian scribes already studied the differences between Sumerian and Akkadian grammar around 1900 BC . Subsequent grammatical traditions developed in all of the ancient cultures that adopted writing .
In the 17th century AD , the French Port @-@ Royal Grammarians developed the idea that the grammars of all languages were a reflection of the universal basics of thought , and therefore that grammar was universal . In the 18th century , the first use of the comparative method by British philologist and expert on ancient India William Jones sparked the rise of comparative linguistics . The scientific study of language was broadened from Indo @-@ European to language in general by Wilhelm von Humboldt . Early in the 20th century , Ferdinand de Saussure introduced the idea of language as a static system of interconnected units , defined through the oppositions between them .
By introducing a distinction between diachronic and synchronic analyses of language , he laid the foundation of the modern discipline of linguistics . Saussure also introduced several basic dimensions of linguistic analysis that are still fundamental in many contemporary linguistic theories , such as the distinctions between syntagm and paradigm , and the Langue @-@ parole distinction , distinguishing language as an abstract system ( langue ) , from language as a concrete manifestation of this system ( parole ) .
= = = Contemporary linguistics = = =
In the 1960s , Noam Chomsky formulated the generative theory of language . According to this theory , the most basic form of language is a set of syntactic rules that is universal for all humans and which underlies the grammars of all human languages . This set of rules is called Universal Grammar ; for Chomsky , describing it is the primary objective of the discipline of linguistics . Thus , he considered that the grammars of individual languages are only of importance to linguistics insofar as they allow us to deduce the universal underlying rules from which the observable linguistic variability is generated .
In opposition to the formal theories of the generative school , functional theories of language propose that since language is fundamentally a tool , its structures are best analyzed and understood by reference to their functions . Formal theories of grammar seek to define the different elements of language and describe the way they relate to each other as systems of formal rules or operations , while functional theories seek to define the functions performed by language and then relate them to the linguistic elements that carry them out . The framework of cognitive linguistics interprets language in terms of the concepts ( which are sometimes universal , and sometimes specific to a particular language ) which underlie its forms . Cognitive linguistics is primarily concerned with how the mind creates meaning through language .
= = Physiological and neural architecture of language and speech = =
Speaking is the default modality for language in all cultures . The production of spoken language depends on sophisticated capacities for controlling the lips , tongue and other components of the vocal apparatus , the ability to acoustically decode speech sounds , and the neurological apparatus required for acquiring and producing language . The study of the genetic bases for human language is at an early stage : the only gene that has definitely been implicated in language production is FOXP2 , which may cause a kind of congenital language disorder if affected by mutations .
= = = The brain and language = = =
The brain is the coordinating center of all linguistic activity ; it controls both the production of linguistic cognition and of meaning and the mechanics of speech production . Nonetheless , our knowledge of the neurological bases for language is quite limited , though it has advanced considerably with the use of modern imaging techniques . The discipline of linguistics dedicated to studying the neurological aspects of language is called neurolinguistics .
Early work in neurolinguistics involved the study of language in people with brain lesions , to see how lesions in specific areas affect language and speech . In this way , neuroscientists in the 19th century discovered that two areas in the brain are crucially implicated in language processing . The first area is Wernicke 's area , which is located in the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus in the dominant cerebral hemisphere . People with a lesion in this area of the brain develop receptive aphasia , a condition in which there is a major impairment of language comprehension , while speech retains a natural @-@ sounding rhythm and a relatively normal sentence structure . The second area is Broca 's area , located in the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the dominant hemisphere . People with a lesion to this area develop expressive aphasia , meaning that they know what they want to say , they just cannot get it out . They are typically able to understand what is being said to them , but unable to speak fluently . Other symptoms that may be present in expressive aphasia include problems with fluency , articulation , word @-@ finding , word repetition , and producing and comprehending complex grammatical sentences , both orally and in writing . Those with this aphasia also exhibit ungrammatical speech and show inability to use syntactic information to determine the meaning of sentences . Both expressive and receptive aphasia also affect the use of sign language , in analogous ways to how they affect speech , with expressive aphasia causing signers to sign slowly and with incorrect grammar , whereas a signer with receptive aphasia will sign fluently , but make little sense to others and have difficulties comprehending others ' signs . This shows that the impairment is specific to the ability to use language , not to the physiology used for speech production .
With technological advances in the late 20th century , neurolinguists have also incorporated non @-@ invasive techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) and electrophysiology to study language processing in individuals without impairments .
= = = Anatomy of speech = = =
Spoken language relies on human physical ability to produce sound , which is a longitudinal wave propagated through the air at a frequency capable of vibrating the ear drum . This ability depends on the physiology of the human speech organs . These organs consist of the lungs , the voice box ( larynx ) , and the upper vocal tract – the throat , the mouth , and the nose . By controlling the different parts of the speech apparatus , the airstream can be manipulated to produce different speech sounds .
The sound of speech can be analyzed into a combination of segmental and suprasegmental elements . The segmental elements are those that follow each other in sequences , which are usually represented by distinct letters in alphabetic scripts , such as the Roman script . In free flowing speech , there are no clear boundaries between one segment and the next , nor usually are there any audible pauses between words . Segments therefore are distinguished by their distinct sounds which are a result of their different articulations , and they can be either vowels or consonants . Suprasegmental phenomena encompass such elements as stress , phonation type , voice timbre , and prosody or intonation , all of which may have effects across multiple segments .
Consonants and vowel segments combine to form syllables , which in turn combine to form utterances ; these can be distinguished phonetically as the space between two inhalations . Acoustically , these different segments are characterized by different formant structures , that are visible in a spectrogram of the recorded sound wave ( See illustration of Spectrogram of the formant structures of three English vowels ) . Formants are the amplitude peaks in the frequency spectrum of a specific sound .
Vowels are those sounds that have no audible friction caused by the narrowing or obstruction of some part of the upper vocal tract . They vary in quality according to the degree of lip aperture and the placement of the tongue within the oral cavity . Vowels are called close when the lips are relatively closed , as in the pronunciation of the vowel [ i ] ( English " ee " ) , or open when the lips are relatively open , as in the vowel [ a ] ( English " ah " ) . If the tongue is located towards the back of the mouth , the quality changes , creating vowels such as [ u ] ( English " oo " ) . The quality also changes depending on whether the lips are rounded as opposed to unrounded , creating distinctions such as that between [ i ] ( unrounded front vowel such as English " ee " ) and [ y ] ( rounded front vowel such as German " ü " ) .
Consonants are those sounds that have audible friction or closure at some point within the upper vocal tract . Consonant sounds vary by place of articulation , i.e. the place in the vocal tract where the airflow is obstructed , commonly at the lips , teeth , alveolar ridge , palate , velum , uvula , or glottis . Each place of articulation produces a different set of consonant sounds , which are further distinguished by manner of articulation , or the kind of friction , whether full closure , in which case the consonant is called occlusive or stop , or different degrees of aperture creating fricatives and approximants . Consonants can also be either voiced or unvoiced , depending on whether the vocal cords are set in vibration by airflow during the production of the sound . Voicing is what separates English [ s ] in bus ( unvoiced sibilant ) from [ z ] in buzz ( voiced sibilant ) .
Some speech sounds , both vowels and consonants , involve release of air flow through the nasal cavity , and these are called nasals or nasalized sounds . Other sounds are defined by the way the tongue moves within the mouth : such as the l @-@ sounds ( called laterals , because the air flows along both sides of the tongue ) , and the r @-@ sounds ( called rhotics ) that are characterized by how the tongue is positioned relative to the air stream .
By using these speech organs , humans can produce hundreds of distinct sounds : some appear very often in the world 's languages , whereas others are much more common in certain language families , language areas , or even specific to a single language .
= = Structure = =
When described as a system of symbolic communication , language is traditionally seen as consisting of three parts : signs , meanings , and a code connecting signs with their meanings . The study of the process of semiosis , how signs and meanings are combined , used , and interpreted is called semiotics . Signs can be composed of sounds , gestures , letters , or symbols , depending on whether the language is spoken , signed , or written , and they can be combined into complex signs , such as words and phrases . When used in communication , a sign is encoded and transmitted by a sender through a channel to a receiver who decodes it .
Some of the properties that define human language as opposed to other communication systems are : the arbitrariness of the linguistic sign , meaning that there is no predictable connection between a linguistic sign and its meaning ; the duality of the linguistic system , meaning that linguistic structures are built by combining elements into larger structures that can be seen as layered , e.g. how sounds build words and words build phrases ; the discreteness of the elements of language , meaning that the elements out of which linguistic signs are constructed are discrete units , e.g. sounds and words , that can be distinguished from each other and rearranged in different patterns ; and the productivity of the linguistic system , meaning that the finite number of linguistic elements can be combined into a theoretically infinite number of combinations .
The rules by which signs can be combined to form words and phrases are called syntax or grammar . The meaning that is connected to individual signs , morphemes , words , phrases , and texts is called semantics . The division of language into separate but connected systems of sign and meaning goes back to the first linguistic studies of de Saussure and is now used in almost all branches of linguistics .
= = = Semantics = = =
Languages express meaning by relating a sign form to a meaning , or its content . Sign forms must be something that can be perceived , for example , in sounds , images , or gestures , and then related to a specific meaning by social convention . Because the basic relation of meaning for most linguistic signs is based on social convention , linguistic signs can be considered arbitrary , in the sense that the convention is established socially and historically , rather than by means of a natural relation between a specific sign form and its meaning .
Thus , languages must have a vocabulary of signs related to specific meaning . The English sign " dog " denotes , for example , a member of the species Canis familiaris . In a language , the array of arbitrary signs connected to specific meanings is called the lexicon , and a single sign connected to a meaning is called a lexeme . Not all meanings in a language are represented by single words . Often , semantic concepts are embedded in the morphology or syntax of the language in the form of grammatical categories .
All languages contain the semantic structure of predication : a structure that predicates a property , state , or action . Traditionally , semantics has been understood to be the study of how speakers and interpreters assign truth values to statements , so that meaning is understood to be the process by which a predicate can be said to be true or false about an entity , e.g. " [ x [ is y ] ] " or " [ x [ does y ] ] " . Recently , this model of semantics has been complemented with more dynamic models of meaning that incorporate shared knowledge about the context in which a sign is interpreted into the production of meaning . Such models of meaning are explored in the field of pragmatics .
= = = Sounds and symbols = = =
Depending on modality , language structure can be based on systems of sounds ( speech ) , gestures ( sign languages ) , or graphic or tactile symbols ( writing ) . The ways in which languages use sounds or signs to construct meaning are studied in phonology . The study of how humans produce and perceive vocal sounds is called phonetics . In spoken language , meaning is produced when sounds become part of a system in which some sounds can contribute to expressing meaning and others do not . In any given language , only a limited number of the many distinct sounds that can be created by the human vocal apparatus contribute to constructing meaning .
Sounds as part of a linguistic system are called phonemes . Phonemes are abstract units of sound , defined as the smallest units in a language that can serve to distinguish between the meaning of a pair of minimally different words , a so @-@ called minimal pair . In English , for example , the words bat [ bæt ] and pat [ pʰæt ] form a minimal pair , in which the distinction between / b / and / p / differentiates the two words , which have different meanings . However , each language contrasts sounds in different ways . For example , in a language that does not distinguish between voiced and unvoiced consonants , the sounds [ p ] and [ b ] ( if they both occur ) could be considered a single phoneme , and consequently , the two pronunciations would have the same meaning . Similarly , the English language does not distinguish phonemically between aspirated and non @-@ aspirated pronunciations of consonants , as many other languages like Korean and Hindi do : the unaspirated / p / in spin [ spɪn ] and the aspirated / p / in pin [ pʰɪn ] are considered to be merely different ways of pronouncing the same phoneme ( such variants of a single phoneme are called allophones ) , whereas in Mandarin Chinese , the same difference in pronunciation distinguishes between the words [ pʰá ] ' crouch ' and [ pá ] ' eight ' ( the accent above the á means that the vowel is pronounced with a high tone ) .
All spoken languages have phonemes of at least two different categories , vowels and consonants , that can be combined to form syllables . As well as segments such as consonants and vowels , some languages also use sound in other ways to convey meaning . Many languages , for example , use stress , pitch , duration , and tone to distinguish meaning . Because these phenomena operate outside of the level of single segments , they are called suprasegmental . Some languages have only a few phonemes , for example , Rotokas and Pirahã language with 11 and 10 phonemes respectively , whereas languages like Taa may have as many as 141 phonemes . In sign languages , the equivalent to phonemes ( formerly called cheremes ) are defined by the basic elements of gestures , such as hand shape , orientation , location , and motion , which correspond to manners of articulation in spoken language .
Writing systems represent language using visual symbols , which may or may not correspond to the sounds of spoken language . The Latin alphabet ( and those on which it is based or that have been derived from it ) was originally based on the representation of single sounds , so that words were constructed from letters that generally denote a single consonant or vowel in the structure of the word . In syllabic scripts , such as the Inuktitut syllabary , each sign represents a whole syllable . In logographic scripts , each sign represents an entire word , and will generally bear no relation to the sound of that word in spoken language .
Because all languages have a very large number of words , no purely logographic scripts are known to exist . Written language represents the way spoken sounds and words follow one after another by arranging symbols according to a pattern that follows a certain direction . The direction used in a writing system is entirely arbitrary and established by convention . Some writing systems use the horizontal axis ( left to right as the Latin script or right to left as the Arabic script ) , while others such as traditional Chinese writing use the vertical dimension ( from top to bottom ) . A few writing systems use opposite directions for alternating lines , and others , such as the ancient Maya script , can be written in either direction and rely on graphic cues to show the reader the direction of reading .
In order to represent the sounds of the world 's languages in writing , linguists have developed the International Phonetic Alphabet , designed to represent all of the discrete sounds that are known to contribute to meaning in human languages .
= = = Grammar = = =
Grammar is the study of how meaningful elements called morphemes within a language can be combined into utterances . Morphemes can either be free or bound . If they are free to be moved around within an utterance , they are usually called words , and if they are bound to other words or morphemes , they are called affixes . The way in which meaningful elements can be combined within a language is governed by rules . The rules for the internal structure of words are called morphology . The rules of the internal structure of phrases and sentences are called syntax .
= = = = Grammatical categories = = = =
Grammar can be described as a system of categories and a set of rules that determine how categories combine to form different aspects of meaning . Languages differ widely in whether they are encoded through the use of categories or lexical units . However , several categories are so common as to be nearly universal . Such universal categories include the encoding of the grammatical relations of participants and predicates by grammatically distinguishing between their relations to a predicate , the encoding of temporal and spatial relations on predicates , and a system of grammatical person governing reference to and distinction between speakers and addressees and those about whom they are speaking .
= = = = Word classes = = = =
Languages organize their parts of speech into classes according to their functions and positions relative to other parts . All languages , for instance , make a basic distinction between a group of words that prototypically denotes things and concepts and a group of words that prototypically denotes actions and events . The first group , which includes English words such as " dog " and " song " , are usually called nouns . The second , which includes " run " and " sing " , are called verbs . Another common category is the adjective : words that describe properties or qualities of nouns , such as " red " or " big " . Word classes can be " open " if new words can continuously be added to the class , or relatively " closed " if there is a fixed number of words in a class . In English , the class of pronouns is closed , whereas the class of adjectives is open , since an infinite number of adjectives can be constructed from verbs ( e.g. " saddened " ) or nouns ( e.g. with the -like suffix , as in " noun @-@ like " ) . In other languages such as Korean , the situation is the opposite , and new pronouns can be constructed , whereas the number of adjectives is fixed .
Word classes also carry out differing functions in grammar . Prototypically , verbs are used to construct predicates , while nouns are used as arguments of predicates . In a sentence such as " Sally runs " , the predicate is " runs " , because it is the word that predicates a specific state about its argument " Sally " . Some verbs such as " curse " can take two arguments , e.g. " Sally cursed John " . A predicate that can only take a single argument is called intransitive , while a predicate that can take two arguments is called transitive .
Many other word classes exist in different languages , such as conjunctions like " and " that serve to join two sentences , articles that introduce a noun , interjections such as " wow ! " , or ideophones like " splash " that mimic the sound of some event . Some languages have positionals that describe the spatial position of an event or entity . Many languages have classifiers that identify countable nouns as belonging to a particular type or having a particular shape . For instance , in Japanese , the general noun classifier for humans is nin ( 人 ) , and it is used for counting humans , whatever they are called :
san @-@ nin no gakusei ( 三人の学生 ) lit . " 3 human @-@ classifier of student " — three students
For trees , it would be :
san @-@ bon no ki ( 三本の木 ) lit . " 3 classifier @-@ for @-@ long @-@ objects of tree " — three trees
= = = = Morphology = = = =
In linguistics , the study of the internal structure of complex words and the processes by which words are formed is called morphology . In most languages , it is possible to construct complex words that are built of several morphemes . For instance , the English word " unexpected " can be analyzed as being composed of the three morphemes " un- " , " expect " and " -ed " .
Morphemes can be classified according to whether they are independent morphemes , so @-@ called roots , or whether they can only co @-@ occur attached to other morphemes . These bound morphemes or affixes can be classified according to their position in relation to the root : prefixes precede the root , suffixes follow the root , and infixes are inserted in the middle of a root . Affixes serve to modify or elaborate the meaning of the root . Some languages change the meaning of words by changing the phonological structure of a word , for example , the English word " run " , which in the past tense is " ran " . This process is called ablaut . Furthermore , morphology distinguishes between the process of inflection , which modifies or elaborates on a word , and the process of derivation , which creates a new word from an existing one . In English , the verb " sing " has the inflectional forms " singing " and " sung " , which are both verbs , and the derivational form " singer " , which is a noun derived from the verb with the agentive suffix " -er " .
Languages differ widely in how much they rely on morphological processes of word formation . In some languages , for example , Chinese , there are no morphological processes , and all grammatical information is encoded syntactically by forming strings of single words . This type of morpho @-@ syntax is often called isolating , or analytic , because there is almost a full correspondence between a single word and a single aspect of meaning . Most languages have words consisting of several morphemes , but they vary in the degree to which morphemes are discrete units . In many languages , notably in most Indo @-@ European languages , single morphemes may have several distinct meanings that cannot be analyzed into smaller segments . For example , in Latin , the word bonus , or " good " , consists of the root bon- , meaning " good " , and the suffix -us , which indicates masculine gender , singular number , and nominative case . These languages are called fusional languages , because several meanings may be fused into a single morpheme . The opposite of fusional languages are agglutinative languages which construct words by stringing morphemes together in chains , but with each morpheme as a discrete semantic unit . An example of such a language is Turkish , where for example , the word evlerinizden , or " from your houses " , consists of the morphemes , ev @-@ ler @-@ iniz @-@ den with the meanings house @-@ plural @-@ your @-@ from . The languages that rely on morphology to the greatest extent are traditionally called polysynthetic languages . They may express the equivalent of an entire English sentence in a single word . For example , in Persian the single word nafahmidamesh means I didn 't understand it consisting of morphemes na @-@ fahm @-@ id @-@ am @-@ esh with the meanings , " negation.understand.past.I.it " . As another example with more complexity , in the Yupik word tuntussuqatarniksatengqiggtuq , which means " He had not yet said again that he was going to hunt reindeer " , the word consists of the morphemes tuntu @-@ ssur @-@ qatar @-@ ni @-@ ksaite @-@ ngqiggte @-@ uq with the meanings , " reindeer @-@ hunt @-@ future @-@ say @-@ negation @-@ again @-@ third.person.singular.indicative " , and except for the morpheme tuntu ( " reindeer " ) none of the other morphemes can appear in isolation .
Many languages use morphology to cross @-@ reference words within a sentence . This is sometimes called agreement . For example , in many Indo @-@ European languages , adjectives must cross @-@ reference the noun they modify in terms of number , case , and gender , so that the Latin adjective bonus , or " good " , is inflected to agree with a noun that is masculine gender , singular number , and nominative case . In many polysynthetic languages , verbs cross @-@ reference their subjects and objects . In these types of languages , a single verb may include information that would require an entire sentence in English . For example , in the Basque phrase ikusi nauzu , or " you saw me " , the past tense auxiliary verb n @-@ au @-@ zu ( similar to English " do " ) agrees with both the subject ( you ) expressed by the n- prefix , and with the object ( me ) expressed by the -zu suffix . The sentence could be directly transliterated as " see you @-@ did @-@ me "
= = = = Syntax = = = =
Another way in which languages convey meaning is through the order of words within a sentence . The grammatical rules for how to produce new sentences from words that are already known is called syntax . The syntactical rules of a language determine why a sentence in English such as " I love you " is meaningful , but " * love you I " is not . Syntactical rules determine how word order and sentence structure is constrained , and how those constraints contribute to meaning . For example , in English , the two sentences " the slaves were cursing the master " and " the master was cursing the slaves " mean different things , because the role of the grammatical subject is encoded by the noun being in front of the verb , and the role of object is encoded by the noun appearing after the verb . Conversely , in Latin , both Dominus servos vituperabat and Servos vituperabat dominus mean " the master was reprimanding the slaves " , because servos , or " slaves " , is in the accusative case , showing that they are the grammatical object of the sentence , and dominus , or " master " , is in the nominative case , showing that he is the subject .
Latin uses morphology to express the distinction between subject and object , whereas English uses word order . Another example of how syntactic rules contribute to meaning is the rule of inverse word order in questions , which exists in many languages . This rule explains why when in English , the phrase " John is talking to Lucy " is turned into a question , it becomes " Who is John talking to ? " , and not " John is talking to who ? " . The latter example may be used as a way of placing special emphasis on " who " , thereby slightly altering the meaning of the question . Syntax also includes the rules for how complex sentences are structured by grouping words together in units , called phrases , that can occupy different places in a larger syntactic structure . Sentences can be described as consisting of phrases connected in a tree structure , connecting the phrases to each other at different levels . To the right is a graphic representation of the syntactic analysis of the English sentence " the cat sat on the mat " . The sentence is analyzed as being constituted by a noun phrase , a verb , and a prepositional phrase ; the prepositional phrase is further divided into a preposition and a noun phrase , and the noun phrases consist of an article and a noun .
The reason sentences can be seen as being composed of phrases is because each phrase would be moved around as a single element if syntactic operations were carried out . For example , " the cat " is one phrase , and " on the mat " is another , because they would be treated as single units if a decision was made to emphasize the location by moving forward the prepositional phrase : " [ And ] on the mat , the cat sat " . There are many different formalist and functionalist frameworks that propose theories for describing syntactic structures , based on different assumptions about what language is and how it should be described . Each of them would analyze a sentence such as this in a different manner .
= = = Typology and universals = = =
Languages can be classified in relation to their grammatical types . Languages that belong to different families nonetheless often have features in common , and these shared features tend to correlate . For example , languages can be classified on the basis of their basic word order , the relative order of the verb , and its constituents in a normal indicative sentence . In English , the basic order is SVO : " The snake ( S ) bit ( V ) the man ( O ) " , whereas for example , the corresponding sentence in the Australian language Gamilaraay would be d ̪ uyugu n ̪ ama d ̪ ayn yiːy ( snake man bit ) , SOV . Word order type is relevant as a typological parameter , because basic word order type corresponds with other syntactic parameters , such as the relative order of nouns and adjectives , or of the use of prepositions or postpositions . Such correlations are called implicational universals . For example , most ( but not all ) languages that are of the SOV type have postpositions rather than prepositions , and have adjectives before nouns .
All languages structure sentences into Subject , Verb , and Object , but languages differ in the way they classify the relations between actors and actions . English uses the nominative @-@ accusative word typology : in English transitive clauses , the subjects of both intransitive sentences ( " I run " ) and transitive sentences ( " I love you " ) are treated in the same way , shown here by the nominative pronoun I. Some languages , called ergative , Gamilaraay among them , distinguish instead between Agents and Patients . In ergative languages , the single participant in an intransitive sentence , such as " I run " , is treated the same as the patient in a transitive sentence , giving the equivalent of " me run " and " you love me " . Only in transitive sentences would the equivalent of the pronoun " I " be used . In this way the semantic roles can map onto the grammatical relations in different ways , grouping an intransitive subject either with Agents ( accusative type ) or Patients ( ergative type ) or even making each of the three roles differently , which is called the tripartite type .
The shared features of languages which belong to the same typological class type may have arisen completely independently . Their co @-@ occurrence might be due to universal laws governing the structure of natural languages , " language universals " , or they might be the result of languages evolving convergent solutions to the recurring communicative problems that humans use language to solve .
= = Social contexts of use and transmission = =
While humans have the ability to learn any language , they only do so if they grow up in an environment in which language exists and is used by others . Language is therefore dependent on communities of speakers in which children learn language from their elders and peers and themselves transmit language to their own children . Languages are used by those who speak them to communicate and to solve a plethora of social tasks . Many aspects of language use can be seen to be adapted specifically to these purposes . Due to the way in which language is transmitted between generations and within communities , language perpetually changes , diversifying into new languages or converging due to language contact . The process is similar to the process of evolution , where the process of descent with modification leads to the formation of a phylogenetic tree .
However , languages differ from a biological organisms in that they readily incorporate elements from other languages through the process of diffusion , as speakers of different languages come into contact . Humans also frequently speak more than one language , acquiring their first language or languages as children , or learning new languages as they grow up . Because of the increased language contact in the globalizing world , many small languages are becoming endangered as their speakers shift to other languages that afford the possibility to participate in larger and more influential speech communities .
= = = Usage and meaning = = =
The semantic study of meaning assumes that meaning is located in a relation between signs and meanings that are firmly established through social convention . However , semantics does not study the way in which social conventions are made and affect language . Rather , when studying the way in which words and signs are used , it is often the case that words have different meanings , depending on the social context of use . An important example of this is the process called deixis , which describes the way in which certain words refer to entities through their relation between a specific point in time and space when the word is uttered . Such words are , for example , the word , " I " ( which designates the person speaking ) , " now " ( which designates the moment of speaking ) , and " here " ( which designates the position of speaking ) . Signs also change their meanings over time , as the conventions governing their usage gradually change . The study of how the meaning of linguistic expressions changes depending on context is called pragmatics . Deixis is an important part of the way that we use language to point out entities in the world . Pragmatics is concerned with the ways in which language use is patterned and how these patterns contribute to meaning . For example , in all languages , linguistic expressions can be used not just to transmit information , but to perform actions . Certain actions are made only through language , but nonetheless have tangible effects , e.g. the act of " naming " , which creates a new name for some entity , or the act of " pronouncing someone man and wife " , which creates a social contract of marriage . These types of acts are called speech acts , although they can of course also be carried out through writing or hand signing .
The form of linguistic expression often does not correspond to the meaning that it actually has in a social context . For example , if at a dinner table a person asks , " Can you reach the salt ? " , that is , in fact , not a question about the length of the arms of the one being addressed , but a request to pass the salt across the table . This meaning is implied by the context in which it is spoken ; these kinds of effects of meaning are called conversational implicatures . These social rules for which ways of using language are considered appropriate in certain situations and how utterances are to be understood in relation to their context vary between communities , and learning them is a large part of acquiring communicative competence in a language .
= = = Language acquisition = = =
All healthy , normally developing human beings learn to use language . Children acquire the language or languages used around them : whichever languages they receive sufficient exposure to during childhood . The development is essentially the same for children acquiring sign or oral languages . This learning process is referred to as first @-@ language acquisition , since unlike many other kinds of learning , it requires no direct teaching or specialized study . In The Descent of Man , naturalist Charles Darwin called this process " an instinctive tendency to acquire an art " .
First language acquisition proceeds in a fairly regular sequence , though there is a wide degree of variation in the timing of particular stages among normally developing infants . From birth , newborns respond more readily to human speech than to other sounds . Around one month of age , babies appear to be able to distinguish between different speech sounds . Around six months of age , a child will begin babbling , producing the speech sounds or handshapes of the languages used around them . Words appear around the age of 12 to 18 months ; the average vocabulary of an eighteen @-@ month @-@ old child is around 50 words . A child 's first utterances are holophrases ( literally " whole @-@ sentences " ) , utterances that use just one word to communicate some idea . Several months after a child begins producing words , he or she will produce two @-@ word utterances , and within a few more months will begin to produce telegraphic speech , or short sentences that are less grammatically complex than adult speech , but that do show regular syntactic structure . From roughly the age of three to five years , a child 's ability to speak or sign is refined to the point that it resembles adult language . Studies published in 2013 have indicated that unborn fetuses are capable of language acquisition to some degree .
Acquisition of second and additional languages can come at any age , through exposure in daily life or courses . Children learning a second language are more likely to achieve native @-@ like fluency than adults , but in general , it is very rare for someone speaking a second language to pass completely for a native speaker . An important difference between first language acquisition and additional language acquisition is that the process of additional language acquisition is influenced by languages that the learner already knows .
= = = Language and culture = = =
Languages , understood as the particular set of speech norms of a particular community , are also a part of the larger culture of the community that speaks them . Languages differ not only in pronunciation , vocabulary , and grammar , but also through having different " cultures of speaking . " Humans use language as a way of signalling identity with one cultural group as well as difference from others . Even among speakers of one language , several different ways of using the language exist , and each is used to signal affiliation with particular subgroups within a larger culture . Linguists and anthropologists , particularly sociolinguists , ethnolinguists , and linguistic anthropologists have specialized in studying how ways of speaking vary between speech communities .
Linguists use the term " varieties " to refer to the different ways of speaking a language . This term includes geographically or socioculturally defined dialects as well as the jargons or styles of subcultures . Linguistic anthropologists and sociologists of language define communicative style as the ways that language is used and understood within a particular culture .
Because norms for language use are shared by members of a specific group , communicative style also becomes a way of displaying and constructing group identity . Linguistic differences may become salient markers of divisions between social groups , for example , speaking a language with a particular accent may imply membership of an ethnic minority or social class , one 's area of origin , or status as a second language speaker . These kinds of differences are not part of the linguistic system , but are an important part of how people use language as a social tool for constructing groups .
However , many languages also have grammatical conventions that signal the social position of the speaker in relation to others through the use of registers that are related to social hierarchies or divisions . In many languages , there are stylistic or even grammatical differences between the ways men and women speak , between age groups , or between social classes , just as some languages employ different words depending on who is listening . For example , in the Australian language Dyirbal , a married man must use a special set of words to refer to everyday items when speaking in the presence of his mother @-@ in @-@ law . Some cultures , for example , have elaborate systems of " social deixis " , or systems of signalling social distance through linguistic means . In English , social deixis is shown mostly through distinguishing between addressing some people by first name and others by surname , and in titles such as " Mrs. " , " boy " , " Doctor " , or " Your Honor " , but in other languages , such systems may be highly complex and codified in the entire grammar and vocabulary of the language . For instance , in languages of east Asia such as Thai , Burmese , and Javanese , different words are used according to whether a speaker is addressing someone of higher or lower rank than oneself in a ranking system with animals and children ranking the lowest and gods and members of royalty as the highest .
= = = Writing , literacy and technology = = =
Throughout history a number of different ways of representing language in graphic media have been invented . These are called writing systems .
The use of writing has made language even more useful to humans . It makes it possible to store large amounts of information outside of the human body and retrieve it again , and it allows communication across distances that would otherwise be impossible . Many languages conventionally employ different genres , styles , and registers in written and spoken language , and in some communities , writing traditionally takes place in an entirely different language than the one spoken . There is some evidence that the use of writing also has effects on the cognitive development of humans , perhaps because acquiring literacy generally requires explicit and formal education .
The invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary with the beginning of the Bronze Age in the late 4th millennium BC . The Sumerian archaic cuneiform script and the Egyptian hieroglyphs are generally considered to be the earliest writing systems , both emerging out of their ancestral proto @-@ literate symbol systems from 3400 – 3200 BC with the earliest coherent texts from about 2600 BC . It is generally agreed that Sumerian writing was an independent invention ; however , it is debated whether Egyptian writing was developed completely independently of Sumerian , or was a case of cultural diffusion . A similar debate exists for the Chinese script , which developed around 1200 BC . The pre @-@ Columbian Mesoamerican writing systems ( including among others Olmec and Maya scripts ) are generally believed to have had independent origins .
= = = Language change = = =
All languages change as speakers adopt or invent new ways of speaking and pass them on to other members of their speech community . Language change happens at all levels from the phonological level to the levels of vocabulary , morphology , syntax , and discourse . Even though language change is often initially evaluated negatively by speakers of the language who often consider changes to be " decay " or a sign of slipping norms of language usage , it is natural and inevitable .
Changes may affect specific sounds or the entire phonological system . Sound change can consist of the replacement of one speech sound or phonetic feature by another , the complete loss of the affected sound , or even the introduction of a new sound in a place where there had been none . Sound changes can be conditioned in which case a sound is changed only if it occurs in the vicinity of certain other sounds . Sound change is usually assumed to be regular , which means that it is expected to apply mechanically whenever its structural conditions are met , irrespective of any non @-@ phonological factors . On the other hand , sound changes can sometimes be sporadic , affecting only one particular word or a few words , without any seeming regularity . Sometimes a simple change triggers a chain shift in which the entire phonological system is affected . This happened in the Germanic languages when the sound change known as Grimm 's law affected all the stop consonants in the system . The original consonant * bʰ became / b / in the Germanic languages , the previous * b in turn became / p / , and the previous * p became / f / . The same process applied to all stop consonants and explains why Italic languages such as Latin have p in words like pater and pisces , whereas Germanic languages , like English , have father and fish .
Another example is the Great Vowel Shift in English , which is the reason that the spelling of English vowels do not correspond well to their current pronunciation . This is because the vowel shift brought the already established orthography out of synchronization with pronunciation . Another source of sound change is the erosion of words as pronunciation gradually becomes increasingly indistinct and shortens words , leaving out syllables or sounds . This kind of change caused Latin mea domina to eventually become the French madame and American English ma 'am .
Change also happens in the grammar of languages as discourse patterns such as idioms or particular constructions become grammaticalized . This frequently happens when words or morphemes erode and the grammatical system is unconsciously rearranged to compensate for the lost element . For example , in some varieties of Caribbean Spanish the final / s / has eroded away . Since Standard Spanish uses final / s / in the morpheme marking the second person subject " you " in verbs , the Caribbean varieties now have to express the second person using the pronoun tú . This means that the sentence " what 's your name " is ¿ como te llamas ? [ ˈkomo te ˈjamas ] in Standard Spanish , but [ ˈkomo ˈtu te ˈjama ] in Caribbean Spanish . The simple sound change has affected both morphology and syntax . Another common cause of grammatical change is the gradual petrification of idioms into new grammatical forms , for example , the way the English " going to " construction lost its aspect of movement and in some varieties of English has almost become a full @-@ fledged future tense ( e.g. I 'm gonna ) .
Language change may be motivated by " language internal " factors , such as changes in pronunciation motivated by certain sounds being difficult to distinguish aurally or to produce , or through patterns of change that cause some rare types of constructions to drift towards more common types . Other causes of language change are social , such as when certain pronunciations become emblematic of membership in certain groups , such as social classes , or with ideologies , and therefore are adopted by those who wish to identify with those groups or ideas . In this way , issues of identity and politics can have profound effects on language structure .
= = = Language contact = = =
One important source of language change is contact and resulting diffusion of linguistic traits between languages . Language contact occurs when speakers of two or more languages or varieties interact on a regular basis . Multilingualism is likely to have been the norm throughout human history and most people in the modern world are multilingual . Before the rise of the concept of the ethno @-@ national state , monolingualism was characteristic mainly of populations inhabiting small islands . But with the ideology that made one people , one state , and one language the most desirable political arrangement , monolingualism started to spread throughout the world . Nonetheless , there are only 250 countries in the world corresponding to some 6000 languages , which means that most countries are multilingual and most languages therefore exist in close contact with other languages .
When speakers of different languages interact closely , it is typical for their languages to influence each other . Through sustained language contact over long periods , linguistic traits diffuse between languages , and languages belonging to different families may converge to become more similar . In areas where many languages are in close contact , this may lead to the formation of language areas in which unrelated languages share a number of linguistic features . A number of such language areas have been documented , among them , the Balkan language area , the Mesoamerican language area , and the Ethiopian language area . Also , larger areas such as South Asia , Europe , and Southeast Asia have sometimes been considered language areas , because of widespread diffusion of specific areal features .
Language contact may also lead to a variety of other linguistic phenomena , including language convergence , borrowing , and relexification ( replacement of much of the native vocabulary with that of another language ) . In situations of extreme and sustained language contact , it may lead to the formation of new mixed languages that cannot be considered to belong to a single language family . One type of mixed language called pidgins occurs when adult speakers of two different languages interact on a regular basis , but in a situation where neither group learns to speak the language of the other group fluently . In such a case , they will often construct a communication form that has traits of both languages , but which has a simplified grammatical and phonological structure . The language comes to contain mostly the grammatical and phonological categories that exist in both languages . Pidgin languages are defined by not having any native speakers , but only being spoken by people who have another language as their first language . But if a Pidgin language becomes the main language of a speech community , then eventually children will grow up learning the pidgin as their first language . As the generation of child learners grow up , the pidgin will often be seen to change its structure and acquire a greater degree of complexity . This type of language is generally called a creole language . An example of such mixed languages is Tok Pisin , the official language of Papua New @-@ Guinea , which originally arose as a Pidgin based on English and Austronesian languages ; others are Kreyòl ayisyen , the French @-@ based creole language spoken in Haiti , and Michif , a mixed language of Canada , based on the Native American language Cree and French .
= = Linguistic diversity = =
SIL Ethnologue defines a " living language " as " one that has at least one speaker for whom it is their first language " . The exact number of known living languages varies from 6 @,@ 000 to 7 @,@ 000 , depending on the precision of one 's definition of " language " , and in particular , on how one defines the distinction between languages and dialects . As of 2016 , Ethnologue cataloged 7 @,@ 097 living human languages . The Ethnologue establishes linguistic groups based on studies of mutual intelligibility , and therefore often includes more categories than more conservative classifications . For example , the Danish language that most scholars consider a single language with several dialects is classified as two distinct languages ( Danish and Jutish ) by the Ethnologue .
According to the Ethnologue , 389 languages ( nearly 6 % ) have more than a million speakers . These languages together account for 94 % of the world 's population , whereas 94 % of the world 's languages account for the remaining 6 % of the global population . To the right is a table of the world 's 10 most spoken languages with population estimates from the Ethnologue ( 2009 figures ) .
= = = Languages and dialects = = =
There is no clear distinction between a language and a dialect , notwithstanding a famous aphorism attributed to linguist Max Weinreich that " a language is a dialect with an army and navy " . For example , national boundaries frequently override linguistic difference in determining whether two linguistic varieties are languages or dialects . Hakka , Cantonese and Mandarin are , for example , often classified as " dialects " of Chinese , even though they are more different from each other than Swedish is from Norwegian . Before the Yugoslav civil war , Serbo @-@ Croatian was considered a single language with two dialects , but now Croatian and Serbian are considered different languages and employ different writing systems . In other words , the distinction may hinge on political considerations as much as on cultural differences , distinctive writing systems , or degree of mutual intelligibility .
= = = Language families of the world = = =
The world 's languages can be grouped into language families consisting of languages that can be shown to have common ancestry . Linguists recognize many hundreds of language families , although some of them can possibly be grouped into larger units as more evidence becomes available and in @-@ depth studies are carried out . At present , there are also dozens of language isolates : languages that cannot be shown to be related to any other languages in the world . Among them are Basque , spoken in Europe , Zuni of New Mexico , Purépecha of Mexico , Ainu of Japan , Burushaski of Pakistan , and many others .
The language family of the world that has the most speakers is the Indo @-@ European languages , spoken by 46 % of the world 's population . This family includes major world languages like English , Spanish , Russian , and Hindustani ( Hindi / Urdu ) . The Indo @-@ European family achieved prevalence first during the Eurasian Migration Period ( c . 400 – 800 AD ) , and subsequently through the European colonial expansion , which brought the Indo @-@ European languages to a politically and often numerically dominant position in the Americas and much of Africa . The Sino @-@ Tibetan languages are spoken by 20 % of the world 's population and include many of the languages of East Asia , including Hakka , Mandarin Chinese , Cantonese , and hundreds of smaller languages .
Africa is home to a large number of language families , the largest of which is the Niger @-@ Congo language family , which includes such languages as Swahili , Shona , and Yoruba . Speakers of the Niger @-@ Congo languages account for 6 @.@ 9 % of the world 's population . A similar number of people speak the Afroasiatic languages , which include the populous Semitic languages such as Arabic , Hebrew language , and the languages of the Sahara region , such as the Berber languages and Hausa .
The Austronesian languages are spoken by 5 @.@ 5 % of the world 's population and stretch from Madagascar to maritime Southeast Asia all the way to Oceania . It includes such languages as Malagasy , Māori , Samoan , and many of the indigenous languages of Indonesia and Taiwan . The Austronesian languages are considered to have originated in Taiwan around 3000 BC and spread through the Oceanic region through island @-@ hopping , based on an advanced nautical technology . Other populous language families are the Dravidian languages of South Asia ( among them Kannada Tamil and Telugu ) , the Turkic languages of Central Asia ( such as Turkish ) , the Austroasiatic ( among them Khmer ) , and Tai – Kadai languages of Southeast Asia ( including Thai ) .
The areas of the world in which there is the greatest linguistic diversity , such as the Americas , Papua New Guinea , West Africa , and South @-@ Asia , contain hundreds of small language families . These areas together account for the majority of the world 's languages , though not the majority of speakers . In the Americas , some of the largest language families include the Quechumaran , Arawak , and Tupi @-@ Guarani families of South America , the Uto @-@ Aztecan , Oto @-@ Manguean , and Mayan of Mesoamerica , and the Na @-@ Dene and Algonquian language families of North America . In Australia , most indigenous languages belong to the Pama @-@ Nyungan family , whereas Papua @-@ New Guinea is home to a large number of small families and isolates , as well as a number of Austronesian languages .
= = = Language endangerment = = =
Language endangerment occurs when a language is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out or shift to speaking another language . Language loss occurs when the language has no more native speakers , and becomes a dead language . If eventually no one speaks the language at all , it becomes an extinct language . While languages have always gone extinct throughout human history , they have been disappearing at an accelerated rate in the 20th and 21st centuries due to the processes of globalization and neo @-@ colonialism , where the economically powerful languages dominate other languages .
The more commonly spoken languages dominate the less commonly spoken languages , so the less commonly spoken languages eventually disappear from populations . The total number of languages in the world is not known . Estimates vary depending on many factors . The consensus is that there are between 6 @,@ 000 and 7 @,@ 000 languages spoken as of 2010 , and that between 50 – 90 % of those will have become extinct by the year 2100 . The top 20 languages , those spoken by more than 50 million speakers each , are spoken by 50 % of the world 's population , whereas many of the other languages are spoken by small communities , most of them with less than 10 @,@ 000 speakers .
The United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) operates with five levels of language endangerment : " safe " , " vulnerable " ( not spoken by children outside the home ) , " definitely endangered " ( not spoken by children ) , " severely endangered " ( only spoken by the oldest generations ) , and " critically endangered " ( spoken by few members of the oldest generation , often semi @-@ speakers ) . Notwithstanding claims that the world would be better off if most adopted a single common lingua franca , such as English or Esperanto , there is a consensus that the loss of languages harms the cultural diversity of the world . It is a common belief , going back to the biblical narrative of the tower of Babel , that linguistic diversity causes political conflict , but this is contradicted by the fact that many of the world 's major episodes of violence have taken place in situations with low linguistic diversity , such as the Yugoslav and American Civil War , or the genocide of Rwanda , whereas many of the most stable political units have been highly multilingual .
Many projects aim to prevent or slow this loss by revitalizing endangered languages and promoting education and literacy in minority languages . Across the world , many countries have enacted specific legislation to protect and stabilize the language of indigenous speech communities . A minority of linguists have argued that language loss is a natural process that should not be counteracted , and that documenting endangered languages for posterity is sufficient .
= = = Commentary notes = = =
= Siege of Lyme Regis =
The siege of Lyme Regis was an eight @-@ week blockade during the First English Civil War . The port of Lyme Regis , in Dorset , was considered to be of strategic importance because it controlled the main shipping route between Bristol and the English Channel . Thomas Ceeley and Robert Blake commanded the town 's Parliamentarian defences during the siege , which was laid by Prince Maurice between 20 April and 16 June 1644 .
At the start of the war , Lyme Regis was claimed by a pair of local members of parliament , and garrisoned for the Parliamentarians . King Charles I ordered the capture of the town in early 1644 , and sent his nephew , Maurice , with 5 @,@ 000 troops . The siege was laid on 20 April , but despite a steady bombardment , and three attempts to storm the town by ground , the earthen defences of the town that had been established by Blake held fast . Lyme Regis was regularly re @-@ provisioned and reinforced by sea , weakening the effectiveness of the siege , and on 14 June , Maurice withdrew from the siege in the face of a relieving army led by Robert Devereux , 3rd Earl of Essex .
= = Background = =
In the late 16th century , Lyme Regis was an important port , busier than Liverpool and one of the main links between England and mainland Europe . The combination of strong Puritan beliefs , and demands from King Charles I for ship money meant that upon the outbreak of the First English Civil War , the town was sympathetic to the Parliamentarian cause . Two local members of parliament ( MP ) , Thomas Trenchard and Walter Erle claimed Lyme Regis for the Parliamentarians in 1642 , and set about fortifying the town . Thomas Ceeley , another local MP , was assigned as governor of the town and its forces . He immediately set about removing those with Royalist loyalties from the area , and sent harrying forces around the region , as far as Exeter and Somerset . Lyme Regis had no permanent fortifications , and so Robert Blake established a set of earthen walls , ditches and forts around the perimeter of the town .
By the end of 1643 , most of the south @-@ west was under Royalist control ; only Plymouth , Poole and Lyme Regis held out against them . The Parliamentarians controlled the navy , and Lyme Regis was strategically important , due to its location between Bristol and the English Channel . In early 1644 , Charles I ordered Lyme Regis to be captured , and sent a large force under the command of his nephew , Prince Maurice .
= = Siege = =
Maurice marched towards Lyme Regis in March 1644 , and initially set up a garrison in the town of Beaminster . From there a detachment of troops captured and then razed Stedcombe House , a property of Erle 's that he had garrisoned . On 19 April , a fire devastated Beaminster and forced the Royalist troops to move , establishing their new quarters at Axminster . The following day , Maurice marched his army of around 4 @,@ 000 men to around 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) of Lyme Regis , and then after some posturing between the opposing forces , the Royalists captured Haye House , roughly 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 400 m ) from the town , which had been garrisoned with around thirty defenders . On the third day of the siege , the attackers set up their artillery on the west side of town , and began a bombardment , but the next day Ceeley sent a force of 190 men to attack the battery , and forced the Royalists from their position . New batteries were set up around the town , and the besieging forces continued to attack the town with their ordnance . On 28 April , Maurice ordered an advance on the town , but the attack got little further than the range of musket @-@ shot . The next day , the town was restocked with ammunition and food , and reinforced with just over a hundred men from two Parliamentarian ships , the Mary Rose and the Ann Joyce .
Throughout the war , the garrisoned army was supported by the women of the town ; they aided in the building of the earthen fortifications , and then later disguised themselves as men during the siege to make it appear that the town was held by more troops than it really was . They also ran ammunition around the town and helped to reload the weapons . Their efforts drew comparisons to Joan of Arc , and an essay was written by James Strong detailing their achievements , entitled " Joanereidos , or Feminine Valour emimently discovered in West County Women , at the Siege of Lyme , 1644 . "
Over the following week , the Royalist forces held the siege , but did not engage with the town again until 6 May , when they attacked the town in three places during a thick fog . The defenders were caught out slightly , as many of their soldiers were eating their evening supper . The Parliamentarians rallied quickly , and within an hour had repelled the attack . An account kept by the Lyme Regis garrison records that around one hundred of the besieging army had been killed , while the garrison had only lost one man . The following day , Maurice requested a parley so that the dead could be buried . That request was granted , in exchange for the town 's defenders being able to claim any weaponry on the battleground . Over the next week , there was little fighting between the armies , and a further seven ships arrived to aid the town , including 240 soldiers from Sir William Waller 's army , and on 15 May a further 120 men were sent by the Earl of Warwick .
The Royalists turned their attention to the harbour over the next week , placing artillery units on the cliff @-@ tops above it , and bombarding any ships within . On the morning of 22 May , such an attack sunk a barge laden with malt and peas , and was followed by a raiding party of around 50 men that evening , who attacked the harbour , setting fire to the barges that remained . During the fighting to drive them back , Captain Thomas Pyne , who had commanded the town 's cavalry , was mortally wounded . Pyne died of fever four days later , despite the attentions of a surgeon . The Earl of Warwick arrived on 23 May with eight ships and the promise of as much help as he could provide , including 400 of his seamen to help garrison the town . Pyne 's funeral was held on 27 May ,
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. The army doubled in size , and cavalry and smaller units replaced the Roman legion as the main tactical unit . The need for revenue led to increased taxes and a decline in numbers of the curial , or landowning , class , and decreasing numbers of them willing to shoulder the burdens of holding office in their native towns . More bureaucrats were needed in the central administration to deal with the needs of the army , which led to complaints from civilians that there were more tax @-@ collectors in the empire than tax @-@ payers .
The Emperor Diocletian ( r . 284 – 305 ) split the empire into separately administered eastern and western halves in 286 ; the empire was not considered divided by its inhabitants or rulers , as legal and administrative promulgations in one division were considered valid in the other . In 330 , after a period of civil war , Constantine the Great ( r . 306 – 337 ) refounded the city of Byzantium as the newly renamed eastern capital , Constantinople . Diocletian 's reforms strengthened the governmental bureaucracy , reformed taxation , and strengthened the army , which bought the empire time but did not resolve the problems it was facing : excessive taxation , a declining birthrate , and pressures on its frontiers , among others . Civil war between rival emperors became common in the middle of the 4th century , diverting soldiers from the empire 's frontier forces and allowing invaders to encroach . For much of the 4th century , Roman society stabilised in a new form that differed from the earlier classical period , with a widening gulf between the rich and poor , and a decline in the vitality of the smaller towns . Another change was the Christianisation , or conversion of the empire to Christianity , a gradual process that lasted from the 2nd to the 5th centuries .
In 376 , the Goths , fleeing from the Huns , received permission from Emperor Valens ( r . 364 – 378 ) to settle in the Roman province of Thracia in the Balkans . The settlement did not go smoothly , and when Roman officials mishandled the situation , the Goths began to raid and plunder . Valens , attempting to put down the disorder , was killed fighting the Goths at the Battle of Adrianople on 9 August 378 . As well as the threat from such tribal confederacies from the north , internal divisions within the empire , especially within the Christian Church , caused problems . In 400 , the Visigoths invaded the Western Roman Empire and , although briefly forced back from Italy , in 410 sacked the city of Rome . In 406 the Alans , Vandals , and Suevi crossed into Gaul ; over the next three years they spread across Gaul and in 409 crossed the Pyrenees Mountains into modern @-@ day Spain . The Migration Period began , when various peoples , initially largely Germanic peoples , moved across Europe . The Franks , Alemanni , and the Burgundians all ended up in northern Gaul while the Angles , Saxons , and Jutes settled in Britain , and the Vandals went on to cross the strait of Gibraltar after which they conquered the province of Africa . In the 430s the Huns began invading the empire ; their king Attila ( r . 434 – 453 ) led invasions into the Balkans in 442 and 447 , Gaul in 451 , and Italy in 452 . The Hunnic threat remained until Attila 's death in 453 , when the Hunnic confederation he led fell apart . These invasions by the tribes completely changed the political and demographic nature of what had been the Western Roman Empire .
By the end of the 5th century the western section of the empire was divided into smaller political units , ruled by the tribes that had invaded in the early part of the century . The deposition of the last emperor of the west , Romulus Augustulus , in 476 has traditionally marked the end of the Western Roman Empire . By 493 the Italian peninsula was conquered by the Ostrogoths . The Eastern Roman Empire , often referred to as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart , had little ability to assert control over the lost western territories . The Byzantine emperors maintained a claim over the territory , but while none of the new kings in the west dared to elevate himself to the position of emperor of the west , Byzantine control of most of the Western Empire could not be sustained ; the reconquest of the Mediterranean periphery and the Italian Peninsula ( Gothic War ) in the reign of Justinian ( r . 527 – 565 ) was the sole , and temporary , exception .
= = Early Middle Ages = =
= = = New societies = = =
The political structure of Western Europe changed with the end of the united Roman Empire . Although the movements of peoples during this period are usually described as " invasions " , they were not just military expeditions but migrations of entire peoples into the empire . Such movements were aided by the refusal of the western Roman elites to support the army or pay the taxes that would have allowed the military to suppress the migration . The emperors of the 5th century were often controlled by military strongmen such as Stilicho ( d . 408 ) , Aetius ( d . 454 ) , Aspar ( d . 471 ) , Ricimer ( d . 472 ) , or Gundobad ( d . 516 ) , who were partly or fully of non @-@ Roman background . When the line of western emperors ceased , many of the kings who replaced them were from the same background . Intermarriage between the new kings and the Roman elites was common . This led to a fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes , including the popular assemblies that allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than was common in the Roman state . Material artefacts left by the Romans and the invaders are often similar , and tribal items were often modelled on Roman objects . Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new kingdoms was also based on Roman intellectual traditions . An important difference was the gradual loss of tax revenue by the new polities . Many of the new political entities no longer supported their armies through taxes , instead relying on granting them land or rents . This meant there was less need for large tax revenues and so the taxation systems decayed . Warfare was common between and within the kingdoms . Slavery declined as the supply weakened , and society became more rural .
Between the 5th and 8th centuries , new peoples and individuals filled the political void left by Roman centralised government . The Ostrogoths , a Gothic tribe , settled in Roman Italy in the late fifth century under Theoderic the Great ( d . 526 ) and set up a kingdom marked by its co @-@ operation between the Italians and the Ostrogoths , at least until the last years of Theodoric 's reign . The Burgundians settled in Gaul , and after an earlier realm was destroyed by the Huns in 436 formed a new kingdom in the 440s . Between today 's Geneva and Lyon , it grew to become the realm of Burgundy in the late 5th and early 6th centuries . Elsewhere in Gaul , the Franks and Celtic Britons set up small polities . Francia was centred in northern Gaul , and the first king of whom much is known is Childeric I ( d . 481 ) . His grave was discovered in 1653 and is remarkable for its grave goods , which included weapons and a large quantity of gold .
Under Childeric 's son Clovis I ( r . 509 – 511 ) , the founder of the Merovingian dynasty , the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity . The Britons , related to the natives of Britannia — modern @-@ day Great Britain — settled in what is now Brittany . Other monarchies were established by the Visigothic Kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula , the Suebi in northwestern Iberia , and the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa . In the sixth century , the Lombards settled in Northern Italy , replacing the Ostrogothic kingdom with a grouping of duchies that occasionally selected a king to rule over them all . By the late sixth century , this arrangement had been replaced by a permanent monarchy , the Kingdom of the Lombards .
The invasions brought new ethnic groups to Europe , although some regions received a larger influx of new peoples than others . In Gaul for instance , the invaders settled much more extensively in the north @-@ east than in the south @-@ west . Slavs settled in Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkan Peninsula . The settlement of peoples was accompanied by changes in languages . The Latin of the Western Roman Empire was gradually replaced by languages based on , but distinct from , Latin , collectively known as Romance languages . These changes from Latin to the new languages took many centuries . Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire , but the migrations of the Slavs added Slavic languages to Eastern Europe .
= = = Byzantine survival = = =
As Western Europe witnessed the formation of new kingdoms , the Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival that lasted into the early 7th century . There were fewer invasions of the eastern section of the empire ; most occurred in the Balkans . Peace with the Sasanian Empire , the traditional enemy of Rome , lasted throughout most of the 5th century . The Eastern Empire was marked by closer relations between the political state and Christian Church , with doctrinal matters assuming an importance in eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe . Legal developments included the codification of Roman law ; the first effort — the Codex Theodosianus — was completed in 438 . Under Emperor Justinian ( r . 527 – 565 ) , another compilation took place — the Corpus Juris Civilis . Justinian also oversaw the construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and the reconquest of North Africa from the Vandals and Italy from the Ostrogoths , under Belisarius ( d . 565 ) . The conquest of Italy was not complete , as a deadly outbreak of plague in 542 led to the rest of Justinian 's reign concentrating on defensive measures rather than further conquests . At the emperor 's death , the Byzantines had control of most of Italy , North Africa , and a small foothold in southern Spain . Justinian 's reconquests have been criticised by historians for overextending his realm and setting the stage for the early Muslim conquests , but many of the difficulties faced by Justinian 's successors were due not just to over @-@ taxation to pay for his wars but to the essentially civilian nature of the empire , which made raising troops difficult .
In the Eastern Empire the slow infiltration of the Balkans by the Slavs added a further difficulty for Justinian 's successors . It began gradually , but by the late 540s Slavic tribes were in Thrace and Illyrium , and had defeated an imperial army near Adrianople in 551 . In the 560s the Avars began to expand from their base on the north bank of the Danube ; by the end of the 6th century they were the dominant power in Central Europe and routinely able to force the eastern emperors to pay tribute . They remained a strong power until 796 . An additional problem to face the empire came as a result of the involvement of Emperor Maurice ( r . 582 – 602 ) in Persian politics when he intervened in a succession dispute . This led to a period of peace , but when Maurice was overthrown , the Persians invaded and during the reign of Emperor Heraclius ( r . 610 – 641 ) controlled large chunks of the empire , including Egypt , Syria , and Anatolia until Heraclius ' successful counterattack . In 628 the empire secured a peace treaty and recovered all of its lost territories .
= = = Western society = = =
In Western Europe , some of the older Roman elite families died out while others became more involved with Church than secular affairs . Values attached to Latin scholarship and education mostly disappeared , and while literacy remained important , it became a practical skill rather than a sign of elite status . In the 4th century , Jerome ( d . 420 ) dreamed that God rebuked him for spending more time reading Cicero than the Bible . By the 6th century , Gregory of Tours ( d . 594 ) had a similar dream , but instead of being chastised for reading Cicero , he was chastised for learning shorthand . By the late 6th century , the principal means of religious instruction in the Church had become music and art rather than the book . Most intellectual efforts went towards imitating classical scholarship , but some original works were created , along with now @-@ lost oral compositions . The writings of Sidonius Apollinaris ( d . 489 ) , Cassiodorus ( d. c . 585 ) , and Boethius ( d. c . 525 ) were typical of the age .
Changes also took place among laymen , as aristocratic culture focused on great feasts held in halls rather than on literary pursuits . Clothing for the elites was richly embellished with jewels and gold . Lords and kings supported entourages of fighters who formed the backbone of the military forces . Family ties within the elites were important , as were the virtues of loyalty , courage , and honour . These ties led to the prevalence of the feud in aristocratic society , examples of which included those related by Gregory of Tours that took place in Merovingian Gaul . Most feuds seem to have ended quickly with the payment of some sort of compensation . Women took part in aristocratic society mainly in their roles as wives and mothers of men , with the role of mother of a ruler being especially prominent in Merovingian Gaul . In Anglo @-@ Saxon society the lack of many child rulers meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers , but this was compensated for by the increased role played by abbesses of monasteries . Only in Italy does it appear that women were always considered under the protection and control of a male relative .
Peasant society is much less documented than the nobility . Most of the surviving information available to historians comes from archaeology ; few detailed written records documenting peasant life remain from before the 9th century . Most the descriptions of the lower classes come from either law codes or writers from the upper classes . Landholding patterns in the West were not uniform ; some areas had greatly fragmented landholding patterns , but in other areas large contiguous blocks of land were the norm . These differences allowed for a wide variety of peasant societies , some dominated by aristocratic landholders and others having a great deal of autonomy . Land settlement also varied greatly . Some peasants lived in large settlements that numbered as many as 700 inhabitants . Others lived in small groups of a few families and still others lived on isolated farms spread over the countryside . There were also areas where the pattern was a mix of two or more of those systems . Unlike in the late Roman period , there was no sharp break between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat , and it was possible for a free peasant 's family to rise into the aristocracy over several generations through military service to a powerful lord .
Roman city life and culture changed greatly in the early Middle Ages . Although Italian cities remained inhabited , they contracted significantly in size . Rome , for instance , shrank from a population of hundreds of thousands to around 30 @,@ 000 by the end of the 6th century . Roman temples were converted into Christian churches and city walls remained in use . In Northern Europe , cities also shrank , while civic monuments and other public buildings were raided for building materials . The establishment of new kingdoms often meant some growth for the towns chosen as capitals . Although there had been Jewish communities in many Roman cities , the Jews suffered periods of persecution after the conversion of the empire to Christianity . Officially they were tolerated , if subject to conversion efforts , and at times were even encouraged to settle in new areas .
= = = Rise of Islam = = =
Religious beliefs in the Eastern Empire and Iran were in flux during the late sixth and early seventh centuries . Judaism was an active proselytising faith , and at least one Arab political leader converted to it . Christianity had active missions competing with the Persians ' Zoroastrianism in seeking converts , especially among residents of the Arabian Peninsula . All these strands came together with the emergence of Islam in Arabia during the lifetime of Muhammad ( d . 632 ) . After his death , Islamic forces conquered much of the Eastern Empire and Persia , starting with Syria in 634 – 635 and reaching Egypt in 640 – 641 , Persia between 637 and 642 , North Africa in the later seventh century , and the Iberian Peninsula in 711 . By 714 , Islamic forces controlled much of the peninsula in a region they called Al @-@ Andalus .
The Islamic conquests reached their peak in the mid @-@ eighth century . The defeat of Muslim forces at the Battle of Tours in 732 led to the reconquest of southern France by the Franks , but the main reason for the halt of Islamic growth in Europe was the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate and its replacement by the Abbasid Caliphate . The Abbasids moved their capital to Baghdad and were more concerned with the Middle East than Europe , losing control of sections of the Muslim lands . Umayyad descendants took over the Iberian Peninsula , the Aghlabids controlled North Africa , and the Tulunids became rulers of Egypt . By the middle of the 8th century , new trading patterns were emerging in the Mediterranean ; trade between the Franks and the Arabs replaced the old Roman economy . Franks traded timber , furs , swords and slaves in return for silks and other fabrics , spices , and precious metals from the Arabs .
= = = Trade and economy = = =
The migrations and invasions of the 4th and 5th centuries disrupted trade networks around the Mediterranean . African goods stopped being imported into Europe , first disappearing from the interior and by the 7th century found only in a few cities such as Rome or Naples . By the end of the 7th century , under the impact of the Muslim conquests , African products were no longer found in Western Europe . The replacement of goods from long @-@ range trade with local products was a trend throughout the old Roman lands that happened in the Early Middle Ages . This was especially marked in the lands that did not lie on the Mediterranean , such as northern Gaul or Britain . Non @-@ local goods appearing in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods . In the northern parts of Europe , not only were the trade networks local , but the goods carried were simple , with little pottery or other complex products . Around the Mediterranean , pottery remained prevalent and appears to have been traded over medium @-@ range networks , not just produced locally .
The various Germanic states in the west all had coinages that imitated existing Roman and Byzantine forms . Gold continued to be minted until the end of the 7th century , when it was replaced by silver coins . The basic Frankish silver coin was the denarius or denier , while the Anglo @-@ Saxon version was called a penny . From these areas , the denier or penny spread throughout Europe during the centuries from 700 to 1000 . Copper or bronze coins were not struck , nor were gold except in Southern Europe . No silver coins denominated in multiple units were minted .
= = = Church and monasticism = = =
Christianity was a major unifying factor between Eastern and Western Europe before the Arab conquests , but the conquest of North Africa sundered maritime connections between those areas . Increasingly the Byzantine Church differed in language , practices , and liturgy from the western Church . The eastern church used Greek instead of the western Latin . Theological and political differences emerged , and by the early and middle 8th century issues such as iconoclasm , clerical marriage , and state control of the church had widened to the extent that the cultural and religious differences were greater than the similarities . The formal break came in 1054 , when the papacy and the patriarchy of Constantinople clashed over papal supremacy and excommunicated each other , which led to the division of Christianity into two churches — the western branch became the Roman Catholic Church and the eastern branch the Orthodox Church .
The ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Empire survived the movements and invasions in the west mostly intact , but the papacy was little regarded , and few of the western bishops looked to the bishop of Rome for religious or political leadership . Many of the popes prior to 750 were more concerned with Byzantine affairs and eastern theological controversies . The register , or archived copies of the letters , of Pope Gregory the Great ( pope 590 – 604 ) survived , and of those more than 850 letters , the vast majority were concerned with affairs in Italy or Constantinople . The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain , where Gregory had sent the Gregorian mission in 597 to convert the Anglo @-@ Saxons to Christianity . Irish missionaries were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and the 7th centuries , going first to England and Scotland and then on to the continent . Under such monks as Columba ( d . 597 ) and Columbanus ( d . 615 ) , they founded monasteries , taught in Latin and Greek , and authored secular and religious works .
The Early Middle Ages witnessed the rise of monasticism in the West . The shape of European monasticism was determined by traditions and ideas that originated with the Desert Fathers of Egypt and Syria . Most European monasteries were of the type that focuses on community experience of the spiritual life , called cenobitism , which was pioneered by Pachomius ( d . 348 ) in the 4th century . Monastic ideals spread from Egypt to Western Europe in the 5th and 6th centuries through hagiographical literature such as the Life of Anthony . Benedict of Nursia ( d . 547 ) wrote the Benedictine Rule for Western monasticism during the 6th century , detailing the administrative and spiritual responsibilities of a community of monks led by an abbot . Monks and monasteries had a deep effect on the religious and political life of the Early Middle Ages , in various cases acting as land trusts for powerful families , centres of propaganda and royal support in newly conquered regions , and bases for missions and proselytisation . They were the main and sometimes only outposts of education and literacy in a region . Many of the surviving manuscripts of the Latin classics were copied in monasteries in the Early Middle Ages . Monks were also the authors of new works , including history , theology , and other subjects , written by authors such as Bede ( d . 735 ) , a native of northern England who wrote in the late 7th and early 8th centuries .
= = = Carolingian Europe = = =
The Frankish kingdom in northern Gaul split into kingdoms called Austrasia , Neustria , and Burgundy during the 6th and 7th centuries , all of them ruled by the Merovingian dynasty , who were descended from Clovis . The 7th century was a tumultuous period of wars between Austrasia and Neustria . Such warfare was exploited by Pippin ( d . 640 ) , the Mayor of the Palace for Austrasia who became the power behind the Austrasian throne . Later members of his family inherited the office , acting as advisers and regents . One of his descendants , Charles Martel ( d . 741 ) , won the Battle of Poitiers in 732 , halting the advance of Muslim armies across the Pyrenees . Great Britain was divided into small states dominated by the kingdoms of Northumbria , Mercia , Wessex , and East Anglia , which were descended from the Anglo @-@ Saxon invaders . Smaller kingdoms in present @-@ day Wales and Scotland were still under the control of the native Britons and Picts . Ireland was divided into even smaller political units , usually known as tribal kingdoms , under the control of kings . There were perhaps as many as 150 local kings in Ireland , of varying importance .
The Carolingian dynasty , as the successors to Charles Martel are known , officially took control of the kingdoms of Austrasia and Neustria in a coup of 753 led by Pippin III ( r . 752 – 768 ) . A contemporary chronicle claims that Pippin sought , and gained , authority for this coup from Pope Stephen II ( pope 752 – 757 ) . Pippin 's takeover was reinforced with propaganda that portrayed the Merovingians as inept or cruel rulers , exalted the accomplishments of Charles Martel , and circulated stories of the family 's great piety . At the time of his death in 768 , Pippin left his kingdom in the hands of his two sons , Charles ( r . 768 – 814 ) and Carloman ( r . 768 – 771 ) . When Carloman died of natural causes , Charles blocked the succession of Carloman 's young son and installed himself as the king of the united Austrasia and Neustria . Charles , more often known as Charles the Great or Charlemagne , embarked upon a programme of systematic expansion in 774 that unified a large portion of Europe , eventually controlling modern @-@ day France , northern Italy , and Saxony . In the wars that lasted beyond 800 , he rewarded allies with war booty and command over parcels of land . In 774 , Charlemagne conquered the Lombards , which freed the papacy from the fear of Lombard conquest and marked the beginnings of the Papal States .
The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 is regarded as a turning point in medieval history , marking a return of the Western Roman Empire , since the new emperor ruled over much of the area previously controlled by the western emperors . It also marks a change in Charlemagne 's relationship with the Byzantine Empire , as the assumption of the imperial title by the Carolingians asserted their equivalence to the Byzantine state . There were several differences between the newly established Carolingian Empire and both the older Western Roman Empire and the concurrent Byzantine Empire . The Frankish lands were rural in character , with only a few small cities . Most of the people were peasants settled on small farms . Little trade existed and much of that was with the British Isles and Scandinavia , in contrast to the older Roman Empire with its trading networks centred on the Mediterranean . The empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor , as well as approximately 300 imperial officials called counts , who administered the counties the empire had been divided into . Clergy and local bishops served as officials , as well as the imperial officials called missi dominici , who served as roving inspectors and troubleshooters .
= = = Carolingian Renaissance = = =
Charlemagne 's court in Aachen was the centre of the cultural revival sometimes referred to as the " Carolingian Renaissance " . Literacy increased , as did development in the arts , architecture and jurisprudence , as well as liturgical and scriptural studies . The English monk Alcuin ( d . 804 ) was invited to Aachen and brought the education available in the monasteries of Northumbria . Charlemagne 's chancery — or writing office — made use of a new script today known as Carolingian minuscule , allowing a common writing style that advanced communication across much of Europe . Charlemagne sponsored changes in church liturgy , imposing the Roman form of church service on his domains , as well as the Gregorian chant in liturgical music for the churches . An important activity for scholars during this period was the copying , correcting , and dissemination of basic works on religious and secular topics , with the aim of encouraging learning . New works on religious topics and schoolbooks were also produced . Grammarians of the period modified the Latin language , changing it from the Classical Latin of the Roman Empire into a more flexible form to fit the needs of the church and government . By the reign of Charlemagne , the language had so diverged from the classical that it was later called Medieval Latin .
= = = Breakup of the Carolingian Empire = = =
Charlemagne planned to continue the Frankish tradition of dividing his kingdom between all his heirs , but was unable to do so as only one son , Louis the Pious ( r . 814 – 840 ) , was still alive by 813 . Just before Charlemagne died in 814 , he crowned Louis as his successor . Louis 's reign of 26 years was marked by numerous divisions of the empire among his sons and , after 829 , civil wars between various alliances of father and sons over the control of various parts of the empire . Eventually , Louis recognised his eldest son Lothair I ( d . 855 ) as emperor and gave him Italy . Louis divided the rest of the empire between Lothair and Charles the Bald ( d . 877 ) , his youngest son . Lothair took East Francia , comprising both banks of the Rhine and eastwards , leaving Charles West Francia with the empire to the west of the Rhineland and the Alps . Louis the German ( d . 876 ) , the middle child , who had been rebellious to the last , was allowed to keep Bavaria under the suzerainty of his elder brother . The division was disputed . Pepin II of Aquitaine ( d. after 864 ) , the emperor 's grandson , rebelled in a contest for Aquitaine , while Louis the German tried to annex all of East Francia . Louis the Pious died in 840 , with the empire still in chaos .
A three @-@ year civil war followed his death . By the Treaty of Verdun ( 843 ) , a kingdom between the Rhine and Rhone rivers was created for Lothair to go with his lands in Italy , and his imperial title was recognised . Louis the German was in control of Bavaria and the eastern lands in modern @-@ day Germany . Charles the Bald received the western Frankish lands , comprising most of modern @-@ day France . Charlemagne 's grandsons and great @-@ grandsons divided their kingdoms between their descendants , eventually causing all internal cohesion to be lost . In 987 the Carolingian dynasty was replaced in the western lands , with the crowning of Hugh Capet ( r . 987 – 996 ) as king . In the eastern lands the dynasty had died out earlier , in 911 , with the death of Louis the Child , and the selection of the unrelated Conrad I ( r . 911 – 918 ) as king .
The breakup of the Carolingian Empire was accompanied by invasions , migrations , and raids by external foes . The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the Vikings , who also raided the British Isles and settled there as well as in Iceland . In 911 , the Viking chieftain Rollo ( d. c . 931 ) received permission from the Frankish King Charles the Simple ( r . 898 – 922 ) to settle in what became Normandy . The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms , especially Germany and Italy , were under continual Magyar assault until the invader 's defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 . The breakup of the Abbasid dynasty meant that the Islamic world fragmented into smaller political states , some of which began expanding into Italy and Sicily , as well as over the Pyrenees into the southern parts of the Frankish kingdoms .
= = = New kingdoms and Byzantine revival = = =
Efforts by local kings to fight the invaders led to the formation of new political entities . In Anglo @-@ Saxon England , King Alfred the Great ( r . 871 – 899 ) came to an agreement with the Viking invaders in the late 9th century , resulting in Danish settlements in Northumbria , Mercia , and parts of East Anglia . By the middle of the 10th century , Alfred 's successors had conquered Northumbria , and restored English control over most of the southern part of Great Britain . In northern Britain , Kenneth MacAlpin ( d. c . 860 ) united the Picts and the Scots into the Kingdom of Alba . In the early 10th century , the Ottonian dynasty had established itself in Germany , and was engaged in driving back the Magyars . Its efforts culminated in the coronation in 962 of Otto I ( r . 936 – 973 ) as Holy Roman Emperor . In 972 , he secured recognition of his title by the Byzantine Empire , which he sealed with the marriage of his son Otto II ( r . 967 – 983 ) to Theophanu ( d . 991 ) , daughter of an earlier Byzantine Emperor Romanos II ( r . 959 – 963 ) . By the late 10th century Italy had been drawn into the Ottonian sphere after a period of instability ; Otto III ( r . 996 – 1002 ) spent much of his later reign in the kingdom . The western Frankish kingdom was more fragmented , and although kings remained nominally in charge , much of the political power devolved to the local lords .
Missionary efforts to Scandinavia during the 9th and 10th centuries helped strengthen the growth of kingdoms such as Sweden , Denmark , and Norway , which gained power and territory . Some kings converted to Christianity , although not all by 1000 . Scandinavians also expanded and colonised throughout Europe . Besides the settlements in Ireland , England , and Normandy , further settlement took place in what became Russia and in Iceland . Swedish traders and raiders ranged down the rivers of the Russian steppe , and even attempted to seize Constantinople in 860 and 907 . Christian Spain , initially driven into a small section of the peninsula in the north , expanded slowly south during the 9th and 10th centuries , establishing the kingdoms of Asturias and León .
In Eastern Europe , Byzantium revived its fortunes under Emperor Basil I ( r . 867 – 886 ) and his successors Leo VI ( r . 886 – 912 ) and Constantine VII ( r . 913 – 959 ) , members of the Macedonian dynasty . Commerce revived and the emperors oversaw the extension of a uniform administration to all the provinces . The military was reorganised , which allowed the emperors John I ( r . 969 – 976 ) and Basil II ( r . 976 – 1025 ) to expand the frontiers of the empire on all fronts . The imperial court was the centre of a revival of classical learning , a process known as the Macedonian Renaissance . Writers such as John Geometres ( fl. early 10th century ) composed new hymns , poems , and other works . Missionary efforts by both eastern and western clergy resulted in the conversion of the Moravians , Bulgars , Bohemians , Poles , Magyars , and Slavic inhabitants of the Kievan Rus ' . These conversions contributed to the founding of political states in the lands of those peoples — the states of Moravia , Bulgaria , Bohemia , Poland , Hungary , and the Kievan Rus ' . Bulgaria , which was founded around 680 , at its height reached from Budapest to the Black Sea and from the Dnieper River in modern Ukraine to the Adriatic Sea . By 1018 , the last Bulgarian nobles had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire .
= = = Art and architecture = = =
Few large stone buildings were constructed between the Constantinian basilicas of the 4th century and the 8th century , although many smaller ones were built during the 6th and 7th centuries . By the beginning of the 8th century , the Carolingian Empire revived the basilica form of architecture . One feature of the basilica is the use of a transept , or the " arms " of a cross @-@ shaped building that are perpendicular to the long nave . Other new features of religious architecture include the crossing tower and a monumental entrance to the church , usually at the west end of the building .
Carolingian art was produced for a small group of figures around the court , and the monasteries and churches they supported . It was dominated by efforts to regain the dignity and classicism of imperial Roman and Byzantine art , but was also influenced by the Insular art of the British Isles . Insular art integrated the energy of Irish Celtic and Anglo @-@ Saxon Germanic styles of ornament with Mediterranean forms such as the book , and established many characteristics of art for the rest of the medieval period . Surviving religious works from the Early Middle Ages are mostly illuminated manuscripts and carved ivories , originally made for metalwork that has since been melted down . Objects in precious metals were the most prestigious form of art , but almost all are lost except for a few crosses such as the Cross of Lothair , several reliquaries , and finds such as the Anglo @-@ Saxon burial at Sutton Hoo and the hoards of Gourdon from Merovingian France , Guarrazar from Visigothic Spain and Nagyszentmiklós near Byzantine territory . There are survivals from the large brooches in fibula or penannular form that were a key piece of personal adornment for elites , including the Irish Tara Brooch . Highly decorated books were mostly Gospel Books and these have survived in larger numbers , including the Insular Book of Kells , the Book of Lindisfarne , and the imperial Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram , which is one of the few to retain its " treasure binding " of gold encrusted with jewels . Charlemagne 's court seems to have been responsible for the acceptance of figurative monumental sculpture in Christian art , and by the end of the period near life @-@ sized figures such as the Gero Cross were common in important churches .
= = = Military and technological developments = = =
During the later Roman Empire , the principal military developments were attempts to create an effective cavalry force as well as the continued development of highly specialised types of troops . The creation of heavily armoured cataphract @-@ type soldiers as cavalry was an important feature of the 5th @-@ century Roman military . The various invading tribes had differing emphasis on types of soldiers — ranging from the primarily infantry Anglo @-@ Saxon invaders of Britain to the Vandals and Visigoths , who had a high proportion of cavalry in their armies . During the early invasion period , the stirrup had not been introduced into warfare , which limited the usefulness of cavalry as shock troops because it was not possible to put the full force of the horse and rider behind blows struck by the rider . The greatest change in military affairs during the invasion period was the adoption of the Hunnic composite bow in place of the earlier , and weaker , Scythian composite bow . Another development was the increasing use of longswords and the progressive replacement of scale armour by mail armour and lamellar armour .
The importance of infantry and light cavalry began to decline during the early Carolingian period , with a growing dominance of elite heavy cavalry . The use of militia @-@ type levies of the free population declined over the Carolingian period . Although much of the Carolingian armies were mounted , a large proportion during the early period appear to have been mounted infantry , rather than true cavalry . One exception was Anglo @-@ Saxon England , where the armies were still composed of regional levies , known as the fyrd , which were led by the local elites . In military technology , one of the main changes was the return of the crossbow , which had been known in Roman times and reappeared as a military weapon during the last part of the Early Middle Ages . Another change was the introduction of the stirrup , which increased the effectiveness of cavalry as shock troops . A technological advance that had implications beyond the military was the horseshoe , which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain .
= = High Middle Ages = =
= = = Society and economic life = = =
The High Middle Ages was a period of tremendous expansion of population . The estimated population of Europe grew from 35 to 80 million between 1000 and 1347 , although the exact causes remain unclear : improved agricultural techniques , the decline of slaveholding , a more clement climate and the lack of invasion have all been suggested . As much as 90 per cent of the European population remained rural peasants . Many were no longer settled in isolated farms but had gathered into small communities , usually known as manors or villages . These peasants were often subject to noble overlords and owed them rents and other services , in a system known as manorialism . There remained a few free peasants throughout this period and beyond , with more of them in the regions of Southern Europe than in the north . The practice of assarting , or bringing new lands into production by offering incentives to the peasants who settled them , also contributed to the expansion of population .
Other sections of society included the nobility , clergy , and townsmen . Nobles , both the titled nobility and simple knights , exploited the manors and the peasants , although they did not own lands outright but were granted rights to the income from a manor or other lands by an overlord through the system of feudalism . During the 11th and 12th centuries , these lands , or fiefs , came to be considered hereditary , and in most areas they were no longer divisible between all the heirs as had been the case in the early medieval period . Instead , most fiefs and lands went to the eldest son . The dominance of the nobility was built upon its control of the land , its military service as heavy cavalry , control of castles , and various immunities from taxes or other impositions . Castles , initially in wood but later in stone , began to be constructed in the 9th and 10th centuries in response to the disorder of the time , and provided protection from invaders as well as allowing lords defence from rivals . Control of castles allowed the nobles to defy kings or other overlords . Nobles were stratified ; kings and the highest @-@ ranking nobility controlled large numbers of commoners and large tracts of land , as well as other nobles . Beneath them , lesser nobles had authority over smaller areas of land and fewer people . Knights were the lowest level of nobility ; they controlled but did not own land , and had to serve other nobles .
The clergy was divided into two types : the secular clergy , who lived out in the world , and the regular clergy , who lived under a religious rule and were usually monks . Throughout the period monks remained a very small proportion of the population , usually less than one per cent . Most of the regular clergy were drawn from the nobility , the same social class that served as the recruiting ground for the upper levels of the secular clergy . The local parish priests were often drawn from the peasant class . Townsmen were in a somewhat unusual position , as they did not fit into the traditional three @-@ fold division of society into nobles , clergy , and peasants . During the 12th and 13th centuries , the ranks of the townsmen expanded greatly as existing towns grew and new population centres were founded . But throughout the Middle Ages the population of the towns probably never exceeded 10 per cent of the total population .
Jews also spread across Europe during the period . Communities were established in Germany and England in the 11th and 12th centuries , but Spanish Jews , long settled in Spain under the Muslims , came under Christian rule and increasing pressure to convert to Christianity . Most Jews were confined to the cities , as they were not allowed to own land or be peasants . Besides the Jews , there were other non @-@ Christians on the edges of Europe — pagan Slavs in Eastern Europe and Muslims in Southern Europe .
Women in the Middle Ages were officially required to be subordinate to some male , whether their father , husband , or other kinsman . Widows , who were often allowed much control over their own lives , were still restricted legally . Women 's work generally consisted of household or other domestically inclined tasks . Peasant women were usually responsible for taking care of the household , child @-@ care , as well as gardening and animal husbandry near the house . They could supplement the household income by spinning or brewing at home . At harvest @-@ time , they were also expected to help with field @-@ work . Townswomen , like peasant women , were responsible for the household , and could also engage in trade . What trades were open to women varied by country and period . Noblewomen were responsible for running a household , and could occasionally be expected to handle estates in the absence of male relatives , but they were usually restricted from participation in military or government affairs . The only role open to women in the Church was that of nuns , as they were unable to become priests .
In central and northern Italy and in Flanders , the rise of towns that were to a degree self @-@ governing stimulated economic growth and created an environment for new types of trade associations . Commercial cities on the shores of the Baltic entered into agreements known as the Hanseatic League , and the Italian Maritime republics such as Venice , Genoa , and Pisa expanded their trade throughout the Mediterranean . Great trading fairs were established and flourished in northern France during the period , allowing Italian and German merchants to trade with each other as well as local merchants . In the late 13th century new land and sea routes to the Far East were pioneered , famously described in The Travels of Marco Polo written by one of the traders , Marco Polo ( d . 1324 ) . Besides new trading opportunities , agricultural and technological improvements enabled an increase in crop yields , which in turn allowed the trade networks to expand . Rising trade brought new methods of dealing with money , and gold coinage was again minted in Europe , first in Italy and later in France and other countries . New forms of commercial contracts emerged , allowing risk to be shared among merchants . Accounting methods improved , partly through the use of double @-@ entry bookkeeping ; letters of credit also appeared , allowing easy transmission of money .
= = = Rise of state power = = =
The High Middle Ages was the formative period in the history of the modern Western state . Kings in France , England , and Spain consolidated their power , and set up lasting governing institutions . New kingdoms such as Hungary and Poland , after their conversion to Christianity , became Central European powers . The Magyars settled Hungary around 900 under King Árpád ( d. c . 907 ) after a series of invasions in the 9th century . The papacy , long attached to an ideology of independence from secular kings , first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the entire Christian world ; the Papal Monarchy reached its apogee in the early 13th century under the pontificate of Innocent III ( pope 1198 – 1216 ) . Northern Crusades and the advance of Christian kingdoms and military orders into previously pagan regions in the Baltic and Finnic north @-@ east brought the forced assimilation of numerous native peoples into European culture .
During the early High Middle Ages , Germany was ruled by the Ottonian dynasty , which struggled to control the powerful dukes ruling over territorial duchies tracing back to the Migration period . In 1024 , they were replaced by the Salian dynasty , who famously clashed with the papacy under Emperor Henry IV ( r . 1084 – 1105 ) over church appointments as part of the Investiture Controversy . His successors continued to struggle against the papacy as well as the German nobility . A period of instability followed the death of Emperor Henry V ( r . 1111 – 25 ) , who died without heirs , until Frederick I Barbarossa ( r . 1155 – 90 ) took the imperial throne . Although he ruled effectively , the basic problems remained , and his successors continued to struggle into the 13th century . Barbarossa 's grandson Frederick II ( r . 1220 – 1250 ) , who was also heir to the throne of Sicily through his mother , clashed repeatedly with the papacy . His court was famous for its scholars and he was often accused of heresy . He and his successors faced many difficulties , including the invasion of the Mongols into Europe in the mid @-@ 13th century . Mongols first shattered the Kievan Rus ' principalities and then invaded Eastern Europe in 1241 , 1259 , and 1287 .
Under the Capetian dynasty France slowly began to expand its authority over the nobility , growing out of the Île @-@ de @-@ France to exert control over more of the country in the 11th and 12th centuries . They faced a powerful rival in the Dukes of Normandy , who in 1066 under William the Conqueror ( duke 1035 – 1087 ) , conquered England ( r . 1066 – 87 ) and created a cross @-@ channel empire that lasted , in various forms , throughout the rest of the Middle Ages . Normans also settled in Sicily and southern Italy , when Robert Guiscard ( d . 1085 ) landed there in 1059 and established a duchy that later became the Kingdom of Sicily . Under the Angevin dynasty of Henry II ( r . 1154 – 89 ) and his son Richard I ( r . 1189 – 99 ) , the kings of England ruled over England and large areas of France , brought to the family by Henry II 's marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine ( d . 1204 ) , heiress to much of southern France . Richard 's younger brother John ( r . 1199 – 1216 ) lost Normandy and the rest of the northern French possessions in 1204 to the French King Philip II Augustus ( r . 1180 – 1223 ) . This led to dissension among the English nobility , while John 's financial exactions to pay for his unsuccessful attempts to regain Normandy led in 1215 to Magna Carta , a charter that confirmed the rights and privileges of free men in England . Under Henry III ( r . 1216 – 72 ) , John 's son , further concessions were made to the nobility , and royal power was diminished . The French monarchy continued to make gains against the nobility during the late 12th and 13th centuries , bringing more territories within the kingdom under their personal rule and centralising the royal administration . Under Louis IX ( r . 1226 – 70 ) , royal prestige rose to new heights as Louis served as a mediator for most of Europe .
In Iberia , the Christian states , which had been confined to the north @-@ western part of the peninsula , began to push back against the Islamic states in the south , a period known as the Reconquista . By about 1150 , the Christian north had coalesced into the five major kingdoms of León , Castile , Aragon , Navarre , and Portugal . Southern Iberia remained under control of Islamic states , initially under the Caliphate of Córdoba , which broke up in 1031 into a shifting number of petty states known as taifas , who fought with the Christians until the Almohad Caliphate re @-@ established centralised rule over Southern Iberia in the 1170s . Christian forces advanced again in the early 13th century , culminating in the capture of Seville in 1248 .
= = = Crusades = = =
In the 11th century , the Seljuk Turks took over much of the Middle East , occupying Persia during the 1040s , Armenia in the 1060s , and Jerusalem in 1070 . In 1071 , the Turkish army defeated the Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikert and captured the Byzantine Emperor Romanus IV ( r . 1068 – 71 ) . The Turks were then free to invade Asia Minor , which dealt a dangerous blow to the Byzantine Empire by seizing a large part of its population and its economic heartland . Although the Byzantines regrouped and recovered somewhat , they never fully regained Asia Minor and were often on the defensive . The Turks also had difficulties , losing control of Jerusalem to the Fatimids of Egypt and suffering from a series of internal civil wars . The Byzantines also faced a revived Bulgaria , which in the late 12th and 13th centuries spread throughout the Balkans .
The crusades were intended to seize Jerusalem from Muslim control . The First Crusade was proclaimed by Pope Urban II ( pope 1088 – 99 ) at the Council of Clermont in 1095 in response to a request from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos ( r . 1081 – 1118 ) for aid against further Muslim advances . Urban promised indulgence to anyone who took part . Tens of thousands of people from all levels of society mobilised across Europe and captured Jerusalem in 1099 . One feature of the crusades was the pogroms against local Jews that often took place as the crusaders left their countries for the East . These were especially brutal during the First Crusade , when the Jewish communities in Cologne , Mainz , and Worms were destroyed , and other communities in cities between the rivers Seine and Rhine suffered destruction . Another outgrowth of the crusades was the foundation of a new type of monastic order , the military orders of the Templars and Hospitallers , which fused monastic life with military service .
The crusaders consolidated their conquests into crusader states . During the 12th and 13th centuries , there were a series of conflicts between those states and the surrounding Islamic states . Appeals from those states to the papacy led to further crusades , such as the Third Crusade , called to try to regain Jerusalem , which had been captured by Saladin ( d . 1193 ) in 1187 . In 1203 , the Fourth Crusade was diverted from the Holy Land to Constantinople , and captured the city in 1204 , setting up a Latin Empire of Constantinople and greatly weakening the Byzantine Empire . The Byzantines recaptured the city in 1261 , but never regained their former strength . By 1291 all the crusader states had been captured or forced from the mainland , although a titular Kingdom of Jerusalem survived on the island of Cyprus for several years afterwards .
Popes called for crusades to take place elsewhere besides the Holy Land : in Spain , southern France , and along the Baltic . The Spanish crusades became fused with the Reconquista of Spain from the Muslims . Although the Templars and Hospitallers took part in the Spanish crusades , similar Spanish military religious orders were founded , most of which had become part of the two main orders of Calatrava and Santiago by the beginning of the 12th century . Northern Europe also remained outside Christian influence until the 11th century or later , and became a crusading venue as part of the Northern Crusades of the 12th to 14th centuries . These crusades also spawned a military order , the Order of the Sword Brothers . Another order , the Teutonic Knights , although originally founded in the crusader states , focused much of its activity in the Baltic after 1225 , and in 1309 moved its headquarters to Marienburg in Prussia .
= = = Intellectual life = = =
During the 11th century , developments in philosophy and theology led to increased intellectual activity . There was debate between the realists and the nominalists over the concept of " universals " . Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of Aristotle and his emphasis on empiricism and rationalism . Scholars such as Peter Abelard ( d . 1142 ) and Peter Lombard ( d . 1164 ) introduced Aristotelian logic into theology . In the late 11th and early 12th centuries cathedral schools spread throughout Western Europe , signalling the shift of learning from monasteries to cathedrals and towns . Cathedral schools were in turn replaced by the universities established in major European cities . Philosophy and theology fused in scholasticism , an attempt by 12th- and 13th @-@ century scholars to reconcile authoritative texts , most notably Aristotle and the Bible . This movement tried to employ a systemic approach to truth and reason and culminated in the thought of Thomas Aquinas ( d . 1274 ) , who wrote the Summa Theologica , or Summary of Theology .
Chivalry and the ethos of courtly love developed in royal and noble courts . This culture was expressed in the vernacular languages rather than Latin , and comprised poems , stories , legends , and popular songs spread by troubadours , or wandering minstrels . Often the stories were written down in the chansons de geste , or " songs of great deeds " , such as The Song of Roland or The Song of Hildebrand . Secular and religious histories were also produced . Geoffrey of Monmouth ( d. c . 1155 ) composed his Historia Regum Britanniae , a collection of stories and legends about Arthur . Other works were more clearly history , such as Otto von Freising 's ( d . 1158 ) Gesta Friderici Imperatoris detailing the deeds of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa , or William of Malmesbury 's ( d. c . 1143 ) Gesta Regum on the kings of England .
Legal studies advanced during the 12th century . Both secular law and canon law , or ecclesiastical law , were studied in the High Middle Ages . Secular law , or Roman law , was advanced greatly by the discovery of the Corpus Juris Civilis in the 11th century , and by 1100 Roman law was being taught at Bologna . This led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe . Canon law was also studied , and around 1140 a monk named Gratian ( fl . 12th century ) , a teacher at Bologna , wrote what became the standard text of canon law — the Decretum .
Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of Roman numerals with the decimal positional number system and the invention of algebra , which allowed more advanced mathematics . Astronomy advanced following the translation of Ptolemy 's Almagest from Greek into Latin in the late 12th century . Medicine was also studied , especially in southern Italy , where Islamic medicine influenced the school at Salerno .
= = = Technology and military = = =
In the 12th and 13th centuries , Europe produced economic growth and innovations in methods of production . Major technological advances included the invention of the windmill , the first mechanical clocks , the manufacture of distilled spirits , and the use of the astrolabe . Concave spectacles were invented around 1286 by an unknown Italian artisan , probably working in or near Pisa .
The development of a three @-@ field rotation system for planting crops increased the usage of land from one half in use each year under the old two @-@ field system to two @-@ thirds under the new system , with a consequent increase in production . The development of the heavy plough allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently , aided by the spread of the horse collar , which led to the use of draught horses in place of oxen . Horses are faster than oxen and require less pasture , factors that aided the implementation of the three @-@ field system .
The construction of cathedrals and castles advanced building technology , leading to the development of large stone buildings . Ancillary structures included new town halls , houses , bridges , and tithe barns . Shipbuilding improved with the use of the rib and plank method rather than the old Roman system of mortise and tenon . Other improvements to ships included the use of lateen sails and the stern @-@ post rudder , both of which increased the speed at which ships could be sailed .
In military affairs , the use of infantry with specialised roles increased . Along with the still @-@ dominant heavy cavalry , armies often included mounted and infantry crossbowmen , as well as sappers and engineers . Crossbows , which had been known in Late Antiquity , increased in use partly because of the increase in siege warfare in the 10th and 11th centuries . The increasing use of crossbows during the 12th and 13th centuries led to the use of closed @-@ face helmets , heavy body armour , as well as horse armour . Gunpowder was known in Europe by the mid @-@ 13th century with a recorded use in European warfare by the English against the Scots in 1304 , although it was merely used as an explosive and not as a weapon . Cannon were being used for sieges in the 1320s , and hand @-@ held guns were in use by the 1360s .
= = = Architecture , art , and music = = =
In the 10th century the establishment of churches and monasteries led to the development of stone architecture that elaborated vernacular Roman forms , from which the term " Romanesque " is derived . Where available , Roman brick and stone buildings were recycled for their materials . From the tentative beginnings known as the First Romanesque , the style flourished and spread across Europe in a remarkably homogeneous form . Just before 1000 there was a great wave of building stone churches all over Europe . Romanesque buildings have massive stone walls , openings topped by semi @-@ circular arches , small windows , and , particularly in France , arched stone vaults . The large portal with coloured sculpture in high relief became a central feature of façades , especially in France , and the capitals of columns were often carved with narrative scenes of imaginative monsters and animals . According to art historian C. R. Dodwell , " virtually all the churches in the West were decorated with wall @-@ paintings " , of which few survive . Simultaneous with the development in church architecture , the distinctive European form of the castle was developed , and became crucial to politics and warfare .
Romanesque art , especially metalwork , was at its most sophisticated in Mosan art , in which distinct artistic personalities including Nicholas of Verdun ( d . 1205 ) become apparent , and an almost classical style is seen in works such as a font at Liège , contrasting with the writhing animals of the exactly contemporary Gloucester Candlestick . Large illuminated bibles and psalters were the typical forms of luxury manuscripts , and wall @-@ painting flourished in churches , often following a scheme with a Last Judgement on the west wall , a Christ in Majesty at the east end , and narrative biblical scenes down the nave , or in the best surviving example , at Saint @-@ Savin @-@ sur @-@ Gartempe , on the barrel @-@ vaulted roof .
From the early 12th century , French builders developed the Gothic style , marked by the use of rib vaults , pointed arches , flying buttresses , and large stained glass windows . It was used mainly in churches and cathedrals , and continued in use until the 16th century in much of Europe . Classic examples of Gothic architecture include Chartres Cathedral and Reims Cathedral in France as well as Salisbury Cathedral in England . Stained glass became a crucial element in the design of churches , which continued to use extensive wall @-@ paintings , now almost all lost .
During this period the practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops , so that according to Janetta Benton " by 1300 most monks bought their books in shops " , and the book of hours developed as a form of devotional book for lay @-@ people . Metalwork continued to be the most prestigious form of art , with Limoges enamel a popular and relatively affordable option for objects such as reliquaries and crosses . In Italy the innovations of Cimabue and Duccio , followed by the Trecento master Giotto ( d . 1337 ) , greatly increased the sophistication and status of panel painting and fresco . Increasing prosperity during the 12th century resulted in greater production of secular art ; many carved ivory objects such as gaming @-@ pieces , combs , and small religious figures have survived .
= = = Church life = = =
Monastic reform became an important issue during the 11th century , as elites began to worry that monks were not adhering to the rules binding them to a strictly religious life . Cluny Abbey , founded in the Mâcon region of France in 909 , was established as part of the Cluniac Reforms , a larger movement of monastic reform in response to this fear . Cluny quickly established a reputation for austerity and rigour . It sought to maintain a high quality of spiritual life by placing itself under the protection of the papacy and by electing its own abbot without interference from laymen , thus maintaining economic and political independence from local lords .
Monastic reform inspired change in the secular church . The ideals that it was based upon were brought to the papacy by Pope Leo IX ( pope 1049 – 1054 ) , and provided the ideology of the clerical independence that led to the Investiture Controversy in the late 11th century . This involved Pope Gregory VII ( pope 1073 – 85 ) and Emperor Henry IV , who initially clashed
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Meet Kevin Johnson " reveals that they manage to return to New York City , where Michael hands Walt over to Walt 's grandmother . Michael then attempts suicide , unable to cope with the guilt of his murders . Tom ( M. C. Gainey ) , one of the Others , arrives , and tells Michael he can redeem himself by saving the other survivors from an imminent threat . Tom gives Michael a passport with the new name of " Kevin Johnson " in order to infiltrate a freighter that is trying to find the Island . On the freighter he receives a call from Ben , who instructs him to send him information on all the crew , then to sabotage the radio room and the boat engines . In his first season four appearance , Michael meets Sayid ( Naveen Andrews ) and Desmond ( Henry Ian Cusick ) , who have managed to get from the Island to the freighter . They tell the freighter 's captain of Michael 's true identity , who orders him to repair the engines . During the season finale , Michael and Jin attempt to disarm a bomb planted on the freighter . Michael slows the bomb 's detonation with liquid nitrogen , then tells Jin to leave , when he is almost out of nitrogen . When the supply of nitrogen runs out , Christian Shephard ( John Terry ) appears to Michael and tells him he can go now . The bomb detonates , and Michael is killed in the explosion , having achieved the redemption he had been seeking . Michael reappears halfway through the sixth season as a ghost that only Hurley can see . He explains that the whispers on the island are the voices of those who have died on the island . As Hurley turns to depart , Michael stops him and apologizes for the pain he caused for both him and Libby .
= = Characteristics = =
During season two , Perrineau stated " [ Michael ] ' s nicer than I expected him to be . Or , he is nicer so far than I expected him to be ... I try to take characters that I think are challenging and a little complicated and hopefully really smart and thoughtful and compassionate . I think Michael is all those things . He seems to have a lot of bad luck . " He defends Michael 's behavior in season two , saying " [ Michael ] keeps stepping into more trouble than he actually asked for " . Cynthia Littleton of Variety described Michael as " one of the most interesting of the Oceanic 815 @-@ ers : flawed , tortured , hard to read , volatile , fighting his innate talents , his own worst enemy , at times , and at others , a totally stand @-@ up guy . " IGN 's Chris Carabott calls Michael a " natural " father . Michael is known for frequently shouting " Walt ! " , " Where 's my son ! " and " Have you seen my boy ? " .
= = Development = =
When the producers were auditioning actors for roles in Lost , Harold Perrineau was in the area . The producers called it a " natural move " to have him audition . Although initially skeptical about the show , he took the role when Lost creator J. J. Abrams explained more about it . Perrineau was attracted to the role because " [ Michael ] ' s a guy that 's in a lot of conflict and we 're not exactly sure why " . In season one , Michael was going to be part of a love triangle with Sun and Jin , however this was dropped after positive fan reaction to Sun and Jin 's relationship . The storyline is revisited in the Missing Pieces mobisode " Buried Secrets " , which shows Michael and Sun almost kissing . Michael and Jin were going to be enemies throughout all of the season , but the producers felt Perrineau and Daniel Dae Kim had good chemistry , so the storyline was changed to them becoming friends . Perrineau called filming the first season " one of [ his ] best years as a working actor " .
Lost writer Elizabeth Sarnoff explained that Michael 's storyline in season two is about " what a father will do to save his son " ; she noted " there 's nothing worse than what he does " . The second episode of season two was originally going to be Sawyer centric , however this was rewritten " at the proverbial last minute " and changed to a Michael centric episode . Perrineau received swimming lessons in preparation for this episode . Perrineau was unaware that his character had been captured by the Others until he was told Michael was going to kill Ana Lucia and Libby . Perrineau described shooting the scenes in " Two for the Road " where Michael murders Ana Lucia and Libby as a " tough day " . The last scene shot of season two was Michael and Walt sailing away from the Island . As it was a long camera shot , Perrineau had to sail the boat so far from the pier , that by the time he returned , all the equipment had already been packed away . He said , " It felt fitting , actually . Like ; that 's it " . Perrineau knew he would be back one day , but as the producers did not reveal any details to him , he did not know when . He was the first actor that left the show as " part of a grander design to come back " , and the only one until Emilie de Ravin .
After leaving the Island in the second season finale " Live Together , Die Alone " , Michael was supposed to return in the season three finale , but Perrineau was filming the pilot of Demons , so was unable to return . Instead he returned in the seventh episode of season four , " Ji Yeon " . His return was meant to be announced during Lost 's slot at the 2007 Comic @-@ Con International , however there were complaints at the Television Critics Association Press Tour when ABC 's President of Entertainment Stephen McPherson commented that " some big announcements " would be made at the Lost panel . Some journalists felt that any announcements should be made to them at the press meeting , rather than at a fan convention . After numerous reporters asked about what would be announced , Lost producer Damon Lindelof was contacted , and he gave permission for McPherson to say Harold Perrineau would be returning to Lost . At Comic @-@ Con , Lindelof confirmed Perrineau would be back as a cast member , not just for a flashback . Lost producer Carlton Cuse said " Michael 's story is for us one of the most becoming storylines on the show because here 's a character who ... undertook some very extreme actions in order to basically get his son off the Island , and then when he sailed off in that boat I think everyone was very curious about what happened to him , what is his fate ... we really feel that Michael 's story will be a really compelling part of the season . " Perrineau was disappointed that he was brought back to the show only to be killed , and that Michael does not get a chance to reunite with his son , Walt , saying , " there are all these questions about how [ the writers ] respond to black people on the show ... Walt just winds up being another fatherless child . It plays into a really big , weird stereotype and , being a black person myself , that wasn 't so interesting . " Cuse responded " We pride ourselves on having a very racially diverse cast . It 's painful when any actor 's storyline ends on the show . Harold is a fantastic actor whose presence added enormously to Lost " . Perrineau later said he should have thought before making a racial comment , and although he felt like that , he never discussed the matter with the producers . Perrineau said that although he would be happy to return to Lost , he would have to know what the storyline would be .
= = Reception = =
Michael 's first centric episode , " Special " , was well received by critics . Chris Carabott of IGN said " Michael 's flashback is a heart wrenching look at the relationship , or lack @-@ there @-@ of , between him and his son Walt . " He added " As Michael 's life crumble around him , it 's Harold Perrineau 's brilliant performance that really shines through . " Kirthana Ramisetti from Entertainment Weekly called it the best episode since " Walkabout " because of Michael 's character development . She said " One of my favorite scenes of the entire season ... was Michael and Walt bonding over the letters and the drawing of the sunburned penguin . It was moving to see these two finally relating to each other as father and son after everything they 've been through . "
Michael 's first centric episode in season two was less well received . Mac Slocum of Filmfodder.com said " it wasn 't all that interesting " . Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Jensen called the flashbacks " among the poorest and most clumsily integrated flashbacks we 've seen so far " , as he felt nothing new was learned . He did not like Michael 's on @-@ Island storyline either , noting he " got the sense that the actors and directors weren 't quite sure what to make of these scenes " . Three episodes later , Jensen thought Michael 's " whiny dad act " became " increasingly tedious " . When Michael murdered Ana Lucia and Libby in " Two for the Road " , Slocum called it the " single biggest shocker in Lost history " . C. K. Sample of AOL 's TV Squad wrote that although he suspected that Ana Lucia and Libby were going to die , he thought what " was amazing was who shot them " . Zap2it 's Amy Amatangelo described the double murder as " a brilliant move " , because " one of their own [ became ] one of them " . She added it was " one of [ the second ] season 's most jaw @-@ dropping moments " . According to Perrineau , it made fans " pissed off " with Michael . Jensen praised Perrineau 's acting , saying " Michael 's bloody betrayal is hard to swallow , but Harold Perrineau sells it " . Many reviewers joked about how frequently Michael shouts " Walt ! " , such as Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger , Erin Martell of AOL 's TV Squad , and Joshua Rich of Entertainment Weekly . Perrineau co @-@ won the 2005 Screen Actors Guild Award for " Best Ensemble - Drama Series .
Joshua Rich from Entertainment Weekly had mixed views on the prospect of Michael returning in season four , because although Perrineau was one of his " favorite " actors , he liked how peaceful the series had become without Michael constantly screaming " Walt ! " . IGN 's Chris Carabott called Michael 's return " the worst kept secret in Lost history " , but still found his reveal " exciting " . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger found " a fine performance from Mr. Perrineau " in " Meet Kevin Johnson " . Sepinwall wrote that Michael 's " struggle to deal with the guilt from his Faustian bargain to save Walt was another moving example of how the writers this season are really trying to build on the emotional impact of everything that 's happened before . " Cynthia Littleton of Variety was " really happy " to see Michael again , and wrote " Perrineau plays it just right most of the time — no hysterics or scenery @-@ chewing , just a man trying to do the right thing , most of the time . " Digital Spy 's Ben Rawson @-@ Jones commented that " [ Michael 's ] suicidal plight was well conveyed and there were plenty of shocks and thrills along the way " . Before the fourth season finale aired , Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Jensen ranked Michael being unable to commit suicide as the thirteenth best moment of the season , but did add " This story line didn 't match the hype " . Oscar Dahl from BuddyTV called Michael 's death " the culmination of a fairly lackluster story arc " .
= Cyrus Cylinder =
The Cyrus Cylinder ( Persian : استوانه کوروش ) or Cyrus Charter ( Persian : منشور کوروش ) is an ancient clay cylinder , now broken into several fragments , on which is written a declaration in Akkadian cuneiform script in the name of Persia 's Achaemenid king Cyrus the Great . It dates from the 6th century BCE and was discovered in the ruins of Babylon in Mesopotamia ( modern Iraq ) in 1879 . It is currently possessed by the British Museum , which sponsored the expedition that discovered the cylinder . It was created and used as a foundation deposit following the Persian conquest of Babylon in 539 BC , when the Neo @-@ Babylonian Empire was invaded by Cyrus and incorporated into his Persian Empire .
The text on the Cylinder praises Cyrus , sets out his genealogy and portrays him as a king from a line of kings . The Babylonian king Nabonidus , who was defeated and deposed by Cyrus , is denounced as an impious oppressor of the people of Babylonia and his low @-@ born origins are implicitly contrasted to Cyrus 's kingly heritage . The victorious Cyrus is portrayed as having been chosen by the chief Babylonian god Marduk to restore peace and order to the Babylonians . The text states that Cyrus was welcomed by the people of Babylon as their new ruler and entered the city in peace . It appeals to Marduk to protect and help Cyrus and his son Cambyses . It extols Cyrus as a benefactor of the citizens of Babylonia who improved their lives , repatriated displaced people and restored temples and cult sanctuaries across Mesopotamia and elsewhere in the region . It concludes with a description of how Cyrus repaired the city wall of Babylon and found a similar inscription placed there by an earlier king .
The Cylinder 's text has traditionally been seen by biblical scholars as corroborative evidence of Cyrus ' policy of the repatriation of the Jewish people following their Babylonian captivity ( an act that the Book of Ezra attributes to Cyrus ) , as the text refers to the restoration of cult sanctuaries and repatriation of deported peoples . This interpretation has been disputed , as the text identifies only Mesopotamian sanctuaries , and makes no mention of Jews , Jerusalem , or Judea . The Cylinder has also been called the oldest known charter or symbol of universal human rights , a view rejected by others as anachronistic and a misunderstanding of the Cylinder 's generic nature as a typical statement made by a new monarch at the beginning of his reign . Neil MacGregor , Director of the British Museum , has stated that the cylinder was " the first attempt we know about running a society , a state with different nationalities and faiths — a new kind of statecraft . " It was adopted as a national symbol of Iran by the Imperial State which put it on display in Tehran in 1971 to commemorate 2 @,@ 500 years of the Iranian monarchy .
= = Discovery = =
The Assyro @-@ British archaeologist Hormuzd Rassam discovered the Cyrus Cylinder in March 1879 during a lengthy programme of excavations in Mesopotamia carried out for the British Museum . It had been placed as a foundation deposit in the foundations of the Ésagila , the city 's main temple . Rassam 's expedition followed on from an earlier dig carried out in 1850 by the British archaeologist Austen Henry Layard , who excavated three mounds in the same area but found little of importance . In 1877 , Layard became Britain 's ambassador to the Ottoman Empire , which ruled Mesopotamia at the time . He helped Rassam , who had been his assistant in the 1850 dig , to obtain a firman ( decree ) from the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II to continue the earlier excavations . The firman was only valid for a year but a second firman , with much more liberal terms , was issued in 1878 . It was granted for two years ( through to 15 October 1880 ) with the promise of an extension to 1882 if required . The Sultan 's decree authorised Rassam to " pack and dispatch to England any antiquities [ he ] found … provided , however , there were no duplicates . " A representative of the Sultan was instructed to be present at the dig to examine the objects as they were uncovered .
With permission secured , Rassam initiated a large @-@ scale excavation at Babylon and other sites on behalf of the Trustees of the British Museum . He undertook the excavations in four distinct phases . In between each phase , he returned to England to bring back his finds and raise more funds for further work . The Cyrus Cylinder was found on the second of his four expeditions to Mesopotamia , which began with his departure from London on 8 October 1878 . He arrived in his home town of Mosul on 16 November and travelled down the Tigris to Baghdad , which he reached on 30 January 1879 . During February and March , he supervised excavations on a number of Babylonian sites , including Babylon itself .
He soon uncovered a number of important buildings including the Ésagila temple . This was a major shrine to the chief Babylonian god Marduk , although its identity was not fully confirmed until the German archaeologist Robert Koldewey 's excavation of 1900 . The excavators found a large number of business documents written on clay tablets buried in the temple 's foundations where they discovered the Cyrus Cylinder . Rassam gave conflicting accounts of where his discoveries were made . He wrote in his memoirs , Asshur and the land of Nimrod , that the Cylinder had been found in a mound at the southern end of Babylon near the village of Jumjuma or Jimjima . However , in a letter sent on 20 November 1879 to Samuel Birch , the Keeper of Oriental Antiquities at the British Museum , he wrote , " The Cylinder of Cyrus was found at Omran [ Tell Amran @-@ ibn @-@ Ali ] with about six hundred pieces of inscribed terracottas before I left Baghdad . " He left Baghdad on 2 April , returning to Mosul and departing from there on 2 May for a journey to London which lasted until 19 June .
The discovery was announced to the public by Sir Henry Rawlinson , the President of the Royal Asiatic Society , at a meeting of the Society on 17 November 1879 . He described it as " one of the most interesting historical records in the cuneiform character that has yet been brought to light , " though he erroneously described it as coming from the ancient city of Borsippa rather than Babylon . Rawlinson 's " Notes on a newly @-@ discovered Clay Cylinder of Cyrus the Great " were published in the society 's journal the following year , including the first partial translation of the text .
= = Description = =
The Cyrus Cylinder is a barrel @-@ shaped cylinder of baked clay measuring 22 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) by 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) at its maximum diameter . It was created in several stages around a cone @-@ shaped core of clay within which there are large grey stone inclusions . It was built up with extra layers of clay to give it a cylindrical shape before a fine surface slip of clay was added to the outer layer , on which the text is inscribed . It was excavated in several fragments , having apparently broken apart in antiquity . Today it exists in two main fragments , known as " A " and " B " , which were reunited in 1972 .
The main body of the Cylinder , discovered by Rassam in 1879 , is fragment " A " . It underwent restoration in 1961 , when it was re @-@ fired and plaster filling was added . The smaller fragment , " B " , is a section measuring 8 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 4 in ) by 5 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) . The latter fragment was acquired by J.B. Nies of Yale University from an antiquities dealer . Nies published the text in 1920 . The fragment was apparently broken off the main body of the Cylinder during the original excavations in 1879 and was either removed from the excavations or was retrieved from one of Rassam 's waste dumps . It was not confirmed as part of the Cylinder until Paul @-@ Richard Berger of the University of Münster definitively identified it in 1970 . Yale University lent the fragment to the British Museum temporarily ( but , in practice , indefinitely ) in exchange for " a suitable cuneiform tablet " from the British Museum collection .
Although the Cylinder clearly post @-@ dates Cyrus the Great 's conquest of Babylon in 539 BC , the date of its creation is unclear . It is commonly said to date to the early part of Cyrus 's reign over Babylon , some time after 539 BC . The British Museum puts the Cylinder 's date of origin at between 539 – 530 BC .
= = = The text = = =
The surviving inscription on the Cyrus Cylinder consists of 45 lines of text written in Akkadian cuneiform script . The first 35 lines are on fragment " A " and the remainder are on fragment " B. " A number of lines at the start and end of the text are too badly damaged for more than a few words to be legible .
The text is written in an extremely formulaic style that can be divided into six distinct parts :
Lines 1 – 19 : an introduction reviling Nabonidus , the previous king of Babylon , and associating Cyrus with the god Marduk ;
Lines 20 – 22 : detailing Cyrus 's royal titles and genealogy , and his peaceful entry to Babylon ;
Lines 22 – 34 : a commendation of Cyrus 's policy of restoring Babylon ;
Lines 34 – 35 : a prayer to Marduk on behalf of Cyrus and his son Cambyses ;
Lines 36 – 37 : a declaration that Cyrus has enabled the people to live in peace and has increased the offerings made to the gods ;
Lines 38 – 45 : details of the building activities ordered by Cyrus in Babylon .
The beginning of the text is partly broken ; the surviving content reprimands the character of the deposed Babylonian king Nabonidus . It lists his alleged crimes , charging him with the desecration of the temples of the gods and the imposition of forced labor upon the populace . According to the proclamation , as a result of these offenses , the god Marduk abandoned Babylon and sought a more righteous king . Marduk called forth Cyrus to enter Babylon and become its new ruler .
In [ Nabonidus 's ] mind , reverential fear of Marduk , king of the gods , came to an end . He did yet more evil to his city every day ; … his [ people ................ … ] , he brought ruin on them all by a yoke without relief … [ Marduk ] inspected and checked all the countries , seeking for the upright king of his choice . He took the hand of Cyrus , king of the city of Anshan , and called him by his name , proclaiming him aloud for the kingship over all of everything .
Midway through the text , the writer switches to a first @-@ person narrative in the voice of Cyrus , addressing the reader directly . A list of his titles is given ( in a Mesopotamian rather than Persian style ) : " I am Cyrus , king of the world , great king , powerful king , king of Babylon , king of Sumer and Akkad , king of the four quarters [ of the earth ] , son of Cambyses , great king , king of Anshan , descendent of Teispes , great king , king of Anshan , the perpetual seed of kingship , whose reign Bel [ Marduk ] and Nebo love , and with whose kingship , to their joy , they concern themselves . " He describes the pious deeds he performed after his conquest : he restored peace to Babylon and the other cities sacred to Marduk , freeing their inhabitants from their " yoke , " and he " brought relief to their dilapidated housing ( thus ) putting an end to their ( main ) complaints . " He repaired the ruined temples in the cities he conquered , restored their cults , and returned their sacred images as well as their former inhabitants which Nabonidus had taken to Babylon . Near the end of the inscription Cyrus highlights his restoration of Babylon 's city wall , saying : " I saw within it an inscription of Ashurbanipal , a king who preceded me . " The remainder is missing but presumably describes Cyrus 's rededication of the gateway mentioned .
A partial transcription by F.H. Weissbach in 1911 was supplanted by a much more complete transcription after the identification of the " B " fragment ; this is now available in German and in English . Several editions of the full text of the Cyrus Cylinder are available online , incorporating both " A " and " B " fragments .
A false translation of the text – affirming , among other things , the abolition of slavery and the right to self @-@ determination , a minimum wage and asylum – has been promoted on the Internet and elsewhere . As well as making claims that are not found on the real cylinder , it refers to the Zoroastrian divinity Ahura Mazda rather than the Mesopotamian god Marduk . The false translation has been widely circulated ; alluding to its claim that Cyrus supposedly has stated that " Every country shall decide for itself whether or not it wants my leadership . " Iranian Nobel Peace Prize winner Shirin Ebadi in her acceptance speech described Cyrus as " the very emperor who proclaimed at the pinnacle of power 2 @,@ 500 years ago that … he would not reign over the people if they did not wish it " . Similarly , in a 2006 speech , United States President George W. Bush referred to Cyrus , declaring that his people had " the right to worship God in freedom " – a statement made nowhere in the text of the Cylinder .
= = = Associated fragments = = =
The British Museum announced in January 2010 that two inscribed clay fragments , which had been in the Museum 's collection since 1881 , had been identified as part of a cuneiform tablet that was inscribed with the same text as the Cyrus Cylinder . The fragments had come from the small site of Dailem near Babylon and the identification was made by Professor Wilfred Lambert , formerly of the University of Birmingham , and Irving Finkel , curator in charge of the Museum 's Department of the Middle East .
A horse bone bearing cuneiform inscriptions apparently derived from the Cyrus Cylinder has also been discovered in China along with a second bone inscribed with an as yet unknown text . The bones were acquired by the Beijing Palace Museum in 1985 . Their origin is unclear , but Irving Finkel has hypothesized that they may reflect a proclamation in another format ( perhaps leather or clay ) , derived from the Cyrus Cylinder 's text , though for some reason only one in twenty of the original cuneiform symbols were copied . Finkel suggests that this may indicate that the text ( or even the original cylinder itself ) was sent around the Persian Empire and was copied to make the bone 's inscription at some point .
= = Interpretations = =
= = = Mesopotamian and Persian tradition and propaganda = = =
According to the British Museum , the Cyrus Cylinder reflects a long tradition in Mesopotamia where , from as early as the third millennium BC , kings began their reigns with declarations of reforms . Cyrus 's declaration stresses his legitimacy as the king , and is a conspicuous statement of his respect for the religious and political traditions of Babylon . The British Museum and scholars of the period describe it as an instrument of ancient Mesopotamian propaganda .
The text is a royal building inscription , a genre which had no equivalent in Old Persian literature . It illustrates how Cyrus co @-@ opted local traditions and symbols to legitimize his conquest and control of Babylon . Many elements of the text were drawn from long @-@ standing Mesopotamian themes of legitimizing rule in Babylonia : the preceding king is reprimanded and he is proclaimed to have been abandoned by the gods for his wickedness ; the new king has gained power through the divine will of the gods ; the new king rights the wrongs of his predecessor , addressing the welfare of the people ; the sanctuaries of the gods are rebuilt or restored , offerings to the gods are made or increased and the blessings of the gods are sought ; and repairs are made to the whole city , in the manner of earlier rightful kings .
Both continuity and discontinuity are emphasized in the text of the Cylinder . It asserts the virtue of Cyrus as a gods @-@ fearing king of a traditional Mesopotamian type . On the other hand , it constantly discredits Nabonidus , reviling the deposed king 's deeds and even his ancestry and portraying him as an impious destroyer of his own people . As Fowler and Hekster note , this " creates a problem for a monarch who chooses to buttress his claim to legitimacy by appropriating the ' symbolic capital ' of his predecessors . " The Cylinder 's reprimand of Nabonidus also discredits Babylonian royal authority by association . It is perhaps for this reason that the Achaemenid rulers made greater use of Assyrian rather than Babylonian royal iconography and tradition in their declarations ; the Cylinder refers to the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal as " my predecessor " , rather than any native Babylonian ruler .
The Cylinder itself is part of a continuous Mesopotamian tradition of depositing a wide variety of symbolic items , including animal sacrifices , stone tablets , terracotta cones , cylinders and figures . Newly crowned kings of Babylon would make public declarations of their own righteousness when beginning their reigns , often in the form of declarations that were deposited in the foundations of public buildings . Some contained messages , while others did not , and they had a number of purposes : elaboration of a building 's value , commemoration of the ruler or builder and the magical sanctification of the building , through the invocation of divine protection .
The cylinder was not intended to be seen again after its burial , but the text inscribed on it would have been used for public purposes . Archive copies were kept of important inscriptions and the Cylinder 's text may likewise have been copied . In January 2010 , the British Museum announced that two cuneiform tablets in its collection had been found to be inscribed with the same text as that on the Cyrus Cylinder , which , according to the Museum , " show that the text of the Cylinder was probably a proclamation that was widely distributed across the Persian Empire . "
= = = = Similarities with other royal inscriptions = = = =
The Cyrus Cylinder bears striking similarities to older Mesopotamian royal inscriptions . Two notable examples are the Cylinder of Marduk @-@ apla @-@ iddina II , who seized the Babylonian throne in 722 / 1 BC , and the annals of Sargon II of Assyria , who conquered Babylon twelve years later . As a conqueror , Marduk @-@ apla @-@ iddina faced many of the same problems of legitimacy that Cyrus did when he conquered Babylon . He declares himself to have been chosen personally by Marduk , who ensured his victory . When he took power , he performed the sacred rites and restored the sacred shrines . He states that he found a royal inscription placed in the temple foundations by an earlier Babylonian king , which he left undisturbed and honored . All of these claims also appear in Cyrus 's Cylinder . Twelve years later , the Assyrian king Sargon II defeated and exiled Marduk @-@ apla @-@ iddina , taking up the kingship of Babylonia . Sargon 's annals describe how he took on the duties of a Babylonian sovereign , honouring the gods , maintaining their temples and respecting and upholding the privileges of the urban elite . Again , Cyrus 's Cylinder makes exactly the same points . Nabonidus , Cyrus 's deposed predecessor as king of Babylon , commissioned foundation texts on clay cylinders – such as the Cylinder of Nabonidus , also in the British Museum – that follows the same basic formula .
The text of the Cylinder thus indicates a strong continuity with centuries of Babylonian tradition , as part of an established rhetoric advanced by conquerors . As Kuhrt puts it :
[ The Cylinder ] reflects the pressure that Babylonian citizens were able to bring to bear on the new royal claimant … In this context , the reign of the defeated predecessor was automatically described as bad and against the divine will – how else could he have been defeated ? By implication , of course , all his acts became , inevitably and retrospectively , tainted .
The familiarity with long @-@ established Babylonian tropes suggests that the Cylinder was authored by the Babylonian priests of Marduk , working at the behest of Cyrus . It can be compared with another work of around the same time , the Verse Account of Nabonidus , in which the former Babylonian ruler is excoriated as the enemy of the priests of Marduk and Cyrus is presented as the liberator of Babylon . Both works make a point of stressing Cyrus 's qualifications as a king from a line of kings , in contrast to the non @-@ royal ancestry of Nabonidus , who is described by the Cylinder as merely maţû , " insignificant " .
The Verse Account is so similar to the Cyrus Cylinder inscription that the two texts have been dubbed an example of " literary dependence " – not the direct dependence of one upon the other , but mutual dependence upon a common source . This is characterised by the historian Morton Smith as " the propaganda put out in Babylonia by Cyrus 's agents , shortly before Cyrus 's conquest , to prepare the way of their lord . " This viewpoint has been disputed ; as Simon J. Sherwin of the University of Cambridge puts it , the Cyrus Cylinder and the Verse Account are " after the event " compositions which reuse existing Mesopotamian literary themes and do not need to be explained as the product of pre @-@ conquest Persian propaganda .
The German historian Hanspeter Schaudig has identified a line on the Cylinder ( " He [ i.e. Marduk ] saved his city Babylon from its oppression " ) with a line from tablet VI of the Babylonian " Epic of Creation " , Enûma Eliš , in which Marduk builds Babylon . Johannes Haubold suggests that reference represents Cyrus 's takeover as a moment of ultimate restoration not just of political and religious institutions , but of the cosmic order underpinning the universe .
= = = = Analysis of the Cylinder 's claims = = = =
The Cyrus Cylinder 's vilification of Nabonidus is consistent with other Persian propaganda regarding the deposed king 's rule . In contrast to the Cylinder 's depiction of Nabonidus as an illegitimate ruler who ruined his country , the reign of Nabonidus was largely peaceful , he was recognised as a legitimate king and he undertook a variety of building projects and military campaigns commensurate with his claim to be " the king of Babylon , the universe , and the four corners [ of the Earth ] . "
The Assyriologist Paul @-@ Alain Beaulieu has interpreted Nabonidus 's exaltation of the moon god Sin as " an outright usurpation of Marduk 's prerogatives by the moon god . " Although the Babylonian king continued to make rich offerings to Marduk , his greater devotion to Sin was unacceptable to the Babylonian priestly elite . Nabonidus came from the unfashionable north of Babylonia , introduced foreign gods and went into a lengthy self @-@ imposed exile which was said to have prevented the celebration of the vital New Year festival . Cyrus 's conquest of Babylonia was resisted by Nabonidus and his supporters , as the Battle of Opis demonstrated . Iranologist Pierre Briant comments that " it is doubtful that even before the fall of [ Babylon ] Cyrus was impatiently awaited by a population desperate for a ' liberator ' . " However , Cyrus 's takeover as king does appear to have been welcomed by some of the Babylonian population . The Judaic historian Lisbeth S. Fried says that there is little evidence that the high @-@ ranking priests of Babylonia during the Achaemenid period were Persians and characterises them as Babylonian collaborators .
The inscription goes on to describe Cyrus returning to their original sanctuaries the statues of the gods that Nabonidus had brought to the city before the Persian invasion . This restored the normal cultic order to the satisfaction of the priesthood . It alludes to temples being restored and deported groups being returned to their homelands but does not imply an empire @-@ wide programme of restoration . Instead , it refers to specific areas in the border region between Babylonia and Persia , including sites that had been devastated by earlier Babylonian military campaigns . The Cylinder indicates that Cyrus sought to acquire the loyalty of the ravaged regions by funding reconstruction , the return of temple properties and the repatriation of the displaced populations . However , it is unclear how much actually changed on the ground ; there is no archaeological evidence for any rebuilding or repairing of Mesopotamian temples during Cyrus 's reign .
The text presents Cyrus as entering Babylon peacefully and being welcomed by the population as a liberator . This presents an implicit contrast with previous conquerors , notably the Assyrian rulers Tukulti @-@ Ninurta I , who invaded and plundered Babylon in the 12th century BC , and Sennacherib , who did the same thing 150 years before Cyrus conquered the region . The massacre and enslavement of conquered people was common practice and was explicitly highlighted by conquerors in victory statements . The Cyrus Cylinder presents a very different message ; Johannes Haubold notes that it portrays Cyrus 's takeover as a harmonious moment of convergence between Babylonian and Persian history , not a natural disaster but the salvation of Babylonia .
However , the Cylinder 's account of Cyrus 's conquest clearly does not tell the whole story , as it suppresses any mention of the earlier conflict between the Persians and the Babylonians ; Max Mallowan describes it as a " skilled work of tendentious history " . The text omits the Battle of Opis , in which Cyrus 's forces defeated and apparently massacred Nabonidus 's army . Nor does it explain a two @-@ week gap reported by the Nabonidus Chronicle between the Persian entry into Babylon and the surrender of the Esagila temple . Lisbeth S. Fried suggests that there may have been a siege or stand @-@ off between the Persians and the temple 's defenders and priests , about whose fate the Cylinder and Chronicle makes no mention . She speculates that they were killed or expelled by the Persians and replaced by more pro @-@ Persian members of the Babylonian priestly elite . As Walton and Hill put it , the claim of a wholly peaceful takeover acclaimed by the people is " standard conqueror 's rhetoric and may obscure other facts . " Describing the claim of one 's own armies being welcomed as liberators as " one of the great imperial fantasies " , Bruce Lincoln , Professor of Divinity at the University of Chicago , notes that the Babylonian population repeatedly revolted against Persian rule in 522BC , 521BC , 484BC and 482BC ( though not against Cyrus or his son Cambeses ) . The rebels sought to restore national independence and the line of native Babylonian kings – perhaps an indication that they were not as favourably disposed towards the Persians as the Cylinder suggests .
The Persians ' policy towards their subject people , as described by the Cylinder , was traditionally viewed as an expression of tolerance , moderation and generosity " on a scale previously unknown . " The policies of Cyrus toward subjugated nations have been contrasted to those of the Assyrians and Babylonians , who had treated subject peoples harshly ; he permitted the resettling of those who had been previously deported and sponsored the reconstruction of religious buildings . Cyrus was often depicted positively in Western tradition by sources such as the Old Testament of the Bible and the Greek writers Herodotus and Xenophon . The Cyropaedia of Xenophon was particularly influential during the Renaissance when Cyrus was romanticised as an exemplary model of a virtuous and successful ruler .
Modern historians argue that while Cyrus 's behavior was indeed conciliatory , it was driven by the needs of the Persian Empire , and was not an expression of personal tolerance per se . The empire was too large to be centrally directed ; Cyrus followed a policy of using existing territorial units to implement a decentralized system of government . The magnanimity shown by Cyrus won him praise and gratitude from those he spared . The policy of toleration described by the Cylinder was thus , as biblical historian Rainer Albertz puts it , " an expression of conservative support for local regions to serve the political interests of the whole [ empire ] . " Another biblical historian , Alberto Soggin , comments that it was more " a matter of practicality and economy … [ as ] it was simpler , and indeed cost less , to obtain the spontaneous collaboration of their subjects at a local level than to have to impose their sovereignty by force . "
= = = Biblical interpretations = = =
The Bible records that some Jews ( who were exiled by the Babylonians ) , returned to their homeland from Babylon , where they had been settled by Nebuchadnezzar , to rebuild the temple following an edict from Cyrus . The Book of Ezra ( 1 – 4 : 5 ) provides a narrative account of the rebuilding project . Scholars have linked one particular passage from the Cylinder to the Old Testament account :
From [ ? ] to Aššur and [ from ] Susa , Agade , Ešnunna , Zabban , Me @-@ Turnu , Der , as far as the region of Gutium , the sacred centers on the other side of the Tigris , whose sanctuaries had been abandoned for a long time , I returned the images of the gods , who had resided there [ i.e. , in Babylon ] , to their places and I let them dwell in eternal abodes . I gathered all their inhabitants and returned to them their dwellings .
This passage has often been interpreted as a reference to the benign policy instituted by Cyrus of allowing exiled peoples , such as the Jews , to return to their original homelands The Cylinder 's inscription has been linked with the reproduction in the Book of Ezra of two texts that are claimed to be edicts issued by Cyrus concerning the repatriation of the Jews and the reconstruction of the Temple in Jerusalem . The two edicts ( one in Hebrew and one in Aramaic ) are substantially different in content and tone , leading some historians to argue that one or both may be a post hoc fabrication . The question of their authenticity remains unresolved , though it is widely believed that they do reflect some sort of Persian royal policy , albeit perhaps not one that was couched in the terms given in the text of the biblical edicts .
The dispute over the authenticity of the biblical edicts has prompted interest in this passage from the Cyrus Cylinder , specifically concerning the question of whether it indicates that Cyrus had a general policy of repatriating subject peoples and restoring their sanctuaries . The text of the Cylinder is very specific , listing places in Mesopotamia and the neighboring regions . It does not describe any general release or return of exiled communities but focuses on the return of Babylonian deities to their own home cities . It emphasises the re @-@ establishment of local religious norms , reversing the alleged neglect of Nabonidus – a theme that Amélie Kuhrt describes as " a literary device used to underline the piety of Cyrus as opposed to the blasphemy of Nabonidus . " She suggests that Cyrus had simply adopted a policy used by earlier Assyrian rulers of giving privileges to cities in key strategic or politically sensitive regions and that there was no general policy as such . Lester L. Grabbe , a historian of early Judaism , has written that " the religious policy of the Persians was not that different from the basic practice of the Assyrians and Babylonians before them " in tolerating – but not promoting – local cults , other than their own gods .
Cyrus may have seen Jerusalem , situated in a strategic location between Mesopotamia and Egypt , as worth patronising for political reasons . His Achaemenid successors generally supported indigenous cults in subject territories as an expression of their legitimacy as rulers , thereby currying favour with the cults ' devotees . Conversely , the Persian kings could , and did , destroy the shrines of peoples who had rebelled against them , as happened at Miletos in 494 BC following the Ionian Revolt . Historian Ernst Badian has noted regarding the Ionian revolt " [ that ] Harpagus ' devastated ' all of lower Asia ( 1 @.@ 177 ) is obviously an exaggeration , for the Ionians soon returned to their trading activities . " The Persians evidently did give permission for its reconstruction , which would have been required given the circumstances of its destruction . However , the Cylinder 's text does not describe any general policy of a return of exiles or mention any sanctuary outside Babylonia ; the biblical historian Bob Becking concludes that " it has nothing to do with Judeans , Jews or Jerusalem . " Peter Ross Bedford argues that the Cylinder " is thus not a manifesto for a general policy regarding indigenous cults and their worshippers throughout the empire . " Kuhrt comments that " the purely Babylonian context of the Cylinder provides no proof " of the historicity of Cyrus 's return of the Jewish exiles and the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem , though Becking links this with the lack of any references to the Jews in surviving Achaemenid texts – an indication that the Persians seem not to have regarded them as being of any great importance .
The German scholar Josef Wiesehöfer summarizes the widely held traditional view by noting that " Many scholars have read into [ … ] sentences [ from the text of Cylinder ] a confirmation of the Old Testament passages about the steps taken by Cyrus towards the erection of the Jerusalem temple and the repatriation of the Judaeans " and this interpretation was , according to Wiesehöfer , for some scholars a strict belief " that the instructions to this effect were actually provided in these very formulations of the Cyrus Cylinder . "
= = = Human rights = = =
The Cylinder gained new prominence in the late 1960s when the last Shah of Iran called it " the world 's first charter of human rights " . The cylinder was a key symbol of the Shah 's political ideology and is still regarded by some commentators as a charter of human rights , despite the disagreement of some historians and scholars .
= = = = Pahlavi Iranian government 's view = = = =
The Cyrus Cylinder was dubbed the " first declaration of human rights " by the pre @-@ 1979 Iranian government , a reading prominently advanced by Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi , in a 1967 book , The White Revolution of Iran . The Shah identified Cyrus as a key figure in government ideology and associated his government with the Achaemenids . He wrote that " the history of our empire began with the famous declaration of Cyrus , which , for its advocacy of humane principles , justice and liberty , must be considered one of the most remarkable documents in the history of mankind . " The Shah described Cyrus as the first ruler in history to give his subjects " freedom of opinion and other basic rights " . In 1968 , the Shah opened the first United Nations Conference on Human Rights in Tehran by saying that the Cyrus Cylinder was the precursor to the modern Universal Declaration of Human Rights .
In his 1971 Nowruz ( New Year ) speech , the Shah declared that 1971 would be Cyrus the Great Year , during which a grand commemoration would be held to celebrate 2 @,@ 500 years of Persian monarchy . It would serve as a showcase for a modern Iran in which the contributions that Iran had made to world civilization would be recognized . The main theme of the commemoration was the centrality of the monarchy within Iran 's political system , associating the Shah of Iran with the famous monarchs of Persia 's past , and with Cyrus in particular . The Shah looked to the Achaemenid period as " a moment from the national past that could best serve as a model and a slogan for the imperial society he hoped to create . "
The Cyrus Cylinder was adopted as the symbol for the commemoration , and Iranian magazines and journals published numerous articles about ancient Persian history . The British Museum loaned the original Cylinder to the Iranian government for the duration of the festivities ; it was put on display at the Shahyad Monument ( now the Azadi Tower ) in Tehran . The 2 @,@ 500 year celebrations commenced on October 12 , 1971 and culminated a week later with a spectacular parade at the tomb of Cyrus in Pasargadae . On October 14 , the shah 's sister , Princess Ashraf Pahlavi , presented the United Nations Secretary General U Thant with a replica of the Cylinder . The princess asserted that " the heritage of Cyrus was the heritage of human understanding , tolerance , courage , compassion and , above all , human liberty " . The Secretary General accepted the gift , linking the Cylinder with the efforts of the United Nations General Assembly to address " the question of Respect for Human Rights in Armed Conflict " . Since then the replica Cylinder has been kept at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City on the second floor hallway . The United Nations continues to promote the cylinder as " an ancient declaration of human rights . "
= = = = Scholarly views = = = =
The interpretation of the Cylinder as a " charter of human rights " has been described by some historians as " rather anachronistic " and tendentious . It has been dismissed as a " misunderstanding " and characterized as political propaganda devised by the Pahlavi regime . The German historian Josef Wiesehöfer comments that the portrayal of Cyrus as a champion of human rights is as illusory as the image of the " humane and enlightened Shah of Persia . " D. Fairchild Ruggles and Helaine Silverman describe the Shah 's aim as being to legitimise the Iranian nation and his own regime , and to counter the growing influence of Islamic fundamentalism by creating an alternative narrative rooted in the ancient Persian past .
Writing in the immediate aftermath of the Shah 's anniversary commemorations , the British Museum 's C.B.F. Walker comments that the " essential character of the Cyrus Cylinder [ is not ] a general declaration of human rights or religious toleration but simply a building inscription , in the Babylonian and Assyrian tradition , commemorating Cyrus 's restoration of the city of Babylon and the worship of Marduk previously neglected by Nabonidus . " Two professors with specialisms in the history of the ancient Near East , Bill T. Arnold and Piotr Michalowski , comment : " Generically , it belongs with other foundation deposit inscriptions ; it is not an edict of any kind , nor does it provide any unusual human rights declaration as is sometimes claimed . " Lloyd Llewellyn @-@ Jones of the University of Edinburgh notes that " there is nothing in the text " that suggests the concept of human rights . Neil MacGregor comments :
Comparison by scholars in the British Museum with other similar texts , however , showed that rulers in ancient Iraq had been making comparable declarations upon succeeding to the [ Babylonian ] throne for two millennia before Cyrus [ … ] it is one of the museum 's tasks to resist the narrowing of the object 's meaning and its appropriation to one political agenda .
He cautions that while the Cylinder is " clearly linked with the history of Iran , " it is " in no real sense an Iranian document : it is part of a much larger history of the ancient Near East , of Mesopotamian kingship , and of the Jewish diaspora . "
Some historians , as well as writers on human rights , have supported the interpretation of the Cyrus Cylinder as a human rights charter . W.J. Talbott , an American philosopher , believes the concept of human rights is a 20th @-@ century concept but describes Cyrus as " perhaps the earliest known advocate of religious tolerance " and suggests that " ideas that led to the development of human rights are not limited to one cultural tradition . " The Iranian lawyer Hirad Abtahi argues that viewing the Cylinder as merely " an instrument of legitimizing royal rule " is unjustified , as Cyrus issued the document and granted those rights when he was at the height of his power , with neither popular opposition nor visible external threat to force his hand . A former Iranian prime minister , Hassan Pirnia , writing in the early 20th century , characterizes the Cylinder as " discuss [ ing ] human rights in a way unique for the era , dealing with ways to protect the honor , prestige , and religious beliefs of all the nations dependent to Iran in those days . "
= = Exhibition history = =
The Cyrus Cylinder has been displayed in the British Museum since its formal acquisition in 1880 . It has been loaned four times – twice to Iran , between 7 – 22 October 1971 in conjunction with the 2 @,@ 500 year commemorations of the Persian monarchy and again from September – December 2010 , once to Spain from March – June 2006 , and once to the United States in a travelling exhibition from March – October 2013 . Many replicas have been made . Some were distributed by the Shah following the 1971 commemorations , while the British Museum and National Museum of Iran have sold them commercially .
The British Museum 's ownership of the Cyrus Cylinder has been the cause of some controversy in Iran , although the artifact was obtained legally and was not excavated on Iranian soil but on former Ottoman territory ( modern Iraq ) . When it was loaned in 1971 , the Iranian press campaigned for its transfer to Iranian ownership . The Cylinder was brought back to London without difficulty , but the British Museum 's Board of Trustees subsequently decided that it would be " undesirable to make a further loan of the Cylinder to Iran . "
In 2005 – 2006 the British Museum mounted a major exhibition on the Persian Empire , Forgotten Empire : the World of Ancient Persia . It was held in collaboration with the Iranian government , which loaned the British Museum a number of iconic artefacts in exchange for an undertaking that the Cyrus Cylinder would be loaned to the National Museum of Iran in return .
The planned loan of the Cylinder was postponed in October 2009 following the June 2009 Iranian presidential election so that the British Museum could be " assured that the situation in the country was suitable . " In response , the Iranian government threatened to end cooperation with the British Museum if the Cylinder was not loaned within the following two months . This deadline was postponed despite appeals by the Iranian government but the Cylinder did eventually go on display in Tehran in September 2010 for a four @-@ month period . The exhibition was very popular , attracting 48 @,@ 000 people within the first ten days and about 500 @,@ 000 people by the time it closed in January 2011 . However , at its opening , Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad mingled Islamic Republican and ancient Persian symbology which commentators inside and outside Iran criticised as an overt appeal to religious nationalism .
On November 28 , 2012 , the BBC announced the first United States tour of the Cylinder . Under the headline “ British Museum lends ancient ' bill of rights ' cylinder to US ” , Museum director Neil MacGregor declared that “ The cylinder , often referred to as the first bill of human rights , ‘ must be shared as widely as possible ’ " . The British Museum itself announced the news in its press release , saying " First declaration of human rights ’ to tour five cities in the United States " . According to the British Museum 's website for the Cylinder 's US exhibition " CyrusCylinder2013.com " , the tour started in March 2013 and included Washington DC ’ s Smithsonian 's Arthur M. Sackler Gallery , the Museum of Fine Arts in Houston , the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York , the Asian Art Museum in San Francisco and culminated at the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles , in October 2013 .
The cylinder , along with thirty two other associated objects from the British Museum collection , including a pair of gold armlets from the Oxus Treasure and the Darius Seal , were part of an exhibition titled ' The Cyrus Cylinder and Ancient Persia – A New Beginning ' at the Prince of Wales Museum in Mumbai , India , from December 21 , 2013 to February 25 , 2014 . It was organised by the British Museum and the Prince of Wales Museum in partnership with Sir Dorabji Tata Trust , Sir Ratan Tata Trust and Navajbai Ratan Tata Trust , all set up by luminaries from the Parsi community , who are descendants of Persian Zoroastrians , who hold Cyrus in great regard , as many scholars consider him as a follower of Zoroastrianism .
= = = Books and journals = = =
= = = Media articles = = =
= = = Other sources = = =
= = = Editions and translations = = =
This article is about an item held in the British Museum . The object reference is 1880 @,@ 0617 @.@ 1941 .
= Muncy Creek =
Muncy Creek ( also known as Big Muncy Creek ) is a tributary of the West Branch Susquehanna River in Sullivan County and Lycoming County , in Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 34 @.@ 5 miles ( 55 @.@ 5 km ) long . The watershed of the creek has an area of 216 square miles ( 560 km2 ) . The creek 's discharge averages 49 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 4 m3 / s ) at Sonestown , but can be up to a thousand times higher at Muncy . The headwaters of the creek are on the Allegheny Plateau . Rock formations in the watershed include the Chemung Formation and the Catskill Formation .
There are a number of lakes in the watershed of Muncy Creek , including Eagles Mere Lake , Highland Lake , and Beaver Lake . The creek was known as Occohpocheny to Native Americans . The area in its vicinity was settled in 1783 . Various other industries and mills were constructed in the creek 's vicinity from the late 18th century to the early 20th century . Wild trout naturally reproduce in part of Muncy Creek . Part of the creek is navigable by canoe .
= = Course = =
Muncy Creek begins in southeastern Laporte Township , Sullivan County , near its border with Davidson Township , Sullivan County . The creek flows southwest and then west for a short distance before reaching the border between Laporte Township and Davidson Township . It then turns southwest as it begins to follow this border . Shortly afterwards it turns northwest and begins to flow into a valley , then turns west and begins receiving very short tributaries from both sides . Examples of these include Rock Run and Lopez Pond Branch . After picking up Peters Creek , one such tributary , Muncy Creek turns southwest and passes the community of Nordmont , where the tributary Elklick Run flows into it . The creek then turns southwest and later west . Deep Hollow Run then enters the creek , which heads south away from the Laporte Township / Davidson Township border . Upon leaving behind the Laporte Township / Davidson Township border , the creek enters Davidson Township and heads west @-@ southwest , passing a gauging station . After several miles , it reaches the community of Sonestown , where the tributary Big Run flows into it from the north . Muncy Creek then makes a sharp bend south and begins flowing parallel to U.S. Route 220 . After a few miles , it passes the community of Muncy Valley and makes a sharp turn south , exiting Davidson Township .
Upon exiting Davidson Township , Sullivan County , Muncy Creek enters Lycoming County and flows along the border between Shrewsbury Township and Penn Township for several miles . It continues following U.S. Route 220 during this time , picking up a few tributaries , including Lick Run . The creek also passes by Glen Mawr and Tivoli during this stretch . Beyond the stretch , in Picture Rocks , the creek crosses Pennsylvania Route 864 . Beyond the community , the creek continues south into Wolf Township , leaving its valley passing by the eastern edge of Hughesville . Some distance further on , the creek receives the tributary Sugar Run and some miles later leaves Wolf Township in a southwesterly direction . Upon exiting Wolf Township , the creek enters Muncy Creek Township , where Little Muncy Creek flows into it . Muncy Creek then turns northeast , crossing Pennsylvania Route 405 and turns southwest , crossing Interstate 180 . The creek then receives the tributary Wolf Run and immediately afterwards empties into the West Branch Susquehanna River . Muncy Creek joins the West Branch Susquehanna River is 27 @.@ 88 miles ( 44 @.@ 87 km ) upstream of its mouth .
= = = Tributaries = = =
Significant tributaries of Muncy Creek include Little Muncy Creek and Wolf Run . The watershed of Little Muncy Creek has an area of 82 @.@ 30 square miles ( 213 @.@ 2 km2 ) . This creek reaches its confluence with Muncy Creek 3 @.@ 90 miles ( 6 @.@ 28 km ) upstream of its mouth . The watershed of Wolf Run has an area of 11 @.@ 10 square miles ( 28 @.@ 7 km2 ) . This stream reaches its confluence with Muncy Creek 0 @.@ 06 miles ( 0 @.@ 097 km ) upstream of its mouth . Other large tributaries of the creek include Lewis Creek , Rock Run , and Sugar Run . The watersheds of these tributaries have areas of 14 @.@ 5 square miles ( 38 km2 ) , 10 @.@ 3 square miles ( 27 km2 ) , and 10 @.@ 3 square miles ( 27 km2 ) , respectively . Muncy Creek also has numerous minor tributaries .
= = Hydrology = =
The highest recorded discharge of Muncy Creek near Muncy is 46 @,@ 600 cubic feet ( 1 @,@ 320 m3 ) per second . In 2012 and 2013 , the creek 's discharge at this location ranged from 29 to 379 cubic feet ( 0 @.@ 82 to 10 @.@ 73 m3 ) per second . The discharge of the creek at Sonestown averages 44 @.@ 9 cubic feet per second . The osmotic pressure of the stream 's waters at this location ranged from less than 1 up to 4 millios @-@ moles per 2 @.@ 2 pounds ( 1 @.@ 00 kg ) . The annual rate of precipitation near the creek ranges from 35 to 50 inches ( 89 to 127 cm ) .
The pH of Muncy Creek 's waters near Muncy ranged from 7 @.@ 0 to 7 @.@ 5 in 2012 and 2013 . The stream 's specific conductance ranged from 89 to 134 micro @-@ siemens per centimeter at 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) .
Between November 2012 and September 2013 , the lowest recorded water temperatures of Muncy Creek at Muncy were 1 @.@ 4 ° C ( 34 @.@ 5 ° F ) on January 9 , 2013 and 2 @.@ 6 ° C ( 36 @.@ 7 ° F ) on March 19 , 2013 . The highest recorded water temperatures were 20 @.@ 6 ° C ( 69 @.@ 1 ° F ) and 20 @.@ 4 ° C ( 68 @.@ 7 ° F ) , on September 4 , 2013 and July 9 , 2013 , respectively .
The concentration of dissolved solids in Muncy Creek ranges from 50 to 80 milligrams per liter ( 2 @.@ 9 × 10 − 5 to 4 @.@ 6 × 10 − 5 oz / cu in ) . The concentration of suspended solids , however , is always less than 5 milligrams per liter ( 2 @.@ 9 × 10 − 6 oz / cu in ) . The water hardness of the creek ( in terms of the concentration of calcium carbonate ) ranges from 28 to 49 milligrams per liter ( 1 @.@ 6 × 10 − 5 to 2 @.@ 8 × 10 − 5 oz / cu in ) . The concentration of calcium in the creek ranges from 8 @.@ 7 to 10 @.@ 5 milligrams per liter ( 5 @.@ 0 × 10 − 6 to 6 @.@ 1 × 10 − 6 oz / cu in ) . Its magnesium concentration can be as low as 1 @.@ 6 milligrams per liter ( 9 @.@ 2 × 10 − 7 oz / cu in ) or as high as 2 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 1 @.@ 2 × 10 − 6 oz / cu in ) , while its sodium concentration ranges from 3 @.@ 2 to 4 @.@ 1 milligrams per liter ( 1 @.@ 8 × 10 − 6 to 2 @.@ 4 × 10 − 6 oz / cu in ) .
There are trace amounts of bromides , phosphorus , orthophosphates , and ammonia in Muncy Creek . All of these occur in concentrations of 0 @.@ 3 milligrams per liter or less . Nitrites occur in concentrations of less than 0 @.@ 4 milligrams per liter ( 2 @.@ 3 × 10 − 7 oz / cu in ) . The chloride concentration in the creek ranges from 4 @.@ 5 to 7 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 2 @.@ 6 × 10 − 6 to 4 @.@ 0 × 10 − 6 oz / cu in ) . The minimum sulfate concentration is 6 @.@ 7 milligrams per liter ( 3 @.@ 9 × 10 − 6 oz / cu in ) and the maximum is 8 @.@ 9 milligrams per liter ( 5 @.@ 1 × 10 − 6 oz / cu in ) milligrams per liter . The minimum nitrate concentration is 0 @.@ 65 milligrams per liter ( 3 @.@ 8 × 10 − 7 oz / cu in ) milligrams per liter and the maximum is 1 @.@ 2 milligrams per liter ( 6 @.@ 9 × 10 − 7 oz / cu in ) milligrams per liter . The total concentration of nitrogen in the creek ranges from 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 2 milligrams per liter ( 4 @.@ 6 × 10 − 7 to 6 @.@ 9 × 10 − 7 oz / cu in ) .
The concentration of aluminum in Muncy Creek ranges from less than 20 micrograms per liter ( 1 @.@ 2 × 10 − 8 oz / cu in ) up to 30 micrograms per liter ( 1 @.@ 7 × 10 − 8 oz / cu in ) and the copper concentration is always less than 4 micrograms per liter ( 2 @.@ 3 × 10 − 9 oz / cu in ) micrograms per liter . The lead concentration is always less than 1 microgram per liter ( 5 @.@ 8 × 10 − 10 oz / cu in ) . In 2013 , the creek 's concentration of manganese was observed to be 20 micrograms per liter ( 1 @.@ 2 × 10 − 8 oz / cu in ) . The zinc concentration ranges from less than 5 micrograms per liter ( 2 @.@ 9 × 10 − 9 oz / cu in ) up to 30 micrograms per liter ( 1 @.@ 7 × 10 − 8 oz / cu in ) . The nickel and selenium concentrations are less than 4 and 7 micrograms per liter ( 2 @.@ 3 × 10 − 9 and 4 @.@ 0 × 10 − 9 oz / cu in ) , respectively , while the boron concentration is less than 200 micrograms per liter ( 1 @.@ 2 × 10 − 7 oz / cu in ) . The creek 's strontium concentration is 40 or 50 micrograms per liter ( 2 @.@ 3 × 10 − 8 or 2 @.@ 9 × 10 − 8 oz / cu in ) .
= = Geography and geology = =
The mouth of Muncy Creek has an elevation of slightly less than 480 feet ( 150 m ) , while the source of the creek has an elevation of between 2 @,@ 260 feet ( 690 m ) and 2 @,@ 280 feet ( 690 m ) . The headwaters of the creek are more than 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) higher than its mouth . The headwaters of Muncy Creek are mountainous and are situated on the Allegheny Plateau . The southern edge of the Allegheny Mountain runs from the creek west as far as Lock Haven or Pine Creek . The valley of Muncy Creek is surrounded by scalloped hills . Muncy Creek 's course winds significantly , but flows generally southwest .
A narrow belt of the Chemung Formation occurs along Muncy Creek in Shrewsbury Township , Lycoming County . An outcropping of the Catskill Formation also occurs along parts
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pointing to " the place where the young child lay " ( Matt 2 : 9 ) . Sometimes the faint image of an angel is drawn inside the aureola .
= = = Mormonism = = =
Mormons believe that the Star of Bethlehem was an actual astronomical event visible the world over . In the Book of Mormon , which they believe contains writings of ancient prophets , Samuel the Lamanite prophesies that a new star will appear as a sign that Jesus has been born , and Nephi later writes about the fulfillment of this prophecy .
= = = Jehovah 's Witnesses = = =
Among Jehovah 's Witnesses the Star of Bethlehem is seen as a product of Satan , rather than a sign from God , since the star led the astrologers to Jerusalem where they met King Herod 's plan to kill Jesus .
= = = Seventh @-@ day Adventist = = =
In The Desire of Ages , Ellen White states " That star was a distant company of shining angels , but of this the wise men were ignorant . "
= = Depiction in art = =
Paintings and other pictures of the Adoration of the Magi may include a depiction of the star in some form . In the fresco by Giotto di Bondone , it is depicted as a comet . In the tapestry of the subject designed by Edward Burne @-@ Jones ( and in the related watercolour ) , the star is held by an angel .
The colourful star lantern known as a paról is a cherished and ubiquitous symbol of the holiday for Filipinos , its design and light recalling the star . In its basic form , the paról has five points and two " tails " that evoke rays of light pointing the way to the stable , and candles inside the lanterns have been superseded by electric illumination .
In the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem , a silver star with 14 undulating rays marks the location traditionally claimed to be that of Jesus ' birth .
= = In popular culture = =
" The Star " was an episode of The Twilight Zone during its run in the 1980s , based on the science fiction short story " The Star " by English writer Arthur C. Clarke .
A distant space ship comes across a supernova that was calculated to have occurred in approximately 3,000BC , at a distance of 3 @,@ 000 light @-@ years . A well @-@ developed civilization was eradicated by the supernova and one of the astronauts , who was also a priest , had a crisis of faith about why God would let such a civilization die to herald the birth of Christ . Another astronaut shows him a recording from that civilization populace stating that they realized they were at the peak of their time and had to make way for a new people . They had left their art and music behind as a legacy to the future generations .
= = = Christmas carols = = =
The star is often alluded to in Christmas carols about the Magi . For example , " We Three Kings " has the refrain :
= The Pilot ( Friends ) =
The Pilot episode ( also known as " The One Where It All Began " , " The One Where Monica Gets a New Roommate " , and " The First One " ) of the American situation comedy series Friends premiered on NBC ( National Broadcasting Company ) on September 22 , 1994 . It was written by series creators David Crane and Marta Kauffman , and directed by James Burrows . The pilot introduces six friends who live and work in New York City ; Monica ( Courteney Cox ) sleeps with a wine seller after their first date but is horrified to discover he tricked her into bed ; her brother Ross ( David Schwimmer ) is depressed after his lesbian ex @-@ wife moves her things out of their apartment ; Monica 's old schoolfriend Rachel ( Jennifer Aniston ) moves in with Monica after running out of her wedding ; and their friends , Joey , Chandler , and Phoebe ( Matt LeBlanc , Matthew Perry , and Lisa Kudrow , respectively ) offer them each support and advice .
Crane and Kauffman pitched their original idea to network NBC in December 1993 . NBC liked it and commissioned a complete script , which was submitted in March 1994 . Before the script was finished , casting for the six main roles began ; 75 actors were seen for each part . The pilot was taped on May 4 , 1994 at Warner Bros. ' studios in Burbank , California . After making final edits to the episode , executive producer Kevin Bright submitted it on May 11 , two days before NBC was due to announce the schedule . Satisfied with the completed pilot , NBC ordered 12 more episodes for the first season . The episode was watched by approximately 22 million viewers , making it the fifteenth @-@ most @-@ watched television show of the week . Critics compared the show unfavorably to Seinfeld and Ellen , noting the similarities all three series had in depicting friends conversing about their lives . The cast , particularly Schwimmer , were complimented , though there was some concern that the character roles were undeveloped .
= = Plot = =
Before a date with Paul the " wine guy " , Monica is teased by her friends , Chandler and Joey , at The Central Perk coffee shop . Ross , Monica 's older brother , arrives at the coffee shop , upset after discovering his ex @-@ wife , a recently out lesbian , has moved out of his apartment to begin a new relationship with her partner . A young woman suddenly arrives wearing a wet wedding dress , whom Monica recognizes as her high school best friend , Rachel . Monica introduces her to the others as Rachel reveals she left her fiancé at the altar . After Rachel 's father denies her financial assistance , Monica reluctantly takes Rachel in as a new roommate .
Meanwhile , Joey and Chandler console Ross while helping him assemble new furniture . Ross begins to wonder if any woman would be " the right one " for him . Monica goes on her first date with Paul , and while he seems decent and respectful , she discovers from a colleague that he has a bad reputation as a womanizer , ending her hopes that she will find a mate . Ross realizes that Rachel could be the beginning of a new hope for him . He successfully brings up the idea to Rachel of asking her out sometime , and later confesses to Monica about the potential relationship. and cute boy Joey starts his new job Pinocchi the musical in this series
In the final scene , the entire group are in Central Perk having coffee with Rachel , who begins a new career as a coffee shop waitress .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Creators and writers David Crane and Marta Kauffman were known in the television industry for writing the cable television series Dream On . A second series by the duo , Family Album , had premiered on CBS in the Fall 1993 season but was cancelled after airing six episodes . In November 1993 , they began developing three new television pilots from their offices at Warner Bros. Television that could premiere in the Fall 1994 season . As Dream On had won them clout in Hollywood , they aimed to pitch one of their ideas to NBC ; Insomnia Cafe , about six friends who live and work in New York City , was pitched as a seven @-@ page treatment to the network in December 1993 .
" It 's about sex , love , relationships , careers , a time in your life when everything 's possible . And it 's about friendship because when you 're single and in the city , your friends are your family . "
— Part of Crane and Kauffman 's original pitch for Insomnia Cafe
NBC bought the pitch as a put pilot , meaning they risked financial penalties if the pilot was not filmed . To get an idea of how their characters would behave , Kauffman interviewed several of her children 's twenty @-@ something babysitters . She and Crane wrote the script in three days . James Burrows , known for directing Cheers , was hired to direct it . He liked the script , though asked for Joey , who was originally written similarly to Chandler , to be " dumbed up a bit " . The script was completed in early March 1994 , though before then eight @-@ line character breakdowns had been sent to acting agencies in Los Angeles , New York and Chicago .
= = = Casting = = =
1 @,@ 000 actors replied to the callouts for each role , but only 75 were called in to read for the casting director . Those who received a callback read again in front of Crane , Kauffman and their production partner Kevin S. Bright . At the end of March , the potential actors had been reduced to three or four for each part ; they read for Les Moonves , president of Warner Bros. Television . David Schwimmer was first to be cast . He was in Chicago doing a stage adaptation of The Master and Margarita when his agent offered him the audition . He was not interested in doing television after a bad experience appearing in Monty , but changed his mind when he learned that it was an ensemble script . Unknown to him , Crane and Kauffman had remembered him from when he auditioned for an earlier pilot of theirs ; they had written the part of Ross with Schwimmer in mind to play him . Eric McCormack also auditioned for the role several times . He later became famous for his lead role in the sitcom Will & Grace .
Courteney Cox was the most well @-@ known of the six main actors . She was being considered for Rachel , but Cox read the script and thought she was a better fit for Monica . After reading for Monica instead , she won the role . Nancy McKeon also read for the part . Jennifer Aniston read for the part of Rachel after initially being considered for Monica . Her contract with the CBS TV series Muddling Through meant that any role with Friends would be in second position to the series . The CBS show was not scheduled to be broadcast until mid @-@ 1994 , after NBC 's announcement of whether Friends would be greenlit ; if Muddling Through became a ratings success and CBS enforced Aniston 's contract , Friends would have had to recast her . Within three days of first auditioning for Friends Aniston nonetheless got the role , because NBC Entertainment president Warren Littlefield correctly expected that Muddling Through would immediately fail . Crane and Kauffman wanted Joey to be " a guy 's guy " who loves " women , sports , women , New York , women " . The actors auditioned using the " grab a spoon " scene , and many arrived in character with " lots of chest showing " . As the Joey character was not developed much in the script , Matt LeBlanc just used his experience playing " this Italian , kind of dim character " from Vinny and Bobby . He had at least eight auditions for the part , and in his final one read with Aniston and Cox .
Chandler and Phoebe had originally been written as more secondary characters who were just there to provide humor around the other four ; Matthew Perry described Chandler in the pilot script as " an observer of other people 's lives " . They had become part of the core group by the time casting concluded . Crane believed that the part of Chandler , described in the character breakdown as " a droll , dry guy " , would be the easiest to cast , though it proved more difficult than he initially hoped . Perry had previously worked with Kauffman and Crane on an episode of Dream On , and requested an audition when he identified with the character . He was turned down due to his involvement as a cast member in LAX 2194 , a television pilot about airport baggage handlers in the future . After the producers of Friends saw LAX 2194 , it became clear to them that it would not be picked up for a series , and Perry was granted an audition . He read for the role near the end of the casting period and got it in under a week . Before Perry was cast , Craig Bierko was first choice for the role . Bierko was a friend of Perry 's , and Perry coached him for his audition to help him get to know what the Chandler character was like . Jon Cryer had also auditioned for the part . He was doing a play in London and read for a British casting director , though his audition tape did not arrive at Warner Bros. in time for him to be considered .
Many actresses who read for Phoebe arrived at the audition in character , wearing " bell bottoms and clunky shoes and nose rings " . Kathy Griffin and Jane Lynch auditioned for the role . Lisa Kudrow won the role because the producers liked her as Ursula , the waitress in Mad About You . She was second to be cast , though there was about a month between her and Schwimmer being signed on . Many of the actors seen by Moonves were " too theatrical " in performing comedy ; Crane described the six successful actors as being the only ones who " nailed " their parts . The six actors met for the first time altogether at the read @-@ through on April 28 , 1994 . John Allen Nelson and Clea Lewis guest @-@ star as Paul and Franny , Monica 's date and co @-@ worker respectively . Cynthia Mann appears as a Central Perk waitress .
= = = Filming = = =
A dress rehearsal was held on May 2 , two days before taping . Several NBC executives watched the rehearsal and were concerned that Monica did not care enough about Paul to sleep with him on their first date . NBC West Coast president Don Ohlmeyer believed that the audience would perceive her as " a slut " . Crane , Kauffman and Warner Bros. executives disagreed , and surveyed the other people watching the rehearsal to support their position . Despite the audience agreeing with them , they had to take NBC 's considerations into account in case they lost the commission ; they rewrote Monica 's lines to show that she cared about Paul . NBC also wanted a scene removed that implied the supposedly @-@ impotent Paul was getting an erection , as it would violate network standards . Crane and Kauffman rewrote the scene and found they preferred the new version , as it made the scene " smart and subtler " . They sought to protect other parts of the script , some major and some minor ; NBC wanted two of the pilot 's three storylines downplayed to subplots , but the writers were adamant that all three should carry equal weight . They also favored not cutting the " Mr. Potato Head " line . Their final script draft was completed on May 3 .
The episode was taped on May 4 at Warner Bros. ' studios in Burbank , California . A total of eight hours of material was filmed ( two hours from each of the four cameras ) , which was edited down to 22 minutes under Bright 's supervision . Bright submitted it to NBC on May 10 , 72 hours before the fall schedule was announced . NBC ordered Bright to make further edits , which he completed at 1 a.m. on May 11 . On May 12 , NBC screened the finished pilot to focus groups , who gave positive but mixed reactions . The network announced the fall schedule on May 13 and ordered an additional 12 episodes of Friends for its first season . Crane and Kauffman immediately received telephone calls from writers ' agents who wanted to get their clients jobs on the series .
= = Reception = =
The episode was first broadcast on NBC on September 22 , 1994 in the 8 : 30 – 9 p.m. ( EST ) timeslot . It ranked as the fifteenth @-@ most @-@ watched television show of the week , scoring a 14 @.@ 7 / 23 Nielsen rating ( each point represented 954 @,@ 000 households ) and nearly 22 million viewers .
Critics likened the episode to Seinfeld and Ellen ; Tom Feran in The Plain Dealer wrote that it traded " vaguely and less successfully on the hanging @-@ out style of Seinfeld " , and Ann Hodges of the Houston Chronicle called it " the new Seinfeld wannabe , but it will never be as funny as Seinfeld . Even as Seinfeld is now , which isn 't as funny as it used to be " . Hodges criticized the " stiflingly dull social circle " as " short to the point of painful in brainpower " . Robert Bianco in The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette wrote that the " constant comic bantering grows a little tired , just as it would if it ever actually happened in real life " , and questioned why the six characters had so much free time to talk about dates . In the Los Angeles Daily News , Ray Richmond , who had also seen the following two episodes , called the cast a " likeable , youth ensemble " with " good chemistry " . He added that while Friends was " one of the brighter comedies of the new season " , the pilot was " very weak " . Diane Holloway for the Austin American @-@ Statesman questioned Friends ' billing as a " sophisticated comedy " , writing , " What 's sophisticated about a guy who dreams his penis is a telephone ? " She called the scene where Monica discovers Paul 's impotence was a lie the least funny part of the episode , though conceded that the episode as a whole did have some funny moments . Robert P. Laurence wrote in The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune that " A lot happens , but you 'll still get the feeling you 've seen Friends before " , calling it " Seinfeld Plus Two . Or Ellen Plus Five . " In the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Ginny Holbert rated the episode three stars , and wrote " The clever series [ ... ] stars an appealing group of actors who are just a bit funnier and better @-@ looking than your average friend " but that Joey and Rachel 's characteristics were under @-@ developed .
The Los Angeles Times called it " flat @-@ out the best comedy series of the new season " . Variety 's Tony Scott had optimistic hopes for the series ; he enjoyed the premise but was concerned that dialogue from the writers of Dream On should be " snappier " . Scott was also concerned that the Monica storyline set a bad example to younger viewers ; " Friends touts promiscuity and offers liberal samples of an openness that borders on empty @-@ headedness " . He singled out Cox and Schwimmer as the best actors of the ensemble . Robert Bianco was complimentary of Schwimmer , calling him " terrific " . He also praised the female leads , but wrote that Perry 's role as Chandler was " undefined " and that LeBlanc was " relying too much on the same brain @-@ dead stud routine that was already tired the last two times he tried it " . Entertainment Weekly rates the episode B + and states that " After 22 minutes , these six people are believably set up as lifelong buddies " . Ross 's line , " Do the words ' Billy , Don 't Be a Hero ' mean anything to you ? " is singled out as the best line of the episode . The authors of Friends Like Us : The Unofficial Guide to Friends call it a " good , solid start to the series " but " the regular cast ( particularly Perry and Schwimmer ) might be trying just a little too hard " . Schwimmer recalls enjoying the physical humor involving Ross , particularly the scene where Ross greets Rachel and opens an umbrella on her .
The episode was syndicated for the first time on September 21 , 1998 . Several deleted scenes were restored to the episode , bringing its total running time to 37 minutes , for a one @-@ hour timeslot . It gained a rating of 5 @.@ 8 / 10 , averaged across 40 stations . This made Friends the third @-@ highest @-@ rated off @-@ network syndicated sitcom to air at that time , behind Home Improvement and Seinfeld .
= Sierra Leone women 's national football team =
The Sierra Leone women 's national football team represents Sierra Leone in international women 's association football . The team is governed by the Sierra Leone Football Association and is part of the Confederation of African Football . Sierra Leone has played only four FIFA recognised matches , two in 1994 and two in 2010 . The country has under @-@ 17 and under @-@ 20 women 's national sides . The development of women 's football in Sierra Leone faces challenges present throughout the continent . Domestically , it faces its own issues including the lack of a women 's domestic competition and the decline in popularity of the sport among women .
= = History = =
Sierra Leone women 's national football team is nicknamed the Sierra Queens . In 1985 , almost no country in the world had a women 's national football team , including Sierra Leone who did not play their first matches until around 1994 when they participated in the qualification phase of the 1995 FIFA Women 's World Cup . In a game in Nigeria on 6 November 1994 , Sierra Leone women 's national football team lost 0 – 9 to Nigeria after being down 0 – 6 at the half . In a game in Freetown on 20 November 1994 , Sierra Leone women 's national football team lost 0 – 2 to Nigeria after being down 0 – 2 at the half . These two games represent half of all games the team has played in its history . The team 's other two games took place during the preliminary rounds of the 2010 Women 's Championship tournament in Africa , which was part of the Olympic qualification process , where Sierra Leone lost during the preliminary round once 2 – 3 to Guinea in Conakry on 7 March 2010 and tied Guinea 1 – 1 in Freetown on 20 March 2010 . Following this match , the team did not play an international match on any level for at least a year and did not participate 2011 All Africa Games . In March 2012 , Sierra Leone was ranked the 135th best in the world and the 26th best in Africa . They improved their ranking to 130th best in the world in June 2012 but at still at the bottom of the world rankings alongside 46 other women 's national teams . The team 's best ever rank was 128th , which was in 2010 , and their worst ever ranking was 136 , which they were ranked in 2011 .
= = = Under @-@ 17 national team = = =
Sierra Leone has a Sierra Leone women 's national under @-@ 17 football team . They were supposed to compete in the African Women U @-@ 17 Championship Qualifying Tournament 2010 . Togo won the first round because Sierra Leone withdrew from the competition . They competed in the CAF qualifiers for the FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup that will be held in Azerbaijan in September 2012 . They did not advance out of their region . The team was supposed to play the Gambia women 's national under @-@ 17 football team in a qualifying match for the 2012 U @-@ 17 Qualifying Tournament . Sierra Leone lost the first leg in Banjul , Gambia 0 – 3 . The return match was delayed for 24 hours . The team 's head coach attributed the loss to poor refereeing . The game against Gambia was the country 's first junior national international match . The second match was one by Sierra Leone 3 – 1 . Gambia won the first match in 3 @-@ 0 in a game played in Banjul . The return match was delayed in for 24 hours and played in Makeni . Gambia beat Sierra Leone to qualify for the final round with an aggregate score of 4 @-@ 3 .
The team is coached by Hannah Williams , while Tamba Moses was the assistant coach . Squad members included Cecilia Bangura , Jarriatu Kamara , Hannah Conteh , Haja Kamara , Magret Sesay , Sarah Bangura , Fatmata Turay , Fatmata Mansaray , Kaju Max @-@ Macauley , Aminata Lebbe , Zainab Sesay , Alice Bundor , Adama Sesay , Rashidatu Kamara , Isata Kamara , Wuyiah Muwaid , Nasu Bundor , and Assanatu Jalloh . The cost of travel for the team was paid for by LEOCEM , the country 's only cement company . The company 's managing director rationalised the decision to pay saying , " We received the request from the SLFA at a very short notice but we decided to help because we want to see female football grow from the grass @-@ roots level and also to meet our corporate social responsibility . We are happy about helping out the female team and we hope they 'll eliminate their Gambian counterpart . " Members of the under @-@ 17 team are drawn from the Airtel Rising Stars tournament .
= = = Under @-@ 20 national team = = =
Sierra Leone has a Sierra Leone women 's national under @-@ 20 football team . They competed in the 2010 / 2011 FIFA U @-@ 20 CAF Women 's World Cup qualifying competition . They did not advance to the U20 Women 's World Cup . They competed in the preliminary rounds of the 2010 CAF FIFA U20 World Cup . In the preliminary round , they did not have to play as Guiena withdrew from the tournament . In the first round , they were supposed to play Nigeria but withdrew from the tournament . They were supposed to compete in the 2010 African Women U @-@ 20 Championship Qualifying competition meeting Togo in the first round , but Togo earned a walk over win against Sierra Leone . Sierra Leone eventually withdrew from the competition . The announcement was made a week after the under @-@ 17 lost 0 – 3 to Gambia .
= = Background and development = =
Early development of the women 's game at the time colonial powers brought football to Sierra Leone and the continent was limited , as colonial powers in the region tended to take concepts of patriarchy and women 's participation in sport with them to local cultures that already had similar concepts already embedded in them . Other factors on the continent impact the development of the game , including limited access to education , poverty among women in the wider society , and fundamental inequality present in the society that occasionally allows for female specific human rights abuses . When quality players are developed in Africa , they often leave for greater opportunities elsewhere Continent wide ; most of the funding for women 's football in a country and for the women 's national team comes from FIFA , not the national football association . Future success for women 's football in Africa is dependent on improved facilities and access by women to these facilities . Attempting to commercialise the game is not the solution , as demonstrated by the existence of many youth and women 's football camps held on the continent that have resulted in improved national team performance as players progressed through the system .
The United Nations ranked Sierra Leone 180 out of 187 on their Human Development Index . One of the major factors in this low world ranking was gender inequality . Despite a civil war in the country , football remained important to many young people , regardless of gender , in the country . The reason was that football was seen as one way of understanding life by watching what happened on the pitch . In 2007 , a football administrator from the country is in charge of the women 's football committee in the West African Football Union . In 2011 , Brazilian women 's football superstar Marta visited the country and met with the national team . Her visit was part of the United Nations Development Programme where Marta is a Goodwill Ambassador . In 2011 , there was no national women 's league in the country . In 2012 , Girls Football League was launched by the Craig Bellamy Foundation after a pilot programme in 2010 / 2012 in Makeni that included four teams . Girls participating in the programme are given scholarships to attend , with 93 % attending school regularly while involved with the programme , a much higher percentage than the national average for female school attendance .
Women are football spectators , watching live games in rural and remote areas of the country . Rights to broadcast the 2011 Women 's World Cup in the country were bought by the African Union of Broadcasting and Supersport International . The popularity of the sport is declining in the country for women .
= Warrior @-@ class cruiser =
The Warrior @-@ class cruiser was a class of four armoured cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . After commissioning , all four sister ships were assigned to the Channel and Home Fleets until 1913 when Warrior was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet . After the start of World War I in August 1914 , Warrior participated in the pursuit of the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau and her three sisters were assigned to the 2nd Cruiser Squadron of the Grand Fleet . Warrior joined the 1st Cruiser Squadron of the Grand Fleet in late 1914 . Neither squadron participated in any of the naval battles in the North Sea in 1915 . Natal was destroyed by a magazine explosion in late 1915 and only two of the ships participated in the Battle of Jutland in 1916 . Cochrane was not engaged during the battle , but Warrior was heavily damaged and sank the following morning .
Achilles was assigned to blockade duty after the battle and sank a German commerce raider in early 1917 . Both of the surviving sisters became convoy escorts in 1917 before returning home in 1918 . Cochrane supported the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in mid @-@ 1918 . She ran aground in the River Mersey in late 1918 and broke in two . Achilles became a training ship in late 1918 and was sold for scrap in 1921 .
= = Design and description = =
The four armoured cruisers of the 1903 – 1904 Naval Programme were originally intended to be repeats of the preceding Duke of Edinburgh class , but complaints from the fleet that the low placement of the secondary armament of earlier ships of this type meant that the guns could not be fought in anything other than a dead calm sea caused the issue to be reviewed by the Board of Admiralty in late 1903 and early 1904 . Based on the Duke of Edinburghs , the Warriors were expected to be lighter , which allowed weight to be used for changing the secondary armament . Officers from the fleet suggested changing the armament to four 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 191 mm ) guns in single @-@ gun turrets raised to the upper deck . As the ships had only just begun construction , the change would cost a total of £ 250 @,@ 000 for all four ships and the Admiralty approved the change on 30 March 1904 .
The Warrior @-@ class ships were designed to displace 13 @,@ 550 long tons ( 13 @,@ 770 t ) , but they proved to be lighter as built , even after the change in armament , displacing 13 @,@ 200 – 13 @,@ 350 long tons ( 13 @,@ 410 – 13 @,@ 560 t ) at normal load and 14 @,@ 500 long tons ( 14 @,@ 700 t ) ( fully loaded ) . The ships had an overall length of 505 feet 6 inches ( 154 @.@ 1 m ) and a length between perpendiculars of 480 ft ( 146 @.@ 3 m ) . They had a beam of 73 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) and a deep draught of 26 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 1 m ) forward and 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) aft .
The ships ' complement was 770 officers and enlisted men . They were much steadier gun platforms than their predecessors with a metacentric height of 2 @.@ 75 feet ( 0 @.@ 8 m ) So much so that Achilles and Natal were the best @-@ shooting ships in the fleet in 1907 and 1909 respectively . Very good sea boats , according to naval historian Oscar Parkes , " they gained the reputation of being the best cruisers we ( the British ) ever built . "
The cruisers were powered by two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , which produced a total of 23 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 520 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The engines were powered by steam from 19 Yarrow boilers and six cylindrical boilers that had a working pressure of 225 psi ( 1 @,@ 551 kPa ; 16 kgf / cm2 ) . The ships carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 050 long tons ( 2 @,@ 080 t ) of coal and an additional 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , they could steam for 7 @,@ 960 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 740 km ; 9 @,@ 160 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The Warriors ' main armament consisted of six 45 @-@ calibre BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch Mk X guns in single @-@ gun turrets . The guns were distributed in two centreline turrets , one each fore and one aft of the superstructure , and four wing turrets disposed in the corners about the funnels . The centreline turrets could traverse a total of 285 ° while the wing turrets were limited to 120 ° on the broadside due to muzzle blast . The gun had an elevation range of − 5 ° to + 15 ° . The 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) shell weighed 380 pounds ( 172 @.@ 4 kg ) and was fired at a maximum muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 778 ft / s ( 847 m / s ) . This gave it a range of 15 @,@ 500 yards ( 14 @,@ 200 m ) at maximum elevation . The gun 's rate of fire was about three rounds per minute and the ships carried 100 rounds for each gun .
Their secondary armament of four 50 @-@ calibre BL 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk II guns was arranged in four turrets amidships . The guns could only traverse about 110 ° on the broadside . They had an elevation range of − 7 @.@ 5 ° to + 15 ° that gave them a range of 14 @,@ 238 yards ( 13 @,@ 019 m ) at an elevation with their 200 @-@ pound ( 90 @.@ 7 kg ) shell . The guns had a rate of fire of about four rounds per minute and each gun was provided with 100 rounds .
Twenty @-@ four Vickers quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 3 @-@ pounder guns were fitted for defence against torpedo boats , six on turret roofs and eighteen in the superstructure , all on pivot mounts . These guns were too small to be useful against the torpedo boats before they got within torpedo range . They fired a 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) shell that weighed 3 @.@ 3 pounds ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) and was fired at a maximum muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 587 ft / s ( 789 m / s ) . This gave it a range of 7 @,@ 550 yards ( 6 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 20 ° . 250 rounds were carried for each gun .
The ships also mounted three submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . They carried a total of eighteen torpedoes in addition to the six 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedoes that could be used by the two 45 @-@ foot ( 13 @.@ 7 m ) steam pinnaces .
= = = Armour = = =
The Warrior @-@ class ships had a 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) waterline armour belt of Krupp cemented armour that covered 260 feet ( 79 @.@ 2 m ) of the hull amidships . It covered the side of the ship up to the upper deck , a height of 14 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 42 m ) above the waterline and reached 4 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 47 m ) below it . Between the central citadel and the bow , the belt armour was 4 inches ( 102 mm ) thick and it extended to the stern with a thickness of 3 inches ( 76 mm ) . Transverse bulkheads six inches thick protected the citadel from raking fire .
The faces of the main gun turrets were 7 @.@ 5 inches thick with 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) sides and a 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) roof . The secondary gun turrets were a newer design and had armour 6 – 8 @-@ inch ( 152 – 203 mm ) thick and the same roof thickness as the other turrets . The barbettes were protected by six inches of armour as were the ammunition hoists , although the armour for those thinned to three inches between the armour belt . The thickness of the lower deck was only .75 inches ( 19 mm ) except for a patch of 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 38 mm ) armour over the steering gear and another 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick over the engine cylinders . The sides of the conning tower were 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick .
= = = Modifications = = =
Only the modifications for Cochrane are known in detail , but it is likely that her sisters received the same modifications at some point . The funnels proved to be too short in service and they were raised around 1912 to keep the superstructure free of smoke in a following wind . A single Hotchkiss QF 6 @-@ pounder anti @-@ aircraft gun on a high @-@ angle mounting was mounted on the quarterdeck in 1915 . It had a maximum depression of 8 ° and a maximum elevation of 60 ° . The gun fired a 6 @-@ pound ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 765 ft / s ( 538 m / s ) at a rate of fire of 20 rounds per minute . They had a maximum ceiling of 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , but an effective range of only 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) . It was replaced by a QF 3 inch 20 cwt guns on a high @-@ angle mount in 1916 . This gun had a maximum depression of 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . It fired a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ( 760 m / s ) at a rate of 12 – 14 rounds per minute . It had a maximum effective ceiling of 23 @,@ 500 ft ( 7 @,@ 200 m ) . A pair of Vickers QF three @-@ pounders on high @-@ angle mountings were probably installed amidships during 1915 – 16 . They could elevate to + 80 ° and depress to -5 ° . This gun had a rate of fire of 25 rounds per minute and a maximum ceiling of 15 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) , but an effective range of only 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) .
The guns on top of Cochrane 's centreline 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch turrets were removed in 1915 – 16 . The aftermost 3 @-@ pounder guns on the superstructure were removed during 1917 as well as the guns on top of the forward 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch wing turrets . This reduced her total to twenty 3 @-@ pounder guns , excluding the AA guns . Cochrane 's foremast was converted to a tripod mast to support the weight of a fire @-@ control director in 1917 , but the director was not actually fitted until August 1918 .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
After completion , the four sisters were assigned to the cruiser squadrons of the Channel and Home Fleets . Natal and Cochrane escorted the royal yacht in 1911 – 12 for the newly crowned King George V 's trip to India to attend the Delhi Durbar and Natal carried the body of the U.S. Ambassador to Great Britain , Whitelaw Reid , back to New York in December 1912 . Warrior was transferred to the 1st Cruiser Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet in 1913 .
At the beginning of World War I , Natal , Achilles and Cochrane were assigned to the 2nd Cruiser Squadron of the Grand Fleet and Warrior was in the Mediterranean . The latter ship was involved in the pursuit of the Goeben and Breslau , but the squadron commander , Rear Admiral Ernest Troubridge , declined to engage the German ships . Warrior remained in the Mediterranean until she was assigned the Grand Fleet in December 1914 and rejoined the 1st Cruiser Squadron . The other three ships remained with the 2nd Cruiser Squadron for most of their careers and did not participate in any of the early naval battles of the war . Natal was sunk by a magazine explosion near Cromarty on 30 December 1915 , killing an estimated 390 – 421 persons on board . Most of her wreck was slowly salvaged over the decades until the remnants were demolished in the 1970s so they were no longer a hazard to navigation .
Achilles was refitting in May 1916 and did not participate in the Battle of Jutland although both of her surviving sisters did . Warrior was heavily damaged by German capital ships during the battle , losing 71 crewmen killed and 36 wounded . She took on a lot of water and foundered the following morning after her crew was evacuated . The 2nd Cruiser Squadron was not engaged during the battle and did not fire a shot . Achilles was assigned blockade duties in the North Sea after the battle and sank the German raider Leopard in early 1917 . Both of the surviving ships were briefly transferred to the North America and West Indies Station in late 1917 for convoy escort duties before returning home in early 1918 . Achilles began a lengthy refit in February 1918 while Cochrane was based in Murmansk in mid @-@ 1918 during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . She became stranded in the Mersey on 14 November 1918 and broke in two . The wreck was broken up in place by June 1919 . Achilles , the last surviving sister , became a training ship in late 1918 and was sold for scrap in May 1921 .
= Justin De Fratus =
Justin Andrew De Fratus ( born October 21 , 1987 ) is an American professional baseball relief pitcher in the Washington Nationals organization . De Fratus grew up in Oxnard , California and played baseball in high school prior to playing at Ventura College . The Philadelphia Phillies selected him in the 11th round of the 2007 Major League Baseball draft . He methodically moved his way up through the Phillies system , spending about one year at each level from rookie to Class A , and then moving through two levels per season in 2010 and 2011 . In 2011 , De Fratus made his MLB debut and , by 2013 , he was a regular member of the Phillies bullpen after a few years of splitting time between the major leagues and Triple @-@ A. In 2014 , he used his slider to " dominate the league " , and establish himself as a reliable reliever capable of pitching in late @-@ inning situations .
De Fratus has a two @-@ pitch repertoire that consists of a fastball and a slider , the latter of which is his out pitch . He embraces a propensity to work quickly on the mound , and use a lower arm slot . Off the field , De Fratus is a member of the Roman Catholic church , and uses baseball to strengthen his faith . He sees evangelism as a duty of Christians , and would like to go to seminary when he finishes his baseball career .
= = Early life = =
De Fratus attended Rio Mesa High School in Oxnard , California , from which he graduated in 2005 ; he was a fan of the Los Angeles Dodgers . His high school coach , David Soliz , asserted that he could pitch in the major leagues for a long time , saying , " He definitely has the stuff to pitch in the majors . Justin has the stuff , but he also has the confidence . The odds were against him being drafted in the 11th round out of Ventura College . " De Fratus was the first Rio Mesa player to reach the majors during Soliz 's tenure . He went on to attend Ventura College where , like at Rio Mesa , he was a starting pitcher .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
The Phillies selected De Fratus with the 353rd overall pick in the 11th round of the 2007 Major League Baseball draft , and assigned him to the Gulf Coast League Phillies , the Phillies ' rookie level minor league affiliate , with whom he went 2 – 3 with a 4 @.@ 30 earned run average ( ERA ) in 10 games ( eight starts ) . The next season , 2008 , he advanced to the Williamsport Crosscutters , and went 6 – 5 with a 3 @.@ 67 ERA in 14 starts . He led the New York – Penn League in innings pitched , pitching at least six in almost 65 % of his starts ; the Phillies named him their minor league player of the week in mid @-@ June . Before the 2009 season , at the decision of Phillies minor league pitching coordinator Gorman Heimueller and assistant general manager Chuck LaMar , De Fratus became predominantly a relief pitcher so he was " not sitting down four games out of the week " and could be a more focused pitcher . He took his first crack at relief pitching with the Lakewood Blue Claws , and ultimately began to flourish , earning Phillies minor league player of the week honors , and a spot in the South Atlantic League all @-@ star game . On the season , he posted a 5 – 6 record with a 3 @.@ 19 ERA in 36 games ( though still with 12 starts ) . After the season , he participated in the Florida Instructional League . He had a successful 2010 season , splitting time between the High @-@ A Clearwater Threshers and Double @-@ A Reading Phillies , and posting a 1 @.@ 94 ERA with 21 saves in 49 games .
= = = Major leagues = = =
= = = = Philadelphia Phillies = = = =
De Fratus began the 2011 season with Double @-@ A Reading , and was promoted to Triple @-@ A Lehigh Valley on June 16 after much success in Reading . He recorded seven saves with Lehigh Valley , and was named the Phillies minor league player of the week in late August , before making his MLB debut with the Philadelphia Phillies on September 18 , 2011 , after joining the team as a September callup . During his debut , an opposing batter fouled a ball off , and De Fratus 's brother caught the ball . Ultimately , it was a scoreless debut , and he went on to pitch four more big @-@ league games that season . At the end of the season , Baseball America rated him the seventh @-@ best prospect in the Phillies ' minor league system . Before 2012 , like in 2011 , he was given an opportunity to open the season in the Phillies bullpen , but ended up injuring his shoulder , and missing much of the season . He called the injury a " beat down " both physically and mentally , but he returned and pitched with the big @-@ league club in September . At the conclusion of the season , he was mentally exhausted and used golf to help " divert " his attention from baseball , playing over 50 rounds in the offseason ; he credited golf with helping him overcome the mental exhaustion he faced after the season , and entered 2013 in a relaxed frame of mind .
By 2013 , De Fratus was a regular member of the bullpen , pitching in 58 games with the big @-@ league club ; he performed well enough to be considered likely to open the 2014 season firmly implanted in the Phillies bullpen . He broke spring training 2014 with the major league team , but after four appearances , he was optioned back to the minor leagues to work on commanding his pitches , notwithstanding the Phillies ' dearth of other right @-@ handed relieving options . While at Lehigh Valley , he spent a significant amount of time reviewing film from his outings in 2011 and 2012 , from which he learned that he had a faster pace when pitching , a more aggressive pitching style , and a lower arm slot . Just under a month later , in late May , he was recalled to the major league team , and had much success ( 11 consecutive scoreless appearances ) as part of a Phillies ' bullpen that drastically improved from the beginning of the season , and , statistically , was among the best in the major leagues in early June . De Fratus ' drastically improved command helped him halve his career walk rate – he walked just 5 @.@ 5 % of batters he faced in 2014 , which contributed to a " breakout " season . Although he was overshadowed by the emergence of fellow relief pitcher Ken Giles , De Fratus established himself as a reliable late @-@ innings reliever for the future .
= = = = Seattle Mariners = = = =
A free agent following the 2015 season , De Fratus signed a one @-@ year contract with the Seattle Mariners on December 2 . He was released on March 16 , 2016 , and re @-@ signed to a minor league contract the following day .
= = = = Texas Rangers = = = =
On June 11 , 2016 , De Fratus was traded to the Texas Rangers .
= = Pitching style = =
A fastball and a slider comprise De Fratus 's pitching repertoire ; his fastball averages about 93 miles per hour ( 150 km / h ) , but occasionally touches 95 miles per hour ( 153 km / h ) , while his slider is about 10 miles per hour ( 16 km / h ) slower than that . His slider was able to " dominate the league " in 2014 , and although he does not total as many strikeouts as some relievers , he has established himself as a dependable piece in the Phillies ' bullpen . Early in his career , De Fratus aspired to be a closer , but after realizing that an " all @-@ or @-@ nothing " mentality was not necessarily conducive to success , he sought to relax more and focus on being a quality setup reliever , projecting confidence on the mound . Especially in the Phillies ' young bullpen , the need for reliable late @-@ innings relievers was great , underscoring the importance of De Fratus 's emergence . He is most successful when he utilizes a lower arm angle , and works quickly on the mound .
= = Personal life = =
De Fratus is a devout Roman Catholic who , though he was raised in a large Catholic family , struggled with his faith after an injury early in his career , but ultimately determined the injury was a gift from God to help him better understand his faith : " I really feel that the setback was God telling me , ‘ Hey you are not done . You are not done yet figuring out what you need to figure out , and I am going to give you a little more time . ’ There is a big reason why that injury happened and I feel that I used it as best as I could have . " He noted that he would like to take classes at a seminary to help proselytize to others . Early in his professional career , he struggled to find fellow Catholics , and noted that most of his teammates were either Protestants or not religious . Moreover , in many small towns that house minor league teams , there are no Catholic churches , so De Fratus found it easy to slide away from leading a Catholic lifestyle . However , upon realizing that there is more to life than material success , he discovered a need for God , and has thus developed his faith . Aside from his faith , he enjoys writing and recording music , and playing the guitar . He has two brothers , the older of whom , Steve , played in the minor leagues , and the younger of whom , Chris , caught a foul ball during De Fratus 's major league debut .
During the offseason preceding the 2015 season , De Fratus became involved in some controversy involving Phillies blogger Bill Baer and the Black Lives Matter campaign when he tweeted , " I 'm sick of this black vs white and men vs women garbage that 's been going on . We 're just people . # AllLivesMatter , " to which Baer responded with a scathing column on Crashburn Alley , a blog affiliated with ESPN , in which he stated that De Fratus is " complicit in perpetuating a system which inflicts violence on those who didn ’ t have the luxury of being born white and male and straight and in an economically @-@ stable area . " Subsequently , De Fratus penned a retort to Baer via Facebook , in which he commented , " I sincerely hope that you will take the time to talk to me personally next time before you decide to hide behind your computer screen and criticize me , my upbringing and my character based on 140 characters . I do not apologize for anything I have said . I have a platform and I WILL use it for the agenda of love . "
= George P. Burdell =
George P. Burdell is a fictitious student officially enrolled at Georgia Tech in 1927 as a practical joke . Since then , he has supposedly received all undergraduate degrees offered by Georgia Tech , served in the military , gotten married , and served on Mad magazine 's Board of Directors , among other accomplishments . Burdell at one point led the online poll for Time 's 2001 Person of the Year award . He has evolved into an important and notorious campus tradition ; all Georgia Tech students learn about him at orientation .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
George P. Burdell was created by William Edgar " Ed " Smith , BS in Ceramic Engineering , 1927 . Smith conceived the idea for Burdell when he received two Georgia Tech enrollment forms . In a 1977 Atlanta Newspaper interview , Smith said that he originally intended to enroll his Academy of Richmond County principal , George P. Butler , but instead changed the last name to Burdell , the maiden name of his best friend 's mother .
After enrolling him , Smith signed Burdell up for all the same classes he had . Smith would do all schoolwork twice , changing it slightly to avoid professors catching his sham . When he had a test , he would take it twice and then turn it in under both names . By 1930 , the school had awarded Burdell a bachelor 's degree , and a few years later awarded the fictitious student a master 's degree . The college listed him as an official alumnus , even though his name has remained on the active student rolls . In 1930 , the ANAK Society , Georgia Tech 's oldest secret society , offered Burdell membership .
An early prank to use Burdell 's name came after someone was snubbed by a fraternity he had intended to join . " That irritated [ him ] . He went out and ordered a truckload of furniture to be delivered C.O.D. to that fraternity . Of course , the order was made by George P. Burdell . "
= = = World War II = = =
During World War II , service members continued the hoax , with Burdell 's name appearing on various fronts . For example , he was listed on the flight crew of a B @-@ 17 bomber , flying twelve missions over Europe with the 8th Air Force in England , until a Georgia Tech graduate became the new operations officer for the crew , recognized the name on the flight log , and ended the charade .
= = = Postwar = = =
In 1958 , members of the senior class of Agnes Scott College announced the wedding engagement of Burdell and fictional Agnes Scott student Ramona Cartwright in the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution . The 50th wedding anniversary , of " Mr. and Mrs. George P. Burdell from Atlanta " was acknowledged in the September 23 , 2006 broadcast of A Prairie Home Companion .
George P. Burdell is listed as a basketball letterman from 1956 to 1958 in the Georgia Tech Basketball yearbook . In 1969 , Georgia Tech computerized its class registration , believing it had successfully found a way to keep students from registering Burdell for class that semester . As it turned out , hackers registered him for every class in the Institute that quarter , over 3 @,@ 000 credit hours . He was subsequently re @-@ enrolled several times , including in 1975 and 1980 .
The publishers of Mad magazine listed Burdell as a member of its Board of Directors from 1969 until 1981 . In 1991 a check from Kraft Foods bore the signature " George P. Burdell " . When Time magazine was attempting to select their Person of the Year for 2001 , George Burdell was the leading candidate ( holding at least 57 % of the votes ) until the magazine removed him from the running . Credit cards have been issued in his name .
WREK , the Georgia Tech student radio station , lists him as a staff member , and he is credited for playing baritone on the 1995 album Jesus Christ Superstar : A Resurrection , which was made in Atlanta by musicians from the local alternative rock scene . In 2000 , Burdell was named an alternate delegate to the Democratic National Convention from Georgia . Burdell was credited as a member of the choir of the 2006 album There is a Place . George 's fictitious son , George P. Burdell Junior , has been a proctor for several classes at Georgia Tech .
= = Legacy = =
Burdell is a campus icon at Georgia Tech , and incoming freshmen are introduced to him as one of the greatest alumni to graduate from the school . George P. Burdell is often paged over the public @-@ address system during football games and also at airports , bars , and hotels . Georgia Tech students or alumni often use his name as an alias when they do not want to disclose their real name . There is a store in Georgia Tech 's student center named " Burdell 's " .
During a speech made by US President Barack Obama being held at Georgia Tech in the McCam
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00 UTC on December 14 , the storm degenerated into a tropical depression and continued to execute a small anticyclonic loop before dissipating on December 15 .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
= = = Philippines = = =
Although the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) did not recommend their delay , both the 2006 ASEAN and East Asia summits in Cebu City were postponed due to the threat of Utor impacting the city ; officials denied allegations that the postponements were instead due to a possible terrorist attack . This was the first time than an ASEAN summit had been postponed due to inclement weather . Potentially hazardous conditions also delayed humanitarian aid to victims of Typhoon Durian , which struck the Philippines in late November . The first Public Storm Warning Signals for the Philippines were issued by the PAGASA on December 8 for several islands in the central Philippines . The third level of the four @-@ tier warning system was issued for Samar , Leyte , and Biliran . With landfall imminent on December 9 , 15 @,@ 000 people were evacuated to temporary evacuation shelters from around 12 villages . This figure increased to 59 @,@ 000 people as landfall occurred and later to 91 @,@ 121 with the storm passing over the Philippines . Most of the evacuees were from Albay due to fears of deadly mudslides and lahars associated with Mount Mayon as witnessed during Typhoon Durian . In addition , the Philippines Office of Civil Defense considered relocating Typhoon Durian refugees in the Bicol Region to special " holding areas " . Other domestic flights were also cancelled .
Utor caused extensive power outages in Cebu , Leyte , and Boracay , resulting in widespread loss of telecommunication . A single electric pole in northern Cebu caught fire during the storm , cutting out power to eight peripheral towns . Downtown Tacloban also suffered a blackout . Off of Boracay , a boat operator was killed after their ship capsized . Another 67 ships , which consisted of speedboats and ferries , sunk during the storm 's passage . Buildings were unroofed and trees were torn apart on the island , littering its beaches with debris . A barge was forced by large waves into the pier at San Agustin , Romblon , resulting in the spilling of 25 @,@ 000 L ( 6 @,@ 600 gal ) of diesel fuel . Two children were killed in Tacloban and Capiz as a result of falling trees ; an additional three people in Capiz were feared to have drowned due to floods . Two thousand people became stranded after the Philippine Coast Guard cancelled the operation of 43 ferry services . Similarly , 8 @,@ 000 people became stranded at seaports after the coast guard barred vessels from sailing . Extensive damage occurred in Occidental Mindoro , where 422 homes were destroyed and an additional 1 @,@ 421 damaged . Rough seas caused the outriggers on a ferry between Batangas and Puerto Galera , Oriental Mindoro to break apart , causing the ship to begin disintegrating offshore . However , the 104 passengers and crew on board were able to escape and were later rescued . Further north in southern Luzon , roads and bridges were rendered impassable after sustaining damage .
A state of emergency was declared for Aklan , where property damage equated to ₱ 51 million ( US $ 1 million ) . The Central Visayas region of the Philippines suffered the worst impacts , with a damage cost of ₱ 345 @.@ 2 million ( US $ 7 million ) , primarily to agriculture . Following the storm 's passage , chapters of the Philippine Red Cross assisted in relief efforts in impacted areas . The Philippine Department of Social Welfare and Development allocated ₱ 27 @.@ 7 million ( US $ 600 @,@ 000 ) to relief efforts . Food and sheltering were provided to 2 @,@ 615 people in three provinces by the Adventist Development and Relief Agency . Many localized relief agencies donated sacks of rice to impacted residents . The United Nations appealed for US $ 46 million for use in recovery efforts following Utor in addition to the three Philippine typhoons which preceded it . Overall , the impacts of Utor killed 30 people and injured 44 in the Philippines . Another eight people were never accounted for . The damage toll wrought by Utor amounted to US $ 15 @.@ 8 million . Furthermore , 36 @,@ 542 houses were damaged by Utor , of which 9 @,@ 439 were destroyed . Capiz and Aklan were the areas that sustained the most residential damage . People who were evacuated out of hazardous regions in advance of Utor were able to return home beginning on December 18 , nine days after initial landfall .
= = = Elsewhere in Southeastern Asia = = =
Thailand 's Royal Irrigation Department released water from local dams in order to mitigate a potential flood event caused by Utor . Flooded areas of the western half of the country drained floodwaters into the Chao Phraya River . Off of Malaysia , a rough sea warning for coastal stretches of Sabah and northern Sarawak due to the threat of high wind @-@ swept waves caused by Utor . In Vietnam , delegations were sent to coastal areas to guide residents in preparing for Utor and secure fishing boats , while troops were sent to reinforce buildings and fortify sea defenses . Preparations for " mass evacuations " also went into effect , particularly along Vietnam 's central coastline . Border guards called back 3 @,@ 785 fishing vessels with over 21 @,@ 000 fishermen to shore . Aircraft , automobiles , canoes , and ships were dispatched into threatened areas to disseminate information regarding the typhoon . Similar precautionary measures took place in Hainan , where more than 20 @,@ 000 fishing boats were called back to shore . Forty @-@ nine people were evacuated out of the Paracel Islands due to the threat of the typhoon .
As Utor was traversing the South China Sea , a fishing boat became stranded near Langhua Reef in the Paracel Islands ; the occupants were rescued by a rescue ship operated by the Hainan Maritime Bureau , though five were flown to hospitals for medical treatment . A total of 140 sheds on the islands of Yongxing , Yayong , Zhaoshu , and Bei Dao were flattened by the passing typhoon , while a ship at harbor sank and five others ran aground . On the Qilian Yu island sub @-@ group , 98 fishermen on the islands were rescued by the Nanhai Rescue Bureau following days without clean water and food supplies . Utor had destroyed all of the islands ' bunkhouses , resulting in requests for rescue .
Moisture associated with Utor was partially blamed for heavy rains which produced extensive flooding in Peninsular Malaysia ; these floods were the first in a long string of flood events that would plague the region until February 2007 . The tropical moisture acted in tandem with wind shear and a monsoonal flow to produce continuous precipitation over the Malaysian states of Pahang , Johor , and Malacca . Rainfall peaked at 567 @.@ 8 mm ( 22 @.@ 35 in ) in Bandar Muadzam Shah over a four @-@ day period , with similar rainfall totals occurring elsewhere . These floods were considered the worst in the history of southern Malaysia . The worst @-@ affected areas were Segamat and Kota Tinggi , where both towns were inaccessible by land after all main roads leading to those towns were flooded . Eight fatalities resulted from the historical flooding .
= Tropical cyclone =
A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low @-@ pressure center , a closed low @-@ level atmospheric circulation , strong winds , and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain . Depending on its location and strength , a tropical cyclone is referred to by names such as hurricane ( / ˈhʌrᵻkən / or / ˈhʌrᵻkeɪn / ) , typhoon / taɪˈfuːn / , tropical storm , cyclonic storm , tropical depression , and simply cyclone .
Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water . They derive their energy through the evaporation of water from the ocean surface , which ultimately recondenses into clouds and rain when moist air rises and cools to saturation . This energy source differs from that of mid @-@ latitude cyclonic storms , such as nor 'easters and European windstorms , which are fueled primarily by horizontal temperature contrasts . The strong rotating winds of a tropical cyclone are a result of the conservation of angular momentum imparted by the Earth 's rotation as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation . As a result , they rarely form within 5 ° of the equator . Tropical cyclones are typically between 100 and 2 @,@ 000 km ( 62 and 1 @,@ 243 mi ) in diameter .
Tropical refers to the geographical origin of these systems , which form almost exclusively over tropical seas . Cyclone refers to their cyclonic nature , with wind blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere . The opposite direction of circulation is due to the Coriolis effect .
In addition to strong winds and rain , tropical cyclones are capable of generating high waves , damaging storm surge , and tornadoes . They typically weaken rapidly over land where they are cut off from their primary energy source . For this reason , coastal regions are particularly vulnerable to damage from a tropical cyclone as compared to inland regions . Heavy rains , however , can cause significant flooding inland , and storm surges can produce extensive coastal flooding up to 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) from the coastline . Though their effects on human populations are often devastating , tropical cyclones can relieve drought conditions . They also carry heat energy away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes , which may play an important role in modulating regional and global climate .
= = Physical structure = =
Tropical cyclones are areas of relatively low pressure in the troposphere , with the largest pressure perturbations occurring at low altitudes near the surface . On Earth , the pressures recorded at the centers of tropical cyclones are among the lowest ever observed at sea level . The environment near the center of tropical cyclones is warmer than the surroundings at all altitudes , thus they are characterized as " warm core " systems .
= = = Wind field = = =
The near @-@ surface wind field of a tropical cyclone is characterized by air rotating rapidly around a center of circulation while also flowing radially inwards . At the outer edge of the storm , air may be nearly calm ; however , due to the Earth 's rotation , the air has non @-@ zero absolute angular momentum . As air flows radially inward , it begins to rotate cyclonically ( counter @-@ clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere , and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere ) in order to conserve angular momentum . At an inner radius , air begins to ascend to the top of the troposphere . This radius is typically coincident with the inner radius of the eyewall , and has the strongest near @-@ surface winds of the storm ; consequently , it is known as the radius of maximum winds . Once aloft , air flows away from the storm 's center , producing a shield of cirrus clouds .
The previously mentioned processes result in a wind field that is nearly axisymmetric : Wind speeds are low at the center , increase rapidly moving outwards to the radius of maximum winds , and then decay more gradually with radius to large radii . However , the wind field often exhibits additional spatial and temporal variability due to the effects of localized processes , such as thunderstorm activity and horizontal flow instabilities . In the vertical direction , winds are strongest near the surface and decay with height within the troposphere .
= = = Eye and center = = =
At the center of a mature tropical cyclone , air sinks rather than rises . For a sufficiently strong storm , air may sink over a layer deep enough to suppress cloud formation , thereby creating a clear " eye " . Weather in the eye is normally calm and free of clouds , although the sea may be extremely violent . The eye is normally circular in shape , and is typically 30 – 65 km ( 19 – 40 mi ) in diameter , though eyes as small as 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) and as large as 370 km ( 230 mi ) have been observed .
The cloudy outer edge of the eye is called the " eyewall " . The eyewall typically expands outward with height , resembling an arena football stadium ; this phenomenon is sometimes referred to as the stadium effect . The eyewall is where the greatest wind speeds are found , air rises most rapidly , clouds reach to their highest altitude , and precipitation is the heaviest . The heaviest wind damage occurs where a tropical cyclone 's eyewall passes over land .
In a weaker storm , the eye may be obscured by the central dense overcast , which is the upper @-@ level cirrus shield that is associated with a concentrated area of strong thunderstorm activity near the center of a tropical cyclone .
The eyewall may vary over time in the form of eyewall replacement cycles , particularly in intense tropical cyclones . Outer rainbands can organize into an outer ring of thunderstorms that slowly moves inward , which is believed to rob the primary eyewall of moisture and angular momentum . When the primary eyewall weakens , the tropical cyclone weakens temporarily . The outer eyewall eventually replaces the primary one at the end of the cycle , at which time the storm may return to its original intensity .
= = = Intensity = = =
Storm " intensity " is defined as the maximum wind speed in the storm . This speed is taken as either a 1 @-@ minute or a 10 @-@ minute average at the standard reference height of 10 meters . The choice of averaging period , as well as the naming convention for classifying storms , differs across forecast centers and ocean basins .
On occasion , tropical cyclones may undergo a meteorological condition known as rapid deepening , a period in which the minimum sea @-@ level pressure of a tropical cyclone decreases by 42mb in a 24 @-@ hour period . In order for rapid deepening to occur , several conditions must be in place . Water temperatures must be extremely warm ( near or above 30 ° C , 86 ° F ) , and water of this temperature must be sufficiently deep such that waves do not upwell cooler waters to the surface . Wind shear must be low ; when wind shear is high , the convection and circulation in the cyclone will be disrupted . Usually , an anticyclone in the upper layers of the troposphere above the storm must be present as well — for extremely low surface pressures to develop , air must be rising very rapidly in the eyewall of the storm , and an upper @-@ level anticyclone helps channel this air away from the cyclone efficiently .
= = = Size = = =
There are a variety of metrics commonly used to measure storm size . The most common metrics include the radius of maximum wind , the radius of 34 @-@ knot wind ( i.e. gale force ) , the radius of outermost closed isobar ( ROCI ) , and the radius of vanishing wind . An additional metric is the radius at which the cyclone 's relative vorticity field decreases to 1 × 10 − 5 s − 1 .
On Earth , tropical cyclones span a large range of sizes , from 100 – 2 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 62 – 1 @,@ 243 mi ) as measured by the radius of vanishing wind . They are largest on average in the northwest Pacific Ocean basin and smallest in the northeastern Pacific Ocean basin . If the radius of outermost closed isobar is less than two degrees of latitude ( 222 km ( 138 mi ) ) , then the cyclone is " very small " or a " midget " . A radius of 3 – 6 latitude degrees ( 333 – 670 km ( 207 – 416 mi ) ) is considered " average sized " . " Very large " tropical cyclones have a radius of greater than 8 degrees ( 888 km ( 552 mi ) ) . Observations indicate that size is only weakly correlated to variables such as storm intensity ( i.e. maximum wind speed ) , radius of maximum wind , latitude , and maximum potential intensity .
Size plays an important role in modulating damage caused by a storm . All else equal , a larger storm will impact a larger area for a longer period of time . Additionally , a larger near @-@ surface wind field can generate higher storm surge due to the combination of longer wind fetch , longer duration , and enhanced wave setup .
The upper circulation of strong hurricanes extends into the tropopause of the atmosphere , which at low latitudes is 15 @,@ 000 – 18 @,@ 000 metres ( 50 @,@ 000 – 60 @,@ 000 ft ) .
= = Physics and energetics = =
The three @-@ dimensional wind field in a tropical cyclone can be separated into two components : a " primary circulation " and a " secondary circulation " . The primary circulation is the rotational part of the flow ; it is purely circular . The secondary circulation is the overturning ( in @-@ up @-@ out @-@ down ) part of the flow ; it is in the radial and vertical directions . The primary circulation has the strongest winds and is responsible for the majority of the damage a storm causes , while the secondary circulation is slower but governs the energetics of the storm .
= = = Secondary circulation : a Carnot heat engine = = =
A tropical cyclone 's primary energy source is the evaporation of water from the ocean surface , which ultimately recondenses into clouds and rain when the warm moist air rises and cools to saturation . The energetics of the system may be idealized as an atmospheric Carnot heat engine . First , inflowing air near the surface acquires heat primarily via evaporation of water ( i.e. latent heat ) at the temperature of the warm ocean surface ( during evaporation , the ocean cools and the air warms ) . Second , the warmed air rises and cools within the eyewall while conserving total heat content ( latent heat is simply converted to sensible heat during condensation ) . Third , air outflows and loses heat via infrared radiation to space at the temperature of the cold tropopause . Finally , air subsides and warms at the outer edge of the storm while conserving total heat content . The first and third legs are nearly isothermal , while the second and fourth legs are nearly isentropic . This in @-@ up @-@ out @-@ down overturning flow is known as the secondary circulation . The Carnot perspective provides an upper bound on the maximum wind speed that a storm can attain .
Scientists estimate that a tropical cyclone releases heat energy at the rate of 50 to 200 exajoules ( 1018 J ) per day , equivalent to about 1 PW ( 1015 watt ) . This rate of energy release is equivalent to 70 times the world energy consumption of humans and 200 times the worldwide electrical generating capacity , or to exploding a 10 @-@ megaton nuclear bomb every 20 minutes .
= = = Primary circulation : rotating winds = = =
The primary rotating flow in a tropical cyclone results from the conservation of angular momentum by the secondary circulation . Absolute angular momentum on a rotating planet <formula> is given by
<formula>
where <formula> is the Coriolis parameter , <formula> is the azimuthal ( i.e. rotating ) wind speed , and <formula> is the radius to the axis of rotation . The first term on the right hand side is the component of planetary angular momentum that projects onto the local vertical ( i.e. the axis of rotation ) . The second term on the right hand side is the relative angular momentum of the circulation itself with respect to the axis of rotation . Because the planetary angular momentum term vanishes at the equator ( where <formula> ) , tropical cyclones rarely form within 5 ° of the equator .
As air flows radially inward at low levels , it begins to rotate cyclonically in order to conserve angular momentum . Similarly , as rapidly rotating air flows radially outward near the tropopause , its cyclonic rotation decreases and ultimately changes sign at large enough radius , resulting in an upper @-@ level anti @-@ cyclone . The result is a vertical structure characterized by a strong cyclone at low levels and a strong anti @-@ cyclone near the tropopause ; from thermal wind balance , this corresponds to a system that is warmer at its center than in the surrounding environment at all altitudes ( i.e. " warm @-@ core " ) . From hydrostatic balance , the warm core translates to lower pressure at the center at all altitudes , with the maximum pressure drop located at the surface .
= = = Maximum potential intensity = = =
Due to surface friction , the inflow only partially conserves angular momentum . Thus , the sea surface lower boundary acts as both a source ( evaporation ) and sink ( friction ) of energy for the system . This fact leads to the existence of a theoretical upper bound on the strongest wind speed that a tropical cyclone can attain . Because evaporation increases linearly with wind speed ( just as climbing out of a pool feels much colder on a windy day ) , there is a positive feedback on energy input into the system known as the Wind @-@ Induced Surface Heat Exchange ( WISHE ) feedback . This feedback is offset when frictional dissipation , which increases with the cube of the wind speed , becomes sufficiently large . This upper bound is called the " maximum potential intensity " , <formula> , and is given by
<formula>
where <formula> is the temperature of the sea surface , <formula> is the temperature of the outflow ( [ K ] ) , <formula> is the enthalpy difference between the surface and the overlying air ( [ J / kg ] ) , and <formula> and <formula> are the surface exchange coefficients ( dimensionless ) of enthalpy and momentum , respectively . The surface @-@ air enthalpy difference is taken as <formula> , where <formula> is the saturation enthalpy of air at sea surface temperature and sea @-@ level pressure and <formula> is the enthalpy of boundary layer air overlying the surface .
The maximum potential intensity is predominantly a function of the background environment alone ( i.e. without a tropical cyclone ) , and thus this quantity can be used to determine which regions on Earth can support tropical cyclones of a given intensity , and how these regions may evolve in time . Specifically , the maximum potential intensity has three components , but its variability in space and time is due predominantly to the variability in the surface @-@ air enthalpy difference component <formula> .
= = = = Derivation = = = =
A tropical cyclone may be viewed as a heat engine that converts input heat energy from the surface into mechanical energy that can be used to do mechanical work against surface friction . At equilibrium , the rate of net energy production in the system must equal the rate of energy loss due to frictional dissipation at the surface , i.e.
<formula>
The rate of energy loss per unit surface area from surface friction , <formula> , is given by
<formula>
where <formula> is the density of near @-@ surface air ( [ kg / m3 ] ) and <formula> is the near surface wind speed ( [ m / s ] ) .
The rate of energy production per unit surface area , <formula> is given by
<formula>
where <formula> is the heat engine efficiency and <formula> is the total rate of heat input into the system per unit surface area . Given that a tropical cyclone may be idealized as a Carnot heat engine , the Carnot heat engine efficiency is given by
<formula>
Heat ( enthalpy ) per unit mass is given by
<formula>
where <formula> is the heat capacity of air , <formula> is air temperature , <formula> is the latent heat of vaporization , and <formula> is the concentration of water vapor . The first component corresponds to sensible heat and the second to latent heat .
There are two sources of heat input . The dominant source is the input of heat at the surface , primarily due to evaporation . The bulk aerodynamic formula for the rate of heat input per unit area at the surface , <formula> , is given by
<formula>
where <formula> represents the enthalpy difference between the ocean surface and the overlying air . The second source is the internal sensible heat generated from frictional dissipation ( equal to <formula> ) , which occurs near the surface within the tropical cyclone and is recycled to the system .
<formula>
Thus , the total rate of net energy production per unit surface area is given by
<formula>
Setting <formula> and taking <formula> ( i.e. the rotational wind speed is dominant ) leads to the solution for <formula> given above . This derivation assumes that total energy input and loss within the system can be approximated by their values at the radius of maximum wind . The inclusion of <formula> acts to multiply the total heat input rate by the factor <formula> . Mathematically , this has the effect of replacing <formula> with <formula> in the denominator of the Carnot efficiency .
An alternative definition for the maximum potential intensity , which is mathematically equivalent to the above formulation , is
<formula>
where CAPE stands for the Convective Available Potential Energy , <formula> is the CAPE of an air parcel lifted from saturation at sea level in reference to the environmental sounding , <formula> is the CAPE of the boundary layer air , and both quantities are calculated at the radius of maximum wind .
= = = = Characteristic values and variability on Earth = = = =
On Earth , a characteristic temperature for <formula> is 300 K and for <formula> is 200 K , corresponding to a Carnot efficiency of <formula> . The ratio of the surface exchange coefficients , <formula> , is typically taken to be 1 . However , observations suggest that the drag coefficient <formula> varies with wind speed and may decrease at high wind speeds within the boundary layer of a mature hurricane . Additionally , <formula> may vary at high wind speeds due to the effect of sea spray on evaporation within the boundary layer .
A characteristic value of the maximum potential intensity , <formula> , is 80 m / s . However , this quantity varies significantly across space and time , particularly within the seasonal cycle , spanning a range of 0 – 100 m / s . This variability is primarily due to variability in the surface enthalpy disequilibrium ( <formula> ) as well as in the thermodynamic structure of the troposphere , which are controlled by the large @-@ scale dynamics of the tropical climate . These processes are modulated by factors including the sea surface temperature ( and underlying ocean dynamics ) , background near @-@ surface wind speed , and the vertical structure of atmospheric radiative heating . The nature of this modulation is complex , particularly on climate time @-@ scales ( decades or longer ) . On shorter time @-@ scales , variability in the maximum potential intensity is commonly linked to sea surface temperature perturbations from the tropical mean , as regions with relatively warm water have thermodynamic states much more capable of sustaining a tropical cyclone than regions with relatively cold water . However , this relationship is indirect via the large @-@ scale dynamics of the tropics ; the direct influence of the absolute sea surface temperature on <formula> is weak in comparison .
= = = Interaction with the upper ocean = = =
The passage of a tropical cyclone over the ocean causes the upper layers of the ocean to cool substantially , which can influence subsequent cyclone development . This cooling is primarily caused by wind @-@ driven mixing of cold water from deeper in the ocean with the warm surface waters . This effect results in a negative feedback process that can inhibit further development or lead to weakening . Additional cooling may come in the form of cold water from falling raindrops ( this is because the atmosphere is cooler at higher altitudes ) . Cloud cover may also play a role in cooling the ocean , by shielding the ocean surface from direct sunlight before and slightly after the storm passage . All these effects can combine to produce a dramatic drop in sea surface temperature over a large area in just a few days .
= = Major basins and related warning centers = =
There are six Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers ( RSMCs ) worldwide . These organizations are designated by the World Meteorological Organization and are responsible for tracking and issuing bulletins , warnings , and advisories about tropical cyclones in their designated areas of responsibility . In addition , there are six Tropical Cyclone Warning Centers ( TCWCs ) that provide information to smaller regions .
The RSMCs and TCWCs are not the only organizations that provide information about tropical cyclones to the public . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issues advisories in all basins except the Northern Atlantic for the purposes of the United States Government . The Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) issues advisories and names for tropical cyclones that approach the Philippines in the Northwestern Pacific to protect the life and property of its citizens . The Canadian Hurricane Center ( CHC ) issues advisories on hurricanes and their remnants for Canadian citizens when they affect Canada .
On March 26 , 2004 , Cyclone Catarina became the first recorded South Atlantic cyclone , striking southern Brazil with winds equivalent to Category 2 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . As the cyclone formed outside the authority of another warning center , Brazilian meteorologists initially treated the system as an extratropical cyclone , but later on classified it as tropical .
= = Formation = =
Worldwide , tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer , when the difference between temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures is the greatest . However , each particular basin has its own seasonal patterns . On a worldwide scale , May is the least active month , while September is the most active month . November is the only month in which all the tropical cyclone basins are active .
= = = Times = = =
In the Northern Atlantic Ocean , a distinct cyclone season occurs from June 1 to November 30 , sharply peaking from late August through September . The statistical peak of the Atlantic hurricane season is September 10 . The Northeast Pacific Ocean has a broader period of activity , but in a similar time frame to the Atlantic . The Northwest Pacific sees tropical cyclones year @-@ round , with a minimum in February and March and a peak in early September . In the North Indian basin , storms are most common from April to December , with peaks in May and November . In the Southern Hemisphere , the tropical cyclone year begins on July 1 and runs all year @-@ round encompassing the tropical cyclone seasons , which run from November 1 until the end of April , with peaks in mid @-@ February to early March .
= = = Factors = = =
The formation of tropical cyclones is the topic of extensive ongoing research and is still not fully understood . While six factors appear to be generally necessary , tropical cyclones may occasionally form without meeting all of the following conditions . In most situations , water temperatures of at least 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 79 @.@ 7 ° F ) are needed down to a depth of at least 50 m ( 160 ft ) ; waters of this temperature cause the overlying atmosphere to be unstable enough to sustain convection and thunderstorms . Another factor is rapid cooling with height , which allows the release of the heat of condensation that powers a tropical cyclone . High humidity is needed , especially in the lower @-@ to @-@ mid troposphere ; when there is a great deal of moisture in the atmosphere , conditions are more favorable for disturbances to develop . Low amounts of wind shear are needed , as high shear is disruptive to the storm 's circulation . Tropical cyclones generally need to form more than 555 km ( 345 mi ) or five degrees of latitude away from the equator , allowing the Coriolis effect to deflect winds blowing towards the low pressure center and creating a circulation . Lastly , a formative tropical cyclone needs a preexisting system of disturbed weather . Tropical cyclones will not form spontaneously . Low @-@ latitude and low @-@ level westerly wind bursts associated with the Madden @-@ Julian oscillation can create favorable conditions for tropical cyclogenesis by initiating tropical disturbances .
= = = Locations = = =
Most tropical cyclones form in a worldwide band of thunderstorm activity near the equator , referred to as the Intertropical Front ( ITF ) , the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) , or the monsoon trough . Another important source of atmospheric instability is found in tropical waves , which contribute to the development of about 85 % of intense tropical cyclones in the Atlantic ocean and become most of the tropical cyclones in the Eastern Pacific . The majority forms between 10 and 30 degrees of latitude away of the equator , and 87 % forms no farther away than 20 degrees north or south . Because the Coriolis effect initiates and maintains their rotation , tropical cyclones rarely form or move within 5 degrees of the equator , where the effect is weakest . However , it is still possible for tropical systems to form within this boundary as Tropical Storm Vamei and Cyclone Agni did in 2001 and 2004 , respectively .
= = Movement = =
The movement of a tropical cyclone ( i.e. its " track " ) is typically approximated as the sum of two terms : " steering " by the background environmental wind and " beta drift " .
= = = Environmental steering = = =
Environmental steering is the dominant term . Conceptually , it represents the movement of the storm with the background environment , akin to " leaves carried along by a stream " . Physically , the flow field in the vicinity of a tropical cyclone may be decomposed into two parts : the flow associated with the storm itself , and the large @-@ scale background flow of the environment in which the storm is embedded . In this way , tropical cyclone motion may be represented to first @-@ order simply as the advection of the storm by the local environmental flow . This environmental flow is termed the " steering flow " .
Climatologically , tropical cyclones are steered primarily westward by the east @-@ to @-@ west trade winds on the equatorial side of the subtropical ridge — a persistent high @-@ pressure area over the world 's subtropical oceans . In the tropical North Atlantic and Northeast Pacific oceans , the trade winds steer tropical easterly waves westward from the African coast toward the Caribbean Sea , North America , and ultimately into the central Pacific ocean before the waves dampen out . These waves are the precursors to many tropical cyclones within this region . In contrast , in the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific in both hemispheres , tropical cyclogenesis is influenced less by tropical easterly waves and more by the seasonal movement of the Inter @-@ tropical Convergence Zone and the monsoon trough . Additionally , tropical cyclone motion can be influenced by transient weather systems , such as extratropical cyclones .
= = = Beta drift = = =
In addition to environmental steering , a tropical cyclone will tend to drift slowly poleward and westward , a motion known as " beta drift " . This motion is due to the superposition of a vortex , such as a tropical cyclone , onto an environment in which the Coriolis force varies with latitude , such as on a sphere or beta plane . It is induced indirectly by the storm itself , the result of a feedback between the cyclonic flow of the storm and its environment .
Physically , the cyclonic circulation of the storm advects environmental air poleward east of center and equatorial west of center . Because air must conserve its angular momentum , this flow configuration induces a cyclonic gyre equatorward and westward of the storm center and an anticyclonic gyre poleward and eastward of the storm center . The combined flow of these gyres acts to advect the storm slowly poleward and westward . This effect occurs even if there is zero environmental flow .
= = = Multiple storm interaction = = =
A third component of motion that occurs relatively infrequently involves the interaction of multiple tropical cyclones . When two cyclones approach one another , their centers will begin orbiting cyclonically about a point between the two systems . Depending on their separation distance and strength , the two vortices may simply orbit around one another or else may spiral into the center point and merge . When the two vortices are of unequal size , the larger vortex will tend to dominate the interaction , and the smaller vortex will orbit around it . This phenomenon is called the Fujiwhara effect , after Sakuhei Fujiwhara .
= = = Interaction with the mid @-@ latitude westerlies = = =
Though a tropical cyclone typically moves from east to west in the tropics , its track may shift poleward and eastward either as it moves west of the subtropical ridge axis or else if it interacts with the mid @-@ latitude flow , such as the jet stream or an extratropical cyclone . This motion , termed " recurvature " , commonly occurs near the western edge of the major ocean basins , where the jet stream typically has a poleward component and extratropical cyclones are common . An example of tropical cyclone recurvature was Typhoon Ioke in 2006 .
= = = Landfall = = =
The landfall of a tropical cyclone occurs when a storm 's surface center , moves over a coastline . Storm conditions may be experienced on the coast and inland hours before landfall ; in fact , a tropical cyclone can launch its strongest winds over land , yet not make landfall . NOAA uses the term " direct hit " to describe when a location ( on the left side of the eye ) falls within the radius of maximum winds ( or twice that radius if on the right side ) , whether or not the hurricane 's eye made landfall .
= = Dissipation = =
= = = Factors = = =
A tropical cyclone can cease to have tropical characteristics in several different ways . One such way is if it moves over land , thus depriving it of the warm water it needs to power itself , quickly losing strength . Most strong storms lose their strength very rapidly after landfall and become disorganized areas of low pressure within a day or two , or evolve into extratropical cyclones . There is a chance a tropical cyclone could regenerate if it managed to get back over open warm water , such as with Hurricane Ivan . If it remains over mountains for even a short time , weakening will accelerate . Many storm fatalities occur in mountainous terrain , when diminishing cyclones unleash their moisture as torrential rainfall . This may lead to deadly floods and mudslides , as was the case with Hurricane Mitch in 1998 . Without warm surface water , the storm cannot survive .
A tropical cyclone can dissipate when it moves over waters significantly below 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 79 @.@ 7 ° F ) . This will cause the storm to lose its tropical characteristics , such as a warm core with thunderstorms near the center , and become a remnant low @-@ pressure area . These remnant systems may persist for up to several days before losing their identity . This dissipation mechanism is most common in the eastern North Pacific . Weakening or dissipation can occur if it experiences vertical wind shear , causing the convection and heat engine to move away from the center ; this normally ceases development of a tropical cyclone . In addition , its interaction with the main belt of the Westerlies , by means of merging with a nearby frontal zone , can cause tropical cyclones to evolve into extratropical cyclones . This transition can take 1 – 3 days . Even after a tropical cyclone is said to be extratropical or dissipated , it can still have tropical storm force ( or occasionally hurricane / typhoon force ) winds and drop several inches of rainfall . In the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean , such tropical @-@ derived cyclones of higher latitudes can be violent and may occasionally remain at hurricane or typhoon @-@ force wind speeds when they reach the west coast of North America . These phenomena can also affect Europe , where they are known as European windstorms ; Hurricane Iris 's extratropical remnants are an example of such a windstorm from 1995 . A cyclone can also merge with another area of low pressure , becoming a larger area of low pressure . This can strengthen the resultant system , although it may no longer be a tropical cyclone . Studies in the 2000s have given rise to the hypothesis that large amounts of dust reduce the strength of tropical cyclones .
= = = Artificial dissipation = = =
In the 1960s and 1970s , the United States government attempted to weaken hurricanes through Project Stormfury by seeding selected storms with silver iodide . It was thought that the seeding would cause supercooled water in the outer rainbands to freeze , causing the inner eyewall to collapse and thus reducing the winds . The winds of Hurricane Debbie — a hurricane seeded in Project Stormfury — dropped as much as 31 % , but Debbie regained its strength after each of two seeding forays . In an earlier episode in 1947 , disaster struck when a hurricane east of Jacksonville , Florida promptly changed its course after being seeded , and smashed into Savannah , Georgia . Because there was so much uncertainty about the behavior of these storms , the federal government would not approve seeding operations unless the hurricane had a less than 10 % chance of making landfall within 48 hours , greatly reducing the number of possible test storms . The project was dropped after it was discovered that eyewall replacement cycles occur naturally in strong hurricanes , casting doubt on the result of the earlier attempts . Today , it is known that silver iodide seeding is not likely to have an effect because the amount of supercooled water in the rainbands of a tropical cyclone is too low .
Other approaches have been suggested over time , including cooling the water under a tropical cyclone by towing icebergs into the tropical oceans . Other ideas range from covering the ocean in a substance that inhibits evaporation , dropping large quantities of ice into the eye at very early stages of development ( so that the latent heat is absorbed by the ice , instead of being converted to kinetic energy that would feed the positive feedback loop ) , or blasting the cyclone apart with nuclear weapons . Project Cirrus even involved throwing dry ice on a cyclone . These approaches all suffer from one flaw above many others : tropical cyclones are simply too large and short @-@ lived for any of the weakening techniques to be practical .
= = Effects = =
Tropical cyclones out at sea cause large waves , heavy rain , flood and high winds , disrupting international shipping and , at times , causing shipwrecks . Tropical cyclones stir up water , leaving a cool wake behind them , which causes the region to be less favorable for subsequent tropical cyclones . On land , strong winds can damage or destroy vehicles , buildings , bridges , and other outside objects , turning loose debris into deadly flying projectiles . The storm surge , or the increase in sea level due to the cyclone , is typically the worst effect from landfalling tropical cyclones , historically resulting in 90 % of tropical cyclone deaths . The broad rotation of a landfalling tropical cyclone , and vertical wind shear at its periphery , spawns tornadoes . Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices , which persist until landfall .
Over the past two centuries , tropical cyclones have been responsible for the deaths of about 1 @.@ 9 million people worldwide . Large areas of standing water caused by flooding lead to infection , as well as contributing to mosquito @-@ borne illnesses . Crowded evacuees in shelters increase the risk of disease propagation . Tropical cyclones significantly interrupt infrastructure , leading to power outages , bridge destruction , and the hampering of reconstruction efforts . On average , the Gulf and east coasts of the United States suffer approximately US $ 5 billion ( 1995 US $ ) in cyclone damage every year . The majority ( 83 % ) of tropical cyclone damage is caused by severe hurricanes , category 3 or greater . However , category 3 or greater hurricanes only account for about one @-@ fifth of cyclones that make landfall every year .
Although cyclones take an enormous toll in lives and personal property , they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they impact , as they may bring much @-@ needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions . Tropical cyclones also help maintain the global heat balance by moving warm , moist tropical air to the middle latitudes and polar regions , and by regulating the thermohaline circulation through upwelling . The storm surge and winds of hurricanes may be destructive to human @-@ made structures , but they also stir up the waters of coastal estuaries , which are typically important fish breeding locales . Tropical cyclone destruction spurs redevelopment , greatly increasing local property values .
When hurricanes surge upon shore from the ocean , salt is introduced to many freshwater areas and raises the salinity levels too high for some habitats to withstand . Some are able to cope with the salt and recycle it back into the ocean , but others can not release the extra surface water quickly enough or do not have a large enough freshwater source to replace it . Because of this , some species of plants and vegetation die due to the excess salt . In addition , hurricanes can carry toxins and acids onto shore when they make landfall . The flood water can pick up the toxins from different spills and contaminate the land that it passes over . The toxins are very harmful to the people and animals in the area , as well as the environment around them . The flooding water can also spark many dangerous oil spills .
= = Observation and forecasting = =
= = = Observation = = =
Intense tropical cyclones pose a particular observation challenge , as they are a dangerous oceanic phenomenon , and weather stations , being relatively sparse , are rarely available on the site of the storm itself . In general , surface observations are available only if the storm is passing over an island or a coastal area , or if there is a nearby ship . Real @-@ time measurements are usually taken in the periphery of the cyclone , where conditions are less catastrophic and its true strength cannot be evaluated . For this reason , there are teams of meteorologists that move into the path of tropical cyclones to help evaluate their strength at the point of landfall .
Tropical cyclones far from land are tracked by weather satellites capturing visible and infrared images from space , usually at half @-@ hour to quarter @-@ hour intervals . As a storm approaches land , it can be observed by land @-@ based Doppler weather radar . Radar plays a crucial role around landfall by showing a storm 's location and intensity every several minutes .
In situ measurements , in real @-@ time , can be taken by sending specially equipped reconnaissance flights into the cyclone . In the Atlantic basin , these flights are regularly flown by United States government hurricane hunters . The aircraft used are WC @-@ 130 Hercules and WP @-@ 3D Orions , both four @-@ engine turboprop cargo aircraft . These aircraft fly directly into the cyclone and take direct and remote @-@ sensing measurements . The aircraft also launch GPS dropsondes inside the cyclone . These sondes measure temperature , humidity , pressure , and especially winds between flight level and the ocean 's surface . A new era in hurricane observation began when a remotely piloted Aerosonde , a small drone aircraft , was flown through Tropical Storm Ophelia as it passed Virginia 's Eastern Shore during the 2005 hurricane season . A similar mission was also completed successfully in the western Pacific ocean . This demonstrated a new way to probe the storms at low altitudes that human pilots seldom dare .
= = = Forecasting = = =
Because of the forces that affect tropical cyclone tracks , accurate track predictions depend on determining the position and strength of high- and low @-@ pressure areas , and predicting how those areas will change during the life of a tropical system . The deep layer mean flow , or average wind through the depth of the troposphere , is considered the best tool in determining track direction and speed . If storms are significantly sheared , use of wind speed measurements at a lower altitude , such as at the 70 kPa pressure surface ( 3 @,@ 000 metres or 9 @,@ 800 feet above sea level ) will produce better predictions . Tropical forecasters also consider smoothing out short @-@ term wobbles of the storm as it allows them to determine a more accurate long @-@ term trajectory . High @-@ speed computers and sophisticated simulation software allow forecasters to produce computer models that predict tropical cyclone tracks based on the future position and strength of high- and low @-@ pressure systems . Combining forecast models with increased understanding of the forces that act on tropical cyclones , as well as with a wealth of data from Earth @-@ orbiting satellites and other sensors , scientists have increased the accuracy of track forecasts over recent decades . However , scientists are not as skillful at predicting the intensity of tropical cyclones . The lack of improvement in intensity forecasting is attributed to the complexity of tropical systems and an incomplete understanding of factors that affect their development .
= = Classifications , terminology , and naming = =
= = = Intensity classifications = = =
Tropical cyclones are classified into three main groups , based on intensity : tropical depressions , tropical storms , and a third group of more intense storms , whose name depends on the region . For example , if a tropical storm in the Northwestern Pacific reaches hurricane @-@ strength winds on the Beaufort scale , it is referred to as a typhoon ; if a tropical storm passes the same benchmark in the Northeast Pacific Basin , or in the North Atlantic , it is called a hurricane . Neither " hurricane " nor " typhoon " is used in either the Southern Hemisphere or the Indian Ocean . In these basins , storms of a tropical nature are referred to as either tropical cyclones , severe tropical cyclones or very intense tropical cyclones .
As indicated in the table below , each basin uses a separate system of terminology , which can make comparisons between different basins difficult . In the Pacific Ocean , hurricanes from the Central North Pacific sometimes cross the 180th meridian into the Northwest Pacific , becoming typhoons ( such as Hurricane / Typhoon Ioke in 2006 ) ; on rare occasions , the reverse will occur . It should also be noted that typhoons with 1 @-@ minute sustained winds greater than 67 metres per second ( m / s ) , over 150 miles per hour ( 240 km / h ) , are called Super Typhoons by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center .
= = = = Tropical depression = = = =
A tropical depression or tropical low is a tropical disturbance , that has a clearly defined surface circulation , which has maximum sustained winds of less than 34 kn ( 39 mph ; 63 km / h ) . Within the Southern Hemisphere , the depression can have gale force or stronger winds in one or more quadrants , but not near the centre .
= = = = Tropical storm = = = =
A tropical storm is an organized system of strong thunderstorms with a defined surface circulation and maximum sustained winds between 34 knots ( 63 km / h ) and 64 knots ( 119 km / h ) . At this point , the distinctive cyclonic shape starts to develop , although an eye is not usually present . Government weather services first assign names to systems that reach this intensity ( thus the term named storm ) . Although tropical storms are less intense than a hurricane they can produce significant damage . The shear force of winds can blow off shingles , and air borne objects can cause damage to power lines , roofing and siding . More dangerous is the heavy rain fall causing inland flooding .
= = = = Hurricane or typhoon = = = =
A hurricane or typhoon ( sometimes simply referred to as a tropical cyclone , as opposed to a depression or storm ) is a system with sustained winds of at least 34 metres per second ( 66 kn ) or 74 miles per hour ( 119 km / h ) . A cyclone of this intensity tends to develop an eye , an area of relative calm ( and lowest atmospheric pressure ) at the center of circulation . The eye is often visible in satellite images as a small , circular , cloud @-@ free spot . Surrounding the eye is the eyewall , an area about 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) to 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) wide in which the strongest thunderstorms and winds circulate around the storm 's center . Maximum sustained winds in the strongest tropical cyclones have been estimated at about 95 metres per second ( 185 kn ) or 346 kilometres per hour ( 215 mph ) .
= = = Origin of storm terms = = =
The word typhoon , which is used today in the Northwest Pacific , may be derived from Arabic ţūfān ( طوفان ) ( similar in Hindi / Urdu and Persian ) , which in turn originates from Greek Typhon ( Τυφών ) , a monster from Greek mythology associated with storms . The related Portuguese word tufão , used in Portuguese for typhoons , is also derived from Typhon . The word is also similar to Chinese " táifēng " ( Simplified Chinese : 台风 ) ( fēng = wind ) , " toifung " in Cantonese ( Traditional Chinese : 颱風 ) , " taifū " ( 台風 ) in Japanese , and " taepung " ( 태풍 ) in Korean .
The word hurricane , used in the North Atlantic and Northeast Pacific , is derived from huracán , the Spanish word for the Carib / Taino storm god , Juracán . This god is believed by scholars to have been at least partially derived from the Mayan creator god , Huracan . Huracan was believed by the Maya to have created dry land out of the turbulent waters . The god was also credited with later destroying the " wooden people " , the precursors to the " maize people " , with an immense storm and flood . Huracan is also the source of the word orcan , another word for a particularly strong European windstorm .
= = = Naming = = =
The practice of using names to identify tropical cyclones goes back many years , with systems named after places or things they hit before the formal start of naming . The system currently used provides positive identification of severe weather systems in a brief form , that is readily understood and recognized by the public . The credit for the first usage of personal names for weather systems , is generally given to the Queensland Government Meteorologist Clement Wragge who named systems between 1887 @-@ 1907 . This system of naming weather systems subsequently fell into disuse for several years after Wragge retired , until it was revived in the latter part of World War II for the Western Pacific . Formal naming schemes have subsequently been introduced for the North and South Atlantic , Eastern , Central , Western and Southern Pacific basins as well as the Australian region and Indian Ocean .
At present tropical cyclones are officially named by one of eleven meteorological services and retain their names throughout their lifetimes to provide ease of communication between forecasters and the general public regarding forecasts , watches , and warnings . Since the systems can last a week or longer and more than one can be occurring in the same basin at the same time , the names are thought to reduce the confusion about what storm is being described . Names are assigned in order from predetermined lists with one , three , or ten @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of more than 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) depending on which basin it originates . However , standards vary from basin to basin with some tropical depressions named in the Western Pacific , while tropical cyclones have to have a significant amount of gale @-@ force winds occurring around the center before they are named within the Southern Hemisphere . The names of significant tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic Ocean , Pacific Ocean , and Australian region are retired from the naming lists and replaced with another name .
= = Notable tropical cyclones = =
Tropical cyclones that cause extreme destruction are rare , although when they occur , they can cause great amounts of damage or thousands of fatalities . The 1970 Bhola cyclone is the deadliest tropical cyclone on record , killing more than 300 @,@ 000 people and potentially as many as 1 million after striking the densely populated Ganges Delta region of Bangladesh on November 13 , 1970 . Its powerful storm surge was responsible for the high death toll . The North Indian cyclone basin has historically been the deadliest basin . Elsewhere , Typhoon Nina killed nearly 100 @,@ 000 in China in 1975 due to a 100 @-@ year flood that caused 62 dams including the Banqiao Dam to fail . The Great Hurricane of 1780 is the deadliest North Atlantic hurricane on record , killing about 22 @,@ 000 people in the Lesser Antilles . A tropical cyclone does not need to be particularly strong to cause memorable damage , primarily if the deaths are from rainfall or mudslides . Tropical Storm Thelma in November 1991 killed thousands in the Philippines , although the strongest typhoon to ever make landfall on record was Typhoon Haiyan on November 2013 , causing widespread devastation in the Eastern Visayas and killing at least 6 @,@ 300 people in that country alone . In 1982 , the unnamed tropical depression that eventually became Hurricane Paul killed around 1 @,@ 000 people in Central America .
Hurricane Katrina is estimated as the costliest tropical cyclone worldwide , causing $ 81 @.@ 2 billion in property damage ( 2008 USD ) with overall damage estimates exceeding $ 100 billion ( 2005 USD ) . Katrina killed at least 1 @,@ 836 people after striking Louisiana and Mississippi as a major hurricane in August 2005 . Hurricane Sandy is the second most destructive tropical cyclone in U.S history , with damages totaling $ 68 billion ( 2012 USD ) , and with damage costs at $ 37 @.@ 5 billion ( 2012 USD ) , Hurricane Ike is the third most destructive tropical cyclone in U.S history . The Galveston Hurricane of 1900 is the deadliest natural disaster in the United States , killing an estimated 6 @,@ 000 to 12 @,@ 000 people in Galveston , Texas . Hurricane Mitch caused more than 10 @,@ 000 fatalities in Central America , making it the second deadliest Atlantic hurricane in history . Hurricane Iniki in 1992 was the most powerful storm to strike Hawaii in recorded history , hitting Kauai as a Category 4 hurricane , killing six people , and causing U.S. $ 3 billion in damage . Kauai was also struck by Hurricanes Dot ( 1959 ) and Iwa ( 1982 ) ( see List of Hawaii hurricanes ) . Other destructive Eastern Pacific hurricanes include Pauline and Kenna , both causing severe damage after striking Mexico as major hurricanes . In March 2004 , Cyclone Gafilo struck northeastern Madagascar as a powerful cyclone , killing 74 , affecting more than 200 @,@ 000 , and becoming the worst cyclone to affect the nation for more than 20 years .
The most intense storm on record was Typhoon Tip in the northwestern Pacific Ocean in 1979 , which reached a minimum pressure of 870 hectopascals ( 26 inHg ) and maximum sustained wind speeds of 165 knots ( 85 m / s ) or 190 miles per hour ( 310 km / h ) . The highest maximum sustained wind speed ever recorded was 185 knots ( 95 m / s ) or 215 miles per hour ( 345 km / h ) in Hurricane Patricia in 2015 , which is the most intense cyclone ever recorded in the Western Hemisphere . Typhoon Nancy in 1961 also had recorded wind speeds of 185 knots ( 95 m / s ) or 215 miles per hour ( 346 km / h ) , but recent research indicates that wind speeds from the 1940s to the 1960s were gauged too high , and this is no longer considered the storm with the highest wind speeds on record . Likewise , a surface @-@ level gust caused by Typhoon Paka on Guam in late 1997 was recorded at 205 knots ( 105 m / s ) or 235 miles per hour ( 378 km / h ) . Had it been confirmed , it would be the strongest non @-@ tornadic wind ever recorded on the Earth 's surface , but the reading had to be discarded since the anemometer was damaged by the storm .
In addition to being the most intense tropical cyclone on record based on pressure , Tip was the largest cyclone on record , with tropical storm @-@ force winds 2 @,@ 170 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 350 mi ) in diameter . The smallest storm on record , Tropical Storm Marco , formed during October 2008 , and made landfall in Veracruz . Marco generated tropical storm @-@ force winds only 37 kilometres ( 23 mi ) in diameter .
Hurricane John is the longest @-@ lasting tropical cyclone on record , lasting 31 days in 1994 . Before the advent of satellite imagery in 1961 , however , many tropical cyclones were underestimated in their durations . John is also the longest @-@ tracked tropical cyclone in the Northern Hemisphere on record , which had a path of 8 @,@ 250 mi ( 13 @,@ 280 km ) . Cyclone Rewa of the 1993 @-@ 94 South Pacific and Australian region cyclone seasons had one of the longest tracks observed within the Southern Hemisphere , traveling a distance of over 5 @,@ 545 mi ( 8 @,@ 920 km ) during December 1993 and January 1994 .
= = Changes caused by El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation = =
Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the subtropical ridge closer to the equator , then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving into the main belt of the Westerlies . When the subtropical ridge position shifts due to El Niño , so will the preferred tropical cyclone tracks . Areas west of Japan and Korea tend to experience much fewer September – November tropical cyclone impacts during El Niño and neutral years . During El Niño years , the break in the subtropical ridge tends to lie near 130 ° E which would favor the Japanese archipelago . During El Niño years , Guam 's chance of a tropical cyclone impact is one @-@ third more likely than of the long @-@ term average . The tropical Atlantic ocean experiences depressed activity due to increased vertical wind shear across the region during El Niño years . During La Niña years , the formation of tropical cyclones , along with the subtropical ridge position , shifts westward across the western Pacific ocean , which increases the landfall threat to China and much greater intensity in the Philippines .
= = Long @-@ term activity trends = =
While the number of storms in the Atlantic has increased since 1995 , there is no obvious global trend ; the annual number of tropical cyclones worldwide remains about 87 ± 10 ( Between 77 and 97 tropical cyclones annually ) . However , the ability of climatologists to make long @-@ term data analysis in certain basins is limited by the lack of reliable historical data in some basins , primarily in the Southern Hemisphere , while noting that a significant downward trend in tropical cyclone numbers has been identified for the region near Australia ( based on high quality data and accounting for the influence of the El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation ) . In spite of that , there is some evidence that the intensity of hurricanes is increasing . Kerry Emanuel stated , " Records of hurricane activity worldwide show an upswing of both the maximum wind speed in and the duration of hurricanes . The energy released by the average hurricane ( again considering all hurricanes worldwide ) seems to have increased by around 70 % in the past 30 years or so , corresponding to about a 15 % increase in the maximum wind speed and a 60 % increase in storm lifetime . "
Atlantic storms are becoming more destructive financially , as evidenced by the fact that five of the ten most expensive storms in United States history have occurred since 1990 . According to the World Meteorological Organization , " recent increase in societal impact from tropical cyclones has been caused largely by rising concentrations of population and infrastructure in coastal regions . " Pielke et al . ( 2008 ) normalized mainland U.S. hurricane damage from 1900 – 2005 to 2005 values and found no remaining trend of increasing absolute damage . The 1970s and 1980s were notable because of the extremely low amounts of damage compared to other decades . The decade 1996 – 2005 was the second most damaging among the past 11 decades , with only the decade 1926 – 1935 surpassing its costs . The most damaging single storm is the 1926 Miami hurricane , with $ 157 billion of normalized damage .
Often in part because of the threat of hurricanes , many coastal regions had sparse population between major ports until the advent of automobile tourism ; therefore , the most severe portions of hurricanes striking the coast may have gone unmeasured in some instances . The combined effects of ship destruction and remote landfall severely limit the number of intense hurricanes in the official record before the era of hurricane reconnaissance aircraft and satellite meteorology . Although the record shows a distinct increase in the number and strength of intense hurricanes , therefore , experts regard the early data as suspect .
The number and strength of Atlantic hurricanes may undergo a 50 – 70 year cycle , also known as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation . Nyberg et al. reconstructed Atlantic major hurricane activity back to the early 18th century and found five periods averaging 3 – 5 major hurricanes per year and lasting 40 – 60 years , and six other averaging 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 major hurricanes per year and lasting 10 – 20 years . These periods are associated with the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation . Throughout , a decadal oscillation related to solar irradiance was responsible for enhancing / dampening the number of major hurricanes by 1 – 2 per year .
Although more common since 1995 , few above @-@ normal hurricane seasons occurred during 1970 – 94 . Destructive hurricanes struck frequently from 1926 to 1960 , including many major New England hurricanes . Twenty @-@ one Atlantic tropical storms formed in 1933 , a record only recently exceeded in 2005 , which saw 28 storms . Tropical hurricanes occurred infrequently during the seasons of 1900 – 25 ; however , many intense storms formed during 1870 – 99 . During the 1887 season , 19 tropical storms formed , of which a record 4 occurred after November 1 and 11 strengthened into hurricanes . Few hurricanes occurred in the 1840s to 1860s ; however , many struck in the early 19th century , including an 1821 storm that made a direct hit on New York City . Some historical weather experts say these storms may have been as high as Category 4 in strength .
These active hurricane seasons predated satellite coverage of the Atlantic basin . Before the satellite era began in 1960 , tropical storms or hurricanes went undetected unless a reconnaissance aircraft encountered one , a ship reported a voyage through the storm , or a storm hit land in a populated area .
Proxy records based on paleotempestological research have revealed that major hurricane activity along the Gulf of Mexico coast varies on timescales of centuries to millennia . Few major hurricanes struck the Gulf coast during 3000 – 1400 BC and again during the most recent millennium . These quiescent intervals were separated by a hyperactive period during 1400 BC and 1000 AD , when the Gulf
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coast was struck frequently by catastrophic hurricanes and their landfall probabilities increased by 3 – 5 times . This millennial @-@ scale variability has been attributed to long @-@ term shifts in the position of the Azores High , which may also be linked to changes in the strength of the North Atlantic Oscillation .
According to the Azores High hypothesis , an anti @-@ phase pattern is expected to exist between the Gulf of Mexico coast and the Atlantic coast . During the quiescent periods , a more northeasterly position of the Azores High would result in more hurricanes being steered towards the Atlantic coast . During the hyperactive period , more hurricanes were steered towards the Gulf coast as the Azores High was shifted to a more southwesterly position near the Caribbean . Such a displacement of the Azores High is consistent with paleoclimatic evidence that shows an abrupt onset of a drier climate in Haiti around 3200 14C years BP , and a change towards more humid conditions in the Great Plains during the late @-@ Holocene as more moisture was pumped up the Mississippi Valley through the Gulf coast . Preliminary data from the northern Atlantic coast seem to support the Azores High hypothesis . A 3000 @-@ year proxy record from a coastal lake in Cape Cod suggests that hurricane activity increased significantly during the past 500 – 1000 years , just as the Gulf coast was amid a quiescent period of the last millennium .
= = Global warming = =
According to IPCC SREX 2012 , " attribution of single extreme events to anthropogenic climate change is challenging " . On one hand , the report said that there is " medium evidence " that long @-@ term trends in normalized losses have not been attributed to tropical and extratropical [ winter ] storms . On the other hand , the report also noted that much more research is needed in part due to " confounding factors " that might have increased losses , such as increased population and development in at @-@ risk areas , and those that might have decreased losses , such as better forecasting , emergency alert systems , emergency management , building codes , and near @-@ instantaneous media coverage of weather emergencies .
Some experts who agree that we can not yet detect any increase in frequency or intensity of tropical cyclones include Thomas Knutson , and Roger Pielke Jr ..
Others say that there is evidence for a causal connection . The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory performed a simulation to determine if there is a statistical trend in the frequency or strength of tropical cyclones over time . The simulation concluded " the strongest hurricanes in the present climate may be upstaged by even more intense hurricanes over the next century as the earth 's climate is warmed by increasing levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere " .
In another simulation done by Kerry Emanuel , application of a tropical cyclone downscaling technique to six CMIP5 @-@ generation global climate models run under historical conditions and under the RCP8.5 emissions projection indicates an increase in global tropical cyclone activity , most evident in the North Pacific region but also noticeable in the North Atlantic and South Indian Oceans . In these regions , both the frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones are projected to increase . This result contrasts with the result of applying the same downscaling technique to CMIP3 @-@ generation models , which generally predict a small decrease of global tropical cyclone frequency .
In an article in Nature , meteorology professor Kerry Emanuel stated that potential hurricane destructiveness , a measure combining hurricane strength , duration , and frequency , " is highly correlated with tropical sea surface temperature , reflecting well @-@ documented climate signals , including multidecadal oscillations in the North Atlantic and North Pacific , and global warming " . Emanuel predicted " a substantial increase in hurricane @-@ related losses in the twenty @-@ first century " . In more recent work , Emanuel states that new climate modeling data indicates " global warming should reduce the global frequency of hurricanes . " According to the Houston Chronicle , the new work suggests that , even in a dramatically warming world , hurricane frequency and intensity may not substantially rise during the next two centuries .
P.J. Webster and others published an article in Science examining the " changes in tropical cyclone number , duration , and intensity " over the past 35 years , the period when satellite data has been available . Their main finding was although the number of cyclones decreased throughout the planet excluding the north Atlantic Ocean , there was a great increase in the number and proportion of very strong cyclones .
The strength of the reported effect is surprising in light of modeling studies that predict only a one @-@ half category increase in storm intensity as a result of a ~ 2 ° C ( 3 @.@ 6 ° F ) global warming . Such a response would have predicted only a ~ 10 % increase in Emanuel 's potential destructiveness index during the 20th century rather than the ~ 75 – 120 % increase he reported . Second , after adjusting for changes in population and inflation , and despite a more than 100 % increase in Emanuel 's potential destructiveness index , no statistically significant increase in the monetary damages resulting from Atlantic hurricanes has been found .
Sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures are considered vital to the development of tropical cyclones . Although neither study can directly link hurricanes with global warming , the increase in sea surface temperatures is believed to be due to both global warming and natural variability , e.g. the hypothesized Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , although an exact attribution has not been defined . However , recent temperatures are the warmest ever observed for many ocean basins .
In February 2007 , the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change released its fourth assessment report on climate change . The report noted many observed changes in the climate , including atmospheric composition , global average temperatures , ocean conditions , and others . The report concluded the observed increase in tropical cyclone intensity is larger than climate models predict . In addition , the report considered that it is likely that storm intensity will continue to increase through the 21st century , and declared it more likely than not that there has been some human contribution to the increases in tropical cyclone intensity . However , there is no universal agreement about the magnitude of the effects anthropogenic global warming has on tropical cyclone formation , track , and intensity . For example , critics such as Chris Landsea assert that man @-@ made effects would be " quite tiny compared to the observed large natural hurricane variability " . A statement by the American Meteorological Society on February 1 , 2007 stated that trends in tropical cyclone records offer " evidence both for and against the existence of a detectable anthropogenic signal " in tropical cyclogenesis . Although many aspects of a link between tropical cyclones and global warming are still being " hotly debated " , a point of agreement is that the strength of destructiveness no individual tropical cyclone or season can be attributed entirely to global warming . Research reported in the September 3 , 2008 issue of Nature found that the strongest tropical cyclones are getting stronger , in particular over the North Atlantic and Indian oceans . Wind speeds for the strongest tropical storms increased from an average of 225 km / h ( 140 mph ) in 1981 to 251 km / h ( 156 mph ) in 2006 , while the ocean temperature , averaged globally over all the regions where tropical cyclones form , increased from 28 @.@ 2 ° C ( 82 @.@ 8 ° F ) to 28 @.@ 5 ° C ( 83 @.@ 3 ° F ) during this period .
= = Related cyclone types = =
In addition to tropical cyclones , there are two other classes of cyclones within the spectrum of cyclone types . These kinds of cyclones , known as extratropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones , can be stages a tropical cyclone passes through during its formation or dissipation . An extratropical cyclone is a storm that derives energy from horizontal temperature differences , which are typical in higher latitudes . A tropical cyclone can become extratropical as it moves toward higher latitudes if its energy source changes from heat released by condensation to differences in temperature between air masses ; although not as frequently , an extratropical cyclone can transform into a subtropical storm , and from there into a tropical cyclone . From space , extratropical storms have a characteristic " comma @-@ shaped " cloud pattern . Extratropical cyclones can also be dangerous when their low @-@ pressure centers cause powerful winds and high seas .
A subtropical cyclone is a weather system that has some characteristics of a tropical cyclone and some characteristics of an extratropical cyclone . They can form in a wide band of latitudes , from the equator to 50 ° . Although subtropical storms rarely have hurricane @-@ force winds , they may become tropical in nature as their cores warm . From an operational standpoint , a tropical cyclone is usually not considered to become subtropical during its extratropical transition .
= = In popular culture = =
In popular culture , tropical cyclones have made several appearances in different types of media , including films , books , television , music , and electronic games . These media often portray tropical cyclones that are either entirely fictional or based on real events . For example , George Rippey Stewart 's Storm , a best @-@ seller published in 1941 , is thought to have influenced meteorologists on their decision to assign female names to Pacific tropical cyclones . Another example is the hurricane in The Perfect Storm , which describes the sinking of the Andrea Gail by the 1991 Perfect Storm . Hypothetical hurricanes have been featured in parts of the plots of series such as The Simpsons , Invasion , Family Guy , Seinfeld , Dawson 's Creek , Burn Notice and CSI : Miami . The 2004 film The Day After Tomorrow includes several mentions of actual tropical cyclones and features fantastical " hurricane @-@ like " , albeit non @-@ tropical , Arctic storms .
= Charles Pearson =
Charles Pearson ( 4 October 1793 – 14 September 1862 ) was Solicitor to the City of London , a reforming campaigner , and – briefly – Member of Parliament for Lambeth . He campaigned against corruption in jury selection , for penal reform , for the abolition of capital punishment , and for universal suffrage .
Pearson used his influence as City Solicitor to promote improvements to transport communications . Initially , he proposed a central railway station for the City , accessed by tunnel , that would be used by multiple railway companies enabling workers to commute to the City from further away . When this plan was rejected , Pearson promoted an underground railway connecting the capital 's northern termini . The resulting Metropolitan Railway was the first underground railway in the world and led to the development of the extensive London Underground network and the rapid expansion of the capital .
= = Early life = =
Pearson was born on 4 October 1793 at 25 Clement 's Lane in the City of London , the son of Thomas Pearson , an upholsterer and feather merchant , and his wife Sarah . After education in Eastbourne , he was apprenticed to his father but instead studied law and qualified as a solicitor in 1816 . In 1817 , he was released from his indenture by the Haberdashers ' Company and married Mary Martha Dutton . The couple had one child , Mary Dutton Pearson , born in 1820 .
= = City career and campaigning = =
In 1817 , Pearson was elected a councilman of the City of London Corporation for Bishopsgate ward and served in that role from 1817 to 1820 and from 1830 to 1836 as well . He served as chairman of the City board of health from 1831 to 1833 . In 1839 , he gave up his extensive private practice and was appointed City Solicitor , holding that office until his death .
Despite his comfortable upbringing and his high social status , Pearson was a radical , and throughout his life he fought a number of campaigns on progressive and reforming issues including the removal from the Monument inscription blaming the Great Fire of London on Catholics , the abolition of packed special jury lists for political trials , and the overturning of the ban on Jews becoming brokers in the City . Pearson was in favour of the disestablishment of the Church of England and opposed capital punishment . Politically , he supported universal suffrage and electoral reform to balance the sizes of parliamentary constituencies . He unsuccessfully attempted to break the local monopolies developed by the gas companies , calling for the distribution pipework to be owned collectively by the consumers .
Pearson was a Liberal and was elected at the 1847 general election as a Member of Parliament for Lambeth . His campaign was prompted by a desire to promote his penal reform campaign in parliament . He resigned his seat in 1850 thorough the mechanism of accepting the Stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds .
= = = Campaigning for an underground railway = = =
Recognising the increasing congestion in the City and its rapidly growing suburbs , Pearson published a pamphlet in 1845 calling for the construction of an underground railway through the Fleet valley to Farringdon . The proposed railway would have been an atmospheric railway with trains pushed through tunnels by compressed air . Although the proposal was ridiculed and came to nothing ( and would almost certainly have failed if it had been built , due to the shortcomings of the technology proposed ) , Pearson continued to lobby for a variety of railway schemes throughout the 1840s and 1850s .
In 1846 , Pearson proposed with the support of the City Corporation a central railway station for London located in Farringdon that was estimated to cost £ 1 million ( approximately £ 87 @.@ 3 million today ) . The station , to be shared by multiple railway companies , was to be approached from the north in a covered cutting 80 feet ( 24 m ) wide . Pearson 's aim in promoting this plan was to facilitate the improvement of the social conditions of City workers by enabling them to commute into London on cheap trains from new residential developments of good quality , cheap homes built outside the capital . The 1846 Royal Commission on Metropolitan Railway Termini rejected the proposal , preferring to define a limit around the centre of the capital into which no new railway lines could be extended .
In 1854 , a Royal Commission was set up to examine a number of new proposals for railways in London . Pearson made a proposal for a railway connecting the London Termini and presented as evidence the first survey of traffic coming into London which demonstrated the high level of congestion caused by the huge number of carts , cabs and omnibuses filling the roads . Pearson 's commentary on this was that :
the overcrowding of the city is caused , first by the natural increase in the population and area of the surrounding district ; secondly , by the influx of provincial passengers by the great railways North of London , and the obstruction experienced in the streets by omnibuses and cabs coming from their distant stations , to bring the provincial travellers to and from the heart of the city . I point next to the vast increase of what I may term the migratory population , the population of the city who now oscillate between the country and the city , who leave the City of London every afternoon and return every morning .
Many of the proposed schemes were rejected , but the Commission did recommend that a railway be constructed linking the termini with the docks and the General Post Office at St. Martin 's Le Grand . A private bill for the Metropolitan Railway between Praed Street in Paddington and Farringdon received assent on 7 August 1854 .
Although not a director or significant shareholder of the new company , Pearson continued to promote the project over the next few years and use his influence to help the company raise the £ 1 million of capital needed for the construction of the line . He issued a pamphlet , A twenty minutes letter to the citizens of London , in favour of the Metropolitan Railway and City Station , encouraging investment and he even persuaded the City of London to invest on the basis that the railway would alleviate the City 's congestion problems . Once the railway was in operation , the City sold its shares at a profit . By 1860 , the funds had been collected and the final route decided . Work on the railway started ; taking less than three years to excavate through some of the worst slums of Victorian London and under some of the busiest streets .
Pearson died of dropsy on 14 September 1862 at his home at West Hill , Wandsworth , and did not live to see the opening of the Metropolitan Railway on 10 January 1863 . Pearson had refused the offer of a reward from the grateful railway company , but , shortly after the railway 's opening , his widow was granted an annuity of £ 250 per year .
He was buried at West Norwood Cemetery on 23 September 1862 .
= = Legacy = =
Transport writer Christian Wolmar considers Pearson to have " by far the best claim " to be the first to propose the idea of an underground railway to deal with London 's congestion problem . Michael Robbins considers that " without Pearson 's constant advocacy – his gadfly conduct , which he managed to combine with holding high office in the City of London – the Metropolitan Railway , the first of its kind in the world , and the nucleus of London 's underground system , could not have come into existence when it did . "
When it opened , the Metropolitan Railway had a significant impact on street traffic , particularly cabs and omnibuses but these quickly recovered to near their former levels , despite the Metropolitan Railway also carrying over 9 million passengers in its first year of operation . The Metropolitan Railway and the network of underground lines that grew from it was the first in the world and the idea was not adopted elsewhere until 1896 when the Budapest Metro and the Glasgow Subway were both opened . Without Pearson 's promotion of the idea of an underground railway when he did it is possible that transport developments at the end of the 19th century developments , such as electric trams and vehicles powered by internal combustion engines , might have meant the underground solution was ignored . The expansion of the capital that the underground network and its suburban surface extensions enabled was considerable and rapid and helped the population of what is now Greater London to increase from 3 @,@ 094 @,@ 391 in 1861 to 6 @,@ 226 @,@ 494 in 1901 .
= New Waveland Cafe and Clinic =
The New Waveland Café and New Waveland Clinic together formed a disaster response center consisting of a combination café , soup kitchen , medical clinic , donation center , and market , that operated free of charge from September 5 to December 1 , 2005 in immediate Post @-@ Katrina Mississippi Gulf Coast in Waveland , Hancock County , Mississippi . The cafe and clinic were founded in response to Hurricane Katrina and provided free food and free medical care to hurricane victims for three months . They were located in tents in the parking lot of Fred 's Department Store at 790 Hwy 90 in Waveland , across the street from the destroyed and gutted Waveland Police Department . The New Waveland Cafe served three free meals every day to thousands of residents and volunteers . The New Waveland Clinic provided free health care to over 5 @,@ 500 patient contacts . As well , a group of hippies and Christians came together to form a unique group which worked together to provide emergency relief .
= = Impact of Katrina = =
Hancock County is an ocean @-@ side county situated in Southern Mississippi . As such , it has a long history of hurricanes . In 1969 the county was leveled by Hurricane Camille .
In 2000 the county had a population of 42 @,@ 967 . A vast majority of this population was exposed to the harsh effects of Hurricane Katrina . Hurricane Katrina made landfall on the US Gulf Coast on August 29 , 2005 as a Category 3 hurricane . The town of Waveland was destroyed and has been described as " worst punishment Katrina could mete out " . Official reports stated that approximately 50 people died when Waveland was hit directly by the eyewall of Katrina and the 32 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) storm surge . Hurricane Katrina came ashore during the high tide of 8 : 01AM , + 2 @.@ 2 feet more . Hurricane Katrina damaged over 40 Mississippi libraries . The Waveland Public Library was a total loss requiring a complete rebuild .
= = Cafe = =
The cafe originated when friends from the Rainbow Family began to communicate with each other about a possible response to the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina . The Rainbow Family are best known for the Rainbow Gathering , a large , primitive type camping event in which up to 20 @,@ 000 people attend . Those who attend these gatherings have become skilled at making and serving food for extremely large groups of people for long periods of time and in very basic situations . The cafe operated free of charge and was supported solely by donations . The cafe served up to 4000 meals three times a day . The volunteers who built and ran the cafe were all attendees of Rainbow Gatherings . As attendees of Rainbow Gatherings , the cafe volunteers often appeared to look like hippies . They were reported to have " piercings " and " dreadlocks " .
= = Clinic = =
The New Waveland Clinic was a temporary emergency clinic set up by Brad " Baruch " Stone on August 28 , 2005 and housed in tents . Stone used his skills as an emergency medical technician ( EMT ) and previous experiences as a volunteer coordinator at the CALM Medical Clinic in order to build and administrate the clinic . The clinic recruited volunteer doctors , medical students , nurses , pharmacists , EMTs and paramedics from different parts of the United States to volunteer for a week at a time . Medications and medical tools were donated by dozens of organizations including Pfizer , which donated the majority of the medications used . During its three months of operation , the clinic had over 5 @,@ 500 documented patient encounters .
The clinic was equipped and staffed by physicians specializing in family medicine , internal medicine , pediatrics and psychiatry . The clinic operated primarily as a walk @-@ in clinic where patients could see a doctor for all complaints and receive free medication . Due to the lack of a functioning emergency room the clinic was sometimes utilized as a facility to stabilize a patient while an ambulance was en route to transport the patient to an emergency room . The closest hospitals were 42 miles ( 68 km ) to the west at the Louisiana Heart Hospital in Lacombe , Louisiana or the Northshore Medical Center in Slidell , Louisiana , or 35 miles ( 56 km ) to the east at the Gulfport Memorial Hospital in Gulfport , Mississippi . The local hospital , Hancock County Medical Center , was incapacitated due to the hurricane . There were no X @-@ ray or blood laboratory available with the exception of urinalysis testing strips and glucometers . As such physicians were described to be practicing battlefield medicine in a M.A.S.H. unit .
= = Volunteers = =
A unique bond between two very disparate groups was formed as a result of the hurricane . Two groups , the Bastrop Christian Outreach Center ( BCOC ) and attendees of the counter @-@ culture Rainbow Gathering , arrived around the same time in Waveland . The BCOC efforts were led by Reverend Colonel Pete and Fay Jones who were among some of the first responders . Each group represented very different philosophies and had little common faith , each was able to put aside their differences and focus entirely on their humanitarian efforts . The cooperation between the two groups was described as " unlikely " , a " bunch of hippies and evangelical Christians " and the " unlikeliest of bedfellows " .
= = Facilities = =
As all buildings and structures were destroyed due to the high winds and flooding , the entire relief effort took place under temporary , tent @-@ based structures . The cafe was housed in a large geodesic dome , usually found at the Burning Man festival .
The clinic originally started with two tents purchased at a supermarket . After 3 weeks of operation a 20 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) , 10 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) tent was donated and erected . A month later an additional 40 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 12 m ) , 10 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) was added on .
= Cedar Point =
Cedar Point is a 365 @-@ acre ( 148 ha ) amusement park located on a Lake Erie peninsula in Sandusky , Ohio . Opened in 1870 , it is the second @-@ oldest operating amusement park in the United States behind Lake Compounce . Cedar Point is owned and operated by Cedar Fair and is considered the flagship of the amusement park chain . Known as " America 's Roller Coast " , the park features a world @-@ record 71 rides , including 17 roller coasters which are second @-@ most in the world behind Six Flags Magic Mountain . Its newest roller coaster , Valravn , opened in May 2016 .
Cedar Point 's normal operating season runs from early May until Labor Day in September . The park then reopens only on weekends until the end of October or early November for a Halloween @-@ themed event known as HalloWeekends . Other attractions near the park include a one @-@ mile @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) white @-@ sand beach , an outdoor water park called Soak City , an indoor water park called Castaway Bay , an area known as Challenge Park , two marinas , and several nearby resorts .
The park has reached several milestones . It is the only amusement park in the world with five roller coasters taller than 200 feet ( 61 m ) – Magnum XL @-@ 200 , Millennium Force , Wicked Twister , Top Thrill Dragster , and Valravn – and is the only park with roller coasters in all four height classifications . Cedar Point also received the Golden Ticket Award for " Best Amusement Park in the World " from Amusement Today for 16 consecutive years from 1997 @-@ 2013 . As of 2015 , the park is the most visited seasonal amusement park in the United States with an estimated 3 @.@ 51 million visitors in 2015 . The park also has several buildings that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
= = History = =
In the mid @-@ 19th century , the south shore region of Lake Erie was a popular vacation destination for the emerging middle class in the United States . The lake islands , such as Kelleys Island and South Bass Island , were gaining a reputation for their freshwater bathing resorts . The Cedar Point peninsula , named for its abundance of cedar trees , was originally known for its fishing . Local fishermen leased land and built living quarters there . Sandusky , which featured an important shipping harbor and two railroads , transformed into a major economic center over the next three decades . Railroad and steamship travel supported an emerging tourism industry , and rapid development of the area began .
In the 1860s during the American Civil War , housing for a battery of four field artillery pieces was constructed at the tip of the peninsula . It was used to defend a prison for Confederate soldiers on nearby Johnson 's Island . Louis Zistel , a German immigrant , built two boats to transport the prisoners . In 1870 , he began to ferry locals to the Cedar Point peninsula , which was regaining popularity as a summer picnic destination . Zistel opened a bathhouse on the north shore of the peninsula and the same year built a beer garden with a small dance floor . He charged 25 cents per person to ride from Sandusky to Cedar Point on his boat , Young Reindeer . This marked the beginning of Cedar Point as an amusement park .
Benjamin F. Dwelle and Captain William Slackford leased land on the peninsula in 1882 and built eight new bathhouses , a dance hall and wooden walkways on the beach . The steamboats R.B. Hayes and Lutts provided transport to Biemiller 's Cove and Cedar Point Lighthouse . Building on early success , Dwelle and Slackford continued to expand the park each year and added picnic tables , cleared acres of brush , and built a baseball diamond . In 1888 , after Slackford became ill , Dwelle entered a more lucrative partnership with Adam Stoll and Louis Adolph , who owned land at Cedar Point , and investors Charles Baetz and Jacob Kuebeler . The partnership 's first venture was constructing a Grand Pavilion , which opened in 1888 . It was a two @-@ story theater and concert hall with a bowling alley and photographer 's studio . The building was recognized for its unusual architecture , and still stands in the park . The first amusement ride at Cedar Point , a water toboggan ride consisting of a ramp that launched riders into Lake Erie , opened in 1890 . Electricity was installed at Cedar Point in 1891 . The first roller coaster , Switchback Railway , opened the following year . It stood 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) high and had a top speed of 10 miles per hour ( 16 km / h ) . The Switchback Railway was designed as two identical tracks side @-@ by @-@ side – one for the ride down and the other for the train to be hauled back to the top by the ride attendant .
= = = Boeckling era = = =
Representatives of the Lake Erie and Western Railroad purchased the peninsula for US $ 256 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to about $ 7 @,@ 281 @,@ 700 in 2015 ) in 1897 , and formed the Cedar Point Pleasure Resort Company . The company appointed George A. Boeckling , a businessman from Indiana , as the park 's new manager . Under his tenure , the peninsula was transformed from a picnic ground into a nationally recognized amusement park and resort destination .
The second roller coaster at Cedar Point , the Figure @-@ Eight Roller Toboggan , debuted in 1902 . It was moved several years later and renamed The Racer . A pony track was built near the beach the same year . Mosquitos were becoming a problem , so in 1904 , the park hired the Detroit Dredging Company to drain swampy areas on the peninsula . Detroit Dredging connected a series of lagoons to form a water passageway that quickly became one of the park 's signature attractions . Aside from sightseeing passenger boats , the passageway was used to transport coal to power plants near the center of the peninsula . The historic Hotel Breakers opened in 1905 as one of the largest hotels in the Midwest ; it had 600 guest rooms and a cafe that could seat 400 guests . A new area of the park called " Amusement Circle " was designed in 1906 to link the pier to the beach . It was located southeast of the Coliseum , a large arena built the same year that featured a grand ballroom and other attractions .
In 1908 , the Dip the Dips Scenic Railway roller coaster opened but was soon overshadowed in 1912 by the larger Leap the Dips ride . In 1917 , Dip the Dips was razed and replaced by the Leap Frog Scenic Railway . With three roller coasters and a growing variety of other rides , Cedar Point was beginning to grow as an amusement park , though that was not Boeckling 's priority . He marketed the peninsula primarily as a bathing resort complete with shows , exhibits , motion pictures , and other forms of entertainment , but did not emphasize the park 's rides .
Many more hotels and restaurants were constructed in the remaining years of Boeckling 's tenure , including Hotel Cedars , White House Hotel , Crystal Rock Castle , and Crystal Gardens Ballroom . The Cyclone , a rickety and rough coaster , was built in 1926 . Cedar Point continued to update its ride attractions , replacing the Racer , the Circle Swing , and many other rides to make way for a Shoot @-@ the @-@ Chutes water ride , a Tilt @-@ A @-@ Whirl , and fun houses such as Noah 's Ark and Bluebeard 's Palace . Boeckling 's health began to deteriorate in the late 1920s . In 1931 , Boeckling became confined to a wheelchair , but he continued to oversee park operations , and was pushed around Cedar Point by an employee or relative . His condition worsened , however , and he eventually had to remain indoors . Boeckling died on July 24 , 1931 from Uremia . His portrait in the lobby of Breakers Hotel was draped in black . Flags in the resort and on the G.A. Boeckling steamboat were lowered to half mast .
= = = After Boeckling @-@ George A Roose Era = = =
Edward Smith took over Cedar Point 's management after the death of Boeckling . Little expansion happened through the 1930s ; one of the few rides built in that period was the Tumble Bug . The decaying Leap the Dips coaster was demolished in the mid @-@ 1930s . In the late 1930s , the resort was on the brink of being sold to the state of Ohio for $ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . After the 1938 season , the directors had the second floor of the Coliseum modernized in the art deco style with a new stage . In the middle , the giant dance floor remained . Some of the top bands of the time played in the ballroom . As a result , it kept Cedar Point operating through the rest of the Depression . Momma Berardi 's Home Made French Fries came to Cedar Point , Momma Berardi 's family played an important role in the food industry at Cedar Point . Momma Berardi 's fries were sold there from 1942 until 1978 , winning four Reader 's Choice Awards .
By the end of World War II , Cedar Point was in need of financial help . The wood of the Cyclone roller coaster was rotting , the boardwalk was cracked in many places , and the fishing dock was in need of repair . In 1946 , Cedar Point 's oldest still @-@ existing ride , the Midway Carousel , was installed . By 1951 , the Cyclone coaster was razed because of its poor condition , leaving the resort without a roller coaster . While the Cyclone was departing , the Laff @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Dark , Rocket Ships , and Loop @-@ A @-@ Plane were newly installed . Cedar Point Causeway was built in 1957 , and is still in use . The president of Cedar Point , Bernie Zeiher , was replaced by George Roose around 1958 , and Emile Legros was elected chairman that same year .
In the 1950s , the Pagoda Gift Shop was a post @-@ office and the Crystal Rock Castle was turned into a maintenance shop in the late @-@ 1950s . In 1959 , the hotels were repainted , new admission gates were installed , and over $ 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 was spent to refresh Cedar Point . The park 's first roller coaster since the Cyclone , the Wild Mouse , was built . The resort also got a new kind of ride , a monorail that was the most popular ride in 1959 . Breakers Hotel was restored , and the neglected cottages were demolished . The Coliseum and Grand Pavilion were both painted and remodeled . The Crystal Rock Castle Maintenance Shop , bathhouses , and the old powerhouse were demolished , and a new $ 50 @,@ 000 bathhouse , boiler house , and maintenance shop were built in their place .
In the 1960s , the idea of " pay one price " season passes became common . On March 28 , 1960 , Cedar Point announced plans to transform the park into a " Disneyland " amusement center . Those plans fell through , however . Cedar Point & Lake Erie Railroad opened in 1963 , transporting passengers from the middle of the park to the back . In 1964 , Cedar Point built its oldest surviving roller coaster , the Blue Streak . It was named after the local high school 's sports teams , the Sandusky Blue Streaks . Jungle Larry 's Safari Island was a well @-@ known attraction that operated from 1965 until 1994 despite the death of Jungle Larry in 1984 . The Cedar Creek Mine Ride opened in 1969 ; it is currently the second oldest roller coaster at Cedar Point .
In 1970 , the Centennial Theatre , named in honor of Cedar Point 's 100th anniversary , was built . 1972 brought Giant Wheel and the now @-@ defunct Jumbo Jet coaster which was noted for being the fastest around . In 1975 , Robert L. Munger Jr. took over as president of Cedar Point after Roose retired . The record @-@ breaking Corkscrew roller coaster was built in 1976 ; it was the first roller coaster to span a midway and have three inversions . Gemini opened in 1978 and was advertised as the tallest , fastest and steepest roller coaster in the world . A kiddie coaster , named Jr . Gemini ( now known as Wilderness Run ) , opened the following year across from the original version . White Water Landing opened in 1982 , replacing the original Shoot the Rapids log flume . In 1983 , Demon Drop was built at the front of the park . Avalanche Run opened in 1985 close to the beach , and would later be re @-@ themed as Disaster Transport . That same year , the San Francisco Earthquake Ride was transformed into the Berenstain Bear Country .
= = = Dick Kinzel era = = =
In 1986 , Robert L. Munger Jr , the President and CEO of Cedar Fair , stepped down due to health issues , and was replaced by Richard " Dick " Kinzel . Thunder Canyon , a river rafting ride manufactured by Intamin , also opened in 1986 . In 1987 , Iron Dragon , a suspended roller coaster , debuted on the Million Dollar Midway near the Cedar Point & Lake Erie Railroad station . In 1988 , Soak City , Cedar Point 's outdoor water park , was constructed near Hotel Breakers . It features speed slides , more than 10 body and tube slides , a family raft ride , a water playhouse and two lazy rivers .
Several new rides and roller coasters opened at Cedar Point since 1989 have been record @-@ breakers . Magnum XL @-@ 200 debuted in 1989 , breaking the world height and speed records . It was the first roller coaster to exceed a height of 200 feet ( 61 m ) and speeds over 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) and was the first hypercoaster in the world . For the 1990 season , Avalanche Run was transformed into Disaster Transport , the ride was fully enclosed and special effects were added . In recent years the special effects and theming were removed , leaving the ride almost completely dark . Mean Streak opened in 1991 as the northernmost attraction in the park . It broke records for the fastest and tallest wooden roller coaster in the world , reaching speeds of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) and a height of 161 feet ( 49 m ) . Challenge Park was built between Hotel Breakers and Soak City in 1992 . Challenge Park includes a Ripcord , Skyscraper , and two eighteen @-@ hole mini @-@ golf courses .
Snake River Falls was constructed in 1993 because of the popularity of Soak City . The 82 @-@ foot ( 25 m ) -tall structure sends riders plunging down at 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) . At the bottom of the hill , the ride ends with a splash landing in which the boat creates a large wave , splashing spectators on an overlooking bridge . When it opened , it was the tallest and fastest water ride in the world . In 1994 , Cedar Point installed Raptor . The Mill Race log flume was removed from the park , and the circular Calypso was relocated to make room for Raptor , the first inverted roller coaster to feature a Cobra Roll . In December 1994 , the park held Christmas in the Park for the first and last time . The Midway Carousel was open , and a horse @-@ drawn carriage gave behind @-@ the @-@ scenes tours of the park , and the midway held many Christmas festivals , including a Christmas tree . In 1996 , Cedar Point opened Mantis , then the tallest , steepest , and fastest stand @-@ up roller coaster in the world . The original name for Mantis was " Banshee " , but many people thought it was offensive and the name was changed . In 1997 , the park added HalloWeekends , a Halloween event with haunted houses and mazes during the Halloween season . Camp Snoopy debuted in 1999 ; it features eight Snoopy @-@ themed attractions , with the exception of a Tilt @-@ a @-@ Whirl . The area also features a junior roller coaster built by Vekoma , Woodstock Express .
Cedar Point built the first giga coaster , Millennium Force , in 2000 . When it debuted , it was the tallest and fastest complete circuit coaster in the world , reaching speeds of 93 miles per hour ( 150 km / h ) and heights of 310 ft ( 94 m ) . In 2002 , Wicked Twister opened as the first second @-@ generation Intamin inverted impulse roller coaster . Today , Wicked Twister is the tallest ( 215 ft ) and fastest 72 miles per hour ( 116 km / h ) inverted impulse roller coaster in the world . Top Thrill Dragster debuted as the first strata coaster in 2003 and was the tallest , 420 ft ( 130 m ) , and fastest , 120 miles per hour ( 190 km / h ) , roller coaster in the world . It is currently second @-@ tallest in the world. maXair debuted in 2005 as only the second HUSS Giant Frisbee ride in the United States . Dan Keller also retired as Vice President and general manager . He was replaced by John Hildebrandt , who was the VP and GM of Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom since May 2004 . In 2006 , Skyhawk was built next to Snake River Falls , it is currently the tallest Screamin ' Swing in the world . In the 2007 season , Cedar Point built Maverick , which features a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) drop at a 95 @-@ degree angle and includes an LSM launch in the middle of the ride reaching speeds of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) . In 2008 , Cedar Point introduced Planet Snoopy , a kids ' area constructed on the site of Peanuts Playground ; it consists of family and children 's rides relocated from Cedar Point 's sister park Geauga Lake after it closed . The area also consists of a " Kids Only " restaurant called Joe Cool Cafe , which has a small menu for adults . Starlight Experience , a night @-@ time LED light extravaganza with floats themed to the four seasons , debuted in 2009 . This $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 attraction takes place on the Frontier Trail nightly beginning at twilight . In order to prepare for Starlight Experience , the Frontier Trail closes for approximately 30 minutes before the event . In 2010 , Cedar Point added a new flume ride on the park 's Frontier Trail named Shoot the Rapids , which includes two drops and a three @-@ minute journey through a rustic western environment . The ride was later removed in 2015 due to a history of low ridership and mechanical issues . WindSeeker , a 301 @-@ foot ( 92 m ) tall tower that spins riders along the shoreline of Lake Erie , was introduced in 2011 . WindSeeker did not open on time due to construction delays and opened to the public on June 14 , 2011 .
= = = Matt Ouimet era = = =
On June 20 , 2011 , Cedar Fair announced that Dick Kinzel would retire on January 3 , 2012 , and Matt Ouimet would become the CEO of the company . Ouimet was employed by The Walt Disney Company for 17 years , served as president of Disney Cruise Line and the Disneyland Resort .
In 2012 , Cedar Point added Dinosaurs Alive ! , a walk @-@ through exhibit featuring approximately 50 life @-@ size animatronic dinosaurs . It is located on Adventure Island and replaced the Paddlewheel Excursions boat cruise ride . A six @-@ lane mat racer slide complex called Dragster H2O was added to Soak City . The slides around Dragster H2O were repainted and the Speed Slides were dismantled to make room for Dragster H2O . Cedar Point also introduced Fast Lane , their version of a fast @-@ pass system , and a new nighttime show , Luminosity – Ignite the Night ! . Cedar Point also removed WildCat for the 2012 season to make room for Luminosity . This was the first time since 1978 that a roller coaster was removed from Cedar Point .
On July 13 , 2012 , Cedar Point announced the removal of Disaster Transport and Space Spiral . Exactly a month later , Cedar Point announced GateKeeper , the longest wing coaster in the world , which opened on May 11 , 2013 . Along with GateKeeper , a new main entrance plaza was constructed , replacing the entrance that was built in the 1960s . It features two 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) -tall support columns that the trains go through . Cedar Point is investing $ 60 million in its hotel resorts over three years , starting in the 2013 – 2014 offseason . At the end of the 2013 season , John Hildebrandt retired as the park 's general manager and was replaced by Jason McClure , the former VP and GM of Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom .
In 2014 , Cedar Point added two new family attractions called Pipe Scream and Lake Erie Eagles and also added a thrill ride , SlingShot . Many improvements were also made to Camp Snoopy and the Gemini Midway , including relocating and retheming a few rides . In 2015 , the stand @-@ up coaster , Mantis was repainted green and orange and received new trains to become Rougarou , a floorless coaster . Also in 2015 , Hotel Breakers received a 25 million dollar renovation . A dive coaster Valravn debuted in 2016 as the tallest , fastest , and longest dive coaster in the world . It stands 223 feet tall and travels at speeds of up to 73 miles per hour replacing the 40 year @-@ old Good Time Theater and relocating Calypso to the beach area near Wicked Twister and was renamed Tiki Twirl . Valravn also replaced the Turnpike Cars , an Antique Car ride . Raptor and Top Thrill Dragster received a fresh coat of paint that same year .
= = = Attraction timeline = = =
= = = = Before 1960 = = = =
1870 : Cedar Point opens
1892 : Switchback Railway opens
1899 : Bay Shore Hotel opens
1902 : Figure @-@ Eight Roller Toboggan opens
1905 : Hotel Breakers opens
1907 : Switchback Railway closes
1908 : Dip the Dips Scenic Railway opens
1910 : Racer opens
1912 : Leap the Dips opens
1917 : Dip the Dips Scenic Railway closes
1918 : High Frolics opens
1925 : Noah 's Ark opens
1928 : Racer closes
1929 : Cyclone opens
1934 : Tumble Bug opens
1935 : Leap the Dips closes
1940 : High Frolics closes
1946 : Midway Carrousel opens
1951 : Cyclone closes
1952 : Super Coaster opens
1955 : Fascination opens
1957 : The Cedar Point Causeway opens
1958 : Cadillac Cars open
1959 : Monorail , Turnpike Cars , and Wild Mouse opens ; Noah 's Ark closes ; Construction is completed on the Cedar Point Marina
= = = = 1960 to 1979 = = = =
1960 : Scrambler opens
1961 : Sky wheel , Rotor , and Star Voyager ( formerly called Super Jets ) open
1962 : Sky Ride and Scamper opens
1963 : Cedar Point & Lake Erie Railroad and Mill Race open ; Wild Mouse closes
1964 : Blue Streak , and Paddlewheel Excursions ( formerly called Western Cruise ) open
1965 : Space Spiral , Earthquake , and Jungle Larry 's African Safari open
1966 : Pirate Ride , Trabant , and Upside Down Funhouse opens
1967 : Cedar Downs Racing Derby , Second Rotor , Sealand Marine exhibit , Shoot @-@ the @-@ Rapids , and Frontiertown open ; Super Coaster closes
1968 : Frontier Lift , Kiddieland Carousel and Sky Slide open
1969 : Cedar Creek Mine Ride , Antique Cars , and the Town Hall Museum open ; Scamper closes
1970 : WildCat , Bayern Kurve , Dodgem No. 2 , Monster , Schwabinchen , Calypso , Super Himilaya , Centennial Theatre , Kiddy Kingdom , and Tiki Twirl open
1971 : Frontier Trail and Camper Village RV Campground open ; Zugspitze closes
1972 : Frontiertown Carousel , Jumbo Jet , Giant Wheel and Matterhorn open
1975 : The Cedar Point Cinema opens
1976 : Corkscrew and Troika open
1977 : Witches ' Wheel opens
1978 : Gemini opens ; Jumbo Jet was closed down
1979 : Jr . Gemini and Wave Swinger open
= = = = 1980 to 1999 = = = =
1980 : Oceana Dolphin stadium opens ; Sky Wheel closes ;
1981 : Ocean Motion opens ; Sky Wheel , Funhouse and Shoot @-@ the @-@ Rapids close
1982 : White Water Landing and Kid Arthur 's Court open
1983 : Demon Drop opens
1984 : Tiki Twirl , Rotor , Bayern Curve and Earthquake close
1985 : Avalanche Run and Berenstain Bear Country indoor complex opens , Frontier Lift closes ; WildCat , Matterhorn and Super Himalaya moved to make room for Avalanche Run ; Schwabinchen relocated near Ocean Motion
1986 : Thunder Canyon opens ; Sir Rub @-@ A @-@ Dub 's Tubs added to Kiddy Kingdom
1987 : Iron Dragon opens ; Monster is relocated to make room for Iron Dragon ; Western Cruise station is moved and renamed Paddlewheel Excursions to make room for Iron Dragon
1988 : Soak City waterpark opens
1989 : Magnum XL @-@ 200 opens
1990 : Sandcastle Suites ; Main Stream and Tadpole Town added to Soak City ; Trabant closes ; Avalanche Run is transformed into Disaster Transport
1991 : Mean Streak opens ; Sky Slide closes
1992 : Challenge Park opens ; Outdoor complex added to Berenstain Bear Country
1993 : Snake River Falls opens ; Mill Race closes
1994 : Raptor opens ; Jungle Larry 's African Safari closes ; Calypso and Midway Carousel relocated to make room for Raptor ; Turnpike Cars reduced to make room for Raptor ; Christmas in the Park is held for the first and last time
1995 : Zoom Flume , Renegade River and Choo @-@ Choo Lagoon added to Soak City ; Breakers East is added to Hotel Breakers ; Laser Light Show
1996 : Mantis and Ripcord open ; Pirate Ride closes
1997 : Chaos opens ; Soak city expansion ; HalloWeekends introduced for the first time
1998 : Power Tower opens ; Bumper Boats relocated from Kiddy Kingdom to Gemini Midway
1999 : Camp Snoopy opens ; Breakers Tower is added to Hotel Breakers ; Super Himalaya is relocated to make room for Camp Snoopy ; Oceana Dolphin stadium is renamed The Aquatic Stadium with new show , Splash ! ; Kid Arthur 's Court closes
= = = = 2000 to present = = = =
2000 : Millennium Force and Breakers Express open ; Giant Wheel relocated to make room for Millennium Force
2001 : Lighthouse Point opens ; The Aquarium closes ; VertiGo is open 4 months before being demolished , Dodgem No.1 closes
2002 : Wicked Twister opens ; " Snoopy Rocks ! On Ice " ice skating show . The Cedar Point Cinema is converted into the Good Time Theatre ; Schwabinchen closes
2003 : Top Thrill Dragster opens ; Swan Boats close ; Troika and Chaos are relocated to make room for Top Thrill Dragster ; Troika and WildCat repainted
2004 : $ 10 million in capital improvements with expansions at Lighthouse Point luxury camping complex ; Splash City added to Soak City ; Iron Dragon repainted
2005 : maXair opens ; White Water Landing closes ; Magnum XL @-@ 200 repainted
2006 : Skyhawk opens ; Hot Summer Lights nighttime show
2007 : Maverick opens ; Peanuts Playground closes
2008 : Planet Snoopy and SkyScraper open ; The Aquatic Stadium is renamed Extreme Sports Stadium with new show , All Wheels Extreme
2009 : Starlight Experience opens ; Demon Drop closes
2010 : Shoot the Rapids opens ; Chaos closes
2011 : WindSeeker opens ; Ocean Motion relocated to the former Demon Drop site to make room for WindSeeker ; Paddlewheel Excursions and WildCat close , Speed Slides in Soak City close ; Millennium Force repainted
2012 : Dinosaurs Alive ! opens ; Dragster H2O added to Soak City ; Fast Lane ; Iron Dragon midway renamed Celebration Plaza with new show , Luminosity – Ignite the Night ! ; Disaster Transport and Space Spiral close
2013 : GateKeeper opens ; New entrance plaza ; Bumper Boats close
2014 : Pipe Scream , Lake Erie Eagles , and SlingShot open ; Frog Hopper renamed Woodstock 's Airmail and relocated to Camp Snoopy ; Jr . Gemini entrance moved to Camp Snoopy and renamed Wilderness Run ; Mantis , Turnpike Cars , Sir Rub @-@ a @-@ Dubs Tubs and Good Time Theatre close
2015 : Rougarou opens ; Hotel Breakers renovation completed ; Calypso renamed Tiki Twirl and relocated ; Dodgem relocated ; Good Time Theater removed for Valravn in 2016 ; Maverick gets new restraints
2016 : Valravn opens ; Raptor & Top Thrill Dragster re @-@ painted ; Challenge Racing , Skyscraper , and Shoot the Rapids removed
Sources :
= = Present attractions = =
= = = Roller coasters = = =
Cedar Point contains 17 roller coasters , second @-@ most in the world behind Six Flags Magic Mountain which has 19 .
= = = Thrill rides = = =
Cedar Point has 17 thrill rides . The newest is SlingShot , introduced in 2014 .
= = = Family rides = = =
Cedar Point has 9 family rides .
= = = Water rides = = =
Cedar Point has two water rides , excluding the rides in Soak City .
= = = Kids ' rides = = =
Kiddy Kingdom opened in 1970 as Kiddieland but was renamed in 1993 . It is located near the first aid station and maXair . It contains 10 rides .
Opened in 2008 , Planet Snoopy is Cedar Point 's newest children 's area. replacing Peanuts playground . All of its rides come from the defunct Geauga Lake park . It is located near WindSeeker and contains eight rides .
Camp Snoopy opened in 1999 and is located near the entrance to Dinosaurs Alive ! . It contains six rides and two kiddie coasters .
= = = Challenge Park = = =
Challenge Park , located between Cedar Point and Soak City , was opened in 1992 . Its attractions require extra payment over the Cedar Point admission charge . Guests must get their hand stamped to re @-@ enter Cedar Point .
On January 14 , 2002 , one of the three towers of the VertiGo ride in Challenge Park , which had been opened four months before , collapsed . No one was in the park and only minimal damage was reported . The ride was demolished later that year . Cedar point removed skyscraper and the go karts due to low ridership and popularity .
= = = = Attractions = = = =
All rides and attractions require an extra fee .
= = = Soak City = = =
Opened in 1988 , Soak City is Cedar Point 's water park . It is adjacent to Cedar Point and requires separate admission . Guests must get their hands stamped to re @-@ enter Cedar Point .
= = Live entertainment = =
= = = Venues = = =
The Extreme Sports Stadium is a stunt stadium situated between WindSeeker and Wicked Twister . It was known as the Oceana Stadium from 1980 – 1998 and The Aquatic Stadium from 1999 – 2007 .
The Celebration Plaza Stage is in Celebration Plaza in front of the Iron Dragon . It was built for the 2012 season as part of Luminosity – Ignite the Night ! and replaced a giant screen used for Hot Summer Lights .
The Red Garter Saloon is a stage located on the Frontier Trail .
The Palace Theater is next to the Last Chance Saloon in Frontiertown .
The Camp Snoopy Theatre is a small stage in Camp Snoopy .
The Jack Aldrich Theatre formerly called the Centennial Theatre is a stage located between Midway Carousel and the Skyride .
= = = Shows = = =
All shows are about 25 minutes .
Rockin ’ Country is a country music and dancing show begun in 2014 in the Red Garter Saloon .
All Wheels Extreme is a stunt show in the Extreme Sports Stadium . It features bikers and gymnasts who flip , dive and perform stunts . It was introduced in 2008 .
Bandstand USA is a musical medley of tributes featuring a handful of Motown classics . NEW for 2015 !
Beach Band is brass and percussion band that travels around the park playing pop , rock and other genres .
Charlie Brown 's Funtime Frolics takes place in the Camp Snoopy Theatre .
Snoopy Unleashed is an ice @-@ skating show begun in 2014 in the Good Time Theatre .
Jamming DJ 's are DJ 's who take requests from people waiting in line for the Millennium Force daily and for the Raptor on weekends during the summer .
Luminosity – Ignite the Night ! is a dance , fireworks , and pyrotechnics show performed nightly that began in 2012 on the Celebration Plaza stage .
On Broadway , Showstoppers from the New York Stage a show based on Broadway and takes place in the Jack Aldrich Theatre .
Peanuts ' Celebration at the Point ' is a Peanuts show performed at 5 pm daily on the Celebration Plaza stage .
Snoopy 's Sing @-@ A @-@ Long is a singing and dancing show in the Camp Snoopy Theatre .
Toes in the Sand Band is a band that plays outside of the Hotel Breakers on the beach . NEW for 2015 !
Lusty Lil ’ s Revue is a show in the Palace Theater that debuted in 2014 .
= = Fast Lane = =
Fast Lane , introduced at Cedar Point in 2012 , is a secondary queue system that offers shorter wait times on the park 's most popular rides . In addition to the standard admission charge , visitors can bypass the standard wait line by purchasing a wrist band that grants access to the Fast Lane queue . A limited number of wrist bands are sold each day . The two options available for purchase are " Fast Lane " and " Fast Lane Plus " . The standard Fast Lane offers access to 24 attractions , while Fast Lane Plus covers the same rides and adds Top Thrill Dragster , GateKeeper , Maverick , and Valravn .
Beginning in the 2014 season , Cedar Point offers a Halloween @-@ themed version of Fast Lane called Fright Lane with Skeleton Key , available during HalloWeekends . In addition to Fast Lane access , this version provides priority access to haunted attractions within the park . It also includes a key that provides access to a secret room in each haunted attraction .
= = Awards / rankings = =
= = = Awards = = =
Cedar Point won the Golden Ticket Award from Amusement Today for " Best Amusement Park in the World " for 16 consecutive years from 1997 @-@ 2013 . The park has also placed in categories for " Friendliest Park Staff " ( 2002 , 2004 - 2006 ) , " Cleanest Park " ( 2004 , 2005 ) , " Best Capacity " ( 1998 - 2002 ) , " Best Kid 's Area " ( 2004 , 2013 ) , " Best Outdoor Night Production " ( 2004 - 2007 ) , " Best Shows " ( 2004 , 2005 ) , " Best Games Area " ( 2002 ) , " Best Souvenirs " ( 2002 ) , and " Best Halloween Event " ( 2005 - 2008 , 2013 , 2014 ) . The park also won the Golden Ticket Award for " Best New Ride of 2007 " with the roller coaster Maverick . Cedar Point has also won several IAAPA awards , including the Applause Award in 1996 .
= = = Rankings = = =
Cedar Point 's roller coasters are commonly ranked high in the Golden Ticket Awards . In the 2013 rankings , GateKeeper debuted at 28th , making it the first time ever that the park had six steel roller coasters in the top 50 . The following steel and wooden coasters were ranked by Amusement Today in 2015 :
= = = = Steel = = = =
Millennium Force : 1st
Top Thrill Dragster : 13th
Magnum XL @-@ 200 : 15th ( tie )
Maverick : 22nd ( tie )
= = = = Wood = = = =
Blue Streak : 35th ( tie )
= = = Attendance = = =
The park was the 15th most visited amusement park in North America in 2015 . It was also the most visited seasonal amusement park in the United States with an estimated 3 @.@ 51 million visitors .
In 1960 , the park 's attendance reached 1 million for the first time . Just five years later , the attendance reached 2 million . In 1975 , attendance reached 3 million for the first time . Cedar Point 's attendance peaked in 1994 , with 3 @.@ 6 million visitors .
= = Resorts = =
Cedar Point owns and operates six resorts located either on park grounds or less than a mile away . Most of the resorts are within walking distance of the Cedar Point Beach . All facilities are non @-@ smoking , and all Cedar Point Resort guests can enter the park one hour before it opens to the general public . Rides that operate during this early @-@ entry session are : Valravn , Millennium Force , Maverick , GateKeeper , Tiki Twirl , Cadillac Cars , Dodgem , Cedar Downs , Midway Carousel , and Kiddie Kingdom .
On December 2 , 2012 , Cedar Point announced that it would invest $ 60 million in its hotel resorts over three years , starting in the 2013 – 2014 offseason . No additional rooms were added to any of the hotels .
= = = On @-@ site resorts , marina , and campgrounds = = =
Hotel Breakers , the oldest resort at Cedar Point , was built in 1905 . The hotel has 650 rooms and suites and is the closest resort to Cedar Point and Soak City . In 1997 , Hotel Breakers was renovated and expanded , doubling its size . Hotel Breakers has standard hotel rooms , suites with views of Lake Erie , Snoopy @-@ themed rooms and Wi @-@ Fi in the lobby , rotunda and conference center . It has two pools , beach access , a conference center , and five restaurants including T.G.I. Friday 's and Perkins Restaurant and Bakery .
Sandcastle Suites is a hotel at the northernmost part of the peninsula that contains 187 suites . It has Wi @-@ Fi in the lobby and guest suites , an outdoor heated pool and whirlpool , beach access , tennis courts , a shuttle to both Cedar Point and Soak City , and two restaurants ‒ the Breakwater Cafe and the Sand Bar .
Lighthouse Point contains 64 cottages and 40 cabins and is located along the west bank of the peninsula . The centerpiece of Lighthouse Point is the Cedar Point Lighthouse , which was built in 1862 and is the oldest existing structure on the peninsula . It has an outdoor pool and outdoor whirlpool spa , a shuffleboard court , a game room , and shuttle service .
Camper Village is the only place at Cedar Point where it is possible to hook up an RV to water and electricity . Camper Village sites range from deluxe sites with electricity , water , sewer and cable to 112 electric @-@ only sites . The Camper Village has the Camper Village Store , an outdoor pool , a shuffleboard court , a game room , a shuttle service on Cedar Point Peninsula , a dump station and laundry facilities .
The Cedar Point Marina is located on the Sandusky Bay side of the peninsula , directly adjacent to the Amusement Park . The marina is one of 2 operated by Cedar Point . It is also one of the largest on Lake Erie with docks , able to accommodate vessels up to 100 ft , for both seasonal and transient boaters . The Marina has fuel docks with holding tank pumpout , a small marina store , dedicated restroom and shower facilities , laundry facilities , and a marina only pool . There are 2 restaurants located at the marina , Famous Daves Bar @-@ B @-@ Que , and Bay Harbor Inn ( an upscale seafood restaurant ) . Seasonal dockers receive various perks with their docks including 2 Platinum Season Passes , a visitors parking pass , and various extra discounts . Seasonal and transient boaters can access the park through the Marina Gate and also receive the same perks as at the other resorts including early entry and discount tickets . The marina is the base for the ILYA affiliated Point Yacht Club , and home port for most of the members . The marina season roughly parallels the parks operating season and is open from early May through late October / Early November .
= = = Off @-@ site Cedar Point @-@ owned resorts = = =
Castaway Bay is an indoor waterpark resort opened by Cedar Fair in November 2004 . It has over 38 @,@ 000 feet ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) of water slides , shops , and a wave pool . There are 237 guest rooms and luxury suites . Castaway Bay has five restaurants , including a Quaker Steak and Lube . Castaway Bay is also the location of Castaway Bay Marina the second marina owned by Cedar Point . It is smaller than the Cedar point Marina and located on Pipe Creek a tributary of the Sandusky Bay . The marina mainly hosts seasonal dockers but can also accommodate transient boaters . Boaters at Castaway Bay Marina receive the same benefits as those at the Cedar Point Marina .
Breakers Express , a sister resort to the Hotel Breakers , is located one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Cedar Point and is the closest hotel to the peninsula . It
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opened in 2000 and includes 350 guest rooms . Breakers Express has an outdoor heated pool , outdoor whirlpool spa , game room , and Wi @-@ Fi in guest rooms .
= = National Register of Historic Places = =
Cedar Point features several historic buildings on the peninsula . Many of the buildings and structures on the peninsula are from the late 1800s or early 1900s . The oldest structure on the peninsula is the Cedar Point Light . It is a restored lighthouse that was built in 1862 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places on July 19 , 1984 . Located along the main midway is the Coliseum . The Coliseum was built in 1906 with the newly expanded Midway . It has a ballroom known for holding several dances that helped Cedar Point out of The Depression . It was added to the NRHP on October 2 , 1982 . Another building that is listed on the NRHP is the U.S. Coast Guard Building located along Perimeter Road that stretches around the peninsula .
All three of Cedar Point 's carousels are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The Midway Carousel , otherwise known as the Daniel C. Muller Carousel , is located at the front of the park . It opened in 1912 and was brought to Cedar Point in 1946 . A Sandusky family purchased the ride and operated it at the park . It became property of Cedar Point in 1963 . It is Cedar Point 's oldest operating ride and was added to the NRHP on October 20 , 1982 . The second carousel at the park is the Cedar Downs Racing Derby , also known as the Great American Racing Derby . It originally opened at Euclid Beach Park in 1921 and was transported to Cedar Point for the 1967 season . It is only one of two racing carousels still operating in the United States , and was added to the NRHP on November 8 , 1990 . The third carousel is the Kiddy Kingdom Carousel , located in Kiddy Kingdom . It is also known as William H. Dentzel 1924 Carousel and opened at Cedar Point in 1968 . It was added to the NRHP on November 8 , 1990 .
Cedar Point used to have a fourth carousel located in Frontiertown , next to the Wave Swinger . It was known as the Frontier Carousel or William H. Dentzel 1921 Carousel . It opened at Cedar Point in 1972 when it was bought from a family in Lansing , Michigan . It was listed on the NRHP on November 8 , 1990 . After the 1994 season , the carousel closed and was moved to Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom , where it operates under the name Antique Carousel . Its building is currently used for the HalloWeekends attraction , Eternity Infirmary .
= = = Former = = =
Cedar Point 's oldest hotel is the Hotel Breakers . It opened in 1905 during the " golden age " of resort hotels . It was added to the NRHP on March 9 , 1987 . After several major alterations , most notably the Breakers Tower in 1998 , the National Park Service removed the Hotel Breakers from the NRHP on August 7 , 2001 .
= = In popular culture = =
Cedar Point has had a cultural influence on American society as evidenced in many forms of media such as books , television , and film . In the 1940 biographical film Knute Rockne , All American documenting the life of famous Notre Dame football coach Knute Rockne , Cedar Point is featured at a pivotal point in the story . In 1913 , Knute works as a lifeguard on a beach at Cedar Point , where he and his college roommate Gus Dorais worked on the forward pass . The concept , which was first used in a scrimmage game at Cedar Point , would revolutionize the sport and the film would later be preserved in the Library of Congress National Film Registry . In 2004 , an independently @-@ produced film , Close Encounters of the Fourth Kind : Infestation From Mars , was shot at several historic locations around Sandusky including Cedar Point . Dick Kinzel , CEO of Cedar Point at the time , had a brief speaking role in the film .
In the 2006 book " The Warrior Heir " by Cinda Williams Chima , the main characters take a field trip to Cedar Point with their high school class . In a 2010 episode of Bert the Conqueror on the Travel Channel , Bert takes the " Foursome Fearsome " roller @-@ coaster challenge in which he rides the four fastest and tallest coasters in the park in under an hour . A 2012 episode of Travel Channel 's Off Limits takes a look at off @-@ season maintenance at the park and features the host , Don Wildman , working with the maintenance crew on Mean Streak and Millennium Force . In 2012 , the " Extreme Heights " and " Speed Demons " episodes of Insane Coaster Wars on the Travel Channel feature Cedar Point coasters Millennium Force and Top Thrill Dragster , respectively . Commentary for the series was primarily filmed at Cedar Point .
= Cleaning symbiosis =
Cleaning symbiosis is a mutually beneficial association ( symbiosis ) between two species , where one ( the cleaner ) removes and eats parasites and other materials from the surface of the other ( the client ) . Cleaning symbiosis is well @-@ known among marine fish , where some small species of cleaner fish , notably wrasses but also species in other genera , are specialised to feed almost exclusively by cleaning larger fish and other marine animals . Other cleaning symbioses exist between birds and mammals , and in other groups .
Cleaning behaviour was first described by the Greek historian Herodotus in about 420 BC , though his example ( birds serving crocodiles ) appears to occur only rarely .
The role of cleaning symbioses has been debated by biologists for over thirty years . Some believe that cleaning represents selfless co @-@ operation , essentially pure mutualism . Others such as Robert Trivers hold that it illustrates mutual selfishness , reciprocal altruism . Others again believe that cleaning behaviour is simply one @-@ sided exploitation , a form of parasitism .
Cheating , where either a cleaner sometimes harms its client , or a predatory species mimics a cleaner , also occurs . Predatory cheating is analogous to Batesian mimicry , as where a harmless hoverfly mimics a stinging wasp , though with the tables turned . Some genuine cleaner fish , such as gobies and wrasse , have the same colours and patterns , in an example of convergent evolution . Mutual resemblance among cleaner fish is analogous to Mullerian mimicry , as where stinging bees and wasps mimic each other .
= = History = =
In his Histories ( book II ) , the ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote :
As [ the crocodile ] lives chiefly in the river , it has the inside of its mouth constantly covered with leeches ; hence it happens that , while all the other birds and beasts avoid it , with the trochilus it lives at peace , since it owes much to that bird : for the crocodile , when he leaves the water and comes out upon the land , is in the habit of lying with his mouth wide open , facing the western breeze : at such times the trochilus goes into his mouth and devours the leeches . This benefits the crocodile , who is pleased , and takes care not to hurt the trochilus .
Herodotus thus claimed ( circa 440 BC ) that Nile crocodiles had what would now be called a cleaning symbiosis with the bird he called the trochilus , possibly a sandpiper ; but while he was right about the existence of cleaning symbioses , there is little evidence for it in crocodiles . In 1906 Henry Scherren quoted John Mason Cook , son of travel agent Thomas Cook , as reporting from Egypt that he had seen some spur @-@ winged plovers approach a crocodile , which opened its jaws for them :
Mr. J. M. Cook , of the celebrated tourist agency , when in Egypt in 1876 , " watched one of these birds , and saw it deliberately go up to a crocodile , apparently asleep , which opened its jaws . The bird hopped in , and the crocodile closed its jaws. in what appeared to be a very short time , probably not more than a minute or two , the crocodile opened its jaws , and we saw the bird go down to the water 's edge . " There were several of these birds about , and Mr. Cook shot two of them , which Dr. Sclater identified as Spur @-@ winged Plovers ; so that the question as to what bird enters the mouth of the crocodile is now set at rest .
MacFarland and Reeder , reviewing the evidence , found that
Extensive observations of Nile crocodiles in regular or occasional association with various species of potential cleaners ( e.g. plovers , sandpipers , water dikkop ) ... have resulted in only a few reports of sandpipers removing leeches from the mouth and gular scutes and snapping at insects along the reptile 's body .
= = A disputed relationship = =
Cleaning symbiosis is a relationship between a pair of animals of different species , involving the removal and subsequent ingestion of ectoparasites , diseased and injured tissue , and unwanted food items from the surface of the host organism ( the client ) by the cleaning organism ( the cleaner ) . Its status has been debated by biologists , with viewpoints ranging from pure mutualism through to a form of exploitative parasitism by the cleaner .
Marine biologist Alexandra Grutter explains :
Cleaning associations involve cleaner organisms that remove ectoparasites and other material , such as mucus , scales and skin , from the body surfaces of other apparently co @-@ operating animals . The latter are often referred to as hosts , customers , or clients . Cleaning behaviour is one of the most highly developed inter @-@ specific communication systems known , with clients striking elaborate postures which have generally been assumed to make ectoparasites more accessible to cleaners .
= = = Selfless co @-@ operation = = =
Grutter and her colleague Robert Poulin , reviewing over thirty years of debate by biologists on cleaning symbioses , argue that " Cleaning symbioses may not be mutualistic associations but rather one @-@ sided exploitation " . They quote , for example , C. Limbaugh as writing in 1961 : " From the standpoint of the philosopher of biology , the extent of cleaning behavior in the ocean emphasizes the role of co @-@ operation in nature as opposed to the tooth @-@ and @-@ claw struggle for existence " .
= = = Mutual selfishness = = =
In 1971 , mathematical biologist Robert Trivers wrote more carefully " Cleaner organisms and their hosts meet the preconditions for the evolution of reciprocally altruistic behavior . The host 's altruism is to be explained as benefiting him because of the advantage of being able quickly and repeatedly to return to the same cleaner " ( i.e. mutual selfishness ) .
= = = One @-@ sided exploitation = = =
By 1987 G. S. Losey wrote less optimistically " Cleaners are nothing but very clever behavioral parasites ... that have taken advantage of the rewarding aspects of tactile stimulation , found in nearly all vertebrates . " Poulin and Grutter remark that " Over the last few decades , ... the opinion of scientists regarding cleaning symbioses has changed , from selfless cooperation , to a mutually beneficial interaction , and finally to a one @-@ sided exploitation . "
= = Biological range = =
Cleaning symbiosis is known from several groups of animals both in the sea and on land ( see table ) . Cleaners include fish , shrimps and birds ; clients include a much wider range of fish , marine reptiles including turtles and iguanas , octopus , whales , and terrestrial mammals . Cleaning symbioses with reptile clients include fish cleaning the teeth of American crocodiles ( Crocodylus acutus ) , geckos eating mosquitoes on Aldabra giant tortoises ( Geochelone gigantea ) and scarlet crabs ( Grapsus grapsus ) , and three species of Galapagos finches removing ticks from marine iguanas ( Amblyrhynchus cristatus ) .
The best known cleaning symbioses are among marine fishes , where several species of small fish , notably of wrasse , are specialised in colour , pattern and behaviour as cleaners , providing a cleaning and ectoparasite removal service to larger , often predatory fish . Cleaner species , as shown in the table , vary widely in their degree of dependence on their clients . Some are essentially pure obligate symbionts like the cleaner wrasse ; some are opportunistic or facultative symbionts , like the orange chromide or some cleaner shrimps ; and some , like the oxpeckers , combine a little eating of parasites ( beneficial to client ) with taking of blood ( harmful to client ) , their favoured food .
= = Mimicry among cleaner fish = =
= = = Mutual mimicry among cleaner fish = = =
Many cleaner fish in different families , such as the Caribbean neon goby ( Elacatinus evelynae ) and the cleaner wrasse ( Labroides dimidiatus ) , share the distinctive combination of a long narrow body , a longitudinal stripe , a blue colour , and small size . " Convergent signalling among cleaners , using size , stripes and colour , should facilitate their recognition by fish clients . " This is analogous to Mullerian mimicry where genuinely aposematic species ( such as wasps ) mimic each other 's warning colours .
= = = Aggressive mimicry of blennies to cleaner fish = = =
The sabre @-@ toothed blenny ( Aspidontus taeniatus ) is a predatory blenny , an aggressive mimic which accurately resembles the bluestreak cleaner wrasse , not only in colour and pattern , but also in the ritualised dance the cleaner wrasse makes when potential client fish swim nearby . However , instead of providing the cleaning service that it signals , it bites off pieces of healthy skin , scales and mucus from the host and then swims rapidly away to safety .
The effect of aggressive mimicry in a cleaning symbiosis is analogous to Batesian mimicry , where a harmless " edible mimetic species copies the warning signal of a noxious , aposematic model species , thereby gaining protection from predators " . As in Batesian mimicry , the rate of successful attacks on cleaning clients by the bluestriped fangblenny ( Plagiotremus rhinorhynchos ) , which like the sabre @-@ toothed blenny mimic the bluestreak cleaner wrasse ( Labroides dimidiatus ) , is frequency @-@ dependent , meaning that the mimicry is more effective when the cheating fangblenny is rare compared to the cleaner wrasse . The difference , however , is that the aggressive mimic is inserting itself into a co @-@ operative relationship ( between cleaner and client ) , whereas " Batesian mimics insert themselves into an antagonistic predator – prey interaction ( where the models are the unpalatable prey ) . "
= Red Blooded Woman =
" Red Blooded Woman " is a song by Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue , taken from her ninth studio album Body Language ( 2003 ) . Written by Johnny Douglas and Karen Poole and produced by the former , it is a hip hop , R & B and synthpop track . It contains a vocoded " Boy ! Boy ! " hook and backing vocals from a choir . It was released globally by Parlophone as the second single from the album on 1 March 2004 .
The song was well received by music critics , many of whom praised its production and compared it to the work of American music artists Justin Timberlake and Timbaland . Commercially , the single fared well in Minogue 's main markets , Australia and the United Kingdom , as it debuted inside the top five of the singles chart in both countries . It also peaked inside the top ten in countries including Denmark and Italy and the top twenty in Germany and New Zealand . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for completing sales of 7 @,@ 500 units .
A music video for " Red Blooded Woman " was directed by Jake Nava and features Minogue seductively dancing to the track in various locations such as a traffic jam and in front of a truck . Minogue performed it live at the one @-@ off concert show Money Can 't Buy and at TV shows like the Late Show with David Letterman and Top of the Pops . It has also been performing during three of Minogue 's concert tours – Showgirl : The Greatest Hits Tour , Showgirl : The Homecoming Tour , and For You , For Me tour .
= = Background and composition = =
Following the global success of her eighth studio album Fever , Minogue began working on her ninth studio album Body Language . Aiming to create a dance @-@ pop album inspired by electronic music from the 1980s , Minogue enlisted collaborators such as Johnny Douglas ( who had previously worked with her on Light Years ) and Karen Poole . The duo wrote " Red Blooded Woman " together , while Douglas also handled the production of the song . It was selected as the second single from Body Language and was released globally on 1 March 2004 . In the United Kingdom , it was released on 10 March 2004 .
" Red Blooded Woman " is a hip hop and synthpop track , the former being a genre Minogue newly experimented with on the album . It features a vocoded " Boy ! Boy ! " hook and " candy @-@ coated la la la 's " which are repeated during the bridge . A choir of men also provide backing vocals in a " ghostly " manner , according to Slant Magazine editor Sal Cinquemani . Similar to numerous songs from the album , " Red Blooded Woman " contains a reference to music from the 1980s : its line " You got me spinning round , round , round , round like a record " alludes to British band Dead or Alive 's 1985 song " You Spin Me Round ( Like a Record ) " . Remixes by English electronica artists Narcotic Thrust and Whitey were included on the 12 @-@ inch picture single .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Billboard critic Keith Claufield singled out the song as a highlight from the album and called it " a cousin of Justin Timberlake 's ' Cry Me a River ' . " Writing for NME , John Robinson found " Red Blooded Woman " to be better than " Slow " , the lead single from the album , and called it " excellent cutting edge pop in a great single by the Justin Timberlake or Sugababes way . " Adrien Begrand from PopMatters favoured its " almost garage @-@ like beat " and appreciated the lyric " You 'll never get to Heaven if you 're scared of getting high . " Like Shawhan , Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine too compared the production of the song to that of Timbaland . The " Boy ! Boy " hook of the song and its synthpop style were praised by Spin magazine , who felt that they " demonstrate that even in the 21st century , Kylie wears the 1980s well . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Red Blooded Woman " debuted and peaked at number four on the ARIA Singles Chart in Australia . The following week , it dropped out of the top ten to number eleven . The single had a short run on the chart , lasting for five weeks in total . In New Zealand , it entered the singles chart at number 34 and later peaked at number 19 . It charted for 12 weeks and received a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for completing sales of 7 @,@ 500 units .
In Europe , the song reached the top twenty in numerous countries . In both Denmark and Italy , " Red Blooded Woman " peaked at number ten and appeared in the top twenty for three weeks . In Germany , the song peaked at number 16 and charted for a total of 10 weeks . It debuted at number eight on the Spanish Singles Chart and fell one place to number nine the next week . It appeared on the chart for a short period of time of four weeks . In Switzerland , " Red Blooded Woman " peaked higher than its preceding single " Slow " , reaching number 15 on the Schweizer Hitparade . " Red Blooded Woman " entered the UK Singles Chart at number five , becoming Minogue 's 26th top @-@ ten hit in the country . It was a moderate success , charting for nine weeks inside the top 40 of the chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Red Blooded Woman " was directed by Jake Nava , an English film director who had previously worked with artists like Beyoncé and Kelis . It was filmed in Los Angeles , California , in December 2003 . It begins with a scene of a congested traffic jam in which Minogue is caught . She is shown seated in her car singing to the song in a sensual manner , with the camera repeatedly focusing on her eyes and lips . Her outfit is composed of a black and white singlet , a satin waist cincher , jeans with chain fringes , and a black sheepskin shrug ( this outfit was donated by Minogue to the Arts Centre Melbourne and is displayed in the Kylie Minogue Collection ) . A few seconds later , she gets down from her vehicle and playfully makes her way to a tank . Climbing up on its ladder , Minogue dances seductively to the chorus of the song . She then resumes walking on the street and is accompanied by two doberman puppies who escape from a nearby car . After entering into the backseat of another car , Minogue begins unwrapping a red dress and proceeds to change into it as she is watched by various onlookers . As the second chorus starts , Minogue is seen dancing with a group of backup dancers at a different location . Her attire consists of a fluorine yellow bustier worn underneath a pastel pink dress designed by French fashion house Balenciaga . The scene changes back to the street , where Minogue is shown entering a truck . She dims the lights and then dances in a different outfit , consisting of a black bikini , red leggings , and laced gloves . However , she exits the truck in the same red outfit she donned earlier . The rest of the video rapidly intersperses scenes of Minogue dancing inside and in front of the truck , on a car , with the backup dancers , and near a gang of motorcyclists .
= = Live performances = =
A one @-@ off concert show , Money Can 't Buy , was held at entertainment venue Hammersmith Apollo , London , on 15 November 2003 to promote Body Language . " Red Blooded Woman " was included on the set list of the concert and was performed during the first act " Paris by Night . " On 20 February 2004 , she appeared on British music chart television programme Top of the Pops to perform the song . Minogue later performed " Red Blooded Woman " at German music awards , ECHO Awards , on 6 March 2004 .
" Red Blooded Woman " was included on the set list of Minogue 's Showgirl : The Greatest Hits Tour in 2005 . Minogue was unable to complete the tour as she was diagnosed with early breast cancer and had to cancel the Australian leg of the tour . After undergoing treatment and recovery , she resumed the concert tour in the form of Showgirl : The Homecoming Tour in 2007 , and " Red Blooded Woman " was again added to the set list . In 2009 , she performed the song during concert shows of the For You , For Me tour , which was her first tour of North America . The performances of the song during all three of the tours contained an excerpt from " Where the Wild Roses Grow " and were preceded by a segment showing numerous male backup dancers showering .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Charts and certification = =
= HMAS Australia ( 1911 ) =
HMAS Australia was one of three Indefatigable @-@ class battlecruisers built for the defence of the British Empire . Ordered by the Australian government in 1909 , she was launched in 1911 , and commissioned as flagship of the fledgling Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) in 1913 . Australia was the only capital ship ever to serve in the RAN .
At the start of World War I , Australia was tasked with finding and destroying the German East Asia Squadron , which was prompted to withdraw from the Pacific by the battlecruiser 's presence . Repeated diversions to support the capture of German colonies in New Guinea and Samoa , as well as an overcautious Admiralty , prevented the battlecruiser from engaging the German squadron before the latter 's destruction . Australia was then assigned to North Sea operations , which consisted primarily of patrols and exercises , until the end of the war . During this time , Australia was involved in early attempts at naval aviation , and 11 of her personnel participated in the Zeebrugge Raid . The battlecruiser was not at the Battle of Jutland , as she was undergoing repairs following a collision with sister ship HMS New Zealand . Australia only ever fired in anger twice : at a German merchant vessel in January 1915 , and at a suspected submarine contact in December 1917 .
On her return to Australian waters , several sailors aboard the warship mutinied after a request for an extra day 's leave in Fremantle was denied , although other issues played a part in the mutiny , including minimal leave during the war , problems with pay , and the perception that Royal Navy personnel were more likely to receive promotions than Australian sailors . Post @-@ war budget cuts saw Australia 's role downgraded to a training ship before she was placed in reserve in 1921 . The disarmament provisions of the Washington Naval Treaty required the destruction of Australia as part of the British Empire 's commitment , and she was scuttled off Sydney Heads in 1924 .
= = Design = =
The Indefatigable class of battlecruisers were based heavily on the preceding Invincible class . The main difference was that the Indefatigable 's design was enlarged to give the ships ' two wing turrets a wider arc of fire . As a result , the Indefatigable class was not a significant improvement on the Invincible design ; the ships were smaller and not as well protected as the contemporary German battlecruiser SMS Von der Tann and subsequent German designs . While Von der Tann 's characteristics were not known when the lead ship of the class , HMS Indefatigable , was laid down in February 1909 , the Royal Navy obtained accurate information on the German ship before work began on Australia and her sister ship HMS New Zealand .
Australia had an overall length of 590 feet ( 179 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 80 feet ( 24 @.@ 4 m ) , and a maximum draught of 30 feet 4 inches ( 9 @.@ 2 m ) . She displaced 18 @,@ 500 long tons ( 18 @,@ 797 t ) at load and 22 @,@ 130 long tons ( 22 @,@ 485 t ) at deep load . The Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines were designed to produce 44 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 32 @,@ 811 kW ) , which would propel the ship at 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) . However , during trials in 1913 , Australia 's turbines provided 55 @,@ 000 shp ( 41 @,@ 013 kW ) , allowing her to reach 26 @.@ 89 knots ( 49 @.@ 80 km / h ; 30 @.@ 94 mph ) . Australia carried approximately 3 @,@ 200 long tons ( 3 @,@ 251 t ) of coal , and an additional 850 long tons ( 864 t ) of fuel oil ; this was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate .
Australia carried eight BL 12 @-@ inch Mark X guns in four BVIII * twin turrets ; the largest guns fitted to any Australian warship . Two turrets were mounted fore and aft on the centreline , identified as ' A ' and ' X ' respectively . The other two were wing turrets mounted amidships and staggered diagonally : ' P ' was forward and to port of the centre funnel , while ' Q ' was situated starboard and aft . Each wing turret had some limited ability to fire to the opposite side . Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen BL 4 @-@ inch Mark VII guns positioned in the superstructure . She mounted two submerged tubes for 18 @-@ inch torpedoes , one on each side aft of ' X ' barbette , and 12 torpedoes were carried .
Australia 's ' A ' turret was fitted with a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinder at the rear of the turret roof . It was also equipped to control the entire main armament , in case normal fire control positions were knocked out or rendered incommunicado .
= = = Modifications = = =
Australia received a single QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt ( 76 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) gun on a high @-@ angle Mark II mount that was added in March 1915 . This had a maximum depression of 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . It fired a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ( 760 m / s ) at a rate of fire of 12 – 14 rounds per minute . It had a maximum effective ceiling of 23 @,@ 500 ft ( 7 @,@ 200 m ) . It was provided with 500 rounds . The 4 @-@ inch guns were enclosed in casemates and given blast shields during a refit in November 1915 to better protect the gun crews from weather and enemy action , and two aft guns were removed at the same time . An additional 4 @-@ inch gun was fitted in during 1917 as an AA gun . It was mounted on a Mark II high @-@ angle mounting with a maximum elevation of 60 ° . It had a reduced propellant charge with a muzzle velocity of only 2 @,@ 864 ft / s ( 873 m / s ) ; 100 rounds were carried for it .
Australia received a fire @-@ control director sometime between mid @-@ 1915 and May 1916 ; this centralised fire control under the director officer , who now fired the guns . The turret crewmen merely had to follow pointers transmitted from the director to align their guns on the target . This greatly increased accuracy , as it was easier to spot the fall of shells and eliminated the problem of the ship 's roll dispersing the shells when each turret fired independently . Australia was also fitted with an additional inch of armour around the midships turrets following the Battle of Jutland .
By 1918 , Australia carried a Sopwith Pup and a Sopwith 1 ½ Strutter on platforms fitted to the top of ' P ' and ' Q ' turrets . The first flying off by a 1 ½ Strutter was from Australia 's ' Q ' turret on 4 April 1918 . Each platform had a canvas hangar to protect the aircraft during inclement weather . At the end of World War I , Australia was described as " the least obsolescent of her class " .
After the war , both anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced by a pair of QF 4 @-@ inch Mark V guns on manually operated high @-@ angle mounts in January 1920 . Their elevation limits were − 5 ° to 80 ° . The guns fired a 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 387 ft / s ( 728 m / s ) at a rate of fire of 10 – 15 rounds per minute . They had a maximum effective ceiling of 28 @,@ 750 ft ( 8 @,@ 760 m ) .
= = Acquisition and construction = =
At the start of the 20th century , the British Admiralty maintained that naval defence of the British Empire , including the Dominions , should be unified under the Royal Navy . Attitudes on this matter softened during the first decade , and at the 1909 Imperial Conference , the Admiralty proposed the creation of ' Fleet Units ' : forces consisting of a battlecruiser , three light cruisers , six destroyers , and three submarines . Although some were to be operated by the Royal Navy at distant bases , particularly in the Far East , the Dominions were encouraged to purchase fleet units to serve as the core of new national navies : Australia and Canada were both encouraged to do so at earliest opportunity , New Zealand was asked to partially subsidise a fleet unit for the China Station , and there were plans for South Africa to fund one at a future point . Each fleet unit was designed as a " navy in miniature " , and would operate under the control of the purchasing Dominion during peacetime . In the event of widespread conflict , the fleet units would come under Admiralty control , and would be merged to form larger fleets for regional defence . Australia was the only Dominion to purchase a full fleet unit , and while the New Zealand @-@ funded battlecruiser was donated to the Royal Navy outright , no other nation purchased ships under the fleet unit plan .
On 9 December 1909 , a cable was sent by Governor @-@ General Lord Dudley to the Secretary of State for the Colonies , The Earl of Crewe , requesting that construction of three Town class cruisers and an Indefatigable @-@ class battlecruiser start at earliest opportunity . It is unclear why this design was selected , given that it was known to be inferior to the battlecruisers entering service with the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) . Historian John Roberts has suggested that the request may have been attributable to the Royal Navy 's practice of using small battleships and large cruisers as flagships of stations far from Britain , or it might have reflected the preferences of the First Sea Lord and Admiral of the Fleet John Fisher , preferences not widely shared .
The Australian Government decided on the name Australia , as this would avoid claims of favouritism or association with a particular state . The ship 's badge depicted the Federation Star overlaid by a naval crown , and her motto was " Endeavour " , reflecting both an idealisation of Australians ' national spirit and attitude , and a connection to James Cook and HM Bark Endeavour . On 6 May 1910 , George Reid , Australia 's high commissioner to the United Kingdom , sent a telegram cable to the Australian Government suggesting that the ship be named after the newly crowned King George V , but this was rebuffed .
Bids for construction were forwarded to the Australian Government by Reid on 7 March 1910 , and Prime Minister Alfred Deakin approved the submission by John Brown & Company to construct the hull and machinery , with separate contracts awarded to Armstrong and Vickers for the battlecruiser 's armament . The total cost of construction was set at £ 2 million . Contracts were signed between the Admiralty and the builders to avoid the problems of distant supervision by the Australian Government , and a close watch on proceedings was maintained by Reid and Captain Francis Haworth @-@ Booth , the Australian Naval Representative in London .
Australia 's keel was laid at John Brown & Company 's Clydebank yard on 23 June 1910 , and was assigned the yard number 402 . The ship was launched by Lady Reid on 25 October 1911 , in a ceremony which received extensive media coverage . Australia 's design was altered during construction to incorporate improvements in technology , including the newly developed nickel @-@ steel armour plate . While it was intended that the entire ship be fitted with the new armour , manufacturing problems meant that older armour had to be used in some sections : the delay in sourcing the older armour plates set construction back half a year . Despite this , John Brown & Company delivered the ship £ 295 @,@ 000 under budget .
During construction , First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill attempted to arrange for Australia to remain in British waters on completion . Although the claim was made on strategic grounds , the reasoning behind it was so the Australian @-@ funded ship could replace one to be purchased with British defence funds . This plan was successfully resisted by Admiral George King @-@ Hall , then Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Royal Navy 's Australia Squadron .
Australia sailed for Devonport , Devon in mid @-@ February 1913 to begin her acceptance trials . Testing of the guns , torpedoes , and machinery was successful , but it was discovered that two hull plates had been damaged during the launch , requiring the battlecruiser to dock for repairs . Australia was commissioned into the RAN at Portsmouth on 21 June 1913 . Two days later , Rear Admiral George Patey , the first Rear Admiral Commanding Australian Fleet , raised his flag aboard Australia .
At launch , the standard ship 's company was 820 , over half of which were Royal Navy personnel ; the other half was made up of Australian @-@ born RAN personnel , or Britons transferring from the Royal Navy to the RAN . Accommodation areas were crowded , with each man having only 14 inches ( 36 cm ) of space to sling his hammock when Australia was fully manned . Moreover , the ventilation system was designed for conditions in Europe , and was inadequate for the climate in and around Australia . On delivery , Australia was the largest warship in the Southern Hemisphere .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Voyage to Australia = = =
Following her commissioning , Australia hosted several official events . On 30 June , King George V and Edward , Prince of Wales , visited Australia to farewell the ship . During this visit , King George knighted Patey on the ship 's quarterdeck — the first time a naval officer was knighted aboard a warship since Francis Drake . On 1 July , Patey hosted a luncheon which was attended by imperial dignitaries , including Reid , the Agents @-@ General of the Australian states , First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill , Secretary of State for the Colonies Lewis Harcourt , and the High Commissioners of other British Dominions . That afternoon , 600 Australian expatriates were invited to a ceremonial farewelling , and were entertained by shows and fireworks . Journalists and cinematographers were allowed aboard to report on Australia prior to her departure , and an official reporter was embarked for the voyage to Australia : his role was to promote the ship as a symbol of the bond between Australia and the United Kingdom .
Australia was escorted by the light cruiser HMAS Sydney during the voyage to Australia . On 25 July , the two ships left England for South Africa : the visit was part of an agreement between the Prime Ministers of Australia and South Africa to promote the link between the two nations , along with the nations ' links to the rest of the British Empire . The two ships were anchored in Table Bay from 18 to 26 August , during which the ships ' companies participated in parades and receptions , while tens of thousands of people came to observe the ships . The two ships also visited Simon 's Town , while Australia additionally called into Durban . No other major ports were visited on the voyage , and the warships were instructed to avoid all major Australian ports .
Australia and Sydney reached Jervis Bay on 2 October , where they rendezvoused with the rest of the RAN fleet ( the cruisers Encounter and Melbourne , and the destroyers Parramatta , Warrego , and Yarra ) . The seven warships prepared for a formal fleet entry into Sydney Harbour . On 4 October , Australia led the fleet into Sydney Harbour , where responsibility for Australian naval defence was passed from the Royal Navy 's Australia Squadron , commanded by King @-@ Hall aboard HMS Cambrian , to the RAN , commanded by Patey aboard Australia .
= = = Early service = = =
In her first year of service , Australia visited as many major Australian ports as possible , to expose the new navy to the widest possible audience and induce feelings of nationhood : naval historian David Stevens claims that these visits did more to break down state rivalries and promote the unity of Australia as a federated commonwealth than any other event . During late 1913 , footage for the film Sea Dogs of Australia was filmed aboard the battlecruiser ; the film was withdrawn almost immediately after first screening in August 1914 because of security concerns .
During July 1914 , Australia and other units of the RAN fleet were on a training cruise in Queensland waters . On 27 July , the Australian Commonwealth Naval Board learned through press telegrams that the British Admiralty thought that there would be imminent and widespread war in Europe following the July Crisis , and had begun to position its fleets as a precaution . Three days later , the Board learned that the official warning telegram had been sent : at 22 : 30 , Australia was recalled to Sydney to take on coal and stores .
On 3 August , the RAN was placed under Admiralty control . Orders for RAN warships were prepared over the next few days : Australia was assigned to the concentration of British naval power on the China Station , but was allowed to seek out and destroy any armoured warships ( particularly those of the German East Asia Squadron ) in the Australian Station before doing so . Vice Admiral Maximilian von Spee , commander of the German squadron , was aware of Australia 's presence in the region and her superiority to his entire force ; the German admiral 's plan was to harass British shipping and colonies in the Pacific until the presence of Australia and the China Squadron forced his fleet to relocate to other seas .
= = = World War I = = =
= = = = Securing local waters = = = =
The British Empire declared war on Germany on 5 August , and the RAN swung into action . Australia had departed Sydney the night before , and was heading north to rendezvous with other RAN vessels south of German New Guinea . The German colonial capital of Rabaul was considered a likely base of operations for von Spee , and Patey put together a plan to clear the harbour . Australia 's role was to hang back : if the armoured cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and SMS Gneisenau were present , the other RAN vessels would lure them into range of the battlecruiser . The night @-@ time operation was executed on 11 August , and no German ships were found in the harbour . Over the next two days , Australia and the other ships unsuccessfully searched the nearby bays and coastline for the German ships and any wireless stations , before returning to Port Moresby to refuel .
In late August , Australia and Melbourne escorted a New Zealand occupation force to German Samoa . Patey believed that the German fleet was likely to be in the eastern Pacific , and Samoa would be a logical move . Providing protection for the New Zealand troopships was a beneficial coincidence , although the timing could have been better , as an Australian expedition to occupy German New Guinea departed from Sydney a few days after the New Zealand force left home waters — Australia was expected to support both , but Patey only learned of the expeditions after they had commenced their journeys . The battlecruiser left Port Moresby on 17 August and was met by Melbourne en route on 20 August . The next day , they reached Nouméa and the New Zealand occupation force , consisting of the troopships Moeraki and Monowai , the French cruiser Montcalm , and three Pelorus @-@ class cruisers . The grounding of Monowai delayed the
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voted the state 's best prep prospect , garnering twice as many votes as second @-@ place prospect Allan Houston . The Tigers started the year 8 – 0 before suffering their only regular season loss in the first game of the 1987 Beach Ball Classic against Eau Claire High School . In Clay County 's next game in the Classic , Farmer broke the school 's career scoring record , scoring his 2,193rd point in a 76 – 57 win over Tulsa , Oklahoma 's Nathan Hale High School . Gary Gregory , who had held the record since 1974 , was in attendance at the game . In the tournament 's fifth place game , Farmer scored 33 points and broke the single @-@ game record for assists with 16 , besting Kenny Anderson 's year @-@ old record of 13 . Clay County defeated Simi Valley High School 95 – 91 , and Farmer was selected as the tournament 's Outstanding Player and named to the all @-@ tournament team .
In the opening round of the January 1988 Louisville Invitational Tournament ( LIT ) , Farmer scored 40 points on 15 of 30 shooting in a 86 – 82 win over Pleasure Ridge Park High School , pushing Clay County 's record to 16 – 1 and setting up another meeting with Allan Houston 's Ballard team . Farmer scored 39 points – including 14 of his 15 free throws – and grabbed 12 rebounds in Clay County 's 92 – 88 double overtime victory . In the championship game against Bardstown High School , Farmer battled through fatigue and a thigh injury to lead his team in scoring with 24 points in an overtime win . In the three @-@ game tournament , Farmer scored 103 points and played all of his team 's 105 minutes , while committing only 4 turnovers . He was selected to the all @-@ tournament team and named tournament MVP . Already being recruited by Western Kentucky , Alabama , and Notre Dame , Farmer 's performances in the Beach Ball Classic and LIT brought notice from Eastern Kentucky , Wake Forest , Auburn , Louisville , and Kentucky .
In the 49th District Championship game , Farmer broke Clay County 's single @-@ game scoring record with 51 points in a 101 – 59 win over Jackson County High School . In the 13th Region tournament opener , Farmer scored 40 points as Clay County defeated Corbin High School 75 – 56 . Clay County went on to defeat Bell County High School 53 – 36 in the semifinals and Knox Central High School 73 – 69 in the finals to once again advance to the KHSAA state tournament . Farmer scored 38 points on 14 of 24 shooting in a victory over Rowan County High School in the tournament 's opening round . Four minutes into the Tigers ' quarterfinal matchup against LaRue County High School , Farmer scored a three @-@ point basket that tied Wallace " Wah Wah " Jones ' record for most points scored by a single player in the KHSAA state tournament ( 223 ) . Farmer went on to break the record , scoring 30 points in a 91 – 54 win .
Farmer 's 18 points in the semifinals against Pleasure Ridge Park helped Clay County to a 92 – 90 win and a rematch in the title game against Ballard High School . Farmer set a title game record against Ballard , scoring 51 points on 20 of 32 shooting ( including 9 of 14 from three @-@ point range ) , but Clay County lost 88 – 79 . Ron King set the previous title game record in 1969 with 44 ; only Kelly Coleman 's 69 @-@ point performance in 1956 bested Farmer 's 51 points in a tournament game . He was selected to the all @-@ tournament team , received a Dawahares ' Sweet Sixteen Academic Scholarship Award , and was voted the tournament 's MVP . Following the state tournament , Farmer said he was contacted by LSU , Vanderbilt , Virginia , and Indiana in addition to schools who had previously recruited him .
For the season , Farmer averaged 27 @.@ 1 points , 6 @.@ 4 rebounds and 8 @.@ 7 assists per game , all career highs . The only player to play in the KHSAA state tournament five times , he finished his career with records for most points scored ( 317 ) and most field goals made ( 127 ) for a career in the tournament . He posted a total of 2 @,@ 793 points in his high school career . He was named Kentucky Mr. Basketball , Kentucky Associated Press Male High School Athlete of the Year , and was the leading vote @-@ getter for the Kentucky All @-@ State Team , appearing on 160 of 167 ballots . The Clay County Judge / Executive renamed a road outside Farmer 's hometown of Machester " Richie Boulevard " . In a 1989 Lexington Herald @-@ Leader poll of sportswriters and former high school coaches , Farmer was the near @-@ unanimous choice as the best high school player in Kentucky during the 1980s .
In May 1988 , Farmer was selected to an AAU all @-@ star team that played an exhibition game in Memorial Coliseum against an all @-@ star team from the Soviet Union . He scored 17 points in a 107 – 93 win . In the first of two matchups with Indiana 's All @-@ Star team , the Kentucky All @-@ Stars lost 102 – 82 ; Farmer had a bad shooting performance , going 5 of 18 from the field , including 2 of 9 from three @-@ point range , for 15 points . In the rematch the following week , Farmer scored 19 points in a 112 – 100 loss .
= = = Recruitment = = =
Despite Farmer 's prolific scoring , recruiters expressed concern about his small stature and lack of quickness . Even while lauding his skills , Lexington Herald @-@ Leader sportswriter Mike Fields wrote that Farmer had " heavy legs and slow @-@ going style " . Regarding Farmer 's size , Fields noted that , despite playing point guard , Farmer consistently jumped center for Clay County and could jump high enough to execute a two @-@ handed slam dunk . The Herald @-@ Leader 's Billy Reed compared Farmer to Indiana 's Steve Alford , who overcame doubts about his size , speed , and defense to become the Hoosiers ' all @-@ time leading scorer and lead them to an NCAA Championship in 1987 .
Kentucky was believed to be Farmer 's school of choice , but coaches remained non @-@ committal about his recruitment . The Wildcats had seven returning guards and small forwards – Rex Chapman , Eric Manuel , Deron Feldhaus , Derrick Miller , John Pelphrey , Johnathon Davis , and Sean Sutton – and two signed recruits at those positions – Sean Woods and Chris Mills . Conversely , four of their five frontcourt players – Winston Bennett , Rob Lock , Cedric Jenkins and Richard Madison – were graduating , and lone frontcourt signee Shawn Kemp had not yet qualified academically . On March 21 , 1988 , Farmer told a Lexington television station that he would no longer consider Kentucky if they did not offer him a scholarship by the weekend . A week later , the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader reported that coach Eddie Sutton extended the offer but that Farmer planned to take official visits to Western Kentucky and Vanderbilt , and would host an in @-@ home visit with LSU coach Dale Brown before deciding whether to accept Sutton 's offer .
In April , Farmer played shooting guard for the North team in the Kentucky Derby Festival Classic . He scored 14 points on 5 of 12 shooting and grabbed 3 rebounds , but his team lost to the South team 134 – 125 . Among his teammates in the Classic was Kentucky signee Sean Woods , who told the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader that he and Farmer had become good friends and that he hoped Farmer would choose to play for the Wildcats . The paper also reported that Farmer had narrowed his list of potential college choices to three : Western Kentucky , LSU , and Kentucky . Farmer took an official visit to Western Kentucky the weekend of April 9 , 1988 , but on April 14 , the second day of the April signing period , he held a press conference at his high school gymnasium to announce that he had signed a National Letter of Intent with Kentucky . He told the assembled crowd , " [ Playing for Kentucky has ] been a dream of mine as long as I can remember . Even before kindergarten , I always wanted to play for Kentucky . "
= = College basketball = =
= = = Freshman = = =
By the time Farmer arrived at Kentucky , the roster had been decimated . Standout shooting guard Rex Chapman entered the 1988 NBA Draft , ending his collegiate eligibility . Sophomore Eric Manuel was held out of basketball activities pending the outcome of an investigation into his ACT scores . Signees Shawn Kemp and Sean Woods failed to qualify academically , and Chris Mills was under investigation by the NCAA for cash allegedly sent to his father by assistant coach Dwane Casey in violation of the Association 's amateurism rules . A viral illness forced Farmer to miss about a third of the team 's preseason practices . Once he was able to practice , Coach Eddie Sutton related that he lacked the conditioning to finish most practices . The Lexington Herald @-@ Leader 's Jerry Tipton later reported that Farmer had to leave practice half an hour early two days a week to attend his American History class . Sutton also opined that Farmer 's high school competition was inferior to that of Los Angeles native Mills , but Farmer 's high school coach pointed out that , during Farmer 's senior season , 20 of his team 's games were against teams ranked in the top 20 in their respective states .
In his first collegiate game , against Duke , Farmer played 7 minutes and air balled his only shot . After an early season loss to Notre Dame in the Big Four Classic dropped the Wildcats ' record to 2 – 3 , Sutton noted that Farmer , Sean Sutton , and LaRon Ellis had all missed practice time with the flu . After managing just 17 points in the Wildcats ' first five games , Farmer scored 10 points in 20 minutes in the team 's sixth game against Northwestern State . With 12 seconds to go in the game and Kentucky trailing 84 – 82 , Farmer was whistled for an intentional foul on Northwestern State 's Roman Banks while trying to draw a charge on an inbounds play . Banks maintained that Farmer had tugged Banks toward him and fallen down , attempting to draw the call , but Farmer and Sutton both denied the alleged chicanery . Banks hit one of two free throws , and Farmer missed a potentially game @-@ tying three @-@ point shot at the buzzer , dropping the Wildcats to 2 – 4 on the season . Farmer followed up with a 15 @-@ point performance in a win against Western Carolina . In the Kentucky Invitational Tournament , where Kentucky lost its opening round game to Bowling Green before winning the third @-@ place game against Marshall , Farmer scored 12 points in each game .
Farmer 's sudden increase in scoring prompted complaints from the fan base that Sutton disliked Farmer and was limiting his minutes out of favoritism for his son , Sean . Some fans began to boo when Sutton , the team 's starting point guard , returned to the game to replace Farmer . Farmer maintained that Sutton had treated him fairly , and Sutton cited lack of practice time as the reason for Farmer 's limited playing time ; in early January 1989 , local media reported that Farmer had been limited in practice due to right knee pain . Questions about Farmer 's playing time continued into Southeastern Conference play , even as Farmer 's scoring also dropped off . By late January , Sutton publicly complained about the need for more scoring from the bench , which had produced only 29 points in the team 's previous seven games . Lexington Herald @-@ Leader columnist Billy Reed wrote : " Richie simply isn 't ready to play at this level yet " .
Before a January game against Georgia , two @-@ time former governor A. B. " Happy " Chandler presented Farmer with the 1988 Kentucky Sportsman of the Year Award . The youngest person and first high school athlete ever to win the award , Farmer finished ahead of former Kentucky guard Pat Riley , who had just coached the NBA 's Los Angeles Lakers to a second consecutive championship .
With the Wildcats ' record sitting at 11 – 13 overall and 6 – 6 in conference play headed into a February road game against conference leader LSU , Farmer remained in Lexington with a combination of a stomach virus and the flu . Teammates LaRon Ellis , Chris Mills , and Derrick Miller had also been ill , but all recovered in time to make the trip . Farmer shot just 2 of 14 in limited minutes in the month of February . In Kentucky 's final home game of the season , Farmer hit a three @-@ pointer – his only points of the game – with two seconds left to lift the Wildcats to a 70 – 69 win over Ole Miss . The following game , Farmer missed a potentially game @-@ winning 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) jump shot at the buzzer in a 68 – 67 loss at Mississippi State to end the Wildcats ' regular season . In its first game of the Southeastern Conference Tournament the next week , Kentucky lost to Vanderbilt 77 – 63 in a game where Farmer missed all four of his field goal attempts . Finishing with a 13 – 19 record – the team 's worst record since the 1926 @-@ 27 season – the Wildcats were not invited to any postseason tournament . At the team 's annual postseason awards banquet , Farmer received the free throw award .
= = = Sophomore = = =
Between Farmer 's freshman and sophomore years , the NCAA banned Eric Manuel from playing in any further NCAA games because of questions about the legitimacy of his ACT scores and levied a two @-@ year postseason ban , a one @-@ year ban on televised games , and scholarship reductions against Kentucky as punishment for payments allegedly made to the father of Chris Mills . Mills was ruled ineligible to play at Kentucky and transferred to Arizona ; Sean Sutton and LaRon Ellis also transferred to other schools in the wake of the sanctions . Eddie Sutton resigned and was replaced by New York Knicks head coach Rick Pitino . After recruit Henry Thomas suffered an off @-@ season injury to his anterior cruciate ligament , Kentucky was left with just 8 scholarship players , none of whom were taller than 6 ft 8 in ( 2 @.@ 03 m ) .
Pitino and newly hired strength and conditioning coach Rock Oliver instituted an intensive conditioning program . The Lexington Herald @-@ Leader noted that Farmer lost 12 pounds ( 5 @.@ 4 kg ) in the off @-@ season , reducing his weight to 168 pounds ( 76 kg ) , and Pitino praised his improved speed and endurance . Pitino also brought Billy Donovan – who played point guard on Pitino 's teams at Providence – to Kentucky as a graduate assistant to mentor the team 's two point guards , Farmer and Sean Woods ( now academically eligible ) .
The team 's first intra @-@ squad scrimmage showcased Pitino 's fast @-@ paced , three @-@ point @-@ heavy style ; the two teams combined to shoot 98 @-@ of @-@ 175 from the field , including 23 @-@ of @-@ 57 from three , as the Blue team defeated the White team 145 – 85 . Farmer led the White team ( the projected reserves ) in scoring with 26 points , including 5 @-@ of @-@ 13 shooting from three @-@ point range . In the next scrimmage , played at Farmer 's alma mater , Clay County High School , Farmer scored 32 points , but the White team lost to the Blue team again , 125 – 117 . The teams again combined for 175 shots , and Pitino said before the game that he wanted both teams to exceed 120 points . Farmer sat out much of the second half of the final scrimmage due to illness but scored 17 points on 5 @-@ of @-@ 16 shooting in a 124 – 120 victory for the White team .
After Kentucky 's second game of the year – a 71 – 69 loss at Indiana – Pitino noted that Farmer , who had 4 points and 4 assists in the game , was benefiting from extra one @-@ on @-@ one coaching sessions with Donovan . In a December 19 , 1989 , victory against Furman , Farmer attempted 7 three @-@ pointers – tied for second @-@ most in the game – as the Wildcats set an NCAA record for most three @-@ pointers attempted in a game with 47 , besting their own record of 41 set earlier in the month against Tennessee Tech . A week later , Farmer set a career @-@ high in points with 21 – including three made three @-@ pointers – as the Wildcats set records for the most three @-@ pointers made in a single game ( 21 ) and most points ever scored against North Carolina , but lost the game 121 – 110 . After the game , Pitino opined that Farmer " holds back a little bit " and noted that he would expect Farmer to work hard in the off @-@ season to reach his potential . The Wildcats closed out 1989 with a closer @-@ than @-@ expected 86 – 79 loss against eighth @-@ ranked Louisville , but local sportswriter John McGill said Farmer had his best game to date with 10 points , 9 assists and 3 steals off the bench .
In a January 20 , 1990 , contest against conference foe Tennessee , Pitino benched senior shooting guard Derrick Miller to start the second half , giving his spot to Farmer . Farmer , who had no assists and 4 turnovers in nine minutes during the first half , responded with 7 assists and only one turnover in the second half . Miller , who entered the game with 17 : 38 left , scored 17 points in the second half as the Wildcats turned a 44 – 39 halftime deficit into a 95 – 83 win . Miller credited Pitino 's decision to bring him off the bench in the second half with taking the pressure off him and helping him get more comfortable in the game . After a mid @-@ week loss to Auburn , Pitino announced that he would move Farmer into the starting lineup , replacing Sean Woods , for the Wildcats ' January 27 contest against Ole Miss . " We will change the lineup to try to get more concentration . We 'll try Richie Farmer at the point and see what we get out of that . Right now we 're not getting too much out of that position , " Pitino told reporters during an SEC teleconference . In a 98 – 79 victory , Farmer tallied 11 points , 2 assists and no turnovers in 24 minutes ; Woods registered 8 points , 4 assists , and 2 turnovers in 23 minutes off the bench . Pitino said practice performance would determine whether Woods or Farmer would start the Wildcats ' next game against Mississippi State , and he ultimately decided to return Woods to the starting rotation .
On February 15 , 1990 , in front of a record 24 @,@ 301 fans at Rupp Arena , Farmer hit six consecutive free throws to help Kentucky overcome a career @-@ high 41 points by LSU 's Chris Jackson and pull within a half @-@ game of first place in the SEC with a 100 – 95 win . Farmer entered the game after Sean Woods fouled out with 1 : 54 left , and with Kentucky leading by two with just over a minute left , LSU coach Dale Brown instructed his team to foul Farmer on each Kentucky possession to conserve the game clock and regain possession of the ball . " We felt Farmer did not have much experience , and he was playing a little tight , " Brown said after the game . Told of Brown 's instructions to foul Farmer – the team 's best free throw shooter at 86 % – during a post @-@ game interview , Pitino expressed surprise . " [ Brown ] said he purposely wanted to foul Richie Farmer ? What was his reason ? ... If I had to pick a guy to shoot it in front of 50 @,@ 000 people with your life at stake , it 's going to be Richie Farmer shooting that free throw . "
Less than two minutes into a subsequent game at Alabama , Farmer and walk @-@ on Tony Cooper both left the bench when Kentucky 's Reggie Hanson and Alabama 's Robert Horry engaged in a fist @-@ fight . Hansen , Horry and Cooper were all ejected , but Farmer was not . Asked about the difference in penalties for Cooper and Farmer , official Don Ferguson admitted he did not want to hurt Kentucky 's shallow rotation any further by ejecting another regular contributor . As a token of appreciation to the fans , after the Wildcats ' February 24 " Senior Day " win over Auburn , Pitino called his players back onto the floor and presented the individual awards usually reserved for the team 's annual awards banquet . Farmer received the " Best Free Throw Shooter " award . For the season , he averaged 7 @.@ 0 points per game . Fans and the media nicknamed the team " Pitino 's Bombinos " for their fast @-@ paced offense that relied heavily on the three @-@ point shot , which contrasted sharply with the more deliberate offensive schemes run by Pitino 's immediate predecessors , Joe B. Hall and Eddie Sutton .
= = = Junior = = =
In September 1990 , Farmer had a disagreement with strength coach Rock Oliver , returned home to Manchester , and considered leaving the Kentucky basketball team . Pitino , who was away from campus on a recruiting visit , called Farmer and scheduled a meeting with him for the following weekend , after which Farmer decided to return to the team . Pitino characterized the incident as " a case of someone getting down and needing a couple of hugs to get their spirits lifted a little bit " . Pitino later added that he thought the transfer of point guard Travis Ford from Missouri – bringing additional competition in the backcourt for the 1991 – 92 season – may have played into Farmer 's brief departure .
Pitino expressed uncertainty entering the season about who would replace Derrick Miller as the team 's starting shooting guard . Farmer was the leading candidate until suffering a bruised kidney during a public intra @-@ squad scrimmage in early November and reaggravating the injury during another public scrimmage days later . Sophomore Jeff Brassow got the start for the Wildcats in their season opening win against Penn . Farmer scored 12 points off the bench – one of six Wildcats with double @-@ digit points – but left the game with 3 : 17 remaining after taking an inadvertent elbow in the back . In the next game against Cincinnati , Farmer briefly replaced starter Sean Woods at point guard after Woods committed eight turnovers in the first half , but Farmer fared little better , committing two turnovers and uncharacteristically missing two consecutive free throws . In the second half , after Woods picked up his fourth foul , Farmer entered the game and provided steady leadership to preserve a 75 – 71 win . In the Wildcats ' third game of the year – a win over Notre Dame in the Big Four Classic – Farmer led the team in scoring with 19 points on 7 @-@ of @-@ 11 shooting ; he added 4 assists and 2 steals against no turnovers in 23 minutes of play .
Prior to Kentucky 's December 15 matchup against Chattanooga , Pitino publicly contemplated starting Farmer in place of Sean Woods at point and either Carlos Toomer or Jody Thompson at shooting guard instead of Brassow . The day of the game , he announced Farmer would make the second start of his career at shooting guard alongside Woods at point . Although he tied with Pelphrey for a team @-@ high 17 points , Farmer returned to the bench for the following game against Indiana because Pitino felt he didn 't have the size to defend the Hoosiers ' bigger guards .
In a December 22 , 1990 , win against in @-@ state rival Western Kentucky , Farmer posted a new career high with 22 points , despite missing his first five three @-@ point attempts of the game . He would not approach such scoring numbers again until a February 3 , 1991 , contest against Georgia , when he scored 16 points after seeing extended minutes due to Woods being in foul trouble . Farmer suffered a black eye during the game , which was notable for its physicality . Messenger @-@ Inquirer sportswriter Jake Jennings also noted that Farmer relied on drives to the basket to score , as opposed to his usual penchant for shooting three @-@ point shots .
Before Kentucky 's February 13 game against Tennessee , Woods was hospitalized with an " acute viral illness " . Farmer started in his place , tallying 14 points and 7 rebounds in an 85 – 74 win . Although Farmer also started the next game against Ole Miss , just 48 seconds into the game his knee made contact with an opponent 's knee , sending him to the locker room and Woods into the game . Farmer returned to score a team @-@ high 21 points , but also suffered a scratched eye , in a win that gave Kentucky the best record in the SEC ; Woods logged 9 points and 7 assists in almost 24 minutes of action off the bench . Woods returned to the starting lineup in Kentucky 's next game at Vanderbilt , but Farmer remained a starter as well , replacing Jeff Brassow at shooting guard . He scored 13 of his team @-@ high 19 in the first half , but Kentucky lost the game 98 – 87 . Pitino characterized Farmer as " exhausted " in the second half , playing heavy minutes in relief of Woods , who managed only 15 minutes before fouling out . Two games later , Farmer hit four of his first five shots – including three 3 @-@ pointers – and finished with a team @-@ high 16 in a win against Alabama . Farmer notched 20 points – one behind team leader Jamal Mashburn – in Kentucky 's final game of the season , a 114 – 93 win over Auburn . The win pushed Kentucky to a conference @-@ best 14 – 4 record , but an SEC rule forbade declaring a team the regular season champion if they were ineligible for postseason play , as Kentucky was .
Farmer was one of five players to average double @-@ digit points per game ( 10 @.@ 1 ) ; it was the first time since Kentucky 's 1977 – 78 championship team that so many players had averaged double @-@ digit scoring . At the team 's postseason awards banquet , Farmer received the Free Throw Award for the third straight year and was also named the team 's Most Improved Player . Pitino named the four rising seniors – Farmer , Pelphrey , Woods , and Feldhaus – co @-@ captains for the upcoming season .
= = = Senior = = =
Shortly after the team 's first practice in October 1991 , Pitino again commented on Farmer 's improved conditioning , calling it his " biggest surprise " of the early practices . He also announced that seniors Sean Woods and John Pelphrey would join Jamal Mashburn in the starting lineup – as the team 's point guard , small forward , and power forward , respectively – while senior Deron Feldhaus would reprise his " sixth man " role from the previous season . Farmer was projected to compete with junior college transfer Dale Brown for the starting shooting guard spot . At the team 's annual Midnight Madness scrimmage , Farmer joined the announced starters and sophomore Gimel Martinez on the Blue team , which defeated the White team 67 – 54 . Farmer had 18 points , including 4 of 6 made three @-@ point baskets . Forbidden from holding off @-@ campus scrimmages by new NCAA regulations , Kentucky played its only public preseason scrimmage in Memorial Coliseum ; Farmer joined the White team , scoring 21 points on 6 @-@ of @-@ 12 shooting in a losing effort .
Suffering from the flu , Farmer did not play in the Wildcats ' season @-@ opening win against West Virginia in the Preseason NIT . He played in the following game , but missed all seven of his shots as Kentucky was eliminated from the tournament by Pitt 85 – 67 , the team 's worst home loss since 1988 . Farmer came off the bench in the Wildcats ' next game – a 90 – 69 win over UMass – but matched his career @-@ high with 22 points , including a perfect 10 @-@ of @-@ 10 from the free throw line ; he saw extended minutes in the game due to a season @-@ ending knee injury to Jeff Brassow . UMass coach John Calipari called Farmer " the difference in the game " .
During the non @-@ conference season , Farmer made notable plays late in important games , including a game @-@ clinching rebound against Indiana and a key three @-@ pointer in the waning minutes of a game against Ohio . In a January 2 , 1992 , game against Notre Dame , Farmer entered the game after just three minutes when starter Dale Brown sprained his ankle . In the first half , he equaled his career high of 22 points – including five three @-@ point baskets – en route to a new career @-@ high of 28 in a 91 – 70 victory . This performance notwithstanding , complaints from the fan base about Farmer 's lack of playing time – he averaged 17 @.@ 7 minutes per game through early February – grew louder and eventually became the subject of media interest . In January , two of Kentucky 's smaller newspapers printed articles on the subject – one speculating that Pitino was intentionally holding Farmer back so Farmer 's popularity wouldn 't eclipse his own . Kentucky beat writer Jerry Tipton addressed the topic at length in a Lexington Herald @-@ Leader column on February 8 , drawing a rebuke from Pitino , who called the issue a " non @-@ story " .
In late January , shortly before the Tipton article appeared , Pitino decided to start Farmer against Ole Miss . He believed starting Woods and bringing Brown off the bench would allow him to have one of his two best defenders on the floor more often ; he also believed Farmer 's height would not be a liability against Ole Miss ' smaller starting guards . Farmer scored 10 points on 4 @-@ of @-@ 10 shooting and led the team with 6 rebounds in a 96 – 78 victory . Pitino then decided to start Farmer and fellow reserve Deron Feldhaus in Kentucky 's next game against LSU , hoping to draw Tigers center Shaquille O 'Neal farther from the basket by starting better shooters . The strategy was not successful – Farmer shot 2 @-@ of @-@ 9 and Feldhaus 1 @-@ of @-@ 10 in a 74 – 53 loss – but Pitino announced that Farmer would continue to start because he was exhibiting more shooting confidence than Kentucky 's other guards . Farmer responded with 16 points , including four 3 @-@ pointers , in a 85 – 67 victory over Auburn . He continued to start for the Wildcats for the rest of the regular season , culminating in a Senior day win against Tennessee , when he scored 11 of Kentucky 's first 16 points and saw extended minutes after fellow senior Sean Woods was ejected for fighting with the Volunteers ' Jay Price .
With the team 's probation over , Farmer and the other three seniors played in their first – and only – postseason games in the 1991 – 92 season . After an opening round win against Vanderbilt in the SEC Tournament in Birmingham , Alabama , Kentucky won its third meeting of the season with LSU 80 – 74 in the second round ; the Tigers were without star center Shaquille O 'Neal , who was suspended for fighting with Tennessee 's Carlus Groves in his team 's opening round victory . In the finals , Kentucky faced three @-@ time defending tournament champion Alabama , which was without forward Andre Perry , who suffered a broken foot in the semifinals against Arkansas . Star sophomore Jamal Mashburn led all scorers with 28 points on 12 @-@ of @-@ 14 shooting , en route to an 80 – 54 victory and tournament Most Valuable Player honors . Mashburn , who shot 26 @-@ for @-@ 31 in the Wildcats ' three tournament games , said of his performance , " At the beginning of the season , I told the four seniors ' this is the only thing I can give you . I can 't give you any presents , but I can give you an SEC championship . We gave them a present they really deserved . "
Kentucky was seeded second in the East Region of the 1992 NCAA Tourment . The Wildcats held a narrow 62 – 59 lead with 8 : 25 to play in their first round matchup against Colonial Athletic Association champion Old Dominion when Farmer hit a layup that keyed a decisive four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute , 15 – 2 run , helping Kentucky to a 88 – 69 victory . Kentucky 's next game , against Iowa State , was decided at the free throw line . Kentucky was called for 29 fouls in the game , and Iowa State hit 34 @-@ of @-@ 38 free throws , but in the final 1 : 27 of the game , Kentucky shot 14 free throws – making 11 – to win the game 106 – 98 . Farmer , who finished with 14 points , hit four consecutive free throws in the final minute of the game . After the game , Pitino commented , " If not for Richie Farmer , we don 't win the game . " In the regional semifinals , the Wildcats faced a rematch with third @-@ seeded UMass . After the Minutemen cut a 20 @-@ point Kentucky lead to 2 with almost six minutes remaining in the game , UMass coach John Calipari was whistled for a technical foul for leaving the coach 's box while arguing that one of his players had been fouled on a loose ball rebound ; Farmer , who finished with 7 points , made the resulting free throws , starting an 11 – 2 run that helped Kentucky to an 87 – 77 win .
In the regional finals , Kentucky trailed top @-@ seeded Duke by 12 in the second half , but battled back to force overtime . With 2 @.@ 1 seconds left in overtime , Sean Woods hit a running bank shot to put Kentucky up one . Then , Duke 's Christian Laettner caught a long inbounds pass , faked right , and hit a shot at the buzzer to give Duke the 104 – 103 victory . The game , which ended Farmer 's playing career , is widely regarded as one of the greatest college basketball games of all time . Duke coach Mike Krzyzewski later recalled , " The thing I 'll always remember about that game is Richie Farmer 's face as the ball went in . That , to me , helped me to have a better understanding of that game . ... To me , that was the deepest emotion that was on the court , the emotion that was on Richie Farmer 's face . " Describing the impact of the game , Jerry Tipton wrote , " On one fateful night , the Cats obliterated any lingering association with $ 1 @,@ 000 packages and academic fraud . Alluring images of courage , honest effort and heartracing excitement became symbols of UK basketball . " Local media gave the seniors the nickname " The Unforgettables " . Collectively , they were voted as the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader 's 1992 Sportsmen of the Year .
At the team 's annual awards night , Farmer won the award for fewest turnovers per minute played ( 32 in 705 minutes ) , but the free throw award – won by Farmer the previous three years – went to Gimel Martinez . Athletics director C. M. Newton surprised the four seniors by hanging their jerseys in the rafters at Rupp Arena . In so doing , he violated the standards for the honor set by former athletics director Cliff Hagan . Those guidelines held that honorees must have completed a degree from the university and be at least 10 years removed from the end of their athletic eligibility . Newton cited the seniors ' " unusual and outstanding contributions " to the program as reasons to make an exception to the standards , adding , " I won 't say there never will be another exception , but the likelihood of another is not great . " Sportscaster Cris Collinsworth protested Newton 's action because it honored the seniors before other program standouts like Kyle Macy and Rick Robey .
After the season , the four seniors participated in a 21 @-@ city barnstorming tour of the state , playing against a group of local players in each city . At the game in Farmer 's hometown of Manchester , Farmer scored 107 points for the seniors ' team before switching to the Clay County team for the remainder of the game , hitting an additional three @-@ pointer for a total of 30 . Pelphrey hit a three to give the seniors – without Farmer – a 179 – 176 lead with 25 seconds left in the game , and the three seniors triple @-@ teamed Farmer to prevent him from getting a shot off to tie the game . Twenty percent of the proceeds from each game benefited local charities , and another twenty percent of the total proceeds from the tour was divided between the University of Kentucky Library Fund , Big Brothers Big Sisters , and AIDS Volunteers of Lexington .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
In August 1992 , Antex Publishing of Lexington released Farmer 's autobiography entitled Richie . In addition to the standard printing , the publisher offered a special edition of the book in which direct quotes from Farmer were rendered in blue type , similar to the words of Jesus in red letter editions of the Bible . Long @-@ time Wildcats radio broadcaster Cawood Ledford wrote the book 's foreword . By the end of October , the book had sold 30 @,@ 000 copies , and a second printing from the publisher was ordered . Farmer participated in several book signings across the state , as well as filming television advertisements for local products and conducting speaking engagements for dental insurance provider Delta Dental to promote good oral health in his native eastern Kentucky .
Farmer continued taking classes at Kentucky with support from the Cawood Ledford Scholarship fund – designated to help University of Kentucky athletes who have exhausted their athletic eligibility finish their degrees – and in 1995 , earned a bachelor of science degree with a double major in agricultural economics and agribusiness management . After graduation , he briefly worked in sports marketing in Lexington before returning to Manchester to join his father in the insurance business . In addition to selling insurance , Farmer also got his securities license to sell annuities , and eventually rose to become vice @-@ president of Kentucky Financial Group .
On April 15 , 1998 , Farmer married Rebecca Ann Morgan . The couple had three sons – Richard III ( " Trey " ) and Ryan , born on November 30 in 1996 and 1998 , respectively , and Tate , born in 2001 .
Farmer was inducted into the KHSAA Hall of Fame in 1998 and the Kentucky Athletic Hall of Fame in 2002 . He was one of 88 inaugural members of the University of Kentucky Athletics Hall of Fame in 2005 and one of 16 inaugural members of the Kentucky High School Basketball Hall of Fame in 2012 . " The Unforgettables " were honored on a limited edition collector 's bottle of Maker 's Mark bourbon in 2007 .
= = Political career = =
= = = First term as Commissioner of Agriculture = = =
On January 28 , 2003 , Farmer announced he would seek the Republican nomination for Kentucky Agriculture Commissioner . In his announcement , he acknowledged that he had never operated a farm , but noted that he knew many farmers and held a degree in an agriculture @-@ related field . Ellen Williams , chair of the state 's Republican Party , said Farmer 's candidacy would bring " star quality " to a down @-@ ballot race ( i.e. state offices other than governor and lieutenant governor ) . No Republican had been elected to any of those offices since 1967 .
Farmer waited until three weeks before the primary election to begin seriously campaigning and focused on population centers such as Lexington , Louisville , Bowling Green , and the Northern Kentucky area , where Republican voters were more concentrated . At that time , campaign finance reports showed that Farmer had spent about half of the $ 36 @,@ 055 raised for his campaign , while his opponent , Leonard " Buck " Beasley , had raised only $ 450 and spent nothing . While he proposed no major changes to the operation of the agriculture department , Farmer emphasized teamwork as a means to improve the state 's agricultural sector , cited the need to find new markets for Kentucky agricultural products , and expressed a desire to improve the public perception of the agriculture industry , saying " Farmers have a great story to tell , and I will use any name recognition I have gained through my experience with UK basketball to help them tell it . " He also raised the possibility of engaging other former basketball players to promote the work of the agriculture department and indicated that he would lobby to have half of Kentucky 's allocation of the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement directed to the state 's Agriculture Development Board .
With 109 @,@ 742 votes – 79 percent of the total cast – Farmer garnered more votes than any other Republican candidate for any office on the ballot en route to winning the nomination . The victory set up a general election contest against Democratic nominee Alice Woods Baesler , a state agriculture department aide and wife of former Congressman and Kentucky basketball player Scotty Baesler . Bolstered by his significantly higher name recognition , Farmer led an early July SurveyUSA poll 61 % to 33 % over Baesler . Baesler charged that Farmer was unqualified for the job of agriculture commissioner and that his high poll numbers and convincing primary victory were driven by his popularity as a basketball player , criticizing him for featuring his status as a member of " The Unforgettables " in his campaign literature . Farmer responded that his college degree qualified him to be agriculture commissioner and said his need to continue his day job to support his family often kept him away from the campaign trail where he could expound more on his ideas for running the Department of Agriculture .
At an August debate in Owensboro , Farmer proposed the cross @-@ promotion of Kentucky agricultural products and the state park system , awarding points for buying Kentucky produced groceries that could be redeemed for souvenirs and perks during stays at state parks . On October 21 , The Kentucky Post gave Baesler its endorsement , contrasting her experience running a farm and her involvement with the agriculture department to Farmer 's lack of agriculture experience and frequent absence at campaign events . Later that week , the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader also endorsed Baesler , and followed up the next day with an article noting that , as of October 3 , nearly one @-@ third of the $ 87 @,@ 825 @.@ 20 Farmer had spent during the campaign went to relatives – including his parents , brother , sister , and in @-@ laws – for salaries and campaign @-@ related reimbursements . Interviewed by phone , Farmer responded , " [ My family has ] probably worked 60 , 70 , 80 hours a week campaigning for me trying to get me elected . I don 't think we have done anything wrong . " Richard Beliles , chairman of campaign finance watchdog Common Cause of Kentucky , said Farmer 's actions were not illegal but were " rather odd " . Farmer overcame the bad press , however , to take the election by a vote of 575 @,@ 049 to 466 @,@ 321 .
In April 2004 , Farmer announced the formation of a committee to study the effectiveness of state owned and operated farmer 's markets . In June 2005 , he was elected secretary of the Southern Association of State Departments of Agriculture ; in 2007 , he was elected president of the organization . Farmer also sought to prevent an outbreak of vesicular stomatitis virus in the state 's horses and cattle by banning the import of animals from 20 western counties where the virus was known to have infected animals . On Farmer 's advice , Governor Ernie Fletcher requested that the United States Department of Agriculture designate Kentucky as an agricultural disaster area after an April 2007 cold snap devastated the state 's fruit and wheat crops ; the designation made Kentucky farmers eligible for low @-@ interest federal loans to help compensate for their lost crop revenue .
In December 2004 , Kentucky 's Registry of Election Finance , the agency that enforces the state 's campaign finance laws , hired Farmer 's sister , Rhonda F. Gray , who had previously served as chair of her brother 's campaign for agriculture commissioner . Registry chair John Rogers maintained that Gray was hired on her own merits , and Gray promised to recuse herself from any work that might involve her brother 's future campaigns . The following May , The Kentucky Post published excerpts from an email from Dick Murgatroyd , Fletcher 's deputy chief of staff , to Transportation Cabinet officials asking them to find a job for Farmer 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Jamie Gray ; the email indicated that Murgatroyd was responsible for finding jobs for both James and Rhonda Gray . Gray was later hired as an administrative specialist in the Transportation Cabinet . Farmer denied any involvement in the hiring decisions beyond submitting recommendations for both candidates . In July , Murgatroyd was indicted on 19 counts of violating the state 's merit system by making politically motivated hires , including that of Jamie Gray . A transportation official testified in September that Farmer had declined one job for Gray because the salary was too low and had negotiated a higher salary on the job Gray eventually got . Farmer called the claims " ludicrous " and " simply not true " .
= = = Second term as Commissioner of Agriculture = = =
Following the resignation of Lieutenant Governor Steve Pence in June 2006 , Farmer was mentioned as a possible running mate for Fletcher in his upcoming re @-@ election campaign , but Fletcher chose Robbie Rudolph instead , and Farmer announced his intent to seek re @-@ election as agriculture commissioner . In the Republican primary , Farmer faced Don Stosberg , a former budget analyst for Kentucky 's Legislative Research Commission . Again , Farmer was criticized for failing to appear at several campaign events ; Stosberg told the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader , " [ Farmer is ] famous for three things : shooting three @-@ point shots , not returning phone calls and not showing up . " Farmer responded that he was carrying out the duties of his office during his absences from the events . Farmer countered his absences by outspending his opponent 35 @-@ to @-@ 1 , investing a reported $ 102 @,@ 000 in his campaign . Farmer captured 85 % of the vote , defeating Stosberg by a vote of 155 @,@ 576 to 26 @,@ 897 . Name recognition played a role in both parties ' primaries : Farmer enjoyed high name recognition from his days as a basketball player , while the Democratic nominee , David Lynn Williams , had a name similar to that of Kentucky Senate President David L. Williams .
Shortly after the primary election , Williams made a series of politically unsavvy remarks in an interview published by a weekly online magazine devoted to Kentucky agricultural issues ; among the gaffes were calling the state agricultural development board and long @-@ time Kentucky Democratic Senator Wendell H. Ford " a bunch of damn liars " . State Democratic chairman Jonathan Miller called Williams ' statements " offensive " and said that several of the party 's executive committee members desired to have Williams removed as the party 's candidate . In June , Williams was arrested on misdemeanor charges of menacing , disorderly conduct , and harassment for allegedly threatening his niece , the city clerk of Glasgow , Kentucky , because she did not produce records he had requested under Kentucky 's open records law . His trial was not scheduled until after the election .
By October , a Research 2000 poll showed Farmer leading the race 54 % – 35 % , with 11 % undecided , and campaign finance documents showed that Farmer had spent $ 57 @,@ 075 of the $ 168 @,@ 650 he raised for his general election campaign , while Williams had raised and spent less than $ 1 @,@ 000 . The Lexington Herald @-@ Leader made no endorsement in the race , stating that Farmer 's lack of knowledge was obvious during his first term , but that he " looks like a farm @-@ policy genius " compared to Williams . On election day , Farmer set a record for the most votes received in an election for a constitutional office in Kentucky , garnering 641 @,@ 789 ( 64 % ) to Williams ' 363 @,@ 188 ( 36 % ) . During his victory speech , Farmer denied rumors that he was considering switching his affiliation to the Democratic Party .
Farmer asked U.S. Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack for declarations of agricultural disasters in the wake of an ice storm in January 2009 that endangered the state 's livestock and flooding that affected Kentucky Lake in 2010 , damaging large portions of the state 's corn , soybean , and wheat crops . In December 2010 , he launched a joint investigation with Democratic Attorney General Jack Conway into claims that the Eastern Livestock company had not paid Kentucky cattlemen for $ 130 million in livestock .
= = = Bid for lieutenant governor = = =
Farmer was limited to two terms by the Kentucky Constitution , and in October 2009 , the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader reported that he was " in discussions " about running for governor in the 2011 election . In August 2010 , Farmer announced that he would be " running for something " in the upcoming election and would announce his plans within weeks after the Kentucky State Fair . The Lexington Herald @-@ Leader speculated that Farmer could run for governor , secretary of state , or lieutenant governor on a ticket with Senate President David Williams . On September 1 , 2010 , Williams and Farmer announced that they would run as a ticket for governor and lieutenant governor , respectively .
Shortly after the announcement , Farmer began to face criticism for his use of state funds during difficult economic times that resulted in austerity measures in most state government agencies . One such criticism involved the attendance of
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10 million names and dates , for almost five intense years .
Dyer remained in Des Moines until 1912 , to promote the Compendium from his office , before moving to Boston , Massachusetts , with his family .
= = Dyer 's Compendium = =
In 1867 , Dyer became a member of the Grand Army of the Republic ( GAR ) , a patriotic society of civil war Union veterans . It was around this time that he started to acquire details about Union regiments . His job as a commercial traveller brought him in touch with many veterans and officials , from whom he gathered official figures . The statistics he collected expanded into further areas , from regiments to details of formations , battles , movements , and similar data . He began to research using official records in various state capitals , and continued speaking to ex @-@ soldiers and high @-@ standing officers , such as General Sherman , who expressed interest in a comprehensive compendium and welcomed its future publication .
Dyer utilized the official materials available at the War Department , namely the Official Records of the War of the Rebellion . After 35 years of information gathering , he moved into a single room in Des Moines to start producing a compendium worthy of print . He made seven revisions , each taking around seven months , as he sifted through piles of paperwork and notes , to produce an accurate account of the Union army . Working day and night , sleeping in a bed placed close to his desk , he toiled over the Compendium from 1904 until 1908 , producing a 4 @,@ 025 page typed manuscript . Published on February 15 , 1909 , by " The Dyer Publishing Company " , through which he personally funded , wrote and promoted his work , printed by Torch Press of Cedar Rapids , Iowa , a total of 4 @,@ 500 copies of the Compendium were issued in a single @-@ volume edition , measuring 9 by 12 inches ( imperial octavo ) , spanning 1 @,@ 796 pages , and consisting of three parts :
Part I – Number and organization of the Armies of the United States .
Part II – Chronological record of the campaigns , battles , engagements , actions , combats , sieges , skirmishes. etc . , in the United States 1861 to 1865 .
Part III – Regimental Histories .
Part II also contains 90 photographs of Union soldiers and officers , maps and drawings of uniforms and battles from the civil war , but also includes reproductions of Dyer 's 1863 recruitment medical form , and several personal letters . The original Compendium , which was bound in morocco leather and pebbled cloth , sold at $ 10 apiece ( equivalent to $ 259 @.@ 26 in 2013 terms ) .
The Compendium was well @-@ received by civil war veterans and historians alike , who praised both its accuracy and value , as well as its thoroughness when compared to official military records .
= = Death = =
Dyer died on September 21 , 1917 , aged 68 , of coronary sclerosis , survived by his wife and one of three children . He was buried at Mount Hope Cemetery , Boston , Massachusetts , in the GAR New Veterans lot on Webster Avenue , in an unmarked grave ( no . 125 ) . It was his own request to be interred without a monument , stating that his Compendium would serve as a memory to his life , long after any monument had crumbled away .
= = Works = =
Since its original publication in 1908 , Dyer 's Compendium has been reprinted several times in the US due to its popularity amongst Civil War historians and enthusiasts . Editions are as follows :
A Compendium of the War of the Rebellion , 1908 , Des Moines , IA : Dyer Publishing Co .
1959 – New York : Sagamore Press ; Thomas Yoseloff .
Includes a new introduction by Bell Irvin Wiley
1978 – Dayton , OH : Broadfoot Publishing Company ; Morningside Press
Includes a new introduction by Lee A. Wallace , Jr .
1979 – Dayton , OH : National Historical Society ; Morningside Press
1991 – Bethesda , MD : University Publications of America
1994 – Dayton , OH : Broadfoot Publishing Company ; Morningside Press
= Nemesis ( roller coaster ) =
Nemesis is an inverted roller coaster located at the Alton Towers amusement park in England . The ride 's concept and layout was devised by designer John Wardley . It was manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard ( B & M ) and opened in March 1994 . It is located in the Forbidden Valley area of the park , adjacent to Galactica , a B & M Flying roller coaster that originally opened in 2002 as Air .
The 716 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 2 @,@ 349 ft ) ride stands 13 metres ( 43 ft ) tall and features a top speed of 80 @.@ 5 kilometres per hour ( 50 @.@ 0 mph ) . The four @-@ inversion roller coaster was one of the first Bolliger & Mabillard rides to be installed outside of the United States and the first in Europe ( as an independent company ) . The ride has been very well received , consistently ranking highly in industry polls .
= = History = =
= = = Development history = = =
In 1990 , Alton Towers added the Thunder Looper roller coaster ; the addition was only temporary due to planning restrictions imposed on its installation . The park began planning for a new roller coaster which would open prior the closure of the Thunder Looper . They desired a roller coaster that was big , different and exciting , but they were constrained by the tree @-@ level height limit imposed on the park .
Alton Towers approached Arrow Dynamics for the new roller coaster . The Utah @-@ based company was working on a prototype of a pipeline roller coaster , similar to TOGO 's Ultratwister design . John Wardley worked on the design of the ride which was originally to be themed around a secret military facility , codenamed " Secret Weapon 1 " ( SW1 ) . Due to the design of the ride and the height restriction imposed on the park , SW1 would only have a track length of 300 metres ( 980 ft ) . Development of the project was put on hold a short time into the process , due to the financial problems being encountered by Arrow at the time and technical problems with the ride 's design . The project was revived a year later under the codename " Secret Weapon 2 " ; rock blasting was used to clear more space for the larger ride . The project was again abandoned when Wardley rode the prototype , describing it as slow , boring , cumbersome and energy inefficient . The park began to look for an alternative .
Wardley became aware of a new roller coaster design being installed by Bolliger & Mabillard at Six Flags Great America . He subsequently entered into discussions with Six Flags who agreed to privately disclose information about the new ride , in exchange for a similar favour at a later date . Jim Wintrode , the general manager of Six Flags Great America at the time , proposed the concept of an inverted roller coaster that featured inversions . Although Wardley believed this would be impossible , Wintrode worked with Bolliger & Mabillard to develop Batman : The Ride . Wardley rode Batman : The Ride prior to its May 1992 opening and wanted to add a similar ride to Alton Towers .
The inverted roller coaster , then dubbed " Secret Weapon 3 " , was developed throughout 1992 . Wardley and Nick Varney , marketing director of Alton Towers , came up with the name " Nemesis " and pitched a theming concept about an alien creature trapped beneath the park . Tussauds Studios elaborated on this , creating visuals for later promotion . Wardley also worked alongside Stengel Engineering to develop a layout for the ride which was exciting for both riders and non @-@ riders ; for example , the final inversion was built at the eye level of an observer .
= = = Operational history = = =
The £ 10 million Nemesis officially opened to the public on 19 March 1994 , following a soft opening three days prior . It opened as one of the first Bolliger & Mabillard rides to be installed outside of the United States , along with Diavlo at Himeji Central Park , Japan , which opened four months later .
In August 2004 , Nemesis gained the Guinness World Record for the " Most Naked People on a Rollercoaster " . The ride set the record at 32 riders – the number of seats on a single Nemesis train . It took the record from Thorpe Park 's Nemesis Inferno roller coaster which set the record at 28 just three months prior . The ride lost the record in 2010 when 40 naked riders boarded Green Scream Rollercoaster at Adventure Island .
In 2009 , Alton Towers received several complaints from nearby residents regarding increased noise levels emitted from the ride . New wheels had to be installed on the two trains before the ride returned to normal operation .
= = Characteristics = =
The 716 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 2 @,@ 349 ft ) Nemesis stands 13 metres ( 43 ft ) tall , however , due to the modified terrain , it features a drop height of 31 @.@ 7 metres ( 104 ft ) . With a top speed of 80 @.@ 5 kilometres per hour ( 50 @.@ 0 mph ) , the ride features four inversions including two corkscrews , a zero @-@ g roll , and a vertical loop . Riders of Nemesis experience between 3 and 4 times the force of gravity on the 1 @-@ minute , 20 @-@ second ride . Nemesis operates with two steel and fiberglass trains , each containing eight cars . Each car seats four riders in a single row for a total of 32 riders per train . As guests approach the ride a loud roar from the ride can be heard .
= = Ride experience = =
Once the train is locked and checked the floor beneath it is lowered before the train then departs the station making a 45 @-@ degree , right @-@ hand turn towards the lift hill . Once at the top of the 13 @-@ metre ( 43 ft ) hill , the train makes a small dip and turns around 180 degrees to the left . The train then descends 31 @.@ 7 metres ( 104 ft ) down the first drop into the first inversion , a right @-@ handed corkscrew . The train then navigates a right @-@ handed , 270 @-@ degree downward helix that features 90 degree banking . Then the train rises up into the second inversion , a zero @-@ g roll , where riders experience the feeling of weightlessness . It then makes a 180 @-@ degree right @-@ handed stall turn into the third inversion , a vertical loop . After a left stall turn the train enters the second corkscrew . The train then passes through an underground tunnel , and through one more 180 @-@ degree turn , before being stopped by the brake run and returning to the station .
= = Reception = =
" Nemesis " has received overwhelmingly positive reviews , by park visitors and the industry as a whole . The roller coaster has continuously ranked high in worldwide polls and , as of 2007 , featured queues in excess of an hour due to its popularity . More than 50 million people have ridden Nemesis since opening .
In Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards , Nemesis has consistently ranked highly . It is also one of only seven roller coasters to appear in the top 50 every year since the award 's inception in 1998 . It debuted at position 10 in 1998 , before peaking at position 7 in 2003 .
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , Nemesis entered at position 7 in 1999 , before dropping to a low of 12 in 2012 . The ride 's ranking in subsequent polls is shown in the table below .
Due to the success of Nemesis , park owners Merlin Entertainments have created two related rides . The first is Nemesis Inferno at Thorpe Park , another Bolliger & Mabillard inverted roller coaster . The ride opened in 2003 . Alton Towers hosts the second related ride , Nemesis : Sub @-@ Terra . The drop tower opened on the former Dynamo site in 2012 and closed in August 2015 due to cost @-@ cutting .
As a result , Nemesis is commonly compared with its Thorpe Park counterpart – Nemesis Inferno – with many citing Nemesis as the superior ride . Nemesis has ranked favourably in Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards , being one of only seven roller coasters to appear in the top 50 steel roller coasters for all 15 years . Nemesis Inferno , on the other hand , has never made an appearance . In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll Nemesis Inferno has an average ranking of 80 , while Nemesis ' average ranking is 6 . In a poll conducted by the Los Angeles Times , Nemesis received 37 @.@ 93 % of the vote for title of best roller coaster in England , while Nemesis Inferno received 0 @.@ 32 % . Jeremy Thompson of Roller Coaster Philosophy describes Nemesis as " a vastly superior ride " to Nemesis Inferno .
= Battle of Aachen =
The Battle of Aachen was a major combat action of World War II , fought by American and German forces in and around Aachen , Germany , between 2 – 21 October 1944 . The city had been incorporated into the Siegfried Line , the main defensive network on Germany 's western border ; the Allies had hoped to capture it quickly and advance into the industrialized Ruhr Basin . Although most of Aachen 's civilian population was evacuated before the battle began , much of the city was destroyed and both sides suffered heavy losses . It was one of the largest urban battles fought by U.S. forces in World War II , and the first city on German soil to be captured by the Allies . The battle ended with a German surrender , but their tenacious defense significantly disrupted Allied plans for the advance into Germany .
= = Background = =
By September 1944 , the Western Allies had reached Germany 's western border , which was protected by the extensive Siegfried Line . On 17 September , British , American , and Polish forces launched Operation Market Garden , an ambitious attempt to bypass the Siegfried Line by crossing the Lower Rhine River in the Netherlands . The failure of this operation , and an acute supply problem brought about by the long distances involved in the rapid drive through France , brought an end to the headlong Allied race toward Berlin . German casualties in France had been high - Field Marshal Walter Model estimated that his 74 divisions had the actual strength of just 25 - but the Western Allies ' logistical problems gave the Germans a respite , which they used to begin rebuilding their strength . In September , the Wehrmacht high command 's reinforcement of the Siegfried Line brought total troop strength up to an estimated 230 @,@ 000 soldiers , including 100 @,@ 000 fresh personnel . At the start of the month , the Germans had had about 100 tanks in the West ; by the end , they had roughly 500 . As men and equipment continued to flow into the Siegfried Line they were able to establish an average defensive depth of 3 @.@ 0 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) .
Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) , under the command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower , set their sights on the occupation of the Ruhr , Germany 's industrial heartland . General George S. Patton 's Third Army was given the task of occupying the French region of Lorraine , while General Courtney Hodges 's First Army was ordered to break through the front near Aachen . Hodges had initially hoped to bypass the city itself , believing it to be held only by a small garrison , which would presumably surrender once isolated .
The ancient , picturesque city of Aachen had little military value in itself , as it was not a major center of war production . Its population of around 165 @,@ 000 had not been subject to heavy bombing by the Allies . It was , however , an important symbol to both the Nazi regime and the German people ; not only was it the first German city threatened by an enemy during World War II , it was also the historic capital of Charlemagne , founder of the " First Reich . " As such , it was of immense psychological value . The mindset of the city 's defenders was further altered by the different attitude the local population had toward them as they fought on home soil for the first time ; one German officer commented , " Suddenly we were no longer the Nazis , we were German soldiers . "
Aachen and its sector of the front were protected by the Siegfried Line , consisting of several belts of inter @-@ connected pillboxes , forts , and bunkers protected by extensive minefields , " dragon 's teeth " anti @-@ tank obstacles , and barbed wire entanglements . In several areas , German defenses were over 10 miles ( 16 km ) deep . It was , in the words of historian Stephen Ambrose , " undoubtedly the most formidable man @-@ made defense ever contrived . " Learning from their experiences on the Eastern Front , the Germans ran their main line of resistance down the center of towns located in the defensive wall , taking advantage of narrow streets to limit the mobility of enemy armored vehicles . Despite the low quality of many of the troops manning them , the fortifications protecting Aachen and the Ruhr were a formidable obstacle to the progress of American forces , who saw a breakthrough in this sector as crucial , as the terrain behind Aachen was generally flat , and therefore highly favorable to the motorized Allied armies .
Fighting around Aachen began as early as the second week of September , in a period known to the Germans as the " First Battle of Aachen " . At this time , the city was defended by the 116th Panzer Division , under the command of General Gerhard von Schwerin . The proximity of Allied forces had caused the majority of the city 's government officials to flee before the evacuation of its citizens was complete . ( For this , Hitler had all Nazi officials who had fled stripped of rank and sent to the Eastern front as privates . ) Instead of continuing the evacuation , von Schwerin opted to surrender the city to Allied forces ; however , on 13 September , before he could deliver a letter of capitulation he had written , von Schwerin was ordered to launch a counterattack against American forces penetrating southwest of Aachen , which he did , using elements of his panzergrenadier forces . The German general 's attempt to surrender the city would soon become irrelevant , as his letter was never delivered ; instead , it fell into the hands of Adolf Hitler , who ordered the general 's immediate arrest . He was replaced by General Gerhard Wilck . The United States ' VII Corps continued to probe German defenses , despite the resistance encountered on 12 – 13 September . Between 14 – 16 September the US 1st Infantry Division continued its advance in the face of strong defenses and repeated counterattacks , ultimately creating a half @-@ moon arc around the city . This slow advance came to a halt in late September , due to the supply problem , and the diversion of existing stocks of fuel and ammunition for Operation Market Garden in the Netherlands .
= = Comparison of forces = =
= = = German defenders in Aachen = = =
The Wehrmacht took advantage of the brief respite on the front by pulling the 1st , 2nd and 12th SS Panzer Divisions , as well as the 9th and 116th Panzer Divisions , off the line . In October , responsibility for the Aachen sector 's defense was given to General Friedrich Köchling 's LXXXI Corps , which included the 183rd and 246th Volksgrenadier Divisions , as well as the 12th and 49th Infantry Divisions . These forces , along with the attached 506th Tank Battalion and 108th Tank Brigade , numbered roughly 20 @,@ 000 men and 11 tanks . Köchling was also promised a reformed 116th Panzer Division and the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division , numbering a total of some 24 @,@ 000 personnel . The 246th Volksgrenadier Division replaced the 116th Panzer Division in Aachen proper , the 183rd Volksgrenadier Division and 49th Infantry Division defended the northern approaches , and the 12th Infantry Division was positioned to the south . On 7 October , elements of the 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler were released to reinforce the defense of Aachen .
Although reinforcements continued to arrive , LXXXI Corps ' units suffered heavily ; the 12th Infantry Division had lost half its combat strength between 16 – 23 September , and the 49th and 275th Infantry Divisions had had to be pulled off the line to recuperate . While German infantry divisions generally had a strength of 15 @,@ 000 – 17 @,@ 000 soldiers at the start of World War II , this had gradually been reduced to an official ( table of organization ) size of 12 @,@ 500 , and by November 1944 , the average actual strength of a Heer division was 8 @,@ 761 men . In an attempt to cope with the manpower shortages plaguing the Wehrmacht , the Volksgrenadier divisions were created in 1944 . Their average total strength was just over 10 @,@ 000 men per division . Although about 1 ⁄ 4 of these were experienced veterans , half were fresh conscripts and convalescents , while the remainder were transferees from the Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine . These divisions often received the newest small @-@ arms , but were deficient in artillery and motorization , severely limiting their tactical usefulness . In the case of LXXXI Corps , the 183rd Volksgrenadier Division , though overstrength by 643 men , had only been activated in September , meaning that the division had not had time to train as a unit . The 246th Volksgrenadier Division was in a similar state , many of its personnel having received fewer than ten days of infantry training . All of these deficiencies of personnel were offset somewhat by the inherent strength of the well @-@ planned , well @-@ constructed fortifications surrounding Aachen .
= = = American forces = = =
The task of taking Aachen fell to General Charles H. Corlett 's XIX Corps ' 30th Infantry Division and Joseph Collins ' VII Corps ' 1st Infantry Division . General Leland Hobbs ' 30th Infantry Division would be assisted by the 2nd Armored Division , which would exploit the 30th Division 's penetration of the Siegfried Line , while their flanks were protected by the 29th Infantry Division . In the south , 1st Infantry Division was supported by the 9th Infantry Division and the 3rd Armored Division . These divisions had used the brief respite in the fighting during the last two weeks of September to rest and refit , taking in a large number of replacements . By 1 October , over 70 % of the men of General Clarence Huebner 's 1st Infantry Division were replacements , and the last two weeks of September were spent giving these men village @-@ fighting and weapons training . The impending offensive 's plan called for both infantry divisions to avoid street fighting in Aachen ; instead , the two divisions would link up and encircle the city , assigning a relatively small force to capture it while the bulk of US forces continued pushing east .
Although American units were usually able to replenish their numbers quickly , the replacements rarely had sufficient tactical training . Many junior officers were short on tactical and leadership abilities . Some tankers were shipped to Europe without having so much as driven a car before ; some tank commanders were forced to teach their men how to load and fire their tank guns in the field prior to missions . The American replacement system , which focused on quantity over quality , ensured that the majority of fresh troops reaching the front lines were not properly trained for combat . It was not unusual for half of a unit 's replacements to become casualties within the first few days of combat . These tremendous frontline losses required ever @-@ more troops to be fed into the fighting ; for instance , a freshly reinforced battalion of the US 28th Infantry Division was immediately thrown into direct assaults against Aachen to buttress the depleted US 1st Infantry Division during the final stages of the battle on 18 – 21 October .
These forces were supported by the Ninth Air Force , which had pin @-@ pointed 75 % of the pillboxes along the frontlines and planned an opening bombardment including 360 bombers and 72 fighters ; fresh aircraft would be used for a second aerial wave , which included the use of napalm . With the Germans having few anti @-@ aircraft batteries and severely limited support from the Luftwaffe , Allied dominance of the sky over Aachen was near total .
= = Battle = =
For six days prior to the beginning of the American offensive , Allied heavy artillery targeted German defenses around Aachen . Although the heavy bombardment forced the German LXXXI Corps to halt all daylight personnel and supply movements , it had little effect on the pillboxes and strongpoints . The opening aerial bombardment on 2 October also caused little damage to German defensive positions ; the 450 aircraft which took part in the first wave failed to register a single direct hit on any German pillbox . Their targets had been largely obscured by thick smoke from the Allied artillery barrage . As the aircraft finished their assault , the artillery resumed bombarding the front lines , firing 18 @,@ 696 shells from 372 gun tubes within a couple of hours .
= = = Advance from the north : 2 – 8 October = = =
The 30th Infantry Division began its advance on 2 October , using divisional heavy artillery to target German pillboxes ; even then it took , on average , thirty minutes to capture a single pillbox . The Americans found that if they failed to immediately press on to the next pillbox , the Germans were sure to counterattack . Heavy resistance had not been expected , and one company lost 87 combatants in an hour ; another lost 93 out of 120 soldiers to a German artillery strike . The attackers were slowly able to cross the Wurm River and engage German pillboxes with flamethrowers and explosive charges . By the afternoon of 2 October , elements of the 30th Infantry Division had breached German defenses and reached the town of Palenberg . Here , GIs advanced house @-@ to @-@ house and fought a number of gruesome hand grenade duels . ( Private Harold G. Kiner would be awarded the Medal of Honor for throwing himself on a German grenade near Palenberg , thus saving the lives of two fellow soldiers ) . Fighting in the town of Rimburg was equally terrible ; American armor had not been able to get across the Wurm River , and therefore could not provide fire support to infantrymen who were attempting to storm a medieval castle being used as a fort by the Germans . The 30th Infantry Division subdued roughly 50 German pillboxes on the first day of the advance , often having to envelop the structure and attack from the rear . The division 's effort was aided by the 29th Infantry Division 's diversionary attacks on their flank , leading the Germans to believe that that was the Americans ' main attack . On the night of 2 October , the German 902nd Assault Gun Battalion was ordered to launch a counterattack against the 30th Infantry Division , but Allied artillery delayed the start of the raid , and ultimately the attempt failed .
Although American armor became available to support the advance on 3 October , the attacking forces were brought to an abrupt halt after a number of German counterattacks . The town of Rimburg was taken on the second day of the offensive , but fighting through German defenses remained slow as M4 Sherman tanks and 155 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) artillery guns were brought up to blast pillboxes at point blank range . Fighting had also begun to develop for the town of Übach , where American tanks rushed in to take the town , only to be pinned down by German artillery . Fierce counterattacks followed , with American artillery fire narrowly preventing the Germans from retaking it . By the end of the day , the forcing of the Wurm River and the creation of a bridgehead had cost the 30th Infantry Division around 300 dead and wounded .
German forces continued their counterattacks on Übach , suffering heavy casualties to American artillery and infantry fire . Although the inability to retake Übach persuaded German commanders that they had insufficient forces to properly defend the approaches to Aachen , the counterattacks did tie down American troops which could have otherwise continued the advance . On 4 October , the Allied advance was limited , with only the towns of Hoverdor and Beggendorf taken , the Americans having lost roughly 1 @,@ 800 soldiers in the past three days of combat . Better progress was made on 5 October , as the 119th Regiment of the 30th Infantry Division captured Merkstein @-@ Herbach . The following day the Germans launched another counterattack against Übach , again failing to dislodge the Americans . German armor was unable to cope with the overwhelming numerical superiority of the American tanks , and as a last @-@ ditch effort to halt the advance the Germans began concentrated attacks on American positions with what artillery and aircraft they could muster . They found themselves severely hamstrung by lack of reserves , although General Koechling was able to deploy a Tiger detachment to the town of Alsdorf in an attempt to plug the American penetration of Aachen 's northern defenses .
A counterattack developed on 8 October , composed of an infantry regiment , the 1st Assault Battalion , a battle group of the 108th Panzer Brigade , and some 40 armored fighting vehicles scavenged from available units . Although hindered by American artillery , the left wing of the attack managed to cut off an American platoon , while the right wing reached a road junction north of the town of Alsdorf . A platoon of Shermans supporting an attack on the town of Mariadorf suddenly found themselves being attacked from the rear , and were able to repel the Germans only after heavy fighting . Two German Sturmgeschütz IV self @-@ propelled assault guns and a squad of infantry entered Alsdorf , where they were heavily counterattacked . Although the two lumbering vehicles somehow eluded American tanks , they were finally engaged by American infantry and forced back to their starting point . With casualties mounting and the Americans drawing closer , the German high command transferred the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division to Aachen , followed by the I SS Panzer Corps , which included the 116th Panzer Division and SS Heavy Panzer Battalion 101 , an element of the 1st SS Panzer Division .
= = = Advance from the south : 8 – 11 October = = =
In the south , the 1st Infantry Division began its offensive on 8 October , aiming to capture the town of Verlautenheide and Hill 231 ( dubbed " Crucifix Hill " ) near the town of Ravelsberg . Their attack was preceded by a massive artillery barrage , which helped them seize their objectives quickly . On Crucifix Hill , Captain Bobbie E. Brown , commander of C Company , 18th Infantry , personally silenced three pillboxes with pole charges and , despite being wounded , continued to lead his men into the attack , earning the Medal of Honor . By 10 October , the 1st Infantry Division was at its designated position for link @-@ up with the 30th Infantry Division . This success was met with a German counterattack toward Hill 231 , which was the scene of an intense firefight ; the battle ended with the Germans leaving over 40 dead and 35 prisoners . Despite repeated German counterattacks slowing its advance , the 1st Infantry Division was able to capture the high ground surrounding the city .
On 10 October , General Huebner delivered an ultimatum to German forces in Aachen , threatening to bomb the city into submission if the garrison didn 't surrender . The German commander categorically refused . In response , American artillery began to pound the city on 11 October , firing an estimated 5 @,@ 000 shells , or over 169 short tons ( 153 t ) of explosives ; it was also subjected to intense bombardment by American aircraft .
= = = Link up : 11 – 16 October = = =
American casualties were climbing , both from frequent German counterattacks and the cost of storming pillboxes . The Germans had spent the night of 10 October turning cellars of houses in the town of Bardenberg into fortified pillboxes ; American attackers were forced to withdraw and instead shell the town into submission . On 12 October , the Germans launched a major counterattack against the American 30th Infantry Division . It was disrupted by heavy artillery fire and well @-@ placed anti @-@ tank defenses . At the village of Birk , a three @-@ hour fight broke out between German tanks and a single American Sherman ; the Sherman managed to knock out an enemy Panzer IV and force another one to withdraw , but was soon attacked by others . This lone tank was eventually joined by elements of the 2nd Armored Division , and the Germans were driven from the town . The 30th Infantry Division soon found itself in defensive positions all along its front ; nevertheless , it was ordered to continue pushing south for its intended link @-@ up with the 1st Infantry Division . To accomplish this , two infantry battalions from the 29th Infantry Division were attached to the hard @-@ pressed 30th .
The same day ( 12 October ) , to the south , two German infantry regiments attempted to retake Crucifix Hill from GIs of the 1st Infantry Division . In fierce fighting the Germans temporarily took control of the hill , but were dislodged by the end of the day , with both regiments virtually destroyed . From 11 – 13 October , Allied aircraft bombarded Aachen , selecting targets closest to American lines ; on 14 October , the 26th Infantry Regiment was ordered to clear an industrial zone on the edge of Aachen in preparation for the attack on the city itself . On 15 October , in an effort to widen the gap between the two American pincers , the Germans again counterattacked the 1st Infantry Division ; although a number of heavy tanks managed to break through American lines , the bulk of the German forces were destroyed by artillery and air support . On the next day , the Germans attempted to mount local counterattacks with the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division , but , after sustaining heavy losses , were forced to suspend further offensive action .
The 30th Infantry Division , with elements of the 29th Infantry and 2nd Armored divisions , continued its push southwards between 13 – 16 October , in the sector of the village of Würselen ; however , even with heavy air support , they were unsuccessful in breaking through German defenses and linking up with allied forces to the south . The Germans took advantage of the narrow front to pound advancing attackers with artillery , and progress remained slow as German tanks used houses as bunkers to surprise and overwhelm American foot soldiers . General Hobbs , commander of the 30th Infantry Division , then attempted to outflank the German defenses by attacking along another sector with two infantry battalions . The attack was a success , allowing the 30th and 1st Infantry Divisions to link up on 16 October . The fighting had so far cost the American XIX Corps over 400 dead and 2 @,@ 000 wounded , with 72 % of those from the 30th Infantry Division . The Germans had not fared any better , as up to 14 October around 630 of their soldiers had been killed and 4 @,@ 400 wounded ; another 600 were lost in the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division 's counterattack on the US 1st Infantry Division on 16 October .
= = = Fight for the city : 13 – 21 October = = =
Needing most of its manpower to stave off German counterattacks and secure the area around Aachen , the 1st Infantry Division was able to earmark only a single regiment for the job of taking the city . The task fell to the 26th Infantry Regiment , which had only two of its three battalions on hand . Armed with machine guns and flamethrowers , the 2nd and 3rd Infantry Battalions would at first be aided only by a few tanks and a single 155 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) howitzer . The city was defended by roughly 5 @,@ 000 German troops , including converted navy , air force and city police personnel . For the most part , these soldiers were inexperienced and untrained , and were only supported by a handful of tanks and assault guns . However , Aachen 's defenders could make use of the maze of streets which occupied its historical center .
The 26th Infantry 's initial attack on 13 October provided important insight on the nature of the fighting ; American infantry had been ambushed by German defenders using sewers and cellars , forcing the advancing American infantry to clear each opening before continuing down streets , while Sherman tanks found it impossible to maneuver to suppress enemy fire . German civilians were cleared as the 26th Infantry advanced ; no Germans were allowed to remain in the Americans ' rear . Success in Aachen was measured by the number of houses captured , as the advance proved to be sluggish ; in order to cope with the thick walls of the older buildings in the city , the 26th Infantry Regiment used howitzers at point blank range to destroy German fortifications . The howitzer created passageways that allowed infantrymen to advance from building to building without having to enter the city 's streets , where they could be pinned down by enemy fire . Sherman tanks were ambushed , as they entered intersections , by concealed German anti @-@ tank guns . Soon thereafter , American tanks and other armored vehicles would advance cautiously , often shooting buildings ahead of the accompanying infantry to clear them of possible defenders . Pinned on the surface by Allied aircraft , German infantrymen would use sewers to deploy behind American formations to attack them from the rear . German resistance was fierce , as they launched small counterattacks and used armor to halt American movements .
On 18 October , the 3rd Battalion of the 26th Infantry Regiment prepared to assault the Hotel Quellenhof , which was one of the last areas of resistance in the city . American tanks and other guns were firing on the hotel , which was the city 's defense headquarters , at point blank range . That night , 300 soldiers of the 1st SS Battalion were able to reinforce the hotel and defeat several attacks on the building . A furious German counterattack managed to overrun a number of American infantry positions outside of the hotel , and temporarily released pressure on the Quellenhof before being beaten off by concerted American mortar fire .
Two events then aided the final advance . First , to lessen frontline infantry casualties , it was decided to barrage remaining German strongpoints with 155 mm guns . Secondly , to assist the 1st Infantry Division , a battalion of the 110th Infantry Regiment , US 28th Infantry Division , had been moved up from the V Corps sector on 18 October to close a gap between forward 26th Infantry Regiment elements within the city . The defensive mission of this new battalion was changed on 19 – 20 October to closely support the urban assault , participating as the depleted regiment 's missing third battalion . On 21 October , soldiers of the 26th Infantry Regiment , supported by the reinforced battalion of the 110th Infantry Regiment finally conquered central Aachen ; that day also marked the surrender of the last German garrison , in the Hotel Quellenhof , ending the battle for the city .
= = Aftermath = =
The Battle of Aachen had cost both the Americans and Germans dearly ; the former suffered over 5 @,@ 000 casualties , while the latter lost over 5 @,@ 000 casualties and 5 @,@ 600 taken prisoner . Since 2 October 1944 , the 30th Infantry Division suffered roughly 3 @,@ 000 men killed and wounded , while the 1st Infantry Division took at least 1 @,@ 350 casualties ( 150 killed and 1 @,@ 200 wounded ) . The Germans lost another 5 @,@ 100 casualties during the fighting in Aachen itself , including 3 @,@ 473 prisoners . In the process of the battle , the Wehrmacht lost two complete divisions and had another eight severely depleted , including three fresh infantry divisions and a single refitted armored division ; this was largely attributed to how they fought , as although an equivalent of 20 infantry battalions had been used during various counterattacks against the 30th Infantry Division alone , on average each separate attack only involved two infantry regiments . During the conflict , the Germans also developed a respect for the fighting ability of American forces , noting their capability to fire indiscriminately with overwhelming amounts of artillery fire support and armored forces . Both the 30th Infantry and 1st Infantry divisions received distinguished unit citations for their actions at Aachen .
However , German resistance in Aachen upset Allied plans to continue their eastward advance . Following the end of fighting in Aachen , the Western Allies ' First Army was tasked with the capture of a series of dams behind the Hürtgen Forest , which could be used by the Germans to flood the valleys which opened the road to Berlin .
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re @-@ recordings performed by The Sword and Living Colour , respectively , while two other songs are taken from live concert recordings ; all other songs are based on original studio recordings . Although the game supports user @-@ created songs through the " GHTunes " service ( common to Guitar Hero World Tour and Guitar Hero : Metallica ) , other existing downloadable content does not work with Smash Hits . Songs in either the Career single player or band mode are arranged in tiers roughly in order of difficulty for the particular instrument , with different orders for each of the five Career paths . However , all songs are playable from the game 's " Quickplay " mode without completing any Career goals . Twenty @-@ one of the songs were exportable to both Guitar Hero 5 and Band Hero for a small fee , with music licensing limiting which songs could be exported . The songs included in the game are as follows .
^ a Also available as DLC for Guitar Hero 5 and Guitar Hero Warriors of Rock . The charts are different for the Wii , but the charts are the same as the Smash Hits version for the PS3 and Xbox 360 . ^ b Not available as part of the Smash Hits export package but is available as DLC for Guitar Hero 5 and Guitar Hero Warriors of Rock . ^ c Also available as DLC for Guitar Hero Warriors of Rock . ^ d Song does not contain a vocals track . ^ + Song contains both a single and double bass drums chart .
= = Reception = =
Guitar Hero : Smash Hits received moderate praise from reviews , many of which cited that the game itself demonstrates the over @-@ saturation of the music game market and the sheer number of titles with the Guitar Hero series that Activision has marketed . Chris Roper of IGN summarized that the game " is the definition of ' milking ' " , noting that , save for the PlayStation 2 version , all of the songs in the game could have been distributed as downloadable content or reused within other compatible titles . Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb commented that " something about the game 's full [ ... ] price tag doesn 't quite feel right " and reaffirmed that being able to select a handful of the songs to play again would have been a preferred method of distribution . Tom Bramwell of Eurogamer further suggested that a simultaneous release of both the retail product and the same songs as downloadable content would have been an improvement . Chris Kohler of Wired listed Smash Hits on a list of " raw deals " for gamers , citing Activision 's approach that results in " players end up paying more for segregated song lists " , and contrasted the approach to that of the Rock Band series , in which downloadable content is integrated into existing games . Game Informer 's Matt Helgeson noted that , ultimately , the cost per song was still cheaper than current prices for downloadable content , but he still felt the game 's purpose was solely for " creating revenue for Activision " .
The song selection , use of master recordings , and expansion to the full @-@ band experience were praised . Dan Amrich of Official Xbox Magazine called the selection an " excellent selection of material " that avoided the most popular songs in favor of those that " are the most fun to play " . Addition of full band tracking for the songs was considered helpful to avoid making the game 's material feel like " warmed @-@ over leftovers from the series ' past " , according to Gerstmann . The mixing of some of the songs was also considered to be off , with Roper specifically noting a too @-@ loud bass and too @-@ soft vocals for " No One Knows " . Roper noted that the PlayStation 2 version of the game suffered from graphics " stuttering " , making it difficult to hit notes even after refining the game 's controller calibration , considering the impact as " crippling the game " .
The game 's note tracks were particularly analyzed and compared with the songs ' previous versions in the older games . While the note @-@ tracking has generally been improved to avoid " walls of notes " — long sections of fast @-@ moving notes requiring significant skill to surpass — these patterns are significantly different from their previous incarnation and may take some getting used to . Roper also noted that the new features of Guitar Hero World Tour , particularly the use of " slider notes " that use either the World Tour touchpad or simple tapping without strumming on any other guitar controller 's frets , makes many of the more difficult parts of the songs easily passed , requiring less technical skill to complete ; Roper cited his ability to easily pass the first solo in what is considered to be the series ' most difficult song , " Through the Fire and Flames " in Smash Hits while he could not pass this section on Guitar Hero III . In contrast , Abbie Heppe of G4 TV found the recreation of the note tracking to have " varying degrees of success " , noting that while some of the guitar solos are more manageable , there were questionable sections in other songs arising from the nature of Star Power phrases when it was changed in Guitar Hero III . Gerstmann said that the difficulty of the non @-@ lead guitar portions of the game was not as high as that of the lead guitar , primarily due to these songs ' having been selected originally for being played by guitar controllers and not by a full band . Heppe suggests that some of these problems may be due to the farming out of the series to a different developer with no previous experience in the series . However , Bramwell was careful to note that Beenox Studios ' effort on the game was strong , particularly with following the Guitar Hero : Metallica model , and their effort should not be dismissed due to how Activision chose to release the title .
= French seaplane carrier Commandant Teste =
Commandant Teste was a large seaplane tender of the French Navy ( French : Marine Nationale ) built before World War II . She was designed to be as large as possible without counting against the Washington Treaty limits . During the Spanish Civil War , she protected neutral merchant shipping and played a limited role during World War II as she spent the early part of the war in North African waters or acting as an aviation transport between France and North Africa . She was slightly damaged during the British bombardment of the French Fleet at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir in July 1940 . Commandant Teste was scuttled at Toulon when the Germans invaded Vichy France in November 1942 , but was refloated after the war and considered for conversion to an escort or training carrier . Neither proposal was accepted and she was sold for scrap in 1950 .
= = Design = =
After the completion of aircraft carrier Béarn , the Marine Nationale desired another aviation vessel , but the lack of another hull that could cheaply be converted made another aircraft carrier too expensive . It settled for a seaplane carrier ( French : transport d 'aviation ) that could act as a mobile aviation base and support seaplanes for a specific attack . The ship was restricted to a maximum size of 10 @,@ 000 t ( 9 @,@ 800 long tons ) at standard displacement , which prevented her from counting against France 's 60 @,@ 000 long tons ( 61 @,@ 000 t ) Washington Treaty carrier allotment . This also served to keep her costs relatively low .
= = Description = =
Commandant Teste was 167 m ( 547 ft 11 in ) long overall . She had a maximum beam of 27 m ( 88 ft 7 in ) and a draught of 6 @.@ 7 m ( 22 ft 0 in ) . She displaced 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) at standard load , 11 @,@ 500 t ( 11 @,@ 300 long tons ) at normal load and 12 @,@ 134 t ( 11 @,@ 942 long tons ) at full load .
Because of the ship 's high profile , there were concerns about her stability in bad weather as she had a significant amount of weight mounted high in the ship ; notably her catapults , cranes and anti @-@ aircraft guns . To increase her stability , two lateral tanks were fitted with a pressurized butterfly valve connecting them so that water could flow between the tanks to counter her rolling motion . On trials in 1933 , the system was judged successful as it deadened the ship 's roll by 37 @-@ 65 % . However , maintenance of the system proved to be problematic as the tanks were difficult to access .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Commandant Teste had a two shaft unit machinery layout with alternating boiler and engine rooms . Her Schneider @-@ Zoelly direct @-@ action geared steam turbines were designed for 23 @,@ 230 shp ( 17 @,@ 320 kW ) . Four superheated Loire @-@ Yarrow small @-@ tube boilers powered the turbines at a pressure of 20 kg / cm2 ( 2 @,@ 000 kPa ; 280 psi ) at a temperature of 290 ° C ( 554 ° F ) . These were the first superheated boilers in the Marine National and required some modifications after the ship 's trials . The two in the forward boiler room were oil @-@ fired , but the other two could use either fuel oil or coal . Commandant Teste had a designed speed of 21 kn ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , but she exceeded 22 kn ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) on trials on 23 July 1933 . 1 @,@ 163 t ( 1 @,@ 282 short tons ) of fuel oil was carried as well as 700 t ( 770 short tons ) of coal . This provided a range of 2 @,@ 000 nmi ( 3 @,@ 700 km ; 2 @,@ 300 mi ) at 18 kn ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) or 2 @,@ 500 nmi ( 4 @,@ 600 km ; 2 @,@ 900 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) using only coal . Two 300 kilowatt ( kW ) turbo generators provided electricity at 235 volts . Three 150 kW diesel generators were fitted to provide power while in harbor .
= = = Armament = = =
Commandant Teste was originally going to carry a mixture of 138 @.@ 6 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) or 155 mm ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) anti @-@ surface and 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns , but this was changed before construction began to a homogeneous main battery of twelve 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) 45 @-@ caliber dual purpose guns on powered single mounts . Five guns each were mounted on the fore and aft superstructures and two were mounted between the catapults . Their elevation limits were -10 ° to + 85 ° . Their rate of fire was 10 rounds per minute . They had a maximum range of about 15 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 yd ) with a 14 @.@ 95 kg ( 33 @.@ 0 lb ) armor @-@ piercing shell at a muzzle velocity of 755 m / s ( 2 @,@ 480 ft / s ) . 280 rounds were provided for each gun , including 40 starshell rounds and 19 tracer rounds .
Eight 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / 50 cal semi @-@ automatic AA guns were carried by Commandant Teste . Two each were fitted on the fore and aft superstructures and four on platforms around the single funnel . 4 @,@ 000 rounds were carried ; 500 rounds per gun . The guns could depress 15 ° and elevate to 80 ° . They fired .725 kg ( 1 @.@ 60 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 810 m / s ( 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ) . Their effective anti @-@ aircraft ceiling was less than 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) .
Six twin 13 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 520 in ) machine gun mounts were also fitted . Two mounts on the bridge wings , two on the upper funnel platform , and two on the stern . The Hotchkiss guns had a cyclic rate of fire of 450 rounds per minute , but the practical rate was between 200 and 250 rounds per minute to allow for reloading its 30 @-@ round magazines . They had a theoretical ceiling of 4 @,@ 200 m ( 13 @,@ 800 ft ) .
Two fire @-@ control directors were mounted to control the 100 mm guns ; one above the bridge and the other atop the rear superstructure . Each director was fitted with a 3 m ( 9 ft 10 in ) stereoscopic rangefinder . An upgrade to 5 m ( 16 ft 5 in ) rangefinders was planned to improve the director 's performance against surface targets , but was never carried out . The midships 37 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns were controlled by a single 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) rangefinder , but nothing was provided for the fore and aft 37 mm guns .
= = = Protection = = =
Commandant Teste had a waterline armor belt with a maximum thickness of 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) abreast the machinery spaces and was 3 @.@ 76 m ( 12 @.@ 3 ft ) high . The ship was protected from axial fire at the waterline by partial transverse bulkheads 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The magazines were protected by 5 cm sides and 2 cm ends and roofs . The deck consisted of two layers of 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) plating which increased to three layers above the boilers . 2 @.@ 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) of armor protected the steering gear . The sides of the conning tower were 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick , but its roof was 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick .
= = = Aircraft arrangements = = =
Commandant Teste had a very large hangar amidships that was three decks high and measured approximately 80 m × 26 @.@ 5 m ( 262 ft 6 in × 86 ft 11 in ) . It was partitioned in two by a bulkhead that incorporated the exhaust uptakes for the funnel and the ventilation trunking for the machinery spaces . It could accommodate ten large torpedo bombers with folding wings ; two smaller aircraft with folding wings could be stowed in lieu of each torpedo bomber . Two additional large aircraft and four smaller aircraft could be carried dismantled in crates in a hold below the hangar .
The aircraft were moved on a system of wheeled trolleys running on Décauville rails that extended throughout each half @-@ hangar to the quarterdeck at the rear of the ship . The torpedo bombers would be moved to the quarterdeck where their wings would be extended and then they would be lowered into the water by the large crane at the very stern of the ship .
The hangar was surmounted by four Penhöet compressed @-@ air catapults , each with a launch capacity of 2 @.@ 5 t ( 2 @.@ 5 long tons ) . The smaller fighter and reconnaissance seaplanes were lifted through large 15 m × 7 m ( 49 ft 3 in × 23 ft 0 in ) hatches in the hangar roofs by one of the four cranes mounted at each corner of the hangar and mounted on the catapult . During trials in 1937 , it took three hours to embark or disembark a group of 16 aircraft , 17 minutes to embark a single Gourdou @-@ Leseurre GL @-@ 812 reconnaissance floatplane , and seven minutes to launch a section of four floatplanes by catapult .
= = Aircraft = =
Commandant Teste was designed to accommodate the naval version of the Farman F.60 Goliath torpedo bomber , but they were obsolete when she was commissioned in 1932 . Biplane Levasseur PL.14 torpedo bomber floatplanes were only briefly used as they proved to be too fragile for landing at sea . They were replaced by improved Levasseur PL.15 biplanes from July – August 1934 . The Latécoère 298 monoplane replaced the PL.15 in March – May 1939 . The scouting squadron was initially equipped with fixed @-@ wing Gourdou @-@ Leseurre GL @-@ 810 floatplanes until the folding wing Gourdou @-@ Leseurre GL @-@ 811 arrived in October 1933 . They were replaced in turn by the improved Gourdou @-@ Leseurre GL @-@ 813 in early 1936 . The larger Loire 130 flying boat replaced the GL @-@ 813 from April 1938 , although the catapults had to be modified to handle their greater weight . No fighter seaplanes were ever embarked on Commandant Teste , although the Loire 210 floatplane was designed for the role . However , it proved to be greatly out @-@ classed by contemporary land @-@ based fighters and only 20 were built in 1939 .
= = Service history = =
Commandante Teste served with the Mediterranean Squadron upon commissioning in 1932 . She was refitted between November 1935 and August 1936 when her 100 mm guns were given gun shields . From September 1937 , she was based at Oran to protect neutral shipping from commerce raiders during the Spanish Civil War . In February 1938 , she was refitted in Toulon to upgrade her catapults and then served as an aviation transport between France and her colonies in North Africa .
In August 1939 , she embarked six Loire 130s and eight Latécoère 298s and sailed for Oran , where she was when World War II began the next month . Commandant Teste remained in North African waters until December 1939 , when she returned to Toulon and landed her aircraft . She served as an aircraft transport between French North Africa and Metropolitan France for the first half of 1940 . In late June 1940 , she was transferred from the over @-@ crowded anchorage at Oran to Mers El Kébir . She was lightly damaged by shell splinters during the British attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir on 3 July 1940 , but suffered no casualties . She arrived at Toulon on 18 October where she was subsequently disarmed . In June 1941 , Commandant Teste was reactivated as a gunnery training ship .
She was at Toulon when the Germans invaded Vichy France and was scuttled there on 27 November 1942 to avoid capture by the Germans . Refloated by the Italians on 1 May 1943 , Commandant Teste was captured by the Germans in September 1943 and sunk again the following year by Allied bombs on 18 – 19 August 1944 . Raised again in February 1945 , she was still thought to be repairable and was considered for conversion as an escort or training carrier . The proposals were eventually dropped and the ship was used as a store ship for U.S.-built equipment until sold for scrap on 15 May 1950 .
= Omphalotus nidiformis =
Omphalotus nidiformis , or ghost fungus , is a gilled basidiomycete mushroom most notable for its bioluminescent properties . It is known to occur primarily in southern Australia and Tasmania , but was reported from India in 2012 . The fan- or funnel @-@ shaped fruit bodies are up to 30 cm ( 12 in ) across , with cream @-@ coloured caps overlain with shades of orange , brown , purple , or bluish @-@ black . The white or cream gills run down the length of the stipe , which is up to 8 cm ( 3 in ) long and tapers in thickness to the base . The fungus is both saprotrophic and parasitic , and its fruit bodies are generally found growing in overlapping clusters on a wide variety of dead or dying trees .
First described scientifically in 1844 , the fungus has been known by several names in its taxonomic history . It was assigned its current name by Orson K. Miller , Jr. in 1994 . Its scientific name is derived from the Latin nidus " nest " , hence ' nest shaped ' . Similar in appearance to the common edible oyster mushroom , it was previously considered a member of the same genus , Pleurotus , and described under the former names Pleurotus nidiformis or Pleurotus lampas . Unlike oyster mushrooms , O. nidiformis is poisonous ; while not lethal , its consumption leads to severe cramps and vomiting . The toxic properties of the mushroom are attributed to compounds called illudins . O. nidiformis is one of several species in the cosmopolitan genus Omphalotus , all of which have bioluminescent properties .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The ghost fungus was initially described in 1844 by English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley as Agaricus nidiformis . Berkeley felt it was related to Agaricus ostreatus ( now Pleurotus ostreatus ) but remarked it was a " far more magnificent species " . Material was originally collected by Scottish naturalist James Drummond in 1841 on Banksia wood along the Swan River . He wrote " when this fungus was laid on a newspaper , it emitted by night a phosphorescent light , enabling us to read the words around it ; and it continued to do so for several nights with gradually decreasing intensity as the plant dried up . " More material collected from near the base of a " sickly but living " shrub ( Grevillea drummondii ) was named as Agaricus lampas by Berkeley . He noted both were phosphorescent and closely related species . Tasmanian botanist Ronald Campbell Gunn collected material in October 1845 from that state , which Berkeley felt differed from previous collections in having more demarcated and less decurrent gills and a shorter stipe , and named it Agaricus phosphorus in 1848 . Italian mycologist Pier Andrea Saccardo placed all three named taxa in the genus Pleurotus in 1887 . These names have been synonymised with O. nidiformis , although the name Pleurotus lampas persisted in some texts , including the 1934 – 35 monograph of Australian fungi by John Burton Cleland . In reviewing the published literature , Victorian botanical liaison officer Jim Willis was aware of Rolf Singer 's placing of Pleurotus olearius into the genus Omphalotus , but stopped short of transferring the ghost fungus across , even though he conceded it was wrongly placed in Pleurotus . Investigating the species in 1994 , Orson K. Miller , Jr. gave the ghost fungus its current binomial name when he transferred it to the genus Omphalotus with other bioluminescent mushrooms .
The specific epithet nidiformis is derived from the Latin terms nīdus ' nest ' and forma ' shape ' or ' form ' , hence ' nest shaped ' . Lampas is derived from the Greek lampas / λαμπας ' torch ' . Common names include ghost fungus and Australian glow fungus . Drummond reported that the local aborigines were fearful when shown the luminescent fungus and called out chinga , a local word for spirit ; Drummond himself likened it to a will @-@ o ' -the @-@ wisp . Likewise on the Springbrook Plateau in southeastern Queensland , the local Kombumerri people believed the lights to be ancestors and gave the area a wide berth out of respect .
Several Omphalotus species with similar bioluminescent properties occur worldwide , all of which are presumed poisonous . The best known are the North American jack o 'lantern mushroom ( O. olearius ) and the tsukiyotake ( O. japonicus ( Kawam . ) Kirchm . & O.K. Mill . ( formerly known as Lampteromyces japonicus ( Kawam . ) Sing . ) , found in Japan and eastern Asia . A 2004 molecular study shows the ghost fungus to be most closely related to the western jack o 'lantern mushroom ( O. olivascens ) , which is abundant in Southern and Central California . Miller notes that the colours and shades of the ghost fungus most closely resemble this species .
Laboratory breeding experiments with it and other Omphalotus species have revealed a low level of compatibility ( ability to breed and produce fertile hybrids ) , suggesting it is genetically distinct and has been isolated for a long time . It is particularly poorly compatible with O. illudens , the authors of the study suggesting the separation may have been as long ago as the Late Carboniferous separation of Gondwana from Laurasia but conceding the lack of any fossil record makes it impossible to know whether the genus even existed at the time .
= = = Variation = = =
Miller noted there appeared to be two colour forms reported across its range , namely a more cream @-@ coloured form with darker shades of brown and grey in its cap that darkens with age , and a more wholly brownish form with paler edges and darker centre to its cap . He found the cream @-@ coloured form to be strongly luminescent — the brightest of any fungus in the genus — with the cap , stipe and gills all glowing . The brown form was generally fainter , with its luminescence restricted to the gills . However , some strongly luminescent wholly brown @-@ coloured mushrooms were recorded , and laboratory experiments showed all interbred freely and produced fertile offspring , leading Miller to conclude that these were phenotypic variants of a single taxon .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of the ghost fungus can be found on dead or diseased wood . They may be first seen at night as a pale whitish glow at the base of trees in a eucalypt forest . The cap is very variable in colour , sometimes cream though often tinted with orange , brownish , greyish , purple or even bluish @-@ black shades . The margin is lighter , generally cream , though brown forms have tan or brown edges . The centre generally has several darker shades , and younger specimens are often darker . Growing up to 30 cm ( 12 in ) in diameter it is funnel @-@ shaped or fan @-@ shaped in appearance with inrolled margins . The cream @-@ white gills are decurrent and often drip with moisture . They are up to 13 mm ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) deep , somewhat distant to closely spaced , and have a smooth edge until they erode in maturity . The stipe may be central to lateral in its attachment to the cap and is up to 8 cm ( 3 in ) long and tapers to the base . The thin flesh is generally creamy white in colour , but can have reddish tones near the base of the stipe . There is no distinctive smell or taste . The spore print is white .
The spores are roughly elliptical , or , less commonly , somewhat spherical , and have dimensions of 7 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 5 by 5 – 7 μm . They are thin @-@ walled , inamyloid , and have a smooth surface . Each features a prominent hilar appendage . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) , measuring 32 – 42 by 6 – 9 μm , are club @-@ shaped and four @-@ spored , with sterigmata up to 7 μm long . Cheilocystidia ( cystidia found on the gill edges ) are abundant , and measure 15 – 40 by 3 – 6 μm ; no pleurocystida ( cystidia on the gill faces ) are present . The cap cuticle comprises a thin layer of 3 – 6 μm @-@ wide hyphae that are interwoven either loosely or tightly . All hyphae of O. nidiformis have clamp connections .
The bioluminescence of O. nidiformis fruit bodies is best seen in low @-@ light conditions when the viewer 's eyes have become dark @-@ adapted . The gills are the most luminescent part of the fungus , emitting a greenish light that fades with age . Although the intensity of the luminescence is variable , William Henry Harvey once reported that it was bright enough to read a watch face by . It is not known if the mycelium is also luminescent .
Omphalotus nidiformis may be confused with the edible brown oyster mushroom ( Pleurotus australis ) , which is brown and does not glow in the dark . Confusion with another edible lookalike , Pleurotus ostreatus , common in the Northern Hemisphere and cultivated commercially , has been the source for at least one case of poisoning reported in the literature .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Omphalotus nidiformis occurs in two disjunct ranges in southern Australia . In southwest Western Australia , it has been recorded from Perth and the Avon wheatbelt southwest to Augusta and east along the southern coastline to Esperance . In the southeast of the continent , it is found from eastern South Australia , where it has been recorded from Mount Gambier and the Fleurieu Peninsula , the Mount Lofty Ranges around Adelaide , the Murraylands , and north to the Flinders Ranges and from Lincoln National Park at the apex of the Eyre Peninsula , through to southeast Queensland . It also occurs in Tasmania . It can be found in eucalypt and pine forests , in habitats as diverse as the arid scrubland of Wyperfeld National Park and subalpine areas of Mount Buffalo National Park , as well as in urban parks and gardens . Fruit bodies can be numerous and occur in overlapping clusters on dead wood . Outside Australia , it has been recorded from Norfolk Island . In 2012 , it was reported for the first time from Kerala , India , where it was discovered growing on a coconut tree stump .
= = Ecology = =
A saprobe or parasite , O. nidiformis is nonspecific in its needs and is compatible with a wide variety of hosts . It has been recorded on native Banksia ( including B. attenuata and B. menziesii ) , Hakea , Acacia , Nuytsia floribunda and various Myrtaceae , including Agonis flexuosa and Melaleuca species , and especially Eucalyptus , as well as Nothofagus , Casuarina species and Allocasuarina fraseriana , and even introduced trees such as Pinus or Platanus species . It plays an important role in breaking down wood and recycling nutrients into the soil .
Omphalotus species cause a white rot by breaking down lignin in their tree hosts . The fungus infiltrates the heartwood of the tree via a breach in its bark , either by a branch falling , damage from insects or mistletoe , or by mechanical damage from logging . O. nidiformis has been implicated in the heartwood rot of several species of eucalypt around Australia , including marri ( Corymbia calophylla ) in southwest Western Australia , in spotted gum ( C. maculata ) and messmate ( Eucalyptus obliqua ) in New South Wales , and in blackbutt ( E. pilularis ) , Sydney blue gum ( E. saligna ) , red stringybark ( E. macrorhyncha ) and Forth River peppermint ( E. radiata ) in Victoria .
The US Department of Agriculture considers there is a moderate to high risk of O. nidiformis being accidentally introduced to the United States in untreated eucalyptus woodchips from Australia . Nearly a century ago , Cleland and Edwin Cheel suggested that even though the fungus was of " no great economic importance " , " it would be advisable to destroy it by burning wherever found . "
Several species of Tapeigaster flies have been collected from the fruit bodies , including T. cinctipes , T. annulipes , and T. nigricornis ; the latter species uses the fruit bodies as a host to rear its young . Fruit bodies in Springbrook National Park have been observed to attract nocturnal insects such as beetles , native cockroaches and crickets ( white @-@ kneed cricket ( Papuastus spp . ) and thorny cricket ) , as well as giant rainforest snails ( Hedleyella falconeri ) and red triangle slugs ( Triboniophorus graeffei ) , which voraciously consume the fungus .
= = Biochemistry = =
Omphalotus nidiformis is not edible . Although reputedly mild tasting , eating it will result in vomiting which generally occurs 30 minutes to two hours after consumption and lasts for several hours . There is no diarrhea and patients recover without lasting ill @-@ effects . Its toxicity was first mentioned by Anthony M. Young in his 1982 guidebook Common Australian Fungi . The toxic ingredient of many species of Omphalotus is a sesquiterpene compound known as illudin S. This , along with illudin M and a co @-@ metabolite illudosin , have been identified in O. nidiformis . The two illudins are common to the genus Omphalotus and not found in any other basidiomycete mushroom . An additional three compounds unique to O. nidiformis have been identified and named illudins F , G and H.
Extracts of several species of Australian mushrooms have been investigated for cytotoxicity to cancer cells ; material from O. nidiformis showed marked toxicity to gastric ( AGS ) , colon ( HT @-@ 29 ) and estrogen @-@ independent breast cancer ( MDA @-@ MB @-@ 231 ) cell lines . Irofulven , a compound derived from illuden S , is undergoing phase II clinical trials as a possible therapy for various types of cancers . Fruit body extracts have antioxidant and free radical scavenging properties , which may be attributed to the presence of phenolic compounds .
= Mário de Andrade =
Mário Raul de Morais Andrade ( October 9 , 1893 – February 25 , 1945 ) was a Brazilian poet , novelist , musicologist , art historian and critic , and photographer . One of the founders of Brazilian modernism , he virtually created modern Brazilian poetry with the publication of his Paulicéia Desvairada ( Hallucinated City ) in 1922 . He has had an enormous influence on modern Brazilian literature , and as a scholar and essayist — he was a pioneer of the field of ethnomusicology — his influence has reached far beyond Brazil .
Andrade was the central figure in the avant @-@ garde movement of São Paulo for twenty years . Trained as a musician and best known as a poet and novelist , Andrade was personally involved in virtually every discipline that was connected with São Paulo modernism , and became Brazil 's national polymath . His photography and essays on a wide variety of subjects , from history to literature and music , were widely published . He was the driving force behind the Week of Modern Art , the 1922 event that reshaped both literature and the visual arts in Brazil , and a member of the avant @-@ garde " Group of Five . " The ideas behind the Week were further explored in the preface to his poetry collection Pauliceia Desvairada , and in the poems themselves .
After working as a music professor and newspaper columnist he published his great novel , Macunaíma , in 1928 . Work on Brazilian folk music , poetry , and other concerns followed unevenly , often interrupted by Andrade 's shifting relationship with the Brazilian government . At the end of his life , he became the founding director of São Paulo 's Department of Culture , formalizing a role he had long held as the catalyst of the city 's — and the nation 's — entry into artistic modernity .
= = Early life = =
Andrade was born in São Paulo and lived there virtually all of his life . As a child , he was a piano prodigy , and he later studied at the Music and Drama Conservatory of São Paulo . His formal education was solely in music , but at the same time , as Albert T. Luper records , he pursued persistent and solitary studies in history , art , and particularly poetry . Andrade had a solid command of French , and read Rimbaud and the major Symbolists . Although he wrote poetry throughout his musical education , he did not think to do so professionally until the career as a professional pianist to which he aspired was no longer an option .
In 1913 , his 14 @-@ year @-@ old brother Renato died suddenly during a football game ; Andrade left the Conservatory to stay at Araraquara , where his family had a farm . When he returned , his piano playing was afflicted intermittently by trembling of his hands . Although he ultimately did receive a degree in piano , he gave no concerts and began studying singing and music theory with an eye toward becoming a professor of music . At the same time , he began writing more seriously . In 1917 , the year of his graduation , he published his first book of poems , Há uma Gota de Sangue em Cada Poema ( There is a drop of blood in each poem ) , under the pseudonym Mário Sobral . The book contains hints of Andrade 's growing sense of a distinctive Brazilian identity , but it does so within the context of a poetry that ( like most Brazilian poetry of the period ) is strongly indebted to earlier European —
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and shared a house with several other rugby players , including former Llanelli team mate Gerald Davies . John quit his position at Monkton House when he toured South Africa in 1968 and never taught again . On his return from Africa , John moved back to his family home at Cefneithin . He spent six weeks unemployed and during this period he considered turning to professional rugby league , almost signing for St Helens RLFC . Following an interview with David Coleman for the BBC programme , Sportsnight , in which his jobless situation was discussed , John was offered a job working for Forward Trust , a finance company in Cardiff . When John quit playing rugby in 1972 he also left his job as a finance representative , signing a contract to write a weekly column and cover important matches for the Daily Express . He was also signed to take part in sport programmes presented by HTV , the Wales and West of England commercial television company .
In September 1969 John married Janet Talfan Davies , daughter of Alun Talfan Davies QC , a leading Welsh lawyer . John and Jan had four children and as of 2009 , nine grandchildren , though the couple have now separated .
In 2009 he decided to sell his rugby memorabilia , including his Wales caps , stating that he felt no nostalgia towards the items and the honour of playing for Wales was all that mattered .
= HMS X1 =
HM Submarine X1 was conceived and designed as a submersible commerce raider for the Royal Navy ; at the time of her launching she was the largest submarine in the world . The idea of a submarine cruiser had been proposed as early as 1915 , but was not put into practice until 1921 . X1 , which was based on the uncompleted German U @-@ 173 class of 2 @,@ 000 @-@ ton " U @-@ cruisers " , was laid down on 2 November 1921 at the Naval Dockyard Chatham and completed on 23 September 1925 , commissioning in December 1925 .
The 1922 Washington Naval Treaty , of which Britain was a signatory , did not ban submarines but it did ban their use against merchant ships , which was X1 's unacknowledged purpose ; its armament had been designed to successfully engage the classes of vessels likely to be escorting convoys , such as destroyers and frigates . Therefore , a certain amount of secrecy surrounded X1 , the government even going to the lengths of taking a national newspaper to court over its pictures of the new submarine following her launch , all copies of the paper being seized .
= = Description = =
The X1 's 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) thick pressure hull was 19 feet 7 @.@ 5 inches ( 5 @.@ 982 m ) in diameter amidships , and was divided into 10 water @-@ tight compartments . This was almost completely surrounded by her external hull , which also contained the main ballast tanks and most of her fuel . Her intended maximum diving depth was 500 feet ( 150 m ) , but was reduced to 350 feet ( 110 m ) once in service .
She was expected to sink her targets using gunfire and so was given four 5 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) guns to be able to defeat a destroyer or armed merchant ship , although she was fitted with six bow tubes for 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedoes to supplement her guns .
= = = Armament = = =
X1 carried four QF 5 @.@ 2 inch Mk I guns in twin unarmoured turrets , one forward and one aft of the conning tower . They had a range of about 16 @,@ 000 yards ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) . A circular trunk ran from each mounting to the magazine in the pressure hull which contained 100 rounds per gun . A working chamber which was 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in diameter encircled the trunk between the pressure hull and the gun mount . Her ammunition hoists were problematic and could not sustain the desired rate of fire of six rounds per gun per minute . Special ballast tanks were used to compensate for the loss of weight as ammunition was fired . Working and control of the guns required no less than 58 men . The fire @-@ control tower was in the middle of the conning tower and had a top section that could be raised 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) when in use . The upper control room was between the tower and the pressure hull . Just aft of the control room was the rangefinding room , with a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinder on the bridge that could be raised 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) .
Her six torpedo tubes came from a cancelled L @-@ class submarine and she was provided with one reload for each tube . It took some 24 minutes to reload them all because space in the torpedo room was restricted .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The main engines were two 8 @-@ cylinder Admiralty diesel engines with a total output of 3 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 2 @,@ 200 kW ) . Two auxiliary 1 @,@ 200 @-@ horsepower ( 890 kW ) MAN diesel engines taken from U @-@ 126 were installed for battery @-@ charging purposes . For underwater propulsion , two GEC electric motors of 1 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 750 kW ) each were fitted . It was hoped to achieve over 8 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 6 @,@ 000 kW ) using both diesels and electric motors together , but the highest power achieved ( during a full power trial in March 1926 ) was 7 @,@ 135 horsepower ( 5 @,@ 321 kW ) . She had three groups of batteries , each with 110 cells weighing a total of 70 long tons ( 71 t ) . These batteries were also fitted with water filled cooling tubes , jackets , centrifugal pumps and finned heat exchangers ( the first recorded use of battery cooling ) to reduce core temperatures during aggressive charge and discharge cycles .
In theory she could make 19 @.@ 5 knots ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ) on the surface , and at economical speed she had a greater range than normal cruisers , but both sets of diesel engines suffered from continual mechanical problems that reduced her speed and range . The X1 's average diving time ( to periscope depth ) was 2 minutes 20 seconds . Her handling underwater was considered superior to other submarines of the period .
= = Career = =
After X1 was commissioned in December 1925 and accepted in April 1926 she made a voyage to Gibraltar after which her main engine drive wheels were found to be damaged . After repairs she was sent to the Mediterranean Sea . Her starboard camshaft driveshaft broke during a full @-@ power run in January 1928 and a new set of gears was needed , but after refitting at Malta her port camshaft driveshaft broke in the same place in April 1928 . By 1930 her commanding officer reported " internal arrangements not very satisfactory because of overcrowding with auxiliary machinery , accommodation is cramped , ventilation poor and the ship suffers from humidity , diving arrangements good . " Both the main and auxiliary engines were troublesome and she spent most of her time under repair , before being laid up . X1 was placed in reserve after 1930 , before she was finally scrapped at Pembroke on 12 December 1936 .
= John Jervis , 1st Earl of St Vincent =
Admiral of the Fleet John Jervis , 1st Earl of St Vincent GCB , PC ( 9 January 1735 – 14 March 1823 ) was an admiral in the Royal Navy and Member of Parliament in the United Kingdom . Jervis served throughout the latter half of the 18th century and into the 19th , and was an active commander during the Seven Years ' War , American War of Independence , French Revolutionary War and the Napoleonic Wars . He is best known for his victory at the 1797 Battle of Cape Saint Vincent , from which he earned his titles , and as a patron of Horatio Nelson .
Jervis was also recognised by both political and military contemporaries as a fine administrator and naval reformer . As Commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Mediterranean , between 1795 and 1799 he introduced a series of severe standing orders to avert mutiny . He applied those orders to both seamen and officers alike , a policy that made him a controversial figure . He took his disciplinarian system of command with him when he took command of the Channel Fleet in 1799 . In 1801 , as First Lord of the Admiralty he introduced a number of reforms that , though unpopular at the time , made the Navy more efficient and more self @-@ sufficient . He introduced innovations including block making machinery at Portsmouth Royal Dockyard . St Vincent was known for his generosity to officers he considered worthy of reward and his swift and often harsh punishment of those he felt deserved it .
Jervis ' entry in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography by P. K. Crimmin describes his contribution to history : " His importance lies in his being the organiser of victories ; the creator of well @-@ equipped , highly efficient fleets ; and in training a school of officers as professional , energetic , and devoted to the service as himself . "
= = Early life = =
John Jervis was born in Meaford , Staffordshire , on 9 January 1735 , the second son of Swynfen and Elizabeth Jervis . His father was a barrister , counsellor to the Admiralty Board and auditor of Greenwich Hospital . Swynfen Jervis intended that his son should follow him to the bar . The young Jervis was educated at Burton @-@ upon @-@ Trent Grammar School and subsequently at Reverend Swinden 's Academy in Greenwich , London .
Their family name Jervis is pronounced ' jerviss ' . The name Jervis originates from the Norman name Gervase .
= = Early naval career = =
At the age of thirteen Jervis ran away and joined the navy at Woolwich , London . After a short time he returned home as he had heard his family were very upset at his disappearance . Lady Jane Hamilton ( mother of Sir William Hamilton ) and Lady Burlington became aware of Jervis ' desire to join the navy and lobbied his family on his behalf . Eventually they introduced the Jervis family to Admiral George Townshend who agreed to take the boy aboard one of his ships .
On 4 January 1749 Jervis entered the navy as an able seaman aboard the 50 @-@ gun Gloucester on her way to Jamaica . On arrival in the West Indies , Jervis was detached on HM sloop Ferret to the Mosquito Coast where he saw constant service against Spanish guarda @-@ costas and privateers . When Townshend quit the West Indies he discharged Jervis into the Severn under Admiral Thomas Cotes . Cotes ' flag captain Henry Dennis rated Jervis as a midshipman . On 31 July 1754 Jervis moved to the 24 @-@ gun Sphinx . Jervis commented in a letter to his sister : " my chief employ when from my duty is reading studying navigation and perusing my old letters of which I have almost enough to make an octavo volume . " While in Jamaica , the young Jervis drew funds against his father 's account with a local banker . When the reply came from England that the withdrawal could not be honoured , the midshipman found himself in debt . Jervis was forced to quit his mess and live on ship 's rations in order to pay off the loan . The event deeply affected the young Jervis who swore never to " draw another bill without the certainty of it being paid " . Sphinx was paid off at Spithead on 7 November 1754 . Jervis was assigned to the 20 @-@ gun Seaford in December of the same year and then from the end of December until February 1755 was assigned to HM Yacht William and Mary under the navigational expert Captain John Campbell .
Jervis passed his lieutenant 's examination on 2 January 1755 and was assigned as sixth lieutenant to the first @-@ rate Royal George of 100 guns . By March , he had moved to third lieutenant of the 60 @-@ gun Nottingham . The Nottingham was part of Edward Boscawen 's fleet that attempted to prevent French reinforcements reaching New France . On 31 March 1756 Jervis moved to the 74 @-@ gun HMS Devonshire and on 22 June he was promoted to be fourth lieutenant of the 90 @-@ gun Prince under Captain Charles Saunders in the Mediterranean . When the captain was promoted to admiral , Jervis followed him to the 74 @-@ gun Culloden in November 1756 . In January 1757 Jervis was promoted to temporary command of HMS Experiment . In her , he fought a large French privateer in an indecisive action off Cape Gata . When the captain of the Experiment regained his health Jervis moved back to the Culloden . In June 1757 , he followed Saunders to the 90 @-@ gun HMS St George . Jervis returned to England in temporary command of the 80 @-@ gun Foudroyant , a ship that had been captured by Henry Osborn 's fleet at the Battle of Cartagena . He followed Saunders once more when the admiral was promoted to command the North American station ; Jervis was promoted to Lieutenant of HMS Prince .
= = = Quebec and promotion to captain = = =
The fleet , part of an expedition to capture the French possessions in North America , left England in February 1759 . They stopped first at Louisbourg , which had been captured from the French the previous year . By June , the ice along the Saint Lawrence River had broken up and the fleet along with the military transports headed up river to the assault of Quebec City . On 15 May 1759 , Jervis had been promoted acting commander of the sloop HMS Porcupine . In this command Jervis impressed General James Wolfe in the preparations that led to the Battle of the Plains of Abraham . Porcupine and the frigate Halifax led the armed transports past Quebec to land up river . One biographer , Jedediah Tucker , notes that as the approach was so critical , both Wolfe and the subsequently famous James Cook boarded the Porcupine to ensure the success of the mission .
For his efforts Jervis was promoted commander and took command of HMS Scorpion . Jervis returned to England in September but immediately returned to North America in command of the Albany . In May 1760 Jervis was attached to Admiral Sir George Rodney 's Channel squadron .
In October 1760 he was made post @-@ captain in command of the 44 @-@ gun Gosport . Gosport had on board a young midshipman , George Elphinstone , later Viscount Keith , who took over Jervis ' command in the Mediterranean after Jervis ' departure in 1799 . In 1762 , HMS Gosport , HMS Danae and HMS Superb under Captain Joshua Rowley , convoyed the East and West Indian trade to the westward , and successfully protected it from the squadron of Commodore de Ternay .
By the end of 1763 the Gosport has been paid off and Jervis remained unemployed until February 1769 when he was appointed to the 32 @-@ gun HMS Alarm , the first coppered warship in the Royal Navy . He was tasked with delivering bullion to the English merchants in Genoa . During his time in Genoa two Turkish slaves escaped a Genoese galley and hid aboard one of Alarm 's boats . They were forcibly removed ; Jervis made an official protest and promised retaliation if they were not handed over . The slaves were produced and Jervis took custody of them .
On 30 March 1770 the Alarm was driven ashore off Marseilles but with the efforts of Jervis , the crew and the local French authorities under the governor of Marseilles , Georges René Le Peley de Pléville she was brought off and repaired . Jervis personally returned to Marseilles with a letter of thanks from the Board of the Admiralty to the governor for his assistance .
In 1771 Alarm returned to England to collect the Duke of Gloucester , King George III 's brother in order that he could winter in Italy . He lived aboard with his entourage until May 1772 when Alarm returned to England and was paid off .
= = = Touring Europe and Russia = = =
Between October 1772 and June 1775 , Jervis travelled extensively . He began in France where he studied the language and made observations about French life . He accompanied Captain Samuel Barrington to Russia where they spent time in Saint Petersburg and inspected the arsenal and dockyards at Kronstadt and took a tour of the yacht designed by Sir Charles Knowles for Catherine of Russia . The pair continued on to Sweden , Denmark and northern Germany . All the while Jervis made notes on defences , harbour charts and safe anchorages . They came home via the Netherlands , Jervis once again making extensive studies of the area and taking copious notes describing any useful information . He and Barrington then took a private cruise along the Channel coast calling at various harbours including Brest , making and improving their charts as they went . When Jervis later became the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Channel Fleet he was aided significantly in his blockade of Brest by these charts . In later years , he commented : " Had the young Captain Jervis not performed such a complete survey of this port then the Earl St Vincent would not have been able to effect such a thorough blockade of it . "
= = American War of Independence = =
= = = First Battle of Ushant = = =
At the outbreak of the American War of Independence in 1775 Jervis was given the command of HMS Kent ; however , she was surveyed by the dockyard and found unfit for service . He was therefore appointed instead to command of HMS Foudroyant , the ship he had brought to England as a prize seventeen years earlier . For the first few years of the war , the French supplied arms , funding , and military advice on an informal and limited basis to the newly emerging nation of America . With the signing of the Treaty of Alliance in 1778 and the creation of the Franco @-@ American alliance , the war widened . Jervis spent the first few years of the war patrolling the Channel in Foudroyant without seeing any significant action , but as the war reached Europe Jervis was placed under the command of Admiral Augustus Keppel . The Channel fleet , under Keppel , sighted the French fleet intending to enter Brest on 23 July . The British fleet of 30 ships of the line chased the French fleet of 29 ships and engaged them on 27 July in what became known as the First Battle of Ushant . The battle was indecisive and in the political aftermath Jervis provided a stalwart defence of Admiral Keppel at the latter 's court @-@ martial , helping to secure Keppel 's acquittal .
= = = Relieving Gibraltar and capture of the Pégase = = =
Jervis remained in Foudroyant attached to the Channel Fleet and for a short time acted as flag captain to Admiral Molyneux Shuldham . In 1780 Jervis was with Admiral Rodney when the British fleet relieved Gibraltar . In 1781 he was with Admiral George Darby at the second relief of Gibraltar . On 19 April 1782 Jervis was with his old friend and travelling companion when a ship in Admiral Barrington 's squadron sighted a French convoy leaving Brest . The squadron gave chase and Foudroyant caught and engaged the French 74 @-@ gun Pégase . After an engagement of more than an hour Pégase struck . Jervis himself was wounded in the attack . For his services he was invested as a Knight of the Bath on 19 May 1782 . He was again at the relief of Gibraltar with Earl Howe 's fleet in 1782 and took part in the indecisive Battle of Cape Spartel . Jervis was promoted commodore and hoisted his broad pennant in the 50 @-@ gun HMS Salisbury in December 1782 , with orders to proceed to the West Indies . Due to the peace negotiations his orders were rescinded and he struck his pennant on 14 January 1783 .
= = Marriage and political office = =
During the peace Jervis married his cousin Martha , daughter of Lord Chief Baron Sir Thomas Parker . Jervis was also returned as MP for Launceston in 1783 . Jervis began his political career in earnest and voted for Pitt 's parliamentary reforms and against Charles James Fox and his East India Bill . During the elections of 1784 Jervis stood for election in the independent borough of Great Yarmouth where he was returned as MP alongside Henry Beaufoy . Jervis then voted against Pitt 's further bills for reform but supported him once more during the 1788 – 1799 Regency Crisis .
On 24 September 1787 Jervis was promoted rear @-@ admiral of the blue and hoisted his flag in the 74 @-@ gun Carnatic for several months during the tensions arising from the Prussian invasion of the Netherlands . In 1790 Jervis was recalled to service once more and moved his flag to the second @-@ rate Prince during the Nootka Sound crisis that threatened war between England and Spain . Also in 1790 Jervis was promoted rear @-@ admiral of the white and stood down as MP for Great Yarmouth and stood instead for the Chipping Wycombe seat to which he was returned as MP alongside the Marquess of Lansdowne . With his interest in politics wavering he spoke rarely and then almost exclusively on naval matters . In 1794 he resigned his seat and did not stand again for political office . In 1792 Jervis proposed a scheme to alleviate the financial hardship of superannuated seamen . He later withdrew the proposal as Viscount Melville promised that the matter would be addressed by the Admiralty Board .
= = French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars = =
Jervis was promoted vice @-@ admiral of the blue and was appointed to command of the Leeward Islands station . Jervis took with him an army that , combined with the navy , formed a joint military expedition . The goal of the expedition was to capture French colonies and thereby weaken France 's international trade . The army commander was Sir Charles Grey , a friend and political ally . Jervis hoisted his flag in HMS Boyne . He took Grey 's son , Captain George Grey , later Sir George Grey , 1st Baronet , as his flag @-@ captain . The combined forces captured the French colonies of Martinique , Guadeloupe and Saint Lucia and restored monarchist rule .
The French counter @-@ attacked and recaptured Guadeloupe on 2 June 1794 . Jervis and Grey landed a force to recapture the island but were repulsed by the reinforced French garrison and the British expedition withdrew . In November 1794 Admiral Benjamin Caldwell replaced Jervis . Disputes over prize money were widely held as the reason that Jervis and Grey were not awarded peerages for their service . Grey and Jervis ' enemies proposed a vote of censure against the General and Admiral . The vote itself was negative . The prize money for the capture of the three islands , when finally calculated , amounted to £ 70 @,@ 000 that was due to the officers and men of the navy . If adjusted for inflation this would equal approximately £ 6 @,@ 538 @,@ 000 as of 2016 . Jervis and Grey were however awarded the thanks of both Houses of Parliament for their services . On 12 April 1794 Jervis was promoted vice @-@ admiral of the white .
= = = Command of the Mediterranean Fleet = = =
Jervis was promoted admiral of the blue on 1 June 1795 and appointed to command the Mediterranean Fleet . Unfortunately the Boyne had caught fire on 1 May 1795 and had blown up in Spithead , the result of an accident , and Jervis lost almost all of his possessions . Jervis went to take command of the Mediterranean fleet in the frigate Lively and once more took Charles Grey 's son , Captain George Grey , as his flag @-@ captain . Jervis also took Robert Calder as his captain of the fleet . On arrival at Gibraltar Jervis took HMS Victory as his flagship . Among Jervis ' subordinates were Captains Horatio Nelson , Cuthbert Collingwood and Thomas Troubridge . Jervis began a close blockade of Toulon and Nelson was assigned the task of aiding the Austrian army along the Italian coast . By September 1796 the British presence in the Mediterranean had become untenable . Napoleon had beaten Britain 's Austrian allies who were in disarray and , in October , Spain had surrendered and allied themselves to the French . Jervis recalled Admiral Robert Mann to aid in the blockade of Cadiz . Mann took his ships instead to Spithead . Jervis abandoned Corsica between September and November 1796 and withdrew his forces to Gibraltar . A Spanish fleet made up of twenty four line @-@ of @-@ battle ships and seven frigates sailed from Toulon on 1 February 1797 . Jervis ' fleet of ten ships @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line was patrolling off Cape Saint Vincent and was subsequently joined by five more under Sir William Parker . The Spanish admiral , José de Córdoba , had taken his ships into the Atlantic to weather a storm and was making his way to Cadiz when the two fleets caught sight of each other .
= = = = The Battle of Cape St. Vincent = = = =
The British and Spanish fleet sighted one another at dawn on 14 February 1797 . The British fleet had fifteen line @-@ of @-@ battle ships against the twenty four Spanish ships . On the quarter @-@ deck of Victory , Jervis and his flag captain , Robert Calder counted the ships . It was at this point Jervis discovered that he was outnumbered nearly two @-@ to @-@ one :
" There are eight sail of the line , Sir John "
" Very well , sir "
" There are twenty sail of the line , Sir John "
" Very well , sir "
" There are twenty five sail of the line , Sir John "
" Very well , sir "
" There are twenty seven sail of the line , Sir John "
" Enough , sir , no more of that ; the die is cast , and if there are fifty sail I will go through them . "
A passenger aboard Victory , Captain Benjamin Hallowell , achieved a brief notoriety for slapping the admiral on the back and calling out " That 's right Sir John , that 's right . By God , we shall give them a damned good licking ! "
During the battle Nelson , in command of HMS Captain , wore out of line and performed a stunning feat by capturing two of the enemy vessels within moments . Nelson and his crew boarded and captured one and crossed her deck and boarded and captured the second , which had collided in the smoke and general melee of the battle . The move was later feted by the public and press and dubbed " Nelson 's patent bridge for boarding first @-@ rates " . When the Spanish retreated Jervis did not press his advantage but consolidated his victory and began the lengthy job of repairing both his ships and crews . The British had suffered casualties of 73 killed and 227 wounded .
Sir John did not mention Nelson 's achievement in his initial despatch to the Admiralty despite Nelson 's obvious contribution to the success of the battle . In later despatches Jervis did mention Nelson . In one anecdote , when discussing the battle with his flag @-@ captain , Sir Robert , who had been mentioned in the despatch and had been awarded a knighthood for his services , brought up the issue of Nelson 's disobedience of the admiral 's orders for having worn out of the line of battle in order to engage the enemy . Jervis silenced him by saying : " It certainly was so , and if you ever commit such a breach of your orders , I will forgive you also . "
Despite the capture of only four vessels , the Battle of Cape Saint Vincent became celebrated as an outstanding victory and the awards and recognition far outweighed the achievement . The bad news of the evacuation of the Mediterranean , the capitulation of the Spanish and the Italian city @-@ states and the defeat of the Austrian army alongside the increasing threat of a French invasion of Britain had depressed the politicians and general public . A victory , such as that of Cape Saint Vincent , was more important for the morale of the country as a whole than its military ramifications . Both Jervis and Nelson were hailed as heroes and Jervis was made Baron Jervis of Meaford and Earl St Vincent . Songs were written about Jervis and the battle and there was a general feeling of relief in both the Government and people of Britain . Nelson for his services was invested as a Knight of the Bath . The now Earl St Vincent was gifted a pension for life of £ 3 @,@ 000 per year . The City of London presented him with the Freedom of the City in a gold box valued at 100 guineas and awarded both him and Nelson a ceremonial sword . The presentation box and sword are both currently held at the National Maritime Museum , Greenwich . The two swords awarded Jervis and Nelson were the first of their kind that the City of London issued . St Vincent was awarded the thanks of both Houses of Parliament and given a gold medal by the King . The London Gazette published an advertisement in 1798 regarding the prize money that was due to the officers and men who had fought at the battle . The sum quoted was £ 140 @,@ 000 , in inflationary terms this would be approximately £ 13 @,@ 076 @,@ 100 as of 2016 , of which , as admiral , Jervis was entitled to a sizeable share . Jervis resumed his blockade of the Spanish fleet in Cadiz .
= = = = Mutiny and discipline = = = =
During 1797 there was considerable discontent among the seamen of the Royal Navy . This discontent manifested itself at the Nore and at Spithead when the greater part of the Channel Fleet rose up against their officers . These mutinies were not overly violent and the officers were put ashore and the heads of the mutinies established their own order and kept the ships under " committee " control until their collective demands were met . The mutineers demands ranged from discontent at cruel officers to poor pay and long sea service without shore leave . There were other mutinies throughout the Navy that year , most notably HMS Hermione and HMS Marie Antoinette both on the Jamaica station . These mutinies resulted in the crews killing their officers and taking their ships into enemy held ports .
Jervis had the reputation as a disciplinarian and put in place a new system that would ensure that the men in the Mediterranean fleet did not mutiny . To begin with the admiral wrote a new set of standing orders . For example , Jervis divided the seamen and marines and berthed the two separately putting the marines between the officers aft and the men forward . Thus he created an effective barrier between officers and potentially unruly crews .
Jervis discouraged conversation in Irish though he did not ban it . He ordered the marine detachments to be paraded every morning and , if there was a band available , for " God Save the King " to be played . The marine detachment was then to remain armed at all times . Marines and soldiers were also excused from duties in regard to the general running of the ship .
In order to keep his crews active and to ensure that the Spanish did not perceive that there might be discontent in the fleet , Jervis ordered the nightly bombardment of Cadiz in his own words to " Divert the animal . "
The Admiral isolated the ships from one another to minimise collusion and the opportunities the men might have to band together in mutiny . St Vincent did ensure , however , that the men under his command were cared for . When the stock of tobacco ran low the Admiral ensured that the supply was renewed from his own funds . When the postmaster in Lisbon detained the letters and packets arriving from England for the men for fear that they would carry seditious communications , Jervis set up a post office aboard his flagship HMS Ville de Paris to receive and distribute all the letters that arrived for both seamen , marines and officers .
Jervis strictly adhered to the Articles of War and individual regulations that he had written for his fleet . Any infraction was dealt with harshly and he was renowned for treating both officers and seamen with the same harsh discipline . As an example , one officer who allowed his boats crew to plunder a fishing boat was placed before a court martial and it was ordered that he be " degraded from the rank of Midshipman in the most ignominious manner by having his uniform stripped from his back on the quarter deck of the ( ship unknown ) [ sic ] . before the whole ship 's company and to be further disposed of as the Commander @-@ in @-@ chief shall direct . To be mulcted of his pay now due to him for his services on board any ship of his Majesty 's service and to be rendered incapable of ever serving as an Officer or a Petty Officer in any of His Majesty 's ships . " Jervis later personally directed that the midshipman should have his head shaved , a notice hung around his neck describing his crime and that he should be solely responsible for the cleaning of the head ( naval term for the communal toilets situated at the bow of the ship ) until further notice . In another incident , St Vincent instructed that two men aboard HMS St George who were tried for mutiny on a Saturday were executed on Sunday . The men were duly executed but Admiral Charles Thompson raised an objection to formal executions on the Sabbath and Jervis wrote to the Board of Admiralty demanding Thompson 's removal or that they accept his own resignation . The Board relieved Thompson . On 9 July 1797 Nelson wrote to Jervis congratulating him in his resolve and wholeheartedly supporting his decision to execute the men on a Sunday .
Jervis could also be exceptionally kind when he felt that the situation warranted it . On one occasion , while the fleet was becalmed the men of the flagship were ordered to bathe . The men leapt over the side to swim in a sail that had been lowered over the side . One of the men , a senior able seaman , jumped in wearing his trousers . In one of the pockets he had his prize money and back pay that he had been saving for several years . The bank notes were destroyed by the water and when the man came aboard and discovered what had happened he began to weep . The Admiral saw the man and asked the problem . One of his officers told him and St Vincent went to his cabin . When he returned he had the crew mustered and called the man forward . " Roger Odell you are convicted , Sir , by your own appearance of tarnishing the British oak with tears . What have you to say in your defence why you should not receive what you deserve ? " The man told him what had happened and St Vincent replied " Roger Odell you are one of the best men in this ship you are moreover a captain of a top and in my life I never saw a man behave himself better in battle than you did in the Victory in the action with the Spanish fleet . To show therefore that your Commander @-@ in @-@ chief will never pass over merit wheresoever he may find it . There is your money Sir ! " The Earl produced £ 70 of his own money and presented it to the surprised sailor " but no more tears mind , no more tears Sir " .
When Nelson returned to the Mediterranean St Vincent wrote to Earl Spencer , First Lord of the Admiralty : " I do assure your Lordship that the arrival of Admiral Nelson has given me new life ; you could not have gratified me more than in sending him . His presence in the Mediterranean is so very essential . " St Vincent detached Nelson to pursue Napoleon in his invasion of Egypt Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Orde who was senior to Nelson complained publicly and bitterly about what he considered a personal slight . Jervis ordered Orde home . Orde requested that he be court @-@ martialled in order that he might have the opportunity to clear his name . The Board refused . Orde then requested that St Vincent be brought before a court @-@ martial . Again , the Board refused . The Board censured Jervis for not having supported his subordinates . Orde later challenged the ageing admiral to a duel . The challenge became public knowledge and the king ordered Jervis to decline . Before the challenge was formally declined , Orde wrote to the Board to inform them that he had withdrawn it .
When the men aboard the Marlborough refused to execute a man for mutinous behaviour and their captain did nothing , the Earl threatened the captain with replacement and had boats from the rest of the fleet armed with carronades surround the Marlborough ; he then threatened to sink the ship if his orders were not carried out . The man was duly executed . St Vincent turned to an officer beside him watching the mutineer hanging from the yard arm and said " Discipline is preserved , Sir ! "
Between 1797 and 1799 alongside the suppression of mutiny Jervis set himself the task of improving the dockyards and defences of Gibraltar including building a new Victualling Yard and Water Tanks to replenish his ships . After the Battle of the Nile the dockyards , under Jervis ' watchful eye , managed to successfully repair most of the fleet . Lady Lavinia Bingham , wife of Earl Spencer wrote to St Vincent to congratulate him for having provided the necessary tools for Nelson to have achieved the victory he did at the Nile . " Never did disinterested zeal and friendship meet with a brighter reward than yours has reaped in this victory of your gallant friend . " Nelson commented that he had " never beheld a fleet equal to Sir John Jervis ' " Having had great difficulty supplying the fleet with fresh water the Admiral arranged for large tanks to be built in Gibraltar . On 14 February 1799 St Vincent was created admiral of the white . Constant service and approaching old age meant that the admiral became increasingly unwell . Despite his failing health , St Vincent was reluctant to relinquish command and the Board reluctant to supersede him . By 17 June 1799 he had no choice but to resign his command and return to England . During his time ashore the Earl lived in Rochetts , Essex with his wife .
= = = Command of the Channel Fleet = = =
As his health had improved he was given command of the Channel Fleet . St Vincent was to comment " The King and the government require it and the discipline of the British Navy demands it . It is of no consequence to me whether I die afloat or ashore . The die is cast . "
He took command of the Channel fleet in HMS Namur on 26 April 1800 and took up a close blockade of Brest . Once at Brest he transferred to the Ville de Paris of 110 guns and took Sir Thomas Troubridge as his captain of the fleet . He was also accompanied by his personal physician , Doctor Andrew Baird . Baird was later to become instrumental in the plans of the commander @-@ in @-@ chief and the health and well being of the Channel fleet .
St Vincent 's appointment was not popular among the officers of the Channel fleet . His reputation as a strict disciplinarian had followed him from the Mediterranean and he immediately issued orders banning officers and captains from sleeping ashore and forbade them from travelling more than three miles from their ship . Among other strict regulations introduced were orders that ships were to be repaired where possible at sea and that Ushant was to be the official rendezvous for the Channel fleet rather than the traditional Torbay . The wife of one of his captains is said to have toasted the news of his appointment with the line " May his next glass of wine choke the wretch . " Ships were forbidden to go to Spithead without specific written orders from the Admiral or Admiralty . During his command he remained with the fleet and became respected by the officers and men for suffering their hardships with them .
With the charts that he had made with Barrington in 1775 the inshore squadron at Brest was able to keep a much tighter blockade . In one incident , the inshore squadron sighted several French ships leaving Brest . Sir Edward Pellew , captain of HMS Impétueux , gave chase . The rear admiral in charge of the inshore squadron recalled him , worried that the Impétueux would run aground . The French escaped . After several letters went back and forth between the two admirals , St Vincent , tired of his subordinate 's excuses , took the entire offshore squadron and sailed them between the inshore squadron and the shore thus proving that the ships had a shallow enough draught to have given chase and captured the French . St Vincent then wrote to the rear admiral and suggested that he strike his flag and return to shore for some needed rest .
St Vincent was as generous in the Channel as he had been in the Mediterranean . A particular letter from England made the admiral host a dinner aboard the flagship for fifty of the officers whom he felt closest to . At the dinner he revealed that the letter was from an orphanage near Paddington in London . The orphanage had run out of money to support the children of sailors who had died in the service of their country . St Vincent solicited from each captain and lieutenant a sum of money and then added his own donation . The cutter sailed back to England the same evening . St Vincent gave the orphanage £ 1 @,@ 000
St Vincent 's skills as an administrator and logistician came into play and he issued orders regarding the health and well being of the fleet . St Vincent wrote to Earl Spencer , commenting " I have ever considered the care of the sick and wounded as one of the first duties of a Commander @-@ in @-@ chief , by sea or land . " Based on Doctor Baird 's advice on cleanliness and hygiene the admiral brought in as many fresh vegetables as he could , along with vast quantities of fresh lemon juice to minimise illness , particularly scurvy . The effect was dramatic . The hospital ship that accompanied the fleet was sent home unneeded and in November 1800 when the fleet came to anchor in Torbay there were as few as sixteen hospital cases among the estimated twenty three thousand men . In a letter to Sir Evan Nepean , first secretary to the Admiralty , St Vincent described Baird as " the most valuable man in the Navy not excepting the Board itself , " The oncoming winter of 1800 – 1801 forced the admiral to live ashore at Torre Abbey overlooking Torbay . Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Henry Harvey took over operational command of the fleet in St Vincent 's absence .
In 1801 in a letter to the Board of Admiralty , St Vincent made the now famous remark : " I do not say , my Lords , that the French will not come . I say only they will not come by sea . " In 1801 St Vincent was replaced by Admiral William Cornwallis and the new Prime Minister Henry Addington promoted St Vincent to First Lord of the Admiralty .
= = First Lord of the Admiralty = =
In January 1801 St Vincent had written a short letter to the then First Lord Earl Spencer stating : " Nothing short of a radical sweep in the dockyards can cure the enormous evils and corruptions in them ; and this cannot be attempted till we have peace . " As First Lord St Vincent intended to investigate , discover and remove all of the corruption that he considered plagued the Navy , the Royal Dockyards and their civilian administration . Consequently , he clashed with the various Navy Boards , the civil administration of the Royal Navy that administered among other things the navy yards and stores . St Vincent saw these boards and individuals as hindering the efforts of the Navy .
= = = The Commission of Inquiry = = =
During the peace with France , after the Treaty of Amiens was signed on 25 March 1802 , St Vincent ordered the Navy Board to begin an investigation for fraud and corruption in the Royal Dockyards . He swiftly found that the investigations were not being conducted effectively and ordered the commissioners to retrieve all logs and accounts and inventories and put them under their " personal seal " in anticipation of the Admiralty Board travelling to the various yards itself and conducting their own inspection . The investigation began in earnest in 1802 . St Vincent swiftly uncovered casual and obvious abuses of the system . Some men were listed as having done work , then over @-@ time and then acted as night watchmen for years without a break of any kind . Others were listed as workmen ashore but also as sailors receiving pay in the Receiving Ship . Work was done and then the identical work was charged for over various periods , often by different departments or sections . In another yard , " The men of an entire department were found to be incapables , as old , infirm boys , cripples , or idiots , and the department itself to have the appearance of an asylum for every rogue and vagabond that could not obtain a meal by any other means . " St Vincent found that minor dockyard officials were the tip of a far bigger corruption . He lobbied the government to create a special commission of inquiry that would have the power to question suspects under oath . The cabinet determined that the outcome of such an inquiry might be damaging politically ( and possibly in some cases , personally ) and gave the board of inquiry permission to question suspects under oath but gave the suspects the right to refuse to answer questions that might incriminate themselves . This addendum removed the ability of the inquiry to act effectively in any way . The Commission of Inquiry produced twelve reports :
1 . Foreign Yards ;
2 @.@ the Chatham Chest ( the pension fund for seamen ) ;
3 @.@ supply of Blocks and Naval Cooperage ;
4 @.@ prize money and prize causes ;
5 @.@ the Collection of the sixpence from Merchant Seamen ;
6 @.@ the Economy of the Naval Yards ;
7 @.@ the Naval Hospitals and the Hospital ships for French prisoners at Plymouth ;
8 @.@ the Victualling and Cooperage at Plymouth ;
9 @.@ the receipt and expenditure of stores at Plymouth ;
10 . Office of Treasurer of the Navy ;
11 @.@ the issue of Money Bills ;
12 @.@ the purchase Stores for the Naval Service more particularly Masts , Spars , Fir and Hemp
One of St Vincent 's biographers put the findings of the commission succinctly " The valuable British oak rotted in the forests for want of the axe ; the frames building rotted on the stocks for want of timber ; the ships at sea rotted before their day because constructed of such worthless perishable materials . "
= = = Reform = = =
One reform St Vincent did achieve was the introduction of block making machinery at the navy yard in Portsmouth . The machinery was designed by Marc Isambard Brunel and Samuel Bentham . By 1808 forty @-@ five machines were turning out 130 @,@ 000 pulley blocks per year . The innovation meant that only ten to thirty unskilled men were able to equal the output of 100 skilled blockmakers and the capital cost of the project was recovered in three years . The revolution of machinery enabled the Navy to become self @-@ sufficient in regard to the production of the essential blocks . This self @-@ sufficiency removed a great deal of corruption , from external contractors producing inferior goods that jeopardised sailors ' lives , to the corruption that arose from poorly paid officials responsible for awarding contracts and the bribes that might ensue . The buildings that housed the Block Machinery remain to this day and make up part of the Historic Portsmouth Dockyard .
As First Lord , St Vincent also determined to build a breakwater in Plymouth . The First Lord commissioned a civil engineer , John Rennie , and Joseph Whidbey , the former Master @-@ Attendant at Woolwich dockyard , to design the breakwater . Work did not begin until 1811 but the earl is widely credited as the force behind its construction .
St Vincent spoke with the King regarding the contribution made by marines to the general service of the Navy and recommended to the King that the prefix " Royal " be added . These were the first official discussions into the retitling of the corps to Royal Marines .
During his tenure , the workers in the Royal dockyards demanded an increase in pay due to an increase in living costs . St Vincent reacted by dismissing the ringleaders and every man who had taken an active role in the strike . He eventually agreed to a small temporary allowance for the purchase of bread while the price of bread remained high .
St Vincent 's gaze passed over every aspect of the Navy from the Sea Fencibles to the Navy Hospitals . The earl attempted to disband the Sea Fencibles claiming that they were needed only to quiet the fears of little old ladies and that good men passed their whole careers without hearing a shot fired . Doctor Baird , St Vincent 's personal physician , was appointed to the Sick and Hurt Board as Inspector of all Hospitals .
= = = Powers to promote = = =
Another burden of his promotion to First Lord of the Admiralty was that St Vincent was inundated with letters from aspiring officers and their relatives and friends . Soliciting employment from those in positions of influence in the navy had become common practice and was a generally accepted method of securing a good posting . The more influence that an officer could draw upon , the better and often more lucrative the position . Also , due to the peace with France the navy had been reduced and employment was scarce . The First Lord could not , therefore , provide every officer of influence a position and was obliged to reject many of the letters that he received . Despite St Vincent having declared both publicly and privately that officers would be promoted or given position commensurate with their achievements and not based on their political or social influence , the letters continued to flow to the Admiralty .
The ways in which St Vincent chose to communicate the rejections often depended on the number of letters , the individual concerned , or the demands made by their respective well wishers . To the Earl of Portsmouth he wrote : " I cannot possibly agree in opinion with your Lordship , that a person sitting quietly by his fireside , and enjoying very nearly a sinecure , during such a war as we have been engaged in , has the same pretensions to promotion with the man who has exposed his person , and hazarded his constitution in every clime . " A harsh rebuff to a peer of the
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accompli ; they failed to inform their colleagues until the players had left for the West Indies tour .
The other board members were told about the matter at the end of the meeting . The minutes of the meeting read :
The chairman and chief executive officer reported on a further matter that had come to their attention and been dealt with by them in a manner considered appropriate . The actions of the chairman and the chief executive were approved by the directors present . It was resolved that details should be provided to ICC on a private and confidential basis .
Some board members were uncomfortable with the way the matter was handled . Bob Merriman said that the other board members were " absolutely pizzled [ angry ] . I don 't know what the vote was because there was nobody there " . Malcolm Gray said that " it was disgraceful that the Board hadn 't been informed before " . Damien Mullins said he thought " it was poor and unsatisfactory " .
Crompton and Halbish knew that if the involvement of Waugh and Warne with bookmakers was revealed , the credibility of the two players as witnesses against the Pakistani captain Malik would be severely questioned , as they too were involved in activities associated with unregistered gambling . There would be significant pressure on the ACB to ban the players , so they decided to cover up the matter . Board member Cam Battersby said , " The only way he [ Malik ] was ever going to be convicted was if our evidence was credible ... Revealing the information ... would provide an excuse for Pakistan to do nothing " . The ACB prepared a press release in case the matter was leaked . The ACB 's legal adviser Graeme Johnson later said that he had told Crompton that they were not obliged to tell the press about the matter .
Initially , coach Simpson was not informed ; when he found out , he was angry that the ACB had not trusted him enough to tell him what his players had done . Captain Mark Taylor was also aware of the issue by the time he took the team to the West Indies , as were vice @-@ captain Ian Healy and Waugh 's brother Steve .
= = Aftermath = =
In December 1998 , before the Third Test between Australia and England at the Adelaide Oval , the journalist Malcolm Conn of The Australian uncovered the story of John . His report on the matter won him a Walkley Award for journalism . On 8 December , three days before the start of the Test , Conn informed Malcolm Speed — the CEO of the ACB — that he was going to reveal the details of a cover @-@ up of the fines that were imposed on Waugh . At the time , Conn was unaware of Warne 's involvement . The ACB responded by pre @-@ empting Conn and releasing a statement , revealing that two unnamed players had been fined in 1994 – 95 for having financial dealings with bookmakers . Later that evening , former Test cricketer David Hookes , who was then a sports broadcaster , named Waugh and Warne on the Melbourne radio station 3AW . The next day , Conn 's story was released on the front page , with the headline " Cricket 's Betting Scandal " . The article was accompanied by a picture of Waugh with his hand on his head .
On the morning of the publication of Conn 's article , the managers of Warne and Waugh organised a media conference after Australia 's training session . Both players faced a room packed with media and read prepared statements . Both said they had been " naive and stupid " . Waugh concluded :
I regret [ it ] entirely and wish to restate in the strongest possible manner that I have always given my best for my country in every match I have played and I believe my record , particularly in the last three years , fully supports this statement . I must emphasise that I have never been involved in match @-@ fixing or bribery on cricket matches in any stage of my career .
Much to their discontent , the media were not allowed to ask questions . Patrick Smith of The Age said , " To deliver such bland explanations to the world media as they did yesterday and then not accept questions was contemptuous of the Australian public they have let down so badly . " The press attention was so intense that when Waugh attempted to relax with a round of golf at a local course , media helicopters flew overhead .
The players were widely condemned by the media and public ; Prime Minister John Howard stated that he felt an " intense feeling of disappointment " , while former player Neil Harvey called for bans . Malik , whom Warne and Waugh had accused of attempting to bribe them , said that he was delighted at the revelation . The Pakistani player said that the revelations discredited his accusers and vindicated his protestations of innocence . On the preceding tour of Pakistan a few months earlier , Waugh had appeared before a Pakistan Cricket Board judicial inquiry in Lahore to present his claims against Malik ; the inquiry questioned the credibility of both Australian players and asked them to return to Pakistan to re @-@ present their accounts of the events .
The sports community strongly supported the players . May , the President of the Australian Cricketers ' Association , and co @-@ accuser of Malik , pledged his organisation 's support for the players , whom he described as " outstanding servants of Australian cricket " . Waugh received similar statements of support from sports identities . Warne 's first Australian captain , Allan Border , defended him , as did former captain and leading commentator Richie Benaud . Sir Don Bradman , widely regarded as the greatest batsman of all time , and former ACB chairman , said that Warne was one of the best influences on Australian cricket for generations , and that the dealings with John did not change this .
Media and public opinion was more hostile . The Sydney Morning Herald ran the headline " Baggy Green Shame " while The Australian wrote of the " $ 11 @,@ 000 price of disgrace " . Many newspaper columns and letters to the editor attacked the players . The editorial of The Australian stated that " Waugh and Warne said yesterday they had been naïve and stupid . Put the emphasis on the second adjective — and add greedy . " Readers called for the players to be banned from playing for Australia as well as the sacking of the ACB officials who had kept the matter secret ; some said that the players should never be appointed to leadership roles in the cricket community . In the Weekend Australian of 12 December , Warwick Hadfield and Brian Woodley editorialised that " Warne is in need of some good advice , but not from business managers and PR folk too happy to tell him how wonderful he is in order to flog a few more videos , books , pairs of duds , sports shoes or anti @-@ smoking ads " . Warne 's major sponsors reviewed their partnerships with him , and three newspapers , the Daily Mirror of the United Kingdom , The Age of Melbourne and the Sydney Morning Herald severed their ties with him .
A few days later , in the wake of the scandal , Waugh was widely jeered by an Australian crowd when he walked out to bat on the first day of the Test . In what he described as the toughest day of his career , Waugh gave an unconvincing and hesitant performance . Waugh managed only seven runs in 36 minutes before being removed by Peter Such , caught and bowled . The cricket writer Peter Roebuck opined that it was the worst home crowd reception for an Australian player that he could remember . Warne was injured at the time and did not play , so he did not have to face the hostile crowd .
= = Later inquiries = =
On 8 January 1999 , Pakistan 's Judicial Commission held a hearing in Melbourne into bribery and match @-@ fixing . The commission had originally summoned Waugh and Warne to Pakistan but the ACB instead decided to offer them court privileges in Australia . Both Warne and Waugh gave evidence at the public hearing . Waugh seemed nervous and uncertain , whereas Warne appeared assured and confident . They were questioned for approximately 80 and 45 minutes respectively . The Pakistani investigators attempted to link the Australians ' dealings with John to various games between Pakistan and Australia in 1994 , over which they had suspicions of match @-@ fixing .
Immediately after Warne and Waugh had met John in Colombo , Australia defeated Pakistan in a one @-@ day match , scoring 7 / 179 and restricting Pakistan to 9 / 151 in reply . There were suspicions that the Pakistanis had thrown the game by batting slowly , although Warne said he had genuinely tried his best , pointing out that he was named man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match . Warne and May had alleged that Malik offered them money to bowl badly on the final day of the First Test in Karachi . Australia then reduced Pakistan from 3 / 157 to 9 / 258 , and appeared set for victory , but a last @-@ wicket partnership took them to the target of 314 . The win was registered when wicket @-@ keeper Ian Healy missed a stumping chance from Warne and the ball went for four byes . Warne denied that he had thrown the match , again pointing out he was named man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match . Waugh had alleged that Malik offered him money to help Australia lose a one @-@ day match during the same tour . He denied the allegation that he did so . Waugh scored an unbeaten 121 , but it was not enough to prevent Australia from suffering a nine @-@ wicket defeat .
Waugh denied betting on cricket , but said he had given John information " about ten times " , contradicting his earlier statement that the pair had only talked on " a handful " of occasions . Warne testified that he gave pitch and weather information to John before matches three times — a one @-@ day international against England at the Sydney Cricket Ground in December 1994 , the Second Test at the Melbourne Cricket Ground and the Fifth Test at the WACA Ground .
Crompton was the last witness . He said that Warne and Waugh 's actions " amounted to a breach of the players ' contract in that it brought the game of cricket into disrepute " . He said that it was normal for off @-@ field disciplinary breaches to be dealt with in private , while the fallout of on @-@ field incidents was made public . Compton parried Pakistani accusations that he had covered @-@ up the affair . He said that if the matter had been made public , it would have been confused with bribery . The front @-@ page headline in the Melbourne tabloid Herald Sun subsequently read " MATCH FIX " , accompanied by pictures of Warne and Waugh . The players responded that " the matter [ of the headline ] was in the hands of their lawyers " . The next day , the headline read " INNOCENT " .
Following the public outcry over the suppression of the incident , the ACB appointed Rob O 'Regan QC to head up a Player Conduct Inquiry . His assistants conducted 60 preliminary interviews and O 'Regan made ten himself . O 'Regan released his report on 28 February 1999 . He described the fines as " inadequate " as their size " did not reflect the seriousness of what they had done " . He suggested that a " suspension for a significant time " was more appropriate .
They must have known that it is wrong to accept money from , and supply information to , a bookmaker whom they also knew as someone who betted on cricket . Otherwise they would have reported the incident to team management long ago before they were found out in February 1995 . In behaving as they did they failed lamentably to set the sort of example one might expect from senior players and role models for many young cricketers .
O 'Regan said that Australian players were not prepared for playing cricket in Asia , as they were not aware of the dangers of bookmakers and betting on the Indian subcontinent . He recommended that every new player should be warned of the dangers of becoming involved with bookmakers , and the penalties that it entails . The ICC announced that no further action would be taken against Waugh and Warne as they could not be tried twice for the same offence .
= Hurricane Ophelia ( 2005 ) =
Hurricane Ophelia was the fifteenth named tropical cyclone and the eighth hurricane of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season . It was a long @-@ lived storm that was most remembered for its very erratic and extremely slow track off the East Coast of the United States , alternating several times between tropical storm and hurricane intensity .
Ophelia caused some damage and beach erosion along the United States coastline from Florida to North Carolina , with its closest approach occurring on September 14 and 15 with its western eyewall crossing land and the eye remaining just offshore . Minimal damage and erosion was also reported in Atlantic Canada when Ophelia hit as a tropical storm in extratropical transition on September 17 and 18 .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 6 a non @-@ tropical low over the northern Bahamas became more organized and formed into Tropical Depression Sixteen between Andros and Grand Bahama . Shortly after forming the depression moved over Grand Bahama and moved north parallel to the Florida coastline . The computer models initially predicted two distinct possibilities for the storm 's future with some models indicating the storm would cross over Florida and enter the Gulf of Mexico while others indicated that it would stay offshore and move to the northeast . The official forecast from the National Hurricane Center followed the first set of guidance , though with low confidence . The storm strengthened to become Tropical Storm Ophelia early on September 7 and became a hurricane briefly the next day .
From September 9 to September 11 , Ophelia fluctuated in strength , being downgraded to a tropical storm only to regain hurricane intensity three more times ; during this time it moved very slowly and erratically in a northeasterly direction . The NHC continued to struggle to predict Ophelia , with the forecasts generally calling for a landfall on the east coast of the United States . The forecasters indicated there was a possibility that Ophelia could strengthen further to Category 3 strength , though they felt this was unlikely . On September 12 the storm completed a clockwise loop , then adopted a more north @-@ westerly motion towards North Carolina , while still moving only slowly and fitfully . It dropped below hurricane strength again when the inner core of convection collapsed , possibly due to passing over cooler water that it upwelled earlier in its track . Ophelia then regained hurricane strength over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream . After the collapse of the inner core of convection , the hurricane acquired an unusually large eye over 115 miles ( 185 km ) across and soon reached its peak strength with 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) winds . The northern and western eyewall passed over the coastal areas of North Carolina throughout September 14 – 15 , but the strongest winds remained offshore .
As Hurricane Ophelia moved past Cape Hatteras it turned to the east . Wind shear increased on September 16 and weakened Ophelia into a tropical storm for the last time . Ophelia turned to the northeast and brushed past Nantucket Island , Massachusetts the next day . As it approached Nova Scotia on September 17 , the storm became extratropical but maintained its strength as it made landfall in the extreme eastern portion of the province . The extratropical storm passed over southern Newfoundland later that day and finally dissipated on September 23 in the North Sea .
= = Preparations = =
As soon as Tropical Depression Sixteen formed on September 6 , the government of the Bahamas issued a tropical storm warning for the northwestern Bahamas and the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning for much of the east Florida coastline . On September 10 , with forecasts indicating that Ophelia would make landfall in South Carolina as a hurricane , the NHC issued a hurricane watch for much of the coastline of the Carolinas . As the storm neared the Outer Banks , the watch was upgraded to a warning for the areas closest to the predicted route of the storm . On Ocracoke Island , roughly 3 @,@ 000 tourists and 800 local residents were evacuated to inland shelters after a mandatory evacuation order was issued for the island .
As Ophelia was predicted to pass near southeast New England , the NHC issued tropical storm warnings for much of the south Massachusetts and Rhode Island coastlines . In Atlantic Canada , considerable preparations were taken for Ophelia , primarily because of memories of Hurricane Juan of the 2003 season , which had caught the authorities off @-@ guard . Ophelia prompted the Canadian Hurricane Centre 's first ever tropical storm warnings which were canceled when Ophelia became extratropical .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
= = = Southeastern United States = = =
Before Ophelia made its closest approach to land near the Outer Banks on September 15 and 16 , it caused moderate beach erosion along the Florida , Georgia , and South Carolina . Average swells of 6 to 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) affected the region for several days as the storm meandered offshore . Squall lines associated with the storm brought moderate to heavy rains along with high winds , gusting to 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) in isolated thunderstorms . Along the northeastern coast of Florida , up to 5 @.@ 04 in ( 128 mm ) of rain fell ; some areas recorded 3 @.@ 5 in ( 89 mm ) in a six @-@ hour span on September 6 . Between September 6 and 9 , torrential rainfall , measured up to 15 @.@ 2 in ( 390 mm ) in Flagler County , led to moderate street flooding , especially along poorly drained secondary roads . At Flagler Beach , Florida , the erosion endangered the foundation of highway A1A , and 140 dump trucks were brought in to buttress the road with rocks and sand . In Palm Beach County , one man drowned after being caught in rough seas associated with Ophelia .
= = = North Carolina = = =
Ophelia moved extremely slowly in and around North Carolina , causing the storm to drop more than 10 inches ( 254 mm ) of rain on many coastal areas . The highest amount measured was from Oak Island , where 17 @.@ 5 inches ( 445 mm ) was registered . In addition , storm surges of 7 – 12 feet ( 2 – 4 m ) were recorded , particularly in low @-@ lying inlets of Pamlico Sound . At the storm 's peak , over 240 @,@ 000 customers were without power in coastal North Carolina . One indirect fatality was reported due to a traffic accident related to Ophelia , although no direct deaths were recorded .
Damage was heaviest in Salter Path , North Carolina and along the Outer Banks near that community , where ( despite being only a Category 1 storm ) many buildings suffered significant damage as a result of the storm surge , which has been described as worse than Hurricane Isabel in 2003 and even compared to Hurricane Hazel in 1954 . Nearly all of the significant damage occurred on the sound side , or the side facing the mainland . In addition , several piers and many boats were damaged or destroyed by Ophelia 's storm surge . Damage was generally lighter on the mainland , and overall structural damage was relatively light , although there was considerable flooding reported in the Wilmington area . Damage was initially estimated to be about $ 1 @.@ 6 billion , but in final analysis was dropped to only $ 70 million ( 2005 USD ; $ 77 @.@ 3 million 2008 USD ) . On October 7 , President George W. Bush declared a state of emergency for ten counties in North Carolina as a result of Ophelia .
= = = New England and Canada = = =
In New England and Canada , overall damage was minimal , and only brief , sporadic power outages were reported . One indirect storm @-@ related fatality was reported in Nova Scotia as a result of a person falling during minor roof repairs . In Newfoundland , over 1 @.@ 96 inches ( 50 millimeters ) of rain fell over parts of the eastern region of the province .
= 1951 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1951 Atlantic hurricane season was the first hurricane season in which tropical cyclones were officially named by the United States Weather Bureau . The season officially started on June 15 , when the United States Weather Bureau began its daily monitoring for tropical cyclone activity ; the season officially ended on November 15 . It was the first year since 1937 in which no hurricanes made landfall on the United States ; as Hurricane How was the only tropical storm to hit the nation , the season had the least tropical cyclone damage in the United States since the 1939 season . As in the 1950 season , names from the Joint Army / Navy Phonetic Alphabet were used to name storms this season .
The first hurricane of the season , Able , formed prior to the official start of the season ; before reanalysis in 2015 , it was once listed as the earliest major hurricane on record in the Atlantic basin . It formed on May 16 and executed a counterclockwise loop over the Bahamas ; later it brushed the North Carolina coastline . Hurricane Charlie was a powerful Category 4 hurricane that struck Jamaica as a major hurricane , killing hundreds and becoming the worst disaster in over 50 years . The hurricane later struck Mexico twice as a major hurricane , producing deadly flooding outside of Tampico , Tamaulipas . The strongest hurricane , Easy , spent its duration over the open Atlantic Ocean , briefly threatening Bermuda , and was formerly listed as one of a relatively few Category 5 hurricanes on record over the Atlantic Ocean . It briefly neared Category 5 status and interacted with Hurricane Fox , marking the first known instance of a hurricane affecting another 's path .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
As the calendar entered the new year , cyclogenesis occurred with a non @-@ tropical frontal wave over the western North Atlantic Ocean due to a closed low forming in a mid @-@ level trough , which eventually produced a low @-@ pressure center at the surface by January 2 . Ships recorded moderate gales up to 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) in connection with the new surface low , which formed several hundred miles east @-@ southeast of Bermuda . While initially lacking tropical attributes , the cyclone headed southeast for two days before curving southwestward . As it did so , the temperature of the system warmed in its lower levels , causing the cyclone to evolve into a more barotropic system . Late on January 4 , the system shrunk in size and began developing an inner core ; reanalysis determined that the system became a tropical storm at this time , though it would have likely been considered subtropical beginning in the early 1970s .
= = = Hurricane Able = = =
The origins of the first hurricane of the season were from a trough that exited the East Coast of the United States on May 12 . A low @-@ pressure area developed on May 14 , and two days later it developed into a tropical cyclone about 300 miles ( 480 km ) south of Bermuda . It formed beneath an upper @-@ level low , and initially was not fully tropical . The depression followed the low , initially toward the northwest and later the southwest . Moving over the Gulf Stream , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Able on May 16 . The storm turned to the south , and Hurricane Hunters reported that Able strengthened to hurricane status on May 17 off the coast of Florida .
The outer rainbands of Able produced light rainfall and high seas along the Florida coastline . It later moved through the northern Bahamas early on May 18 , where it produced hurricane @-@ force winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) . The hurricane later turned to the north , gradually strengthening through May 21 . Shortly thereafter , Able passed about 70 miles ( 110 km ) east of Cape Hatteras before turning east and reaching its peak of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) early on May 22 . Along the coast , the hurricane produced high tides but little damage . Able maintained hurricane intensity for two more days before weakening to a tropical storm early on May 24 . Able rapidly dissipated that same day , though originally it was assessed as having transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on May 23 .
Until 2015 , Able was listed as having peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and was analyzed to have been the earliest major hurricane on record . Such a storm would be a Category 3 or greater on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , a system developed and introduced in the 1970s . Able was also the strongest hurricane outside of the current hurricane season ( June 1 through November 30 ) . However , reanalysis by scientists in 2015 determined that Able was in fact far weaker than originally listed in HURDAT , the official database containing information on storm tracks and intensities in the Atlantic and Eastern North Pacific regions . It also lost its distinction as the strongest preseason cyclone on record , the record being held by a Category 2 hurricane in March 1908 . The hurricane was one of four North Atlantic hurricanes on record to exist during the month of May , the others occurring in 1889 , 1908 , and 1970 .
= = = Tropical Storm Baker = = =
On August 2 , an easterly wave spawned a tropical depression about 680 miles ( 1095 km ) northeast of Barbuda in the Lesser Antilles . It moved northwestward , quickly strengthening into Tropical Storm Baker . Early on August 3 , the storm attained peak winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , and the next day passed about 275 mi ( 443 km ) east of Bermuda . At its peak intensity , the gale force winds extended 100 miles ( 160 km ) to the north of the center . After attaining its peak , Baker quickly weakened on August 4 and turned to the northeast . Early the next day , it regained some of its former strength , peaking again at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) before losing its identity . It never affected land .
= = = Hurricane Charlie = = =
The third tropical cyclone of the season developed on August 12 from a tropical wave , 930 miles ( 1 @,@ 495 km ) east @-@ southeast of Barbados . After a few days without further development , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Charlie on August 14 , and subsequently crossed through the Lesser Antilles a day later with winds of 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) . Shortly after entering the Caribbean Sea , the storm intensified to hurricane status early on August 16 . Passing south of Puerto Rico and Hispaniola , Charlie then underwent rapid deepening beginning late that day , its winds increasing 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) in 24 hours . As it neared the island of Jamaica early on August 18 , Charlie became a major hurricane and shortly afterward struck just south of Kingston with winds of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) — equivalent to a strong Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale , making Charlie , along with Hurricane Gilbert in 1988 , the strongest ever to hit the island . On the island , the hurricane dropped heavy rainfall up to 17 in ( 430 mm ) . The combination of strong winds and the rains left around $ 50 million ( 1951 USD , $ 380 million 2005 USD ) in crop and property damage . Across the country there were 152 deaths , 2 @,@ 000 injuries , and 25 @,@ 000 people left homeless ; as a result , it was considered the worst disaster in the country in the 20th century until Hurricane Gilbert produced even costlier damage , though with fewer reported fatalities .
After making landfall , Charlie weakened in its passage over the mountainous center of Jamaica , and by the time it left the island , its winds had diminished to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) . Charlie later passed south of the Cayman Islands , with Grand Cayman reporting peak wind gusts of 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) . As it did so , the storm began to undergo yet another period of rapid intensification beginning on August 19 . It re @-@ attained major hurricane status late that day , and early on August 20 Charlie peaked at 130 mph ( 209 km / h ) , equivalent to low @-@ end Category 4 status . Maintaining its strength , the hurricane then made landfall on the southern tip of Cozumel and hit the Mexican mainland near Akumal on the Yucatán Peninsula . The strong winds destroyed 70 % of the crops along its path , although no deaths were reported in the Yucatán Peninsula . Several homes were wrecked in the region . As it moved inland , Charlie weakened rapidly over land , reaching the Bay of Campeche as a minimal hurricane early on August 21 . Once over water , it failed to re @-@ intensify for a full day , but began doing so early on August 22 . As it did so , it rapidly re @-@ intensified for a third and final time , reaching peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) before striking near the city of Miramar , just north of Tampico .. It dissipated on August 23 . The hurricane dropped heavy rainfall in the region , flooding rivers and causing dams to burst . Hundreds of people were killed in the Mexican mainland , and across Charlie 's entire path , damage was estimated at over $ 75 million ( 1951 USD , $ 684 million 2016 USD ) . The outer fringes of the storm increased surf along the Texas coast .
= = = Hurricane Dog = = =
A tropical wave spawned a tropical depression on August 27 southwest of Cape Verde . It moved westward , eventually intensifying into a tropical storm early on August 31 . The next day , the storm was first observed by Hurricane Hunters , several hundred miles east of Barbados , and it was named " Dog " . By that time , its winds were around 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , and the storm continued intensifying as it approached the Lesser Antilles . On September 2 , Dog attained hurricane status , reaching its peak of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) as it passed between the islands of Saint Lucia and Martinique . The storm , then quite small in diameter , produced strong wind gusts of up to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) at the airport in Fort @-@ de @-@ France on Martinique . However , this peak was short @-@ lived , for upon entering the eastern Caribbean Sea Dog began a slow but steady weakening trend . On September 4 , Dog weakened to tropical storm status to the south of Hispaniola , and the next day dissipated in the western Caribbean .
In northern Saint Lucia , the combination of flooding and high winds destroyed 70 % of the banana crop . Two sailing vessels were destroyed , and another one damaged . Across the island , Hurricane Dog killed two people from drownings . Damage was heavier on Martinique , located on the north side of the storm . The hurricane 's winds destroyed 1 @,@ 000 homes and the roofs of several others . Downed trees blocked roads and disrupted power lines . The winds also destroyed 90 % of the banana crop and 30 % of the sugar cane . Throughout Martinique , Dog left $ 3 million in damage ( 1951 USD , $ 27 @.@ 4 million 2016 USD ) and killed five people from drownings . It was considered the " most violent storm " in Martinique in 20 years . Initially the hurricane was expected to strike Jamaica , prompting hurricane warnings for the country , as well as along the southern coast of Hispaniola . Jamaica was earlier struck by Hurricane Charlie a few weeks prior , and the threat from Dog prompted coastal evacuations and the closure of an airport . Ultimately , Dog dissipated and produced only light rainfall on the island .
= = = Hurricane Easy = = =
Hurricane Easy , the strongest tropical cyclone of the season , was a powerful and long @-@ lived Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane that originated as a tropical depression on September 1 between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . Moving generally west @-@ northwestward , the depression deepened into a tropical storm late that day , and further to hurricane status by September 3 . On September 5 , the cyclone reached its first peak of 110 mph ( 177 km / h ) , but failed to continue strengthening . Its winds fluctuated through the early morning on September 6 , but then resumed strengthening , reaching major hurricane status by that evening . During this period , Hurricane Hunters flew into the hurricane to monitor its progress , recording a minimum pressure of 957 millibars ( 28 @.@ 26 inHg ) on September 6 to the north of the Lesser Antilles . The next day , as the storm continued strengthening , an aircraft was unable to penetrate the center , estimating winds of 160 mph ( 257 km / h ) south of the eye . On this basis , Easy was once classified as a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale ; early estimates of the winds by reconnaissance aircraft were often based on visual cues , such as the state of the sea surface , and were thus subjective and often unreliable . Subsequent reanalysis in 2015 lowered its peak winds to 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) on September 8 . This was based on the Hurricane Hunters reporting a pressure of 937 mb ( 27 @.@ 67 inHg ) on the previous day , and a ship reporting winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) . By the time Easy attained peak intensity , it had turned to the north and northeast while beginning a steady weakening trend . It interacted with the small Hurricane Fox to the east ; this was the first observed instance of a hurricane affecting another 's path . Easy then turned to the northeast , passing a short distance southeast of Bermuda on September 9 with winds of 110 mph ( 177 km / h ) . Easy transitioned into an extratropical cyclone late on September 11 , while still maintaining hurricane @-@ force winds . The remnants lost their hurricane @-@ force winds on September 12 , only to briefly regain them two days later . On September 14 , Easy lost its identity over the northern Atlantic Ocean after it was absorbed by another extratropical storm to the north .
The Weather Bureau advised the island to take precautionary measures in advance of the storm ; tourists and residents " worked feverishly " to complete preparations , and the United States Air Force issued " a formal warning at noon . " Numerous hotels and homes were shuttered . Heavy traffic snarled evacuations , and 100 tourists were stranded on the island without " roundtrip reservations . " Air Force aircraft returned to the United States , and personnel secured various facilities at the island 's base . On Bermuda , the hurricane produced winds of only 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , which downed a few banana trees . In addition to affecting Bermuda , the strong winds of the hurricane damaged a few ships along its path .
= = = Hurricane Fox = = =
Around the same time as Easy was forming , a new tropical depression developed in the far eastern Atlantic Ocean . Moving generally westward , it passed south of the Cape Verde islands , quickly strengthening into Tropical Storm Fox early on September 3 ; by that time , its motion turned to the west @-@ northwest . On September 5 , Fox attained hurricane status , around the same time as it was first observed by ships . Two days later , Hurricane Hunters reported peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , making it a major hurricane , albeit one of very small extent . Around that time , Fox interacted with Hurricane Easy to its northwest . After maintaining peak winds for 12 hours , Fox began a steady weakening trend , accelerating to the north and northeast ahead of Easy and passing to the east of Bermuda . On September 10 , Fox , while still of hurricane force , became extratropical between the Azores and Greenland in the far north Atlantic . It turned toward the north and dissipated on September 11 off the southwest coast of Iceland . Although a few ships were affected by the hurricane 's winds , there were no reports of any damage .
= = = Tropical Storm George = = =
Tropical Storm George developed in the Bay of Campeche on September 19 . Moving west @-@ northwestward , it quickly attained peak winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) late on the next day , as reported by the Hurricane Hunters . George later made landfall on September 21 in Mexico about 55 mi ( 90 km ) south of Tampico as a moderate tropical storm . Before it moved ashore , the storm spread rainfall along the coast and increased waves , causing one drowning death . George quickly dissipated upon making landfall , and there were no reports of damage .
= = = Hurricane How = = =
An easterly wave spawned a tropical depression in the western Caribbean Sea on September 29 . It moved north @-@ northwestward for a few days before turning eastward in the central Gulf of Mexico . Based on Hurricane Hunter reports , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm How late on September 30 , and it continued to strengthen as it approached Southwest Florida . On October 2 , How attained its first peak of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) just before making landfall near Boca Grande , and within the day it crossed southern Florida . At the time , the storm was not well organized , and its strongest winds were confined to squalls in the Florida Keys and the southeast coast . Wind damage was minor , although heavy rainfall was reported , peaking at 15 @.@ 7 inches ( 40 cm ) near where it moved ashore . The precipitation caused significant street flooding , while about 7 @,@ 000 acres ( 28 km2 ) of tomato and bean fields were deluged .
The storm emerged into the Atlantic Ocean between Fort Pierce and Vero Beach , quickly intensifying to hurricane strength by October 3 . Turning northeastward , How reached its second and strongest peak of 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) on October 4 as it passed near the Outer Banks of North Carolina . Along the coast , the hurricane produced high tides and minor damage . Subsequently the hurricane briefly weakened , only to recover its peak of 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) on October 5 . It passed southeast of Cape Cod before turning more to the east @-@ northeast , causing road closures due to high tides . Offshore , the hurricane sank a ship , killing 17 people . While still of hurricane force , How became an extratropical storm on October 6 , and a few days later it curved to the northeast . The extratropical cyclone later struck Iceland near Hvolsvöllur with winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) on October 9 . A couple of days later , the remnants of How dissipated in the far northern Atlantic . Overall , Hurricane How caused about $ 2 million ( 1951 USD , $ 18 @.@ 2 million 2016 USD ) in damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Item = = =
A tropical depression formed southwest of Jamaica on October 12 . A small system , it moved northwestward and intensified into Tropical Storm Item on October 13 . It turned toward the north , and the next day attained peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) after moving through the Cayman Islands . Concurrently , the Hurricane Hunters observed peak winds of 80 mph ( 129 km / h ) , and on this basis , Item was operationally upgraded to a minimal hurricane . Although it retained this status in HURDAT for years , subsequent reanalysis in 2015 found the reconnaissance estimates to have been too high . Item maintained its peak for more than a day before weakening . It lost tropical storm status on October 16 as it drifted to the northwest . Continuing a slow weakening trend , it passed just east of the Isla de la Juventud before striking western Cuba as a tropical depression on October 17 . Later that day it dissipated in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico .
The threat of the hurricane prompted precautions to be made in portions of Cuba . Additionally , storm warnings were posted in the Florida Keys , southern mainland Florida , as well as the Bahamas . However , no damage was reported .
= = = Hurricane Jig = = =
One of the last tropical cyclones of the season formed on October 15 just northeast of the Bahamas . Although listed as a tropical storm , it would have likely been classified as a subtropical cyclone beginning in the 1970s , but was unable to be classified as such given the lack of satellite imagery to prove its status . Given the name " Jig " , it moved northeastward , quickly attaining hurricane status with winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) , which it maintained for a full day . On October 16 , Jig began a slow weakening trend , weakening below hurricane force and turning sharply northeastward . During this time , the storm made its closest approach to the southeastern United States while passing well southeast of Cape Hatteras . While offshore , the storm increased surf along the North Carolina and Virginia coastlines , prompting storm warnings . Early October 18 , Jig became extratropical with winds of 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) and began a counterclockwise loop over the western Atlantic . The next day it turned to the southeast before dissipating about 230 mi ( 370 km ) south of Bermuda on October 20 .
= = = Hurricane Twelve = = =
In early December , a cold front passed north of Bermuda . A disturbance along the front began rotating on December 2 , developing into a small but powerful extratropical storm on the next day . By late on December 3 , the storm attained hurricane @-@ force winds , and it increasingly became the dominant system within the broad frontal region . A ridge to the east turned this storm to the southwest . The winds diminished below hurricane @-@ intensity on December 5 , and concurrently the inner structure became more tropical as the frontal features dissipated . During this time , ships in the region reported strong winds , mostly to the north . Increasing water temperatures fueled atmospheric instability , likely causing an increase in convection , and the system was potentially a subtropical cyclone on December 6 , while located about 1 @,@ 015 mi ( 1 @,@ 635 km ) east @-@ northeast of Bermuda . A nearby ship recorded a minimum pressure of 987 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) around that time . After the storm turned to the southeast , a ship in the region reported winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) near the center and a pressure of 995 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) , while a weather station indicated that the system had a warm core . The data suggested that the system became a fully tropical hurricane by 12 : 00 UTC on December 7 , and that it likely had transitioned into a tropical storm six hours earlier . By 18 : 00 UTC that night , the hurricane attained peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) .
On December 8 , the hurricane turned to the east and weakened into a tropical storm , steered by an approaching trough . Over the next day , the storm accelerated to the east @-@ northeast toward the Azores . Late on December 10 , the storm moved through the Azores as a tropical storm , although it was transitioning back into an extratropical storm at the time . By 06 : 00 UTC on December 11 , the system was extratropical again after it rejoined with a nearby cold front . It likely merged with another nontropical storm to its east on December 12 , although it is possible the former hurricane remained a distinct system . A building ridge near Spain forced the extratropical system to the southeast , eventually dissipating after moving ashore Morocco on December 15 .
= = Storm names = =
These names were used to name storms during the 1951 Atlantic hurricane season . As this season had the same names and was less active than 1950 , none of these names were used for the first time . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= K Foundation art award =
The 1994 K Foundation award was an award given by the K Foundation ( Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty ) to the " worst artist of the year " . The shortlist for the £ 40 @,@ 000 K Foundation award was identical to the shortlist for the well @-@ established but controversial £ 20 @,@ 000 Turner Prize for the best British contemporary artist . On the evening of 23 November 1993 , Rachel Whiteread was presented with the 1993 Turner Prize inside London 's Tate Gallery , and the 1994 K Foundation award on the street outside .
Prior to presenting their award , the K Foundation held a private exhibit of a collection of art works entitled Money - A Major Body of Cash . The award , the exhibition and the accompanying extravagant press junket were widely reported by the media .
= = Context = =
In June 1993 the newly formed K Foundation began taking out full page national press adverts . Initial advertisements were cryptic , referring to " K Time " and advising readers to " Kick out the clocks " . They mentioned five @-@ year journeys which included pop success and deep space travel and that " the sands of time are running in " . There was also an advert for the K Foundation 's single " K Cera Cera " which was " Available nowhere ... no formats " and which was not planned for release until world peace was established .
There was a change of direction with the fourth advert which appeared on 14 August 1993 , reading : " ABANDON ALL ART NOW . Major rethink in progress . Await further announcements . " The next ad ( 28 August 1993 ) read : " It has come to our attention that you did not abandon all art now . Further direct action is thus necessary . The K Foundation announce the ' mutha of all awards ' , the 1994 K Foundation award for the worst artist of the year . " It then went on to detail how a shortlist of four artists had been chosen , and that they would be exhibited in the Tate Gallery .
One of the first newspaper pieces about the K Foundation appeared in The Guardian the following Monday , correctly pointing out that the shortlist and exhibition were actually for the 1993 Turner Prize , the controversial £ 20 @,@ 000 annual award given by the UK art establishment to the best young contemporary artist , but assuming that the K Foundation prize was a hoax . " As for the K Foundation " , the newspaper wrote , " it stands unmasked as the current performing face of those cherished old friends of pop pranksterdom , Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty " , formerly known as The KLF . In September , the organisers of the Turner Prize responded publicly that " It proves the validity of our prize that somebody would take so much trouble to set up this award " .
The Foundation 's next advert invited the general public to vote for the worst artist , either by going to the exhibition and using their critical faculties or by letting their inherent prejudices come to the fore . The final advert summarised the whole campaign , asked some questions back to the people that had written to them , and explained that the winner of the K Foundation award would be announced in a TV advert during the live Turner Prize coverage on Channel 4 television .
On 20 November 1993 , The Economist reported on the K Foundation prize and placed it in context . " Every autumn for the past ten years , an increasingly bad @-@ tempered squabble has raged between , on the one hand , many of Britain 's art critics and its popular media , and on the other , its avant @-@ garde " establishment , " the small croterie of art historians , curators , and dealers who control the Turner prize . " Predicting that Rachel Whiteread , creator of the controversial sculpture , House , would win both awards , the magazine said that , if it were so , " the vast numbers of people who equate contemporary art with rubbish will , yet again , feel vindicated . "
The K Foundation 's television adverts on the evening of 23 November 1993 explained that the Foundation were currently " amending the history of art " at a secret location . No mention of the alternative award was made in the post @-@ Turner Prize studio discussion . The K Foundation reportedly pre @-@ announced Rachel Whiteread as their winner at 2pm or , at least , at some time before the Turner ; at 9.30pm , live on television , the Turner Prize was awarded to the same artist . Whiteread reluctantly collected her K Foundation winnings at just past 11pm , saying , " sarcastically , " What an honour . " "
Drummond claimed the advertising campaign cost £ 250 @,@ 000 . The television advertisements cost £ 20 @,@ 000 , an amount which Scotland on Sunday said was " carefully chosen to match the value of the Turner prize " , the newspaper adding that " Copies of the invoices were supplied as evidence . " Each press advert cost between £ 5 @,@ 000 and £ 15 @,@ 000 .
= = The Amending of Art History = =
25 witnesses - including art critics , journalists , music industry figures and artists - were invited to participate in the Foundation 's " Amending of art history " . They were driven in a convoy of white limousines , led by a gold limo , to Heston Service Station where they were handed a press release and £ 1650 in crisp new £ 50 notes . The accompanying press release stated that 25 x £ 1600 collectively made up the £ 40000 K Foundation prize , and that the extra £ 50 was for the witness to verify its authenticity by spending it . The witnesses were dressed in fluorescent orange hard hats and safety jackets .
The convoy proceeded to a field patrolled by two orange @-@ painted K Foundation Saracen armoured cars , driven by Drummond and Cauty , broadcasting the K Foundation 's K Cera Cera and ABBA 's " Money Money Money " . Silver @-@ bearded " Mr Ball " , the K Foundation 's compere , directed the witnesses to nail their wad of money to a board inside a gilt frame , to assemble the K Foundation 's prize . Some of the witnesses pocketed all or some of their wad , and the prize money was , according to Danny Kelly , some £ 9000 short . Mr Ball also directed the witnesses to " view the art " : One million pounds in £ 50 notes , nailed to a large framed board . This was the K Foundation 's first art work , Nailed To A Wall , " the first of a series of K Foundation art installations that will also include one million pounds in a skip , one million pounds on a table and several variants on the theme of Tremendous Amounts Of Folding " .
Collectively , the K Foundation 's money @-@ as @-@ art works were titled Money : A Major Body Of Cash , " seven pieces , all involving various amounts of cash nailed to , tied to or simply standing on inanimate objects " . Nailed To A Wall had a reserve price of £ 500 @,@ 000 , half the face value of the cash used in its construction , which Scotland on Sunday 's reporter Robert Dawson Scott was " fairly confident ... really was £ 1 million [ in cash ] " . The catalogue entry for the artwork stated : " Over the years the face value will be eroded by inflation , while the artistic value will rise and rise . The precise point at which the artistic value will overtake the face value is unknown . Deconstruct the work now and you double your money . Hang it on a wall and watch the face value erode , the market value fluctuate , and the artistic value soar . The choice is yours . "
Rachel Whiteread had already been notified of her " victory " but had refused to accept the prize or allow the K Foundation to use her name . The motorcade left the site of the amending of art @-@ history and headed back to London , for a showdown with Whiteread on the steps of the Tate . When she again refused to accept the money , the K Foundation explained that it would be burnt . With the crowd of now very drunk witnesses looking on , a masked K Foundation operative ( Gimpo ) fumbled with matches and lighter fluid . At the last moment Rachel Whiteread emerged from the Tate and accepted the money , stating that she would give it as grants to needy artists .
The next day , the K Foundation 's publicist , Mick Houghton , claimed that the voting for the K Foundation 's award was supposed to produce a tie , to illustrate the hypocrisy of the Turner award committee , but that strangely the result had been a huge margin of victory for Whiteread . He speculated that the few thousand voters had just liked or rather disliked the sound of her name .
Defending Whiteread , Lord Palumbo told The Guardian that : " Talent at the highest level attracts derision . We must let the artist fail . "
Whiteread 's sculpture , House , was demolished , as had been planned from its inception , on 11 January 1994 .
= = Media and art @-@ world reaction = =
A huge amount of press publicity ensued , with all the major newspapers and press organisations reporting that Whiteread had won both awards . Media reaction to the K Foundation award was mixed . David Mills wrote in The Times that The K Foundation 's campaign was " tiresome " , and he asked " Doesn 't it strike anyone as odd that a group of people who made their money with such artistic endeavours as a disco @-@ version of the Dr Who theme should be suggesting that contemporary art was somehow more fatuous than that ? "
Rachel Whiteread had an advertisement printed in the British magazine , Art Monthly , in which she outlined her plan to donate £ 10 @,@ 000 to Shelter and distribute the remainder in grants to 10 needy artists . In the advertisement she stated that she " does not agree with the K Foundation 's aims or methods " . Displaying perhaps a little humour , Whiteread 's advertisement was in a similar style to the K Foundation ads , with stark white text on a black background .
Scottish sculptor David Mach opined to Scotland on Sunday that " They 're just a bunch of silly buggers . It 's good to see money going from a bunch of silly buggers to an artist who is going to make good use of it . What 's that saying about a fool and his money ... ? " John Bellany , on the other hand , said that " The emotional , artistic side of [ his ] nature ... admire [ d ] the audacity and imagination , challenging art and the art manipulators . The rational side of me asks , is this the most expensive art publicity stunt this century , and for whom ? "
Whiteread 's agent Karsten Schubert said , " The whole affair was a non @-@ event . They achieved nothing and they were left looking like real prats . " Peter Chater , a director of Schubert 's agency concurred ; he called Drummond and Cauty " cowards " . " It was obviously a publicity stunt . What sort of statement they were trying to make I don 't know . If it was anything to do with the relationship between art and money it was pretty crass . The KLF made a fortune from a couple of successful singles . Artists aren 't in that position . Threatening to set light to £ 40 @,@ 000 is pretty obscene . " Former Factory Records boss Tony Wilson applauded the group , however . " The K Foundation is a very peculiar avant garde group whose ideas are as valid anything the Turner people do , " he told NME . " Since when has there been laws governing what constitutes art , or an artistic statement ? OK , so a lot of people don 't understand what Bill and Jimmy are trying to say , but how many people know exactly what Rachel Whiteread 's trying to say with her art ? "
Modern Review art critic John O 'Reilly , another of the K Foundation 's witnesses , said : " The whole point of the K Foundation is its anonymity . There 's no origin , just a Circulation of data and concepts . There is no master plan , no grand narrative . " O 'Reilly also " [ enjoyed the ] sense of waste and sacrifice involved " .
Miranda Sawyer , who attended the presentation , found special interest in a subsidiary incident during the evening of the prize ceremonies : the theft of money by several of the other invited witnesses : " All the feelings of power and powerlessness that money can bring were fairly summarised with these thefts - it must have turned out better than the K Foundation could have hoped if the examination of cash , art and associated feelings was their point . " Sawyer named " Britart " figure Carl Freedman as one of those who had taken the money , and reported that " He found the event funny , not offensive ( you would too if you walked off with £ 1 @,@ 600 ! ) , but thought the point had been made before . "
Writer and " underground art historian " Stewart Home was viciously supportive of the K Foundation . " The avant @-@ garde wasn 't to be seen at the Turner Prize gathering , it was to be found among that select band of individuals who 'd organised the K Foundation 's attack on the smug complacency of the arts establishment .... ' dignitaries ' such as Lord Polumbo were revealed as buffoons . While Polumbo ranted about the dunces who attack cultural innovations , his rhetoric showed him to be a complete idiot — several people immediately pointed out that he was unable to correctly name Van Gogh 's art dealer brother . Likewise , Polumbo claimed that there are no monuments erected to critics and presented himself as a champion of progressive culture , while ignoring the fact that it was critics who picked the winner of the prize he was awarding . It is the K Foundation , rather than Whiteread , who represent a vital and innovative strand within contemporary culture . Their work is simultaneously a critique and a celebration of ' consumer capitalism ' . "
A New Musical Express piece on 20 November 1993 was also highly supportive of the K Foundation . " The nearest parallel to the K Foundation donation would be The Beatles ' grandiose plans for Apple Corps " , they said . " But where Apple handed out money willy @-@ nilly to little end and failed to achieve anything more than get some hippies stoned and put up some nice posters about war being over if you want it , Drummond and Cauty have found a specific target - the relationship between art , money and the critical establishment- and attacked it . By actually offering £ 40 @,@ 000 to the artist who produces the duffest piece of work , they 've simultaneously sent up the whole thing and proved their integrity the hard way . "
The Face magazine 's witness wrote that " The accusation that this is a tiresome Situationist gag with a whoopee cushion pay @-@ off belittles the K Foundation 's distracted message . They are not mocking any of the artists involved in the Turner or their work so much as the whole tired institution of awards themselves .... By telling us to " use our critical faculties or our innate prejudice " to vote , the Ks are asking : " Who decides who decides ? " "
The Independent 's witness , David Lister , was less impressed . " Last night 's highly eccentric mystery tour by the K Foundation probably said more about the wealth that can be accumulated from two number one hit records than it did about any resurgence of Dadaism " , he said .
The Guardian said that Jimmy Cauty , " [ as the artist ] responsible for a best @-@ selling Athena poster of the Hobbit ... can justly say he has adorned more walls than any of the Turner nominees " ; and added : " A grand deflation of the pretensions of the wealthy art elite is an aim that has drawn approval from sections of the art world and philistines who find ' installations ' of knotted rope or beds covered in rice curiously unmoving .... The joke may yet prove to be at the expense of the Turner . " In a separate piece , the newspaper implied that the K Foundation had hit their perceived target with some success :
= = Later analysis = =
In a piece published in 2006 , The Sunday Times quoted author James F. English 's description of The K Foundation 's Art Award as " hostile philanthropy " . Sunday Times writer Bryan Appleyard added that the " K Foundation 's witty exploitations of artistic greed ... are essential aspects of the prize itself . They promote the prize , reassure the organisers that , culturally speaking , they are in the thick of it and console the artists with evidence that their work provokes strong reactions . More importantly , for English , such conflicts demonstrate the autonomous nature of the event . These prizes should not be seen as any real or lasting judgment about art , but rather as things in themselves . "
Some years after the award , Bill Drummond attempted to explain the K Foundation 's motives , as he now saw them :
= = Burning = =
The K Foundation 's art campaign , Money : A Major Body Of Cash , failed to attract major gallery interest so , on 23 August 1994 , Drummond and Cauty disposed of their one million pounds in an alternate fashion : they burnt it on the Scottish island of Jura . ( See : K Foundation Burn a Million Quid ) . In an interview with Drummond , Cauty and Gimpo , Gimpo admitted to harbouring guilt about the million pounds burning ; that if he 'd burnt Whiteread 's £ 40 @,@ 000 the million pounds burning would never have happened . " I should have burnt it . I had petrol all over the £ 40 @,@ 000 ... We were due to wait until eleven o 'clock until she came out , but we were told to wait another two minutes ... [ then ] Rachel Whiteread came running out . She just grabbed the money and dragged it over the fence . " Carl Freedman also wished they 'd burnt Whiteread 's money . " It would have been brilliant .... It would have been just totally outrageous . People would have been falling out of their @-@ chairs , saying . ' I can 't believe they just burned £ 40 @,@ 000 ' " .
= Battle of Lade =
For war between the navy of Rhodes and the navy of Macedon in 201 BC , see Battle of Lade ( 201 BC ) .
The Battle of Lade ( Greek : Ναυμαχία τῆς Λάδης , Naumachia tēs Ladēs ) was a naval battle which occurred during the Ionian Revolt , in 494 BC . It was fought between an alliance of the Ionian cities ( joined by the Lesbians ) and the Persian Empire of Darius the Great , and resulted in a decisive victory for the Persians which all but ended the revolt .
The Ionian Revolt was triggered by the dissatisfaction of the Greek cities of Asia Minor with the tyrants appointed by Persia to rule them . In 499 BC , the then @-@ tyrant of Miletus , Aristagoras , launched a joint expedition with the Persian satrap Artaphernes to conquer Naxos , in an attempt to bolster his position in Miletus . The mission was a debacle , and sensing his imminent removal as tyrant , Aristagoras chose to incite the whole of Ionia into rebellion against the Persian king Darius the Great . Initially , in 498 BC , the Ionians went on the offensive , supported by troops from Athens and Eretria , capturing Sardis , before suffering defeat at the Battle of Ephesus . The revolt then spread to Caria and Cyprus . Three years of Persian campaigning across Asia Minor followed , with no decisive effect . By 494 BC the Persian army and navy had regrouped , and made straight for the epicentre of the rebellion at Miletus .
The Ionians sought to defend Miletus by sea , leaving the defense of Miletus to the Milesians . The Ionian fleet gathered at the island of Lade , off the coast of Miletus . The Persians were uncertain of victory at Lade , so attempted to persuade some of the Ionian contingents to defect . Although this was unsuccessful at first , when the Persians finally attacked the Ionians , the Samian fleet accepted the Persian offer . As the Persian and Ionian fleets met , the Samians sailed away from the battle , causing the collapse of the Ionian battle line . Although the Chian contingent and a few other ships remained and fought bravely against the Persians , the battle was lost .
With the defeat at Lade , the Ionian Revolt was all but ended . The next year , the Persians reduced the last rebel strongholds , and began the process of bringing peace to the region . The Ionian Revolt constituted the first major conflict between ancient Greece and Persia , and as such represents the first phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars . Although Asia Minor had been brought back into the Persian fold , Darius vowed to punish Athens and Eretria for their support of the revolt . Moreover , seeing that the myriad city states of Greece posed a continued threat to the stability of his empire , he decided to conquer the whole of Greece . In 492 BC , the first Persian invasion of Greece , the next phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars , would begin as a direct consequence of the Ionian Revolt .
= = Background = =
In the dark age that followed the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization , significant numbers of Greeks had emigrated to Asia Minor and settled there . These settlers were from three tribal groups : the Aeolians , Dorians and Ionians . The Ionians had settled about the coasts of Lydia and Caria , founding the twelve cities which made up Ionia . These cities were Miletus , Myus and Priene in Caria ; Ephesus , Colophon , Lebedos , Teos , Clazomenae , Phocaea and Erythrae in Lydia ; and the islands of Samos and Chios . The cities of Ionia had remained independent until they were conquered by the famous Lydian king Croesus , in around 560 BC . The Ionian cities then remained under Lydian rule until Lydia was in turn conquered by the nascent Achaemenid Empire of Cyrus the Great . The Persians found the Ionians difficult to rule . Elsewhere in the empire , Cyrus was able to identify elite native groups to help him rule his new subjects — such as the priesthood of Judea . No such group existed in Greek cities at this time ; while there was usually an aristocracy , this was inevitably divided into feuding factions . The Persians thus settled for the sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city , even though this drew them into the Ionians ' internal conflicts . Furthermore , a tyrant might develop an independent streak , and have to be replaced . The tyrants themselves faced a difficult task ; they had to deflect the worst of their fellow citizens ' hatred , while staying in the favour of the Persians .
About 40 years after the Persian conquest of Ionia , and in the reign of the fourth Persian king , Darius the Great , the stand @-@ in Milesian tyrant Aristagoras found himself in this familiar predicament . In 500 BC , Aristagoras was approached by some exiles from Naxos , who asked him to take control of the island . Seeing an opportunity to strengthen his position in Miletus by conquering Naxos , Aristagoras approached the satrap of Lydia , Artaphernes , proposing a joint attack on Naxos , to which Artaphernes assented .
The expedition sailed in the spring of 499 BC but quickly descended into a debacle The force laid siege to the Naxians for four months , but eventually
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the Persians and Aristagoras both ran out of money . The force therefore sailed despondently back to the mainland . Aristagoras found himself in dire straits and fully expected to be stripped of his position by Artaphernes . In a desperate attempt to save himself , Aristagoras chose to incite his own subjects , the Milesians , to revolt against their Persian masters , thereby beginning the Ionian Revolt . Although Herodotus presents the revolt as a consequence of Aristagoras 's personal motives , it is clear that Ionia must have been ripe for rebellion anyway , the primary grievance being the tyrants installed by the Persians . Aristagoras 's actions have thus been likened to tossing a flame into a kindling box ; they incited rebellion across Ionia ( and Aeolis and Doris ) , and tyrannies were everywhere abolished , and democracies established in their place .
Aristagoras had brought all of Hellenic Asia Minor into revolt , but evidently realised that the Greeks would need other allies in order to fight the Persians . In the winter of 499 BC , he sailed to mainland Greece to try to recruit allies . He failed to persuade the Spartans , but the cities of Athens and Eretria agreed to support the rebellion . In the spring of 498 BC , an Athenian force of twenty triremes , accompanied by five from Eretria , for a total of twenty @-@ five triremes set sail for Ionia . They joined up with the main Ionian force near Ephesus . This force was then guided by the Ephesians through mountains to Sardis , Artaphernes 's satrapal capital . The Greeks caught the Persians unawares , and were able to capture the lower city . However the lower city then caught fire , and the Greeks , demoralised , then retreated from the city , and began to make their way back to Ephesus . The Persians troops in Asia Minor followed the Greek force , catching them outside Ephesus . It is clear that the demoralised and tired Greeks were no match for the Persians , and were completely routed in the ensuing battle at Ephesus . The Ionians who escaped the battle made for their own cities , while the remaining Athenians and Eretrians managed to return to their ships , and sailed back to Greece .
Despite these setbacks , the revolt spread further . The Ionians sent men to the Hellespont and Propontis , and captured Byzantium and the other nearby cities . They also persuaded the Carians to join the rebellion . Furthermore , seeing the spread of the rebellion , the kingdoms of Cyprus also revolted against Persian rule without any outside persuasion . For the next three years , the Persian army and navy were fully occupied with fighting the rebellions in Caria and Cyprus , and Ionia seems to have had an uneasy peace during these years . At the height of the Persian counter @-@ offensive , Aristagoras , sensing the untenability of his position , decided to abandon his position as leader of Miletus , and of the revolt , and he left Miletus . Herodotus , who evidently has a rather negative view of him , suggests that Aristagoras simply lost his nerve and fled .
By the sixth year of the revolt ( 494 BC ) , the Persian forces had regrouped . The available land forces were gathered into one army , and were accompanied by a fleet supplied by the re @-@ subjugated Cypriots , and the Egyptians , Cilicians and Phoenicians . The Persians headed directly to Miletus , paying little attention to other strongholds , presumably intending to tackle the revolt at its epicentre . The Median general Datis , an expert on Greek affairs , was certainly dispatched to Ionia by Darius at this time . It is therefore possible that he was in overall command of this Persian offensive . Hearing of the approach of this force , the Ionians met at the Panionium ( the sacred meeting ground ) , and decided not to attempt to fight on land , leaving the Milesians to defend their walls . Instead , they opted to gather every ship they could , and make for the island of Lade , off the coast of Miletus , in order to " fight for Miletus at sea " .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Greeks = = =
The Ionian cities were joined in this battle by the Aeolians of Lesbos . Herodotus lists the number of ships provided by each state :
Herodotus gives the order of the Ionian battle line as being , from east to west ; Miletus — Priene — Myus — Teos — Chios — Erythraea — Phocaea — Lesbos — Samos .
= = = Persians = = =
Herodotus says that there were 600 ships in the Persian fleet , provided by the Phoenicians ( who were most eager to fight ) , the Egyptians , Cilicians , and the Cypriots , whose own revolt had recently been subdued . The Persian fleet may have been commanded by the veteran Median general Datis ; Persian records seem to suggest that he was sent by Darius to Ionia at around about the time of Lade . However , Herodotus does not name any Persian commanders in this campaign .
= = Prelude = =
When the Persians arrived off the coast of Lade and learned the number of Ionian ships , they began to worry that they would not be able to defeat the Greeks , and feared Darius 's wrath should they fail . The Ionian tyrants who had been expelled at the beginning of the revolt were present , and according to Herodotus , they were now given instructions by the Persians :
" Men of Ionia , let each one of you now show that he has done good service to the king 's house ; let each one of you try to separate your own countrymen from the rest of the allied power . Set this promise before them : they will suffer no harm for their rebellion , neither their temples nor their houses will be burnt , nor will they in any way be treated more violently than before . But if they will not do so and are set on fighting , then utter a threat that will restrain them : if they are defeated in battle , they will be enslaved ; we will make eunuchs of their boys , and carry their maidens captive to Bactra , and hand over their land to others . "
The tyrants thus sent messages to their own kinsman , but the Ionians refused the offers . Critically , each group thought that only they had been approached — there does not seem to have been any discussion of this offer between the different contingents , and the possibility for treachery does not seem to have been realised .
The Ionians did however hold meetings to discuss the conduct of the battle . Dionysius , the Phocaean general , offered to train and lead the Greek force :
" Our affairs , men of Ionia , stand on the edge of a razor , whether to be free men or slaves , and runaway slaves at that . If you now consent to endure hardships , you will have toil for the present time , but it will be in your power to overcome your enemies and gain freedom ; but if you will be weak and disorderly , I see nothing that can save you from paying the penalty to the king for your rebellion . Believe me and entrust yourselves to me ; I promise you that ( if the gods deal fairly with us ) either our enemies shall not meet us in battle , or if they do they shall be utterly vanquished . "
Dionysius thus began an intensive training program , leading the fleet out every day to train the rowers in ramming manoeuvers , and the marines in combat . For seven days the Ionians accepted this regime , but being unused to the hard work , they refused to obey thereafter , and stayed in camp instead . According to Herodotus , upon seeing the resultant discontent and division in the Ionian camp , the Samians decided to accept the Persian offer of lenience in return for desertion . However , some modern historians reject the notion of dissent in the Greek camp . Herodotus derived his account of Lade from the Samians themselves , and it is suggested that , seeking to excuse their treachery , they came up with this story . At any rate , the Samians remained with the other Greeks in the run up to the battle .
= = Battle = =
Soon after the rebellion against Dionysius , the Persian fleet moved to attack the Ionians , who sailed out to meet them . The ensuing battle was evidently confused , since Herodotus admits that " which of the Ionians were brave men or cowards then in that sea @-@ fight I cannot exactly say ; for they all blame each other " . It is nevertheless clear that very early on in the battle , the Samian contingent hoisted their sails , as had been agreed , and fled the battlefield . However , 11 Samian ships refused to desert the other Ionians , and remained at the battle . At some later date , the Samians erected a pillar in their marketplace commemorating the bravery and sacrifice of these crews . Seeing the Samians leave , their neighbours on the western wing , the Lesbians , also fled . The whole west @-@ wing of the Ionian battle line thus very quickly collapsed . Other Ionian contingents also fled as the situation became more desperate .
Only the large Chian navy seems to have stood their ground , perhaps accompanied by a few other ships . They fought valiantly , but had huge casualties . Eventually the remaining Chian ships sailed away back to Chios , thereby ending the battle .
= = Aftermath = =
With the defeat of the Ionian fleet , the revolt was effectively over . Miletus was closely invested , the Persians " mining the walls and using every device against it , until they utterly captured it " . According to Herodotus , most of the men were killed , and the women and children were enslaved . Archaeological evidence partially substantiates this , showing widespread signs of destruction , and abandonment of much of the city in the aftermath of Lade . However , some Milesians did remain in ( or quickly returned to ) Miletus , though the city would never recapture its former greatness . Miletus was thus notionally " left empty of Milesians " ; the Persians took the city and coastal land for themselves , and gave the rest of the Milesian territory to Carians from Pedasus . The captive Milesians were brought before Darius in Susa , who settled them on the coast of the Persian Gulf , near the mouth of the Tigris .
Many Samians were appalled by the actions of their generals at Lade , and resolved to emigrate before their old tyrant , Aeaces , returned to rule them . They accepted an invitation from the people of Zancle to settle on the coast of Sicily , and took with them such Milesians as had escaped from the Persians . Samos itself was spared from destruction by the Persians because of the Samian defection at Lade . Meanwhile , Dionysius of Phocaea went to Sicily , and established himself as a pirate , preying on Carthaginian ships .
Most of Caria surrendered to the Persians in aftermath of Lade , although some strongholds had to be captured through force . The Persian fleet and army wintered at Miletus , before setting out in 493 BC to finally stamp out the last embers of the revolt . They attacked and captured the islands of Chios , Lesbos and Tenedos and then moved over to the mainland , and captured each of the remaining cities of Ionia . Although the cities of Ionia were undoubtedly harrowed in the aftermath , none seems to have suffered quite the fate of Miletus . The Persian army then re @-@ conquered the settlements on the Asian side of the Propontis , while the fleet sailed up the European coast of the Hellespont , taking each settlement in turn . With all of Asia Minor now firmly returned to Persian rule , the revolt was finally over .
For the Persians , the only unfinished business that remained by the end of 493 BC was to exact punishment on Athens and Eretria for supporting the revolt . The Ionian Revolt had severely threatened the stability of Darius 's empire , and the states of mainland Greece would continue to threaten that stability unless dealt with . Darius thus began to contemplate the complete conquest of Greece , beginning with the destruction of Athens and Eretria . The first Persian invasion of Greece thus began in the following year , 492 BC , when Mardonius was dispatched ( via Ionia ) to complete the pacification of the land approaches to Greece , and push on to Athens and Eretria if possible . Thrace was re @-@ subjugated , having broken loose from Persian rule during the revolts , and Macedon compelled to become a vassal of Persia . However , progress was halted by a naval disaster . A second expedition was launched in 490 BC under Datis and Artaphernes , son of the satrap Artaphernes . This amphibious force sailed across the Aegean , subjugating the Cyclades , before arriving off Euboea . Eretria was besieged , captured and destroyed , and the force then moved onto Attica . Landing at the Bay of Marathon , they were met by an Athenian army , and defeated in the famous Battle of Marathon , ending the first Persian attempt to subdue Greece .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
Herodotus , The Histories
Thucydides , History of The Peloponnesian Wars
Diodorus Siculus , Library
Cicero , On the Laws
= Help Wanted ( SpongeBob SquarePants ) =
" Help Wanted " is the pilot episode of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants . It was produced in 1997 and originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on May 1 , 1999 , following the television airing of the 1999 Kids ' Choice Awards . The episode follows the protagonist , an anthropomorphic sponge named SpongeBob SquarePants , attempting to get a job at the local restaurant called the Krusty Krab . However , he is tasked to find a seemingly non @-@ existent high @-@ caliber spatula because the owner , Mr. Krabs , considers him unqualified for the position . Eventually , crowds of ravenous anchovies stop by the Krusty Krab and demand meals . SpongeBob SquarePants returns from his errand , having fulfilled the request of Mr. Krabs and found a mechanical spatula . He utilizes the spatula to fulfill the anchovies ' hunger . SpongeBob is then welcomed by Mr. Krabs as a Krusty Krab employee .
Series creator Stephen Hillenburg initially conceived the show in 1994 and began to work on it shortly after the cancellation of Rocko 's Modern Life in 1996 . To voice the character of SpongeBob , Hillenburg approached Tom Kenny , who had worked with him on Rocko 's Modern Life . For the series pitch , Hillenburg originally wanted the idea of having SpongeBob and Squidward on a road trip , inspired by the 1989 film Powwow Highway . Hillenburg gave up the idea , and started anew with the idea he and Derek Drymon came up for " Help Wanted " based on an experience Hillenburg had in the Boy Scouts .
The episode was written by Hillenburg , Derek Drymon , and Tim Hill , and was directed by Alan Smart . " Help Wanted " features a posthumous musical performance from Tiny Tim singing his song called " Livin ' in the Sunlight , Lovin ' in the Moonlight " . " Help Wanted " was excluded in the series ' first season DVD release because Nickelodeon did not want to pay Tiny Tim 's estate for the DVD rights . It had since been released as a bonus feature to various series DVDs . " Help Wanted " gained an average of 6 @.@ 9 million views , receiving positive reviews from media critics .
= = Plot summary = =
The episode opens with an introductory glimpse of the aquatic community of Bikini Bottom . The audience is then introduced to SpongeBob SquarePants , an ecstatic , hyperactive , and anxious young sea sponge preparing to fulfill a lifelong dream and passion by applying for a fry cook job at the underwater fast food restaurant , the Krusty Krab , to the annoyance of the restaurant 's cashier and SpongeBob 's irritable neighbor Squidward Tentacles . Spongebob then gets nervous and almost decides not to get a job at the Krusty Krab until his best friend , Patrick Star the starfish , convinces him otherwise . Humored with SpongeBob 's vulnerability , gullibility , and impenetrable enthusiasm and innocence , both Squidward and the restaurant 's proprietor , Mr. Eugene Krabs , decide to manipulate SpongeBob , whom they secretly consider unqualified for the position , by sending him on an impossible errand to purchase a seemingly non @-@ existent high @-@ caliber spatula .
Soon after his anxious departure , five buses containing crowds of ravenous tourist anchovies stop at the Krusty Krab , its abundance of passengers furiously demanding meals . Unable to satisfy the anchovies ' hunger and alarmed by the mob , Squidward and Mr. Krabs are left to helplessly deal with the unsatisfied crowd . Before long , SpongeBob SquarePants returns from his errand , having fulfilled the request of Mr. Krabs and found a mechanical spatula , which he uses in speedily whipping up bundles of Krabby Patties for the anchovies and satisfying their hunger . After the mob subsides , SpongeBob is welcomed as a Krusty Krab employee , much to Squidward 's dismay . After Mr. Krabs leaves , Patrick orders a Krabby Patty and is hurled from the establishment upon a mostly @-@ unseen , and audibly manic , reprise of SpongeBob 's cooking feat .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
" Help Wanted " was written by series creator Stephen Hillenburg , Derek Drymon , and Tim Hill , and was directed by Alan Smart . Hillenburg also functioned as storyboard director , and Drymon worked as storyboard artist . Hillenburg initially conceived the show in 1994 and began to work on it shortly after the cancellation of Rocko 's Modern Life in 1996 .
Hillenburg 's original idea for the pitch was that the writers would write a storyboard for a possible episode and pitch it to Nickelodeon . One of the original ideas was to write an episode with SpongeBob and Squidward on a road trip , inspired by the 1989 film Powwow Highway . Eventually , the idea developed while they were working on it but Hillenburg gave up on the storyboard idea for the initial pitch . The crew resurrected the road trip idea during the first season and used a lot of the ideas for an episode called " Pizza Delivery " .
Originally the character was to be named SpongeBoy and the show was to be called SpongeBoy Ahoy ! . However , the Nickelodeon legal department discovered that the name SpongeBoy was already in use for a mop product . This was discovered after voice acting for the original seven @-@ minute pilot was recorded in 1997 . Upon finding this out , Hillenburg decided that the character 's given name still had to contain " Sponge " so viewers would not mistake the character for a " Cheese Man . " Hillenburg decided to use the name " SpongeBob . " He chose " SquarePants " as a family name as it referred to the character 's square shape and it had a " nice ring to it " .
Hillenburg and Derek Drymon had dinner and came up with the idea for " Help Wanted " based on an experience Hillenburg had in the Boy Scouts . Hillenburg and writer Hill worked it into an outline . In 1997 , while pitching the cartoon to Nickelodeon executives , Hillenburg donned a Hawaiian shirt , brought along an " underwater terrarium with models of the characters , " and Hawaiian music to set the theme . The setup was described by Nickelodeon executive Eric Coleman as " pretty amazing " . When given money and two weeks to write the pilot episode , Drymon , Hillenberg and Jennings returned with what Nickelodeon official Albie Hecht described as " a performance [ I ] wish [ I ] had on tape " . Although described as stressful by executive producer Derek Drymon , the pitch went " very well " ; Kevin Kay and Hecht had to step outside because they were " exhausted from laughing , " making the cartoonists worried . With a help from Hill and art director Nick Jennings , Hillenburg finished the pitch and sold SpongeBob SquarePants to Nickelodeon . Drymon said " the network approved it — so we were ready to go . "
In an interview with Cyma Zarghami , she told " their [ Nickelodeon executives ' ] immediate reaction was to see it again , both because they liked it and it was unlike anything they 'd ever seen before . " Hillenburg said the character construction in the episode was loose . But the character development was already " pretty strong . "
= = = Design = = =
When the crew began production on the episode , they were tasked to design the stock locations where " the show would return to again and again , and in which most of the action would take place , such as the Krusty Krab and SpongeBob 's pineapple house . " Hillenburg had a " clear vision " of what he wanted the show to look like . The idea was " to keep everything nautical " so the crew used ropes , wooden planks , ships ' wheels , netting , anchors , and boilerplate and rivets .
The pilot and the rest of the series features the " sky flowers " as the main background . When series background designer Kenny Pittenger was asked " What are those things ? , " he answered " They function as clouds in a way , but since the show takes place underwater , they aren 't really clouds . " Since the show was influenced by tiki , the background painters have to use a lot of pattern . Pittenger said " So really , the sky flowers are mostly a whimsical design element that Steve [ Hillenburg ] came up with to evoke the look of a flower @-@ print Hawaiian shirt — or something like that . I don 't know what they are either . "
= = = Casting = = =
While Hillenburg , Drymon and Hill were writing the pilot , Hillenburg was also conducting auditions to find voices for the show characters . He had created the character of SpongeBob with Tom Kenny , in which he utilised Kenny 's and other people 's personalities to help create its personality . Drymon said , " Tom came in a few times so we could pitch him what we were working to help him find the right voice . Tom had already worked on lots of other animated shows , and Steve wanted to find an original sounding voice . " The voice of SpongeBob was originally used by Kenny for a very minor female alligator character named Al in Rocko 's Modern Life . Kenny forgot the voice initially as he created it only for that single use . Hillenburg , however , remembered it when he was coming up with SpongeBob and used a video clip of the episode to remind Kenny of the voice . Kenny says that SpongeBob 's high pitched laugh was specifically aimed at being unique , stating that they wanted an annoying laugh in the tradition of Popeye and Woody Woodpecker .
Kenny also provided the voice of Gary , SpongeBob 's meowing sea snail , and the narrator in the episode . According to him , " It was always Steve 's intention that the narrator be a nod to his beloved Jacques Cousteau . " Kenny described Cousteau 's voice as " very dispassionate , very removed , very flatline , even when he ’ s describing something miraculous and beautiful . " At first , they found that the narrator " just sounds bored , " so they decided that he " has to sound a little fun and playful . " Kenny said , " ' Eet ees the most amazing thing I have ever seen I have ever seen in my life . ' We found that after a while we had to make the narrator a little more playful than that . "
Bill Fagerbakke voiced SpongeBob 's best friend , a starfish named Patrick Star in the episode . He auditioned for the role after Kenny had been cast as SpongeBob . Fagerbakke said , " Steve is such a lovely guy , and I had absolutely no feeling for the material whatsoever . " He described his experience in the audition , saying " I was just going in for another audition , and I had no idea what was in store there in terms of the remarkable visual wit and really the kind of endearing child @-@ like humanity in the show . I couldn 't pick that up from the audition material at all . I was just kind of perfunctorially trying to give the guy what he wanted . " For the part of Squidward , Hillenburg originally had Mr. Lawrence in mind for the role . Lawrence worked with Hillenburg and Drymon before on Rocko 's Modern Life , so while working on the episode , Hillenburg invited him to audition for all the characters . Drymon said , " We were showing Doug the storyboard , and he started reading back to us in his Tony the Tiger / Gregory Peck voice . It was really funny , and we wound up having SpongeBob use a deep voice when he entered the Krusty Krab for the first time . " Hillenburg decided to give Lawrence the part of the series villain , Plankton , instead .
= = = Music = = =
The episode features the song called " Livin ' in the Sunlight , Lovin ' in the Moonlight " by Tiny Tim . At the point the pilot had already been completed , music editor Nick Carr was asked to retool the existing music on it . Carr said " When I first started on SpongeBob , my duties were mainly music editorial but would quickly thrust me into the composers / supervisor chair . " The production team had no budget and no music but they placed the budget on the song called " Livin ' in the Sunlight , Lovin ' in the Moonlight " . Carr said " [ It is ] a sadly familiar scenario with most cartoons for television . By the time it comes to consider the music , the budget is blown . "
The idea of using " Livin ' in the Sunlight , Lovin ' in the Moonlight " originated when an anonymous sent Hillenburg a tape with " a bunch of music . " While the writers were developing the show outside Nickelodeon , Hillenburg played the song for Drymon as an example of the enthusiasm he was looking for . When it came time to write the pilot , they had the idea to use the song in the third act . The crew eventually got the rights to use the song for the pilot , but all they had was " the crummy copy on Steve 's old tape . " The writers were able to use the music , as one of the women who worked at Nickelodeon at the time " knew somebody somewhere who had access to something , " and she brought in a copy of the song on CD . Drymon said " We were totally lucky that she had the contact , otherwise we wouldn 't have been able to use it . The sad part was Tiny Tim died right around the time we were writing the pilot , so he never knew we used his song . "
Jeff Hutchins was with Hillenburg in Rocko 's Modern Life working on animation sound . Hutchins was approached by Hillenburg to do music for the show . He was asked for " 20 things , like an ocean liner horn , " and Hutchins knew he had the music Hillenburg was looking for . Hutchins said " I offered him options and , in some cases , multiple choices . We agreed to meet at the Warner Bros. gate near the water tower in 20 minutes . " He recorded the sound to a tape and met Hillenburg by the gate . Hutchins said " He was about as happy as you could imagine , and off he went . Next thing you know , I am working on the show . " Hutchins became the regular series sound designer .
= = Release = =
SpongeBob SquarePants aired its first episode , " Help Wanted " , along with sister episodes " Reef Blower " and " Tea at the Treedome " , on May 1 , 1999 , following the television airing of the 1999 Kids ' Choice Awards . The series later made its " official " debut on July 17 , 1999 with the second episode " Bubblestand " and " Ripped Pants " .
" Help Wanted " was excluded in the SpongeBob SquarePants : The Complete 1st Season DVD , featuring the rest of the first season episodes , since its release on October 28 , 2003 . It was not included because Nickelodeon did not want to pay Tiny Tim 's estate for the DVD rights , because the music in the episode was copyrighted . Drymon said " ' Help Wanted ' had to be left off [ ... ] " " Help Wanted " was later released on the SpongeBob SquarePants : The Complete 3rd Season DVD as a bonus feature on September 27 , 2005 . It was also released on the SpongeBob SquarePants : The First 100 Episodes DVD , alongside all the episodes of seasons one through five . The DVD included a featurette called " Help Wanted " the Seven Seas Edition that featured " Help Wanted " in numerous languages . The episode was also a bonus feature in the series DVD called SpongeBob SquarePants : 10 Happiest Moments that was released on September 14 , 2010 . On April 29 , 2014 , " Help Wanted " was released on the " SpongeBob , You 're Fired ! " episode compilation DVD .
In 2013 , the series main cast members , including Tom Kenny , Clancy Brown , Rodger Bumpass and Bill Fagerbakke , performed a live read @-@ through of the episode during the SpongeBob event called " SpongeBob Fan Shellabration " . The read @-@ through took place on a sound effects stage at the Universal Studios Hollywood on September 7 – 8 . The event also hosted the screening of the winning videos from the inaugural SpongeBob SquareShorts : Original Fan Tributes competition .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , " Help Wanted " scored a 6 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating , or 6 @.@ 9 million total viewers , including 3 @.@ 6 million children aged 2 – 11 . Furthermore , the episode received generally favorable reviews from media critics . Michael Cavna of The Washington Post ranked " Help Wanted " at No. 3 at his The Top Five SpongeBob Episodes : We Pick ' Em list . Other episodes in the list are " Band Geeks " , " Ripped Pants " , " Just One Bite " and " Idiot Box " . Cavna rewatched the episode in 2009 and said " so much of the style and polish are already in place . " Nancy Basile of the About.com said " [ The ] humor and optimistic essence of SpongeBob is evident even in this first episode . " Maxie Zeus of Toon Zone said the episode is a " winner " . In an Associated Press article , Frazier Moore lauded the featured song in the episode called " Livin ' in the Sunlight , Lovin ' in the Moonlight " calling it the " kookie part . "
Kent Osborne , a member of the SpongeBob SquarePants writing crew , considers the episode " really good . " Eric Coleman , vice president of animation development and production at Nickelodeon , lauded the episode and calling it " one of the best pilots " because " it conveys a strong personality . "
In a DVD review of the first season , Jason Bovberg of the DVD Talk was disappointed on the set , saying " Where is it ? This is perhaps the only disappointment of the set . I was a little aggravated by the loooong animated menus that introduce all the characters , one by one , but it 's really that missing episode that has me upset . " Bovberg described the set as " annoying " for missing the episode . Bill Treadway of the DVD Verdict , on the exclusion of the episode on the DVD , said " It 's a small flaw in an otherwise top notch package . " In a DVD review of the third season , Bryan Pope of the DVD Verdict , on the episode as a bonus feature , said " The most intriguing extra is the series ' pilot episode , ' Help Wanted ' . " He asked in his review " Why release it now instead of in its natural spot with the first season ? " At the end , he said " Regardless , SpongeBob completists will cherish its inclusion here . "
= Virginia @-@ class battleship =
The Virginia @-@ class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships were built for the United States Navy in the early 1900s . The class comprised five ships : Virginia , Nebraska , Georgia , New Jersey , and Rhode Island . The ships carried a mixed @-@ caliber offensive battery of four 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) and eight 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) guns ; these were mounted in an uncommon arrangement , with four of the 8 @-@ inch guns placed atop the 12 @-@ inch turrets . The arrangement proved to be a failure , as the 8 @-@ inch guns could not be fired independently of the 12 @-@ inch guns without interfering with them . Additionally , by the time the Virginias entered service , the first " all @-@ big @-@ gun " battleships — including the British HMS Dreadnought — were nearing completion , which would render mixed battery ships like the Virginia class obsolescent .
Nevertheless , the ships had active careers . All five ships took part in the cruise of the Great White Fleet in 1907 – 1909 . From 1909 onward , they served as the workhorses of the US Atlantic Fleet , conducting training exercises and showing the flag in Europe and Central America . As unrest broke out in several Central American countries in the 1910s , the ships became involved in police actions in the region . The most significant was the American intervention in the Mexican Revolution during the occupation of Veracruz in April 1914 .
During the American participation in World War I , the Virginia @-@ class ships were used to train sailors for an expanding wartime fleet . In September 1918 , they began to escort convoys to Europe , though Germany surrendered two months later , ending the conflict . After the war , they were used to bring American soldiers back from France and later as training ships . The 1922 Washington Naval Treaty , which mandated major reductions in naval weapons , cut the ships ' careers short . Virginia and New Jersey were sunk in bombing tests in 1923 , and the other three ships were broken up for scrap later that year .
= = Design = =
The United States ' victory in the Spanish – American War in 1898 had a dramatic impact on battleship design , as the question of the role of the fleet — namely , whether it should be focused on coastal defense or high seas operations — had been solved . The fleet 's ability to conduct offensive operations overseas showed the necessity of a powerful fleet of battleships . As a result , the US Congress was willing to authorize much larger ships ; the Virginias , three of which were authorized on 3 March 1899 , were the first of these new ships . Two more were authorized on 7 June 1900 , with the displacement for all five ships proposed at 13 @,@ 500 long tons ( 13 @,@ 700 t ) , a significant increase over previous designs . Initial design work , which began with a memorandum issued on 12 July 1898 , called for a battleship based on the Maine class , to be armed with four 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns , sixteen 6 in ( 150 mm ) guns , and ten 3 in ( 76 mm ) guns , protected with a 12 in belt of Krupp armor , and capable of steaming at 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) .
Arguments over the projected displacement and armament prevented further work until October 1899 . Captain Charles O 'Neill argued for a mixed battery of 12 in and 8 in ( 200 mm ) guns with superposed turrets , while Phillip Hichborn , the chief constructor at the Bureau of Construction and Repair , preferred a 13 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 13 @,@ 000 t ) design armed uniformly with 10 in ( 250 mm ) guns instead of the mixed battery . The decision was made to adopt the mixed battery , since the 8 in gun could penetrate the medium armor on foreign battleships that protected their secondary batteries . Captain Royal Bradford , the chief of the Bureau of Equipment , suggested that 18 @.@ 5 knots would be sufficient , though O 'Neill demanded 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) ; a compromise was found by requiring a minimum of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . These compromises produced two variants : " A " , which arranged the 8 in guns in four twin turrets amidships as with the Indiana class , and " B " , which placed two of the four turrets atop the 12 in turrets , as on the Kearsarge class . The " A " design included sixteen 6 in guns in casemates , while " B " had only twelve .
The Board on Construction initially favored " A " , though one officer on the board rejected the design so strongly that the Secretary of the Navy ordered a second , larger board to be formed to examine the two designs . Eight line officers were added to the board ; this group favored the superposed turrets of " B " . One of the members , Rear Admiral Albert Baker , suggested to build the first three ships to " A " and the last two to " B " . The board initially approved the idea , but the chief of the Bureau of Ordnance rejected it in favor of uniformity of design . The Secretary of the Navy convened a third board to settle the matter , and ten of the twelve members voted for " B " . The finalized design was approved on 5 February 1901 .
The superposed turrets ultimately proved to be very problematic ; the arrangement had been conceived initially to save weight and allow the much faster firing 8 in guns to shoot during the long reload time necessary for large caliber guns . By the time the Virginias entered service , smokeless propellant and rapid firing , large caliber guns had reduced the time between shots from 180 seconds to 20 . The 8 in guns could no longer fire at their maximum rate without interfering with the 12 in guns , since the concussion and hot gasses would disrupt the crew below . In addition , the British HMS Dreadnought — the first " all @-@ big @-@ gun " battleship to enter service — commissioned in late 1906 shortly after the Virginias and rendered them obsolescent at a single stroke .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Virginia class were 435 feet ( 133 m ) long at the waterline and 441 feet 3 inches ( 134 @.@ 49 m ) long overall . They had a beam of 76 ft 3 in ( 23 @.@ 24 m ) and a draft of 23 ft 9 in ( 7 @.@ 24 m ) . They displaced 14 @,@ 948 long tons ( 15 @,@ 188 t ) as designed and up to 16 @,@ 094 long tons ( 16 @,@ 352 t ) at full load . The ships had a high metacentric height , which made them unstable even in moderate seas . Steering was controlled with a single rudder . As built , the ships were fitted with a pair of heavy military masts with fighting tops , but they were replaced by cage masts in 1909 . They had a crew of 40 officers and 772 enlisted men .
The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion steam engines rated at 19 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 000 kW ) . Steam was provided by coal @-@ fired water @-@ tube boilers ; in Virginia and Georgia , they were equipped with twenty @-@ four Niclausse boilers , while the other three ships received twelve Babcock & Wilcox boilers . These were trunked into three funnels amidships . The engines generated a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . By 1919 , Virginia and Georgia had their Niclausse boilers replaced with twelve Babcock & Wilcox boilers . The ships carried 1 @,@ 955 long tons ( 1 @,@ 986 t ) of coal , which allowed them to steam for a designed cruising radius of 3 @,@ 825 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 084 km ; 4 @,@ 402 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . In service , they could actually steam for 4 @,@ 860 nmi ( 9 @,@ 000 km ; 5 @,@ 590 mi ) . The ships were equipped with electricity generators with a combined output of 500 kilowatts ( 670 hp ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships were armed with a main battery of four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) / 40 caliber guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft . The guns fired a 870 @-@ pound ( 390 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 400 feet per second ( 730 m / s ) . The turrets were Mark V mounts , which allowed for reloading at all angles of elevation . These mounts could elevate to 20 degrees and depress to -7 degrees . Each gun was supplied with sixty shells .
The secondary battery consisted of eight 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) / 45 guns and twelve 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) / 45 guns . The 8 @-@ inch guns were mounted in four twin turrets ; two of these were superposed atop the main battery turrets , with the other two turrets abreast the forward funnel . The 8 @-@ inch guns were the Mark VI type , and they fired 260 lb ( 120 kg ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 750 ft / s ( 840 m / s ) . They were supplied with 125 shells per gun . The 6 @-@ inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull . The 6 @-@ inch Mark VI guns fired a 105 lb ( 48 kg ) shell at 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ( 850 m / s ) .
For close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats , they carried twelve 3 @-@ inch / 50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and twelve 3 @-@ pounder guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , the Virginia class carried four 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes , submerged in her hull on the broadside . They were initially equipped with the Mark I Bliss @-@ Leavitt design , but these were quickly replaced with Mark II , designed in 1905 . The Mark II carried a 207 pounds ( 94 kg ) warhead and had a range of 3 @,@ 500 yards ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) at a speed of 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) .
= = = Armor = = =
Virginia 's main armored belt was 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 8 in ( 203 mm ) elsewhere . It extended 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) above the waterline and 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) below . The main battery gun turrets ( and the secondary turrets on top of them ) had 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) thick faces and 2 in ( 51 mm ) thick roofs . For the main battery turrets , their sides were 8 in thick , while the superposed turrets had reduced protection on their sides , at 6 in of armor plating . The supporting barbettes had the 10 in ( 250 mm ) of armor plating . The two waist turrets had 6 @.@ 5 in ( 170 mm ) thick faces , 6 in thick sides , and 2 in thick roofs . Six inch thick armor plating protected the casemate guns . The conning tower had 9 in ( 230 mm ) thick sides and a 2 in thick roof . The ships ' decks ranged in thickness from 1 @.@ 5 to 3 inches ( 38 to 76 mm ) and they were sloped on the sides to connect with the lower edge of the main belt .
= = Construction = =
= = Service history = =
All five ships of the class served with the Atlantic Fleet for the majority of their careers . In 1907 , Virginia , Georgia , and New Jersey took part in the Jamestown Exposition to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the founding of the Jamestown colony . The five ships took part in the cruise of the Great White Fleet in 1907 – 09 , though Nebraska , which had been built on the west coast of the United States , joined the fleet after it had reached California in 1908 . The fleet left Hampton Roads on 16 December 1907 and steamed south , around South America and back north to the US west coast . The ships then crossed the Pacific and stopped in Australia , the Philippines , and Japan before continuing on through the Indian Ocean . They transited the Suez Canal and toured the Mediterranean before crossing the Atlantic , arriving bank in Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909 for a naval review with President Theodore Roosevelt .
The ships then began a peacetime training routine off the east coast of the United States and the Caribbean , including gunnery training off the Virginia Capes , training cruises in the Atlantic , and winter exercises in Cuban waters . In late 1909 , Virginia , Georgia , and Rhode Island visited French and British ports . Throughout their careers , political unrest in several Central American countries prompted the United States to send the ships to protect American interests in the region . New Jersey was sent to Cuba to assist the Cuban Pacification in support of the government of President Tomás Estrada Palma . All five ships became involved in the Mexican Revolution as the United States intervened to protect its nationals living in the country , culminating in the occupation of Veracruz in April 1914 . New Jersey was also sent to protect American interests in Haiti and the Dominican unrest in 1914 .
In July 1914 , World War I broke out in Europe ; the United States remained neutral for the first three years of the war . Tensions with Germany came to a head in early 1917 following the German unrestricted submarine warfare campaign , which sank several American merchant ships in European waters . On 6 April 1917 , the United States declared war on Germany . The Virginia @-@ class ships initially were used for training gunners and engine room personnel that would be necessary for the rapidly expanding wartime fleet . Starting in September 1918 , the ships began to be used as escorts for convoys bringing soldiers to France , though this duty was cut short by the Armistice with Germany signed in November . With the war over , the Virginias were used to ferry American soldiers back from France through mid @-@ 1919 .
The ships — thoroughly obsolete by this time — were briefly retained in the post @-@ war period before being decommissioned . Nebraska , Georgia , and Rhode Island were transferred to the Pacific Fleet , with the latter serving as the flagship of the 1st Squadron , though they were all out of service by 1920 . Under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty , signed in 1922 , they were to be discarded as part of the naval armament limitation program . Virginia and New Jersey were sunk as target ships off Cape Hatteras by Army bombers under the supervision of Billy Mitchell in September 1923 . The other three ships were sold to ship breakers in November that year .
= If I Were a Boy =
" If I Were a Boy " is a song performed by American singer and songwriter Beyoncé from her third studio album I Am ... Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) . It was written by BC Jean and Toby Gad , who also handled its production alongside Beyoncé . Inspired by the difficult break @-@ up of a romantic relationship , the song was initially recorded by Jean , whose record company rejected it . Beyoncé then recorded her own version . Jean was upset when she learned that Beyoncé was releasing it as a single , but eventually they reached an agreement . " If I Were a Boy " was released by Columbia Records on October 12 , 2008 , as the album 's lead single alongside " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " . The two songs showcased the contrast between Beyoncé 's personality and her aggressive onstage persona , Sasha Fierce . A Spanish version of the song , titled " Si Yo Fuera un Chico " , was digitally released in Mexico and Spain .
" If I Were a Boy " is a pop introspective ballad which draws influences from folk rock through its instrumentation of which includes acoustic guitars , drums and strings . The song 's lyrics lament the misunderstandings between the genders and indict the male side of relationships . " If I Were a Boy " was well received by critics , who complimented Beyoncé 's tormented and emotive vocal performance and called the song her best work to date . The single was a commercial success as it placed in the top ten on twenty @-@ five different singles charts . It topped the charts in more than eight European countries , including the United Kingdom , where it is Beyoncé 's best @-@ selling single . " If I Were a Boy " peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and earned multi @-@ platinum certifications in Australia , Canada , and the US .
The accompanying music video for " If I Were a Boy " was directed by Jake Nava and shot in black @-@ and @-@ white . With a theme of role reversal , it is conceptually similar to the American comedy film Freaky Friday ( 1976 ) . A video for the Spanish version of the ballad was edited from the original clip . Beyoncé promoted " If I Were a Boy " through live performances at venues including The Oprah Winfrey Show , the 52nd Grammy Awards , and the I Am ... World Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) . The song has been covered several times on televised music competitions . American singer Reba McEntire sang a country version of the ballad on Country Music Television ( CMT ) , and a studio version was released as the second single from her 2010 album , All the Women I Am .
= = Writing and production = =
" If I Were a Boy " was written by BC Jean and Toby Gad ; it is the opening ballad of the I Am ... disc of the double album I Am ... Sasha Fierce . It is the only song on either disc that Beyoncé did not co @-@ write . Most of the lyrics were written by Jean , who was inspired by the break @-@ up of a romantic relationship . One day Jean and Gad visited a pizzeria in Times Square in New York City . Although tempted , Jean refrained from eating pizza because she was dieting . She then thought that if she were a boy , she would have eaten without regret . After reflecting on the idea , she concluded that she would have been a better man than her past lover . Gad captured Jean 's ideas on a pocket recorder , and they went to the studio the same day . Once there , she wrote the lyrics and melody in about 15 minutes . She then recorded the song in less than half an hour , with Gad on the guitar .
After completing her version of " If I Were a Boy " , Jean presented it to her record company , which rejected the song . Gad and Jean had co @-@ written 12 songs , including " If I Were a Boy " , for the singer 's debut album . As the deal with Jean 's record company fell apart , Gad marketed the songs to established artists . Beyoncé liked " If I Were a Boy " and recorded her own version of it for her album I Am ... Sasha Fierce . Gad and Beyoncé produced the track in 2008 at Roc the Mic Studios and Strawberry Productions in New York City and at GAD Studios in Ibiza . Gad did the musical arrangements , assisted in recording the music , and played the instruments alongside his brother Jens Gad and Reggie Syience Perry . Jim Caruana recorded Beyoncé 's vocals at Roc the Mic Studios . Mark " Spike " Stent mixed the track with assistance from Matt Green at The Record Plant in Los Angeles . " If I Were a Boy " was placed on the I Am ... disc of I Am ... Sasha Fierce , as it is a ballad that shows Beyoncé 's insecurities about love and the person she is " underneath all the makeup , underneath the lights and underneath all the exciting star drama " .
In an interview with Essence magazine , Beyoncé explained that " If I Were a Boy " is " broad " and different from her previous releases because it is not a traditional R & B song . She added , " I had to try it , because I remember Aretha Franklin said a great singer can sing anything and make it her own . " Beyoncé was also motivated by her audience 's strong expectations from her as a singer . While preparing her third solo album , Beyoncé wanted to experiment with stronger lyrics and record ballads like " If I Were a Boy " because , " the music and the emotion in the story is told [ sic ] so much better . It 's a better connection because you can hear it and it 's not all these other distractions . I really wanted people to hear my voice and hear what I had to say . "
= = = Jean 's response = = =
After Jean 's version of " If I Were a Boy " was rejected by her record company , she was upset that Beyoncé recorded and released the ballad . Roger Friedman of Fox News wrote that Jean was first informed that Beyoncé recorded the song by a stranger . The Daily Telegraph reported that Beyoncé 's father and then @-@ manager Mathew Knowles pursued the publishing rights of " If I Were a Boy " after realizing that it had the potential to become a big hit . Jean used her Myspace account to express her frustration : " I have been reading some of these comments and to set the record straight from the horse 's mouth – IF I WERE A BOY is my song ; YES , I wrote this song ; It is my story ; a painful one , and the song is very dear to me . You can hear the original version on my myspace site . " Friedman later reported that Beyoncé and Jean had come to terms . The deal included a promise that Beyoncé would record a duet with Jean for her debut album .
In an interview with Eric R. Danton of Hartford Courant , Jean was asked about her reaction when she heard that Beyoncé was recording " If I Were a Boy " . She was initially surprised when people regarded her as a songwriter because she envisioned herself as " do [ ing ] the whole artist thing as well " . Jean added , " It 's an amazing compliment , but I was like , ' That 's great , but it 's going to be on my album ! ' And it can be on my album , too , I just didn 't realize how it worked ... At first when I got this , people didn 't know that I was an artist , so it was , like , ' Oh , this songwriter BC . ' " " If I Were a Boy " was the first song she ever recorded , and she initially did not intend to hand it to another singer . Jean said that the fact that Beyoncé recorded the ballad provided many opportunities , and she was approached by many people who wanted to purchase her lyrics . She refused their offers , desiring to use her songs for her own album . However , Jean still intends to write for other artists .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" If I Were a Boy " is a midtempo pop ballad with folk rock and soft rock influences . The song was composed using common time in the key of G ♭ major and has a moderate tempo of 90 beats per minute . It was written in the common verse @-@ chorus form ; the verses are supported by four chords and follow a vi @-@ IV @-@ I @-@ V chord progression in the form E ♭ m7 – B – G ♭ – D ♭ / F. Ed Masle of The Arizona Republic noted that the progression is reminiscent of Nirvana 's 1991 song " Smells Like Teen Spirit " . Instrumentation is provided by a piano , acoustic guitars , live drums , and strings as well as hand claps which are used throughout the song . Beyoncé 's vocals span the range from a low of F ♯ 3 to the high of E5 . Her singing gets higher and louder as she employs melodic crescendos . Critics noted that Beyoncé delivers a tormented performance with unwavering sentiments .
The lyrics of " If I Were a Boy " are about a gender @-@ swapping thought experiment , through which Beyoncé analyses the ideologies of a tense relationship . As she sings about things she would do if she were a boy , Beyoncé highlights the vulnerability of a woman and ponders how things would be different if men had women 's sense of empathy . During the first part of the ballad , Beyoncé alternates between the role of her flawed partner and that of the better man she would be . In the first verse , she envisions herself impersonating her unfeeling love interest as she sings about consuming beer with other men , chasing after girls , and treating her lover cruelly , before adding that she would never be confronted for it . Beyoncé then sings the chorus , in which she gives her vision of life as a better man , " I think I could understand / How it feels to love a girl / I swear I 'd be a better man " , because she knows " how it hurts when you lose the one you wanted / ' cause he 's taken you for granted and everything you had got destroyed " .
In the second verse , Beyoncé resigns herself and continues to sing about cruelties that men often inflict on women . Still imagining herself impersonating the man who has wronged her , she highlights how some men switch off their phones to avoid ex @-@ lovers after having found another girl . Beyoncé continues , " I 'd put myself first / And make the rules as I go / ' Cause I know that she 'd be faithful / Waitin ' for me to come home " . She then repeats the chorus ; the intensity with which she sings gradually increases until she hits her upper register and seems close to crying . During the bridge , Beyoncé stops singing about the male behaviors she would indulge in if she were a man and addresses her callous lover directly . As Beyoncé emphasizes how it feels to be cheated on , she sings her vocal lines an octave higher than she did in the rest of the song . She finally tells him that it is too late to come back and apologize . In the last verse , Beyoncé concludes , " But you 're just a boy " . Fraser McAlpine of BBC Music notes that she " [ pushes ] her voice into a thin , pleading whine " at this point . With a squeak in her voice , she repeats the chorus for the final time as she fights to remain strong , not allowing her agony to bring her down .
= = Release = =
" If I Were a Boy " and " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " were released simultaneously as the double album 's two lead singles . The songs were taken from different discs of the album to demonstrate Beyoncé 's conflicting personalities , the album 's central theme . This motif was demonstrated by placing the ballads on a separate disc from the uptempo tracks . " If I Were a Boy " and " Single Ladies " were initially planned to debut on US radio stations on October 7 , 2008 , but both premiered the following day . " If I Were a Boy " debuted on Z100 's Elvis Duran and the Morning Show , while " Single Ladies " first aired on New York mainstream urban radio station Power 105 @.@ 1 . Both singles were added to rhythmic contemporary radio on October 13 , 2008 . That same day , " If I Were a Boy " was sent to contemporary hit radio , and " Single Ladies was sent to urban contemporary radio . On November 24 , 2008 , " If I Were a Boy " was sent to US urban radio . Two digital EPs , each containing seven dance remixes of " If I Were a Boy " were released on February 10 , 2009 in the US .
The ballad was first released internationally as a stand @-@ alone digital download in Oceania and most European countries on October 17 , 2008 . In France and the United Kingdom , " If I Were a Boy " was serviced digitally on October 26 , 2008 . On November 7 , 2008 , a two @-@ track CD single , including " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " as the B @-@ side , went on sale in all European countries , Oceania , and in Canada . In Canada two different digital EPs were made available on February 3 and 10 , 2009 . A Spanish version of " If I Were a Boy " was translated by Rudy Pérez and mixed by Andrés Bermúdez at The Beach House in Miami . Titled " Si Yo Fuera un Chico ( If I Were a Boy ) " , this version was only included on copies of I Am ... Sasha Fierce in Mexico as well as iTunes Stores in Latin America and Spain , where it was released as a stand @-@ alone single on February 3 , 2009 .
= = Critical reception = =
" If I Were a Boy " was widely acclaimed by contemporary music critics , who applauded Beyoncé 's vocal performance and called the song her best yet . Billboard magazine 's critic Chuck Taylor wrote that " If I Were a Boy " is Beyoncé 's " most affecting offering " since " Listen " ( 2006 ) . He praised her vocals as " breathtaking , exquisitely emotive , mournful , and mature " and added that the song " exudes the fragrance of a Grammy Award " . According to Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times , " If I Were a Boy " is Beyoncé 's Streisand moment and " a tender , fairly simple ballad that [ she ] uses to prove she 's a great vocal actress " . Powers concluded , " This isn 't just another breakup song ; it 's an elegy for female empowerment , Beyoncé 's admission that no amount of money , fame or skill can solve the basic inequity between her man 's heart and her own . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine wrote that " If I Were a Boy " could become as commercially successful as " Irreplaceable " because of its radio @-@ friendly appeal . James Montgomery of MTV News complimented the " tear @-@ jerking power " of " If I Were a Boy " and noted that it reveals " sides of Beyoncé we never knew existed " .
Matos Michaelangelo of The A.V. Club remarked that " If I Were a Boy " has " boilerplate lyrics " that would fit perfectly in mature roles that English actress Hayley Mills played in the 1960s . Nick Levine of Digital Spy wrote in his review of the album that " If I Were a Boy " has the " most interesting lyrics " of the entire record . In a separate review of " If I Were a Boy " , Levine awarded it four stars out of five , writing that Beyoncé 's vocals on the song are passionate . He praised the lyrics for not being overwritten and commended their " emotional punch " and " very strong melody " which he said can make people feel that they have always known the song . Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombal called " If I Were a Boy " an " effective and affecting gender @-@ bender " . Allmusic writer Andy Kellman felt that though the ballad sounds like " the watery backdrop for a singing competition finale " , it is the most outstanding song on I Am ... Sasha Fierce thanks to its lyrics and Beyoncé 's tormented performance . Colin McGuire of PopMatters felt that " If I Were a Boy " was the highlight of the first disc of the double album .
Jon Caramanica of The New York Times described the song as one of the greatest pop songs of the last few years and one of Beyoncé 's most complicated vocal performances . Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle commented that " If I Were a Boy " is an " elegant new musical direction " for Beyoncé and praised it for being different from the songs played on Top 40 radio . By contrast , Stacey Anderson of Spin magazine was unimpressed with " If I Were a Boy " , calling it a glistening and boring ballad . Adam Mazmanian of The Washington Times noted that the musical composition of " If I Were a Boy " has " a spare [ and ] cinematic quality that [ Beyoncé ] fills with an expansive voice " , which nevertheless falters at times . A 2010 review of " well @-@ intended yet misguided feminist anthems " in The A.V. Club noted the song had both a " fresh perspective and a sense of self @-@ awareness " but cast is as " a soppy wallow in whiny self @-@ pity and broad stereotyping " .
Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz of Billboard magazine placed " If I Were a Boy " at number 19 on a list of Beyoncé 's 30 biggest Billboard hits published for Beyoncé 's thirtieth birthday . They wrote that the song " found Beyoncé at her most honest , drawing in both women and men " . " If I Were a Boy " was nominated for the Best Foreign Song at the 2009 Porin Awards in Croatia . On The Village Voice 's year @-@ end Pazz & Jop singles list , " If I Were a Boy " was ranked at numbers 37 and 546 in 2008 and 2009 respectively .
= = Chart performance = =
For the week ending October 25 , 2008 , " If I Were a Boy " debuted at number one @-@ hundred on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , based solely on airplay . In its third charting week , the song rose from number sixty eight to number three on the Hot 100 chart as its digital download counterpart debuted at the top of the US Hot Digital Songs chart , selling 190 @,@ 000 units . It became Beyoncé 's fourth number one on the Hot Digital Songs chart , following " Check on It " ( 200
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5 ) , " Irreplaceable " ( 2006 ) , and " Beautiful Liar " ( 2007 ) . " If I Were a Boy " also became her tenth top @-@ ten single on the Hot 100 as a solo artist . On November 15 , 2008 , the song fell to fifth , where it stayed for one further week . However , it regained its number three position on November 29 , 2008 , as it returned to the top spot of the Hot Digital Songs chart , selling 170 @,@ 000 units . " If I Were a Boy " sold 654 @,@ 000 digital downloads in four weeks . The following week , the song fell to number two on the Hot Digital Songs chart , selling 44 @,@ 000 less copies than " Single Ladies " , which debuted at number one . " If I Were a Boy " maintained its position at number three on the Hot 100 chart while " Single Ladies " soared to number two on the chart . Beyoncé became the seventh female to have two songs in the top five positions of the Hot 100 chart . On October 13 , 2009 , " If I Were a Boy " was certified triple @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipping over two million copies . As of October 2012 , the song had sold 3 @,@ 014 @,@ 000 digital units in the US .
On November 2 , 2008 , " If I Were a Boy " was the highest debut of the week on the Australian Singles Chart , entering at number twelve . The song peaked at number three for three non @-@ consecutive weeks during the same month . It was certified triple @-@ platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for selling over 210 @,@ 000 copies . " If I Were a Boy " debuted at number eight in New Zealand on October 27 , 2008 , and peaked at number two for four non @-@ consecutive weeks in November and December 2008 . In its twelfth charting week , it was certified platinum after twelve weeks by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , representing shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies . The song debuted at number two on the UK Singles Chart , selling 64 @,@ 554 downloads on November 15 , 2008 . The following week , it fell to number three with sales of 57 @,@ 917 copies . On November 23 , 2008 , it rebounded to number one , selling 47 @,@ 949 copies , becoming Beyoncé 's fourth number @-@ one single in the UK as a solo artist ; it was her sixth including her career with Destiny 's Child . " If I Were a Boy " remained in the top five until the end of 2008 and was the 16th highest @-@ selling single of that year . The ballad was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for sales of over 600 @,@ 000 copies . It was the 68th highest selling single of the 2000s in the UK , where it is Beyoncé 's highest @-@ selling solo single , with sales of 746 @,@ 000 units as of November 2013 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
The music video for " If I Were a Boy " was directed by Jake Nava and was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white in New York City with the video for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " . A Spanish version of the music video , titled " Si Yo Fuera Un Chico " , was released with the same concepts as the main one ; it was edited from the original with the Spanish version of the song dubbed over it . The music video for " If I Were a Boy " is reflective of the stance as an independent woman that Beyoncé has taken throughout her career . In an interview with Billboard magazine , Beyoncé revealed that the concept of the video is similar to the American comedy film Freaky Friday ( 1976 ) ; its theme is role reversal . She also said that it would depict things that men commonly do to hurt their partners , like not answering their phones , before adding that the video is about little things that mean a lot in relationships . Beyoncé explained :
In the beginning of the video , my husband makes me breakfast and he 's excited about it , and I kind of don 't have time to eat . As a police officer , I have a male partner and the video goes through our days . My husband 's at work and has attractive girls flirting with him but he declines their advances . I have a guy flirting with me , and I flirt back .
Beyoncé said that by the end of the video , viewers would realize the husband is a police officer and Beyoncé , as the female character , has been doing things her husband has done to her . MTV News writer Jennifer Vineyard 's analysis of the concept concluded , " When we first saw it from a different perspective , Beyoncé 's behavior seemed more abnormal . And when it 's the guy doing everything she just did in the previous scenes , it becomes all too familiar — which is Beyoncé 's point . "
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with Beyoncé and her husband saying a few words , including " intimacy " , " honesty " , and " commitment " , and then saying the words " you " , " me " , and " us " together . When the action starts , Beyoncé is seen working as a police officer . Her husband ( played by NFL player Eddie Goines ) is very supportive . He makes her breakfast , spends time at work looking for a present for her and forgoes socializing with attractive coworkers so he can be available when his wife arrives home . However , Beyoncé is not thinking about him at all . Instead , she spends her free time with other officers , particularly her male partner , whom she seems enamored with . Her husband calls her , but she ignores the phone . Later , when her husband gives her earrings , she puts them on to go dancing with her partner at a party . Her husband is upset when he sees them , and when he confronts her about this , she acts like he is making a big deal out of nothing . " When you act like that , I don 't think you realize how it makes me look or feel " , he tells her . Beyoncé then asks him in a condescending tone , " Why are you so jealous ? It 's not like I 'm sleeping with the guy . " Then the story reverses , and Beyoncé starts to cry . Her husband 's situation is actually her experience — he is a police officer who takes his supportive wife for granted .
= = = Reception and accolades = = =
Beyoncé premiered the video , alongside the video for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , on MTV 's Total Request Live show on October 13 , 2008 . It was included on Beyoncé 's 2009 remix album with videography , Above and Beyoncé . Jennifer Vineyard of MTV News described the video as a " meaningful one — and it comes with a twist that requires repeat viewing " . She noted that if the video did not exist , she would not have seen the tomboy side of Beyoncé . A writer for Rap @-@ Up commented , " Beyoncé delivers one of the year 's best videos with the black and white clip . " Jennifer Cady of E ! Online praised the video , writing that it has a " serious melodramatic storyline " . She further noted that it was " slow and everyone overacts , but be sure to catch the end where a major twist will probably change your outlook on the dynamics of male – female relationships forever " .
The clip was ranked at number seventy @-@ two on BET : Notarized Top 100 Videos of 2008 countdown and at number twenty @-@ five on BET J 's Last Call 2008 ! Top 50 Countdown . It was nominated for Video of the Year at the 2009 BET Awards but lost to Beyoncé 's other video for " Single Ladies " . The video also received nominations for Best Female Video at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards Japan and for Outstanding Music Video at the 2009 NAACP Image Awards . In July 2009 , the video was certified gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for shipping over 5 @,@ 000 units .
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé first performed " If I Were a Boy " on November 6 , 2008 , at the MTV Europe Music Awards . She later performed the song during the sixth series of the British television show Strictly Come Dancing and the 2008 World Music Awards in Monaco on November 9 , 2008 , which was followed by another performance on The Oprah Winfrey Show on November 13 , 2008 . On November 16 , 2008 , backed by a live band , Beyoncé sang a medley of " If I Were a Boy " , then switched to " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , and concluded with " Crazy in Love " during the final episode of Total Request Live . The song was sung again on November 26 , 2008 during her appearance on The Tyra Banks Show . During this performance , Beyoncé begins to cry nearing the end of the song . On December 12 , 2008 , a pre @-@ taped performance aired on the eighth season of the French show Star Academy as Beyoncé could not appear due to busy schedule . During the same day , Beyoncé performed " If I Were a Boy " on Los Premios 40 Principales in Spain . She also performed the ballad on December 13 , 2008 , live at the The X Factor finale in the UK . Beyoncé sang a medley of " If I Were a Boy " and Alanis Morissette 's 1995 song " You Oughta Know " on January 31 , 2010 , at the 52nd Grammy Awards ceremony . She wore a " futuristic , spiked black " outfit with matching shoes , and " pranced , spun and did the Dutty Wine while the crowd cheered in approval " , according to Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News . Beyoncé was also backed by 50 backup dancers dressed as a riot gear . Ben Sisario of The New York Times commented that Beyoncé " was elaborately staged and typically athletic " during the performance . William Goodman of Spin magazine noted that Beyoncé " owned " the night 's most powerful performance . Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine put the performance at number three on her list of " Beyoncé 's 5 Biggest TV Performances " . Beyoncé interpolated a verse from " You Oughta Know " into her performance of " If I Were a Boy " at the Glastonbury Festival on June 26 , 2011 .
In addition to her performances of the song on television and at award ceremonies , " If I Were a Boy " was included on the set lists of Beyoncé 's I Am ... World Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) and I Am ... Yours revue . It was subsequently included on her live albums , I Am ... World Tour and I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas . Prior to the performance of the song at the tour , outtakes of its music video were used . Beyoncé later appeared performing " If I Were a Boy " wearing Ray @-@ Bans , a leather breastplate , aviator shades and a bulletproof @-@ looking one @-@ piece further asking the crowd to sing along the track . During the bridge of the song , she included excerpts from Morissette 's " You Oughta Know " and Tupac Shakur 's " California Love " while imitating a male person with her moves . Alice Jones of The Independent wrote in her review that Beyoncé " whip [ s ] up a quasi @-@ feminist singalong . " Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone noted that the singer channeled her " ferocious onstage persona " , Sasha Fierce . Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times compared Beyoncé 's wardrobe and dancing with that of Ciara . In May 2012 , Beyoncé performed " If I Were a Boy " during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue at Revel in Atlantic City , New Jersey . Before Beyoncé started to sing , she noted that " [ everyone knows ] how it feels to be hurt and lied to " . During the performance , she mashed Goo Goo Dolls ' " Iris " ( 1998 ) and reworked the rhythm of " If I Were a Boy " to fit with the cover . Elysa Gardner of USA Today noted that the ballad " became a jangly guitar @-@ pop number " during the show . Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly wrote that " the most attention @-@ grabbing moments of the night ... came when she dipped into other artists ' catalogs " . In 2013 , " If I Were a Boy " was included in the set list of The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour where it featured the string motif from The Verve 's " Bitter Sweet Symphony " ( 1997 ) .
= = = Fake tape = = =
In January 2009 , Matthew Zeghibe , a 26 @-@ year @-@ old computer art student from Connecticut , used pitch @-@ correction software to make a clip that he claimed was the soundboard recording of " If I Were a Boy " from Beyoncé 's Today show appearance in November 2008 . In the tape , Beyoncé sang drastically off @-@ key . A corresponding video was leaked onto the internet , and it went viral . It was even played on American radio stations on April 21 , 2009 ; Howard Stern played the recording , describing it as " the unedited board mix " of Beyoncé 's live performance . According to Us Weekly , Mathew Knowles was the first to cast doubt on the recording 's authenticity , saying that the tape seemed to have been altered . He added that " at 12 years into Beyoncé 's career , the last thing someone should be questioning is her vocal ability . That would be like questioning if Kobe Bryant could shoot a jump shot . "
On April 22 , TMZ.com reported that the tape was a hoax . They revealed that they had spoken to the person who modified the soundboard tapes , and the alleged culprit told them , " It 's a little bit crazy . No one in their right mind would sound like that , and no one would cheer for someone singing like that . " The following day , Beyoncé spoke about the allegations to MTV News . She stated that the report was ridiculous and that the timing of the video would draw publicity to two of her upcoming television performances . In an interview with Chris Harris of Rolling Stone , Zeghibe said that he was surprised by how much attention the clip received and by Beyoncé 's reaction to it . He admitted that he had previously given the same treatment to Christina Aguilera and Britney Spears and that he did not feel he had to apologize for the hoax :
I was just trying to make a point . I wanted to show people how easy it is to manipulate someone 's voice . If I can do it with a clip I pulled off of TV , imagine what they are doing on records and during live performances . The entire industry has been so manipulated , because there 's such an emphasis on perfection , so when something like this happens , it causes such a stir . I knew something had to have happened to make it jump so fast . It 's wild how much the story 's been twisted . It 's just always been fun for me to manipulate artists , and make it sound crazy . It was just for a good laugh . It was a goof , just for fun . I do a lot of parodies on my YouTube channel , and it just so happens this one got a little out of hand . It was just what I 've learned in school , and it 's fun I could fool so many people and get away with it . A lot of people had a lot of laughs because of it , so why should I apologize ? If you can 't poke fun at yourself , I don 't know what kind of person you are .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = Cover versions = =
Jamaican dancehall singer Althea Hewitt released a reggae cover of " If I Were a Boy " to iTunes Stores on December 19 , 2008 . Nicole Sullivan and Tisha Campbell @-@ Martin covered " If I Were a Boy " during the episode " The Shape of Things to Come " on the sitcom Rita Rocks which aired on October 13 , 2009 . During the finale of the tenth season of American Idol on May 25 , 2011 , the lady contestants joined together onstage to perform " If I Were a Boy " along with a medley of Beyoncé 's other singles . Caterina Torres covered the song during the second series of The Voice ( Australia ) on May 12 , 2013 . Torres ' version peaked at number 28 on the Australian Singles Chart on May 26 , 2013 . On June 8 , 2013 , singer Asanda covered the song during the final of the seventh series of Britain 's Got Talent .
Glee cast member Alex Newell covered the song for the fifth season episode " The End of Twerk " . The song was released in iTunes Store on November 11 , 2013 . Michael Slezak of TVLine praised his rendition of the song as " fantastic " and " flawless " . Lauren Hoffman from Vulture and Derek Chavis from The Baltimore Sun described his rendition as one of the best covers recorded for the series . Marc Snetiker of Entertainment Weekly praised the inclusion of the song in the episode and described Newell 's vocals as " incredible " while Billboard 's Rae Votta described the cover as " absolutely stunning " .
= = = The X Factor performances = = =
On October 6 , 2011 , during the first season of The X Factor US , 13 @-@ year @-@ old Rachel Crow covered the song during one of her auditions . She was backed by a piano and went sombre as she sang . Her performance brought judge Nicole Scherzinger to tears . Gil Kaufman of MTV News commented that the cover showed off " her preternaturally powerful [ and ] growly range " . Both Joe Berkowitz of Rolling Stone and Jennifer Still of Digital Spy noted that Crow 's performance was well executed despite her young age . Sarah Maloy of Billboard magazine commented that her performance was " sensational as always " . On December 3 , 2011 , during the eighth series of the British televised music competition The X Factor , girl band Little Mix covered the " If I Were a Boy " . Digital Spy 's Daniel Sperling noted that the cover contained " a little Amelia Lily @-@ esque shouting " .
On September 26 , 2012 , during the second season of the The X Factor in the United States , Dinah Jane Hansen covered " If I Were a Boy " . Annie Barrett of Entertainment Weekly praised Hansen 's singing , writing that she " stunned the crowd with a vocal so powerful " and " made the song her own " . Bruna Nessif of E ! Online praised her " powerful " rendition , and Peter Larsen of The Orange County Register wrote that she left the judges " speechless , [ and ] blown away by the power and beauty of her voice " . Then , on December 5 , 2012 , during the same show , Carly Rose Sonenclar also covered the song . Jennifer Still of Digital Spy noted that she sounded " effortless on those long , belting notes and shows a lot of restraint in the verses as well " . On August 18 , 2013 , during the fifth season of The X Factor Australia , Dami Im covered the song during the home visits round . Lorna Simpson also covered " If I Were a Boy " during the home visits round on the tenth season on The X Factor in the UK on October 4 , 2013 .
On December 4 , 2014 Ellona Santiago covered the song in week 6 of the third season for her Unplugged performance .
= = = Reba McEntire version = = =
The song was covered by American country singer Reba McEntire on the television program Unplugged on Country Music Television . The cover was accompanied by a music video that premiered on June 18 , 2010 , which depicted McEntire performing the song live . In late 2010 , she recorded a studio version , and it was added to country radio on January 24 , 2011 by Starstruck Entertainment and Valory Music Group as the second single from her studio album All the Women I Am ( 2010 ) . McEntire revealed that she originally wanted to only cover her own hits . However , her husband and manager , Narvel Blackstock wanted her to do a cover song . Blackstock finally came up with the idea that she should record her own version of Beyoncé 's " If I Were a Boy " . Speaking about her version of the song , McEntire said :
" When I got the song and the lyrics , I thought it was an incredible song ... And , to me , it turned out to be a country song , when we got our instrumentation on it and everything . And some people go , ' Well , why in the world would you do a pop song ? ' I just think music is music . You 've got good and you 've got bad , and I try to stay on the good side . "
McEntire 's cover has generally been met with positive reception . Jessica Phillips of Country Weekly magazine described her cover as a " soulful countrified look at love from a male perspective " . Steve Morse at The Boston Globe said that McEntire translated the song " artfully into country " . Billboard magazine 's Mikael Wood praised the cover , comparing it with McEntire 's other cover of Kelly Clarkson 's " Because of You " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times noted that McEntire " sounds as if she 's already inhabiting the role " in the song . Allmusic critic Thom Jurek was less favorable , writing that it was unrecognizable to the original , before adding , " It contains none of the original 's drama ; in its place is a failed attempt at a soft rock power ballad . " Following McEntire 's live performance at the CMA awards , the song debuted at number 60 on the Hot Country Songs charts as an album cut dated for the week ending November 27 , 2010 . It re @-@ entered at number 60 on the chart dated for the week ending January 29 , 2011 , and peaked at number 22 in April 2011 . It also peaked at number 23 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart in April 2011 .
The official music video for the cover premiered on Oprah.com on February 28 at midnight , followed by an exclusive interview . It was directed by Peter Zavadil . After her first performance of the song on Unplugged on the Country Music Television , McEntire also performed the song at the Country Music Association ( CMA ) awards on November 10 , 2010 . Mawuse Ziegbe of MTV News praised her cover , writing , " Singing with no band onstage , donning a glittery black dress with her signature red hair flowing to her shoulders , the legendary vocalist 's performance scored a standing ovation . " Jillian Mapes and Megan Vick of Billboard praised the performance , writing , " As if Beyonce 's 2008 ballad ' If I Were a Boy ' wasn 't moving enough , country queen Reba McEntire 's smokey twang and solemn stance turned the song on its head . " They also noted that the simple and powerful performance " is enough to inspire tears , or at least goosebumps . " Country Music Television 's Chet Flippo felt that McEntire 's performance was " the musical highlight of the evening " and added that it was " a lesson of what country music should be striving for these days " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times gave a mixed review of her performance , writing that " [ McEntire ] did something unexpected , softening her delivery and finding the creases in the song , as if Beyoncé were whispering to her from the wings . " However , Entertainment Weekly 's Mandi Bierly wrote that the lyrics were " just too young for [ McEntire ] , and when it comes to the chorus , I want someone to belt it " .
= SummerSlam ( 1992 ) =
SummerSlam ( 1992 ) was the fifth annual SummerSlam professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . It took place on August 29 , 1992 , at Wembley Stadium , London , England but was aired in the United States on August 31 . The buildup to the pay @-@ per @-@ view consisted of feuds scripted by the WWF 's writers . To date it is the only major WWF pay @-@ per @-@ view to take place outside North America .
The pay @-@ per @-@ view featured two main @-@ event matches . In the first , The Ultimate Warrior challenged Randy Savage for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship . The Warrior won the match by countout but did not win the title . In the other main event , The " British Bulldog " Davey Boy Smith pinned Bret Hart to win the WWF Intercontinental Championship . The WWF Tag Team Championship was also defended , as The Natural Disasters retained the championship belts in their match against the Beverly Brothers . One of the heavily promoted matches on the undercard was between Shawn Michaels and Rick Martel . The match , which had a special stipulation that the wrestlers could not hit each other in the face , ended in a double countout .
The WWE considers the crowd to be the fourth largest live audience ever to attend a WWF / E event , with 80 @,@ 355 in attendance ; WrestleMania 29 in 2013 is reported as having 80 @,@ 676 fans in attendance , WrestleMania III in 1987 is reported as having 93 @,@ 173 fans in attendance and WrestleMania 32 in 2016 is reported as having 101 @,@ 763 fans in attendance . Some writers believe that the WWF inflated the attendance figure for WrestleMania III , however , and that SummerSlam 1992 had a larger crowd . Between ticket prices and merchandise sales , the WWF made over $ 3 @,@ 650 @,@ 000 in revenue . Reviews of the event are almost all positive , and the Smith @-@ Hart match has been rated the best match in SummerSlam history .
= = Background = =
SummerSlam 1992 was originally intended to take place in Washington , D.C .. The WWF decided to move the event to Wembley Stadium in London , England due to the company 's growing popularity and the possibility of increasing the revenue from the event . Although the writers ' plans originally called for Shawn Michaels to win the Intercontinental Championship from Bret Hart , the storyline was adjusted due to the change of venue . As a result , " The British Bulldog " Davey Boy Smith , a native of Wigan , a working @-@ class town in the north of England , was chosen to win the belt .
Accordingly , one of the main events was the Intercontinental Championship match between Bret Hart and Davey Boy Smith , brothers @-@ in @-@ law in real life as Smith was married to Diana Hart , Bret 's sister . On television broadcasts leading up to SummerSlam , interviews with Diana and her mother Helen portrayed the family as being torn apart by the upcoming match . Bruce Hart publicly supported Smith , while Owen Hart sided with his brother Bret . Diana stated that she did not know who she wanted to win the match , as she had close ties to both men . She ultimately stated that she simply hoped that neither wrestler would get hurt . Prior to the match , Smith was hospitalized with a legitimate staph infection in his knee , which he suffered during a match with Mike Sharpe on July 20 in Worcester , Massachusetts ( the fact was revealed by his wife Diana years later on the Hart & Soul documentary ) ; despite the concerns about his health , he decided to wrestle the match as planned . Bret Hart later revealed in an interview that he doubted the legitimacy of the injury and that he believed Davey Boy in fact had a drug problem and that in the two months prior to their match he could not contact him to sort out what they were going to do at Wembley , and when they finally got to the stadium Smith revealed that he had not slept in over 48 hours . However , Hart also stated that as bad as Smith 's personal issues were , he " sucked it up " and hit every spot in the match .
The other main event was a WWF World Heavyweight Championship match between The Ultimate Warrior and Randy Savage . The storyline between them began in August 1990 , when Sensational Sherri , who was managing Savage , tried to arrange a match between Savage and the Warrior at SummerSlam 1990 . The Warrior refused to defend his WWF World Heavyweight Championship against Savage , and he ripped up a contract that Sherri had given him . Later that month , he ripped Sherri 's dress off after a match against Savage . They faced each other at house shows over the next six months , but Savage was unable to win the title . Savage then interfered in the title match at Royal Rumble 1991 , enabling Sgt. Slaughter to win the title . To settle the rivalry , Savage and the Warrior agreed to face each other in a retirement match at WrestleMania VII . The Warrior won the match , but Savage 's former valet Miss Elizabeth reunited with Savage after the match . Savage continued to wrestle for the WWF , but the feud with the Ultimate Warrior did not continue . The following year , the rivalry was rekindled when the Ultimate Warrior was granted a shot at the WWF World Heavyweight Championship , which Savage had won from Ric Flair at WrestleMania VIII on April 5 , 1992 . Flair and his manager , Mr. Perfect , were upset that Flair had not been granted a rematch . They decided to cause trouble between Savage and the Warrior , and Perfect announced on August 8 , 1992 that he was negotiating with Savage , his former rival , to appear in his corner during the WWF World Heavyweight Championship match at SummerSlam . The following week , Perfect claimed that the Ultimate Warrior had also been seeking his services . Perfect announced his intention to appear in one man 's corner but would not clarify which one . At the SummerSlam Spectacular , a show designed to promote the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Savage and the Warrior teamed up to face The Nasty Boys . Perfect and Ric Flair interfered in the match , but Savage and the Warrior chased them back to the locker room after the match .
Two tag team matches were also featured on the undercard . Money Inc . ( Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster ) and the The Legion of Doom ( Hawk and Animal ) were feuding in 1992 over the WWF Tag Team Championship . The Legion of Doom held the championship belts until Hawk failed a drug test . As a result , the WWF suspended him and had the Legion of Doom drop the belts to Money Inc . Once Hawk 's suspension ended , a rematch was scheduled to take place at SummerSlam . The match was first announced as a title match but Money Inc. lost the championship to The Natural Disasters , transferring the title match status to another match .
Meanwhile , the Natural Disasters ( Earthquake and Typhoon ) and the Beverly Brothers ( Beau and Blake ) had a rivalry dating back to a WWF television taping on June 30 , 1992 . Typhoon attacked The Genius , who managed the Beverlys , while Earthquake brawled with both of the Beverlys . The match aired on WWF Prime Time Wrestling on July 20 ; the same day that it aired , the Disasters won the WWF Tag Team Championship from Money Inc . As a result of this win , the title was on the line in the match at SummerSlam .
In addition to the title defenses , the event also featured a match between Shawn Michaels and Rick Martel . Their rivalry focused on Martel 's attempts to steal Michaels ' valet Sensational Sherri . During one of Michaels ' matches televised on August 9 , 1992 , Martel came to ringside and winked at Sherri , who returned the gesture . At the SummerSlam Spectacular , Sherri came to the ring during one of Martel 's matches and winked at him . Both Michaels and Martel were " heel " wrestlers who bragged about their good looks , and Sherri had them agree not to hit each other in the face during their SummerSlam match .
= = Event = =
= = = Preliminary Matches = = =
Before the pay @-@ per @-@ view broadcast began , two matches were taped for later showings on WWF Prime Time Wrestling . These matches were never advertised on US television in the weeks leading up to SummerSlam . Vince McMahon , on commentary during these bouts , referred to them as ' Bonus Matches ' . The first match saw " Hacksaw " Jim Duggan and The Bushwhackers ( Luke Williams and Butch ) defeat The Mountie and The Nasty Boys ( Brian Knobs and Jerry Sags ) when Duggan pinned The Mountie . In the other match , Papa Shango defeated Tito Santana by pinfall .
In the opening match of the actual PPV telecast , the Legion of Doom ( Hawk and Animal ) faced Money Inc . ( Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster ) . The Legion of Doom used their size and power to wear down their opponents in the opening minutes of the match . Money Inc. gained the advantage when Hawk missed a flying clothesline . Hawk tried to tag in his partner but was unable for several minutes because Money Inc. kept him away from the corner where Animal was standing . Eventually , Hawk and Schyster hit each other at the same time . Hawk tagged Animal in , and the Legion of Doom attempted to perform the Doomsday device , their signature move . Schyster stopped them , but Animal hit Schyster in retaliation , causing Schyster to run into DiBiase . Animal then powerslammed DiBiase and pinned him to get the victory .
The second match of the broadcast featured Nailz competing against Virgil . Nailz spent the majority of the match choking Virgil . Virgil recovered several times and performed several offensive maneuvers , but Nailz always regained the advantage . Ultimately , Nailz won the match by performing a sleeper hold . After the match , he attacked Virgil with a nightstick .
In the following match , competitors Shawn Michaels and Rick Martel were unable , due to a pre @-@ match stipulation , to hit each other in the face . The two men exchanged holds but were both preoccupied with looking to ringside for approval from Sensational Sherri . Martel gained the advantage by throwing Michaels to the outside of the ring and attacking him there . When the two returned to the ring , they took turns attempting to pin their opponent , pulling down their opponent 's wrestling tights to reveal their buttocks each time . Michaels then kicked Martel and tried to pin him , but the referee stopped the three @-@ count because Michaels ' feet were on the ropes . Both wrestlers broke the pre @-@ match stipulation by slapping each other in the face . Sherri pretended to faint , which drew the attention of both wrestlers . Michaels and Martel argued over who would carry Sherri backstage , with each man carrying her a few feet before being stopped by his opponent . Both wrestlers were counted out , but they continued to argue . Martel tried to revive Sherri by throwing water on her , but he hit Michaels as well . Michaels dropped Sherri and chased Martel backstage ; upset at being left behind by both men , Sherri screamed and cried as she walked backstage .
The tag team championship match came next , which saw the Beverly Brothers ( Beau and Blake ) attack the Natural Disasters ( Earthquake and Typhoon ) before the bell . The Disasters used their size and strength to gain the advantage , but Earthquake accidentally performed an avalanche on Typhoon . The Beverlys controlled the match for several minutes , with Blake executing a splash and a front facelock . Typhoon recovered and clotheslined both opponents but was unable to tag in Earthquake . Later , Typhoon attempted to make the tag again , but Beau distracted Earthquake ; while the referee 's back was turned , The Beverlys ' manager , The Genius handed Blake a metal scroll , which Blake used to hit Typhoon . Typhoon recovered , however , and Earthquake entered the ring and controlled the remainder of the match . He performed a powerslam on Beau before pinning him with an Earthquake splash .
The following match , which was not shown on the telecast in the United Kingdom , pitted Crush against the Repo Man . Crush used his size advantage to perform a Gorilla press slam on Repo Man . Repo Man performed a back suplex , but Crush showed no sign that the move affected him . Crush continued to dominate the match with such moves as a belly to belly suplex . Repo Man eventually tried to attack Crush by jumping off the top rope , but Crush caught him and performed the Cranium Crunch to win the match by submission .
= = = Main Event Matches = = =
One of the two main event matches came next , as Randy Savage defended The WWF World Heavyweight Championship against the Ultimate Warrior . Although Mr. Perfect had claimed that he would be in the corner of one of the competitors , he did not come to ringside for the beginning of the match . Savage and the Warrior traded the advantage back and forth , with Savage performing several clotheslines and punching his opponent and the Ultimate Warrior countering with atomic drops . Savage executed two double axe handles from the top rope , but the Warrior caught him when Savage attempted the move a third time . After the Warrior missed a move and fell outside the ring , Savage jumped from the top rope and performed another double axe handle . Once the wrestlers got back into the ring , Ric Flair and Mr. Perfect walked down the aisle and stood at ringside . The match continued as normal until Perfect reached into the ring and tripped Savage , who was running to gain momentum for a maneuver . The Ultimate Warrior accidentally threw Savage into referee Earl Hebner . As a result of the ref bump , Hebner was not able to make the three @-@ count when Savage pinned the Warrior after performing a diving elbow drop . Perfect and Flair revived the Ultimate Warrior , only to attack him when he stood up . The Warrior recovered and attempted to execute a running splash , but Flair hit him with a chair . Savage saw the Warrior injured and realized that Flair and Perfect were causing trouble rather than trying to help either man . In retaliation , Savage jumped off the top rope to attack Flair , but Flair hit him in the leg with a chair . Savage was unable to get back into the ring , so the Ultimate Warrior won the match via countout . Flair and Perfect continued to attack Savage until the Warrior chased them away . Savage and the Ultimate Warrior then hugged and walked backstage together .
The WWF World Heavyweight Championship match was followed by a bout pitting Tatanka defeating The Berzerker by pinfall . This match was originally announced on US television , in the weeks leading up to SummerSlam , as being part of the PPV telecast . Due to time constraints it was cut from the PPV lineup in post @-@ production . The match , however , later aired on WWF Prime Time Wrestling .
The next match was between the Undertaker and Kamala . Kamala , who was accompanied by his manager , Harvey Wippleman , and his handler , Kim Chee , attacked the Undertaker before the match . The Undertaker blocked the attack and punched Kamala repeatedly before performing a chop from the top rope on his opponent . The Undertaker attempted the same move again , but Wippleman knocked the Undertaker off the rope . Kamala knocked the Undertaker outside the ring , where the Undertaker attacked Wippleman and Kim Chee . Back inside the ring , the Undertaker gained the advantage by executing a chokeslam and a clothesline . When the Undertaker attempted to perform his signature move , the Tombstone Piledriver , Kim Chee ran into the ring and hit the Undertaker with a pith helmet . As a result , Kamala was disqualified and the Undertaker won the match . Kamala kept on attacking and hit Undertaker with a series of splashes and seemingly left his opponent unconscious . When the Undertaker suddenly sat up and looked directly at the Ugandan Giant , Kamala , Whippleman and Kim Chee panicked and fled ringside with The Undertaker and Paul Bearer slowly walking in pursuit .
Up next , Rowdy Roddy Piper joined the Balmoral Highlanders in playing Scotland the Brave on the bagpipes .
The event concluded with the second main event , a contest for the Intercontinental Championship between champion Bret Hart and challenger " British Bulldog " Davey Boy Smith , who was accompanied by the reigning Commonwealth Heavyweight Boxing Champion , London native Lennox Lewis . In the opening minutes , Hart used his technical wrestling abilities and Smith relied on his power advantage . Hart got control of the match with a reverse atomic drop and a Samoan drop . Smith came back with a monkey flip , but Hart regained the advantage with a bulldog and a plancha . Smith eventually recovered and tried to pin Hart with a back slide . Hart escaped the pin attempt and wore Smith down with sleeper holds . Smith gained the advantage , however , and used power moves to control the match , including a powerslam and a variety of suplexes . Hart managed to place Smith in the Sharpshooter , Hart 's signature submission hold . Smith escaped the hold , however , and threw Hart against the ropes . While running back at Smith , Hart attempted a sunset flip . Smith countered the move and pinned Hart to win the Intercontinental Championship . Immediately after the match , Hart refused to shake Smith 's hand . He soon changed his mind , however , and hugged Smith as well as Diana Hart , who was celebrating with her husband .
= = Aftermath = =
Randy Savage , who continued to sell his supposedly injured leg , lost the title to Ric Flair at a television taping on September 1 , 1992 in Hershey , Pennsylvania . During the match Flair received help not only from Mr Perfect but also from newcomer Razor Ramon , igniting a feud between Savage and Ramon . Bret Hart claimed in a 2014 interview that WWF owner Vince McMahon had worked out the title @-@ change match with Flair and Savage before hand , and that he was angry when they returned to the dressing room after the match because they had failed to do much of what was agreed upon . McMahon was that angry that he actually made them go straight back out and re @-@ do the whole match . After producing much the same match that they had immediately prior , McMahon allegedly threw his headset onto the table and stormed off in frustration .
After plans by WWF writers to turn the Ultimate Warrior against Savage were scrapped due to the Warrior 's refusal to turn heel , the two were scheduled to face Flair and Ramon at Survivor Series 1992 . However , as the Warrior quit the promotion on November 21 , his spot was surprisingly offered to Mr. Perfect , who accepted it in spite of Flair , thereby turning face and initiating a feud with Flair which culminated in Flair leaving the WWF in January 1993 .
Shawn Michaels , who had originally been booked to win the Intercontinental Championship from Bret Hart at SummerSlam , won the title from Davey Boy Smith on October 27 ( the match would air on the November 14 , 1992 , episode of Saturday Night 's Main Event ) . Michaels and Sherri continued their on @-@ screen relationship after SummerSlam . Sherri claimed to have created the rivalry with Martel to test Michaels ' love for her . Their relationship deteriorated , though when Michaels pulled Sherri in front of him to protect himself from an attack by his former tag team partner , Marty Jannetty on the October 31 episode of WWF Superstars . This led to confrontations between Sherri and Michaels at Royal Rumble 1993 and WrestleMania IX .
The Undertaker continued to feud with Kamala and Harvey Wippleman . The two wrestlers faced each other again at Survivor Series 1992 in a coffin match , which the Undertaker won . Wippleman gained revenge by introducing Giant Gonzalez ( and later Mr. Hughes ) , with whom the Undertaker feuded through 1993 .
Upset about the amount of his pay for appearing at SummerSlam , Kevin Wacholz ( Nailz ) confronted WWF owner Vince McMahon after Survivor Series 1992 . According to reports , he legitimately attacked McMahon . As a result , Nailz was fired from the WWF . He briefly appeared in rival promotion World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) as the Prisoner but was released after the WWF sued WCW because of The Prisoner 's similarity to the Nailz character . The anger between Wacholz and McMahon spilled over into McMahon 's 1994 trial , in which McMahon was accused of distributing steroids to wrestlers . Although Wacholz testified against McMahon , his statements , which included , " I hate Vince McMahon 's guts " ultimately proved harmful to the prosecution 's case .
= = = Reception = = =
According to the WWF , the 80 @,@ 355 people in attendance for SummerSlam 1992 is the fourth largest in the company 's history , behind only WrestleMania 29 , WrestleMania III and WrestleMania 32 , which is said to have attracted 101 @,@ 763 fans .
The event has received positive reviews from a variety of sources . RD Reynolds has called it " a huge success " . In particular , the Intercontinental Championship match has been called " one of the greatest matches of all time " . Pro Wrestling Illustrated named it the Match of the Year in the magazine 's year @-@ end issue , and WWE has called the match the greatest moment in SummerSlam history . Bret Hart has also named it as his favorite match of all time .
The WWF collected $ 2 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 in revenue from admissions , up from $ 445 @,@ 000 the previous year . The company also sold $ 1 @,@ 456 @,@ 203 in merchandise at SummerSlam , which is the largest amount of merchandise revenue at a WWF event . The buyrate for the event was 1 @.@ 5 , down from 2 @.@ 7 at SummerSlam 1991 but higher than the 1 @.@ 3 buyrate at SummerSlam 1993 .
SummerSlam 1992 was released on VHS format on September 24 , 1992 . While the US release only included the 8 matches that were shown on the PPV telecast , the UK release included all 11 matches including the three dark matches . On October 3 , 2005 in the United Kingdom , the event was released on DVD , packaged together with SummerSlam 1993 , as part of the WWE Tagged Classics line . The event was again later released as part of WWE 's SummerSlam Anthology boxed DVD set . The anthology was released on August 5 , 2008 in North America and was released on October 6 , 2008 in the United Kingdom . However , the version that is included with the Anthology is only the 8 match PPV broadcast version .
= = Results = =
= Sniper Wolf =
Sniper Wolf ( Japanese : スナイパー ・ ウルフ , Hepburn : Sunaipā Urufu ' ) is a fictional character from Konami 's Metal Gear series . Created by Hideo Kojima and designed by Yoji Shinkawa , she appears in the 1998 stealth game Metal Gear Solid ( as well as its 2004 remake , Metal Gear Solid : The Twin Snakes ) as one of the game bosses opposing the protagonist Solid Snake and his ally Meryl Silverburgh .
The character is a ruthless and skilled sniper belonging to the renegade U.S. military special operations group FOXHOUND . " Sniper Wolf " is a nom de guerre pseudonym and her real name is undisclosed . She is of Iraqi Kurdish origin and her backstory is connected to the series ' chief protagonist / antagonist character Big Boss , who had rescued her in Iraq when she was a child . Sniper Wolf is widely regarded as one of the most popular and memorable characters in this game as well as in the entire Metal Gear series , as well as one of the top female antagonists in all video gaming .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Metal Gear Solid = = =
In Metal Gear Solid , Sniper Wolf is a member of FOXHOUND and an elite sniper capable of going without food and staying still for up to a week . She typically forms an emotional connection with her targets before killing them with her favoured weapon , the Heckler & Koch PSG1 , and uses mercury @-@ tipped hollow @-@ point bullets to poison her victims . She is also addicted to the drug diazepam .
Born in the Iraqi Kurdistan in 1983 during the Iran – Iraq War , she witnessed the death of her family and thousands of others from a chemical attack by Saddam Hussein 's government troops against the rebellious Kurds when she was five years old . She was captured by Saddam 's forces and taken as an orphan by the Iraqi Ministry of Interior , who brainwashed her and brought a famed Gurkha sniper to train her to be a child combatant for the government . Three years later , during the 1991 uprisings in Iraq , she fled to a Kurdish refugee camp . There , the legendary U.S. Army Special Forces veteran known as Big Boss noticed her extroardinary abilities and brought her with him to the United States , where she received counselling and deprogramming to remove her Iraqi brainwashing , leaving only her fighting abilities with her . Extremely grateful , she thought of Big Boss as a modern Saladin and followed him in whatever he did , until his mutiny and later death at the hands of FOXHOUND operative Solid Snake ( as depicted in Metal Gear 2 : Solid Snake ) . She was then found by Solid Snake 's brother Liquid Snake , who convinced her to join a FOXHOUND splinter cell under his command .
In the alternate year 2005 , during the Shadow Moses Island incident ( Metal Gear Solid ) , Sniper Wolf goes rogue along with the rest of Liquid Snake 's group when they take hostages and blackmail the U.S. government with a hijacked walking tank armed with nuclear weapons , demanding the corpse of Big Boss to be handed over to them . She cares for the huskies that Liquid intended to kill , as she enjoys their company , and is impressed with the hostage scientist Hal " Otacon " Emmerich giving his scarce food supply to the dogs . When Solid Snake ( further referred to as Snake ) infiltrates the island , Sniper Wolf wounds Snake 's companion Meryl Silverburgh to lure him into a trap , capturing him so he could be tortured by another FOXHOUND member , Revolver Ocelot . Eventually , Snake defeats her in sniper duel in a snowy field by shooting her in the lung . After hearing Sniper Wolf 's story of her life , and at her request to be at last " set free " , Snake kills her over objections by Otacon , who professes his love for her . Solid Snake also uses her handkerchief to avoid attacks by her wolves by masking his scent with hers . Sniper Wolf 's ghost can be seen if the player uses the in @-@ game photo camera on her body .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Sniper Wolf was originally planned to make a voice @-@ over cameo appearance in Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty ( 2001 ) , during a conversation between Otacon and Olga " Ninja " Gurlukovich , and appears in a short flashback sequence . Her spirit shows up as a wolf in Metal Gear Solid 4 : Guns of the Patriots ( 2008 ) , in which an unrelated character named Crying Wolf also appears to engage in a sniper duel against Solid Snake . Sniper Wolf 's costume can also be developed for the character Quiet in Metal Gear Solid V : The Phantom Pain .
A special Sniper Wolf character card appears in the non @-@ canon spin @-@ off game Metal Gear Acid 2 ( 2005 ) . Some other developers have also given homage type nods to the character , such as with an item " MGS Sniper Wulf Mk . II " in EA Montreal 's Army of Two ( 2008 ) and a weapon " MG @-@ S1 Sniper Wolfe " in the PlayStation 3 version of Visceral Games ' The Godfather II ( 2009 ) .
A 1 / 8 scale Sniper Wolf action figure was released by McFarlane Toys in 1998 . Two 1 / 6 scale figures were also released only in Japan by Yamato ( an action figure ) and Studio Saru Bunshitsu ( a garage kit ) . In 2012 , Sniper Wolf was chosen by Konami as one of their 64 iconic characters to participate in the Konami E3 Battle event , where she lost against Metal Gear REX in the semi @-@ final fourth round . A bishoujo statue designed by Shunya Yamashita was announced by Kotobukiya for 2016 .
= = Conception and design = =
According to the Metal Gear series character artist Yoji Shinkawa , the idea of creating Sniper Wolf came about when the series ' writer , director and producer Hideo Kojima originally asked him to draw " a guy " , but Shinkawa suggested that he should instead design " a young lady with a sniper rifle . " Shinkawa designed her with green hair , but she appears as a sandy blonde in the game ; he also made a topless picture of her . Kojima said a part of an inspiration for the character came from the female Viet Cong sniper scene in the film Full Metal Jacket and recalled he had a hard time " trying to explain the concept of MGS ' Sniper Wolf battle " to his staff . One of her lines is also a direct quote from the film Blue Velvet .
Asked about his favorite Metal Gear character in a 2003 interview , Solid Snake 's voice actor David Hayter said : " Wolf . Very hot . Very dangerous . She ’ d be Snake ’ s girl if she wasn ’ t so focused on killing him . " When he was asked in 2014 about his favourite Metal Gear moments , Kojima himself chose Wolf 's death as the first scene to talk about .
= = Reception = =
The character was well received in part because of her sex appeal . For that reason , Sniper Wolf ranked as 37th " hottest babe in games " by GameDaily in 2008 and was included in UGO 's list of the 50 " hottest babes in games " in 2011 . She was ranked as the tenth sexiest PlayStation character by PlayStation Universe in 2010 , who added that " this character takes a special place in our hearts , " and in 2014 was included among the top 10 " hottest " female villains in gaming and " old school hotties that still got it " by Cheat Code Central 's Travis Huber , who stated that " she was so loved and talked about that Hideo Kijima and the gang have had to create yet another beautiful but deadly sniper character in the upcoming MGSV : The Phantom Pain . "
Sniper Wolf was also acclaimed as one of the best boss type and antagonist characters in the Metal Gear series or even in all video games . In 2006 , Ryan Stewart and Rich Krpata of The Boston Phoenix ranked the fight against Sniper Wolf as the 16th greatest boss battle in video game history , describing her as the best aspect of FOXHOUND and her death as " one of gaming 's most poignant scenes . " In 2008 , readers of IGN voted her at the top position on the list of the Metal Gear series villains , the staff commenting : " Who else could number one be but the incredibly beautiful , and impossibly deadly , Sniper Wolf ? " and adding that " it 's safe to say Wolf earned more votes than just about every other villain combined , a fact that doesn 't surprise us at all . " That same year , IGN PlayStation Team ranked the fight against her as the sixth best boss battle in the series , while the staff of GameSpy placed her seventh on their list . In 2010 , the staff of IGN ranked Sniper Wolf as the 92nd top video game villain of all time , stating that she " probably deserves to be higher on our list " and emphasizing the feeling of helplessness caused by her tactics in " an epic boss battle " . In 2015 , she was included on several lists of the best boss fights in the Metal Gear series , including by Sean Garmer of 411mania , Dustin Spino of Cinelinx , and the staff of IGN , chosen by Zach Ryan .
Regarding her personality issues , sometimes perceived as complicated , Sniper Wolf was ranked as the 25th top " chick behaving badly " in all entertainment by IGN 's Scott Collura in 2008 , featured as one of nine " bad girls of videogame land " by Gelo Gonzales of FHM in 2009 , and ranked as the seventh top " bitch in games " by Gavin Mackenzie of PLAY in 2010 . Complex ranked her as the ninth " most diabolical video game she @-@ villain " in 2011 , describing her as " the exact type of woman that you wouldn ’ t marry for any rational reason . " In 2012 , Complex ranked her as ninth on the list of some of the most evil women in video games , commenting that even as Sniper Wolf " actually ends up being one of the more noble villains in the game , " she did exhibit " some next @-@ level psycho behavior . "
The scene of Sniper Wolf wounding Meryl to set a trap for Snake was included among the top ten cutscenes in the Metal Gear series by Jeremy M. Loss of Joystick Division in 2010 and ranked as the seventh most shocking surprise in video games ( " subverting the power fantasy " ) by George Reith of GamingBolt in 2012 . In Trigger Happy , Steven Poole noted how the " brillantly manipulative " Metal Gear Solid can make the player feel guilty , even as " it makes no sense to wish that you hadn 't killed Sniper Wolf — that is , properly to regret your actions — because it is a task that the game demands be fulfilled before you can progress . " In 2012 , Ryan King of PLAY included the character of Sniper Wolf among the six " things you didn ’ t want to kill ( but you did anyway ) " and Ian Dransfield from the same magazine included her among the top " bad guys you wanted to win " . In 2015 , Aleksander Gilyadov from VentureBeat included Sniper Wolf 's death among
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six most memorable Metal Gear moments opining it " still remains as one of the most poignant and beautiful scenes in the entire series . It also displays just how multilayered , benign , and well @-@ written Kojima ’ s characters ( both heroes and villains ) really are . " That same year , Javy Gwaltney from Paste had this scene top his list of the saddest moments in Metal Gear .
On the other hand , 1UP.com 's Scott Sharkey placed Otacon 's reaction to the death of Sniper Wolf second on his 2009 list of the series ' " most awkward " moments , calling it " the world 's most embarrassingly stupid case of Stockholm syndrome . " Shacknews ' Steve Watts wrote about the game 's GameCube remake Metal Gear Solid : The Twin Snakes : " While critically acclaimed thanks to its improved graphics and smarter AI , the addition of an MGS2 @-@ inspired first @-@ person mode was blamed for making the game too easy and ruining the Sniper Wolf boss battle entirely . "
= Catatonia ( band ) =
Catatonia were an alternative rock band from Wales who gained popularity in the mid- to late 1990s . The band formed in 1992 after Mark Roberts met Cerys Matthews . The first major lineup featured Dafydd Ieuan on drums , Clancy Pegg on keyboard , Owen Powell on guitar and Paul Jones on bass . They recorded two EPs , For Tinkerbell and Hooked .
Pegg was fired prior to work on their first studio album , Way Beyond Blue , while Ieuan was replaced with Aled Richards shortly afterwards . This new line @-@ up remained for the rest of the lifetime of the band . The single " You 've Got a Lot to Answer For " received radio airplay and became the band 's first top 40 single in the UK Singles Chart in September 1996 . Their breakout success came at the start of 1998 with the International Velvet album and the release of the single " Mulder and Scully " some two weeks apart . The album went to number one in the album chart , and sold more than 900 @,@ 000 copies being certified triple platinum by British Phonographic Industry , while the single reached number 3 in the singles chart , the highest any Catatonia single would chart .
The follow @-@ up release , " Road Rage " , reached number 5 in May , and was nominated for best song at the Brit Awards and the Ivor Novello Awards , winning at the Q Awards . The title track of the album International Velvet received additional attention , and the band performed it at the opening of the opening ceremony of the 1999 Rugby World Cup on 1 October in the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff . While in Catatonia , Matthews collaborated with Space on " The Ballad of Tom Jones " in March 1998 and with Tom Jones on a cover of " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " in December 1999 . Their final top ten single came in April 1999 with " Dead from the Waist Down " off the following album , Equally Cursed and Blessed . Rumours began to circulate about a breakup , but a further album , Paper Scissors Stone was released in 2001 following a two @-@ year break from live performances .
Matthews ' drinking had long been reported in the tabloids and gossip columns , and she entered rehab in mid @-@ 2001 for drinking and smoking . The tour to support Paper Scissors Stone was cancelled , and a month later , the band announced that they were breaking up . Matthews has subsequently released solo albums , while Powell has become a radio presenter and joined the supergroup The Stand to release a charity single . Critics have highlighted the use of metaphors in Catatonia 's work , and songs have been compared to poetry by critics . Writing duties had been shared across the band , although had been led by Matthews and Roberts . They disagreed with being labelled an indie band , with Powell saying they had only ever sought to write pop music .
= = History = =
The story that Catatonia were formed after Mark Roberts spotted Cerys Matthews busking in Cardiff in 1992 was an invention for the media in order to give the band a newsworthy biography . While the duo did go busking , they didn 't meet this way . Matthews had been a fan of Roberts ' previous band Y Cyrff . They began dating as well as writing songs together at the end of 1991 . For four years after this they remained in the relationship , many aspects of this being played out publicly in their lyrics . They took the name of the band from Matthews ' experience working in a mental health facility as well as the novel The Doors of Perception by Aldous Huxley . They believed it to mean a sense of extreme pleasure and sleep , and wrote the song " Sweet Catatonia " , subsequently naming the band after the song . As Sweet Catatonia , Matthews and Roberts recorded a series of demos at the city centre youth project in Cardiff , nicknamed " Grassroots " .
Roberts and Matthews routinely encountered Owen Powell during this time , who had been in Robert 's Y Cyrff and now had a band called Colour 45 . Both bands entered a band competition to play at the Cardiff Bay Music Fiesta , and while Colour 45 came tenth and was given a place on the bill , Sweet Catatonia placed 45th . Roberts and Matthews hired a drummer , Stephen " Frog " Jenkins from the band U Thant , and continued to record bilingual Welsh / English tracks . The band began to play live , with Matthews and Roberts busking to support their income . They were spotted by the girlfriend of the lead singer of the band The Pooh Sticks , who thought that Matthews would make a good female voice for the group . But after seeing Sweet Catatonia perform , the band members didn 't agree and so Matthews remained with Catatonia . Further recordings were made , with Guto Pryce joining the trio . This session included the track " Gyda Gwen " which attracted the attention of Rhys Mwyn at Crai Records .
= = = The Crai EPs , " Whale " and " Bleed " ( 1993 – 95 ) = = =
The band line up changed as they signed to Crai , with Jenkins and Pryce departing for other projects . Mwyn arranged for Matthews and Roberts to be joined by Dafydd Ieuan on drums ; Ieuan had previously played in bands who had performed alongside Robert 's Y Cyrff . Another member of the new shortened " Catatonia " was former Y Cyrff member Paul Jones on bass guitar . The final member was Londoner Clancy Pegg on keyboards , who had befriended Roberts and Matthews after moving to Cardiff . Mwyn used his contacts to get Catatonia onto Welsh language television , and strove to move their live performances away from Cardiff so that they weren 't simply playing in front of their regulars the entire time . They had their first overseas gigs in Germany , support Mwyn in his punk band Anrehfn . Catatonia were hired by political party Plaid Cymru to headline a Welsh language concert at Builth Wells in August 1993 , but they performed in both Welsh and English .
Despite being signed to Crai , this was more as promoter than as a record label itself . It was only when Roberts suggested that Catatonia record some extended plays ( EPs ) after two months with the label that Mywn made the arrangements . The first , entitled For Tinkerbell , had a cover photo taken by Roberts and Matthews ' housemate Roland Dafis . Mwyn successfully got the record on BBC Radio 1 after sending a copy to radio presenter Mark Radcliffe . After Iestyn George heard the release , the journalist named it as the record of the week for the magazine NME . For Tinkerbell contained some early tracks , including a version of " Sweet Catatonia " . Matthews later explained that while she had liked the songs on the EP , she felt that she wasn 't good at performing live at the time . They signed to Nursery Records to release the single " Bleed " . Catatonia 's first national interview was published following the release of " For Tinkerbell " , a 300 word piece appearing in Melody Maker .
They held their first London gigs in support of the EP , under the advice of George and The Pooh Sticks lead singer Huw Williams . After warm up gigs in Cardiff and Birmingham , the London performance took place at the Samuel Beckett pub in Stoke Newington on 13 November 1993 alongside Anrehfn and Margi Clarke . Further Welsh radio and television appearances followed , as did an interview for NME . When George arrived for the interview , Matthews asked if he 'd be interested in becoming the band 's manager . He politely declined , saying that he didn 't have the experience . On the 19 and 20 February 1994 , the band 's follow @-@ up EP , Hooked was recorded in Llandwrog , Gwynedd , and produced by Ken Nelson who they had met on Radio Wales . A performance was set up at the Falcon the Splash Club in London where several music executives were to be present . The band drove down from Cardiff in a Ford Transit with their equipment and then spent the afternoon drinking . Just prior to going out on stage , they began taking cocaine , the result of which was a terrible performance later lamented by Roberts . The trip became a sobering experience , as they made no money from it and were only paid £ 50 for a gig at Kingston University a day later . Matthews later recalled that they 'd needed to borrow money from a fan to pay the toll on the Severn Bridge on the way back to Cardiff .
The band returned to the Falcon , where they played a still shambolic , but better gig in front of record executives . Meanwhile , George had put the band in touch with their first manager , Richard Lowe from MRM management . They made further appearances on Welsh television to support the release of Hooked in May , but another drunken performance followed , this time in Newport . MRM sent them on a short tour in France during the second week of May , and then started their first UK wide support tour to the band Salad . When due to perform at the Cnapan Music Festival in Wales on 2 July , the band ran into some difficulties . The security team refused to let Matthews in as they didn 't recognise her . It was only after the intervention of one of the fans of the band , actor Rhys Ifans , that she was allowed in .
Mwyn departed the band when the band 's time with Crai came to an end , and a few weeks later MRM sought to remove Pegg , leaving it to Matthews to tell her . Pegg was upset , and refused to discuss it with journalists . After her departure , the single " Whale " was published on the Rough Trade Records label . The band had rushed to record it , having only been given a month 's notice by the label that they would release on their songs in September 1994 . Unlike Hooked , " Whale " was named the NME single of the week akin to For Tinkerbell . The band appeared in the mainstream press for two incidents , the first was when they were thrown off a train at Swindon as they were travelling to London after arguing with a train guard about punk rock , and the other when they swore at the bouncers in Welsh at the Underworld club in Camden and were banned . A further single , " Bleed " was recorded the following November , and was released in February 1995 on Nursery Records . Geoff Travis , who had released " Whale " for his Rough Trade Records , offered the band £ 350 @,@ 000 to sign for Blanco y Negro Records , a subsidiary of Warner Bros. Records . They duly signed .
= = = Way Beyond Blue ( 1995 – 96 ) = = =
The band began work on a debut album , alongside producer Paul Sampson . Ieuan introduced Sampson to Aled Richards , who later replaced him as Catatonia 's drummer when Ieuan left to join the Super Furry Animals . The label wanted to market the band , and so at some expense , had a famed photographer Gered Mankowitz conduct a photoshoot with Matthews . She , the band and their management all hated the photos , but the label wanted to use them in order not to write the cost off as a loss . In order to have some photos , a series of black and white photos of Matthews drinking a bottle of wine while wearing a Pepsi T @-@ shirt were taken by one of the press agency staff . Warner Bros liked the images and authorised their use . The band had a recording session at Sawmills Studios , Cornwall , which saw some disagreements during recording between Matthews and Roberts . Afterwards , Sampson was removed as producer following a row over the arrangement for " Sweet Catatonia " .
Music reviewers responded with surprise when the band began to perform live while sober . Meanwhile , the release of " Sweet Catatonia " as a single was pushed back to January 1996 due to the issues with finding a new producer . The first time he met the band was when they arrived to record at the Maison Rouge Studios in London . They found working with him far easier than Sampson , as Matthews later explained that he took their ideas into account . They returned to live performances after completing the recording of the album , and Ieuan left to join the Super Furry Animals , being replaced with Richards . They were actively looking for a second guitarist , and hired Powell , another member of Y Cyrff , who by this time was working as a music technician for the Super Furry Animals .
As they prepared for the album , they released a special release for the Catatonia fanclub which had formed after " Bleed " . Containing " Blow the Millenium , Blow " and " Beautiful Sailor " , the vinyl record was sent to all members . The following month , on 18 January 1996 , " Sweet Catatonia " was released . It became the first Catatonia single to reach the UK singles chart , peaking at 61st position . MRM sought to expand the profile of the band in Europe , publishing the compilation The Sublime Magic of Catatonia . The band toured the UK , supported by Liverpool @-@ based band Space , and while touring " Lost Cat " was released on 22 April . It just missed out on the top 40 , reaching 41st position . As part of the tour , they appeared at several music festivals that year including Reading , Phoenix and at Madstock ! 3 in London .
Catatonia began to get radio exposure with the single " You 've Got a Lot to Answer For " , which entered the top 40 for the first time in September 1996 . After several delays , the album Way Beyond Blue was released on 30 September . There were 12 tracks , several of which had appeared on previous EPs and as b @-@ sides to singles . On the background of the successful album , there were problems behind the scenes . Matthews and Roberts relationship broke down , with Roberts ending it and seeing someone else within days . The duo sought to keep the band together despite the problems , and they found a way to continue working together . Warner Bros. Records had intended to release " Lost Cat " from Way Beyond Blue in the United States , but due to problems at the record label this didn 't occur .
= = = International Velvet ( 1997 – 98 ) = = =
While Roberts sought to begin work on a second album , they began to tour with fellow Welsh band The Manic Street Preachers as a support act , and the label released the compilation Tourist EP in Japan . They began recording demos for a new album in Cardiff at the start of January 1997 . The subject matter was mostly based on the stories coming out of Roberts and Matthews ' breakup . They booked in a recording session for the second album in June , at the Monnow Valley Studio in Rockfield , Monmouthshire . In the run up to the recording , they performed for the first time in the United States , supporting The Boo Radleys in New York . They went on to perform in Austin , Texas and in Los Angeles during March . The following month , they conducted a ten night tour of the UK , in which songs such as " Mulder and Scully " made their first public appearances .
As they worked on the album , Catatonia feared that they were about to be dropped by their record label , which they summed up in the song " That 's All Folks " . Further references to difficulties with Warner Bros were included in " I Am The Mob " , but they preferred working with producer TommyD on the production than they had with those on Way Beyond Blue . The first single off the album had intended to be " Mulder and Scully " , but the label insisted that " I Am the Mob " was released instead . As with previous works , this was delayed , and Catatonia performed at festivals during the summer of 1997 while they waited for the release . They were booked for the Glastonbury Festival , but upon arriving they were told their spot had been cancelled . Matthews continued to get the band mentioned in the gossip columns of newspapers due to her drunken behaviour . One example followed an incident at a party celebrating the victory of the yes vote in the Welsh devolution referendum , 1997 , as when asked how she felt about the result , she responded " What we want to know is who is going to shag Siân Lloyd ? " Lloyd subsequently launched legal action , but accepted an apology from Matthews .
The new album was further delayed as Warner Bros ordered the removal of the six @-@ minute long anti @-@ Warner track " That 's All Folks " . Meanwhile , work continued on " I Am The Mob " with a video shoot directed by Kevin Allen . The single was released on 6 October and entered the top 40 for a single week in the 40th position . Catatonia found their roles reversed shortly afterwards , performing as the support act to Space after the Liverpudlians had a series of top 20 singles . They finished off the year with a tour of their own , originally aimed to support the new album , but this was still being held back by the label . Warners replaced " That 's All Folks " with " My Selfish Gene " , and agreed to release " Mulder and Scully " in January 1998 and International Velvet some two weeks later .
" Mulder and Scully " launched them into the mainstream public consciousness when it was released on 19 January 1998 . It entered the charts at number 3 ; the highest position a single by Catatonia would ever achieve . International Velvet became the breakout album for the band , charting at number one in the UK Album Charts . The album sold more than 900 @,@ 000 copies in 22 months , being certified triple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry . International Velvet was nominated for the Mercury Music Prize 1998 , which was awarded to Gomez for Bring It On .
Of the five singles released from the album , " Road Rage " became the most critically acclaimed , being nominated for best single at both the Ivor Novello Awards and the Brit Awards , while winning at the Q Awards . Despite this , it did not chart as high as " Mulder and Scully " , reaching number 5 on the UK Singles Charts . The subsequent releases " Strange Glue " and " Game On " did not get into the top ten , reaching number 11 and number 33 respectively .
The title track of the album , " International Velvet " , featuring the line " Everyday I wake up and thank the Lord I 'm Welsh " and Welsh language verses , received additional attention from the media . Matthews explained in an interview that she wanted to turn to invert the idea of being Welsh from an apparent negative into a positive , " We 're not seen to be very good at anything . Our football team is shit . The song is saying , despite all these things , I still wake up in the morning and thank the Lord that I 'm Welsh . Hopefully by now people realise that Wales is brimmed full of talent and we 're great people with massive brains . " In front of 70 @,@ 000 spectators , Catatonia performed " International Velvet " at the opening ceremony of the 1999 Rugby World Cup in the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff . The album became the first to be released for Catatonia in the United States , but failed to chart . The Washington Post called it " overlooked " .
= = = Equally Cursed and Blessed ( 1999 – 2000 ) = = =
Following the success of International Velvet , and the heavy touring that followed , the band were pleased to return to the Monnow Valley Studio to record a third studio album . On the recommendation of TommyD , the band had been recording sample tracks onto a DPS12 hard disk recorder in their tour bus while on an American tour and they returned to Monnow Valley to record them properly . The band felt less pressure on them for the new album , due to the success of International Velvet and because they no longer feared being dropped by the label .
In January 1999 , the band announced their new album , Equally Cursed and Blessed . The title was taken from a line from " Storm the Palace " , a song on International Velvet . Preceded by the first single , " Dead from the Waist Down " on 22 March , Equally Cursed and Blessed was released on 12 April . The album , like International Velvet , reached the top spot in the UK charts . Catatonia were so popular at the time that in April 1999 , Way Beyond Blue , International Velvet and Equally Cursed and Blessed were all in the top 40 of the UK Albums Chart . But , the singles from Equally Cursed and Blessed didn 't repeat the success seen in the previous album . " Dead From The Waist Down " ended up becoming the final single by Catatonia to reach the top ten in the singles charts , getting to number seven in the UK singles charts . " Londinium " reached number 20 , while " Karaoke Queen " barely entered the top 40 at number 36 .
In April , they played two outdoor concerts at the Llangollen International Pavilion in front of 6 @,@ 000 people on successive days . This was a warm up to their largest concert so far , held at Margam Country Park near Port Talbot . Guitarist Powell stated the importance of the Llangollen performances , as North Wales was the first place where the crowd had sung along to their songs . Matthews added that Margam Park was chosen as no @-@ one had ever held a concert there before .
Catatonia supported R.E.M. on two European dates in June ; there was an incident at Kindl @-@ Bühne Wuhlheide , Berlin , when Matthews ran on the stage during the R.E.M. performance to kiss bassist Mike Mills . It was later attributed to her having drunk a bottle of wine . The band had wanted to release " Karaoke Queen " as the second single off the album , but the record label forced them to release " Londinium " instead . Matthews was also equally angry that the cost for the video for the single was higher than the cost to produce the entire album . A month later , Barry Cawley , who had been a roadie for the band since it originally formed was killed in a road accident in North Wales . Cawley had been cycling when he was killed by a driver in a Fiat Punto . Roberts explained prior to the funeral that the roadie had helped keep Matthews ' " feet on the ground " .
The band attempted to break into the United States once more with Equally Cursed and Blessed . The album release included two tracks from International Velvet , including " Road Rage " . They had been scheduled to make appearances on American television shows such as The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and conduct interviews with the media . But after drummer Richards was taken to hospital in the UK with appendicitis , it was abandoned and the rest of the band returned to the UK . Richards had remained in the UK and was due to join them a day and a half later . Rumours began to appear in the press that the band was about to break up , but a band spokesmen stated that the intention was to return to the States later in the year . Performances did take place in Japan , Australia and New Zealand .
= = = Paper Scissors Stone and break @-@ up ( 2001 – present ) = = =
The band took a break from performing live between the NetAid charity concert in October 1999 and 2001 . They returned to the stage for a further charity gig on 28 April , in support of Unison 's campaign for a living wage at the Manchester Evening News Arena . Matthews said prior to the performance that " It 's a cause I think 's really important and it just seemed to be the right time for us to come back – it 's a long , long time since we played live . It should be really great . We 're really looking forward to what they ( the new songs ) are going to sound like live . It 'll be good to get back on the old live circuit again . " They played several tracks from their upcoming album , at that point entitled It 's What 's Not There That Makes What 's There What It Is . By May , it had been renamed to Paper Scissors Stone . Matthews was looking forward to the new releasing , explaining to NME that " I think it 's stronger than the last album , a bit more avant garde ! ... It 's a bit less stupid . [ Equally Cursed and Blessed ] was all over the shop stylistically , I think it 's a bit more focused . And I think it 's a bit more impassioned " .
Catatonia went on to headline the NME stage at the T in the Park festival on 7 July , having conducted a warm up concert at The Lighthouse , Glasgow . The lead single from the new album , " Stone by Stone , was poorly received by the media with NME giving it a score of one out of ten , calling it " lumpen , the voice grating " and that Catatonia are " fading from the public consciousness quicker than Shane Ritchie " and " awkwardly out of date " .
The media reported that Matthews entered drug rehabilitation for drinking and smoking in mid 2001 , with the singer stating that she was also suffering from depression . As a result , the tour to support Paper Scissors Stone was cancelled at the start of August . At the time this was because Matthews had not yet finished her " ongoing treatment for anxiety and exhaustion " . It was suggested that the band might split up in August , which was dismissed as " rubbish " by Catatonia . However , on 21 September it was announced that they were breaking up with the record label releasing a statement which said " Their decision has been made entirely amicably , and there are no details at present as to their future plan " .
Tributes came in for the band from a variety of sources , with BBC Radio 1 presenter Huw Stephens describing them as " international superstars " , and adding " I always thought they were one of the best Welsh bands . They were not just a throwaway pop band – they had real , meaningful songs . " Iestyn George , editor of the magazine Maxim at the time , praised the influence that Matthews had through Catatonia in the later 1990s , saying that " Around 1998 and 1999 , Cerys was in the papers every other day " . He also referenced that she had never intended this role as Catatonia had thought that they had already peaked prior to International Velvet .
Matthews went on to release her first solo album , Cockahoop , in May 2003 . Her second album Never Said Goodbye was released in August 2006 . In November 2007 she released a mini @-@ album of Welsh language songs Awyren = Aeroplane on the My Kung Fu label . Matthews returned in late 2009 as the first recording artist to release albums simultaneously in both Welsh and English ( Paid Edrych I Lawr and Don 't Look Down , respectively ) . Powell has gone on to write songs , including for Duffy , and from 2007 onwards has presented a Welsh language show on Radio Cymru . He also replaced drummer Stuart Cable from the Stereophonics , following his death , in the supergroup The Stand . They released a charity single in 2010 to fund construction of a statue of Welsh footballer Fred Keenor in Cardiff city centre .
= = Side projects and collaborations = =
While working on International Velvet , Matthews was approached by Tommy Scott of the Liverpool @-@ based band Space to perform on the single duet " The Ballad of Tom Jones " . They had met while on tour two years prior and had kept in touch . She joined them on tour for several dates to sing the duet live . Matthews said of the song , " It 's great . I feel like Nancy Sinatra because it 's a superb ballad . " She went on to duet with Tom Jones on a single for his album Reload . It was a cover of the song " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " , which was released as a Christmas single in 1999 . She was credited as " Cerys from Catatonia " .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Matthews said that they did not have any particular influences in their music . However , she said that her family had always been singing along to BBC Radio 2 . She held the ambition to have the band appear on Radio 2 , as due to poor levels of radio reception in Wales they had been unable to listen to other stations . She attributed the style of Welsh music as never attempting to be cool as they wouldn 't have been aware of what was in fashion at the time . Catatonia frequently used metaphors in their songwriting , such as " Road Rage " which references emotional anger . The line " If it turns to blue , what are we going to do ? " in the single " You 've Got A Lot To Answer For " from Way Beyond Blue references a pregnancy test . Other works from International Velvet were compared to poetry by Katharine Viner in The Guardian .
All members of the band were involved in the writing of songs , and there may have been more than one person 's set of lyrics appearing in a single release . Powell said that " It 's quite interesting to have two people 's viewpoints within the same song . I 'm not sure how many bands actually do that . In most bands , the guitarist writes the music and the singer writes the lyrics . We tend to share things out more evenly . " He also criticised the attachment of an indie pop label to the band , saying " We 're seen as one of the indie bands . But we 've always just tried to make pop music . Even if it is pop music with a hard edge and quite a twisted little view of life . We 've always seen ourselves as a little bigger than an indie band . "
The style of music played by Catatonia changed slightly over time . Adrian Thrills of the Daily Mail said that Way Beyond Blue was " guitar dominated " and showed them to be a " talented @-@ but @-@ typical alternative rock outfit " . But the songs on International Velvet showed that they had become " one of Britain 's most inventive pop bands " . An article in The People newspaper described International Velvet as the " purest pop " . By the time that Paper Scissors Stone was released , the band were using country music influences in some of their songs according to Fiona Shepherd at The Scotsman . She compared the music to that of the Scottish band Mogwai , while elements of " Nightfall " were compared to Arab Strap . Thrills compared some of the elements of the album to those of Roxy Music .
= = Band members = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Compilation albums = = =
= = = Singles and EPs = = =
= = = Promotional releases = = =
" Christmas ' 95 " ( fan club vinyl record ) – 1995
" Tourist " ( Japan EP ) – 1996
" A 's & B 's of Catatonia " ( Promo EP ) – 1998
= Plutonium =
Plutonium is a transuranic radioactive chemical element with symbol Pu and atomic number 94 . It is an actinide metal of silvery @-@ gray appearance that tarnishes when exposed to air , and forms a dull coating when oxidized . The element normally exhibits six allotropes and four oxidation states . It reacts with carbon , halogens , nitrogen , silicon and hydrogen . When exposed to moist air , it forms oxides and hydrides that can expand the sample up to 70 % in volume , which in turn flake off as a powder that is pyrophoric . It is radioactive and can accumulate in bones , which makes the handling of plutonium dangerous .
Plutonium was first produced and isolated on December 14 , 1940 by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg , Joseph W. Kennedy , Edwin M. McMillan , and Arthur C. Wahl by deuteron bombardment of uranium @-@ 238 in the 60 @-@ inch cyclotron at the University of California , Berkeley . They first synthesized neptunium @-@ 238 ( half @-@ life 2 @.@ 1 days ) which subsequently beta @-@ decayed to form a new heavier element with atomic number 94 and atomic weight 238 ( half @-@ life 87 @.@ 7 years ) . It was fitting that element 94 be named after the next planetoid , Pluto following the precedents that uranium was named after the planet Uranus and neptunium after the planet Neptune . Wartime secrecy prevented them from announcing the discovery until 1948 . Plutonium is the heaviest primordial element by virtue of its most stable isotope , plutonium @-@ 244 , whose half @-@ life of about 80 million years is just long enough for the element to be found in trace quantities in nature . Plutonium is much more common on Earth since 1945 as a product of neutron capture and beta decay , where some of the neutrons released by the fission process convert uranium @-@ 238 nuclei into plutonium @-@ 239 .
Both plutonium @-@ 239 and plutonium @-@ 241 are fissile , meaning that they can sustain a nuclear chain reaction , leading to applications in nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors . Plutonium @-@ 240 exhibits a high rate of spontaneous fission , raising the neutron flux of any sample containing it . The presence of plutonium @-@ 240 limits a plutonium sample 's usability for weapons or its quality as reactor fuel , and the percentage of plutonium @-@ 240 determines its grade ( weapons @-@ grade , fuel @-@ grade , or reactor @-@ grade ) . Plutonium @-@ 238 has a half @-@ life of 88 years and emits alpha particles . It is a heat source in radioisotope thermoelectric generators , which are used to power some spacecraft . Plutonium isotopes are expensive and inconvenient to separate , so particular isotopes are usually manufactured in specialized reactors .
Producing plutonium in useful quantities for the first time was a major part of the Manhattan Project during World War II that developed the first atomic bombs . The Fat Man bombs used in the Trinity nuclear test in July 1945 , and in the bombing of Nagasaki in August 1945 , had plutonium cores . Human radiation experiments studying plutonium were conducted without informed consent , and several criticality accidents , some lethal , occurred after the war . Disposal of plutonium waste from nuclear power plants and dismantled nuclear weapons built during the Cold War is a nuclear @-@ proliferation and environmental concern . Other sources of plutonium in the environment are fallout from numerous above @-@ ground nuclear tests , now banned .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Plutonium , like most metals , has a bright silvery appearance at first , much like nickel , but it oxidizes very quickly to a dull gray , although yellow and olive green are also reported . At room temperature plutonium is in its α ( alpha ) form . This , the most common structural form of the element ( allotrope ) , is about as hard and brittle as gray cast iron unless it is alloyed with other metals to make it soft and ductile . Unlike most metals , it is not a good conductor of heat or electricity . It has a low melting point ( 640 ° C ) and an unusually high boiling point ( 3 @,@ 228 ° C ) .
Alpha decay , the release of a high @-@ energy helium nucleus , is the most common form of radioactive decay for plutonium . A 5 kg mass of 239Pu contains about 12 @.@ 5 × 1024 atoms . With a half @-@ life of 24 @,@ 100 years , about 11 @.@ 5 × 1012 of its atoms decay each second by emitting a 5 @.@ 157 MeV alpha particle . This amounts to 9 @.@ 68 watts of power . Heat produced by the deceleration of these alpha particles makes it warm to the touch .
Resistivity is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current . The resistivity of plutonium at room temperature is very high for a metal , and it gets even higher with lower temperatures , which is unusual for metals . This trend continues down to 100 K , below which resistivity rapidly decreases for fresh samples . Resistivity then begins to increase with time at around 20 K due to radiation damage , with the rate dictated by the isotopic composition of the sample .
Because of self @-@ irradiation , a sample of plutonium fatigues throughout its crystal structure , meaning the ordered arrangement of its atoms becomes disrupted by radiation with time . Self @-@ irradiation can also lead to annealing which counteracts some of the fatigue effects as temperature increases above 100 K.
Unlike most materials , plutonium increases in density when it melts , by 2 @.@ 5 % , but the liquid metal exhibits a linear decrease in density with temperature . Near the melting point , the liquid plutonium has also very high viscosity and surface tension as compared to other metals .
= = = Allotropes = = =
Plutonium normally has six allotropes and forms a seventh ( zeta , ζ ) at high temperature within a limited pressure range . These allotropes , which are different structural modifications or forms of an element , have very similar internal energies but significantly varying densities and crystal structures . This makes plutonium very sensitive to changes in temperature , pressure , or chemistry , and allows for dramatic volume changes following phase transitions from one allotropic form to another . The densities of the different allotropes vary from 16 @.@ 00 g / cm3 to 19 @.@ 86 g / cm3 .
The presence of these many allotropes makes machining plutonium very difficult , as it changes state very readily . For example , the α form exists at room temperature in unalloyed plutonium . It has machining characteristics similar to cast iron but changes to the plastic and malleable β ( beta ) form at slightly higher temperatures . The reasons for the complicated phase diagram are not entirely understood . The α form has a low @-@ symmetry monoclinic structure , hence its brittleness , strength , compressibility , and poor thermal conductivity .
Plutonium in the δ ( delta ) form normally exists in the 310 ° C to 452 ° C range but is stable at room temperature when alloyed with a small percentage of gallium , aluminium , or cerium , enhancing workability and allowing it to be welded . The δ form has more typical metallic character , and is roughly as strong and malleable as aluminium . In fission weapons , the explosive shock waves used to compress a plutonium core will also cause a transition from the usual δ phase plutonium to the denser α form , significantly helping to achieve supercriticality . The ε phase , the highest temperature solid allotrope , exhibits anomalously high atomic self @-@ diffusion compared to other elements .
= = = Nuclear fission = = =
Plutonium is a radioactive actinide metal whose isotope , plutonium @-@ 239 , is one of the three primary fissile isotopes ( uranium @-@ 233 and uranium @-@ 235 are the other two ) ; plutonium @-@ 241 is also highly fissile . To be considered fissile , an isotope 's atomic nucleus must be able to break apart or fission when struck by a slow moving neutron and to release enough additional neutrons to sustain the nuclear chain reaction by splitting further nuclei .
Pure plutonium @-@ 239 may have a multiplication factor ( keff ) larger than one , which means that if the metal is present in sufficient quantity and with an appropriate geometry ( e.g. , a sphere of sufficient size ) , it can form a critical mass . During fission , a fraction of the binding energy , which holds a nucleus together , is released as a large amount of electromagnetic and kinetic energy ( much of the latter being quickly converted to thermal energy ) . Fission of a kilogram of plutonium @-@ 239 can produce an explosion equivalent to 21 @,@ 000 tons of TNT ( 88 @,@ 000 GJ ) . It is this energy that makes plutonium @-@ 239 useful in nuclear weapons and reactors .
The presence of the isotope plutonium @-@ 240 in a sample limits its nuclear bomb potential , as plutonium @-@ 240 has a relatively high spontaneous fission rate ( ~ 440 fissions per second per gram — over 1 @,@ 000 neutrons per second per gram ) , raising the background neutron levels and thus increasing the risk of predetonation . Plutonium is identified as either weapons @-@ grade , fuel @-@ grade , or reactor @-@ grade based on the percentage of plutonium @-@ 240 that it contains . Weapons @-@ grade plutonium contains less than 7 % plutonium @-@ 240 . Fuel @-@ grade plutonium contains from 7 % to less than 19 % , and power reactor @-@ grade contains 19 % or more plutonium @-@ 240 . Supergrade plutonium , with less than 4 % of plutonium @-@ 240 , is used in U.S. Navy weapons stored in proximity to ship and submarine crews , due to its lower radioactivity . The isotope plutonium @-@ 238 is not fissile but can undergo nuclear fission easily with fast neutrons as well as alpha decay .
= = = Isotopes and synthesis = = =
Twenty radioactive isotopes of plutonium have been characterized . The longest @-@ lived are plutonium @-@ 244 , with a half @-@ life of 80 @.@ 8 million years , plutonium @-@ 242 , with a half @-@ life of 373 @,@ 300 years , and plutonium @-@ 239 , with a half @-@ life of 24 @,@ 110 years . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives that are less than 7 @,@ 000 years . This element also has eight metastable states , though all have half @-@ lives less than one second .
The isotopes of plutonium range in mass number from 228 to 247 . The primary decay modes of isotopes with mass numbers lower than the most stable isotope , plutonium @-@ 244 , are spontaneous fission and alpha emission , mostly forming uranium ( 92 protons ) and neptunium ( 93 protons ) isotopes as decay products ( neglecting the wide range of daughter nuclei created by fission processes ) . The primary decay mode for isotopes with mass numbers higher than plutonium @-@ 244 is beta emission , mostly forming americium ( 95 protons ) isotopes as decay products . Plutonium @-@ 241 is the parent isotope of the neptunium decay series , decaying to americium @-@ 241 via beta or electron emission .
Plutonium @-@ 238 and 239 are the most widely synthesized isotopes . Plutonium @-@ 239 is synthesized via the following reaction using uranium ( U ) and neutrons ( n ) via beta decay ( β − ) with neptunium ( Np ) as an intermediate :
<formula>
Neutrons from the fission of uranium @-@ 235 are captured by uranium @-@ 238 nuclei to form uranium @-@ 239 ; a beta decay converts a neutron into a proton to form Np @-@ 239 ( half @-@ life 2 @.@ 36 days ) and another beta decay forms plutonium @-@ 239 . Egon Bretscher working on the British Tube Alloys project predicted this reaction theoretically in 1940 .
Plutonium @-@ 238 is synthesized by bombarding uranium @-@ 238 with deuterons ( D , the nuclei of heavy hydrogen ) in the following reaction :
<formula>
In this process , a deuteron hitting uranium @-@ 238 produces two neutrons and neptunium @-@ 238 , which spontaneously decays by emitting negative beta particles to form plutonium @-@ 238 .
= = = Decay heat and fission properties = = =
Plutonium isotopes undergo radioactive decay , which produces decay heat . Different isotopes produce different amounts of heat per mass . The decay heat is usually listed as watt / kilogram , or milliwatt / gram . In larger pieces of plutonium ( e.g. a weapon pit ) and inadequate heat removal the resulting self @-@ heating may be significant . All isotopes produce weak gamma on decay .
= = = Compounds and chemistry = = =
At room temperature , pure plutonium is silvery in color but gains a tarnish when oxidized . The element displays four common ionic oxidation states in aqueous solution and one rare one :
Pu ( III ) , as Pu3 + ( blue lavender )
Pu ( IV ) , as Pu4 + ( yellow brown )
Pu ( V ) , as PuO +
2 ( light pink )
Pu ( VI ) , as PuO2 +
2 ( pink orange )
Pu ( VII ) , as PuO3 −
5 ( green ) — the heptavalent ion is rare .
The color shown by plutonium solutions depends on both the oxidation state and the nature of the acid anion . It is the acid anion that influences the degree of complexing — how atoms connect to a central atom — of the plutonium species .
Metallic plutonium is produced by reacting plutonium tetrafluoride with barium , calcium or lithium at 1200 ° C. It is attacked by acids , oxygen , and steam but not by alkalis and dissolves easily in concentrated hydrochloric , hydroiodic and perchloric acids . Molten metal must be kept in a vacuum or an inert atmosphere to avoid reaction with air . At 135 ° C the metal will ignite in air and will explode if placed in carbon tetrachloride .
Plutonium is a reactive metal . In moist air or moist argon , the metal oxidizes rapidly , producing a mixture of oxides and hydrides . If the metal is exposed long enough to a limited amount of water vapor , a powdery surface coating of PuO2 is formed . Also formed is plutonium hydride but an excess of water vapor forms only PuO2 .
Plutonium shows enormous , and reversible , reaction rates with pure hydrogen , forming plutonium hydride . It also reacts readily with oxygen , forming PuO and PuO2 as well as intermediate oxides ; plutonium oxide fills 40 % more volume than plutonium metal . The metal reacts with the halogens , giving rise to compounds with the general formula PuX3 where X can be F , Cl , Br or I and PuF4 is also seen . The following oxyhalides are observed : PuOCl , PuOBr and PuOI . It will react with carbon to form PuC , nitrogen to form PuN and silicon to form PuSi2 .
Powders of plutonium , its hydrides and certain oxides like Pu2O3 are pyrophoric , meaning they can ignite spontaneously at ambient temperature and are therefore handled in an inert , dry atmosphere of nitrogen or argon . Bulk plutonium ignites only when heated above 400 ° C. Pu2O3 spontaneously heats up and transforms into PuO2 , which is stable in dry air , but reacts with water vapor when heated .
Crucibles used to contain plutonium need to be able to withstand its strongly reducing properties . Refractory metals such as tantalum and tungsten along with the more stable oxides , borides , carbides , nitrides and silicides can tolerate this . Melting in an electric arc furnace can be used to produce small ingots of the metal without the need for a crucible .
Cerium is used as a chemical simulant of plutonium for development of containment , extraction , and other technologies .
= = = = Electronic structure = = = =
Plutonium is an element in which the 5f electrons are the transition border between delocalized and localized ; it is therefore considered one of the most complex elements . The anomalous behavior of plutonium is caused by its electronic structure . The energy difference between the 6d and 5f subshells is very low . The size of the 5f shell is just enough to allow the electrons to form bonds within the lattice , on the very boundary between localized and bonding behavior . The proximity of energy levels leads to multiple low @-@ energy electron configurations with near equal energy levels . This leads to competing 5fn7s2 and 5fn − 16d17s2 configurations , which causes the complexity of its chemical behavior . The highly directional nature of 5f orbitals is responsible for directional covalent bonds in molecules and complexes of plutonium .
= = = Alloys = = =
Plutonium can form alloys and intermediate compounds with most other metals . Exceptions include lithium , sodium , potassium , rubidium and caesium of the alkali metals ; and magnesium , calcium , strontium , and barium of the alkaline earth metals ; and europium and ytterbium of the rare earth metals . Partial exceptions include the refractory metals chromium , molybdenum , niobium , tantalum , and tungsten , which are soluble in liquid plutonium , but insoluble or only slightly soluble in solid plutonium . Gallium , aluminium , americium , scandium and cerium can stabilize the δ phase of plutonium for room temperature . Silicon , indium , zinc and zirconium allow formation of metastable δ state when rapidly cooled . High amounts of hafnium , holmium and thallium also allows some retention of the δ phase at room temperature . Neptunium is the only element that can stabilize the α phase at higher temperatures .
Plutonium alloys can be produced by adding a metal to molten plutonium . If the alloying metal is sufficiently reductive , plutonium can be added in the form of oxides or halides . The δ phase plutonium – gallium and plutonium – aluminium alloys are produced by adding plutonium ( III ) fluoride to molten gallium or aluminium , which has the advantage of avoiding dealing directly with the highly reactive plutonium metal .
Plutonium – gallium is used for stabilizing the δ phase of plutonium , avoiding the α @-@ phase and α – δ related issues . Its main use is in pits of implosion nuclear weapons .
Plutonium – aluminium is an alternative to the Pu – Ga alloy . It was the original element considered for δ phase stabilization , but its tendency to react with the alpha particles and release neutrons reduces its usability for nuclear weapon pits . Plutonium – aluminium alloy can be also used as a component of nuclear fuel .
Plutonium – gallium – cobalt alloy ( PuCoGa5 ) is an unconventional superconductor , showing superconductivity below 18 @.@
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5 K , an order of magnitude higher than the highest between heavy fermion systems , and has large critical current .
Plutonium – zirconium alloy can be used as nuclear fuel .
Plutonium – cerium and plutonium – cerium – cobalt alloys are used as nuclear fuels .
Plutonium – uranium , with about 15 – 30 mol . % plutonium , can be used as a nuclear fuel for fast breeder reactors . Its pyrophoric nature and high susceptibility to corrosion to the point of self @-@ igniting or disintegrating after exposure to air require alloying with other components . Addition of aluminium , carbon or copper does not improve disintegration rates markedly , zirconium and iron alloys have better corrosion resistance but they disintegrate in several months in air as well . Addition of titanium and / or zirconium significantly increases the melting point of the alloy .
Plutonium – uranium – titanium and plutonium – uranium – zirconium were investigated for use as nuclear fuels . The addition of the third element increases corrosion resistance , reduces flammability , and improves ductility , fabricability , strength , and thermal expansion . Plutonium – uranium – molybdenum has the best corrosion resistance , forming a protective film of oxides , but titanium and zirconium are preferred for physics reasons .
Thorium – uranium – plutonium was investigated as a nuclear fuel for fast breeder reactors .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Trace amounts of at least four plutonium isotopes ( plutonium @-@ 238 , -239 , -240 , and -244 ) can be found in nature . Small traces of plutonium @-@ 239 , a few parts per trillion , and its decay products are naturally found in some concentrated ores of uranium , such as the natural nuclear fission reactor in Oklo , Gabon . The ratio of plutonium @-@ 239 to uranium at the Cigar Lake Mine uranium deposit ranges from 2 @.@ 4 × 10 − 12 to 44 × 10 − 12 . Even smaller amounts of primordial plutonium @-@ 244 occur naturally due to its relatively long half @-@ life of about 80 million years . These trace amounts of 239Pu originate in the following fashion : on rare occasions , 238U undergoes spontaneous fission , and in the process , the nucleus emits one or two free neutrons with some kinetic energy . When one of these neutrons strikes the nucleus of another 238U atom , it is absorbed by the atom , which becomes 239U . With a relatively short half @-@ life , 239U decays to 239Np , which decays into 239Pu .
Because the relatively long @-@ lived isotope plutonium @-@ 240 occurs in the decay chain of plutonium @-@ 244 it should also be present , albeit 10 @,@ 000 times rarer still . Finally , exceedingly small amounts of plutonium @-@ 238 , attributed to the extremely rare double beta decay of uranium @-@ 238 , have been found in natural uranium samples .
Minute traces of plutonium are usually found in the human body due to the 550 atmospheric and underwater nuclear tests that have been carried out , and to a small number of major nuclear accidents . Most atmospheric and underwater nuclear testing was stopped by the Limited Test Ban Treaty in 1963 , which was signed and ratified by the United States , the United Kingdom , the Soviet Union , and other nations . Continued atmospheric nuclear weapons testing since 1963 by non @-@ treaty nations included those by China ( atomic bomb test above the Gobi Desert in 1964 , hydrogen bomb test in 1967 , and follow @-@ on tests ) , and France ( tests as recently as the 1990s ) . Because it is deliberately manufactured for nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors , plutonium @-@ 239 is the most abundant isotope of plutonium by far .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
Enrico Fermi and a team of scientists at the University of Rome reported that they had discovered element 94 in 1934 . Fermi called the element hesperium and mentioned it in his Nobel Lecture in 1938 . The sample was actually a mixture of barium , krypton , and other elements , but this was not known at the time . Nuclear fission was discovered in Germany in 1939 by Fritz Strassmann and Otto Hahn . The mechanism of fission was then theoretically explained by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch .
Plutonium ( specifically , plutonium @-@ 238 ) was first produced and isolated on December 14 , 1940 , and chemically identified on February 23 , 1941 , by Glenn T. Seaborg , Edwin McMillan , Joseph W. Kennedy , and Arthur Wahl by deuteron bombardment of uranium in the 60 @-@ inch ( 150 cm ) cyclotron at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory at the University of California , Berkeley . In the 1940 experiment , neptunium @-@ 238 was created directly by the bombardment but decayed by beta emission with a half @-@ life of a little over two days , which indicated the formation of element 94 .
A paper documenting the discovery was prepared by the team and sent to the journal Physical Review in March 1941 , but publication was delayed until a year after the end of World War II due to security concerns . At the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge , Egon Bretscher and Norman Feather realized that a slow neutron reactor fuelled with uranium would theoretically produce substantial amounts of plutonium @-@ 239 as a by @-@ product . They calculated that element 94 would be fissile , and had the added advantage of being chemically different from uranium , and could easily be separated from it .
McMillan had recently named the first transuranic element neptunium after the planet Neptune , and suggested that element 94 , being the next element in the series , be named for what was then considered the next planet , Pluto . Nicholas Kemmer of the Cambridge team independently proposed the same name , based on the same reasoning as the Berkeley team . Seaborg originally considered the name " plutium " , but later thought that it did not sound as good as " plutonium . " He chose the letters " Pu " as a joke , which passed without notice into the periodic table . Alternative names considered by Seaborg and others were " ultimium " or " extremium " because of the erroneous belief that they had found the last possible element on the periodic table .
= = = Early research = = =
The basic chemistry of plutonium was found to resemble uranium after a few months of initial study . Early research was continued at the secret Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago . On August 20 , 1942 , a trace quantity of this element was isolated and measured for the first time . About 50 micrograms of plutonium @-@ 239 combined with uranium and fission products was produced and only about 1 microgram was isolated . This procedure enabled chemists to determine the new element 's atomic weight . On December 2 , 1942 , on a racket court under the west grandstand at the University of Chicago 's Stagg Field , researchers headed by Enrico Fermi achieved the first self @-@ sustaining chain reaction in a graphite and uranium pile known as CP @-@ 1 . Using theoretical information garnered from the operation of CP @-@ 1 , DuPont constructed an air @-@ cooled experimental production reactor , known as X @-@ 10 , and a pilot chemical separation facility at Oak Ridge . The separation facility , using methods developed by Glenn T. Seaborg and a team of researchers at the Met Lab , removed plutonium from uranium irradiated in the X @-@ 10 reactor . Information from CP @-@ 1 was also useful to Met Lab scientists designing the water @-@ cooled plutonium production reactors for Hanford . Construction at the site began in mid @-@ 1943 .
In November 1943 some plutonium trifluoride was reduced to create the first sample of plutonium metal : a few micrograms of metallic beads . Enough plutonium was produced to make it the first synthetically made element to be visible with the unaided eye .
The nuclear properties of plutonium @-@ 239 were also studied ; researchers found that when it is hit by a neutron it breaks apart ( fissions ) by releasing more neutrons and energy . These neutrons can hit other atoms of plutonium @-@ 239 and so on in an exponentially fast chain reaction . This can result in an explosion large enough to destroy a city if enough of the isotope is concentrated to form a critical mass .
During the early stages of research , animals were used to study the effects of radioactive substances on health . These studies began in 1944 at the University of California at Berkeley ’ s Radiation Laboratory and were conducted by Joseph G. Hamilton . Hamilton was looking to answer questions about how plutonium would vary in the body depending on exposure mode ( oral ingestion , inhalation , absorption through skin ) , retention rates , and how plutonium would be fixed in tissues and distributed among the various organs . Hamilton started administering soluble microgram portions of plutonium @-@ 239 compounds to rats using different valence states and different methods of introducing the plutonium ( oral , intravenous , etc . ) . Eventually , the lab at Chicago also conducted its own plutonium injection experiments using different animals such as mice , rabbits , fish , and even dogs . The results of the studies at Berkeley and Chicago showed that plutonium 's physiological behavior differed significantly from that of radium . The most alarming result was that there was significant deposition of plutonium in the liver and in the " actively metabolizing " portion of bone . Furthermore , the rate of plutonium elimination in the excreta differed between species of animals by as much as a factor of five . Such variation made it extremely difficult to estimate what the rate would be for human beings .
= = = Production during the Manhattan Project = = =
During World War II the U.S. government established the Manhattan Project , which was tasked with developing an atomic bomb . The three primary research and production sites of the project were the plutonium production facility at what is now the Hanford Site , the uranium enrichment facilities at Oak Ridge , Tennessee , and the weapons research and design laboratory , now known as Los Alamos National Laboratory .
The first production reactor that made plutonium @-@ 239 was the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor . It went online in 1943 and was built at a facility in Oak Ridge that later became the Oak Ridge National Laboratory .
In January 1944 , workers laid the foundations for the first chemical separation building , T Plant located in 200 @-@ West . Both the T Plant and its sister facility in 200 @-@ West , the U Plant , were completed by October . ( U Plant was used only for training during the Manhattan Project . ) The separation building in 200 @-@ East , B Plant , was completed in February 1945 . The second facility planned for 200 @-@ East was canceled . Nicknamed Queen Marys by the workers who built them , the separation buildings were awesome canyon @-@ like structures 800 feet long , 65 feet wide , and 80 feet high containing forty process pools . The interior had an eerie quality as operators behind seven feet of concrete shielding manipulated remote control equipment by looking through television monitors and periscopes from an upper gallery . Even with massive concrete lids on the process pools , precautions against radiation exposure were necessary and influenced all aspects of plant design .
On April 5 , 1944 , Emilio Segrè at Los Alamos received the first sample of reactor @-@ produced plutonium from Oak Ridge . Within ten days , he discovered that reactor @-@ bred plutonium had a higher concentration of the isotope plutonium @-@ 240 than cyclotron @-@ produced plutonium . Plutonium @-@ 240 has a high spontaneous fission rate , raising the overall background neutron level of the plutonium sample . The original gun @-@ type plutonium weapon , code @-@ named " Thin Man " , had to be abandoned as a result — the increased number of spontaneous neutrons meant that nuclear pre @-@ detonation ( fizzle ) was likely .
The entire plutonium weapon design effort at Los Alamos was soon changed to the more complicated implosion device , code @-@ named " Fat Man " . With an implosion weapon , plutonium is compressed to a high density with explosive lenses — a technically more daunting task than the simple gun @-@ type design , but necessary to use plutonium for weapons purposes . Enriched uranium , by contrast , can be used with either method .
Construction of the Hanford B Reactor , the first industrial @-@ sized nuclear reactor for the purposes of material production , was completed in March 1945 . B Reactor produced the fissile material for the plutonium weapons used during World War II . B , D and F were the initial reactors built at Hanford , and six additional plutonium @-@ producing reactors were built later at the site .
By the end of January 1945 , the highly purified plutonium underwent further concentration in the completed chemical isolation building , where remaining impurities were removed successfully . Los Alamos received its first plutonium from Hanford on February 2 . While it was still by no means clear that enough plutonium could be produced for use in bombs by the war 's end , Hanford was by early 1945 in operation . Only two years had passed since Col. Franklin Matthias first set up his temporary headquarters on the banks of the Columbia River .
According to Kate Brown , the plutonium production plants at Hanford and Mayak in Russia , over a period of four decades , " both released more than 200 million curies of radioactive isotopes into the surrounding environment — twice the amount expelled in the Chernobyl disaster in each instance " . Most of this radioactive contamination over the years were part of normal operations , but unforeseen accidents did occur and plant management kept this secret , as the pollution continued unabated .
In 2004 , a safe was discovered during excavations of a burial trench at the Hanford nuclear site . Inside the safe were various items , including a large glass bottle containing a whitish slurry which was subsequently identified as the oldest sample of weapons @-@ grade plutonium known to exist . Isotope analysis by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory indicated that the plutonium in the bottle was manufactured in the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge during 1944 .
= = = Trinity and Fat Man atomic bombs = = =
The first atomic bomb test , codenamed " Trinity " and detonated on July 16 , 1945 , near Alamogordo , New Mexico , used plutonium as its fissile material . The implosion design of " the gadget " , as the Trinity device was code @-@ named , used conventional explosive lenses to compress a sphere of plutonium into a supercritical mass , which was simultaneously showered with neutrons from the " Urchin " , an initiator made of polonium and beryllium ( neutron source : ( α , n ) reaction ) . Together , these ensured a runaway chain reaction and explosion . The overall weapon weighed over 4 tonnes , although it used just 6 @.@ 2 kg of plutonium in its core . About 20 % of the plutonium used in the Trinity weapon underwent fission , resulting in an explosion with an energy equivalent to approximately 20 @,@ 000 tons of TNT .
An identical design was used in the " Fat Man " atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki , Japan , on August 9 , 1945 , killing 35 @,@ 000 – 40 @,@ 000 people ( most of whom were industrial workers ) and destroying 68 % – 80 % of war production at Nagasaki . Only after the announcement of the first atomic bombs was the existence and name of plutonium made known to the public by the Manhattan Project 's Smyth Report .
= = = Cold War use and waste = = =
Large stockpiles of weapons @-@ grade plutonium were built up by both the Soviet Union and the United States during the Cold War . The U.S. reactors at Hanford and the Savannah River Site in South Carolina produced 103 tonnes , and an estimated 170 tonnes of military @-@ grade plutonium was produced in the USSR . Each year about 20 tonnes of the element is still produced as a by @-@ product of the nuclear power industry . As much as 1000 tonnes of plutonium may be in storage with more than 200 tonnes of that either inside or extracted from nuclear weapons . SIPRI estimated the world plutonium stockpile in 2007 as about 500 tonnes , divided equally between weapon and civilian stocks .
Radioactive contamination at the Rocky Flats Plant primarily resulted from two major plutonium fires in 1957 and 1969 . Much lower concentrations of radioactive isotopes were released throughout the operational life of the plant from 1952 to 1992 . Prevailing winds from the plant carried airborne contamination south and east , into populated areas northwest of Denver . The contamination of the Denver area by plutonium from the fires and other sources was not publicly reported until the 1970s . According to a 1972 study coauthored by Edward Martell , " In the more densely populated areas of Denver , the Pu contamination level in surface soils is several times fallout " , and the plutonium contamination " just east of the Rocky Flats plant ranges up to hundreds of times that from nuclear tests . " As noted by Carl Johnson in Ambio , " Exposures of a large population in the Denver area to plutonium and other radionuclides in the exhaust plumes from the plant date back to 1953 . " Weapons production at the Rocky Flats plant was halted after a combined FBI and EPA raid in 1989 and years of protests . The plant has since been shut down , with its buildings demolished and completely removed from the site .
In the U.S. , some plutonium extracted from dismantled nuclear weapons is melted to form glass logs of plutonium oxide that weigh two tonnes . The glass is made of borosilicates mixed with cadmium and gadolinium . These logs are planned to be encased in stainless steel and stored as much as 4 km ( 2 mi ) underground in bore holes that will be back @-@ filled with concrete . The U.S. planned to store plutonium in this way at the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository , which is about 100 miles ( 160 km ) north @-@ east of Las Vegas , Nevada .
On March 5 , 2009 , Energy Secretary Steven Chu told a Senate hearing " the Yucca Mountain site no longer was viewed as an option for storing reactor waste . " Starting in 1999 , military @-@ generated nuclear waste is being entombed at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in New Mexico .
In a Presidential Memorandum dated January 29 , 2010 , President Obama established the Blue Ribbon Commission on America 's Nuclear Future . In their final report the Commission put forth recommendations for developing a comprehensive strategy to pursue , including :
" Recommendation # 1 : The United States should undertake an integrated nuclear waste management program that leads to the timely development of one or more permanent deep geological facilities for the safe disposal of spent fuel and high @-@ level nuclear waste " .
= = = Medical experimentation = = =
During and after the end of World War II , scientists working on the Manhattan Project and other nuclear weapons research projects conducted studies of the effects of plutonium on laboratory animals and human subjects . Animal studies found that a few milligrams of plutonium per kilogram of tissue is a lethal dose .
In the case of human subjects , this involved injecting solutions containing ( typically ) five micrograms of plutonium into hospital patients thought to be either terminally ill , or to have a life expectancy of less than ten years either due to age or chronic disease condition . This was reduced to one microgram in July 1945 after animal studies found that the way plutonium distributed itself in bones was more dangerous than radium . Most of the subjects , Eileen Welsome says , were poor , powerless , and sick .
From 1945 to 1947 , eighteen human test subjects were injected with plutonium without informed consent . The tests were used to create diagnostic tools to determine the uptake of plutonium in the body in order to develop safety standards for working with plutonium . Ebb Cade was an unwilling participant in medical experiments that involved injection of 4 @.@ 7 micrograms of Plutonium on 10 April 1945 at Oak Ridge , Tennessee . This experiment was under the supervision of Harold Hodge . Other experiments directed by the United States Atomic Energy Commission and the Manhattan Project continued into the 1970s . The Plutonium Files chronicles the lives of the subjects of the secret program by naming each person involved and discussing the ethical and medical research conducted in secret by the scientists and doctors . The episode is now considered to be a serious breach of medical ethics and of the Hippocratic Oath .
The government covered up most of these radiation mishaps until 1993 , when President Bill Clinton ordered a change of policy and federal agencies then made available relevant records . The resulting investigation was undertaken by the president ’ s Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments , and it uncovered much of the material about plutonium research on humans . The committee issued a controversial 1995 report which said that " wrongs were committed " but it did not condemn those who perpetrated them .
= = Applications = =
= = = Explosives = = =
The isotope plutonium @-@ 239 is a key fissile component in nuclear weapons , due to its ease of fission and availability . Encasing the bomb 's plutonium pit in a tamper ( an optional layer of dense material ) decreases the amount of plutonium needed to reach critical mass by reflecting escaping neutrons back into the plutonium core . This reduces the amount of plutonium needed to reach criticality from 16 kg to 10 kg , which is a sphere with a diameter of about 10 centimeters ( 4 in ) . This critical mass is about a third of that for uranium @-@ 235 .
The Fat Man plutonium bombs used explosive compression of plutonium to obtain significantly higher densities than normal , combined with a central neutron source to begin the reaction and increase efficiency . Thus only 6 @.@ 2 kg of plutonium was needed for an explosive yield equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT . Hypothetically , as little as 4 kg of plutonium — and maybe even less — could be used to make a single atomic bomb using very sophisticated assembly designs .
= = = Mixed oxide fuel = = =
Spent nuclear fuel from normal light water reactors contains plutonium , but it is a mixture of plutonium @-@ 242 , 240 , 239 and 238 . The mixture is not sufficiently enriched for efficient nuclear weapons , but can be used once as MOX fuel . Accidental neutron capture causes the amount of plutonium @-@ 242 and 240 to grow each time the plutonium is irradiated in a reactor with low @-@ speed " thermal " neutrons , so that after the second cycle , the plutonium can only be consumed by fast neutron reactors . If fast neutron reactors are not available ( the normal case ) , excess plutonium is usually discarded , and forms the longest @-@ lived component of nuclear waste . The desire to consume this plutonium and other transuranic fuels and reduce the radiotoxicity of the waste is the usual reason nuclear engineers give to make fast neutron reactors .
The most common chemical process , PUREX ( Plutonium – URanium EXtraction ) reprocesses spent nuclear fuel to extract plutonium and uranium which can be used to form a mixed oxide ( MOX ) fuel for reuse in nuclear reactors . Weapons @-@ grade plutonium can be added to the fuel mix . MOX fuel is used in light water reactors and consists of 60 kg of plutonium per tonne of fuel ; after four years , three @-@ quarters of the plutonium is burned ( turned into other elements ) . Breeder reactors are specifically designed to create more fissionable material than they consume .
MOX fuel has been in use since the 1980s , and is widely used in Europe . In September 2000 , the United States and the Russian Federation signed a Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement by which each agreed to dispose of 34 tonnes of weapons @-@ grade plutonium . The U.S. Department of Energy plans to dispose of 34 tonnes of weapons @-@ grade plutonium in the United States before the end of 2019 by converting the plutonium to a MOX fuel to be used in commercial nuclear power reactors .
MOX fuel improves total burnup . A fuel rod is reprocessed after three years of use to remove waste products , which by then account for 3 % of the total weight of the rods . Any uranium or plutonium isotopes produced during those three years are left and the rod goes back into production . The presence of up to 1 % gallium per mass in weapons @-@ grade plutonium alloy has the potential to interfere with long @-@ term operation of a light water reactor .
Plutonium recovered from spent reactor fuel poses little proliferation hazard , because of excessive contamination with non @-@ fissile plutonium @-@ 240 and plutonium @-@ 242 . Separation of the isotopes is not feasible . A dedicated reactor operating on very low burnup ( hence minimal exposure of newly formed plutonium @-@ 239 to additional neutrons which causes it to be transformed to heavier isotopes of plutonium ) is generally required to produce material suitable for use in efficient nuclear weapons . While " weapons @-@ grade " plutonium is defined to contain at least 92 % plutonium @-@ 239 ( of the total plutonium ) , the United States have managed to detonate an under @-@ 20Kt device using plutonium believed to contain only about 85 % plutonium @-@ 239 , so called ' " fuel @-@ grade " plutonium . The " reactor @-@ grade " plutonium produced by a regular LWR burnup cycle typically contains less than 60 % Pu @-@ 239 , with up to 30 % parasitic Pu @-@ 240 / Pu @-@ 242 , and 10 – 15 % fissile Pu @-@ 241 . It is unknown if a device using plutonium obtained from reprocessed civil nuclear waste can be detonated , however such a device could hypothetically fizzle and spread radioactive materials over a large urban area . The IAEA conservatively classifies plutonium of all isotopic vectors as " direct @-@ use " material , that is , " nuclear material that can be used for the manufacture of nuclear explosives components without transmutation or further enrichment " .
= = = Power and heat source = = =
The isotope plutonium @-@ 238 has a half @-@ life of 87 @.@ 74 years . It emits a large amount of thermal energy with low levels of both gamma rays / particles and spontaneous neutron rays / particles . Being an alpha emitter , it combines high energy radiation with low penetration and thereby requires minimal shielding . A sheet of paper can be used to shield against the alpha particles emitted by plutonium @-@ 238 . One kilogram of the isotope can generate about 570 watts of heat .
These characteristics make it well @-@ suited for electrical power generation for devices that must function without direct maintenance for timescales approximating a human lifetime . It is therefore used in radioisotope thermoelectric generators and radioisotope heater units such as those in the Cassini , Voyager , Galileo and New Horizons space probes , and the Curiosity Mars rover .
The twin Voyager spacecraft were launched in 1977 , each containing a 500 watt plutonium power source . Over 30 years later , each source is still producing about 300 watts which allows limited operation of each spacecraft . An earlier version of the same technology powered five Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Packages , starting with Apollo 12 in 1969 .
Plutonium @-@ 238 has also been used successfully to power artificial heart pacemakers , to reduce the risk of repeated surgery . It has been largely replaced by lithium @-@ based primary cells , but as of 2003 there were somewhere between 50 and 100 plutonium @-@ powered pacemakers still implanted and functioning in living patients . Plutonium @-@ 238 was studied as a way to provide supplemental heat to scuba diving . Plutonium @-@ 238 mixed with beryllium is used to generate neutrons for research purposes .
= = Precautions = =
= = = Toxicity = = =
There are two aspects to the harmful effects of plutonium : the radioactivity and the heavy metal poison effects . Isotopes and compounds of plutonium are radioactive and accumulate in bone marrow . Contamination by plutonium oxide has resulted from nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents , including military nuclear accidents where nuclear weapons have burned . Studies of the effects of these smaller releases , as well as of the widespread radiation poisoning sickness and death following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , have provided considerable information regarding the dangers , symptoms and prognosis of radiation poisoning , which in the case of the Japanese Hibakusha / survivors was largely unrelated to direct plutonium exposure .
During the decay of plutonium , three types of radiation are released — alpha , beta , and gamma . Alpha , beta , and gamma radiation are all forms of ionizing radiation . Either acute or longer @-@ term exposure carries a danger of serious health outcomes including radiation sickness , genetic damage , cancer , and death . The danger increases with the amount of exposure . Alpha radiation can travel only a short distance and cannot travel through the outer , dead layer of human skin . Beta radiation can penetrate human skin , but cannot go all the way through the body . Gamma radiation can go all the way through the body . Even though alpha radiation cannot penetrate the skin , ingested or inhaled plutonium does irradiate internal organs . The skeleton , where plutonium accumulates , and the liver , where it collects and becomes concentrated , are at risk . Plutonium is not absorbed into the body efficiently when ingested ; only 0 @.@ 04 % of plutonium oxide is absorbed after ingestion . Plutonium absorbed by the body is excreted very slowly , with a biological half @-@ life of 200 years . Plutonium passes only slowly through cell membranes and intestinal boundaries , so absorption by ingestion and incorporation into bone structure proceeds very slowly .
Plutonium is more dangerous when inhaled than when ingested . The risk of lung cancer increases once the total radiation dose equivalent of inhaled plutonium exceeds 400 mSv . The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that the lifetime cancer risk from inhaling 5 @,@ 000 plutonium particles , each about 3 µm wide , to be 1 % over the background U.S. average . Ingestion or inhalation of large amounts may cause acute radiation poisoning and death ; however no human is known to have died because of inhaling or ingesting plutonium , and many people have measurable amounts of plutonium in their bodies .
The " hot particle " theory in which a particle of plutonium dust irradiates a localized spot of lung tissue is not supported by mainstream research — such particles are more mobile than originally thought and toxicity is not measurably increased due to particulate form . When inhaled , plutonium can pass into the bloodstream . Once in the bloodstream , plutonium moves throughout the body and into the bones , liver , or other body organs . Plutonium that reaches body organs generally stays in the body for decades and continues to expose the surrounding tissue to radiation and thus may cause cancer .
A commonly cited quote by Ralph Nader states that a pound of plutonium dust spread into the atmosphere would be enough to kill 8 billion people . However , calculations show that one pound of plutonium could kill no more than 2 million people by inhalation . This makes the toxicity of plutonium roughly equivalent with that of nerve gas . Nader 's views were challenged in 1976 by Bernard Cohen , as described in the book Nuclear Power , Both Sides : The Best Arguments for and Against the Most Controversial Technology . Cohen 's own estimate is that a dose of 200 micrograms would likely be necessary to cause cancer .
Several populations of people who have been exposed to plutonium dust ( e.g. people living down @-@ wind of Nevada test sites , Nagasaki survivors , nuclear facility workers , and " terminally ill " patients injected with Pu in 1945 – 46 to study Pu metabolism ) have been carefully followed and analyzed . These studies generally do not show especially high plutonium toxicity or plutonium @-@ induced cancer results , such as Albert Stevens who survived into old age after being injected with plutonium . " There were about 25 workers from Los Alamos National Laboratory who inhaled a considerable amount of plutonium dust during 1940s ; according to the hot @-@ particle theory , each of them has a 99 @.@ 5 % chance of being dead from lung cancer by now , but there has not been a single lung cancer among them . "
Plutonium has a metallic taste .
= = = Criticality potential = = =
Care must be taken to avoid the accumulation of amounts of plutonium which approach critical mass , particularly because plutonium 's critical mass is only a third of that of uranium @-@ 235 . A critical mass of plutonium emits lethal amounts of neutrons and gamma rays . Plutonium in solution is more likely to form a critical mass than the solid form due to moderation by the hydrogen in water .
Criticality accidents have occurred in the past , some of them with lethal consequences . Careless handling of tungsten carbide bricks around a 6 @.@ 2 kg plutonium sphere resulted in a fatal dose of radiation at Los Alamos on August 21 , 1945 , when scientist Harry Daghlian received a dose estimated to be 5 @.@ 1 sievert ( 510 rems ) and died 25 days later . Nine months later , another Los Alamos scientist , Louis Slotin , died from a similar accident involving a beryllium reflector and the same plutonium core ( the so @-@ called " demon core " ) that had previously claimed the life of Daghlian .
In December 1958 , during a process of purifying plutonium at Los Alamos , a critical mass was formed in a mixing vessel , which resulted in the death of a chemical operator named Cecil Kelley . Other nuclear accidents have occurred in the Soviet Union , Japan , the United States , and many other countries .
= = = Flammability = = =
Metallic plutonium is a fire hazard , especially if the material is finely divided . In a moist environment , plutonium forms hydrides on its surface , which are pyrophoric and may ignite in air at room temperature . Plutonium expands up to 70 % in volume as it oxidizes and thus may break its container . The radioactivity of the burning material is an additional hazard . Magnesium oxide sand is probably the most effective material for extinguishing a plutonium fire . It cools the burning material , acting as a heat sink , and also blocks off oxygen . Special precautions are necessary to store or handle plutonium in any form ; generally a dry inert gas atmosphere is required .
= = Transportation = =
Around 11 metric tons of plutonium may be possessed by Japan alone , with 36 tons pending return after reprocessing in Britain and France . This is probably enough to make 6 @,@ 000 atomic bombs .
= = = Land and sea = = =
The usual transportation of plutonium is through the more stable plutonium oxide in a sealed package . A typical transport consists of one truck carrying one protected shipping container , holding a number of packages with a total weight varying from 80 to 200 kg of plutonium oxide . A sea shipment may consist of several containers , each of them holding a sealed package . The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission dictates that it must be solid instead of powder if the contents surpass 0 @.@ 74 TBq ( 20 Curie ) of radioactive activity . In a recent example , the Pacific Egret and Pacific Heron of Pacific Nuclear Transport Ltd. are taking 331 kg ( 730 lbs ) of plutonium to a United States government facility in Savannah River , South Carolina .
= = = Air = = =
The U.S. Government air transport regulations permit the transport of plutonium by air , subject to restrictions on other dangerous materials carried on the same flight , packaging requirements , and stowage in the rearmost part of the aircraft .
In 2012 media revealed that plutonium has been flown out of Norway on commercial passenger airlines — around every other year — including one time in 2011 . Regulations permit an airplane to transport 15 grams of fissionable material . Such plutonium transportation is without problems , according to a Senior Advisor ( seniorrådgiver ) at Statens strålevern .
= A History of British Birds =
A History of British Birds is a natural history book by Thomas Bewick , published in two volumes . Volume 1 , " Land Birds " , appeared in 1797 . Volume 2 , " Water Birds " , appeared in 1804 . A supplement was published in 1821 . The text in " Land Birds " was written by Ralph Beilby , while Bewick took over the text for the second volume . The book is admired mainly for the beauty and clarity of Bewick 's wood engravings , which are widely considered his finest work , and among the finest in that medium .
British Birds has been compared to works of poetry and literature . It plays a recurring role in Charlotte Brontë 's novel Jane Eyre . William Wordsworth praised Bewick in the first lines of his poem " The Two Thieves " : " Oh now that the genius of Bewick were mine , And the skill which he learned on the banks of the Tyne . "
The book was effectively the first " field guide " for non @-@ specialists . Bewick provides an accurate illustration of each species , from life if possible , or from skins . The common and scientific name ( s ) are listed , citing the naming authorities . The bird is described , with its distribution and behaviour , often with extensive quotations from printed sources or correspondents . Those who provided skins or information are acknowledged . The species are grouped into families such as " Of the Falcon " , using the limited and conflicting scientific sources of the time . The families of land birds are further grouped into birds of prey , omnivorous birds , insectivorous birds , and granivorous birds , while the families of water birds are simply listed , with related families side by side .
Each species entry begins on a new page ; any spaces at the ends of entries are filled with tail @-@ pieces , small , often humorous woodcuts of country life . British Birds remains in print , and has attracted the attention of authors such as Jenny Uglow . Critics note Bewick 's skill as a naturalist as well as an engraver .
= = Approach = =
The preface states that " while one of the editors [ Thomas Bewick ] of this work was engaged in preparing the cuts , which are faithfully drawn from Nature , and engraved upon wood , the compilation of the descriptions .. ( of the Land Birds ) was undertaken by the other [ Ralph Beilby ] , subject , however , to the corrections of his friend , whose habits had led him to a more intimate acquaintance with this branch of Natural History " , and goes on to mention that the compilation of text was the " production of those hours which could be spared from a laborious employment " , namely the long hours of work engraving the minutely detailed wood printing blocks . What the preface does not say is the reason for this statement about the " editors " , which was an angry stand @-@ off between Bewick and Beilby , caused by Beilby 's intention to have an introduction which merely thanked Bewick for his " assistance " , and a title page naming Beilby as the sole author . Bewick 's friend ( and his wife 's godfather ) Thomas Hornby heard of this , and informed Bewick . An informal trade panel met to judge the matter , and the preface was the result ; and Beilby 's name did not appear on the title page .
Each species of bird is presented in a few pages ( generally between two and four ; occasionally , as with the mallard or " Common Wild Duck " , a few more ) . First is a woodcut of the bird , always either perched or standing on the ground , even in the case of water birds – such as the smew – that ( as winter visitors ) do not nest in Britain , and consequently are rarely seen away from water there . Bewick then presents the name , with variations , and the Latin and French equivalents . For example , " The Musk Duck " is also named on the line below as " Cairo , Guinea , or Indian Duck " , and the next line " ( Anas moschata , Linn . — Le Canard Musque , Buff . ) " provides the scholarly references to the giving of the Latin binomial by Linn [ aeus ] and a French description by Buff [ on ] .
The text begins by stating the size of the bird . Bewick then describes the bird , typically in one paragraph , naming any notable features such as the colour of the eyes ( " irides " ) , the bill , the legs , and plumage on each part of the body . Next , the origin and distribution of the species are discussed , with notes or quotations from authorities such as John Ray , Gilbert White and Buffon .
Bewick then mentions any other facts of interest about the bird ; in the case of the musk duck , this concerns its " musky smell , which arises from the liquor secreted in the glands on the rump " . If the bird hybridizes with other species , this is described , along with whether the hybrids are fertile ( " productive " ) .
Finally , Bewick acknowledges anyone who helped . The musk duck is stated to have been drawn from a " living specimen " which was however " excepting the head , entirely white " , unlike the " general appearance " shown in the woodcut ; the bird " was lent to this work by William Losh , Esq . , of Point Pleasant , near Newcastle " . Losh , one of Bewick 's many collaborators , was a wealthy partner in Losh , Wilson and Bell , manufacturers of chemicals and iron . Many of the birds , especially the rarer species , were necessarily illustrated from skins rather than from life . For example , for the Sabine 's snipe , " The author was favoured by N. A. Vigors , Esq . , [ who had described the supposed species ] with a preserved specimen , from which the above figure is taken . " In A Memoir ( posthumously published in 1862 ) , Bewick states that he intended to " stick to nature as closely as I could " , but admits that he had " in several cases " to rely on the stuffed " preserved skins " of his neighbour Richard Routledge Wingate .
The grouping of species gave Bewick difficulty , as the scientific sources of the time did not agree on how to arrange the species in families , or on a sequence or grouping of those families . Bewick for example uses family groups like " Of the Falcon " , in which he includes buzzards and sparrowhawks as well as what are now called falcons . The families of land birds are further grouped into birds of prey , omnivorous birds , insectivorous birds , and granivorous birds , while the families of water birds
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from Tigranocerta with the demand to raise the siege . Because of a recent locust storm and the scarcity of fodder for his horses Vologases I agreed to raise the siege of Tigranocerta and petitioned to be granted Armenia in order to achieve a firm peace . Vologases I demanded that both the Roman and Parthian troops should evacuate Armenia , that Tigranes should be dethroned , and that the position of Tiridates I be recognized . The Roman government declined to accede to these arrangements and sent Lucius Caesennius Paetus , governor of Cappadocia , to settle the question by bringing Armenia under direct Roman administration .
Paetus was an incapable commander and suffered a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Rhandeia in 62 , losing the legions of XII Fulminata commanded by Calvisius Sabinus and IIII Scythica commanded by Funisulanus Vettonianus . The command of the troops was returned to Corbulo , who the following year led a strong army into Melitene and beyond into Armenia , eliminating all of the regional governors he suspected were pro @-@ Parthian . Finally in Rhandeia , Corbulo and Tiridates I met to make a peace agreement . The location of Rhandeia suited both Tiridates I and Corbulo . It appealed to Tiridates I because that is where his army had beaten the Romans and sent them away under a capitulation ; on the other hand , it appealed to Corbulo because he was about to wipe out the ill repute earned before in the same location . When Tiridates I arrived at the Roman camp he took off his royal diadem and placed it on the ground near a statue of Nero , agreeing to receive it back only from Nero in Rome . Tiridates I was recognized as the vassal king of Armenia ; a Roman garrison would remain in the country permanently , in Sophene while Artaxata would be reconstructed . Corbulo left his son @-@ in @-@ law Annius Vinicianus to accompany Tiridates I to Rome in order to attest his own fidelity to Nero .
= = Visiting Rome = =
Prior to embarking for Rome , Tiridates I visited his mother and two brothers in Media Atropatene and Parthia . On his long trek he was accompanied by his wife and children and two of his brothers . His escort included an imposing retinue , comprising many feudal lords , several sages , 3 @,@ 000 Parthian horsemen , and also a large number of Romans . His route lay across Thrace , through Illyria , on the eastern shores of the Adriatic and Picenum , in northeastern Italy . The journey took nine months , and Tiridates I rode on horseback , with his children and queen at his side . The children of Vologases , Monobazes and Pacorus also accompanied Tiridates I.
Cassius Dio , a second @-@ century Roman historian , described Tiridates I favorably at the time of his arrival : " Tiridates himself was in the prime of his life , a notable figure by reason of his youth , beauty , family , and intelligence . " Nero greeted Tiridates I at Neapolis ( Naples ) in October , sending a state chariot to carry the visitor over the last few miles . No one was allowed to approach the emperor armed , but Tiridates I maintained his dignity by refusing to remove his sword as he approached the ruler of the Roman Empire ( though as a compromise , he agreed to have his sword firmly fastened in the sheath , so that it could not be drawn ) . At Puteolis ( modern Pozzuoli , near Naples ) Nero ordered athletic games to be staged in honor of his guest . The Armenian king himself had an opportunity to display his ability as a marksman by shooting an arrow through the bodies of two buffaloes . The event at Puteolis also marked the first attested appearance of female gladiators :
Nero admired him for this action [ ( Tiridates ' refusal to remove his sword ) ] and entertained him in many ways , especially by giving a gladiatorial exhibition at Puteoli . It was under the direction of Patrobius , one of his freedmen , who managed to make it a most brilliant and costly affair , as may be seen from the fact that on one of the days not a person but Ethiopians — men , women , and children — appeared in the theatre .
The climax of the ceremonies was reserved for the capital . Rome was profusely decorated with flags , torches , garlands and bunting , and was gorgeously illuminated at night with great crowds of people seen everywhere .
On the day after Tiridates I 's arrival , Nero came to the Forum clothed in triumphal vestments and surrounded by dignitaries and soldiers , all resplendent in expensive attire and glittering armor . While Nero sat on the imperial throne , Tiridates I and his retinue advanced between two lines of soldiers . Arriving in front of the dais , Tiridates I knelt , with hands clasped on his breast . After the thundering shouts and acclamations excited by this spectacle had subsided , Tiridates I addressed the emperor :
My Lord , I am a descendant of Arsakes and the brother of the Kings Vologases and Pacorus . I have come to you who are my god ; I have worshipped you as the [ sun ] ; I shall be whatever you would order me to be , because you are my destiny and fortune .
To which Nero replied :
You have done well by coming here to enjoy my presence in person . What your father has not left to you and what your brothers did not preserve for you , I do accord to you , and I make you King of Armenia , so that you , as well as they , may know that I have the power to take away and to grant kingdoms .
Tiridates I then mounted the steps of the platform and knelt , while Nero placed the royal diadem on his head . As the young king was about to kneel a second time , Nero lifted him by his right hand and after kissing him , made him sit at his side on a chair a little lower than his own . Meanwhile , the populace gave tumultuous ovations to both rulers . A Praetor , speaking to the audience , interpreted and explained the words of Tiridates , who spoke in Greek . According to Pliny the Elder , Tiridates I then introduced Nero to magian feasts ( magicis cenis ) . Tacitus claimed that Tiridates I was also interested in all things Roman .
Public festivities continued for some time after the coronation ceremony . The interior of the Theatre of Pompey and every piece of its furniture was entirely gilded for the occasion ; for this reason , Rome thenceforth recalled that date as " the Golden Day . " Daytime festivities were on a scale no less lavish than those of the night : Royal purple awnings stretched as protection against the heat of the sun . Nero , clad in green and wearing a chariot driver 's headdress , took part in a chariot race . At the evening banquets , Nero , in gold @-@ embroidered vestments , sang and played the lyre with zither accompaniment . Tiridates I was amazed and disgusted by Nero 's extravagance , but he had only praise for Corbulo and expressed to Corbulo his surprise at his serving such a master . He made no concealment of his views to Nero 's face and said to him sarcastically : " Sire , you have a wonderful servant in the person of Corbulo . "
In memory of these events , the Senate honored Nero with the laurel wreath and the title of Imperator , or commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armies . No reception comparable to this in magnitude and splendor is recorded in the history of Rome . Besides the enormous sum spent in festivities , the Roman Government bore the entire cost of the journey of Tiridates I and his retinue , both from and to their homeland . Nero also made a gift to Tiridates I of fifty million sesterces .
On his journey back to Armenia , Tiridates I viewed an exhibition of pancratium . When seeing that one of the contestants fell on his back and was being beaten by his opponents , Tiridates I saw exclaimed : " That 's an unfair contest . It isn 't fair that a man who has fallen should be beaten . "
Later , Nero summoned the Parthian King Vologases I to Rome several times , but when the invitations became burdensome to Vologases I , he sent back a dispatch to this effect : " It is far easier for you than for me to traverse so great a body of water . Therefore , if you will come to Asia , we can then arrange to meet each other . "
It has been suggested that the visit of Tiridates I , an event that greatly impressed contemporaries , was adapted by Christians to become the story of the adoration of the Christ Child by the Three Magi . The Christian legend changed Rome into Bethlehem , the birthplace of the Ruler of the coming Kingdom of God , and replaced Tiridates I with that contemporary king who was already connected with Christianity through the Acts of St. Thomas : Gondophares , otherwise known as Kaspar .
= = Fragile Peace = =
Peace prevailed at this time throughout the Roman Empire . Nero therefore closed the gates of the Temple of Janus , which were never shut save in times of universal peace . When Tiridates I returned to Armenia , he took with him a great number of skilled artisans for the reconstruction of Artaxata . He renamed the capital Neronia in honor of the emperor ; he embellished the royal residence at Garni , nearby , with colonnades and monuments of dazzling richness and also the addition of a new temple . Trade between the two continents also grew , allowing Armenia to secure its independence from Rome . Rome now counted upon Armenia as a loyal ally , even after Nero 's death and through the entire duration of Vespasian 's rule in the East . Peace was a considerable victory for Nero politically .
The immediate dividend of the peace was Rome 's ability to turn its full attention to the mounting problems at Judea , which broke into open warfare culminating in the First Jewish @-@ Roman War just one year after Tiridates ' coronation . Large numbers of legions were diverted to Judea from Syria , which would otherwise have been impossible . Nero became very popular in the eastern provinces of Rome and with the Armenians and Parthians . The name of Legio XII Fulminata discovered carved on a mountain in Gobustan ( in modern Azerbaijan ) , attests to the presence of Roman soldiers by the shores of the Caspian Sea in 89 AD , farther east than any previously known Roman inscription . The peace between Parthia and Rome lasted 50 years , until emperor Trajan invaded Armenia in 114 .
= = War with Alans and aftermath = =
In 72 the Alans , a warlike nomadic Sarmatian tribe , made an incursion into Media Atropatene as well as various districts of northern Armenia . Tiridates I and his brother Pacorus , King of Media Atropatene , faced them at a number of battles , during one of which Tiridates I was briefly captured , narrowly escaping being taken alive . He was lassoed from a distance and caught , but he quickly managed to whip out his sword and slash the rope in time . The Alans withdrew with a lot of booty after plundering Armenia and Media Atropatene . The King of Iberia asked for protection against the Alans from Vespasian , who helped reconstruct the fortress of Harmozica around the Iberian capital Mtskheta , near modern Tbilisi . An Aramaic inscription found near Tbilisi indicates that Tiridates I also warred with Iberia during his final years . The exact date of the end of Tiridates I 's reign is unknown ; various sources name Sanatruces as his successor . It is known that Tiridates ' nephew , Axidares , the son of Pacorus II of Parthia , was King of Armenia by 110 .
= = Legacy = =
Franz Cumont in Les Réligions Orientales dans le Paganisme Romain ( " The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism " ) pointed out that Tiridates I was instrumental in the development of Mithraism in Rome , which ultimately became the most dominant Roman religion throughout the empire .
Tiridates I is one of the principal characters in George Frideric Handel 's opera Radamisto and Reinhard Keiser 's opera Octavia .
= Cad and the Dandy =
Cad and the Dandy is an independent tailoring company based in London , England with premises on Savile Row and in the City . It sells bespoke suits , manufactured from English and Italian fabrics , and using traditional tailoring methods , at a lower price than the traditional Savile Row houses . The company was founded in 2008 by James Sleater and Ian Meiers ; two City of London bankers who , at the height of the 2008 financial crisis , were both made redundant from their jobs . It has attracted local , national and international press coverage , including being listed by The Guardian in the Courvoisier Future 500 , and in July 2010 the founders won the Bento Entrepreneur of the Year Award at the Macworld Awards .
= = History = =
Cad and the Dandy was founded in 2008 . The founders met through a supplier as both pursued a similar business idea independently , and they agreed to work together to start the company , each contributing £ 20 @,@ 000 of initial capital . Both had family connections to the tailoring industry , giving them knowledge helpful in launching the new company .
After initially conducting fittings in rented office space , they came to an arrangement with Chittleborough & Morgan to allow appointments in their shop on Savile Row . In October 2009 , the company opened its first permanent store in the City of London .
The company achieved a turnover of £ 1.3M in 2010 , and was listed by The Guardian in the Courvoisier Future 500 . In July 2010 the founders won the Bento Entrepreneur of the Year Award at the Macworld Awards and in July 2013 they opened permanent premises on Savile Row .
= = Operations = =
Based in London , where the company employs 10 tailors in three workshops , it also employs an additional 40 in a workshop in China where most of its entry @-@ level , machine @-@ sewn suits are made . All suits are made from British or Italian cloth , and are available either in " machine grade " or " hand stitched " . Suit prices vary based on the cloth that is used as well as the amount of hand @-@ stitching that is done on the suit . The fully hand @-@ made suits require around 50 hours of stitching , include a basted fitting , and conform to all the specifications for a bespoke suit suggested by the Savile Row Bespoke Association . Prices are kept lower than the average for bespoke tailors by requiring payment up @-@ front . This allows Cad and the Dandy to negotiate discounts of 30 % to 40 % with their suppliers .
Cad & the Dandy launched a new flagship store at 13 Savile Row in June 2013 . The store is the first on the iconic tailoring street to hand @-@ weave a cloth before making it up into a fully finished suit . Believing that Britain ’ s bespoke tailoring industry was facing a shortage of master tailors , the company established an apprenticeship programme in London , with young would @-@ be tailors joining Cad & the Dandy ’ s 22 staff members at its three London locations , Savile Row , Birchin Lane and Canary Wharf .
Fittings are now conducted across the UK , Europe and the United States .
= = Marketing = =
In 2010 , the company began an association with former boxer Chris Eubank , who now designs a range of clothes for the brand . Since September 2010 , the company has run an annual competition to look for the " best dressed banker " , with the winner receiving two bespoke suits and two bespoke shirts as the prize .
= = Critical response = =
Cad and the Dandy suits have received positive reviews from style commentators and bloggers , who note the high quality of cloth and tailoring , the strong customer service and the flexibility in customisation options . User reviews on sites such as Qype have been positive , with reviews praising the fit , the service , and the willingness to cater to unusual requests .
Mainstream news sources such as the Daily Telegraph have focused on the company 's growth and strong financial performance , and on the entrepreneurship of its founders , especially following the loss of their jobs .
= Astral Weeks =
Astral Weeks is the second studio album by Northern Irish singer @-@ songwriter Van Morrison . It was recorded at Century Sound Studios in New York City during three sessions in September and October 1968 , although most participants and biographers agree that the eight songs were culled from the first and last early evening sessions . Except for John Payne , Morrison and the assembled jazz musicians had not played together before and the recordings commenced without rehearsals or lead sheets handed out .
The cover art , music and lyrics of the album portray the symbolism equating earthly love and heaven that would often feature in Morrison 's work . When Astral Weeks was released by Warner Bros. Records in November 1968 , it did not receive promotion from the label and was not an immediate success with consumers or critics . Blending folk , blues , jazz , and classical music , the album 's songs signaled a radical departure from the sound of his previous pop hits , such as " Brown Eyed Girl " ( 1967 ) .
Astral Weeks ' critical standing eventually improved greatly , however , and it has since been viewed as one of rock music 's greatest and most important records ( a reputation Morrison himself has dismissed ) . Sometimes referred to as a song cycle or concept album , critics laud the album 's arrangements and songwriting ; Morrison 's lyrics are often described as impressionistic , hypnotic , and modernist . It was placed on numerous widely circulated lists of the best albums of all time and had an enduring impact on both listeners and musicians . Forty years after the album 's release , Morrison performed all eight of its songs live for the first time during two Hollywood Bowl concerts in November 2008 .
= = Background = =
At the beginning of 1968 , Van Morrison became involved in a contract dispute with Bang Records that kept him away from any recording activity . This occurred after the sudden death of the label 's founder Bert Berns . Born with a congenital heart defect , Berns had a fatal heart attack and was discovered dead in a New York hotel room on 30 December 1967 . Prior to Berns ' death , he and Morrison had experienced some creative difficulties . Berns had been pushing Morrison towards a more pop @-@ oriented direction , while Morrison wanted to explore newer musical terrain . As a result , Berns ' widow , Ilene Berns , held Morrison and this conflict responsible for her husband 's death . Years later she would downplay this scenario but Morrison 's ex @-@ wife Janet ( Planet ) Rigsbee Minto has gone on record describing her initial subsequent vindictiveness towards Morrison .
Upon Bert Berns ' death , Ilene Berns inherited the contracts of Bang Records . Morrison 's annual option on his recording contract was also due less than a week after Berns ' funeral . Legally bound to Bang Records , Morrison was not only kept out of the studio , but he also found himself unable to find performing work in New York as most clubs refrained from booking him , fearing reprisals . Ilene Berns then discovered that her late husband had previously been remiss in filing all the appropriate paperwork to keep Morrison ( still a British citizen ) in New York . She contacted Immigration and Naturalization Service and attempted to have Morrison deported . However , Morrison managed to stay in the U.S. when his then @-@ girlfriend Janet ( Planet ) Rigsbee Minto agreed to marry him . Once married , Morrison and his wife moved to Cambridge , Massachusetts , where he found work performing in local clubs . Morrison began performing with a small electric combo doing blues numbers , songs from Blowin ' Your Mind ! and from Morrison 's Them band days . Two of the musicians soon left but Morrison retained the bassist , Tom Kielbania , a student at the Berklee School of Music . At that juncture , Morrison decided to try an acoustic sound , and he and Kielbania began performing shows in coffee houses in the Boston area as an acoustic duo with Morrison playing guitar and Kielbania on upright bass . Before this , Morrison had primarily recorded and performed with electric musicians . The acoustic medium would provide him " greater vocal improvisation and a freer , folkier feel " .
Later , Kielbania heard jazz @-@ trained flautist John Payne for the first time while sitting in on a jam session . He invited Payne to the club where he played with Morrison , hoping Morrison would invite him to join them . After allowing Payne to sit in on one performance , Morrison extended an invitation which Payne accepted . The trio of Payne , Kielbania , and Morrison continued performing for four months . In the weeks they played at the Catacombs , they began to develop the template for Astral Weeks . It was around this time that Warner Bros. Records approached Morrison , hoping to sign him to their roster . Presumably their interest focused on his prior success with " Brown @-@ Eyed Girl " , not on Morrison 's current acoustic work . Regardless , their interest allowed Morrison to return to the recording studio .
At the time , Warner Bros. had a deal with Inherit Productions , the production arm of Schwaid @-@ Merenstein which was founded by manager Bob Schwaid ( who worked for Warners Publishing ) and producer Lewis Merenstein . Merenstein received a call from Warner Bros. to go see Morrison in Boston and related how eight or nine producers had gone to hear Morrison thinking they were going to hear " Brown Eyed Girl " and " it was another person with the same voice " . Merenstein first heard Morrison play at Ace Recording studio and recalled that when Morrison played the song " Astral Weeks " for him , " I started crying . It just vibrated in my soul , and I knew that I wanted to work with that sound . " While Merestein had been to see Morrison , Schwaid had set to work on resolving Morrison 's contractual troubles .
Still legally bound to Bang Records , Morrison would yet have more issues with them in the future . For the time being , Schwaid managed to free him from those obligations , under several conditions . First , Morrison had to write and submit to Web IV Music ( Bert Berns 's publishing company ) three original compositions per month over the course of one year . Morrison fulfilled that obligation by recording thirty @-@ six nonsense songs in a single session . Such action risked legal reprisals , but ultimately none transpired . Morrison then had to assign Web IV one half of the copyright to any musical composition written and recorded by Morrison and released as a single within one year from 12 September 1968 . That demand became a moot point when Warner Bros. refrained from releasing any single during that time frame , as no single was released from Astral Weeks . Finally , Morrison had to include two original compositions controlled by Web IV on his next album . Morrison fulfilled that demand with two of his own compositions , " Madame George " and " Beside You " , although the versions subsequently released were vastly different musically from the original versions recorded with Bang .
= = Recording sessions = =
With his legal matters resolved , Morrison now had the freedom to proceed with recording his Warner Bros. debut album , with the recording sessions taking place at the Century Sound Studios in New York on 25 September , 1 and 15 October 1968 .
Recording adjacent to Van Morrison 's studio , musician John Cale reported , " Morrison couldn 't work with anybody , so finally they just shut him in the studio by himself . He did all the songs with just an acoustic guitar , and later they overdubbed the rest of it around his tapes . " This is , in fact , completely untrue – the live tracks for the sessions were performed by Morrison on vocals and acoustic guitar in a separate vocal booth with the other musicians playing together on upright bass , lead acoustic guitar , vibes , flute , and drums . The strings and horns constituted the only instruments added subsequently to the initial recording sessions .
Producer Lewis Merenstein had a background in jazz , and according to Merenstein , Morrison " was not an aficionado of jazz when I met him . R & B and soul , yes ; but jazz , no . For the Astral Weeks recording sessions , Merenstein first contacted veteran bassist Richard Davis . Perhaps best known for his work with Eric Dolphy , Davis essentially served as the session leader , and it was through Davis that Merenstein recruited guitarist Jay Berliner , percussionist Warren Smith , Jr . , and drummer Connie Kay . All of these musicians had strong backgrounds in jazz ; Berliner had worked closely with Charles Mingus and Kay was part of the Modern Jazz Quartet . Morrison was still working with Kielbania and Payne , but for these sessions , they were essentially replaced . According to Kielbania , " I got to show all the bass lines to Richard Davis . He embellished a lot of them , but I gave him the feeling . "
Davis proved , perhaps , to be the most pivotal instrumentalist during these sessions . " If you listen to the album , every tune is led by Richard and everybody followed Richard and Van 's voice , " says Merenstein . " I knew if I brought Richard in , he would put the bottom on to support what Van wanted to do vocally , or acoustically . Then you get Jay playing those beautiful counter @-@ lines to Van . " Davis was not impressed by Morrison , but not out of disdain or any preconceived notions , but rather because Morrison 's professional comportment generally did not meet Davis 's expectations . " No prep , no meeting , " recalls Davis . " He was remote from us , ' cause he came in and went into a booth ... And that 's where he stayed , isolated in a booth . I don 't think he ever introduced himself to us , nor we to him ... And he seemed very shy ... " Drummer Connie Kay later told Rolling Stone that he approached Morrison and asked " what he wanted me to play , and he said to play whatever I felt like playing . We more or less sat there and jammed . " Morrison 's impression of the sessions was " The songs came together very well in the studio . Some of the tracks were first takes . [ But ] the musicians were really together . Those type of guys play what you 're gonna do before you do it , that 's how good they are . " He told Ritchie Yorke that only two tracks recorded during the sessions did not make it to the album . " One was about Jesse James and the other about trains . They were both just basic blues numbers . That 's why they didn 't fit in with the album . "
For the Astral Weeks sessions , apparently they did not employ any lead sheets , or at least none were distributed to the musicians . " What stood out in my mind was the fact that he allowed us to stretch out , " recalls Berliner . " We were used to playing to charts , but Van just played us the songs on his guitar and then told us to go ahead and play exactly what we felt . " Berliner actually had great appreciation for the freedom given to him and the band ; something few , if any , of them were used to . " I played a lot of classical guitar on those sessions and it was very unusual to play classical guitar in that context , " says Berliner .
The first session , held in the evening on 25 September 1968 , produced four recordings that made it to the album . Only three had initially been intended for inclusion : " Cyprus Avenue " , " Madame George " , and " Beside You " . Although not scheduled to play , Payne still attended the first session and listened as another flautist played his parts . To this day , nobody recalls the name of this flautist , nor has he been identified on any of the surviving documentation ; he does play flute on the released takes of " Beside You " and " Cyprus Avenue " but is not included in the album credits . When Morrison tried to squeeze in one last tune during the end of that first session , Payne spoke up and pleaded to Merenstein to permit him to participate . Payne was then allowed to play on what became the title track of the album – " Astral Weeks " – the fourth song produced from this initial session . For the remainder of the sessions , John Payne played on every song .
The next session , according to John Payne , occurred early in the morning , but it did not work and nothing from this session worked for the final album . " It just didn 't happen ' " says Payne . " It was the wrong time of day for jazz musicians to create . I think that by the end of that session we all knew that nothing was going to be used . They just said , let 's forget it . " Jay Berliner was not available , so Barry Kornfeld was recruited to play lead guitar in his place . According to Merenstein , there was tension at this second session and it was stopped after about three hours . Morrison was quoted by Ritchie Yorke as saying the album was recorded in " two eight @-@ hour sessions , plus two overdub sessions . That was the whole album . " In his biography , Clinton Heylin gives the date for the second session as 1 October and states that " Only ' As Young Lovers Do ' from this session would make the album " contending that this is the reason for the different " lounge @-@ jazz sound " on this track . Other biographers have primarily noted that the early morning first of October session was abandoned without producing any of the songs on the album .
The third and final session , in the evening on 15 October , produced four more recordings that completed the album — " The Way Young Lovers Do " " Sweet Thing " , " Ballerina " and " Slim Slow Slider " . Davis expressed to Rolling Stone that there was a " certain feel about a seven @-@ to @-@ ten o ' clock session " and that " the ambience of that time of day was all through everything we played " . Both " Sweet Thing " and " Ballerina " were originally scheduled for the session , but the search for a ' closer ' consumed a considerable amount of time . They attempted ( and rejected ) a number of songs until Morrison suggested " Slim Slow Slider " . " I don 't think we 'd ever done [ it ] live , " recalls Payne . " [ Morrison ] had a book full of songs ... I don 't know why he decided to do it ... And we were first doing it with the drums , with Richard Davis and Connie Kay and the guitar player and the vibe player and me and Van — all of us were playing . Then I started playing soprano sax on the thing , and Lew said , ' OK , I wanna try it again . Start again . And I want just the bass , the soprano sax , and Van . ' " It was a successful take , but it also came with a very long coda , prompting Merenstein to make a large cut during the editing process . Many of the tracks on Astral Weeks would be subjected to edits ( mainly to tighten the performances ) , but the one on " Slim Slow Slider " was easily the most substantial . " I would estimate three , five minutes of instrumental stuff , " says Payne . " We went through stages [ until ] we got to be avant @-@ garde kind of weird , which is what you hear after the splice – all that weird stuff we 're playing – but there was a whole progression to that . " According to Merenstein , before he cut it , the coda " was a long , long ending that went nowhere , that just carried on from minute to minute ... If it had [ some ] relativity to the tune itself , I would have left it there . "
The recording engineer for the album , Brooks Arthur , remembered the sessions in 2009 : " A cloud came along , and it was called the Van Morrison sessions . We all hopped upon that cloud , and the cloud took us away for awhile [ sic ] , and we made this album , and we landed when it was done . " In a Rolling Stone interview in 1972 , Morrison told John Grissim , Jr . : " I was really pretty happy with the album . The only complaint I had was that it was rather rushed . But I thought it was closer to the type of music I wanted to put out . And still is , actually . "
= = Composition = =
Astral Weeks has stream of consciousness and poetic lyrics that evoke emotions and images instead of coherent , intellectual ideas and narratives . According to Guy Raz from NPR , it is a folk rock album , " perhaps the seminal album of the folk @-@ rock genre " , while the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame online biography of Morrison said its music is trance @-@ like folk jazz set to " impressionistic , free @-@ flowing " lyrics . AllMusic 's William Ruhlmann , on the other hand , viewed the music as an amalgam of folk , blues , jazz , and classical music that is unlike rock .
Although usually described as a song cycle rather than a concept album , the songs do , when considered in their totality , seem to link together as one long song , forming an " intangible narrative of unreachable worlds " and delivered with what one writer calls " a masterpiece of virtuoso singing " . According to Charlie Gillett , the album has meditative songs that combine themes of nostalgia , drama , and Morrison 's personal mysticism and are performed in a blue @-@ eyed soul style .
The album embraces a form of symbolism that would eventually become a staple of Morrison 's songs , equating earthly love and heaven , or as close as a living being can approach it . Morrison and Davis 's upright bass can be interpreted as the earth opposing Kay 's percussion and the string arrangement representing heaven and with Berliner 's lead acoustic guitar residing on a plane in between .
Van Morrison told Ritchie Yorke , one of his biographers , he wrote both of the songs " Madame George " and " Cyprus Avenue " in stream of consciousness : " [ ' Madame George ' ] just came right out ... The song is just a stream of consciousness thing , as is ' Cyprus Avenue ' ... I didn 't even think about what I was writing . "
In an interview with Paste in 2009 , Morrison said the songs on Astral Weeks were written " prior to 1968 over a period of five years " . In an NPR review he comments : " It 's not about me . It 's totally fictional . It 's put together of composites , of conversations I heard — you know , things I saw in movies , newspapers , books , whatever . It comes out as stories . That 's it . There 's no more . "
= = Songs = =
Side One – In The Beginning
" Astral Weeks "
The song " Astral Weeks " opens the album with the lines " If I ventured in the slipstream , between the viaducts of your dream / Where immobile steel rims crack , and the ditch in the back roads stop " , which according to Erik Hage shows Morrison had " once and for all pulled neck and neck with Dylan as a lyricist " . Morrison described it as " one of those songs where you can see the light at the end of the tunnel ... I don 't think I can elaborate on it any more than that . " The words in the song : " Talkin ' to Huddie Ledbetter / Showin ' pictures on the wall " appear to be based on Morrison 's real life custom of carrying around a poster of Lead Belly and hanging it on the wall wherever he lived . ( This was revealed in a Rolling Stone interview in 1978 . )
" Beside You "
" Beside You " , the second song on the album , has been described as " expressionistic poetry and a scattershot collection of images and scenarios " . It begins with the classical guitar of Jay Berliner and Morrison 's voice circling each other . Morrison described it as " the kind of song that you 'd sing to a kid or somebody that you love . It 's basically a love song . It 's just a song about being spiritually beside somebody . " It was originally recorded for Bang Records in December 1967 . That first recording shows the pop music intentions of Bert Berns which give it a different sound from the Astral Weeks recording .
" Sweet Thing "
" Sweet Thing " is the only song on the album to look forward instead of backward . In the words of The AllMusic reviewer : " Over the endlessly descending , circular progression , Morrison sings positive lyrics about nature and a romantic partner , seemingly beginning in the middle of a thought : ' And I will stroll the merry way . ' " Paul Du Noyer wrote , " Sweet Thing puts the singer in a hazy , pastoral paradise where he wanders in ' gardens wet with rain ' , or counts the stars in his lover 's eyes , and vows to ' never grow so old again ' or ' read between the lines ' . He pleads with his mind to keep quiet , so his heart can hear itself think . He yearns to obliterate experience and rediscover innocence . " It has been a more popular cover song than any of the others on the album and is the only Astral Weeks song that has been included in any of Morrison 's compilation albums .
" Cyprus Avenue "
The song " Cyprus Avenue " is a three chord blues composition and served for many years as the closing song for most of Morrison 's live shows . Along with " Madame George " , it is the centerpiece of the album and both songs are Belfast related and highly impressionistic . The song is told from the point of view of an outsider watching from inside an automobile and getting tongue @-@ tied as the refined school girl he fantasizes about appears and he imagines her a fine lady with " rainbow ribbons in her hair " in a carriage drawn by six white horses and " returning from a fair " . Van Morrison described Cyprus Avenue as " a street in Belfast , a place where there 's a lot of wealth . It wasn 't far from where I was brought up and it was a very different scene . To me it was a very mystical place . It was a whole avenue lined with trees and I found it a place where I could think . "
Side Two – Afterwards
" The Way Young Lovers Do "
" The Way Young Lovers Do " is described by Clinton Heylin as a " lounge @-@ jazz " sound that " still sticks out like Spumante at a champagne buffet " . In his review for Rolling Stone , Greil Marcus also spoke of the song as a " poor jazz @-@ flavored cut that , is uncomfortably out of place on this record " . Brian Hinton describes it as there being " a Sinatra strut to Van 's voice , a blues knowingness with Stax brass , and a string section which swirls where previously it drifted . " He describes it as " about growing up , an adolescent first kiss ... "
" Madame George "
Called the other album masterpiece ( along with Cyprus Avenue ) , " Madame George " is almost ten minutes long and tells of the mysterious madame " in a corner playing dominoes in drag " , among other things . It also has a setting of Cyprus Avenue in Belfast with impressionistic lyrics that give stream @-@ of @-@ conscious details that are seemingly unrelated . Erik Hage describes the effect of the sensory experience of the lyrics , the instrumentation and Morrison 's impassioned vocals on the listener and the album as being " like some kind of twilight state between sleeping and wakefulness " , engaging the listener to project themselves into the spell of the song . Rolling Stone 's album reviewer wrote : " The crowning touch is ' Madame George ' , a cryptic character study that may or may not be about an aging transvestite but that is certainly as heartbreaking a reverie as you will find in pop music . " Morrison has denied that the song is about a transvestite , as others , including Lester Bangs , have believed . The original title of the song is " Madame Joy " and Morrison later changed the title although he actually sings the words " Madame Joy " in the song . An earlier recording for Bang Records with slightly altered lyrics , backing singers , a much swifter tempo and a " bizarrely inappropriate party atmosphere " changes the tone considerably from the Astral Weeks recording .
" Ballerina "
The oldest composition on Astral Weeks is " Ballerina " , which Morrison composed in 1966 while still a member of Them . About the same time he first met his future wife , Janet . Inspired by " a flash about an actress in an opera house appearing in a ballet " ( according to Morrison ) , former Them guitarist Jim Armstrong recalls the band working on the song between engagements . " [ Morrison ] had all these words " , Armstrong says , " we sort of formalized it , ' cause there was no structure to it " . Them performed the song one night in Hawaii , but it was not recorded until Astral Weeks . On the full @-@ length version of " Ballerina " which first appeared on the 2015 expanded edition , the left and right audio channels are opposite to those on the originally released edited version .
" Slim Slow Slider "
" Slim Slow Slider " is the only song on the album to not have string overdubs and according to John Payne , Morrison had not played it live before . Like in the song " T.B. Sheets " , the singer tells of watching a young girl die , but in " Slim Slow Slider " the girl seems bent on her own self @-@ destruction : " I know you 're dying , baby / I know you know it too . " The song ends abruptly with the words , " Every time I see you , I just don 't know what to do . " It has been said to be about a junkie but Morrison has only said that it 's about someone " who is caught up in a big city like London or maybe is on dope , I 'm not sure . "
= = Release and reception = =
When Astral Weeks was first released , it sold poorly . In the United States , the album became a somewhat popular cult import , while it was largely overlooked by critics in the United Kingdom . The British magazine Beat Instrumental published a negative review , finding Morrison 's songs monotonous and unoriginal , while Nick Logan from NME called it a pale imitation of guitarist José Feliciano 's 1968 album Feliciano ! , one of the year 's best @-@ selling records . With the exception of the title track , he felt the compositions were indistinguishable and " suffer from being stuck in the same groove throughout " . In the American magazine Stereo Review , editor Peter Reilly panned Astral Weeks as a " free @-@ verse mind bender of an album " plagued by nonsensical lyrics and incoherent singing from Morrison , especially on " Madame George " . Greil Marcus , on the other hand , argued in Rolling Stone that his lyrics are thoughtful and deeply intellectual " in terms of the myths and metaphors that exist within the world of rock and roll " . Marcus believed both his music and lyrics captured the spirit of Bob Dylan 's 1967 album John Wesley Harding , calling Astral Weeks a " unique and timeless " record . The magazine later named it the album of the year . Melody Maker also called it one of the year 's best records , featuring Morrison 's " small harsh voice " backed by an attractive musical combo that " verges on genius " during " Madame George " . When Morrison 's third album Moondance was released in 1970 , Warner Bros. ran full @-@ page advertisements remarking on the unavailability of Astral Weeks in record stores , calling it a " damn shame " that it " ended up as what you might call a critically acclaimed but obscure album ... If you want it and can 't find it , yell at the store 's record buyer . Loud , because you 're the customer and you 're always right . Undo the veils of potential obscurity . "
Astral Weeks ' critical standing improved greatly over time , becoming viewed as one of rock 's greatest records and a culturally significant work . A number of factors afforded the record its canonical reputation in rock criticism : its backstory as a commercial underachiever and highly personal work for Morrison , its distinction from the rest of his discography , his artistic autonomy , the music 's song cycle composition , enigmatic lyrics , and the quality of seriousness and originality as perceived by mature rock audiences and writers . According to Rob Sheffield , it was Morrison 's " most beautiful and intense album " , the foundation for his " legend " , and a work that continues to captivate musicians and listeners . Lester Bangs said its anguished feeling resonated with him on first listen , calling it " the rock record with the most significance in my life so far ... a record about people stunned by life , completely overwhelmed , stalled in their skins , their ages and selves , paralyzed by the enormity of what in one moment of vision they can comprehend . " Irish musician Glen Hansard said it made him think about life with a greater depth of feeling , " with a greater sense of fear and horror and desire than you ever imagined . " Colin Larkin credited Morrison for fully realizing his ambition to " create without pop 's constraints " on Astral Weeks , while AllMusic 's William Ruhlmann said its reputation among critics was justified because " unlike any record before or since , " it " encompasses the passion and tenderness that have always mixed in the best postwar popular music " .
The critical recognition and renown of Astral Weeks came to overshadow Morrison 's subsequent work , as well as Morrison himself . According to biographer Johnny Rogan , his recording career was " all too often crystallized in a single moment . Like the Beach Boys ' Pet Sounds , Astral Weeks was perceived as a one @-@ off whose critical standing allowed little discussion for other equally fascinating musical forays that followed . " Morrison felt annoyed by the retrospective acclaim and claims about the record 's significance . In agreement with Logan 's original criticism , he later said he should have " changed the arrangements because the arrangements are too samey ... four or five other songs should have had a change of mood . " Merenstein , on the other hand , still admires the album : " To this day it gives me pain to hear it . Pain is the wrong word — I 'm so moved by it . " In 2001 , the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America , having shipped 500 @,@ 000 copies in the US . Music historian Andrew Ford said the album 's commercial performance , much like its musical aesthetic , is similar to classical music : " Neither instant nor evanescent : Astral Weeks will sell as many copies this year as it did in 1968 and has every year in between " .
Astral Weeks has appeared in all @-@ time best album polls worldwide , and according to Acclaimed Music , it is the
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= Quenya =
Quenya ( pronounced [ ˈkʷwɛnja ] ) is a fictional language devised by J. R. R. Tolkien and used by the Elves in his legendarium .
Tolkien began devising the language around 1910 and restructured the grammar several times until Quenya reached its final state . The vocabulary remained relatively stable throughout the creation process . Also , the name of the language was repeatedly changed by Tolkien from Elfin and Qenya to the eventual Quenya . The Finnish language had been a major source of inspiration , but Tolkien was also familiar with Latin , Greek , and ancient Germanic languages when he began constructing Quenya . Another notable feature of Tolkien 's Elvish languages was his development of a complex internal history of characters to speak those tongues in their own fictional universe . He felt that his languages changed and developed over time , as with the historical languages which he studied professionally — not in a vacuum , but as a result of the migrations and interactions of the peoples who spoke them .
Within Tolkien 's legendarium , Quenya is one of the many Elvish languages spoken by the immortal Elves , called Quendi ( ' speakers ' ) in Quenya . Quenya translates as simply " language " or , in contrast to other tongues that the Elves met later in their long history , " elf @-@ language " . After the Elves divided , Quenya originated as the speech of two clans of " High Elves " or Eldar , the Noldor and the Vanyar , who left Middle @-@ earth to live in Eldamar ( " Elvenhome " ) , in Valinor , the land of the immortal and God @-@ like Valar . Of these two groups of Elves , the Noldor returned to Middle @-@ earth where they met the Sindarin @-@ speaking Grey @-@ elves . The Noldor eventually adopted Sindarin and used Quenya primarily as a ritual or poetic language , whereas the Vanyar who stayed behind in Eldamar retained the use of Quenya . In this way , the Quenya language was symbolic of the high status of the Elves , the firstborn of the races of Middle @-@ earth , because of their close connection to Valinor , and its decreasing use also became symbolic for the slowly declining Elven culture in Middle @-@ earth . In the Second Age of Middle @-@ earth 's chronology the Men of Númenor learnt the Quenya tongue . In the Third Age , the time of the setting of The Lord of the Rings , Quenya was learnt as a second language by all Elves of Noldorin origin , and it continued to be used in spoken and written form , but their mother @-@ tongue was the Sindarin of the Grey @-@ elves . As the Noldor remained in Middle @-@ earth , their Noldorin dialect of Quenya also gradually diverged from the Vanyarin dialect spoken in Valinor , undergoing both sound changes and grammatical changes .
The language featured prominently in Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings trilogy , as well as in his posthumously published history of Middle @-@ earth The Silmarillion . The longest text in Quenya published by Tolkien during his lifetime is the poem " Namárië " , and other published texts are generally no longer than a few sentences . At his death , Tolkien left behind a number of unpublished writings on Quenya , and later Tolkien scholars have prepared his notes and unpublished manuscripts for publication in the journals Parma Eldalamberon and Vinyar Tengwar , also publishing scholarly and linguistic analyses of the language . Tolkien never created enough vocabulary to make it possible to converse in Quenya , although fans have been writing poetry and prose in Quenya since the 1970s . This has required conjecture and the need to devise new words , in effect developing a kind of neo @-@ Quenya language .
= = External history = =
J. R. R. Tolkien began to construct his first Elven tongue c . 1910 – 1911 while he was at the King Edward 's School , Birmingham . He later called it Qenya ( c . 1915 ) , and later changed the spelling to Quenya . He was then already familiar with Latin , Greek , Spanish , and several ancient Germanic languages , such as Gothic , Old Norse , and Old English . He had invented several cryptographic codes , and two or three constructed languages . Tolkien took an interest in the Finnish mythology of the Kalevala , then became acquainted with the Finnish language , which he found to provide an aesthetically pleasing inspiration for his High @-@ elven language . Many years later , he wrote : " It was like discovering a complete wine @-@ cellar filled with bottles of an amazing wine of a kind and flavour never tasted before . It quite intoxicated me . " Regarding the inspiration for Quenya he wrote that :
The ingredients in Quenya are various , but worked out into a self @-@ consistent character not precisely like any language that I know . Finnish , which I came across when I had first begun to construct a ' mythology ' was a dominant influence , but that has been much reduced [ now in late Quenya ] . It survives in some features : such as the absence of any consonant combinations initially , the absence of the voiced stops b , d , g ( except in mb , nd , ng , ld , rd , which are favoured ) and the fondness for the ending -inen , -ainen , -oinen , also in some points of grammar , such as the inflexional endings -sse ( rest at or in ) , -nna ( movement to , towards ) , and -llo ( movement from ) ; the personal possessives are also expressed by suffixes ; there is no gender .
Tolkien never intended Quenya or any of his constructed languages to be used in everyday life as an international auxiliary language , although he was in favour of the idea of Esperanto as an auxiliary language within Europe . With his Quenya , Tolkien pursued a double aesthetic goal : " classical and inflected " . This urge , in fact , was the motivation for his creation of a ' mythology ' . While the language developed , Tolkien felt that it needed speakers , including their own history and mythology , which he thought would give a language its ' individual flavour ' . He wrote : " It was primarily linguistic in inspiration and was begun in order to provide the necessary background of ' history ' for Elvish tongues " . This process of first inventing a language and then creating a background setting for its fictional speakers has been described as unique . Dimitra Fimi , a Tolkien scholar , argues that Tolkien 's invention of Qenya started as a quest for the ideal language , to match the moral and aesthetic objectives that were part of his project of creating " a mythology for England " . Fimi argues that Tolkien deliberately used sound symbolism to unify sound and meaning and make the language appear as an ideal language , fit to be spoken in the utopian realm of the Elves and fairies of Valinor . Tolkien considered Quenya to be " the one language which has been designed to give play to my own most normal phonetic taste " .
From the onset , Tolkien used comparative philology and the tree model as his major tools in his constructed languages . He usually started with the phonological system of the proto @-@ language and then proceeded by inventing for each daughter language the necessary sequence of sound changes . " I find the construction and the interrelation of the languages an aesthetic pleasure in itself , quite apart from The Lord of the Rings , of which it was / is in fact independent . "
= = = Development = = =
In his lifetime , J. R. R. Tolkien never ceased to experiment on his constructed languages , and they were subjected to many revisions . Therefore , Quenya had many grammars with substantial differences between the different stages of its development . During the first conceptual stage of early Quenya c . 1910 to c . 1920 , the language was called Elfin in English and Eldarissa in Qenya proper . While its development was a continuous process , Quenya underwent a number of major revisions in its grammar , mostly in conjugation and the pronominal system . The vocabulary , however , was not subject to sudden or extreme change . Tolkien sometimes changed the meaning of a word , but he almost never discarded it once invented , and he kept on refining its meaning , and countlessly forged new synonyms . Moreover , Elvish etymology was in constant flux . Tolkien delighted in inventing new etymons for his Quenya vocabulary . But after the publication of The Lord of the Rings ( finished c . 1949 @-@ 1950 , published in 1954 @-@ 1955 ) , the grammar rules of Quenya went through very few changes and this version was then defined as late Quenya ( c . 1950 – 1973 ) .
The spelling Qenya is sometimes used to distinguish early Quenya from later versions . Qenya differs from late Quenya by having different internal history , vocabulary , and grammar rules as described in the " Qenyaqetsa " . Examples include a different accusative or the abolition of final consonant clusters in later Quenya . Fimi suggests that Qenya as it appears in the " Qenyaqetsa " was supposed to be a mystic language , as the Lexicon contains a number of words with clear Christian religious connotations , such as anatarwesta " crucifixion " and evandilyon " gospel " – these words were not part of late Quenya .
In the early 1930s , Tolkien decided that the proto @-@ language of the Elves was Valarin , the tongue of the gods or Valar as he called them : " The language of the Elves derived in the beginning from the Valar , but they changed it even in the learning , and moreover modified and enriched it constantly at all times by their own invention . " In the Comparative Tables the mechanisms of sound change were described by Tolkien for the following daughter languages : Qenya , Lindarin ( a dialect of Qenya ) , Telerin , Old Noldorin ( or Fëanorian ) , Noldorin ( or Gondolinian ) , Ilkorin ( especially of Doriath ) , Danian of Ossiriand , East Danian , Taliska , West Lemberin , North Lemberin , and East Lemberin . For this proto @-@ language of the Elves , Tolkien appears to have borrowed the five @-@ part plosive system of Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European , the ancestor of Latin , Greek , Sanskrit , and others ; namely , one labial , one coronal , and three velar plosives ( palatal , plain , and labial ) . The first table below provides some of the " Primary Initial Combinations " from the Comparative Tables .
Another characteristic of Quenya reminiscent of ancient natural languages like Old Greek , Old English or Sanskrit is the dual grammatical number which is used in addition to singular and plural . It has been suggested that Tolkien used the dual to give Quenya an " archaic feel " in its role as an ancient language of the Elves .
About ten years later , Tolkien changed his mind about the origin of the Elvish proto @-@ language . Instead of learning from the Valar , the Elves had created an original language Quenderin which had become the proto @-@ language of the Elven language family . For this new language , Tolkien kept the many roots he had invented for Valarin in the 1930s , which then became " Quenderin roots " . The Eldarin family of languages comprises Quenya , Telerin , Sindarin and Nandorin . The evolution in Quenya and Telerin of the nasalized initial groups of Quenderin is described thus in Tolkien 's Outline of Phonology :
These groups in Quenya normally became simplified to nasals initially . ( In Telerin they became b , d , g . )
Thus :
mb- > m , as in * mbar- > Q. már ' habitation ' .
nd- > n , as in * ndōrē > Q. nóre ' country ' .
ñg- > ñ , as in * ñgolodō > Q. Ñoldo ' Noldo , Gnome ' .
ñgy > ny , as in * ñgyar- > Q. nyare ' recites ' .
ñgw > ñw , as in * ñgwar- > Q. ñware ( pronounced [ ˈŋwärɛ ] ) ' frets , wears away ' .
In contrast to early Qenya , the grammar of Quenya was influenced by Finnish , an agglutinative language , but much more by Latin , a synthetic and fusional language , and also Greek , from which he probably took the idea of the diglossia of Quenya with its highly codified variety : the Parmaquesta , used only in certain situations such as literature . Also the phonology of Quenya was inspired by certain aspects of Finnish , but this is not easily recognized .
Tolkien almost never borrowed words directly from real languages into Quenya . The major exception is the name Earendel / Eärendil , which he found in an Old English poem by Cynewulf . Yet the Finnish influence extended sometimes also to the vocabulary . A few Quenya words , such as tul- " come " and anta- " give " , clearly have a Finnish origin . Other forms that appear to have been borrowed are actually coincidental , such as Finnish kirja " book " , and Quenya cirya " ship " . Tolkien invented the Valarin / Quenderin root kir- from which sprang his Quenya word cirya . The Latin aure " dawn " , and Quenya aure " moment of special meaning , special day , festival day " are unrelated . Instead , Quenya aurë comes from the Valarin / Quenderin root ur- . Germanic influence can more be seen in grammar ( the -r nominative plural ending is reminiscent of the Scandinavian languages ) or phonology , than in words : Arda , the Quenya name for " region " , just happened to resemble Germanic Erde " earth " , while it actually comes from the Valarin / Quenderin root gar- . According to Tom DuBois and Scott Mellor , the name of Quenya itself may have been influenced by the name Kven , a language closely related to Finnish , but Tolkien never mentioned this .
Some linguists have argued that Quenya can be understood as an example of a particular kind of artificial language that helps to create a fictional world . Other such languages would include Robert Jordan 's Old Tongue and the Klingon language of the Star Trek series invented by Marc Okrand . It was observed that they form " a sociolinguistic context within which group and individual identities can be created . "
= = = Publication of linguistic papers = = =
Two journals , Vinyar Tengwar from issue No. 39 ( July 1998 ) , and Parma Eldalamberon from issue No. 11 ( 1995 ) , are today exclusively devoted to the editing and publishing of J. R. R. Tolkien 's mass of unpublished linguistic papers . Important grammatical texts , alluded to by Christopher Tolkien in his History of Middle @-@ earth series and described as almost unreadable or quite incomprehensible , have been published in these two journals . The " Early Qenya Grammar " , written by J. R. R. Tolkien c . 1925 , was successfully edited and published in Parma Eldalamberon No. 14 .
The editors have not published a comprehensive catalogue of the linguistic papers they are working on and that were not published by Christopher Tolkien in the History of Middle @-@ earth ; new Tolkienian linguistic material continues to emerge , although the pace of publication is irregular .
= = = Use of Quenya = = =
Attempts by fans to write in Quenya began in the 1970s , when the total corpus of published Elvish comprised only a few hundred words . Since then , the use of Elvish has flourished in poems and texts , phrases and names , and even tattoos . But Tolkien himself never made his languages complete enough for conversation . As a result , newly invented Elvish texts require conjecture and sometimes the coinage of new words . The use of Quenya has expanded over the years as new words have been created , forming a Neo @-@ Quenya language that is based on Tolkien 's original Quenya but incorporates many new elements .
= = Internal history of late Quenya = =
The Elvish languages are a language family of several related languages and dialects . The following is a brief overview of the fictional internal history of late Quenya as conceived by Tolkien . Tolkien imagined a diglossic Elven society with a vernacular language for every @-@ day use , Tarquesta , and a more educated language for use in ceremonies and lore , Parmaquesta .
It has been observed that the " degree of proximity " to the light of the Valar affects the development of both languages in terms of phonology , morphology and semantics . The division between Light Elves and Dark Elves that took place during the Sundering of the Elves is reflected in their respective languages .
The Elves at first shared a common language , Primitive Quendian , called Quenderin in Quenya . Among the Eldar , i.e. those Elves who undertook the Great March to Valinor and Eldamar , Primitive Quendian developed into Common Eldarin . Some of the Eldar remained in Beleriand and became the Grey Elves ; their language developed into Sindarin . Most of the other Eldar continued to Eldamar ( ' Elvenhome ' ) and founded the great city of Tirion , where they developed Quenya .
Quenya 's older form , first recorded in the sarati of Rúmil , is called Old or Ancient Quenya ( Yára @-@ Quenya in Quenya ) . In Eldamar , the Noldor and Vanyar spoke two slightly different though mutually intelligible dialects of Tarquesta : Noldorin Quenya and Vanyarin Quenya . Later Noldorin Quenya became Exilic Quenya , when most of the Noldor Elves followed their leader Fëanor into exile from Eldamar and back to Middle @-@ earth , where the immortal Elves first awoke .
Quenya was also used by the gods or Valar . The Elves even derived some loanwords from the Valar 's language , which was called Valarin in Quenya , although these were more numerous in the Vanyarin dialect than in Noldorin . This was probably because of the enduringly close relationship the Vanyarin Elves had with the Valar . The Quenya as used by the Vanyar also incorporated several words from Valarin that were not found in the Noldorin dialect , such as tulka ( " yellow " , from Valarin tulukha ( n ) ) , ulban ( " blue " , presumably from the same root as Valarin ul ( l ) u meaning " water " ) , and nasar ( " red " , original Valarin not given ) .
According to " Quendi and Eldar : Essekenta Eldarinwa " , Quendya was the usual Vanyarin name given to the Quenya language , since in Vanyarin , the consonant groups ndy and ny remained quite distinct . In Noldorin , ndy eventually became ny . Tolkien explained that " the word Quenya itself has been cited as an exempla ( e.g. by Ælfwine ) , but this is a mistake due to supposition that kwenya was properly kwendya and directly derived from the name Quendi ' Elves ' . This appears not to be the case . The word is Quenya in Vanyarin , and always so in Parmaquesta . "
The Elves of the Third Clan , or Teleri , who reached Eldamar later than the Noldor and the Vanyar , spoke a different but closely related tongue , usually called Telerin . It was seen by some Elves to be just another dialect of Quenya . This was not the case with the Teleri for whom their tongue was distinct from Quenya . After the Vanyar left the city of Túna , Telerin and Noldorin Quenya grew closer .
The rebellious Noldor , who followed their leader Fëanor to Middle @-@ earth , spoke only Quenya . But Elu Thingol , King of the Sindar of Beleriand , forbade the use of Quenya in his realm when he learned of the slaying of Telerin Elves by the Noldor ( The Silmarillion , chapter 15 ) . By doing so , he both restricted the possibility of the Sindar to enhance and brighten their language with influences from Quenya and accelerated the " dimininuation and spiritual impoverishment " of the Noldorin culture . The Noldor at this time had fully mastered Sindarin , while the Sindar were slow to learn Quenya . Quenya in Middle @-@ earth became known as Exilic Quenya when the Noldor eventually adopted the Sindarin language as their native speech after Thingol 's ruling . It differed from Amanian Quenya mostly in vocabulary , having some loanwords from Sindarin . It differed also in pronunciation , representing the recognition of sound @-@ changes which had begun among the Noldor before the exile and had caused Noldorin Quenya to diverge from Vanyarin Quenya . The change of z ( < old intervocalic s ) to r was the latest in Noldorin , belonging to early Exilic Quenya . The grammatical changes were only small though since the features of their " old language " were carefully taught .
From the Second Age on , Quenya was also used ceremonially by the Men of Númenór and their descendants in Gondor and Arnor for the official names of kings and queens ; this practice was resumed by Aragorn when he took the crown as Elessar Telcontar . Quenya in the Third Age had almost the same status as the Latin language had in medieval Europe , and was called Elven @-@ latin by Tolkien .
= = Registers = =
Quenya has a variety of language registers :
Parmaquesta ( " book @-@ language " ) : the literary style in which the Elven @-@ scriptures , the " Ainulindalë " , and other classical Elvish works were written .
Tarquesta ( " high @-@ language " ) : the vernacular speech with two dialects : Vanyarin Quenya and Noldorin Quenya .
Exilic Quenya or " Low Quenya " : the spoken style of the Exiled Noldor in Middle @-@ earth .
= = Phonology = =
The pronunciation of the Elvish languages by Elves , Men and Hobbits has been described in a variety of sources by J.R.R. Tolkien . The documentation about late Quenya phonology is contained in the Appendix E of the Lord of the Rings and the " Outline of Phonology " , a text written by J.R.R. Tolkien and published in Parma Eldalemberon No. 19 .
Tolkien based Quenya pronunciation more on Latin than on Finnish . Thus , Quenya lacks the vowel harmony and consonant gradation present in Finnish , and accent is not always on the first syllable of a word . Typical Finnish elements like the front vowels ö , ä and y are lacking in Quenya , but phonological similarities include the absence of aspirated unvoiced stops or the development of the syllables ti > si in both languages . The combination of a Latin basis with Finnish phonological rules resulted in a product that resembles Italian in many respects , which was Tolkien 's favorite modern Romance language .
The tables below list the consonants ( Q. ólamar ) and vowels of late colloquial Noldorin Quenya , i.e. Quenya as spoken among the Exiled Noldor in Middle @-@ earth . They are written using the International Phonetic Alphabet , unless otherwise noted .
= = = Consonants = = =
The Quenya consonant system has 6 major places of articulation : labial ( involving the lips ) , dental ( involving the tongue and the back of the teeth ) , alveolar ( involving the tongue and the alveolar ridge of the jaw ) , palatal ( involving the tongue and the middle part of the roof of the mouth ) , velar ( involving the back of the tongue and the back part of the roof of the mouth ) , and glottal ( involving the vocal folds ) . The dental fricative ( / θ / ) and the voiced alveolar fricative ( / z / ) occur in the Vanyarin varieties , but were gradually replaced with / s / and / r / respectively in Noldorin Quenya . Notably , voiced plosives only occur after nasals and liquids , i.e. there is no simple / b , d , ɡ / but only the clusters / mb , ( lb , ) nd , ld , rd , ŋɡ / , and these occur only between vowels . ( This may not be true in Vanyarin Quenya , given the word Aldudénië , the name of a lament for the death of the Two Trees of Valinor composed by Elemmírë of the Vanyar . ) The following table presents the inventory of classic Noldorin consonants . Grouping of consonants occurs only in the central parts of a word , except for combinations with the semivowels / w / and / j / .
Quenya orthography ( using the Latin script ) follows the IPA , but uses 〈 c 〉 as an alternative to 〈 k 〉 , writes [ ŋ ] not followed by another velar as 〈 ñ 〉 ( in early Quenya when this still can occur ; otherwise it is written 〈 n 〉 ) , and represents the consonants [ ç ʍ x ] using the digraphs 〈 hy hw ch 〉 . In addition , 〈 h 〉 in the cluster 〈 ht 〉 represents [ ç ] after 〈 e 〉 or 〈 i 〉 and [ x ] after other vowels .
= = = Morphophonemics and allophony = = =
A number of consonants are realized differently when they occur in clusters with certain other consonants . This particularly concerns clusters that involve the approximants / w , j / or the glottal fricative / h / . Clusters where the second consonant was / j / are realized as palatalized consonants , and clusters where the second consonant was / w / are realized as labialized . Consonants clusters where the initial consonant is / h / are realized as preaspirated and devoiced .
Palatal clusters The pronunciation of the consonant cluster 〈 hy 〉 is [ ç ] in Noldorin Quenya , which is a " strong voiceless y , similar to , but more frictional than the initial sound in English huge " . In Vanyarin Quenya , 〈 hy 〉 is pronounced [ ʃ ] .
According to Tolkien , the cluster / cj / 〈 ty 〉 is pronounced as " a ' front explosive ' [ c ] , as e.g. Hungarian ty , but it is followed by an appreciable partly unvoiced y @-@ offglide " .
Tolkien stated that the cluster 〈 ny 〉 is pronounced as in English " new " ( presumably British English [ njuː ] , as opposed to American English [ nuː ] ) . In the Vanyarin dialect , 〈 ty 〉 , 〈 dy 〉 , and 〈 hy 〉 were realised as [ tʃ ] , [ dʒ ] , and [ ʃ ] respectively . Tolkien wrote about 〈 py 〉 : " In Vanyarin Quenya and among some Ñoldor the cluster 〈 py 〉 was sounded with voiceless y , sc. as [ pç ] , which later in Vanyarin became [ pʃ ] " ; cf . Hungarian lopj [ lopç ] ' steal ' . Labial clusters The cluster 〈 hw 〉 is realized as [ ʍ ] , a " spirantal voiceless w . It has more tense with closer lip @-@ aperture and more friction than the voiceless wh of English " . According to Tolkien , the graphs 〈 q 〉 or 〈 qu 〉 is pronounced as " a lip @-@ rounded ' k ' followed by a partly unvoiced w @-@ offglide " , that is / kʷw / .
Glottal clusters The clusters 〈 hl 〉 and 〈 hr 〉 are realized as ɬ and r ̥ , the same as 〈 lh 〉 and 〈 rh 〉 in Sindarin . These , like their Sindarin equivalents , derived from Primitive Elvish sl- and sr- . The primitive consonant clusters sm- and sn- came out in Quenya as 〈 m 〉 and 〈 n 〉 ; it has been suggested that there was an intermediate stage of 〈 hm 〉 and 〈 hn 〉 , the voiceless versions [ m ̥ ] and [ n ̥ ] , in Common Eldarin ; these soon merged with the voiced 〈 m 〉 and 〈 n 〉 . Voiceless hl and hr have a complex history which Tolkien describes thus : " Among the Noldor hr , hl became voiced to r , l before the Exile , and the use of r , l in these cases was normal in Tarquesta , as spoken , tho ' the spelling was usually maintained . Since later the Exiles were familiar with voiceless hr , hl in their Sindarin speech many of them restored this sound in Tarquesta , according to the traditional spelling . The learned had , of course , at all times retained hr , hl in reading or reciting Parmaquesta . "
Simplification of clusters In the late Ancient Quenya period , when vowels were lost in long compound words , the clusters thus created , or the consonants that became final , were as a rule changed or reduced :
-m > -n ;
all stops > -t ;
-d > -r ;
-th > -t ;
-nd > -n ;
-mb , -ng > -n ;
-ñ > -n ;
any combination with s ( as -ts , -st , -ss ) > -s ;
any combination with -ht > -t .
= = = Vowels = = =
Quenya has five vowels ( Quenya ómar ) , and a distinction of length . The short vowels are / a , e , i , o , u / and the long ones are written with an acute accent as / á , é , í , ó , ú / . The precise quality of the vowels is not known , but their pronunciation is likely closer to the " pure " vowels of Italian and Spanish than to the diphthongized English ones . According to Pesch , for the vowels / a , i , u / the short and long forms have the same vowel quality , similar to the vowels of German . But for the vowels / e , o / , the short vowels are pronounced slightly lower and closer to [ ɛ ] and [ ɔ ] , respectively , whereas the long ones are pronounced as high @-@ mid vowels [ eː ] and [ oː ] . This interpretation is based on a statement by Tolkien , saying that é and ó , when correctly pronounced by Elves , were just a little " tenser and ' closer ' " than their short counterparts : " neither very tense and close , nor very slack and open " .
This interpretation results in a vowel system with 7 different vowel qualities and a length distinction in the high and low vowels only ; this system is depicted in table 3 .
= = = = Diphthongs = = = =
Late Noldorin Quenya has 6 diphthongs ( Quenya ohloni ) : / iu , eu , ai , au , oi , ui / . All of these are falling , except for / iu / ( [ ju ] ) which is rising . In Old Quenya , all diphthongs were falling . Tolkien wrote : " It is probable that before the Exile Vanyarin and Noldorin [ Quenya ] in common shifted iu , ui to rising diphthongs , ... but only / iu / is reported as a rising diphthong [ ju ] similar to the beginning of English yule [ juːɫ ] . On the other hand , ui remained in Exilic Quenya a falling diphthong as reported " .
= = = Syllables and stress = = =
In Quenya , the stressing of a syllable is predictable and non @-@ phonemic ( i.e. the meaning of a word never changes depending on the stress ) , but it is partly determined by syllable weight . Words of two syllables are stressed on the first syllable . In words of three or more syllables , the stress is on the penultimate syllable if this is heavy , otherwise on the antepenultimate syllable , i.e. the third @-@ to @-@ last syllable . In Quenya , heavy syllables are syllables that contain either a long vowel , a diphthong , or a cluster of two consonants ( ll , ld , mm , ss , etc . ) . Certain combinations of consonants , e.g. ny , ry , are also regarded as heavy . Medially hy and hw are long consonants in Parmaquesta ( not colloquially in Tarquesta ) and a vowel before them is held to constitute a metrically long syllable . Quenya has also a secondary accent . The placement of stress and the distinction between heavy and light syllables is important in Quenya verse .
= = = Phonotactics = = =
Tolkien also devised phonotactical rules for late Quenya , governing the way in which the sounds could be combined to form words :
Only the following consonants have phonemically geminated forms , i.e. elongated consonants : pp , tt , cc ( kk ) ; mm , nn ; ss , ll , rr . These occur only medially . The geminated occlusives are aspirated .
Tolkien wrote that in Common Eldarin as final consonants only the " dentals t , s , d , th , n , r , l ( all frequent except th ) and the labial nasal m ( frequent ) . In addition the combination -nt ( though usually a coalescence of more than one inflexional element ) seems also to have been permitted ; possibly also st . No other consonant groups were tolerated. y , w are not included , since they naturally took the syllabic forms i , u as suffixed elements . " These evolved from Common Eldarin to Quenya Tolkien explains on the same page thus : m > n ; t , n , r and s remained without change ; final C.E. th became Quenya t and final d > r , and so : " the list of ' permissible finals ' : n , r , l , s , t and nt remained constant in Quenya speech @-@ feeling " .
Quenya tolerates only the following initial consonants : p , t , c ( k ) ; f , þ , s , h , hy , hw ; m , n , ñ ; v , l ( and hl ) , r ( and hr ) , y , w .
Quenya tolerates only the following initial groups : x ( ks ) , ps ; ty , ny , ly ; qu ( kw ) , ñw ( became nw in Noldorin Quenya )
Quenya tolerates only the following medial biconsonantal groups ( those especially common are bolded ) : ht , lc , ld , lf , lm , lp , lqu , lt , lv , lw , ly , mb , mn , mp , my , nc ( ñc ) , nd , ng ( ñg ) , nt , nw ( not ñw , which only occurs initially ) , ny , ps , pt , qu ( kw ) , rc , rd , rm , rn , rp , rt , rs , rv , rw , ry , sc , st , sw , ts , tw , ty , x ( ks ) .
Quenya does not tolerate triconsonantal ( or longer ) combinations , except c ( k ) , h , g followed by w , or h , t , þ , d followed by y . So , Quenya permits the following 12 triconsonantal groups only : nqu ( ñqu ) [ ŋkʷw ] , lqu , rqu , squ , ngw ( ñgw ) [ ŋɡʷw ] , rhw ; nty , lty , hty [ çc ] in Noldorin Quenya , [ ʃt ͡ ʃ ] in Vanyarin Quenya , rty , sty [ sc ] in Noldorin Quenya , [ ʃt ͡ ʃ ] in Vanyarin Quenya ( cf. ść vs. szcz in Polish ) , and lhy . In all other cases y , and w became syllabic i , u after the consonant groups .
Quenya does not tolerate the combination of two different occlusives . " Where these anciently occurred , as in pt , kt , one of the two , or both , became opened and spirantal . "
As in Sindarin , the combination ft is avoided .
= = Grammar = =
The grammar of Quenya is agglutinative and mostly suffixing , i.e. different word particles are joined by appending them . It has basic word classes of verbs , nouns and pronouns / determiners , adjectives and prepositions . Nouns are inflected for case and number . Verbs are inflected for tense and aspect , and for agreement with subject and object . In early Quenya , adjectives agree with the noun they modify in case and number , but not in later Quenya , where this agreement disappears . The basic word order is Subject @-@ Object @-@ Verb . Unless otherwise noted , samples in this section refer to Late Quenya as conceived by Tolkien after 1951 .
= = = Nouns = = =
Quenya nouns can have up to four numbers : singular , general plural ( " plural 1 " ) , particular / partitive plural ( " plural 2 " ) , and dual . However , not all Quenya nouns can have all four numbers since some of them are pluralia tantum having no singular variant for referring to a single object , such as armar " goods ( things for sale , or the things that you own ) " ; some other nouns , especially monosyllabic ones , use only one of the two plurals judged the most aesthetic by Elves ( i. e . Tolkien ) .
In late Quenya Tarquesta , the plural is formed by a suffix to the subjective form of the noun .
For plural 1 the suffix is -i or -r ( depending of the type of the noun ) . In Parmaquesta , the -í is ( not always ) long ( the precise rules have not yet been published ) .
For plural 2 the suffix is -li ( -lí in Parmaquesta ) .
Quenya nouns are declined for case . Parmaquesta Quenya has ten cases . These include the four primary cases : nominative , accusative , genitive , and instrumental ; three adverbial cases : allative ( of which the dative is a shortened form ) , locative ( also with a shortened form ) , and ablative ; and a possessive or adjectival case . The accusative was however only used for Parmaquesta and had been replaced by nominative in late colloquial Quenya .
= = = Adjectives = = =
In late Quenya , the singular endings are -a , -e , -ëa , and a rare form -in that may be seen as a shortened form of -ina . The corresponding plural forms are -e , , -i , ië , and possibly -inë . The latter version is however not attested . Quenya adjectives may be freely used as nouns , in which case they are also inflected like a noun : e.g. vinya , " new " , may be used as vinyar , " news " .
= = = Prepositions and adverbs = = =
In Quenya , there are many similarities in form between prepositions and adverbs since the grammatical case already determines the relation of verb and object . Many Quenya prepositions have adverb @-@ like uses with no complement . In Common Eldarin , these prepositions were postpositions instead , and later became inflectional endings . Case markings combine primarily with nouns , whereas prepositions can combine with phrases of many different categories . This is why most prepositions in Quenya are used with a noun in the nominative case .
an i falmali = i falmalinna ( r ) " upon the many waves "
The preposition an is related to the -nna case ending .
= = = Pronouns = = =
As with all parts of Quenya grammar , the pronominal system was subject to many revisions throughout Tolkien 's life , and the available corpus was not systematic until a list of endings was published in Vinyar Tengwar No. 49 in 2007 . In late Quenya , pronouns have both separate or independent forms , and suffix forms ,
The separate pronouns have both a short and long form that are used for emphatic and normal pronouns respectively . Examples of the emphatic form include : emmë , elyë , entë ( 1st to 3rd person plural ) . Such emphatic disjunctive pronouns , were already present in early Qenya but differed from the later versions ( e.g. plural : tûto , sîse , atta ) .
" I love him " ( or " her " ) can be expressed in Quenya as Melinyes or Melin sé , . " I love them " would be then Melinyet or Melin té ( these two forms are reconstructed ) . If a pronoun is the subject of a sentence , it becomes tied to the verb either as separate word directly before the verb , or as a suffix after the inflected verb . In the suffixed form , an -s ( singular ) and a -t ( plural and dual ) may be added to the long subjective pronouns as objectives of the 3rd person :
utúvie @-@ nye @-@ s , literally " have found @-@ I @-@ it " , " I have found it " ( cf . Aragorn 's outcry when he finds the sapling of the White Tree . )
utúvie @-@ lye @-@ s , " You have found it / him / her " .
utúvie @-@ lye @-@ t , " You have found them " .
It is debated whether certain attested special male and female pronouns that were exclusively used for the description of persons are still applicable to late Quenya as found in The Lord of the Rings .
= = = Possessive determiners = = =
The possessive determiners ( analogous to English my , his , etc . ) are used to indicate the possessor of the noun they determine . They mark the person and number of the possessor , and are inflected to agree with the noun they are attached in number and case . While the English language distinguishes between masculine and feminine singular possessors ( his vs. her ) , late Quenya generally does not .
" Since by Quenya idiom in describing the parts of body of several persons the number proper to each individual is used , the plural of parts existing in pairs ( as hands , eyes , ears , feet ) is seldom required . Thus mánta " their hand " would be used , ( they raised ) their hands ( one each ) , mántat , ( they raised ) their hands ( each both ) , and mánte could not occur " .
Ortanentë mánta . They raised their hands .
Ortaner mánta . They raised their hands .
Varda ortanë máryat . Varda has uplifted her ( two ) hands .
The usual plural ending is -r , hildinyar , " my heirs " .
= = = Demonstrative = = =
The demonstrative makes a three @-@ way distinction between entities the speaker is referring to :
sina , " this " ;
tana , " that ( over there ) " ;
enta , " that ( over there , away from both of us ) " .
A fourth demonstrative , yana , may possibly be used with reference to a past time period , as in " that [ past ] year " . The word enta may be preferred with reference to a future year .
Yet another word for " that " is sana , Tolkien in one poem expressing " that maiden " as sana wende . Possibly this means " that particular one " without any spatial reference .
= = = Verbs = = =
According to Tolkien , " the inflections of [ Qenya ] verbs are always pretty regular " , and Quenya verbs are either in a personal form or an impersonal form . Usually in linguistics , an impersonal verb is a verb that cannot take a true subject , because it does not represent an action , occurrence , or state @-@ of @-@ being of any specific person , place , or thing . This is not how Tolkien intended the use of " impersonal . " An impersonal verb form is a verb to which no pronoun has been attached , as carë ( sg . ) or carir ( pl . ) ; carin , " I do ( habitually ) " , is a personal form ( with -n , a short suffix for " I , me " ) . As explained by Tolkien , verbs in Quenya are negated by using a " negative verb " ua- in front of the proper verb in the impersonal tense form .
Tolkien noted that " when the emphatic pronoun is used separately the verb has no inflexion ( save for number ) . "
Finwë cára . " Finwë is making ( right now ) " .
Quendi cárar . " The Elves are making " .
Cáranyë . " I am making " .
Cárammë . " We are making " .
Essë cára . " He / She is ( really ) making " .
Emmë cárar . " We are ( really ) making " .
Late Quenya verbs have also a dual agreement morpheme -t :
Nai siluvat elen atta . " May two stars shine . "
In the imperative mood , plurality and duality are not expressed . There is no agreement . The verb stays singular . If a plural verb is used as in Á carir it means " let them do it " referring to persons not present or at any rate not addressed directly .
The copula in late Quenya is the verb na- . Tolkien stated that it was used only in joining adjectives , nouns , and pronouns in statements ( or wishes ) asserting ( or desiring ) a thing to have certain quality , or to be same as another , and also that the copula was not used when the meaning was clear . Otherwise , the copula is left out , which may provide for ambiguous tenses when there is no further context :
Eldar ataformaiti , can be translated in English either as " Elves are ambidexters " , or " Elves were ambidexters " .
A mára . " A is good " , or " A was good " .
= = = Syntax = = =
Quenya allows for a very flexible word order because it is an inflectional language like Latin . Nevertheless , it has word order rules . The usual syntax structure is subject @-@ verb @-@ object . The adjective can be placed before or after the noun that it modifies .
= = Vocabulary = =
Because much of Tolkien 's writings on the Elvish languages remain unpublished it is difficult to know how large a vocabulary he devised . As of 2008 , about 25 @,@ 000 Elvish words have been published .
= = = Proper nouns = = =
The lexicon of Quenya is rich in proper nouns .
Estë " Rest " ; Indis " Bride " ; Melcor " He who Arises in Might " ; Nessa " Youth " ; Varda " Sublime " ; Voronwë " Steadfast one . "
Aicanáro " Fell Fire " ; Ancalimë " Most Bright Lady " ; Curumo " Cunning Man " ; Fëanáro " Spirit of Fire " ; Olórin " ( ? ) Dreamer " ; Sauron " The Abhorred . "
Ainulindalë " Music of the Ainur " ; Eldamar " Home of the Eldar " ; Helcaraxë " Jaws of Ice " ; Ilúvatar " Father of All " ; Oron Oiolossë " Ever Snow @-@ white Peak " ; Ondolindë " Rock of Song " ; Turambar " Master of Doom " ; Valinor " land of the Vali " , sc . Valar ; Vingilot " Foam @-@ flower " ; Yavanna " Giver of fruits . "
Mar @-@ nu @-@ Falmar " Land under the Waves " ; Mindon Eldaliéva " Lofty Tower of the Elvish @-@ people " ; Quenta Silmarillion " Tale of the Silmarils . "
= = = Some prepositions and adverbs = = =
ala : [ place ] beyond ; [ time ] after .
ama : up ( wards ) .
an : towards , upon .
et : forth , out of [ with the complement noun in ablative case ]
haila : [ static ] far beyond .
haiya : far , far off , far away .
han : [ addition ] beyond ; over and above , in addition to .
ní : [ not touching ] beneath , under .
no : 1 @.@ under . 2 @.@ upon . 3 @.@ after ( of place ) , behind .
nu : under , beneath .
ono : 1 @.@ in front of , ahead , before [ in all relation but time ] . 2 @.@ after [ of time only ] .
= = = Greetings = = =
Elvish greetings can be expressed both by voice and by hand , and often involve a combination of the two . Elvish greetings are often , but not always , used just prior to a conversation . From the Lord of the Rings it appears that Elves do not have a very elaborate greeting ritual .
The word used as a form of polite address to an Elf ( male or female ) is : Tar . Among the Númenóreans it became " King / Queen " and used as a form of address for a superior , especially a King or a Queen ; cf . Tarinya , used by Prince Aldarion to address his father , King Tar @-@ Meneldur .
Namárië [ näˈmäːriɛ ] is a reduced form of Quenya á na márië , literally " be well " . It is a formula used in Tarquesta for greetings and also for farewell .
The most usual formula used by the Noldor for greeting each other is ( Hara ) máriessë ! " ( Stay ) in happiness ! " .
In The Lord of the Rings , the hobbit Frodo Baggins used another address of welcome : Elen síla lúmenn ' omentielmo ! which was corrected by Tolkien in the Second Edition to Elen síla lúmenn ' omentielvo ! It was a traditional formula in an elevated style and used between two people ( or two companies of many people ) each going on a path that crosses that of the other : " A star shines upon the hour of the meeting of our ways " .
The most usual formula used by the Noldor in farewells is Áva márië ! " Go happily ! " , or Márienna ! " To happiness ! " .
= = = Numerals = = =
According to Christopher Tolkien : " the Eldar used two systems of numerals one of sixes ( or twelves ) , and one of fives . ( or tens ) . " That is a duodecimal counting ( base 12 ) , and a decimal system . J.R.R. Tolkien coined a word for the ' decimal system of counting ' maquanotie .
The known numbers for 1 – 20 are presented below ; those from early Quenya ( " Early Qenya Grammar " ) are in bold .
Other attested number words include esta and inga for ' first ' . Tolkien was dissatisfied with esta , the definition is marked with a query in the " Etymologies " . , and inga means not just ' first ' but also ' high ' , it appears in the compound Ingaran , a title bore by Ingwë , the King of all Elves . A word quainëa , meaning " a hand full " , " ten fingers " , was presented in Vinyar Tengwar .
Rasta , nahta , and yurasta are special words for " twelve " , " eighteen " , and " twenty @-@ four " only used in duodecimal counting .
Maqua means specifically a group of five objects , like the English word " pentad " ; similarly maquat refers to a group of ten . The word yunquenta for thirteen literally means " 12 and one more " . The words for numbers above two come after the noun they describe .
If no large numbers are still known in late Quenya , in early Quenya " twenty @-@ one " is minya yukainen , 30 nel ( de ) kainen , 40 kan ( ta ) kainen , 50 leminkainen , 60 enekkainen , 70 otsokainen , 80 tol ( to ) kainen and 90 huekainen . The word sóra is used in early Quenya as a counter like " million " . The Eldarissa form tuksa appears in the " Qenya Lexicon " meaning 144 , in the " Early Qenya Grammar " it stands for 100 . The expression for 1000 is tuksa kainen or tuksainen . Finally haranyë " century " may be related to the as yet unpublished late Quenya word for 100 .
= = Writing systems = =
Most of the times , Tolkien wrote his invented languages using the Latin script , but he devised a number of original writing systems to match the internal histories of his languages .
= = = Elvish writing systems = = =
Tolkien imagined many writing systems for his Elves . The most well @-@ known is the " Tengwar of Fëanor " but the first one he created c . 1919 was the " Tengwar of Rumil " , also called the sarati . He decided that , prior to their Exile , the Noldorin Elves first used the sarati of Rúmil to record Ancient Quenya . In Middle @-@ earth , Quenya appears to have been rarely written using the " Elvish runes " or cirth , named certar in Quenya .
= = = Latin script = = =
Tolkien 's spelling in Latin letters of Quenya was largely phonemic , with each letter corresponding to a specific phoneme in the language , save for some exceptions . In particular , the vowels varied in pronunciation depending upon their vowel length . Specific rules for consonants were provided in Appendix E of The Lord of the Rings , e.g. the letter c is always pronounced k , qu stands for kw , Orqui is Orkwi . Tolkien 's standard orthography for Quenya uses all the letters of the Latin script except j , k , and z , together with the acute and diaeresis marks on vowels ; the letters ñ , þ and z only appear in early Quenya . Occasionally , Tolkien wrote Quenya with a " Finnish @-@ style " orthography ( rather than the standard Latin @-@ Romance version ) , in which c is replaced by k , y with j , and long vowels written double ; . The acute accent marks long vowels , while the diaeresis indicates that a vowel is not part of a diphthong , for example in ëa or ëo , while final e is marked with a diaeresis to remind English @-@ speakers that it is not silent . Since either use is superfluous , the diaeresis was frequently omitted by Tolkien .
= = Corpus = =
The poem " Namárië " is the longest piece of Quenya found in The Lord of the Rings , yet the first sentence in Quenya is uttered by a Hobbit ; namely Frodo 's greeting to the Elves : elen síla lúmenn ' omentielvo . Other examples include Elendil 's words spoken upon reaching Middle @-@ earth , and repeated by Aragorn at his coronation : Et Eärello Endorenna utúlien . Sinomë maruvan ar Hildinyar tenn ' Ambar @-@ metta ! " Out of the Great Sea to Middle @-@ earth I am come . In this place I will abide , and my heirs , unto the ending of the world ! " Treebeard 's greeting to Celeborn and Galadriel is also spoken in Quenya : A vanimar , vanimálion nostari " O beautiful ones , parents of beautiful children " . Another fragment is Sam 's cry when he uses Galadriel 's phial against Shelob : Aiya Eärendil Elenion Ancalima ! " Hail Eärendil , brightest of stars ! " And in The Silmarillion , the phrase Utúlie 'n aurë ! Aiya Eldalië ar Atanatári , utúlie 'n aurë ! " The day has come ! Behold , people of the Eldar and Fathers of Men , the day has come ! " , is cried by Fingon before the Battle of Unnumbered Tears .
Other Quenya poems spoken by Tolkien in public but never published in his lifetime are Oilima Markirya ( " The Last Ark " ) , Nieninqe , and Earendel contained in his lecture A Secret Vice and published for the first time in 1983 in The Monsters and the Critics . A faulty fragment of the poem " Narqelion " , written in early Quenya or Elfin between November 1915 and March 1916 , was published by Humphrey Carpenter in his Biography . A facsimile of the entire poem was published only in April 1999 in Vinyar Tengwar No. 40 .
= Spider @-@ Man ( 2002 film ) =
Spider @-@ Man is a 2002 American superhero film directed by Sam Raimi . Based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name , the film stars Tobey Maguire as Peter Parker , a high school student living in New York City , who turns to crimefighting after developing spider @-@ like super powers . Spider @-@ Man also stars Willem Dafoe as Norman Osborn ( a.k.a. the Green Goblin ) , Kirsten Dunst as Peter 's love interest Mary Jane Watson , Rosemary Harris and Cliff Robertson as Aunt May and Uncle Ben , and James Franco as his best friend Harry Osborn .
After progress on the film stalled for nearly 25 years , it was licensed for a worldwide release by Sony Pictures Entertainment in 1999 after it acquired options from MGM on all previous scripts developed by Cannon Films , Carolco and New Cannon . Exercising its option on just two elements from this multi @-@ script acquisition ( a screenplay credited to James Cameron , Ted Newsom , John Brancato , Barney Cohen , and " Joseph Goldman " ( the pen name of Menahem Golan ) and a later treatment credited solely to Cameron ) , Sony hired David Koepp to create a working screenplay from this " Cameron material " . Directors Roland Emmerich , Ang Lee , Chris Columbus , Jan de Bont , M. Night Shyamalan , Tony Scott and David Fincher were considered to direct the project before Raimi was hired as director in 2000 . The Koepp script was rewritten by Scott Rosenberg during preproduction and received a dialogue polish from Alvin Sargent during production .
Filming took place in Los Angeles , and New York City from January 8 to June 30 , 2001 . Spider @-@ Man premiered in the Philippines on April 30 , 2002 , and had its general release in the United States on May 3 , 2002 . It became a critical and financial success . For its time , it was the only film to reach $ 100 million in its first weekend , had the largest opening weekend gross of all time , and was the most successful film based on a comic book . With $ 821 @.@ 7 million worldwide , it was 2002 's third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film and is the 50th @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of all time ( 7th at the time of release ) .
The film was nominated at the 75th Academy Awards ceremony for Best Visual Effects and Best Sound Mixing . Due to the success of the film , Columbia Pictures and Marvel released two sequels , Spider @-@ Man 2 in 2004 , and Spider @-@ Man 3 in 2007 .
= = Plot = =
High @-@ school senior Peter Parker lives with his Aunt May and Uncle Ben and is a school outcast . On a school field trip , he visits a genetics laboratory with his friend Harry Osborn and love interest , Mary Jane Watson . There , Peter is bitten by a genetically engineered " super spider " . Shortly after arriving home , he becomes unconscious . Meanwhile , Harry 's father , scientist Norman Osborn , owner of Oscorp , is trying to secure an important military contract . He experiments on himself with an unstable performance @-@ enhancing chemical . After absorbing the chemical , he goes insane and kills his assistant .
The next morning , Peter finds that he is no longer near @-@ sighted and his body has metamorphosized into a more muscular physique . At school , he finds that his body can produce webs and his quickened reflexes let him avoid injury during a confrontation with Flash Thompson . Peter discovers he has developed superhuman speed , strength , the ability to stick to surfaces , and a heightened ability to sense danger .
Brushing off Ben 's advice that " With great power comes great responsibility , " Peter thinks of impressing Mary Jane with a car . He enters an underground fighting tournament and wins his first match , but the promoter cheats him out of his money . When a thief suddenly raids the promoter 's office , Peter allows him to escape . Moments later , he discovers that Ben was carjacked and killed . Peter pursues and confronts the carjacker , only to realize it was the thief he let escape . After Peter disarms him , the carjacker flees , but dies in the process . Meanwhile , a crazed Norman interrupts a military experiment and kills several scientists and the military 's General Slocum .
Upon graduating , Peter begins using his abilities to fight injustice , donning a costume and the persona of Spider @-@ Man . J. Jonah Jameson , a newspaper company headmaster , hires Peter as a freelance photographer , since he is the only person providing clear images of Spider @-@ Man .
Norman , upon learning Oscorp 's board members plan to sell the company , assassinates them at the World Unity Fair . Jameson quickly dubs the mysterious killer the Green Goblin . The Goblin offers Spider @-@ Man a place at his side , but Spider @-@ Man refuses . They fight and Spider @-@ Man is wounded . At Thanksgiving dinner , May invites Mary Jane , Harry and Norman . During the dinner , Norman sees the wound and realizes Spider @-@ Man 's identity . Shortly after he leaves , the Green Goblin attacks and hospitalizes May .
Mary Jane admits she has a crush on Spider @-@ Man , who has rescued her on numerous occasions , and asks Peter whether Spider @-@ Man ever asked about her . Harry , who loves Mary Jane , arrives and learns she has feelings for Peter . Devastated , Harry tells his father that Peter loves Mary Jane , unintentionally revealing Spider @-@ Man 's biggest weakness .
The Goblin holds Mary Jane and a Roosevelt Island Tram car full of children hostage alongside the Queensboro Bridge . He forces Spider @-@ Man to choose whom he wants to save , and drops Mary Jane and the children . Spider @-@ Man manages to save both Mary Jane and the tram car , while the Goblin is pelted by civilians who side with Spider @-@ Man . The Goblin then grabs Spider @-@ Man and throws him into an abandoned building where they battle . When the Goblin boasts about how he will later kill Mary Jane , an enraged Spider @-@ Man overpowers the Goblin .
Norman reveals himself to Spider @-@ Man , who stops attacking . He begs for forgiveness , but at the same time controls his glider to impale his foe . Sensing the attack , Spider @-@ Man dodges , and the glider impales Norman . As he dies , Norman begs Peter not to tell Harry of the Green Goblin 's identity . Spider @-@ Man takes Norman 's body back to his house . Harry arrives to find Spider @-@ Man standing over his father 's body . He seizes a gun , intent on shooting Spider @-@ Man , but Spider @-@ Man escapes and hides the Green Goblin 's equipment .
At Norman ’ s funeral , Harry swears vengeance toward Spider @-@ Man , whom he deems responsible for his father 's death , and asserts that Peter is all the family he has left . Mary Jane confesses to Peter that she is in love with him . Peter , however , feels that he must protect her from the unwanted attentions of Spider @-@ Man 's enemies . He hides his true feelings and tells Mary Jane that they can only be friends . As Peter leaves the funeral , he recalls Ben 's words , and accepts his new responsibility as Spider @-@ Man .
= = Cast = =
Tobey Maguire as Peter Parker / Spider @-@ Man
Peter is an academically brilliant but socially inept boy who is bitten by a genetically modified spider and gains spider @-@ like abilities . Maguire was cast as Peter in July 2000 , having been Raimi 's primary choice for the role after he saw The Cider House Rules . The studio was initially hesitant to cast someone who did not seem to fit the ranks of " adrenaline @-@ pumping , tail @-@ kicking titans " , but Maguire managed to impress studio executives with his audition . The actor was signed for a deal in the range of $ 3 to $ 4 million with higher salary options for two sequels . To prepare , Maguire was trained by a physical trainer , a yoga instructor , a martial arts expert , and a climbing expert , taking several months to improve his physique . Maguire studied spiders and worked with a wire man to simulate the arachnidlike motion , and had a special diet . The studio had expressed interest in actors Leonardo DiCaprio , Edward Furlong , and Freddie Prinze , Jr . , Chris Klein , Wes Bentley , and Heath Ledger . Edward Furlong had been considered by James Cameron for the role in 1996 , while Raimi joked of Prinze that " [ he ] won 't even be allowed to buy a ticket to see this film . " In addition , actors Scott Speedman , Jay Rodan , and James Franco were involved in screen tests for the lead role with Franco later being cast as Harry Osborn .
Willem Dafoe as Norman Osborn / Green Goblin
Scientist , engineer , billionaire , founder & owner of Oscorp who tests an unstable strength enhancer on himself and becomes the insane and powerful Green Goblin . Unaware of Spider @-@ Man 's true identity , he also sees himself as a father figure for Peter , ignoring his own son , Harry . Dafoe was cast as Osborn in November 2000 , after Nicolas Cage , John Malkovich , and John Travolta turned down the role . Dafoe insisted on wearing the uncomfortable costume as he felt that a stuntman would not convey the character 's necessary body language . The 580 @-@ piece suit took half an hour to put on .
Kirsten Dunst as Mary Jane Watson
The girl whom Peter Parker has developed a crush since he was six years old . Mary Jane has an abusive father , and aspires to become an actress , but becomes a waitress at a run down diner , a fact she hides from her boyfriend , Harry . Before Raimi cast Dunst , he had expressed his interest in casting Alicia Witt . Dunst decided to audition after learning Maguire had been cast , feeling the film would have a more independent feel . Dunst earned the role a month before shooting in an audition in Berlin .
James Franco as Harry Osborn
Peter Parker 's best friend and Norman 's son . Before being cast as Peter 's best friend and flatmate , Franco had screen tested for Spider @-@ Man himself .
Cliff Robertson as Ben Parker
May Parker 's husband and Peter Parker 's uncle , a fired electrician who is trying to find a new job . He is killed by a carjacker whom Peter failed to stop , and leaves Peter with the message , " With great power comes great responsibility . "
Rosemary Harris as May Parker
Ben Parker 's wife and Peter Parker 's aunt who is supportive of Peter 's love for Mary Jane .
J. K. Simmons as J. Jonah Jameson
The grouchy & miserly owner / publisher of the Daily Bugle who despises Spider @-@ Man . Nonetheless , he has a good side and pays Peter for photos of Spider @-@ Man , and refuses to tell the Green Goblin the identity of the photographer .
Joe Manganiello as Eugene " Flash " Thompson :
A repugnant high school jock who bullies Peter , and is defeated in a fight after Peter inherits his spider powers .
Bill Nunn as Joseph " Robbie " Robertson
The kindly editor at the Daily Bugle , who on occasion helps Peter .
Michael Papajohn as the Carjacker
The criminal who robs the wrestling manager who refuses to pay Peter Parker for his ring performance and later murders Ben Parker when he carjacks him in the
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= The Boys in the Bar =
" The Boys in the Bar " is the sixteenth episode of the first season of the American situation comedy television series Cheers . It originally aired on January 27 , 1983 on NBC . It is co @-@ written by Ken Levine and David Isaacs and directed by James Burrows . This episode 's narrative deals with homosexuality , coming out , and homophobia . It was inspired by the coming out story of former Los Angeles Dodgers baseball player , Glenn Burke . In this episode , Sam 's former teammate , Tom — portrayed by Alan Autry — reveals his homosexuality and Sam slowly becomes supportive of him . The bar 's regular customers express their disdain toward Sam 's support and fear that because of Sam 's support of Tom , the bar will become a place full of homosexuals . The episode 's Nielsen ratings at its initial airing were low but improved after subsequent airings on NBC . This episode has received more attention since .
= = Plot = =
Tom Kenderson ( Alan Autry ) , an old friend and baseball teammate of bartender Sam Malone ( Ted Danson ) , announces in his forthcoming autobiography that he is homosexual . At a press conference held at the bar , Sam is shocked about Tom 's revelation . Diane Chambers ( Shelley Long ) helps Sam to calm down , and they discuss Tom . Moments later , Sam publicly accepts and supports Tom and his sexuality , which local newspapers report on their front pages . The next day , as they read the newspaper , the bar 's regular patrons — including Norm ( George Wendt ) — express their disdain toward homosexuals and their worries that Sam 's support for his old friend will turn Cheers into a gay bar . Diane criticizes their homophobia and says that there are actually two gay men in the bar .
The regulars conclude that three male newcomers are homosexual and try to persuade Sam to escort them from the bar . Sam becomes concerned about dividing his loyalties between his regular customers and potential gay customers . Employees and regulars — pulled in by Diane — argue over the three newcomers in the billiard room . When three newcomers congratulate Sam for his support of Tom , Sam decides to not eject them and to avoid discriminating between his customers . Norm and the other regulars trick the three men into assuming that 7 : 00 pm is the last call for drinks at and escort them from the bar . Diane tells the regulars that the men they escorted out are not homosexual and that the two gay men are still present . The two men in question kiss Norm on his cheeks .
= = Production = =
" The Boys in the Bar " was co @-@ written by Ken Levine and David Isaacs , and was directed by James Burrows . It was inspired by the coming out story of former Los Angeles Dodgers baseball player Glenn Burke . Levine wanted to explore homophobia in a sports bar in this episode . However , NBC deemed the story " too risky " for Cheers , whose Nielsen ratings were low during its first season in 1982 – 83 . Nevertheless , the production of this episode went ahead for five days ; rehearsals were problem @-@ free and some minor tweaks that did not have major effects on the script were made . The cast rehearsed for the first three days of production , the camera crew rehearsed on the fourth day and a live studio audience were present on the fifth . The cast — including Ted Danson , who advised Levine not to change a word — loved this episode , and the crew found it — especially the cheek @-@ kissing scene at the end — hilarious . However , according to Levine , the live studio audience remained silent during filming ; the ending was reshot with Norm given an extra line , " better than Vera " , referring to the character 's wife 's kissing .
Silence . Dead silence . You could hear crickets . It wasn 't like some people got it and others didn 't . Nobody laughed . Not a single person ... No one had an explanation .
Background actors portraying bar customers are John Furey , Michael Kearns , Kenneth Tigar , Lee Ryan , Jack Knight , and Tom Babson . Shannon Sullivan and John Bluto portray reporters at the press conference . Harry Anderson reprises his role of Harry " the Hat " Gittes in the cold open .
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
" The Boys in the Bar " aired at 9 : 30 pm on NBC on January 27 , 1983 , competing against CBS 's Simon & Simon and ABC 's It Takes Two , It ranked 41st out of 67 nationally @-@ broadcast programs and garnered a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 9 . In Alaska , it aired on February 10 , 1983 at 8 : 00 pm AKT . The episode was broadcast again on July 28 , 1983 at 9 : 30pm against a rerun of Simon & Simon and ABC 's television film Shooting Stars , and ranked 25th with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 8 and 23 share . It aired again on January 17 , 1985 at 9 : 00 pm against Simon & Simon and a rerun of ABC 's television film Who Will Love My Children ? , and ranked 13th with a Nielsen rating of 20 @.@ 4 — equivalent to 17 @.@ 5 million homes .
= = = Critical reaction = = =
Ben Shapiro , author of Primetime Propaganda , called " The Boys in the Bar " an episode that pushes a liberal agenda " in a soft and funny manner [ that ] peppered the first season " . Shapiro said the episode 's ending shows " how wrong and silly [ Norm ] is " about homosexuality , and it is " simply too awkward for the general public " . Cory Barker from the website TV Surveillance disdained Norm 's comments about homosexuals but called them " honest for the time and circumstances " .
According to the book , What 's Good on TV , Sam 's concerns about losing regular , anti @-@ homosexual bar customers if Cheers were to become a gay bar is depicted as sympathetic towards regulars and " a practical argument " instead of a " strong moral argument " . Stephen Tropiano called this episode " the definite highlight of Season One " in PopMatters and , in the 2002 book The Prime Time Closet , Tropiano called it a moral lesson about judging a person based on appearances . Nevertheless , Tropiano said that the fictional baseball player Tom Kenderson is typical of gay characters who are related to a series regular , appear just once , are exploited for delivering a message about homosexuality to the audience , and are then discarded , never to be " seen , heard , or mentioned again " .
The A.V. Club critics discussed this episode in 2012 . Phil Nugent found this episode unfunny and intended as a message to tolerate homosexuals by making Norm and other regulars appear " ridiculous " . Noel Murray said that the episode 's " bifurcated structure " prevented more development for Sam 's old baseball team mate , and Murray found " stereotypes " of gay men dated . Nevertheless , Murray and Donna Bowman considered it to be more about men securing their own machismo than their tolerating homosexuality . Ryan McGee found the studio audience 's reactions for this episode ambiguous , especially years after this episode aired .
= = = Accolades = = =
This episode was nominated for the " Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series " at the 1983 Primetime Emmy Awards , but lost to " Give Me a Ring Sometime " — the pilot episode of Cheers . In 1984 , it won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay - Episodic Comedy award , along with " Give Me a Ring Sometime " . The Alliance for Gay and Lesbian Artists in the Entertainment Industry ( AGLA ) awarded this episode in 1983 for a " realistic [ depiction ] of homosexuals " and for Sam 's support for homosexuals in the bar .
= Transformation playing card =
A transformation playing card ( sometimes referred to as a transformation deck when assembled into a complete set ) is a type of playing card where an artist incorporates the pips of the non @-@ face cards into an artistic design . In a classical transformation playing card , the pips retain their standard position and coloration on the card . In some variations , the pips may be different in size , location or color . There is some debate as to whether these cards , often referred to as semi @-@ transformed , should be considered true transformation playing cards .
= = History = =
By the 19th century , the standard form for playing cards had become fixed in most of Europe and America . French cards used hearts , diamonds , spades and clubs . German cards used acorns , leaves , hearts and bells . It was at this time that designers in Germany , France and England began to draw small figures around the pips .
The first transformation playing cards were created by D.W. Soltan and D. Berger in 1801 as illustrations for a German edition of Hudibras . The cards illustrated were the 2 of hearts , 3 of hearts , 5 of hearts and 8 of hearts . In 1803 , John Nixon published the first complete set ( 52 cards ) of transformed cards . Titled Metastasis , this collection was also published as illustrations on sheets of paper . In 1804 , J.C. Cotta , a publisher and bookseller in Tübingen , Germany , produced the first set of transformation cards that was published as an actual deck of playing cards . These decks were published as almanacs , in which each of the 52 cards corresponded to one of the 52 weeks of the year .
In 1865 Dean and Son published a deck in which the pips have been changed in both size and location , being placed at the artist 's whim . Collectors debate as to whether or not this deck should be considered a transformation deck , due to these differences . The Dean and Son deck remained the only deck to manipuate the pips until the 1970s , when the practice gained some popularity . Today , cards that do not strictly adhere to standard pip placement , size and color are referred to as semi @-@ transformation playing cards .
An article entitled " Playing Card Squiggles . " was published in the December 1910 issue of Strand Magazine . Several Cotta cards were pictured , erroneously attributed to an unnamed French artist . Strand subsequently asked its readers to submit their own designs for card squiggles , which the magazine periodically published . John Butler Yeats was one of the first to contribute a card design to the magazine . The feature remained popular for some time .
= = Contemporary designs = =
Transformation playing cards like Art for the Earth by The Friends of the Earth and Under the Sea by the Marine Stewardship Counsel , are created for charity purposes , with different artists contributing art for each card . Similarly , other collective projects like Ultimate Deck from Dan & Dave and Stranger & Stranger or the series from Black Rock Collective brings multiple artists together to create semi @-@ transformation decks .
One of the more notable contemporary sets is the award winning The Key to the Kingdom , a semi @-@ transformation deck commissioned by London 's V & A Museum of Childhood and created by Tony Meeuwissen . It won the WH Smith Literary Award for best illustration and The Designers and Art Directory Association of London gold award . This set of cards was created around the theme of nursery rhymes and poems . The cards were sold with a book containing each poem and a picture of the corresponding card on the opposite page . Additionally , the deck was constructed as a puzzle contest laid out in the form of an original poem . The poem gave clues to pick certain cards , which then could be decrypted into a secret message . The prize of $ 10 @,@ 000 and a golden key was won by Susan Kavanagh of Essex .
With the advent of Kickstarter and other crowdfunded websites , individual artists are more easily able to bring transformation and semi @-@ transformation decks to the public . Notable examples include the series of semi @-@ transformation decks from Emmanuel Jose ( including Curator and Clipped Wings ) and Dave Ufford 's traditional transformation EclecDeck .
= Eaten Alive ( TV special ) =
Eaten Alive is an American nature documentary special which aired on Discovery Channel on December 7 , 2014 . The special focused on an expedition by wildlife author and entertainer Paul Rosolie to locate a green anaconda named " Chumana " , which he believed to be the world 's longest , in a remote location of the Amazon rainforest . The special was also purportedly to feature Rosolie being " eaten " by an anaconda , protected by a suit designed specifically for this purpose .
Though Rosolie stated that the special was intended to draw attention to wildlife conservation and the destruction of the Amazon , the special was condemned prior to its premiere by critics and the animal rights group PETA as an inhumane publicity stunt oriented towards shock value , resulting in calls for Discovery Channel to pull the special . After its premiere , Eaten Alive was widely criticized for false advertising . It did feature Rosolie attempting to feed himself to an anaconda , and the snake did attack , but did not swallow Rosolie as the title of the special implied . The stunt itself was called off due to safety concerns . One critic compared the special to The Mystery of Al Capone 's Vaults — a television event that ended with a similarly disappointing outcome that did not meet promoted expectations .
= = Development = =
A teaser for Eaten Alive was first broadcast during Discovery Channel 's telecast of Nik Wallenda 's high wire crossings in Chicago on November 2 , 2014 . The special purported to feature Paul Rosolie being " eaten " by , and retrieved from , a live anaconda . Shortly afterward , Discovery Channel released further information surrounding the special , including a statement by Rosolie . He explained that Eaten Alive was intended to draw attention to wildlife conservation , stating :
I 've seen first @-@ hand how the Amazon Rainforest is being destroyed . It is so rampant that we may be the last generation with the opportunity to save it . People need to wake up to what is going on . What better way is there to shock people than to put my life on the line with the largest snake on the planet , the Green Anaconda ?
The statements also implied his survival of the stunt , as the special had already been filmed .
Rosolie wore a " custom @-@ built snake @-@ proof suit " whilst performing the stunt to keep both him and the snake safe , and to counter threats that would be encountered during the stunt . The suit consisted of multiple layers of equipment , including a cooling vest to control his body temperature , a Tychem suit to protect against stomach acid , a mix of carbon fiber and chainmail armor to protect against impact and bites , and an externally supplied oxygen mask covered by a carbon fiber helmet . The suit was designed to withstand up to 300 psi of pressure , about three times stronger than the grip of an anaconda , which is estimated to only be around 90 psi . Rosolie also ingested a wireless device which allowed his crew to monitor his vital signs .
Eaten Alive proved to be controversial even before its premiere , attracting criticism from animal rights groups such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) , who argued that Rosolie 's stunt was an example of animal cruelty , while an online petition on Change.org urging Discovery Channel to pull the special reached over 25 @,@ 000 signatures . PETA objected to the use of an animal for " entertainment " , and went on to say that " making this snake use up energy by swallowing this fool and then possibly regurgitating him would have left the poor animal exhausted and deprived of the energy that he or she needs . Shame on this pseudo ' wildlife expert ' for tormenting this animal , and shame on the Discovery Channel for giving him the incentive to do so . "
= = Synopsis = =
Eaten Alive focused primarily on Rosolie 's expedition to the " Floating Forest " , a remote area of the Amazon rainforest , to search for and capture a large green anaconda named " Chumana " , which he believed was longer than 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) , the length of the world 's longest known anaconda . His eventual goal was to be " eaten " by the snake in an effort to promote wildlife conservation . Rosolie and his crew were unable to find Chumana , but he continued with his goal of being " eaten " by an anaconda . Rosolie was supplied with a captive , 20 foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) anaconda for use in the stunt , and he equipped himself with a specially designed protective suit , which was doused in pig blood as bait . As it had affected his range of motion , Rosolie removed some of the padding from his suit that protected his arms . While the snake would constrict him and attempt to bite his head , Rosolie halted the stunt after an hour , showing concern that the anaconda 's wrap would break his arm .
In regards to the outcome , Rosolie explained that the anaconda " [ got ] my arm into a position where her force was fully on my exposed arm . I started to feel the blood drain out of my hand , and I felt the bone flex . And when I got to the point where I felt like it was going to snap , I had to tap out . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
Eaten Alive premiered on December 7 , 2014 , kicking off a special week of programming on Discovery Channel known as " Mega Week " , which the network promoted as a " weeklong celebration of all things Discovery . " The special was seen by 4 @.@ 1 million viewers , making it Discovery Channel 's highest @-@ rated nature program since Life in 2010 . It was also the second @-@ most popular television program of the night on social media , behind Sunday Night Football .
Prior to the broadcast , alongside similar concerns for the well @-@ being of the snake , Laura Bradley of Slate argued that Eaten Alive was a further example of Discovery Channel 's recent uses of sensationalism and pseudoscience to attract viewers , as opposed to airing content that is legitimately educational . She compared the special to Shark Week ( which she described as the network 's " biggest pieces of viewer bait " for " capitalizing on people 's fear of sharks while simultaneously misinforming the public about an animal that is actually in danger " ) , the aforementioned Nik Wallenda specials , and fictitious mermaid documentaries broadcast by sister network Animal Planet .
Following its broadcast , Eaten Alive was widely criticized by viewers and the media for false advertising , as the majority of the two @-@ hour special dealt with the search for Chumana , and as the anaconda did not swallow him as was advertised . Although promotional material on Discovery Channel 's website claimed that Rosolie would enter the anaconda , its press release for the special stated that there was only a possibility that he would . Reaction to the special on social media was negative , with comparisons being drawn to the online practice of clickbait , a Twitter user remarking that " calling this ' Getting Squeezed Really Hard ' didn 't sound as enticing " , and others making references to a line from Sir Mix @-@ a @-@ Lot 's song " Baby Got Back " referencing an " anaconda " in connection to the special .
Writing for The Guardian , Brian Moylan compared Eaten Alive to The Mystery of Al Capone 's Vaults — Geraldo Riviera 's infamous live television special that featured the 1986 opening of a secret vault once owned by Al Capone , which was purported to contain valuable items but ended up only containing debris . Moylan believed that much like the vault , " Rosolie is also nothing more than a lot of dust and a few empty Coke bottles . " However , he did praise the style of the remainder of the special , comparing it to a horror movie and describing it as being " much more dramatic and much better than it needed to be , which is a considerable accomplishment . "
PETA made further remarks criticizing Discovery Channel 's decision to go on with the special despite its earlier objections , arguing that " study after study has shown that entertainment features such as this one that show humans interfering with and handling wild animals are detrimental to species conservation . Rosolie knows this . Discovery knows this . Yet they chose to contrive and air this shameful stunt for ratings anyway . " In a statement following the broadcast , Discovery Channel re @-@ affirmed that the safety of Rosolie and the anaconda were a top priority , and that he " created this challenge to get maximum attention for one of the most beautiful and threatened parts of the world , the Amazon Rainforest and its wildlife . He went to great lengths to send this message and it was his absolute intention to be eaten alive . "
1 @-@ 800 Contacts broadcast a new commercial , featuring a character having been eaten by a snake , during Eaten Alive . The commercial 's similar theming was coincidental , as it was produced prior to the announcement of the special . However , after learning of the special , the company 's agency Pereira & O 'Dell moved up the premiere of the ad , which was originally scheduled for January 2015 , so it could air during Eaten Alive . The advert itself was also amended in reference to the special , with the character remarking that he hoped his predicament would " make [ him ] famous . " In a posting about the ad on Twitter following the special , the company noted that unlike the show itself , " someone was actually inside the snake . "
= Spencer Tracy =
Spencer Bonaventure Tracy ( April 5 , 1900 – June 10 , 1967 ) was an American actor , noted for his natural style and versatility . One of the major stars of Hollywood 's Golden Age , Tracy was nominated for nine Academy Awards for Best Actor and won two , sharing the record for nominations in that category with Laurence Olivier .
Tracy first discovered his talent for acting while attending Ripon College , and he later received a scholarship for the American Academy of Dramatic Arts . He spent seven years in the theatre , working in a succession of stock companies and intermittently on Broadway . Tracy 's breakthrough came in 1930 , when his lead performance in The Last Mile caught the attention of Hollywood . After a successful film debut in Up the River , Tracy was signed to a contract with Fox Film Corporation . His five years with Fox were unremarkable , and he remained largely unknown to audiences after 25 films .
In 1935 Tracy joined Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , at the time Hollywood 's most prestigious studio . His career flourished with a series of hit films , and in 1937 and 1938 he won consecutive Oscars for Captains Courageous and Boys Town . By the 1940s , Tracy was one of the studio 's top stars . In 1942 he appeared with Katharine Hepburn in Woman of the Year , beginning a popular partnership that produced nine movies over 25 years . Tracy left MGM in 1955 and continued to work regularly as a freelance star , despite an increasing weariness as he aged . His personal life was troubled , with a lifelong struggle against alcoholism and guilt over his son 's deafness . Tracy became estranged from his wife in the 1930s , but never divorced , conducting a long @-@ term relationship with Katharine Hepburn in private . Towards the end of his life , Tracy worked almost exclusively for director Stanley Kramer . It was for Kramer that he made his last film , Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner in 1967 , completed just 17 days before Tracy 's death .
During his career , Tracy appeared in 75 films and developed a reputation among his peers as one of the screen 's greatest actors . In 1999 the American Film Institute ranked Tracy as the 9th greatest male star of Classic Hollywood Cinema .
= = Early life = =
Tracy was born on April 5 , 1900 , in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . He was the second son of Caroline Brown ( 1874 – 1942 ) and John Edward Tracy ( 1873 – 1928 ) , a truck salesman . His mother was a Presbyterian from a wealthy Midwestern family , and his father was of Irish Catholic background . His one brother , Carroll , was four years older .
Spencer was a difficult and hyperactive child with poor school attendance . Raised as a Catholic , at nine years old he was placed in the care of Dominican nuns in the hope of transforming his behavior . Later in life he remarked , " I never would have gone back to school if there had been any other way of learning to read the subtitles in the movies . " He became fascinated with motion pictures , watching the same ones repeatedly and then re @-@ enacting scenes to his friends and neighbors . Tracy attended several Jesuit academies in his teenage years , which he claimed took the " badness " out of him and helped him improve his grades . At Marquette Academy he met future actor Pat O 'Brien , and the pair began attending plays together , awakening Tracy 's interest in the theatre .
With little care for his studies and " itching for a chance to go and see some excitement " , Tracy enlisted in the United States Navy when he turned 18 . He was sent to the Naval Training Station in North Chicago , where he was still a student when World War I came to an end . He achieved the rank of seaman second class , but never went to sea , and was discharged in February 1919 . John Tracy 's desire to see one of his sons gain a college degree drove Tracy back to high school to finish his diploma . Studies at two more institutions , plus the additional allowance of " war credits " , won Tracy a place at Ripon College . He entered Ripon in February 1921 , declaring his intention to major in medicine .
Tracy was a popular student at Ripon , where he served as president of his hall and was involved in a number of college activities . He made his stage debut in June 1921 , playing the male lead in The Truth . Tracy was very well received in this role and he quickly developed a passion for the stage . He formed an acting company with friends , which they called " The Campus Players " and took on tour . As a member of the college debate team , Tracy excelled in arguing and public speaking . It was during a tour with his debate team that Tracy auditioned for the American Academy of Dramatic Arts ( AADA ) in New York City . He was offered a scholarship to attend the school after performing a scene from one of his earlier roles .
Tracy left Ripon , and began classes at AADA in April 1922 . He was deemed fit to progress to the senior class , allowing him to join the academy stock company . Tracy made his New York debut in October 1922 , in a play called The Wedding Guests , and then his Broadway debut three months later playing a wordless robot in R.U.R. He graduated from AADA in March 1923 .
= = Career = =
= = = Stock theatre and Broadway ( 1923 – 30 ) = = =
Immediately following graduation , Tracy joined a new stock company based in White Plains , New York where he was given periphery roles . Unhappy there , he moved to a company in Cincinnati , but failed to make an impact . In November 1923 he landed a small part on Broadway in the comedy A Royal Fandango , starring Ethel Barrymore . Reviews for the show were poor and it closed after 25 performances ; Tracy later said of the failure , " My ego took an awful beating . " When he took a position with a struggling company in New Jersey , Tracy was living on an allowance of 35 cents a day . In January 1924 he played his first leading role with a company in Winnipeg , but the organization soon closed .
Tracy finally achieved some success by joining forces with the notable stock manager William H. Wright in the spring of 1924 . A stage partnership was formed with the young actress Selena Royle , who had already made her name on Broadway . It proved a popular draw and their productions were favorably received . One of these shows brought Tracy to the attention of a Broadway producer , who offered him the lead in a new play . The Sheepman previewed in October 1925 , but it received poor reviews and closed after its trial run in Connecticut . Dejected , Tracy was forced back to Wright and the stock circuit .
In the fall of 1926 , Tracy was offered his third shot at Broadway : a role in a new George M. Cohan play called Yellow . Tracy swore that if the play failed to be a hit he would leave stock and work in a " regular " business instead . Tracy was nervous about working with Cohan — one of the most important figures in American theatre — but during rehearsals Cohan announced , " Tracy , you 're the best goddamned actor I 've ever seen ! " Yellow opened on September 21 ; reviews were mixed but it ran for 135 performances . It was the beginning of an important collaboration for Tracy : " I 'd have quit the stage completely , " he later commented , " if it hadn 't been for George M. Cohan . " Cohan wrote a part specifically for Tracy in his next play , The Baby Cyclone . It opened on Broadway in September 1927 and proved to be a hit .
Tracy followed this success with another Cohan play , Whispering Friends , and in 1929 took over from Clark Gable in Conflict , a Broadway drama . A variety of other roles followed , but it was the lead in Dread , written by Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning dramatist Owen Davis that gave Tracy high hopes for success . The story of a man 's descent into madness , Dread previewed in Brooklyn to an excellent reception , but the very next day — October 29 — the New York stock market crashed . Unable to attain funding , Dread did not open on Broadway . Following this disappointment , Tracy considered leaving the theatre and returning to Milwaukee for a more stable life .
In January 1930 , Tracy was approached about a new play called The Last Mile . Looking to cast the lead role of a murderer on death row , producer Herman Shumlin met with Tracy , and later recounted : " beneath the surface , here was a man of passion , violence , sensitivity and desperation : no ordinary man , and just the man for the part . " The Last Mile opened on Broadway in February , where Tracy 's performance was met by a standing ovation that lasted 14 curtain calls . The Commonweal described him as " one of our best and most versatile young actors " . The play was a hit with critics , and ran for 289 performances .
= = = Fox ( 1930 – 35 ) = = =
In 1930 , Broadway was being heavily scouted for actors to work in the " talkies " , the new medium of sound film . Tracy was cast in two Vitaphone short movies ( Taxi Talks and The Hard Guy ) , but he had not considered becoming a film actor : " I had no ambition in that direction and I was perfectly happy on the stage " , he later explained in an interview . One of the scouts who saw Tracy in The Last Mile was director John Ford . Ford wanted Tracy for the lead role in his next picture , a prison movie . Production company Fox Film Corporation were unsure about Tracy , saying that he did not photograph well , but Ford convinced them that he was right for the role . Up the River ( 1930 ) marked the film debut of both Tracy and Humphrey Bogart . After seeing the rushes , Fox immediately offered Tracy a long @-@ term contract . Knowing that he needed the money for his family — his young son was deaf and recovering from polio — Tracy signed with Fox and moved to California . He appeared on the stage again only once more in his life .
Winfield Sheehan , the head of Fox , committed to making Tracy a bankable commodity . The studio went to efforts to promote the actor , releasing adverts for his second film Quick Millions ( 1931 ) with the headline " A New Star Shines . " Three films were made in quick succession , all of which were unsuccessful at the box office . Tracy found himself typecast in comedies , usually playing a crook or a con man . The mold was broken with his seventh picture , Disorderly Conduct ( 1932 ) , and it was the first of his films since Up the River to make a profit .
In mid @-@ 1932 , after nine pictures , Tracy remained virtually unknown to the public . He considered leaving Fox once his contract was up for renewal , but a rise in his weekly rate to $ 1 @,@ 500 convinced him to stay . He continued to appear in unpopular films , with Me and My Gal ( 1932 ) setting an all @-@ time low attendance record for the Roxy Theatre in New York City . He was loaned to Warner Bros. for 20 @,@ 000 Years in Sing Sing ( 1932 ) , a prison drama co @-@ starring Bette Davis . Tracy was hopeful that it would be his break @-@ out role , but despite good reviews this failed to materialize .
Critics began to notice Tracy with The Power and the Glory ( 1933 ) . The story of a man 's rise to prosperity , written by Preston Sturges , Tracy 's performance as railroad tycoon Tom Garner received uniformly strong reviews . William Wilkerson of The Hollywood Reporter wrote : " This sterling performer has finally been given an opportunity to show an ability that has been boxed in by gangster roles ... [ the film ] has introduced Mr. Tracy as one of the screen 's best performers " . Mordaunt Hall of The New York Times stated : " No more convincing performance has been given on the screen than Spencer Tracy 's impersonation of Tom Garner . " Shanghai Madness ( 1933 ) , meanwhile , gave Tracy a previously unseen sex appeal and served to advance his standing . Despite this attention , Tracy 's next two movies went largely unnoticed . Man 's Castle ( 1933 ) with Loretta Young was anticipated to be a hit , but made only a small profit . The Show Off ( 1934 ) , for which he was lent to Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , proved popular , but his subsequent outings continued to be unsuccessful .
Tracy drank heavily during his years with Fox , and gained a reputation as an alcoholic . He failed to report for filming on Marie Galante in June 1934 , and was found in his hotel room , virtually unconscious after a two @-@ week binge . Tracy was removed from the Fox payroll while he recovered in a hospital , and then sued for $ 125 @,@ 000 for delaying the production . He completed only two more pictures with the studio .
The details on how Tracy 's relationship with Fox ended are unclear : later in life Tracy maintained that he was fired for his drunken behavior , but the Fox records do not support such an account . He was still under contract with the studio when MGM expressed their interest in the actor . They were in need of a new male star , and contacted Tracy on April 2 , 1935 , offering him a seven @-@ year deal . That afternoon , the contract between Tracy and Fox was terminated " by mutual consent " . Tracy made a total of 25 pictures in the five years he was with Fox Film Corporation , most of which lost money at the box office .
= = = Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( 1935 – 55 ) = = =
= = = = Growing reputation = = = =
In the 1930s , Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer was the most respected movie production studio in Hollywood . When Tracy arrived there , his own reputation was not strong . Biographer James Curtis writes : " Tracy was scarcely a blip on the box office barometer in 1935 , a critics ' darling and little more " . He was , however , well known for being a troublemaker . Producer Irving G. Thalberg was nevertheless enthusiastic about working with the actor , telling journalist Louella Parsons : " Spencer Tracy will become one of MGM 's most valuable stars . "
Curtis notes that the studio managed Tracy with care , a welcome change from the ineptitude he had known at Fox , which was like " a shot of adrenaline " for the actor . His first film under the new contract was the quickly produced The Murder Man ( 1935 ) , which included the feature film debut of James Stewart . Thalberg then began a strategy of pairing Tracy with the studio 's top actresses : Whipsaw ( 1935 ) co @-@ starred Myrna Loy and was a commercial success . Riffraff ( 1936 ) put Tracy opposite Jean Harlow . Both films were , however , designed and promoted to showcase their leading ladies , thus continuing Tracy 's reputation as a secondary star .
Fury ( 1936 ) was the first film to prove that Tracy could make a success on his own merit . Directed by Fritz Lang , Tracy played a man who swears revenge after narrowly escaping death by a lynch mob . The film and performance received excellent reviews . It was popular with the public , going on to make $ 1 @.@ 3 million worldwide . Curtis writes : " audiences who , just a year earlier , had no clear handle on him , were suddenly turning out to see him . It was a transition that was nothing short of miraculous ... [ and showed ] a willingness on the part of the public to embrace a leading man who was not textbook handsome nor bigger than life . "
Fury was followed one month later with the release of the big @-@ budget disaster movie San Francisco ( 1936 ) . Tracy played a supporting role alongside Clark Gable in the film , allowing audiences to see him with the top male star in Hollywood . Taking on the role of a priest , Tracy reportedly felt a heavy responsibility in representing the church . Despite having only 17 minutes of screen time , Tracy was highly praised for his performance and received an Oscar nomination for Best Actor . San Francisco became the highest grossing picture of 1936 . Donald Deschner , in his book on Tracy , credits Fury and San Francisco as the " two films that changed his career and gave him the status of a major star . "
By this point , Tracy entered a period of self @-@ imposed sobriety and MGM expressed pleasure with Tracy 's professionalism . His public reputation continued to grow with Libeled Lady ( 1936 ) , a screwball comedy that cast him with William Powell , Loy and Harlow . According to Curtis , " Powell , Harlow and Loy were among the biggest draws in the industry , and equal billing in such a powerhouse company could only serve to advance Tracy 's standing " . Libeled Lady was his third hit picture in the space of six months .
= = = = Oscar wins = = = =
Tracy appeared in four movies in 1937 . They Gave Him a Gun went largely unnoticed , but Captains Courageous was one of the major film events of the year . Tracy played a Portuguese fisherman in the adventure movie , based on the novel by Rudyard Kipling . He was uncomfortable feigning a foreign accent , and resented having his hair curled , but the role was a hit with audiences and Tracy won the Academy Award for Best Actor . Captains Courageous was followed by Big City with Luise Rainer and Mannequin with Joan Crawford , the latter of which took good billings at the box office . With two years of hit movies and industry recognition , Tracy became a star in the United States . A 1937 poll of 20 million people to find the " King and Queen of Hollywood " ranked Tracy sixth among males . Tracy was reunited with Gable and Loy for 1938 's Test Pilot . The film was another commercial and critical success , permanently cementing the notion of Gable and Tracy as a team .
Based on the positive response he had received in San Francisco , MGM again cast Tracy as a priest in Boys Town ( 1938 ) . Portraying Edward J. Flanagan , a Catholic priest and founder of Boys Town , was a role Tracy took seriously : " I 'm so anxious to do a good job as Father Flanagan that it worries me , keeps me awake at night . " Tracy received strong reviews for his performance , and the movie grossed $ 4 million worldwide . For the second year running , Tracy received an Academy Award for Best Actor . He was humble about the recognition , saying in his acceptance speech : " I honestly do not feel that I can accept this award ... I can accept it only as it was meant to be for a great man — Father Flanagan " . He immediately sent the Academy Award statuette to Flanagan . Tracy was listed as the fifth biggest money @-@ making star of 1938 .
Tracy was absent from screens for almost a year before returning to Twentieth Century @-@ Fox on loan and appearing as Henry M. Stanley in Stanley and Livingstone , his only film of 1939 . Curtis maintains that Tracy 's non @-@ visibility did little to affect his standing with the public or exhibitors . In October of that year , a Fortune magazine survey to find the nation 's favorite movie actor listed Tracy in first place .
= = = = Established star = = = =
MGM capitalized on Tracy 's popularity , casting him in four movies for 1940 . I Take This Woman with Hedy Lamarr was a critical and commercial failure , but the historical drama Northwest Passage — Tracy 's first film in Technicolor — proved popular . He then portrayed Thomas Edison in Edison , the Man . Howard Barnes of the New York Herald Tribune was not charmed by the story , but wrote that Tracy , " by sheer persuasion of his acting " , made the film worthy . Boom Town was the third and final Gable @-@ Tracy picture , also featuring Claudette Colbert and Hedy Lamarr , making it one of the most anticipated films of the year . The film opened to the biggest crowd since Gone With the Wind .
Tracy signed a new contract with MGM in April 1941 , which paid $ 5 @,@ 000 a week and limited him to three pictures a year ( Tracy had previously expressed a need to reduce his workload ) . The contract also stated for the first time that his billing was to be " that of a star " . Contrary to popular belief , the contract did not include a clause that he receive top billing , but from this point onward , every film Tracy appeared in featured his name in pole position .
In 1941 , Tracy returned to the role of Father Flanagan in Men of Boys Town . It was followed later that year by Tracy 's only venture into the horror genre , an adaptation of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde , co @-@ starring Ingrid Bergman and Lana Turner . Tracy was unhappy with the film , disliking the heavy make @-@ up he needed to portray Hyde . Critical response to the film was mixed . Theodore Strauss of The New York Times wrote that " Mr. Tracy 's portrait of Hyde is not so much evil incarnate as it is the ham rampant . " The film was popular with audiences , however , taking in more than $ 2 million at the box office .
Tracy was set to star in a film version of The Yearling for 1942 , but on @-@ set difficulties and bad weather forced the production to close . With the end of that project , he became available for the new Katharine Hepburn movie , Woman of the Year ( 1942 ) . Hepburn greatly admired Tracy , calling him " the best movie actor there was " . She had wanted him for her comeback vehicle , The Philadelphia Story ( 1940 ) . Hepburn was delighted that Tracy was available for Woman of the Year , saying " I was just damned grateful he was willing to work with me . " The romantic comedy performed well at the box office and received strong reviews . William Boehnel wrote in the New York World @-@ Telegram , " To begin with , it has Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy in the leading roles . This in itself would be enough to make any film memorable . But when you get Tracy and Hepburn turning in brilliant performances to boot , you 've got something to cheer about . "
Woman of the Year was followed by an adaptation of John Steinbeck 's Tortilla Flat ( 1942 ) which met with a tepid response . MGM did not hesitate to repeat the teaming of Tracy and Hepburn and cast them in the dark mystery Keeper of the Flame ( 1942 ) . Despite a weak critical reception the film was a popular success , outgrossing its predecessor and confirming the strength of the partnership .
Tracy 's next three appearances were all war @-@ based . A Guy Named Joe ( 1943 ) with Irene Dunne surpassed San Francisco to become his highest @-@ grossing film to date . The Seventh Cross ( 1944 ) , about an escape from a Nazi concentration camp , met with critical acclaim . It was followed by the aviation film Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo ( 1944 ) . On the strength of these three releases , the annual Quigley poll revealed Tracy was MGM 's biggest money @-@ making star of 1944 . His only film the following year was Without Love ( 1945 ) , a third film with Hepburn that performed well at the box office despite muted enthusiasm from critics .
= = = = Stage and screen = = = =
In 1945 , Tracy returned to the stage for the first time in 15 years . He had been through a dark patch personally — culminating with a stay in hospital — and Hepburn felt that a play would help restore his focus . Tracy told a journalist in April , " I 'm coming back to Broadway to see if I can still act . " The play was The Rugged Path by Robert E. Sherwood . It first previewed in Providence on September 28 , to a sold out crowd and tepid response . It was a difficult production ; director Garson Kanin later wrote : " In the ten days prior to the New York opening all the important relationships had deteriorated . Spencer was tense and unbending , could not , or would not , take direction " . Tracy considered leaving the show before it even opened on Broadway , and lasted there just six weeks before announcing his intention to close the show . It closed on January 19 , 1946 , after 81 performances . Tracy later explained to a friend : " I couldn 't say those goddamn lines over and over and over again every night ... At least every day is a new day for me in films ... But this thing — every day , every day , over and over again . "
Tracy was absent from screens in 1946 , the first year since his motion picture debut that there was no Spencer Tracy release . His next film was The Sea of Grass ( 1947 ) a drama set in the American Old West with Hepburn . Similarly to Keeper of the Flame and Without Love , a lukewarm response from critics did not stop it from being a financial success both at home and abroad . He followed it later that year with Cass Timberlane , in which he played a judge . It was a commercial success , but Curtis notes that co @-@ star Lana Turner overshadowed Tracy in most of the reviews .
A fifth film with Hepburn came in 1948 , Frank Capra 's political drama State of the Union . Tracy played a presidential candidate in the movie , which was warmly received . He then appeared in Edward , My Son ( 1949 ) with Deborah Kerr . Tracy disliked the role , and told director George Cukor , " It 's rather disconcerting to me to find how easily I play a heel . " Upon its release , The New Yorker wrote of the " hopeless miscasting of Mr. Tracy " . The film became Tracy 's biggest money @-@ loser at MGM .
Tracy finished off the 1940s with Malaya ( 1949 ) , an adventure film with James Stewart , and Adam 's Rib ( 1949 ) , a comedy with Tracy and Hepburn playing married lawyers who oppose each other in court . Tracy and Hepburn 's friends , Garson Kanin and Ruth Gordon , wrote the parts specifically for the duo . The film received strong reviews and became the highest grossing Tracy @-@ Hepburn picture to date . Film critic Bosley Crowther wrote , " Mr. Tracy and Miss Hepburn are the stellar performers in this show and their perfect compatibility in comic capers is delightful to see . "
= = = = Final MGM years = = = =
Tracy received his first Academy Award nomination in 12 years for playing the role of Stanley Banks in Father of the Bride ( 1950 ) . In the comedy film , Banks attempts to handle preparations for his daughter 's ( played by Elizabeth Taylor ) upcoming wedding . " It 's the second strong comedy in a row for Spencer Tracy , doing the title role , and he socks it " , Variety noted . The film was the biggest commercial success of Tracy 's career to date , earning $ 6 million worldwide . MGM wanted a sequel , and while Tracy was unsure , he accepted . Father 's Little Dividend ( 1951 ) was released ten months later and performed well at the box office . On the strength of the two movies , Tracy polled as one of the nation 's top stars once again .
In 1951 , Tracy portrayed a lawyer in The People Against O 'Hara . The next year he re @-@ teamed with Hepburn for the sports comedy Pat and Mike ( 1952 ) , the second feature written expressly for the pair by Kanin and Gordon . Pat and Mike became one of the duo 's most popular and critically acclaimed films . Tracy followed it with Plymouth Adventure ( 1952 ) , a historical drama set abroad the Mayflower , co @-@ starring Gene Tierney . It met with a poor response and posted a loss of $ 1 @.@ 8 million . In 1953 , Tracy returned to the role of a concerned father in The Actress . " That film ... got more [ acclaim ] from the critics than any film I ever made in all the years , and we didn 't make enough to pay for the ushers in the theatre , " recalled producer Lawrence Weingarten . For his performance in The Actress , Tracy won a Golden Globe Award and received a nomination for the British Academy Film Award ( BAFTA ) .
MGM lent Tracy to Twentieth Century @-@ Fox for the Western film Broken Lance , his only appearance of 1954 . The picture was well received . In 1955 Tracy turned down William Wyler 's The Desperate Hours because he refused to take second @-@ billing to Humphrey Bogart . Instead , Tracy appeared as a one @-@ armed protagonist who faces the hostility of a small town in Bad Day at Black Rock ( 1955 ) , a film directed by John Sturges . For his work , Tracy received a fifth Oscar nomination and was awarded the Best Actor prize at the Cannes Film Festival . He had personally been unhappy with the picture , and threatened to leave it during production . This behavior became a regular occurrence for the aging Tracy , who was increasingly lethargic and cynical . He began production on Tribute to a Bad Man in the summer of 1955 , but pulled out when the location shooting in Colorado gave him altitude sickness . The trouble caused by the picture fractured Tracy 's relationship with MGM . In June 1955 he was the last remaining star of the studio 's heyday , but with his contract up for renewal — Tracy opted to go independent for the first time in his movie career .
= = = Independent player ( 1956 – 67 ) = = =
Tracy 's first post @-@ MGM appearance was in The Mountain ( 1956 ) with Robert Wagner , who played his much younger brother ( Wagner had earlier played his son in Broken Lance ) . The location filming in the French Alps proved a difficult experience , and he threatened to leave the project . His performance earned a BAFTA nomination for Best Foreign Actor . Tracy and Hepburn then paired together for the eighth time in the office @-@ based comedy Desk Set ( 1957 ) . He again had to be convinced to stay with the film which met with a weak response .
In 1958 , Tracy appeared in The Old Man and the Sea , a project that had been in development for five years . An adaptation of Ernest Hemingway 's novella of the same name , Hemingway 's agent , Leland Hayward , had previously written to the author : " Of all Hollywood people , the one that comes the closest to me in quality , in personality and voice , in personal dignity and ability , is Spencer Tracy . " Tracy was delighted to be offered the role . He was told to lose some of his 210 pounds before filming began , but failed to do so . Hemingway thus reported that Tracy was a " terrible liability to the picture " , and had to be reassured that the star was being carefully photographed to disguise his weight . Appearing alone on screen for the majority of the film , Tracy considered The Old Man and the Sea the toughest part he ever played . In reviewing the performance , Jack Moffitt of the Hollywood Reporter said it was " so intimate and revealing of universal human experience that , to me , it almost transcended acting and became reality . " Tracy received Oscar and BAFTA Award nominations for the work .
After abandoning two projects , including a proposed remake of The Blue Angel with Marilyn Monroe , Tracy 's next feature was The Last Hurrah ( 1958 ) . It reunited him with his debut director , John Ford , after 28 years . Tracy took a year to commit to the project , in which he played an Irish @-@ American mayor seeking re @-@ election . The movie was favorably reviewed , but not commercially successful . At the end of 1958 , the National Board of Review named Tracy the year 's Best Actor . He nevertheless began to ponder retirement , with Curtis writing that he was " chronically tired , unhappy , ill , and uninterested in work . "
= = = = Stanley Kramer partnership = = = =
Tracy did not appear on the screen again until October 1960 , with the release of Inherit the Wind , a film based on the 1925 Scopes " Monkey Trial " which debated the right to teach evolution in schools . Director Stanley Kramer sought Tracy for the role of lawyer Clarence Darrow from the outset . Starring opposite Tracy was Fredric March , a pairing Variety described as " a stroke of casting genius ... Both men are spellbinders in the most laudatory sense of the word . " The film garnered Tracy some of the strongest reviews of his career — he was nominated for an Academy Award , BAFTA Award and Golden Globe Award for the performance — but it was not a commercial hit .
In the volcano disaster movie The Devil at 4 O 'Clock ( 1961 ) , Tracy played a priest for the fourth time in his career . His co @-@ star , Frank Sinatra , ceded top @-@ billing to guarantee Tracy for the picture . Continuing his pattern of indecisiveness , Tracy briefly pulled out of the production before recommitting . Critics were unenthusiastic about the film , which was nevertheless Tracy 's most successful box office outing since Father of the Bride .
Inherit the Wind began an enduring collaboration between Stanley Kramer and Tracy — Kramer directed Tracy 's three final films . Judgment at Nuremberg , released at the end of 1961 , was their second feature together . The film depicts the " Judges ' Trial " , the trial of Nazi judges for their role in the Holocaust . Abby Mann wrote the role of Judge Haywood with Tracy in mind ; Tracy called it the best script he had ever read . At the end of the film , Tracy delivered a 13 @-@ minute speech . He recorded it in one take , and received a round of applause from the cast and crew . Upon seeing the film , Mann wrote to Tracy : " Every writer ought to have the experience of having Spencer Tracy do his lines . There is nothing in the world quite like it . " The film met with positive reviews and a large audience ; Tracy received an eighth Oscar nomination for his performance .
Tracy turned down roles in Long Days Journey Into Night ( 1962 ) and The Leopard ( 1963 ) , and had to pull out of MGM 's all @-@ star How the West Was Won ( 1962 ) when it clashed with Judgment at Nuremberg . He was , however , able to record the film 's narration track . Tracy was in very poor health by this time , and working became a challenge . He took the role of Captain T. G. Culpeper in Kramer 's comedy It 's a Mad , Mad , Mad , Mad World ( 1963 ) , a small but key part that he was able to complete in nine days . Tracy 's name topped the list of performers , and the comedy became the highest grossing American film of the year . As his health worsened he had to cancel commitments to Cheyenne Autumn ( 1964 ) and The Cincinnati Kid ( 1965 ) . Offers continued to come , but Tracy did not work again until Kramer 's Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner ( 1967 ) , Tracy 's ninth and final film with Hepburn .
Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner explored the topic of interracial marriage , with Tracy playing a liberal @-@ minded newspaper publisher whose values are challenged when his daughter wishes to marry a black man , played by Sidney Poitier . Tracy was happy to be working again , but told the press the movie would be his last . To commence filming , Tracy had to be insured for the high premium of $ 71 @,@ 000 ; Hepburn and Kramer both put their salaries in escrow until Tracy completed his scenes . In poor health , Tracy could only work for two or three hours each day . He completed his last scene on May 24 , 1967 . Tracy died 17 days later from a heart attack on June 10 .
The film was released in December , and although reviews were mixed , Curtis notes that " Tracy 's performance was singled out for praise in nearly every instance . " Brendan Gill of The New Yorker wrote that Tracy gave " a faultless and , under the circumstances , heartbreaking performance . " The movie became Tracy 's highest grossing picture . He received a posthumous nomination for Best Actor — his ninth — at the 40th Academy Awards , along with a Golden Globe Award nomination and a BAFTA win for Best Actor .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Marriage and family = = =
Tracy met actress Louise Treadwell while they were both members of the Wood Players in White Plains , New York — the first stock company Tracy joined after graduating . The couple were engaged in May 1923 , and married on September 10 of that year between the matinee and evening performances of his show .
Their son , John Ten Broeck Tracy , was born in June 1924 . When John was 10 months old , Louise discovered that the boy was deaf . She resisted telling Tracy for three months . Tracy was devastated by the news and felt a lifelong guilt over his son 's deafness . He was convinced that John 's hearing impairment was a punishment for his own sins . As a result , Tracy had trouble connecting with his son and distanced himself from his family . Joseph L. Mankiewicz , a friend of Tracy 's , later theorized : " [ Tracy ] didn 't leave Louise . He left the scene of his guilt . " A second child , Louise " Susie " Treadwell Tracy , was born in July 1932 . The children were raised in their mother 's Episcopalian faith .
Tracy left the family home in 1933 , and he and Louise openly discussed the separation with the media , maintaining that they were still friends and had not taken divorce action . From September 1933 to June 1934 , Tracy had a public affair with Loretta Young , his co @-@ star in Man 's Castle . He reconciled with Louise in 1935 . There was never again an official separation between Tracy and his wife , but the marriage continued to be troubled . Tracy increasingly lived in hotels and by the 1940s , the two were effectively living separate lives . Tracy frequently engaged in extramarital affairs , including with co @-@ stars Joan Crawford in 1937 and Ingrid Bergman in 1941 .
= = = Hepburn = = =
While making Woman of the Year in September 1941 , Tracy began what was to become a lifelong relationship with Katharine Hepburn . The actress became devoted to him , and their relationship lasted until his death 26 years later . Tracy never returned to live in the family home , although he visited regularly .
The MGM moguls were careful to protect their contract big stars from controversy , and Tracy wished to conceal his relationship with Hepburn from his wife , so it was hidden from the public . The couple did not live together until the final years of Tracy 's life , when they shared a cottage on George Cukor 's estate in Beverly Hills . In Hollywood , however , the intimate nature of the Tracy @-@ Hepburn partnership was an open secret . Angela Lansbury , who worked with the pair on State of the Union , later said : " We all knew , but nobody ever said anything . In those days it wasn 't discussed . " Tracy was not someone to express his emotions , but friend Betsy Drake believed he " was utterly dependent upon Hepburn . " Tracy 's infidelity apparently continued , however , and Tracy is reported to have had an affair with Gene Tierney during the making of Plymouth Adventure in 1952 .
Neither Tracy nor his wife ever pursued a divorce , despite their estrangement . He told Joan Fontaine , " I can get a divorce whenever I want to , but my wife and Kate like things just as they are . " Louise , meanwhile , reportedly commented : " I will be Mrs. Spencer Tracy until the day I die . " Hepburn did not interfere and never fought for marriage .
= = = Character = = =
Tracy was an avowed Catholic , but his cousin , Jane Feely , said that he did not devoutly follow the religion : " he was often not a practical Catholic either . I would call him a spiritual Catholic . " Garson Kanin , a friend of Tracy 's for 25 years , described him as " a true believer " who respected his religion . At periods in his life , Tracy attended Mass regularly . Tracy did not believe actors should publicize their political views , but in 1940 lent his name to the " Hollywood for Roosevelt " committee and personally identified as a Democrat .
Tracy struggled with alcoholism throughout his adult life , an ailment that ran in his father 's side of the family . Rather than being a steady drinker , as commonly thought , he was prone to periods of binging on alcohol . Loretta Young remarked that Tracy was " awful " when he was drunk , and he was twice arrested for his behavior while intoxicated . Because of this bad reaction to alcohol , Tracy regularly embarked on prolonged periods of sobriety , and developed an all @-@ or @-@ nothing routine . Hepburn commented that he could stop drinking for " months , even years at a time " .
Tracy was prone to bouts of depression and anxiety : he was described by Mrs. Tracy as having " the most volatile disposition I 've ever seen — up in the clouds one minute and down in the depths the next . And when he 's low , he 's very , very low . " He was plagued by insomnia throughout his life . As a result , Tracy became dependent on barbiturates to sleep , followed by dexedrine to function . Hepburn , who adopted a nursing role towards Tracy , was unable to understand her partner 's unhappiness . She wrote in her autobiography : " What was it ? ... Never at peace ... Tortured by some sort of guilt . Some terrible misery . "
= = = Illness and death = = =
As he entered his sixties , years of drinking , smoking , taking pills , and being overweight left Tracy in poor health . On July 21 , 1963 , he was hospitalized after a severe attack of breathlessness . Doctors found that he was suffering from pulmonary edema , where fluid accumulates in the lungs due to an inability of the heart to pump properly . They also declared his blood pressure as dangerously high . From this point on Tracy remained very weak , and Hepburn moved into his home to provide constant care . In January 1965 , he was diagnosed with hypertensive heart disease and began treatment for a previously ignored diagnosis of diabetes . Tracy almost died in September 1965 : a stay in the hospital following a prostatectomy resulted in his kidneys failing , and he spent the night in a coma . His recovery was described by his doctor as " a kind of miracle " .
Tracy spent the majority of the next two years at home with Hepburn , living what she described as a quiet life : reading , painting , and listening to music . On June 10 , 1967 , 17 days after completing Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner , Tracy awakened at 3 : 00 am to make himself a cup of tea in his apartment in Beverly Hills , California . Hepburn described in her autobiography how she followed him to the kitchen : " Just as I was about to give [ the door ] a push , there was a sound of a cup smashing to the floor — then clump — a loud clump . " She entered the room to find Tracy dead from a heart attack . Hepburn recalled , " He looked so happy to be done with living , which for all his accomplishments had been a frightful burden for him . " MGM publicist Howard Strickling told the media that Tracy had been alone when he died and was found by his housekeeper .
A Requiem Mass was held for Tracy on June 12 at the Immaculate Heart of Mary Catholic Church in East Hollywood . Active pallbearers included George Cukor , Stanley Kramer , Frank Sinatra , James Stewart , and John Ford . Out of consideration for Tracy 's family , Hepburn did not attend the funeral . Tracy was interred in Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale , California .
= = Reputation and acting style = =
Tracy had a high reputation among his peers and received considerable praise from the film industry . After his death , Dore Schary , head of Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , said , " There can be no question that he was the best and most protean actor of our screen . " Humphrey Bogart , Clark Gable , James Cagney , John Ford , Garson Kanin and Katharine Hepburn also called Tracy the greatest actor of his generation . Richard Widmark , who idolized Tracy , said : " He 's the greatest movie actor there ever was ... I 've learned more about acting from watching Tracy than in any other way . "
Tracy was particularly respected for his naturalism on screen . Hume Cronyn , who worked with Tracy on The Seventh Cross , admired his co @-@ star 's screen presence : " His method appeared to be as simple as it is difficult to achieve . He appeared to do nothing . He listened , he felt , he said the words without forcing anything . " Joan Crawford likewise expressed her admiration for Tracy 's seemingly effortless performances . His four @-@ time co @-@ star Joan Bennett said , " One never had the feeling he was ' acting ' in a scene , but the truth of the situation was actually happening , spontaneously , at the moment he spoke his lines . " James Cagney noted that Tracy was rarely the target of impressionists , because " You can 't mimic reserve and control very well " and " there 's nothing to imitate except his genius and that can 't be mimicked . " Specifically , Tracy was praised for his listening and reacting skills . Barry Nelson said that Tracy " brought the art of reacting to a new height " ; Stanley Kramer declared that Tracy " thought and listened better than anyone in the history of motion pictures " . Millard Kaufman noted that " [ Tracy ] listened with every fiber of his entire body " .
Despite the perception of being able to perform effortlessly , acquaintances of Tracy said that he would carefully prepare for each role . Joseph L. Mankiewicz lived with Tracy during the production of Test Pilot , and recounted that the actor would lock himself in his bedroom " working extremely hard " each night . Many co @-@ workers commented on his strong work @-@ ethic and professionalism . Tracy did not like to rehearse , however , and would lose his effectiveness after two or three takes . Kanin described him as " an instinctive player , who trusted the moment of creation . " Tracy 's close friend Chester Erskine pinpointed his acting style as one of " selection " — he strove to give as little as was needed to be effective — reaching " a minimum to make the maximum . "
Tracy disliked when he was asked about his technique , or about what advice he would give to others . He often belittled the profession , for instance saying to Kanin , " Why do actors think they 're so God damn important ? They 're not . Acting is not an important job in the scheme of things . Plumbing is . " Tracy was humble about his abilities , telling a journalist , " it 's just that I try no tricks . No profile . No ' great lover ' act ... I just project myself as I am — plain , trying to be honest . " He was known to have enjoyed the quip once made by Alfred Lunt : " The art of acting is — learn your lines ! " Katharine Hepburn , in an interview six years after Tracy 's death , suggested that Tracy wished he had held a different profession .
= = Assessment and legacy = =
In the 21st century , Tracy is best known to general audiences for his association with Katharine Hepburn . He continues to receive praise from film scholars : critic Leonard Maltin calls Tracy " one of the 20th century ’ s finest actors " , while film historian Jeanine Basinger describes his career as a " golden record of movie achievement " . Charles Matthews , writing for The Washington Post , argues that " Tracy deserves to be remembered for himself , as a master of acting technique " .
Preserving Tracy 's legacy , an award for excellence in film acting is bestowed in his name at the University of California , Los Angeles . Past recipients of the UCLA Spencer Tracy Award include James Stewart , Michael Douglas , Denzel Washington , Tom Hanks , Anthony Hopkins , Kirk Douglas and Morgan Freeman .
A 1986 PBS documentary titled The Spencer Tracy Legacy was hosted by Hepburn . It includes clips from Tracy 's films , and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes archival footage and home movies of Tracy 's private life and career , as well as newly filmed interviews with many of his former co @-@ stars , and with his daughter Susie Tracy . In 2009 , Tracy provided inspiration for the character Carl in Pixar 's Oscar @-@ winning film Up . Director Pete Docter explained that there is " something sweet about these grumpy old guys " . In 2014 , a film about Tracy 's relationship with Katharine Hepburn was announced to be in development .
Several of Tracy 's films , particularly his comedies , are regarded as classics of American cinema . He starred in four of the titles on the American Film Institute 's list of " 100 Years ... 100 Laughs " : Adam 's Rib , It 's a Mad , Mad , Mad , Mad World , Father of the Bride and Woman of the Year . Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner was included on AFI 's list of the 100 greatest American movies , while Captains Courageous was featured on their list of America 's most inspiring movies .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Tracy was nominated for nine Academy Awards for Best Actor , a category record he holds with Laurence Olivier . He was the first of nine actors to win the award twice , and is one of two actors to receive it consecutively , the other being Tom Hanks . Tracy was also nominated for five British Academy Film Awards , of which he won two , and four Golden Globe Awards , winning once . In addition , he received the Cannes Film Festival award for Best Actor and was once named Best Actor by the National Board of Review .
Tracy was recognized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for the following performances :
1937 : Nomination for San Francisco
1938 : Win for Captains Courageous
1939 : Win for Boys Town
1951 : Nomination for Father of the Bride
1956 : Nomination for Bad Day at Black Rock
1959 : Nomination for The Old Man and the Sea
1961 : Nomination for Inherit the Wind
1962 : Nomination for Judgment at Nuremberg
1968 : Nomination for Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner ( posthumous nomination )
= = Filmography = =
Selected filmography :
= PNC Park =
PNC Park is a baseball park located on the North Shore of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . It is the fifth home of the Pittsburgh Pirates , the city 's Major League Baseball ( MLB ) franchise . It opened during the 2001 MLB season , after the controlled implosion of the Pirates ' previous home , Three Rivers Stadium . The ballpark is sponsored by PNC Financial Services , which purchased the naming rights in 1998 . PNC Park features a natural grass playing surface and seats 38 @,@ 362 people for baseball .
Funded in conjunction with Heinz Field and the David L. Lawrence Convention Center , the $ 216 million park stands along the Allegheny River , on the North Shore of Pittsburgh with a view of Downtown Pittsburgh . Plans to build a new stadium for the Pirates originated in 1991 , but did not come to fruition for 5 years . Built in the style of " classic " stadiums , such as Pittsburgh 's Forbes Field , PNC Park also introduced unique features , such as the use of limestone in the building 's facade . The park also features a riverside concourse , steel truss work , an extensive out @-@ of @-@ town scoreboard , and many local eateries . Constructed faster than most modern stadiums , PNC Park was built in a 24 @-@ month span .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and funding = = =
On September 5 , 1991 , Pittsburgh mayor Sophie Masloff proposed a new 44 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stadium for the Pittsburgh Pirates on the city 's Northside . Three Rivers Stadium , the Pirates ' home at the time , had been designed for functionality rather than " architecture and aesthetics " . The location of Three Rivers Stadium came to be criticized for being in a hard @-@ to @-@ access portion of the city , where traffic congestion occurred before and after games . Discussions about a new ballpark took place , but were never seriously considered until entrepreneur Kevin McClatchy purchased the team in February 1996 . Until McClatchy 's purchase , plans about the team remaining in Pittsburgh were uncertain . In 1996 , Masloff 's successor , Tom Murphy , created the " Forbes Field II Task Force " . Made up of 29 political and business leaders , the team studied the challenges of constructing a new ballpark . Their final report , published on June 26 , 1996 , evaluated 13 possible locations . The " North Side site " was recommended due to its affordable cost , potential to develop the surrounding area , and opportunity to incorporate the city skyline into the stadium 's design . The site selected for the ballpark is just upriver from the site of early Pirates home field Exposition Park .
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= World War II = = =
Several nations used horse units during World War II . The Polish army used cavalry to defend against the armies of Nazi Germany during the 1939 invasion . Both the Germans and the Soviet Union maintained cavalry units throughout the war , particularly on the Eastern Front . The British Army used horses early in the war , and the final British cavalry charge was on March 21 , 1942 , when the Burma Frontier Force encountered Japanese infantry in central Burma . The only American cavalry unit during World War II was the 26th Cavalry . They challenged the Japanese invaders of Luzon , holding off armoured and infantry regiments during the invasion of the Philippines , repelled a unit of tanks in Binalonan , and successfully held ground for the Allied armies ' retreat to Bataan .
Throughout the war , horses and mules were an essential form of transport , especially by the British in the rough terrain of Italy and the Middle East . The United States Army utilised a few cavalry and supply units during the war , but there were concerns that the Americans did not use horses often enough . In the campaigns in North Africa , generals such as George S. Patton lamented their lack , saying , " had we possessed an American cavalry division with pack artillery in Tunisia and in Sicily , not a German would have escaped . "
The German and the Soviet armies used horses until the end of the war for transportation of troops and supplies . The German Army , strapped for motorised transport because its factories were needed to produce tanks and aircraft , used around 2 @.@ 75 million horses — more than it had used in World War I. One German infantry division in Normandy in 1944 had 5 @,@ 000 horses . The Soviets used 3 @.@ 5 million horses .
= = Recognition = =
While many statues and memorials have been erected to human heroes of war , often shown with horses , a few have also been created specifically to honor horses or animals in general . One example is the Horse Memorial in Port Elizabeth in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa . Both horses and mules are honored in the Animals in War Memorial in London 's Hyde Park .
Horses have also at times received medals for extraordinary deeds . After the Charge of the Light Brigade during the Crimean War , a surviving horse named Drummer Boy , ridden by an officer of the 8th Hussars , was given an unofficial campaign medal by his rider that was identical to those awarded to British troops who served in the Crimea , engraved with the horse 's name and an inscription of his service . A more formal award was the PDSA Dickin Medal , an animals ' equivalent of the Victoria Cross , awarded by the People 's Dispensary for Sick Animals charity in the United Kingdom to three horses that served in World War II .
= = Modern uses = =
Today , many of the historical military uses of the horse have evolved into peacetime applications , including exhibitions , historical reenactments , work of peace officers , and competitive events . Formal combat units of mounted cavalry are mostly a thing of the past , with horseback units within the modern military used for reconnaissance , ceremonial , or crowd control purposes . With the rise of mechanised technology , horses in formal national militias were displaced by tanks and armored fighting vehicles , sometimes still referred to as " cavalry " .
= = = Active military = = =
Organised armed fighters on horseback are occasionally seen . The best @-@ known current examples are the Janjaweed , militia groups seen in the Darfur region of Sudan , who became notorious for their attacks upon unarmed civilian populations in the Darfur conflict . Many nations still maintain small numbers of mounted military units for certain types of patrol and reconnaissance duties in extremely rugged terrain , including the conflict in Afghanistan .
At the beginning of Operation Enduring Freedom , Operational Detachment Alpha 595 teams were covertly inserted into Afghanistan on October 19 , 2001 . Horses were the only suitable transportation for the difficult mountainous terrain of Northern Afghanistan . They were the first U.S. soldiers to ride horses into battle since January 16 , 1942 , when the U.S. Army ’ s 26th Cavalry Regiment charged an advanced guard of the 14th Japanese Army as it advanced from Manila .
The only remaining operationally ready , fully horse @-@ mounted regular regiment in the world is the Indian Army 's 61st Cavalry .
= = = Law enforcement and public safety = = =
Mounted police have been used since the 18th century , and still are used worldwide to control traffic and crowds , patrol public parks , keep order in processionals and during ceremonies and perform general street patrol duties . Today , many cities still have mounted police units . In rural areas , horses are used by law enforcement for mounted patrols over rugged terrain , crowd control at religious shrines , and border patrol .
In rural areas , law enforcement that operates outside of incorporated cities may also have mounted units . These include specially deputised , paid or volunteer mounted search and rescue units sent into roadless areas on horseback to locate missing people . Law enforcement in protected areas may use horses in places where mechanised transport is difficult or prohibited . Horses can be an essential part of an overall team effort as they can move faster on the ground than a human on foot , can transport heavy equipment , and provide a more rested rescue worker when a subject is found .
= = = Ceremonial and educational uses = = =
Many countries throughout the world maintain traditionally trained and historically uniformed cavalry units for ceremonial , exhibition , or educational purposes . One example is the Horse Cavalry Detachment of the U.S. Army 's 1st Cavalry Division . This unit of active duty soldiers approximates the weapons , tools , equipment and techniques used by the United States Cavalry in the 1880s . It is seen at change of command ceremonies and other public appearances . A similar detachment is the Governor General 's Horse Guards , Canada 's Household Cavalry regiment , the last remaining mounted cavalry unit in the Canadian Forces . Nepal 's King 's Household Cavalry is a ceremonial unit with over 100 horses and is the remainder of the Nepalese cavalry that existed since the 19th century . An important ceremonial use is in military funerals , which often have a caparisoned horse as part of the procession , " to symbolize that the warrior will never ride again " .
Horses are also used in many historical reenactments . Reenactors try to recreate the conditions of the battle or tournament with equipment that is as authentic as possible .
= = = Equestrian sport = = =
Modern @-@ day Olympic equestrian events are rooted in cavalry skills and classical horsemanship . The first equestrian events at the Olympics were introduced in 1912 , and through 1948 , competition was restricted to active @-@ duty officers on military horses . Only after 1952 , as mechanisation of warfare reduced the number of military riders , were civilian riders allowed to compete . Dressage traces its origins to Xenophon and his works on cavalry training methods , developing further during the Renaissance in response to a need for different tactics in battles where firearms were used . The three @-@ phase competition known as Eventing developed out of cavalry officers ' needs for versatile , well @-@ schooled horses . Though show jumping developed largely from fox hunting , the cavalry considered jumping to be good training for their horses , and leaders in the development of modern riding techniques over fences , such as Federico Caprilli , came from military ranks . Beyond the Olympic disciplines are other events with military roots . Competitions with weapons , such as mounted shooting and tent pegging , test the combat skills of mounted riders .
= Stonyhurst College =
Stonyhurst College is a coeducational Roman Catholic independent school , adhering to the Jesuit tradition , on the Stonyhurst Estate , Lancashire , England . It occupies a Grade I listed building . The school has been fully co @-@ educational since 1999 .
The college was founded in 1593 by Father Robert Persons SJ at St Omer , at a time when penal laws prohibited Catholic education in England . After moving to Bruges in 1762 and Liège in 1773 , the college moved to Stonyhurst in 1794 . It provides boarding and day education to approximately 450 boys and girls aged 13 – 18 . On an adjacent site , its preparatory school , St Mary 's Hall , provides education for boys and girls aged 3 – 13 .
The school combines an academic curriculum with extra @-@ curricular pursuits . Roman Catholicism plays a central role in college life , with emphasis on both prayer and service , according to the Jesuit philosophy .
The school 's alumni include three Saints , twelve Beati , seven archbishops , seven Victoria Cross winners , a Peruvian president , a Bolivian president , a New Zealand prime minister , a signatory of the American Declaration of Independence and several writers , sportsmen , and politicians .
= = History = =
= = = Stonyhurst Hall = = =
The earliest deed concerning the " Stanihurst " is held in the college 's Arundell Library ; it dates from approximately 1200 . In 1372 , a licence was granted to John de Bayley for an oratory on the site . His descendants , the Shireburn family , completed the oldest portion of the extant buildings . Richard Shireburn began building the hall , which was enlarged by his grandson Nicholas who also constructed the ponds , avenue and gardens . Following his death , the estate passed to his wife and then to their sole heir , Mary , the Duchess of Norfolk . In 1754 , it was inherited by her cousin Thomas Weld of Lulworth . A former pupil of the school from its years in Liège , he donated the buildings , with 30 acres ( 120 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land , in 1794 to the Society of Jesus .
= = = The college = = =
The story of the school starts at St Omer in what was then the Spanish Netherlands in 1593 , where a college , under the Royal Patronage of Philip II of Spain , was founded by Fr Robert Persons SJ for English boys unable to receive a Catholic education in Elizabethan England . As such it was one of several expatriate English schools operating on the European mainland . In 1762 , the Jesuits were forced to flee and re @-@ established their school at Bruges . The school was moved in 1773 to Liège , where it operated for two decades before moving to Stonyhurst on 29 August 1794 . Schooling resumed on 22 October that year .
The college flourished during the 19th century : the Society of Jesus was re @-@ established in Britain at Stonyhurst in 1803 , and over the century , student numbers rose from the original twelve migrants from Liège . By the turn of the following century , it had become England 's largest Catholic college . Stonyhurst Hall underwent extensive alterations and additions to accommodate these numbers ; the Old South Front was constructed in 1810 , only to be demolished and replaced with much grander buildings in the 1880s . A seminary was constructed on the estate , and an observatory and meteorological station erected in the gardens . The 20th century saw the gradual hiring of a mostly lay staff , as the number of Jesuits declined . The seminary at St Mary 's Hall was closed , and the school discontinued its education of university @-@ aged philosophers . With the closure of Beaumont College in 1967 and the transfer away from the Society of Jesus of Mount St Mary 's College , Spinkhill , Derbyshire , in 2006 , Stonyhurst became the sole Jesuit public school in England .
Since the Second World War , the buildings have been refurbished or developed . Additions include new science buildings in the 1950s and 1960s , a new boarding wing in the 1960s , a new swimming pool in the 1980s and Weld House in 2010 . The school became fully co @-@ educational in 1999 .
= = Hodder Place , St Mary 's Hall and Hodder House = =
The original preparatory school to Stonyhurst , Hodder Place , came into the hands of the Jesuits as part of the estate donated by alumnus Thomas Weld . Originally used as a novitiate , it became a preparatory school to the college in 1807 .
St Mary 's Hall , on an adjoining site to Stonyhurst , was built as a Jesuit seminary in 1828 ( extended in the 1850s ) and functioned until 1926 , when the seminarians moved to Heythrop Hall . The poet Gerard Manley Hopkins , and John Tolkien , son of J. R. R. Tolkien , trained as priests there . During World War II , the English College left Benito Mussolini 's Italy and occupied the hall . After their return to Rome , St Mary 's Hall opened as a middle school in 1946 . At the same time , Hodder Place continued to educate those aged eight to eleven , until its closure and conversion into flats in 1970 . Hodder Place pupils moved up to St Mary 's Hall to form Hodder Playroom . As successor to Hodder Place , St Mary 's Hall has a claim to being the oldest surviving preparatory school in Britain .
In 2004 , the old gymnasium at St Mary 's Hall was converted into new nursery and infant facilities named Hodder House , for those aged three to seven .
= = Religious life = =
The college is Catholic and has had a significant place in English Catholic history for many centuries ( including controversial events such as the Popish Plot and Gunpowder Plot conspiracies ) . It was founded initially to educate English Catholics on the continent in the hope that , through them , Catholicism might be restored in England .
Finally , the school settled in England in 1794 and the Society of Jesus was officially re @-@ established in Britain in 1803 . Stonyhurst remained the headquarters of the English Province until the middle of the century ; by 1851 , a third of the Province 's Jesuits were based there . Until the 1920s , Jesuit priests were trained on site in what is today the preparatory school . There was a drop in vocations after World War I and the seminary was closed . The number of Jesuits teaching at Stonyhurst fell to a third of the staff within a decade . Since then , the Jesuit presence has been in decline , but the school continues to place Catholicism and Jesuit philosophy at its core under the guidance of a Jesuit @-@ led chaplaincy team and the involvement of the Jesuits in its governance .
= = = Jesuit ethos = = =
The Jesuit educational ethos consists chiefly of seven strands :
Finding God in All Things ;
Caring for the individual ;
Showing love in deeds ;
Building Christian community ;
Engaging with the wider world ;
Encouraging excellence ; and
Co @-@ operating in Jesuit mission .
Under these guiding principles , the college strives for the formation of well @-@ rounded individuals , influenced by Ignatian reasoning and spirituality , and concern for humankind : the development of " Men and Women for Others " .
= = = Chapels = = =
The school has one main church , St Peter 's , and five chapels : the Boys ' Chapel , the Chapel of the Angels , the Sodality Chapel , the St Francis Chapel and the St Ignatius Chapel . The last two are both within the towers of St Peter 's Church , and are not normally used by pupils . The Sodality Chapel is the home of the relics of the 3rd @-@ century Roman convert St Gordianus . The Jesuits brought his remains from the College of St Omer and held them beneath the altar since 1859 . His bones were temporarily removed in 2006 whilst the chapel underwent restoration , but they have since been returned . The chapel is again used by the re @-@ established Sodality . Adjacent to the Old Infirmary is the Rosary Garden , a place for spiritual contemplation , at the centre of which is a stone statue of the Blessed Virgin Mary .
St Peter 's Church underwent extensive repair and refurbishment in 2010 – 11 . Most of the Victorian stencilling was not restored , although the whitewash was removed from the stencilling above the altar .
= = = Traditions = = =
It is a long @-@ standing practice , as with many Jesuit schools around the world , that pupils write A.M.D.G. in the top left hand corner of any piece of work they do . It stands for the Latin phrase Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam which means For the Greater Glory of God . At the end of a piece of work they write L.D.S. in the centre of the page . It stands for Laus Deo Semper which means Praise to God Always . These are both traditional Jesuit mottoes .
= = Charitable status = =
As a registered charity , Stonyhurst is obliged to provide benefits to the wider community under the terms of the Charities Act 2006 . As such , the College is home to the local Catholic parish church , which receives worshippers from Hurst Green on a daily basis . Its sports facilities , including the swimming pool and all @-@ weather pitch are available for public use ; the latter was used for competitors training for the London 2012 Olympic Games . Much of the estate has public access ; in particular the gardens and tea house are visited during the summer months , whilst the college plays host to tours , antiques fairs , food festivals , music concerts , conferences and weddings . The school has relationships with several state schools , arranging shared activities with their pupils , in particular those serving special needs children . In addition , the school makes available some places to pupils offered on scholarship , bursaries or free of charge ; almost a third of current pupils receive financial support for their places .
= = Motto = =
The French motto Quant Je Puis ( As Much as I Can ) is central to the ethos of the school , which focuses upon the all @-@ round development of the individual . It is inherited from the Shireburn family who once owned the original mansion on the site ; the family emblem is emblazoned , in stone , with the motto , above the fireplace in the Top Refectory . At the far end of the same room , once the dining room of the Shireburns , the motto can be seen again , carved into the minstrel 's gallery : Quant Je Puis . Hugo Sherburn armig. me fieri fecit . Anno Domini 1523 . Et sicut fuit sic fiat .
= = Academic = =
Academic standards are high : 93 % of GCSE students attain A * -C grades ; there is a 100 % pass rate at A @-@ Level ; and 100 % of A @-@ Level leavers take up places at universities ( 10 % to Oxbridge ) or on gap year schemes . The school 's most recent inspection rated much of the education and pastoral provision as ' outstanding ' .
Ten GCSEs are usually taken by each pupil , consisting of five compulsory subjects ( Religious Studies , Mathematics , English Language and Literature , and a modern language ( French , German or Spanish ) plus Information Technology and Personal , Social Education , with five other options from humanities , sciences , or arts subjects . In Poetry ( lower sixth ) , four or five AS @-@ Levels are taken from a choice of 25 subjects , with a weekly Theology class . One of these may be dropped and the remainder , or all , taken on to A @-@ Level . Six A * – C grades are the requirement for Sixth Form entry . Each academic department has dedicated teaching rooms around the school , in addition to the general classrooms and playroom study places .
Education during the college 's early history was based on St Ignatius ' Ratio Studiorum , with emphasis upon theology , classics and science , all of which still feature prominently in the curriculum . The educational practice , observed at the College of St Omer , of dividing a class into Romans and Carthaginians continued long after the migration to Stonyhurst but is not employed today ; each pupil would be pitched against an opponent with the task of picking up on the other 's mistakes in an attempt to score points .
Until Roman Catholics were admitted to Oxbridge in 1854 , Stonyhurst was also home to " philosopher gentlemen " studying BA courses under the London Matriculation Examination system . Their numbers began to fall after 1894 and the department was closed in 1916 .
= = Libraries and collections = =
= = = Libraries = = =
Stonyhurst College has four main libraries : the Arundell , the Bay , the Square and the More ( dedicated to Saint Thomas More ) .
The More Library is the main library for students whilst the ' House Libraries ' ( the Arundell , the Bay , and the Square ) contain many artefacts from the Society of Jesus and English Catholicism . The Arundell Library , presented in 1837 by Everard , 11th Baron Arundell of Wardour , is the most significant ; it is not only a country @-@ house library from Wardour Castle but also has a notable collection of 250 incunabula , medieval manuscripts and volumes of Jacobite interest , signal among which is Mary Tudor 's Book of Hours , which it is believed was given by Mary , Queen of Scots to her chaplain on the scaffold . The manuscript Le Livre de Seyntz Medicines was written in 1354 by Henry , Duke of Lancaster . To these were added the archives of the English Province of the Society of Jesus , which include 16th @-@ century manuscript verses by St Robert Southwell SJ , the letters of St Edmund Campion SJ ( 1540 – 81 ) and holographs of the 19th @-@ century poet Gerard Manley Hopkins . The Arundell Library has a copy of the Chronicles of Jean Froissart , captured at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 , and held the 7th @-@ century Stonyhurst Gospel of St John before it was loaned to the British Library , as well as a First Folio of Shakespeare .
= = = Collections = = =
Among those collections kept away from public view are the numerous blood @-@ soaked garments from Jesuits martyred in Japan , the skull of Cardinal Morton , the ropes used to quarter St Edmund Campion SJ , the hairs of St Francis Xavier SJ , an enormous solid silver jewel @-@ encrusted monstrance , the Wintour vestments , a cope made for Henry VII , and a thorn said to be from the crown of thorns placed upon Jesus ' head at the crucifixion .
The school owns paintings , including a portrait of Tsar Nicholas I of Russia and another of the Jesuit Henry Garnet . In the Stuart Parlour are portraits of Jacobites including James Francis Edward Stuart , and his sons Charles Edward Stuart and Henry Benedict Stuart . There are also several original engravings by Rembrandt and Dürer , such as the ' Greater Passion ' and the ' Car of Maximillian ' .
= = Observatory = =
The school has a functioning observatory which was built in 1866 . An older observatory , built in 1838 , is now the Typographia Collegii , but was once one of seven important stations in the country when the Meteorological Office came under the auspices of the Royal Society . The records of temperature taken there start from 1846 and are the oldest continuous daily records in the world . During the nineteenth century , the observatory was maintained by the astronomer priests , Fr Weld , Fr Perry and Fr Sidgreaves whose research included astronomy , geomagnetrometry and seismology . Astrophysicist Pietro Angelo Secchi , director of the Vatican Observatory , also taught astronomy at the College during the period . Sir Edward Sabine chose the observatory as one of his main stations when conducting a magnetic survey of Britain in 1858 . Five years later Fr Sidgreaves began the first series of monthly geometric observations , which continued until May 1919 . During the course of the twentieth century , the observatory fell out of use and its telescope , parts of which dated to the 1860s , was sold after the Second World War . When its private owner came to sell it , the college was able to buy it back and restore it to its original home . The observatory is today used for astronomical purposes again , whilst also functioning as one of four weather stations used by the Met Office to provide central England temperature data ( CET ) .
= = Arts = =
= = = Music , drama and art = = =
Music plays a prominent rôle in school life . All those entering the school in Lower Grammar ( year nine ) are obliged to learn to play an orchestral instrument . There are two choirs : the Chapel Choir , which sings regularly at mass , and the Schola Cantorum , composed of teachers and pupils , which sings at concerts and public events such as the May celebration in the college amphitheatre . Pupils participate in the school orchestra and various bands , whilst the staff band is a feature of the Poetry Banquet and Rhetoric Ball .
Drama is equally important , with plays staged throughout the school year , the main performance being at Great Academies , whilst some students take Theatre Studies as an additional AS Level subject . The college has a traditional theatre , the Academy Room , and a high @-@ tech theatre built at St Mary 's Hall as part of the Centenaries Appeal in 1993 . The latter plays host to the annual Ribble Valley International Piano Week . Several former pupils have gone on to achieve success upon the stage , including OSCAR @-@ winning actor and director Charles Laughton and BAFTA @-@ winning director and producer Peter Glenville .
Art is an important part of the curriculum , and is compulsory for those in Lower Grammar ( year nine ) . There is a dedicated art studio in addition to a separate design and technology centre . Student artwork is displayed on the walls of the Lower Gallery , including a portrait of the Queen painted by Isobel Bidwell during the Golden Jubilee year ; upon receipt of a copy , the Queen 's lady @-@ in @-@ waiting said that " The Queen was delighted to see the painting and know that it is on display in the school " .
= = = Literary associations = = =
Stonyhurst has provided inspiration for poets and authors who include former classics teacher Gerard Manley Hopkins , whose poems feature details of the local countryside , and former pupil Sir Arthur Conan Doyle whose " Baskerville Hall " was modelled on Stonyhurst Hall , and who named Sherlock Holmes ' nemesis , Moriarty , after a fellow pupil . J. R. R. Tolkien wrote part of The Lord of the Rings in a classroom on the Upper Gallery during his stay at the college where his son taught Classics ; his " Middle @-@ earth " is said to resemble the local area , whilst there are specific resonances in names such as " Shire Lane " , ( the name of a road in Hurst Green ) and the " River Shirebourn " ( the Shireburns built Stonyhurst ) . Poet Laureate Alfred Austin , and the poet Oliver St John Gogarty ( " Stately plump Buck Mulligan " in James Joyce 's Ulysses ) were educated at the school , ( as were the sons of Oscar Wilde and Evelyn Waugh ) . George Archer @-@ Shee , at the centre of Terence Rattigan 's play The Winslow Boy , is an alumnus .
The school runs its own publication company , St Omer 's Press , which publishes religious literature , and first began when the college was located at St Omer in Flanders .
= = Sport = =
Pupils are required to participate in games on a regular basis . The school plays rugby union and other sporting activities are on offer , and since turning fully co @-@ educational , hockey and rounders have widened the sports programme .
= = = Stonyhurst College Rugby Union Football Club ( SCRUFC ) = = =
Rugby has played a big part in the life of the school , despite only supplanting football as the school 's primary sport in 1921 . All boys are encouraged to play when they enter Lower Grammar but are not required to play throughout their time at the school . Stonyhurst has a successful rugby season , with games well supported by pupils , staff and parents . Sporting rivalry is particularly prominent against fellow Catholic independent schools Ampleforth College and Mount St Mary 's College and Sedbergh School in Cumbria . The Stonyhurst Sevens take place annually , attracting large crowds and teams from all over the country .
The school has produced sixteen international rugby players ( England ( 5 ) , Ireland ( 6 ) , Scotland ( 1 ) Italy ( 1 ) , the USA ( 1 ) Bermuda ( 1 ) and the Bahamas ( 1 ) ) , as well as players for the Barbarians and the British and Irish Lions . Most recently they include Iain Balshaw and Kyran Bracken , who both played for England when they won the 2003 Rugby World Cup , whilst another member of that team , Will Greenwood , went to Stonyhurst Saint Mary 's Hall , where his mother taught maths until 2007 . Current pupils of the school have won places to represent Spain , the Irish Exiles and the Welsh Exiles ( under 19s ) . Old boys have also played at varsity level and have won blues for Oxford or Cambridge .
Stonyhurst has had well @-@ known coaches , including former England coaches Ben Sanders , Dick Greenwood and Brian Ashton who coached the first XV .
Many pupils have represented Stonyhurst in the England Schools U16 and U18 Rugby teams . These include Daniel Mckenzie and Andy Fuller who both received an U18 England cap in 2000 .
= = = Stonyhurst Football = = =
Stonyhurst Football , inherited from the College of St Omer ( along with Stonyhurst Cricket ) , was played between the handball walls on the Playground . The game was discontinued with the advent of association football but was re @-@ established in 1988 when a " Grand Match " was played at Great Academies ; traditionally a " Grand Match " was played on Shrove Tuesday and was the primary Stonyhurst Football match of the season . The teams were England vs France ( although during the Crimean War England vs Russia was played and more recently England vs Ireland was played in the 1980s ) . The last game took place in 1995 .
= = = Rhetoric vs. Hodder cricket and rounders = = =
Towards the end of the Summer Term each year , Rhetoric boys issue a challenge , written in Latin , to the boys in preparatory at Stonyhurst Saint Mary 's Hall , inviting them to compete in a cricket match . Preparatory respond in turn , also in Latin . The Rhetoricians take part wearing fancy dress , and are traditionally defeated by preparatory . In 2003 , the tradition was adopted by the girls who issued a Latin challenge to preparatory girls inviting them to compete at rounders .
= = Military = =
= = = Officer Training Corps ( OTC ) = = =
The Stonyhurst Officer Training Corps assembled for the first time on 16 October 1900 , in the Ambulacrum , overseen by The First Volunteer Battalion , the East Lancashire Regiment who gave instruction in drill and musketry . The original uniform was scarlet with a white piping and slouch hat , which was changed to khaki before the First World War . The Corps was granted the honour of representation at the Coronation of 1910 and sent members to the Royal Review at Windsor in 1911 . It also appeared on parade annually for the spectacle of the Corpus Christi celebrations until the practice became obsolete after Vatican II .
= = = Combined Cadet Corps ( CCF ) = = =
After the Second World War , school OTCs were succeeded by the Combined Cadet Force . Stonyhurst 's is run from the College Armoury adjoining the Ambulacrum and Shooting Range , led by a team of officers under a Major assigned to the school . It meets weekly on a Thursday afternoon and comprises the following platoons named after Stonyhurst 's seven Victoria Cross winners :
= = = = Junior company = = = =
Costello Platoon ( Lieutenant Edmund William COSTELLO V.C. , Matakand , India 1897 )
Coury Platoon ( Second Lieutenant George Gabriel COURY V.C. , Guillemont , Somme 1916 )
Liddell Platoon ( Captain John Aiden LIDDELL V.C , Ostend , Belgium 1915 )
Kenna Platoon ( Captain Paul Aloysius KENNA V.C. , Khartoum , Sudan 1898 )
= = = = Senior company = = = =
Dease Platoon ( Lieutenant Maurice James DEASE V.C. , Mons , Belgium 1914 )
Jackman Platoon ( Captain James Joseph Bernard JACKMAN V.C. , Ed Duda , Tobruk , 1941 )
Andrews Platoon ( Captain Harold Marcus ERVINE @-@ ANDREWS V.C. , Dunkirk 1940 )
Support Platoon
Those in Grammar Playroom ( year ten ) are automatically enrolled in the CCF and are given the option of continuing at the end of the year , following a summer camp which takes place at a local barracks . Training involves a range of activities such as drill ( marching and related manoeuvres ) , shooting , learning how to assemble and clean weapons , tactical planning and team work . The school supplies pupils with uniform , the orderliness of which is rigorously enforced and inspected each week . Each platoon is led by a Junior Under Officer , his sergeant and corporals who are sixth form students .
= = = Military careers = = =
In recent years , some pupils have gone on to receive places at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst . This follows a long tradition of service from Stonyhurst pupils : many Old Stonyhurst ( O.S. ) were killed in the two World Wars and are commemorated on the war memorial at the end of the Upper Gallery .
The Stonyhurst War Records were published in their honour . A memorial at the top of the main staircase records the names of the six O.S. killed in the Boer War .
= = School organisation = =
= = = Playroom system = = =
Unlike most English public schools , Stonyhurst is organised horizontally by year groups ( known as playrooms ) rather than vertically by houses , although the girls are also split into junior and senior houses . Each playroom has an assigned playroom master , with each cohort moving through the playrooms , having a sequence of playroom masters ( rather than a single housemaster ) .
The college has the following playrooms , following the Roman order of learning :
Lower Grammar Playroom ( ' LG ' 13 – 14 )
Grammar Playroom ( 14 – 15 )
Syntax Playroom ( 15 – 16 , GCSE Year )
Poetry Playroom ( 16 – 17 )
Rhetoric Playroom ( 17 – 18 )
During the school 's history the following playrooms or years have also existed :
Philosophy
Upper Syntax
Humanities
Upper Grammar
Middle Grammar
= = = Lines = = =
In addition to the horizontal division of the school into playrooms , there is also a vertical grouping which cuts through the year groups , the " lines " , and is used mostly for competitive purposes in sport and music . The Lines and colours are as follows :
Campion ( Red ) ( named after St Edmund Campion )
St Omers ( Yellow , though Brown for sporting attire ) ( named after St Omer , the town the school was founded in )
Shireburn ( Green ) ( named after the Shireburn family which built Stonyhurst )
Weld ( Blue ) ( named after Thomas Weld who donated Stonyhurst to the Jesuits )
= = Notable events in the school year = =
The Ascensio Scholarum , inherited from the College of St Omer , in its present form , is the opening address of the headmaster at the beginning of the year to the entire school gathered in the Academy Room . Previously , it was a formal transition for pupils from one playroom to the next at the beginning of the year , which involved a pupil from each year announcing to the playroom of the year below them that the next playroom had been vacated by the senior pupils . The students and their belongings would then move up to their next playroom .
" Great Academies " takes place annually at the end of the first half of the summer term . Although different in its present form , it is a continuation of a tradition begun at St Omers , with the first taking place at Stonyhurst on 6 August 1795 . Today , it is an occasion when the school is on display – there are exhibitions , musical performances , the school play , sporting events , as well as prize @-@ giving and the headmaster 's speech , culminating with the Rhetoric Ball and Rhetoric Mass the following morning .
= = Stonyhurst Association = =
After less formal arrangements had been made for many years , the Association was formed in 1879 . Its primary objective is to foster a strong spirit of union amongst past pupils and friends of Stonyhurst , which has been achieved in a variety of ways reflecting the spirit of succeeding generations . Recently , there has been a strong charitable emphasis , embedded with similar developments at the College . This was formalised in 1985 , when the Association was granted charitable status by the Charity Commission . It also supports charities connected to the school including Eagle Aid .
= = = Alumni = = =
Stonyhurst has educated prominent individuals in every area , from statesmen to sportsmen , and actors to archbishops . Seven alumni have been awarded the Victoria Cross , the highest award for gallantry ; paintings of them adorn the walls of the Top Refectory in the school .
Notable alumni include :
Charles Carroll of Carrollton , signatory of the U.S. Declaration of Independence
Arthur Conan Doyle , author of Sherlock Holmes
St Thomas Garnet SJ , canonised saint and protomartyr of St Omers , one of the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales
Joseph Mary Plunkett , Irish signatory of the Irish Proclamation of Independence who played a leading part in the Easter Rising , for which he was executed
John Francis Moriarty , Attorney General for Ireland
Sir Frederick Weld , a New Zealand prime minister
Eduardo Lopez de Romaña , a president of Peru
Lieutenant Maurice James Dease , was the first posthumous recipient of the Victoria Cross during WWI , fought and died at the Battle of Mons
Alumni currently in the public eye include :
Joe Ansbro , Scottish rugby international
Crispian Hollis , Bishop of Portsmouth
Professor Gabriel Leung , GBS , JP , Dean of the Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine , University of Hong Kong
Mark Thompson , former Director General of the BBC
Chris Morris , satirist , BAFTA winner
Tom Morris , theatre director , producer and writer , and Tony Award winner
Matt Greenhalgh , screenwriter , BAFTA winner
Tim Hetherington , photographer , Oscar nominee
Patrick Rock former government deputy director of policy for Prime Minister David Cameron and convicted sex offender
= = Notable masters = =
Brian Ashton , history master and England rugby coach .
Dick Greenwood , Assistant bursar and England rugby coach .
Christopher Hollis , assistant master , history master ( 1925 – 1935 ) , author , politician and president of the Oxford Union .
Gerard Manley Hopkins , classics master and poet .
Stephen Joseph Perry , astronomy master .
Pietro Angelo Secchi , astronomy master , astrophysicist , and director of the Vatican Observatory .
George Tyrrell , philosophy master and Roman Catholic modernist .
= = = Headmasters = = =
Since the college 's foundation in Flanders in 1593 , there have been 78 headmasters , ( variably known as presidents , rectors , superiors and directors ) . Until the appointment of Giles Mercer in 1985 , the headmaster had always been a member of the Society of Jesus . There have been three lay headmasters .
= = Scandal = =
A former priest who taught at the school was jailed for sexually assaulting pupils between 1987 and 1995 . The youngest victim was a boy of 12 . In 1999 , the Lancashire Constabulary conducted " Operation Whiting " , which looked into allegations of abuse at the school dating back to the 1970s . This resulted in two convictions , one of which was quashed on appeal . On 14 May 2002 , a parliamentary committee member described the operation as " a scandal in itself " and an " expensive ... fiasco " .
Another priest at Stonyhurst between 1972 – 79 was arrested in November 2009 for having allegedly abused a 13 @-@ year @-@ old boy for three years . The case was dropped by the CPS Lancashire , a year later and was revealed in March 2014 .
= Hoodwinked ! =
Hoodwinked ! ( alternatively styled Hoodwinked ) is a 2005 American computer @-@ animated family comedy film . It retells the folktale Little Red Riding Hood as a police investigation , using flashbacks to show multiple characters ' points of view . It was produced independently by Blue Yonder Films with Kanbar Entertainment , directed and written by Cory Edwards , Todd Edwards , and Tony Leech , and produced by Katie Hooten , Maurice Kanbar , David K. Lovegren , Sue Bea Montgomery , and Preston Stutzman . The film was released by The Weinstein Company in Los Angeles , California , on December 16 , 2005 for a one @-@ week engagement before expanding nationwide on January 13 , 2006 . The cast features Anne Hathaway , Glenn Close , Jim Belushi , Patrick Warburton , Anthony Anderson , David Ogden Stiers , Xzibit , Chazz Palminteri and Andy Dick .
Hoodwinked ! was among the earliest computer @-@ animated films to be completely independently funded . Working apart from a major studio allowed the filmmakers greater creative control , but also restrained them economically . Due to the film 's small budget , its animation was produced in the Philippines , with a less realistic design inspired by stop motion films . The Weinstein Company did not sign on as the film 's distributor until near the end of production , and while the company had many roles recast , it otherwise made few changes to the film .
Structurally , the film was inspired by non @-@ linear crime dramas , such as Rashomon and Pulp Fiction . It was released shortly after the first two installments in the successful Shrek series , which accentuated the fairy tale parody genre of which it is a part . The film however , intentionally deviated from that series in its style of humor and in certain plot elements . This was in part based on Cory Edwards ' concerns over exposing children to the high level of cynicism often found in the genre .
Critical reception to the film was varied ; although its script and cast were praised by many reviews , its animation quality was heavily criticized . The film was a commercial success , earning over thirteen times its budget . A sequel , Hoodwinked Too ! Hood vs. Evil , directed by Mike Disa , and written by the Edwards brothers and Leech , was released in 2011 to negative reviews and financial failure .
= = Plot = =
Little Red Riding Hood discovers that the Big Bad Wolf has disguised himself as Granny . Red 's grandma jumps out of the closet tied up just as the axe @-@ wielding woodsman bursts through the window , startling everyone . The police quickly arrive , and Red , Wolf , Granny , and the Woodsman are questioned by Detective Nicky Flippers about the events leading up to the incident .
Red explains that she was delivering goodies for her grandmother when she discovered a threat from the mysterious Goodie Bandit . Hoping to save her Granny 's recipes , she embarked upon a journey to take them to the top of a nearby mountain where her Granny lives . On her way , she encountered the Wolf , who asked her a series of suspicious questions . She managed to escape and eventually reached her Granny 's house ; however , she found the Wolf already waiting in ambush .
What at first seems to be an open @-@ and @-@ shut case becomes confused though , once it is learned that the Wolf is an investigative reporter . He reveals that he was searching for a lead on the identity of the Goody Bandit and had reason to believe that Red and Granny were the culprits . Locating Red , he questioned her , hoping to get to the bottom of the mystery . When Red escaped , he headed for her Granny 's house and arriving first , went undercover , hoping to trick her into giving him the evidence he needed .
When questioned , the Woodsman reveals that he is in fact an aspiring actor who was only trying out for the part of a woodsman in a commercial . After his schnitzel truck was robbed by the Goody Bandit , he went out into the woods to get in character for his role and spent the rest of the day chopping trees . A large tree rolled after him and pushed him through the window of Granny 's home . The investigation then turns to Granny , who reveals that , unbeknownst to her family , she is an extreme sports enthusiast . During a ski race earlier that day , she was attacked by the opposing team , but got away safely after learning that they were hired by the Goody Bandit .
Despondent over her Granny 's lack of honesty , Red wanders off alone . Meanwhile , Nicky Flippers realizes that the one commonality between all four stories was a bunny named Boingo and concludes that he is the Goody Bandit . However , Boingo has already sneaked into the home and stolen Granny 's recipes . Red sees Boingo and follows him to his hideout at a cable car station , but the police pursue him in the wrong direction . Granny , the Wolf , and the Woodsman manage to locate Boingo as he is explaining his evil scheme to Red . Boingo plans to add an addictive substance to the stolen recipes and then explode the forest , making way for new real estate for expanding his business .
The Wolf and the Woodsman go undercover to distract Boingo as Granny sneaks into his lair , but open conflict ensues . Boingo sends a bound and gagged Red down the mountain in a cable car loaded with explosives and Granny goes after her , with Boingo and his henchmen in pursuit . Red manages to free herself , and escapes with Granny , while the police , who have been located by the Wolf 's assistant Twitchy , are waiting at the bottom of the mountain to arrest Boingo and his henchmen . Some time later , the Woodsman finds success as part of a yodeling troupe , and Red , Granny , the Wolf , and Twitchy are enlisted by Nicky Flippers to join a crime solving organization called Happily Ever After Agency .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
Hoodwinked ! was one of the first independent computer @-@ animated films to be produced without the aid of a distributor . It was produced on a budget of less than $ 8 million , significantly less than a typical computer @-@ animated film 's budget . The costs of computer @-@ animation software had only recently decreased to a price that was accessible to more than just major studios , and according to producer David Lovegren , " Six or seven years ago , the idea of doing Hoodwinked ! as an independent [ animated ] feature would have been impossible . "
The filmmakers only made the film independently by necessity , and Cory Edwards has said , " It ’ s not a model to be followed . It was a once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ lifetime , seat @-@ of @-@ your pants kind of thing that just barely came off . " However , he added that the process was worth going through to get the film made , and encouraged aspiring filmmakers to be willing to follow it .
= = = Development = = =
Brothers Cory and Todd Edwards founded Blue Yonder Films after a number of years spent producing commercials and music videos in Tulsa . Joined by their friend Preston Stutzman , who was put in charge of marketing for the company , they released their first feature film , Chillicothe , at the 1999 Sundance Film Festival . The three then moved to Los Angeles in pursuit of new opportunities , but did not find the amount of success that they had expected . Sue Bea Montgomery , who had served as an associate producer on Chillicothe , also tried to interest studios in working with them , but was met with indifference . She determined that they would have to find greater success in independent filmmaking before anyone would take interest in them and introduced the three to Maurice Kanbar , a successful entrepreneur who had made a minor investment in Chillicothe . They pitched a number of live @-@ action ideas to Kanbar and proposed that he invest in a development division of their company , paying them and covering their rent in exchange for a significant portion of the rights to any scripts that they might sell . Kanbar however , was interested in a more direct approach , and preferred to focus on trying to produce a single film . He had always been a great admirer of animation and was impressed after being shown a direct @-@ to @-@ DVD computer @-@ animated short film that Cory had made called Wobots . He suggested the possibility of producing an animated feature with them that would tell a familiar story with a twist , and gave them a month to come up with a story idea . Kanbar had expressed interest in Cinderella or Pinocchio , but the Edwards brothers did not like these ideas as they had already been done by Walt Disney . A few days after the brothers ' initial meeting with Kanbar , Todd found inspiration in non @-@ linear crime dramas , such as Rashomon , Pulp Fiction , Run Lola Run , and Memento and came up with the idea of telling the fairy tale Little Red Riding Hood as a police investigation , using multiple points of view . Kanbar was taken with the idea and agreed to fully finance the film before even seeing a finished script , with the initial intent of releasing the film directly to DVD . In 2002 , Kanbar and Montgomery founded Kanbar Entertainment and Kanbar Animation for the production of the film .
Cory served as the film 's main director , as he had more experience with animation , comedy , and children 's entertainment , while Todd served as co @-@ director . Montgomery and Stutzman were joined by Disney animation veteran David Lovegren as producers on the film , and Cory 's and Todd 's sister Katie Hooten joined as an associate producer . Tony Leech , who had worked with the Edwards brothers on Chillicothe , was initially hired as an editor , but gained story input as well . He eventually proved to be so valuable to the production that he was given a role as co @-@ director .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
The filmmakers found independently producing the film to have both benefits and challenges . Although they were given a great amount of creative control by their executive producer Maurice Kanbar , their small budget kept them from making potentially beneficial changes to the story once production was underway . Todd Edwards related that " Money doesn ’ t just buy you more talent and more machinery , it also buys you flexibility on a story level . At Disney , if they don ’ t like the third act , they just throw the whole thing out and re @-@ animate the whole thing , even if it ’ s finished ... We had no such luxury , and so in a way , you ’ re watching our first version of the movie . " Knowing ahead of time their inability to alter the film 's script once animating had begun , an effort was made by the filmmakers to finalize the script as much as possible before the start of production , which is not a common practice for studio @-@ produced animated films .
Turning away from the well @-@ known archetypes of the Little Red Riding Hood characters , the filmmakers continued to look towards non @-@ linear crime dramas for inspiration instead . Producer Preston Stutzman explained that " The whole film is about surprises and secret lives . " Not wanting Red to be " boring " or " too innocent " , she was patterned on James Dean and given the desire of leaving home to find her way in the world . Todd Edwards had the idea of basing the Wolf on Chevy Chase 's character in Fletch , feeling that it would be fun to apply the character ’ s dry , deadpan style of humor to an animated wolf , while Cory Edwards created the hyperactive character of Twitchy to serve as the Wolf ’ s foil . Going against types , Red ’ s Granny was written as a thrill @-@ seeking action hero , while the strong Woodsman was written as being childishly incompetent .
The police officers were written to come across as everyday guys and Cory Edwards has explained that the decision to make three of them pigs was not politically motivated . Nicky Flippers was not a part of the story as it was initially conceived and prior to his creation , the investigation was going to be led by Chief Grizzly . After producer Sue Bea Montgomery and her husband pointed out similarities between the film and the 1950s television series The Thin Man , the Edwards brothers and Leech decided to introduce the character and his dog into the film as an homage . They considered several different types of animals before settling on making him a frog .
Cory Edwards chose to approach the film predominately as an action / comedy , instead of as a typical animated film , and wrote the script to appeal to audiences of any age like many of the films produced by Pixar or Disney . Road Runner , Rocky and Bullwinkle , and The Muppets have all been cited as inspirations for the film . An attempt was made to distance the film from Shrek and other similar themed films that had been recently released , by excluding magic , wizards , and fairies from the film . Cory Edwards also strived for a different style of humor than Shrek , choosing to make his film more family friendly and less of a satire .
Working out of Tony Leech 's apartment , Cory Edwards sketched the film 's storyboards , Todd Edwards wrote the script while simultaneously writing the songs , and Leech edited the story reel on his Mac computer . Producer Sue Bea Montgomery showed test screenings of the story reel to children in her neighborhood , and gained input from their reactions . The filmmakers had been considering removing Japeth , but chose not to when he proved popular at these screenings . The children also particularly liked Twitchy , which led to the expansion of the character 's role .
In an effort to save costs , the film 's cast was originally going to be composed mostly of friends and family members of the filmmakers . Cory and Todd brought in their cousin Tye Edwards to play Dolph and turned to their friend Joshua J. Greene to play Jimmy Lizard . Japeth was written specifically for Benjy Gaither , the son of gospel music singers Bill and Gloria Gaither . He had been a friend of the Edwards brothers since childhood and Cory 's short film Wobots had been produced through his animation studio Live Bait Productions . Cory 's wife Vicki was given the role of a skunk reporter , and while some consideration was initially given to having an adult play the child woodpecker Quill , the role was instead given to producer David K. Lovegren 's daughter Kathryn . The Edwards brothers , Leech , and producer Preston Stutzman all took on roles as well . Cory took on the role of Twitchy , and Pro Tools was used to speed up the recording of his dialogue by 50 percent . Todd played Sandwich Man , Leech played both Det . Bill Stork and Glen , and Stutzman played Timmy .
As the producers gained greater confidence in the film however , larger name actors were brought in . Patrick Warburton was the first celebrity actor to join the film and did so purely out of a love for the script . Though Cory Edwards had originally envisioned the Wolf as sounding like a mixture between a young Chevy Chase and Bill Murray , he praised Warburton 's performance , saying that he " made the Wolf his own character . " Andy Dick also joined the cast early on , to voice Boingo . He used improvisation and approached the role differently from how it had been written , interpreting the character as victimized and unstable . The filmmakers were enthusiastic over Dick ’ s angle on the character , and Todd Edwards said , " What we had written was kind of stock , to be honest , but Andy Dick , well , where he was supposed to laugh , he ’ d be crying . Where he was supposed to yell , he ’ d be laughing . He just mixed it up ! " Prolific voice performers Tara Strong , David Ogden Stiers , and Tom Kenny were cast in multiple roles . Strong was cast as Red and Zorra , Stiers was cast as Kirk , the Woodsman and Nicky Flippers , and Kenny was cast as Tommy and Woolworth the Sheep . Emmy @-@ winning actress Sally Struthers was brought in to play Granny Puckett and Joel McCrary was cast as Chief Grizzly .
= = = Animation = = =
The film 's animation was created on Maya software , and in an effort to save costs , was produced in Manila , Philippines . Producers Sue Bea Montgomery and David K. Lovegren founded the animation studio Digital Eyecandy for the purpose of the film 's production and stationed it in a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot rented house . Cory Edwards traveled to this studio a total of fifteen times over the course of the film 's three @-@ year production and has explained that although the house was located in an expensive part of Manila , the rent was no more than that of his two @-@ bedroom apartment in Los Angeles . When Cory was not able to be on site , Todd took over directing duties . " Along with Tony , we were kind of a ' three headed monster , ' " Cory explains . " We all knew what movie we were making , and I trusted those guys to make creative calls when I couldn 't be there . " Lovegren had attempted to start an independent animation studio in the Philippines before in 2001 , but the studio , called ImagineAsia , was closed after it failed to attract business . Digital Eyecandy hired approximately twenty animators that had previously been employed by ImagineAsia and at one point , the studio reached fifty employees .
The film 's animators had little experience with computer @-@ animation and feature @-@ length films , and had to be trained by the producers over the course of the film 's production . Since none of the animators were specialists , they were not divided into specific teams , but instead each worked on all areas of the animating process . The filmmakers found this to be a poor method though , because it kept the individual skills of the animators from being optimized . Due to their independent backgrounds , the animators were accustomed to working at fast paces , and despite their small numbers , each phase of production was able to be completed within a short period of time . Still , schedule and budget restraints led the filmmakers to enlist Prana Studios in Mumbai , India to perform lighting and compositing .
The filmmakers found that the most difficult aspect of producing the film independently was their inability to fix all of the mistakes made in the film 's animation . Todd Edwards explained that " it becomes an equation : ' I have 10 things that I would like to change in this shot . I have the time and the budget to do three . Pick those three and then let 's move on . ' And that was hard to do . "
Knowing that they could not match the quality of other computer @-@ animated films , the film was instead designed to imitate the look of stop motion . Cory Edwards cited Rankin @-@ Bass as an inspiration and explained , " If we approach our look like that — photographed miniatures in stop @-@ motion — and if that nostalgia resonates with our audience as far as that look , then we ’ re not going to shoot ourselves in the foot trying to put every freckle and hair on photoreal creatures . " Edwards contrasted the technically innovative , but critically panned 1986 film Howard the Duck with the simple , but beloved puppet character Kermit the Frog to illustrate to his crew the importance of well @-@ written , likeable characters over technical quality .
Distancing the film from what producer Preston Stutzman called the " candy @-@ coated , brightly colored pastel world [ s ] " of other CG animated films , an attempt was made to bring an organic look to the film , and dirt was rubbed into the colors . The Nightmare Before Christmas was cited as an inspiration for the filmmakers to try to bend the characters ' shapes into extremes , and many other choices unconventional to computer @-@ animated films were also made . For example , one of the Woodsman 's eyes was made bigger than the other , and Red was given only four fingers , so as to make her look more like a doll . Producer Katie Hooten explained that " CG in the past has been pushing the envelope to make things look more realistic , but Hoodwinked takes things back to where CG looks a lot more like a cartoon . "
= = = Music = = =
The film 's score was composed by John Mark Painter , who along with his wife Fleming McWilliams , constituted the rock duo Fleming and John in the 1990s . The Edwards brothers were fans of the group and first met Painter while Cory was performing in an animated film on which Painter served as the composer . The score was inspired by music from the 1960s and the soundtracks to Planet of the Apes , Dark Shadows , and The Untouchables have been cited as influences , as well as the works of Henry Mancini . It was recorded in Nashville , Tennessee , where Kristin Wilkinson served as the orchestrator and conductor .
In an effort to appeal to older audience members , Todd Edwards chose to replace parts of Painter 's score with original rock music . From this came the song " Little Boat " , written and sung by Daniel Rogers , who had composed Edwards ' first film Chillicothe . " Runaway " was written by Joshua J. Greene , a friend of the Edwards brothers , who also provided the voice of Jimmy Lizard in the film . " The Real G " , sung by Cory Edwards and " Bounce " , sung by Todd Collins were both written by Painter and Cory Edwards . " Blow Your House Down " was performed by the Filipino band Pupil and written by their lead singer Ely Buendia .
Todd Edwards wrote nine original songs for the film and sung four of them : " Critters Have Feelings " , " Tree Critter " , " Eva Deanna " , and " Glow " . " Eva Deanna " was written about a day that he and his wife spent at the zoo with their niece , the daughter of associate producer Katie Hooten . " Great Big World " was sung by Anne Hathaway and replaced another song called " Woods Go @-@ Round " , which Edwards considered too childish and described as being " in the vein of Saturday morning cartoons . " This change required the scene to be re @-@ animated and re @-@ cut . " Be Prepared " was sung by Benjy Gaither and developed out of a practicality ; the filmmakers wanted to introduce Japeth while the character is rocking back and forth on his horns , as though the horns are a rocking chair . However , they realized that this would make the horns too big to fit in a minecart later on in the film . As a solution , they came up with the gag of having the character switch his horns several times , and this led to the song 's concept . McWilliams joined Jim Belushi to sing " The Schnitzel Song " and Painter asked his longtime friend Ben Folds to sing " Red is Blue " , a selection strongly advocated for by Edwards . Folds was working on a new album at the time , but a year after the proposal , found the opportunity to record the song and compose a piano arrangement for it as well . " Top of the Woods " was sung by Andy Dick and was originally composed to be slow paced . The recording of Dick 's performance was sped up though at the suggestion of Ralf Palmer , a prolific animator and friend of producer Sue Bea Montgomery .
= = = Distribution = = =
Hoodwinked ! was shown to potential distributors throughout various stages of its production . Though a distribution offer was made by DreamWorks , it was turned down as the filmmakers did not feel that it was a good deal . As the film neared the end of production , it was screened at the Cannes Film Festival . Harvey and Bob Weinstein were also at the festival at the time , screening Robert Rodriguez 's film Sin City , which they were distributing through their then newly formed studio , The Weinstein Company . They decided to pick Hoodwinked ! up for distribution after it was brought to their attention by Rodriguez 's wife , whose attorney also happened to work for Blue Yonder Films . The Weinsteins had recently left the Walt Disney Company and according to Cory Edwards , they " loved the idea of picking up an animated film and giving Disney a run for their money . " The involvement of the Weinstein Company encouraged Kanbar enough to enlist Skywalker Sound . The film was nearly complete by the time that the Weinsteins became involved , and Edwards has stated that nothing was done by them to ruin " the original vision of the movie . " However , a few edit suggestions were made to quicken the film 's pace which Edwards felt were good ideas , as he considered the first twenty minutes to be dragging .
The Weinstein Company also heavily recast the film with bigger @-@ name actors in the hopes of attracting a larger audience . Anne Hathaway replaced Tara Strong in the lead role of Red ; Jim Belushi replaced David Ogden Stiers in the role of Kirk , the Woodsman ; Anthony Anderson replaced Tony Leech in the role of Det . Bill Stork ; Glenn Close replaced Sally Struthers in the role of Granny Puckett ; Xzibit replaced Joel McCrary in the role of Chief Grizzly ; and Chazz Palminteri replaced Tom Kenny in the role of Woolworth the Sheep . Despite these recastings , Tara Strong retained the much @-@ smaller role of Zorra , David Ogden Stiers retained the role of Nicky Flippers , Tom Kenny retained the role of Tommy , and Tony Leech retained the role of Glen . Many high @-@ profile country singers were considered to replace Benjy Gaither in the role of Japeth , but none of them were available and Gaither retained the role . The Weinsteins also wanted to replace Joshua J. Greene in the role of Jimmy Lizard with a more famous actor such as Albert Brooks , but the role was ultimately not recast . Edwards appreciated the reason for the recastings and attributed a large part of the film 's financial success to them . He expressed disappointment about the amount of recasting however , saying , " At a certain point it became Recast @-@ o @-@ Rama , everybody got recast @-@ happy . My feeling is , you get two or three names on that poster , you 're fine . Our Hoodwinked poster has like a paragraph of names on it . After a certain point , I don 't think you need more than two , three celebrities – give it to the voice actors . It sweetens the pot . " Since the film 's animation had already been mostly completed by the time the recastings were made , the new actors had to deliver their lines exactly as the old actors had done , giving them no opportunity to improvise . Edwards expressed disappointment with the fact that the original actors would not get any credit for their improvisations in the film , which were copied by the replacement actors .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack was released in December 2005 . Owing to legal disputes , the CD was pulled off of the market a month after its release and was not available again until November 2009 . It was re @-@ released on iTunes in January 2010 .
= = Release = =
Hoodwinked ! received a one @-@ week , limited release in Los Angeles on December 16 , 2005 to qualify for Oscar consideration . A nationwide U.S. release was scheduled for Christmas Day , 2005 , but it was moved to January 13 , 2006 to avoid competition with other films released during the holiday season .
= = = Box office = = =
In its opening four @-@ day weekend , Hoodwinked ! grossed $ 16 @,@ 879 @,@ 402 in 2 @,@ 394 theaters in the United States , ranking # 2 at the box office and averaging $ 7 @,@ 050 per venue . It fell $ 50 @,@ 000 short of Glory Road , which took the box office 's number one spot that week . The film maintained its number @-@ two spot in the box office for its second weekend , dropping 16 @.@ 1 percent , and placed in the top ten for a total of five weeks . At the end of its theatrical run it had grossed a total of $ 110 @,@ 013 @,@ 167 worldwide — $ 51 @,@ 386 @,@ 611 in the United States and $ 58 @,@ 626 @,@ 556 in other territories .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Hoodwinked ! received mixed reviews from critics . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 47 % , based on 123 reviews . The site 's consensus reads , " This fractured fairytale doesn 't have the wit or animation quality to compete with the likes of the Shrek franchise . " On Metacritic , it received a score of 45 out of 100 , based on 29 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film two and a half stars out of four , and claimed that many of the film 's ideas for altering its familiar storyline " sound better on paper than they turn out in execution . " Finding it tedious to view the film 's story told multiple times , he wrote that the film " slips into boredom . " Bruce Westbrook of the Houston Chronicle also gave the film two and a half stars , and although he praised its " snappy dialogue and fresh characterizations " , he considered the film ’ s plot underdeveloped and characters lacking in motivation . Peter Rainer writing for The Christian Science Monitor gave the film a C + and called it " a moderately enjoyable escapade that isn 't quite clever enough for adults and not quite imaginative enough for children . " He was not overly critical of the film , but felt that it was a disappointment in comparison to the high standards for computer @-@ animated films set by Pixar . Jami Bernard of the New York Daily News suggested that timelessness is a necessary component of an animated classic , and faulted the film for its attempt to be hip and current . While Ty Burr of The Boston Globe praised the film ’ s vocal performances , he wrote , " Hoodwinked never builds to a level of sustained comic mania ... One aches to think what the great Looney Tunes directors could have done with this material . "
Several critics however , were more enthusiastic about the film . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave Hoodwinked ! an A- and praised the zaniness of its humor . Calling the filmmakers heroes , he compared them to Quentin Tarantino and Steven Soderbergh due to their potential for bringing independent filmmaking to prominence in animation . Although Nancy Churnin of the Dallas Morning News considered the film inferior to those of Pixar and DreamWorks , she still gave it a B and wrote , " it 's got an upstart charm , a clever premise , appealing characters voiced by a terrific cast and a script that should make you laugh out loud more than once . " In his review for the Chicago Tribune , Michael Wilmington praised the film 's voice cast , music , and script , and wrote , " it packs more verbal wit and surprise than the usual cartoon . " Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times gave it three and a half stars out of five calling it " high @-@ energy , imaginative entertainment " .
Japeth was praised amongst both positive and negative reviews . Gleiberman and Churnin both felt that the character was one of the best parts of the film , and Westbrook and Wilmington both described him as " a hoot " . In a mostly positive review for the Orlando Sentinel , Roger Moore called the character hilarious , while in a mostly negative review for Variety , Justin Chang wrote that the character " steals the show every minute he 's onscreen . "
One of the main criticisms of the film was the poor quality of its animation . Berardinelli called it some of the worst CGI animation in memory . He felt that the characters looked plastic , considered the backgrounds dull , and wrote , " On more than one occasion , I thought I was watching something made for TV . When compared to today 's visual standards for animated films , Hoodwinked is far below the curve . " Burr considered the film 's surfaces poorly rendered and compared them to " Teletubbieland reupholstered with Naugahyde . " Westbrook felt that the animation worked well for the animal characters , but wrote , " the humans have a glassy sheen and brittle hardness , much like work done in the early days of CG ... That art has come too far to embrace a throwback like Hoodwinked as lovably quaint . It 's simply dated . " Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post compared the characters to rubber toys , and wrote , " their faces are without nuance or vividness ... In movement , especially , do they lack grace and conviction . It seems like the recent breakthroughs in computerized magic have bypassed the poor Edwards fellows , as it looks stuck somewhere in the 1970s , or maybe even earlier . "
Many reviews negatively compared the film to the Shrek series . Liam Lacey of The Globe and Mail considered the film to be " a sort of discount Shrek " , while Burr called it " Shrek with added drek . " Westbrook wrote that " Echoing such a popular predecessor as Shrek is not a good thing — especially when the echo is so faint . " Berardinelli felt that the fairy tale references were not as smartly done as in the first Shrek film , while Bernard felt that Hoodwinked ! took fairy tale revisionism too far . He felt that the humor in Shrek worked due to the fairy tale characters remaining in character throughout the film , and wrote , " It 's pointless to scold them for behaving the way fairy tales intended , and that 's far funnier than turning them into breakdancing anachronisms . " Bill Muller of The Arizona Republic , considered Red 's kung fu abilities to be overly similar to Princess Fiona 's " Matrix agility . " Gleiberman also noted the similarities between the film and Shrek , but he was positive in the comparison , feeling that its independent production gave the filmmakers " the freedom to follow their flakiest corkscrew whims . " While Wilmington did not find Hoodwinked ! as impressive or beguiling as Shrek , he wrote that " when it 's cooking , it does make you laugh . "
Retrospectively , several
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critics noted that the film was considerably better than the 2007 computer @-@ animated fairy tale parody film Happily N 'Ever After . Although Burr had given Hoodwinked ! a negative review , he likened the film to Citizen Kane in comparison to Happily N 'Ever After . Wilmington also considered Hoodwinked ! the superior of the two films , and Lou Lumenick of the New York Post felt that the film was far wittier than Happily N 'Ever After . While Christy Lemire of Associated Press likened Hoodwinked ! to a poor man 's Shrek , she went on to call Happily N 'Ever After a poor man 's Hoodwinked !
Hoodwinked ! received a Saturn Award nomination for Best Animated Film at the Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy & Horror Films , but lost to Corpse Bride . Entertainment Weekly ranked the film as number ten on " The Must List " for its January 27 , 2006 issue , calling it a " genre @-@ busting indie animated gem . "
= = = Home media = = =
Hoodwinked ! was released on DVD on May 2 , 2006 and on Blu @-@ ray and DVD on February 15 , 2011 . The film was the best @-@ selling DVD in its initial week of release , selling over 700 @,@ 000 copies and making over $ 13 @.@ 5 million . A twenty @-@ two @-@ minute behind the scenes video podcast is available for free on iTunes .
= = Analysis = =
In February 2006 , author Timothy Sexton wrote an article titled " Hoodwinked : A Postmodern Examination of the Dangers of Runaway Capitalism " for Associated Content , in which he posited that Hoodwinked ! was one of the first postmodern animated films and also carried political undertones . He argued that the relative nature of truth was shown by revealing deviations from the original fairy tale as the film explored the story from each of the central characters ' points of view . Calling Hoodwinked ! " the most subversive movie released nationwide since Fahrenheit 9 / 11 " , Sexton went on to interpret the film as a critique on the free enterprise system . He drew comparisons between the film 's villain and the typical American business owner , going so far as to say that the character was " clearly based on people like Bill Gates and Sam Walton " . In Sexton 's view , the film exposed the flaws of capitalism , showing that if left unregulated , business owners will establish monopolies and eliminate competition .
The film 's director and co @-@ writer Cory Edwards was surprised by Sexton 's interpretation and denied that the film intentionally carried any political messages . He explained that he and the other filmmakers were simply drawing from the evil schemes common of James Bond films , Bugs Bunny cartoons , and The A @-@ Team , and wrote " If Mr. Sexton sees my movie as a sermon against mega @-@ corporations monopolizing America , that ’ s fine . But our villain is just as easily the face of every dictator in history , or every schoolyard bully who is compensating for low self @-@ esteem , or any Mafia boss who dominates by either absorbing or wiping out his competition . Hey , if you look at an abstract painting and see the devil in a red splotch , that ’ s your prerogative ... I guess a movie ’ s message is only partially supplied by the filmmaker . "
In May 2007 Time magazine ran an article by James Poniewozik titled " Is Shrek Bad for Kids ? " which considered the negative effects on children of being raised with fairy tale satires , instead of the original stories . Poniewozik mentioned Hoodwinked ! writing , " I thought Hoodwinked ! and most of the Shrek series were hilarious ... But even if you ultimately reject their messages , old @-@ school fairy tales are part of our cultural vocabulary . There 's something a little sad about kids growing up in a culture where their fairy tales come pre @-@ satirized , the skepticism , critique and revision having been done for them by the mama birds of Hollywood . " Cory Edwards wrote into the magazine , expressing his similar sentiments and writing , " As the writer @-@ director of Hoodwinked , it may surprise you that I couldn ’ t agree more with James Poniewozik ’ s article . Even as I was making the film , I asked myself the same question : Are we parodying something that kids should have the chance to experience first , ' un @-@ parodied ? ' We went to great lengths to distance our film from Shrek ’ s humor ( and no , I don ’ t think Shrek considers kids ) . I would hope that Hoodwinked and its sequels will be seen as trying to do something genuine with its characters , rather than look for the next joke at the expense of innocence . We ALL need the real folklore of fairytales , whether we admit it or not . "
= = Sequel = =
A sequel , Hoodwinked Too ! Hood vs. Evil , was released on April 29 , 2011 . It was first announced in January 2006 and in February , Cory Edwards , Todd Edwards , and Tony Leech explained that although they would be writing the screenplay , they would not return to direct . Cory Edwards later elaborated on this decision , explaining that he had a negative experience working with some of the first film 's " key players " and felt that he had been poorly treated by them . He also cited concerns over being confined to animation , and stated that he felt it would be a lateral move to direct a sequel to his first film as his second film . In March 2007 , Edwards announced that Mike Disa had been hired to direct the sequel and expressed enthusiasm over his involvement , saying that he " has a real passion for the film and a devotion to maintaining the Hoodwinked world . He wants to do the sequel justice and he really gets what we ’ re trying to do . " Although much of the first film 's cast returned for the sequel , Anne Hathaway was replaced by Hayden Panettiere in the role of Red and Jim Belushi was replaced by Martin Short in the role of Kirk , the Woodsman .
Kanbar Entertainment initially intended to finance production of the sequel independently as it had done with the first film , but entered into a co @-@ financing agreement proposed by The Weinstein Company . The film was initially scheduled to be released on January 15 , 2010 , but in December 2009 , The Weinstein Company postponed the film 's release date indefinitely . In April 2010 , Kanbar Entertainment brought a lawsuit against The Weinstein Company . In addition to claiming that the postponement of the film 's release date breached an agreement between the two companies , the lawsuit accused the Weinstein Company of not contributing to monthly production accounts after February , 2009 , neglecting to consult Kanbar Entertainment of a release strategy , and not responding to proposed changes to the film , even though Kanbar Entertainment held " final authority on production decisions " .
The film was a financial failure , earning $ 16 @.@ 9 million worldwide ; only about half of its budget . Critical reception to the film was almost universally negative , with a Rotten score of 11 % across 61 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes and a score of 20 / 100 on Metacritic . Cory Edwards expressed disappointment with the finished film , indicating that it was heavily altered from the original script and saying that it was " deflating to give this thing away and watch others run with it in ways I would not . "
= Interstate 275 ( Michigan ) =
Interstate 275 ( I @-@ 275 ) in the US state of Michigan is an Interstate Highway that functions as a western bypass of the Detroit metropolitan area . The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains it as a component of the larger state trunkline highway system . The freeway runs through the western suburbs near Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport . Along its routing , I @-@ 275 crosses several rivers and rail lines in the area . The southern terminus is the interchange with I @-@ 75 near Newport , northeast of Monroe . MDOT considers the Interstate to run to an interchange with I @-@ 96 , I @-@ 696 and M @-@ 5 on the Farmington Hills – Novi city line , running concurrently with I @-@ 96 for about five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) . This gives a total length of about 35 @.@ 03 miles ( 56 @.@ 38 km ) , and signage erected by MDOT along the freeway reflects this definition . According to the Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA ) , the length is 29 @.@ 97 miles ( 48 @.@ 23 km ) because that agency considers I @-@ 275 to end at the junction with I @-@ 96 and M @-@ 14 along the boundary between Livonia and Plymouth Township . All other map makers , like the American Automobile Association , Rand McNally and Google Maps follow MDOT 's practice .
A highway roughly parallel to the modern I @-@ 275 was included in early planning maps for the Interstate Highway System in the 1950s . As plans developed through the 1960s and into the early 1970s , the freeway was to run from I @-@ 75 near Newport north to Novi and connect back to I @-@ 75 near Davisburg . Some plans in the 1970s had the northern Novi – Davisburg section numbered as a state highway M @-@ 275 . The southern half of I @-@ 275 was built in segments that were completed in January 1977 . Later that month , the state canceled the northern section because of local opposition . A later attempt to revive the proposal failed in 1979 . Additional plans to complete M @-@ 275 through Oakland County were kept on the drawing boards through the 1980s , but failed to materialize . M @-@ 5 ( Haggerty Connector ) opened along part of the former I @-@ 275 / M @-@ 275 right @-@ of @-@ way between 1994 and 2000 .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 275 begins at exit 20 along I @-@ 75 in northeastern Monroe County . The surrounding area is farmland and residential subdivisions in the adjacent Frenchtown and Berlin charter townships near the community of Newport . The freeway angles to the northwest and crosses US Highway 24 ( US 24 ) , which is also called Telegraph Road . After this interchange , I @-@ 275 turns to the north , running east of Carleton , crossing the Canadian National Railway and Conrail Shared Assets lines north of exit 5 . At Will Carleton Road , the trunkline crosses into Wayne County . There it continues on a northerly path parallel to a CSX Transportation line through southern Wayne County . The freeway crosses the Huron River at South Huron Road , adjacent to Willow Metropark .
In the city of Romulus , I @-@ 275 begins to take on a more suburban character when it passes the southwestern boundary of the Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport . There is access to the south side of the airport signed at Eureka Road and to the north side at I @-@ 94 . Between these two interchanges , I @-@ 275 begins to run to the northwest . Past I @-@ 94 , the highway crosses over the same CSX line and a Norfolk Southern Railway ( NS ) line and passes a campus of Wayne County Community College and the headquarters of the Visteon Corporation , a major auto parts supplier spun off from Ford Motor Corporation . Near these two complexes , the freeway turns north again , running parallel and to the east of Haggerty Road . The freeway crosses over another NS railroad line also used by Amtrak trains from Chicago and Pontiac , US 12 ( Michigan Avenue ) and M @-@ 153 ( Ford Road ) in Canton . I @-@ 275 crosses the Lower Branch of the River Rouge north of Michigan Avenue and the Middle Branch north of Ford Road It also crosses over the same CSX line a third time . North of the Middle Branch of the River Rouge in Plymouth Township , I @-@ 275 crosses Schoolcraft Road and another CSX line from Detroit .
The interchange with I @-@ 96 ( Jeffries Freeway ) on the border between Plymouth Township and Livonia is where the FHWA considers I @-@ 275 to end as they do not not any overlap with I @-@ 96 , however MDOT continues the designation on maps and signage to run concurrently with I @-@ 96 northward . I @-@ 96 merges from the east on the Jeffries Freeway and turns north ; from the west , the M @-@ 14 freeway merges and ends . At the time the freeway from this interchange northward to Farmington Hills was opened to traffic , it was dual signed as I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 275 , and the unbuilt segment of freeway from Novi to Davisburg that was to be either I @-@ 275 or M @-@ 275 was still an active proposal . I @-@ 275 is shown running concurrently with I @-@ 96 through Livonia and Farmington Hills on MDOT maps , and other map makers and mapping service providers such as the American Automobile Association , Rand McNally and Google Maps label their maps in accordance with MDOT and not FHWA .
North of the interchange with the Jeffries Freeway , the combined I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 275 curves to the east into Livonia , running parallel to Haggerty Road and continuing through suburban areas . The freeway has interchanges with 6 Mile and 7 Mile roads in the northwest corner of Livonia . I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 275 passes through an interchange with 8 Mile Road while crossing into Oakland County entering the southwest corner of Farmington Hills . North of 10 Mile Road , I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 275 crosses Grand River Avenue . Here the ramps start to connect with both directions of M @-@ 5 , the start of eastbound I @-@ 696 or the continuation of westbound I @-@ 96 . MDOT ends the I @-@ 275 designation at this massive interchange .
= = History = =
= = = Original plans = = =
A north – south freeway was originally planned as an Interstate Highway allowing through traffic to bypass the city of Detroit . This plan was included in the 1955 General Location of National System of Interstate Highways ( Yellow Book ) , an early proposal for what would become the Interstate Highway System . The Yellow Book contained an inset of the proposed freeways in and around the Detroit area including a north – south freeway east of the current I @-@ 275 corridor . The 1958 numbering plan for Michigan submitted by the State Highway Department had this route initially marked as I @-@ 73 . William Swanson in the MDOT Highway Planning Unit later stated that the department also planned to reverse the numbering of I @-@ 75 and I @-@ 275 between Newport and Davisburg ; I @-@ 75 would have bypassed downtown Detroit just as it bypassed downtown Flint and downtown Saginaw to the north , and the auxiliary number ( I @-@ 275 ) would have been used on the freeway through downtown Detroit .
The present @-@ day freeway was built in stages in the mid @-@ 1970s . In 1974 , the state highway map of the time showed the highway under construction , but no parts completed . The first four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) of the freeway were shown opened to traffic from M @-@ 153 ( Ford Road ) in Canton to Schoolcraft Avenue ( just south of the I @-@ 96 and M @-@ 14 interchange ) in Plymouth Township by the start of 1975 . The segment between US 24 and I @-@ 75 in Monroe County was open as well . The second phase was completed in the latter half of 1976 , when I @-@ 275 was extended north from Schoolcraft Avenue ( and the incomplete interchange with the future route of I @-@ 96 ) to the I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 696 interchange in Novi . Then on January 14 , 1977 , the remaining 23 @-@ mile ( 37 km ) section of I @-@ 275 between US 24 in Monroe County and M @-@ 153 in Canton Township was opened to traffic , completing the current freeway . The final cost to build the I @-@ 275 freeway was $ 145 million ( equivalent to $ 854 million in 2015 ) .
= = = Cancellation of northern segment = = =
The Michigan State Highway Commission canceled the northern section of the highway , originally planned to continue northward from Novi to a point near Davisburg and Clarkston , on January 26 , 1977 , after it spent $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( equivalent to $ 10 @.@ 4 million in 2015 ) the year before purchasing land for the roadway . This northern section was not planned as an Interstate Highway at that time , bearing the designation M @-@ 275 instead . Opposition to construction came from various citizens ' groups and different levels of local government . Additionally , both The Detroit News and Detroit Free Press opposed the project . The Detroit City Council , led by then @-@ Chairman Carl Levin , opposed the plan . Levin said at the time , " At last I think people are waking up to the dangers of more and more expressways . At some point we 've got to say enough . And I think we 've reached it . " The US Department of the Interior reviewed the state 's environmental impact study of the project and stated that the project , " will cause irreparable damages on recreation lands , wetlands , surface waters and wildlife habitat . " The total project to link Farmington Hills with Davisburg with the 24 @-@ mile ( 39 km ) extension would have cost $ 69 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 409 million in 2015 ) and saved drivers an estimated eight minutes off travel time around the city of Detroit .
= = = I @-@ 96 overlap = = =
The Jeffries Freeway project was in its final stages of construction in 1977 , linking the final 10 @.@ 5 miles ( 16 @.@ 9 km ) of I @-@ 96 at M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Freeway ) with the I @-@ 275 freeway . After it was completed , I @-@ 96 was routed to run concurrently with I @-@ 275 between Novi and Plymouth Township , and the segments of freeway through Farmington and Farmington Hills that were to be part of I @-@ 96 instead became part of an extended M @-@ 102 .
At the end of the 1970s , MDOT took part in a FHWA @-@ backed initiative called the Positive Guidance Demonstration Project , and the two agencies audited signage practices in the vicinity of the I @-@ 96 / M @-@ 37 and I @-@ 296 / US 131 interchange in Walker near Grand Rapids . MDOT determined that usage of the I @-@ 296 designation overlapping US 131 was " a potential source of confusion for motorists . " FHWA agreed with the department 's proposal to eliminate all signage and public map references to the designation in April 1979 . MDOT then received formal permission from the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) on October 13 , and from the FHWA on December 3 , 1979 , to remove the redundant highway designation from signage and most maps .
Following this program , the Reflective Systems Unit at MDOT reviewed the state of two- and three @-@ way concurrencies along the highway system in Michigan . They approached the department 's Trunkline Numbering Committee and the district traffic and safety engineers on October 19 , 1982 , for proposals to reduce or eliminate the various overlapping designations to " avoid driver confusion and save funds " . Included on the initial discussion report was the I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 275 concurrency with a request for comments by November 5 of that year . When the unit released its final recommendations on March 17 , 1983 , no changes were proposed regarding the I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 275 concurrency . Other recommendations , such as removing US 2 and US 10 from overlaps with I @-@ 75 were implemented in later in 1983 and in 1985 , respectively .
= = = New extension plan = = =
A least one transportation study in the early 1970s identified the highway north of Novi as M @-@ 275 . The Oakland County Road Commission , local land developers , and local politicians supported building a highway along the route of M @-@ 275 to open up the area for development . After the January 1977 cancelation of M @-@ 275 as a full freeway , the state explored building the highway as a parkway instead . This parkway concept allowed at @-@ grade intersections that would have not been permitted had the highway been built as a full freeway , and included more landscaping and less grade separation . In September 1977 , the State Transportation Commission ordered MDOT to study alternatives to a freeway in the area , along with the possible widening of I @-@ 94 and US 23 and the improvement of local roads to handle increased traffic caused by the absence of an extended I @-@ 275 from the state 's freeway network .
The canceled highway project was revisited by the State Transportation Commission in 1979 as M @-@ 275 . The renewed interest came after a vote of local residents showed a desire for the road . The Michigan Department of State Highways and Transportation backed the proposal with the support of local officials around the highway and the highway lobby . The 22 @-@ year @-@ old proposal was deemed " necessary " by the department to alleviate highway congestion along other area highways . The Department of the Interior continued to oppose the highway on environmental grounds . M @-@ 275 would have cut through Dodge No. 4 State Park in Oakland County if completed . Another factor that helped sink the project was the rising costs . Estimates in 1979 placed a $ 100 million ( equivalent to $ 477 million in 2015 ) price tag on the project .
Despite funding increases for MDOT by the State Legislature , M @-@ 275 languished on the drawing boards . New plans in 1983 had addressed several of the environmental concerns by moving interchanges and rerouting around wetlands . These plans even canceled an extension of Northwestern Highway ( then M @-@ 4 , now part of M @-@ 10 ) to Pontiac Trail and a connection with M @-@ 275 . The state increased MDOT 's budget by $ 602 million ( equivalent to $ 2 @.@ 16 billion in 2015 ) , but left the M @-@ 275 project off a priority list . The Southeast Michigan Council of Governments ( SEMCOG ) continued to factor M @-@ 275 into regional transportation planning forecasts . SEMCOG 's position was that the location population that would be served by the new highway would rival 70 of Michigan 's counties combined , yet there was no four @-@ lane highways through the area . Opponents cited urban sprawl , which SEMCOG dismissed because the population was already in the area of the new highway . Transportation planners at an April 24 , 1985 , meeting of the West Bloomfield Republicans said that the highway extension " would make sense " but MDOT " is planning no new freeways and no major road construction " at the time . By the next month , MDOT had relinquished ownership of right @-@ of @-@ way in West Bloomfield Township , ending any further progress at building the roadway . Studies comparing the levels of traffic at various checkpoints along the existing I @-@ 275 showed that the freeway was only handling half of its rated capacity . At 8 Mile Road , the freeway carried 57 @,@ 000 vehicles in 1977 and 88 @,@ 000 vehicles in 1984 . This compared to a 1986 projection of 133 @,@ 000 vehicles daily .
After many years of inactivity , further work began along this same route to relieve traffic congestion in the area , but the resulting highway was designated as a part of M @-@ 5 rather than I @-@ 275 or M @-@ 275 . The first section of this freeway extension was opened in October 1994 . This extended a freeway from I @-@ 275 's previous terminus at I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 696 north to 12 Mile Road . A plan enacted by then Governor John Engler in 1995 angered road officials when funding was diverted from county road commissions to help complete state highway projects like the M @-@ 5 ( Haggerty Connector ) project . In 1999 , a second extension of M @-@ 5 was completed to 14 Mile Road , but only as an expressway . The final two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) between 14 Mile Road and Pontiac Trail opened to traffic on November 1 , 2002 .
= = = Bike trail = = =
MDOT built a bike trail parallel to I @-@ 275 in the mid @-@ 1970s . This I @-@ 275 Bikeway was constructed as a reply to the 1970s energy crisis . Since 2006 , the Michigan Trails & Greenway Alliance and MDOT have been working to improve the bike trail . At the time of the alliance 's initial studies , the trail was overgrown with vegetation in locations . Since a grand re @-@ opening in 2011 , the bike path has been called the I @-@ 275 Metro Trail . In the middle of 2015 , MDOT completed reconstruction of the bike trail , resulting in a paved trail from a junction with the Downriver Linked Greenways East – West Trail near South Huron Road in Huron Township northward to 12 Mile Road in Novi .
= = Exit list = =
= Fort Tigné =
Fort Tigné ( Maltese : Il @-@ Forti Tigné or Il @-@ Fortizza ta ' Tigné ) is a polygonal fort in Tigné Point , Sliema , Malta . It was built by the Order of Saint John between 1793 and 1795 to protect the entrance to Marsamxett Harbour , and it is one of the oldest polygonal forts in the world . The fort was extensively altered by the British in the 19th century , and it remained in use by the military until 1979 .
Fort Tigné was restored in the early 21st century , and it is now in good condition . It has been on Malta 's tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1998 , as part of the Knights ' Fortifications around the Harbours of Malta .
= = History = =
= = = Background and failed proposals = = =
A watch post existed on Punta di Santa Maria ( now known as Tigné Point after the fort ) in 1417 . The post was probably a small unfortified structure , which was manned by three persons . The peninsula played a significant role during the Great Siege of Malta in 1565 , when the invading Ottomans built a battery on it in order to bombard Fort Saint Elmo . After the siege , the peninsula became known as Dragut Point after the Ottoman corsair Dragut .
The first proposal to build a fortification on Dragut Point was made by the Italian military engineer Antonio Maurizio Valperga in 1670 . He proposed a fortified city known as Borgo della Città Piccola , with a design similar to Fort Ricasoli . The proposal never materialized , probably due to a lack of funds .
In 1715 , Philippe de Vendôme made a second proposal , this time to build a casemated redoubt . A year later , René Jacob de Tigné proposed the construction of a large artillery battery , similar to other coastal batteries that were being built around Malta 's coastline at the time .
In 1757 , Lembi Battery , an outwork of Fort Manoel , was built on the northern shore of the peninsula . A bastioned entrenchment was proposed in the early 1760s , but it was never built .
= = = Construction = = =
The designs for Fort Tigné were eventually made in 1792 , possibly due to the threat of a French invasion . It was commissioned by Grand Master Emmanuel de Rohan @-@ Polduc , and was designed by the newly appointed engineer of the Order , Antoine Étienne de Tousard . Construction began in 1793 under the supervision of capomastro Antonio Cachia , and was completed in July 1795 . The fort was named after the knight and military engineer René Jacob de Tigné , in recognition of his long years of service with the Order . Tigné also paid 1000 scudi for the construction of the new fort , while de Rohan paid about 6000 scudi . Another 500 scudi were donated by the Bali de Tillet , while the rest of the funds were paid by the Fondazione Manoel .
The new fort was quite small by eighteenth century standards , and it was more similar to a large redoubt than a fort . Despite this , its design was considered to be revolutionary , since it was one of the earliest polygonal forts to be built around the world . Fort Tigné was also the last major fortification built by the Order of Saint John .
Upon the completion of Fort Tigné , the nearby Lembi Battery was decommissioned and converted into a private residence .
In around 1797 , a proposal was made to build a fortified city occupying the entire peninsula , with Fort Tigné as its keep . Like the earlier proposals in the late 17th and early 18th centuries , nothing materialized from this plan .
= = = French invasion and occupation = = =
The fort first saw use during the French invasion of Malta in June 1798 . At the time , it was commanded by the Bavarian knight Joseph Maria von Rechberg , and had a garrison made up of men from the Cacciatori , who were a volunteer chasseur light infantry regiment , as well as some bombardiers from the ship San Zaccharia and some Maltese militia . Fort Tigné was armed with 28 guns and 12 mortars as follows , but only 15 of the guns were serviceable :
Twelve 24 @-@ pounder guns
Six 18 @-@ pounder guns
Six 12 @-@ pounder guns
Four 4 @-@ pounder guns
Six shell @-@ firing mortars
Six stone @-@ firing mortars
Fort Tigné was one of the few fortifications that actively tried to resist the invasion . On 10 June , the French attempted to capture it in a minor skirmish , but were successfully repelled . The fort also fired its guns in support of a counterattack by the Order 's navy against the French , and it prevented French ships from entering Marsamxett .
On 11 June , the French bombarded the fort from land and sea . The fort 's garrison fought back , and its commander , Rechberg , managed to bring in more ammunition from Floriana . On 12 June , the bombardment of the fort continued , but by then the French had captured Valletta , Floriana , and Fort Manoel . The Maltese militia left the fort , reducing its garrison to 80 men . By the end of the day , the ammunition had run out , and parts of the fort were damaged during the bombardment . When Rechberg and his soldiers attempted to escape , the French captured them , and the fort was in French hands by 13 June .
During the subsequent Maltese uprising and insurrection against French rule , Maltese insurgents built six batteries facing Fort Tigné , which was held by the French . By 1799 , its armament was reduced to 21 guns , which were as follows :
Seven 24 @-@ pounder guns
Six 18 @-@ pounder guns
Four 10 @-@ pounder guns
Four 4 @-@ pounder guns
= = = British rule = = =
Fort Tigné was officially taken over by the British military in September 1800 , and it became permanently garrisoned in 1805 . The parts damaged during the French occupation were repaired , but no major changes were initially made . In 1815 , after several years of British occupation , the fort was armed with 30 guns :
Fourteen 24 @-@ pounder guns
Twelve 18 @-@ pounder guns
Four 24 @-@ pounder carronades
In the 1860s , the British saw Fort Tigné as the ' perfection of a small fort without flanks ... capable of considerable resistance ' , and it was used as the prototype for other polygonal forts around the world . By then , it was armed mainly with 68 @-@ pounder guns . The parapet on the circular keep was demolished to make way for a single gun mounted on a traversing platform , similar to the ones found on the Martello towers . By 1864 , the fort was armed with eighteen 32 @-@ pounder guns , four 10 @-@ inch guns , and another 32 @-@ pounder on the keep .
The first major modifications were made between 1870 and 1875 , when some of the parapets with embrasures were demolished to make way for emplacements for RML 9 inch 12 ton guns . The remainder of the fort underwent further significant changes over the following years . In the 1880s , the British considered demolishing the fort and replacing it with a larger fortification , but in 1888 it was proposed that instead of demolition , the height of the ramparts should be reduced to the level of the glacis . In the 1890s , gun emplacements for breech @-@ loading ( BL ) guns were built on the glacis , while further modifications were made when parts of the structure were converted to gun crew accommodation or magazines .
Defence of Tigné Point was further enhanced with the construction of Cambridge Battery between 1878 and 1886 . Garden Battery was then built between 1889 and 1894 , covering the area between Cambridge Battery and Fort Tigné . Barrack blocks were constructed on the rest of the peninsula in the early 20th century .
The fort was included on the Antiquities List of 1925 . It was damaged by aerial bombardment during World War II .
= = = Recent history = = =
When British troops left Malta in 1979 , the fort was abandoned and fell into a state of disrepair . Parts of it were also vandalized . At some point it was also used as a desalination plant .
Since the early 2000s , the Tigné Point peninsula is being redeveloped by MIDI plc . The British barracks were demolished , and high @-@ rise apartments were built instead . In 2008 , MIDI plc also restored the fort as part of the project . The alterations made by the British , such as the BL gun emplacements , were also repaired , while landscaped gardens and walkways were built on the glacis .
There were a number of proposals on how to use the building , including for catering facilities , as a military museum , an exhibition space or as an art gallery .
= = Layout = =
The design of Fort Tigné was mainly based on the Lunette d 'Arçon , as well as the work of Marc René , marquis de Montalembert . The final design by Antoine Étienne de Tousard resulted in a revolutionary fortification , which made it one of the oldest polygonal forts in the world .
The most noticeable feature of the fort is the circular keep . This was modeled on the reduit de surete of the Lunette d 'Arçon , and it also bears similarities to the tour @-@ reduits built in Malta in the early 18th century ( the only surviving example is Vendôme Tower ) . It had two rows of musketry loopholes , and its roof contained a parapet with four embrasures . The latter was replaced with a sloping parapet to mount a single gun in the 1860s . The keep also contains the main gate , above which is a commemorative plaque .
The main body of the fort consisted of a diamond @-@ shaped structure made up of two flanks and two faces . The two faces and the right flank originally had embrasures , but they were dismantled in the late 19th century by the British . A blockhouse , with courtyards on either side , was located in the centre of the fort .
The main structure and the keep were surrounded by a ditch , which had three counterscarp musketry galleries . These were also significantly altered by the British .
The British also built three emplacements for breech @-@ loading ( BL ) guns on the fort 's glacis .
= Martyn Woolford =
Martyn Paul Woolford ( born 13 October 1985 ) is an English professional footballer who plays as a winger for League One club Sheffield United .
Woolford started his career in the Northern Counties East Football League Premier Division with Glasshoughton Welfare after progressing through their youth system . After three seasons at Glasshoughton , he moved to the Northern Premier League Premier Division with Frickley Athletic and scored 14 goals during the 2005 – 06 season . He joined York City in the Conference National in 2006 and spent two seasons with the club , being joint top scorer with 17 goals in the second season .
He moved to League One team Scunthorpe United in 2008 and featured in the 2009 Football League Trophy Final before scoring the winning goal in the 2009 League One play @-@ off Final against Millwall . After a season @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half of playing Championship football with Scunthorpe he signed for their divisional rivals Bristol City in 2013 . Two years later he signed for another Championship side , Millwall , but was released after their relegation to League One in 2015 . He also played for the England C team , who represent England at non @-@ League level , in 2008 , earning two caps . He made his debut against Grenada and earned his second and final cap against India .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Born in Castleford , West Yorkshire , Woolford started his career with Northern Counties East Football League Premier Division team Glasshoughton Welfare in 2002 after progressing through their youth system . Following the end of the 2002 – 03 season he was given the award for the club 's Most Improved Player and early in the 2003 – 04 season he established himself as an " emerging talent " . He played one game for the youth team of Doncaster Rovers in April 2005 , but was not taken on by the club , and was also rejected by Barnsley and Bradford City . After three seasons at Glasshoughton , he joined Northern Premier
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League Premier Division side Frickley Athletic in August 2005 , having impressed during several pre @-@ season matches . He was awarded an FA contract running to the end of the 2005 – 06 season in October , with the option of another year . He made 40 league appearances and scored 12 goals for Frickley in the 2005 – 06 season , with 14 goals in all competitions , after which the club exercised their option to extend his contract for another season .
= = = York City = = =
He had a trial with Stockport County of League Two during their pre @-@ season trip to Ibiza in August 2006 , but was not offered a contract . He was being tracked by Hartlepool United and York City , and also attracted interest from Guiseley . He eventually signed for Conference National side York on 31 August for an undisclosed five @-@ figure fee after having made four appearances and scored one goal for Frickley at that point in the 2006 – 07 season . He made his debut a day later in a 0 – 0 draw with Stafford Rangers after coming on as a 57th minute substitute . During his first start for the team , he was substituted for goalkeeper Arran Reid in the 17th minute after Tom Evans was sent off . He scored his first goal for York in the team 's 3 – 2 home loss to Morecambe on 12 September . A week later , he scored both York 's goals in a 2 – 1 away victory over Woking . He featured in both legs of York 's play @-@ off semi @-@ final defeat to Morecambe 2 – 1 on aggregate and finished the 2006 – 07 season with 45 appearances and eight goals , after which the club exercised their option to extend his contract for another season .
He signed a new contract with York in October 2007 , which would expire in the summer of 2009 . He played in a more central position behind the strikers during the 2007 – 08 season . He scored two goals in two minutes against Altrincham on 19 January 2008 , which earned York a 2 – 2 draw , during which he played as a striker . Manager Colin Walker confirmed that several enquiries had been made about signing Woolford during the January transfer window . Woolford was set a 20 @-@ goal target by Walker in April 2008 , at which point he had scored 16 goals . He was watched by Crewe Alexandra 's director of football Dario Gradi in April 2008 , after which Walker insisted he was still a part of York 's plans for the next season . He finished the 2007 – 08 season with 57 appearances and 17 goals . He rejected speculation linking him with a move away from York in June , saying he would only move to a club two divisions higher .
= = = Scunthorpe United = = =
Woolford rejected a new contract with York during the summer of 2008 , with Cheltenham Town and another club believed to be interested in signing him . He eventually joined League One side Scunthorpe United for an undisclosed fee on a three @-@ year contract on 8 August 2008 , with the fee believed to be a six @-@ figure fee with a sell @-@ on clause . He made his Football League debut as an 87th @-@ minute substitute in a 1 – 0 victory against Peterborough United on 23 August 2008 . He scored four minutes into his first start for Scunthorpe against Brighton & Hove Albion on 6 September 2008 , giving his side the lead , in a match which eventually finished 4 – 1 . He came on as a 77th @-@ minute substitute for Scunthorpe in the 2009 Football League Trophy Final on 5 April 2009 , which was lost 3 – 2 to League Two team Luton Town after extra time . Woolford scored the winning goal for Scunthorpe in the 2009 League One play @-@ off Final against Millwall on 24 May 2009 , with a goal in the 85th minute that gave the team a 3 – 2 victory , and also assisting the other two goals . This resulted in promotion to the Championship for Scunthorpe and he was named man of the match .
His first appearance of the 2009 – 10 season was in a 4 – 0 defeat at Cardiff City on 8 August 2009 . He scored the winning goal for Scunthorpe against Derby County on 15 August 2009 , which finished as a 3 – 2 victory . Woolford scored two goals against Newcastle United on 20 October 2009 to give Scunthorpe a 2 – 1 victory . He finished the season with 46 appearances and five goals .
Woolford started the 2010 – 11 season after playing in a 2 – 1 victory at Reading on 7 August 2010 and his first goal of the season was the winner in the 83rd minute of a 2 – 1 victory over League One team Oldham Athletic in the League Cup on 10 August .
= = = Bristol City = = =
Woolford signed a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract with fellow Championship club Bristol City after joining for an undisclosed fee on 31 January 2011 . He made his debut in a 4 – 0 victory at Preston North End on 5 February 2011 , in which he assisted a Brett Pitman goal .
= = = Millwall = = =
Woolford signed a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year deal with Championship club Millwall on 9 January 2013 . He made his debut after starting in a 1 – 1 draw away to Bolton Wanderers on 12 January 2013 . Woolford was released by Millwall on 7 May 2015 after their relegation to League One , having made 40 appearances and scored three goals in the 2014 – 15 season .
= = = Sheffield United = = =
Woolford signed a two @-@ year contract with League One club Sheffield United on 14 July 2015 , having previously played under manager Nigel Adkins at Scunthorpe .
= = International career = =
Woolford was placed on standby for the England C team for their 2007 – 09 International Challenge Trophy match against Wales in February 2008 . He was called into the squad in May for two games in the Caribbean after an injury to Dean Moxey . His debut came in a 1 – 1 draw with Grenada on 31 May 2008 and was described as a " constant threat down the left " , and earned his second cap as a 67th @-@ minute substitute against Barbados on 2 June .
= = Style of play = =
Woolford plays as a left winger , where he has been described as being " fleetfooted " . He is versatile and has also played as a wing @-@ back , left midfielder and a striker and has also been used in a more " roaming , attacking role " to offer support to a lone striker .
= = Personal life = =
He was studying for a degree in civil engineering at Leeds Metropolitan University while playing for Frickley and a degree in surveying in 2006 . While at university , he worked on a building site . He achieved a Higher National Diploma in civil engineering and has said he is looking to complete this degree before the end of his football career . He comes from a family of professional sportsmen ; father Neil and grandfather Cyril were both rugby league players with Featherstone Rovers . He has cited his father 's encouragement as the main influence in his footballing career . He is a supporter of Manchester United .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 8 May 2016 .
= = Honours = =
Scunthorpe United
League One play @-@ offs : 2008 – 09
= 2005 USC Trojans football team =
The 2005 USC Trojans football team represented the University of Southern California in the 2005 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season , winning the Pacific @-@ 10 Conference ( Pac @-@ 10 ) , and playing for the NCAA Division I @-@ A national championship . The team was coached by Pete Carroll , led on offense by quarterback and 2004 Heisman Trophy winner Matt Leinart , and played their home games in the Los Angeles Coliseum .
With many of their starters returning , a highly ranked recruiting class , and a number one ranking before the season , the team had high expectations of repeating as national champions as they had nearly all of their offensive starters returning , although they had only two returning defensive starters from the previous year . The team went undefeated in the regular season with nine of their twelve wins by 17 points or more and were compared with the greatest teams in the history of college football . Once again ranked first in the Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) rankings , they were invited to the national championship bowl game at the Rose Bowl , where they lost to the Texas Longhorns . With a final record of 12 – 1 , they finished the season ranked second in the nation in both the Associated Press ( AP ) and Coaches ' Polls .
A number of players from the team won national awards with running back Reggie Bush becoming the school 's seventh Heisman winner before it was later vacated . Following the season , Bush was selected second in the 2006 National Football League ( NFL ) Draft and was followed by Leinart at tenth and nine other Trojans during the draft , with the team sending eleven players to the NFL that season .
On June 10 , 2010 , USC was forced to vacate two wins from the 2004 season , and all wins from the 2005 season , after an NCAA investigation into the football program ( and men 's basketball program ) declared Bush retroactively ineligible . Additional sanctions included a bowl ban in 2010 and 2011 , and the loss of 30 football scholarships ( 10 per year in 2010 , 2011 , and 2012 ) .
= = Before the season = =
The 2003 Trojans finished the season with a 12 – 1 record and shared the national title with the Louisiana State University ( LSU ) Tigers ; USC won the Associated Press championship while LSU played for and won the BCS National Championship . The 2004 Trojans finished with a 13 – 0 record that included a win in the national championship game . The team became only the second team to be ranked first in the AP Poll from pre @-@ season until the end of the season , and the tenth team to repeat as national champions . Returning fourteen starters from 2004 , including Heisman Trophy @-@ winning quarterback Matt Leinart , and with a 22 game winning streak , the Trojans were ranked at the top of the polls once again in the pre @-@ season .
= = = Coaching changes = = =
After the 2004 season , four Trojan assistant coaches were offered and took jobs elsewhere . The most notable coach lost was offensive coordinator Norm Chow who took a job in the same position for the Tennessee Titans . Also leaving , were defensive line coach Ed Orgeron , who took the head coaching position at Ole Miss , quarterbacks coach Carl Smith , who became the offensive coordinator for the Jacksonville Jaguars , and offensive line coach Tim Davis who was hired by the Miami Dolphins . Carroll rebuilt his staff by elevating Ken Norton , Jr. from graduate assistant to full @-@ time assistant coaching the linebackers , and hiring Steve Sarkisian , who was with the Oakland Raiders in 2004 and was formerly with the Trojans , as quarterbacks coach . Pat Ruel , who was with the New York Giants in 2004 , to coach the offensive line , and Jethro Franklin , who spent 2004 with the Green Bay Packers , as defensive line coach , Sarkisian would additionally be named as assistant head coach and Lane Kiffin , wide receivers coach , would add recruiting and offensive coordinating to his duties .
= = = Roster changes = = =
Although returning 14 starters from 2004 , the team lost four players to the 2005 NFL Draft and another to the supplemental draft . The four players taken in the regular draft were Mike Patterson , taken 31st by Philadelphia , Shaun Cody , taken in the second round by Detroit , Lofa Tatupu , taken in the second round by Seattle , and Matt Cassel , taken in the seventh round by New England . Additionally , Manuel Wright was taken in the supplemental draft as a fifth round selection by the Miami Dolphins .
= = = Recruiting = = =
The Trojans signed 19 recruits for the new class . Included in the top – 10 class ( ranked first by one source ) were four five – star recruits on defense , two five – star recruits on offense , and another eight four – star recruits . Thomas Herring , who signed with the class , did not qualify for admission and sat out for the season , later enrolling in the school .
= = = Pre @-@ season honors = = =
Seven Trojan players were honored as part of pre @-@ season watch lists for national awards .
Darnell Bing – Bronko Nagurski Trophy , Lott Trophy , and Jim Thorpe Award
Reggie Bush – Maxwell Award
Dwayne Jarrett – Maxwell Award
Ryan Kalil – Rimington Trophy
Matt Leinart – Maxwell Award
Steve Smith – Maxwell Award
LenDale White – Maxwell Award
In addition to the awards , six players were honored on various pre @-@ season All @-@ America teams . Both Leinart and Bush were chosen by Playboy , Athlon , The Sporting News , Street & Smith , Phil Steele 's , Lindy , and Blue Ribbon for their first teams . In addition , Playboy and Phil Steele chose Tom Malone to their first teams , Athlon chose Jarrett to its first team , and The Sporting News , Street and Smith , and Phil Steele chose Bing to their first teams . White was chosen to a number of third teams .
= = Season = =
= = = Roster = = =
= = = Coaching staff = = =
The Trojan team was coached by Pete Carroll and his staff . Much of the staff from 2004 remained , however , Carroll had to replace three offensive assistants and one defensive assistant .
= = = Schedule = = =
= = = Game notes = = =
= = = = Hawaii = = = =
The Trojans began the season by traveling to Hawaii to face the Warriors led by sixth – year head coach June Jones and quarterback Colt Brennan , Leinart 's backup in high school . The Trojans opened the scoring on a 65 yard interception return by Darnell Bing . The Warriors answered with a field goal , however the Trojans scored 14 points in the second quarter to take a 21 – 3 lead into half @-@ time . After Leinart threw his second touchdown of the game to start the second half , Brennan was able to answer with his own touchdown pass to keep the deficit to 18 , however , before the end of the quarter Leinart threw his third touchdown , Bush rushed for his second touchdown , and the Trojan defense returned a fumble for the fourth Trojan touchdown of the quarter . In the fourth quarter , most of the Trojan starters were out of the game , and backup quarterback John David Booty threw a touchdown to Dwayne Jarrett , his third touchdown catch of the game . Tyler Graunke threw a touchdown for the Warriors to bring them within 39 , but backup running back Desmond Reed rushed for the last Trojan touchdown of the game to bring the final score to 63 – 17 and bringing the Trojans ' win streak to 23 games .
= = = = Arkansas = = = =
In the Trojans ' first home game of the season they faced the Arkansas Razorbacks , led by eighth – year head coach Houston Nutt and quarterback Robert Johnson . Bush opened the scoring for the Trojans with a 76 yard rush . The Razorbacks answered with a touchdown pass by Johnson , however , Leinart scored three touchdowns , two passing and one rushing , before the end of the quarter . In the second quarter the Razorbacks were able to kick a field goal before the Trojans scored two more touchdowns on a rush by LenDale White and a third pass by Leinart . Going into the half the Trojans led 42 – 10 . In the third quarter , White rushed for his second touchdown and Leinart threw a fourth before the Trojan starters were taken out of the game . Booty threw his second touchdown of the season in the fourth quarter before backup quarterback Alex Mortensen threw a touchdown for the Razorbacks . Third @-@ string Trojan quarterback Mike McDonald threw a 4 yard touchdown to end the game , giving the Trojans a 70 – 17 win and a 24 game winning streak .
= = = = Oregon = = = =
The Trojans next traveled to Eugene , Oregon to face the Ducks in both teams ' conference opener . The Ducks , led by eleventh – year head coach Mike Bellotti and quarterback Kellen Clemens , came into the game undefeated , and started quickly with an early field goal . Later in the quarter , Clemens threw a touchdown and early in the second quarter another field goal gave the Ducks a 13 – 0 lead . Before the end of the half , Leinart threw a touchdown to Bush and a Mario Danelo field goal gave the Trojans a 13 – 10 deficit at the half . In the second half , the Trojans began an onslaught with two more Leinart touchdown passes , two LenDale White touchdown rushes , and a Bush rush for a touchdown . Scoring 45 straight points , the Trojans won the game 45 – 13 and extended their winning streak to 25 games and improved to 3 – 0 on the season as the Ducks fell to 2 – 1 .
= = = = Arizona State = = = =
The Trojans next stayed on the road and faced the fifteenth – ranked Arizona State Sun Devils , led by fifth – year head coach Dirk Koetter and quarterback Sam Keller . With both offenses struggling in the first quarter , Sun Devil , Terry Richardson , opened scoring on an 84 yard punt return for a touchdown . The Trojans answered early in the second quarter with a field goal , however , two touchdowns , a Keller pass and a Keegan Herring rush , gave the Sun Devils an 18 point half @-@ time lead . Starting in the third quarter the Trojans got on track with a pair of rushing touchdowns to bring their deficit to four , and midway through the fourth quarter they took the lead on a quarterback sneak by Leinart . Keller drove the Sun Devils to another touchdown to take back the lead , but two more rushing touchdowns by the Trojans , within a minute and a half , gave them the win , 38 – 28 . Reggie Bush and LenDale White both ran for over 150 yards to help the Trojans win their Pac @-@ 10 record 26th consecutive game . Helping to seal the win for the Trojans were their defense who sacked Keller five times and caused him to throw five interceptions . Before the game , Keller , in his first year as a starter , had thrown for 2 @,@ 165 yards in seven games .
= = = = Arizona = = = =
The Trojans next went home to face the Arizona Wildcats , led by second – year head coach Mike Stoops and quarterback Richard Kovalcheck . Though the Trojans were a 38 @.@ 5 point favorite and took an early lead on a LenDale White rushing touchdown , the Wildcats answered after Kovalcheck threw his own touchdown and the game was tied at the end of the first quarter . Though both teams struggled in the second quarter , Leinart was able to complete a 22 yard touchdown to Dwayne Jarrett late in the half to take a 14 – 7 lead . In the third quarter , White rushed for two more touchdowns , however , Kovalcheck answered both times to keep the Wildcats within a touchdown going into the fourth quarter . Early in the fourth , Leinart threw his second touchdown to Jarrett and White rushed for a fourth touchdown to give the Trojans a 42 – 21 win . Both White and Bush rushed for over 100 yards for the third straight game , which was a school record , and the win increased the Trojan winning streak to 27 games .
= = = = Notre Dame = = = =
In a game that looked to be overshadowed by pre @-@ game hype and assertions of being the newest " Game of the Century " , the meeting between perennial rivals , Notre Dame and USC , called by some the second greatest rivalry in college football , would be the 77th meeting between the schools , who play for the Jeweled Shillelagh . The Irish , led by first – year coach Charlie Weis and junior quarterback Brady Quinn , were ranked ninth in the country . The Trojans had won three straight meetings with the Irish , each by 31 points . Expectations , however , were high that this game would be closer .
In a surprise move , after Weis insisted it would not happen , the Irish wore their alternate green jerseys for the game . The score was back and forth for much of the game , with the Irish leading 21 – 14 at half @-@ time after a pair of touchdowns by running backs Reggie Bush and LenDale White for the Trojans , and a rushing touchdown by Travis Thomas , a passing touchdown by Quinn , and a punt return for a touchdown by Tom Zbikowski for the Irish . The Trojans took a 28 – 24 lead with five minutes left in the game when Reggie Bush ran for his third touchdown of the game , however , Quinn answered with four complete passes and his own 5 yard touchdown run to give the Irish a 31 – 28 lead with less than two minutes remaining . On the Trojans last series , however , Leinart , after being sacked and facing fourth down with nine yards to go on the Irish 26 yard line , completed a 61 yard fade to Dwayne Jarrett to give the Trojans a last chance near the Irish goal line . After a series of plays including Leinart fumbling the ball out of bounds , the stadium clock incorrectly running out of time , and part of the Notre Dame student section rushing onto the field , the Trojans had the ball on the Irish 1 yard line with seven seconds remaining . Instead of opting for the field goal and going to overtime , Leinart tried to sneak into the end zone . When he was stopped , in a play that would come to be called the " Bush Push " , Bush pushed him over the goal line for the winning score of 34 – 31 . In the aftermath of the game , the Irish dropped to a 4 – 2 record for the season and dropped three places in the national rankings to 12th . The Trojans moved to 6 – 0 on the season , escaped with a 28 game winning streak , and remained first in the rankings .
= = = = Washington = = = =
The Trojans next visited the Washington Huskies , led by first – year head coach Tyrone Willingham and quarterback Isaiah Stanback . The Huskies took an early lead on a field goal , but the Trojans answered with a Leinart touchdown pass to Steve Smith . Stanback threw his only touchdown of the game late in the quarter to give the Huskies a 10 – 7 lead , but the Trojans took the lead for good less than a minute later with Leinart 's second touchdown pass of the day . A minute into the second quarter Reggie Bush ran for a touchdown , and , after a failed extra point attempt and the Huskies offense unable to move the ball , two minutes later returned a punt 84 yards for a touchdown . After another failed drive for the Huskies and another two minutes , Leinart threw his third touchdown of the game to give the Trojans a 34 – 10 lead . Stanback rushed for a touchdown with two minutes remaining before half @-@ time to cut their deficit in half , but Mario Danelo kicked a field goal as time expired to give the Trojans a 37 – 17 lead at half @-@ time . In the third quarter , Leinart threw his fourth touchdown of the game before he was replaced by backup Booty . A Booty interception , that was returned 76 yards by Dashon Goldson , gave the Huskies their last score of the game , and Booty 's touchdown pass to Patrick Turner proved to be the final score in the game , giving the Trojans a 51 – 24 win . With the win the Trojans extended their winning streak to 29 games .
= = = = Washington State = = = =
The Trojans next faced the Washington State Cougars , led by third – year head coach Bill Doba and quarterback Alex Brink . The Trojans took an early lead on a Leinart touchdown pass to Dwayne Jarrett , but the Cougars answered two minutes later on a Jerome Harrison rush for a touchdown . After the Cougars missed the extra point , the Trojans scored three more touchdowns in the first quarter , with a fumble recovery in the end zone and two more Leinart touchdown passes , to take a 28 – 6 lead . Late in the second quarter the Trojans scored again on a LenDale White touchdown rush , and a Mario Danelo field goal as time was expiring gave them a 38 – 6 half @-@ time lead . The Trojans would get another Danelo field goal and a second White touchdown rush before the Cougars would rush for their second touchdown . With a final rushing touchdown after the starters had been taken out of the game , the Trojans won 55 – 13 and increased their winning streak to 30 games .
= = = = Stanford = = = =
The Trojans next faced the Stanford Cardinal . Though the Cardinal were the last team to beat the Trojans at home back in 2001 , they were slightly struggling under first – year head coach Walt Harris and quarterback Trent Edwards with a 4 – 3 record . The Trojans jumped to an early lead with a LenDale White rushing touchdown , a Reggie Bush rushing touchdown , a Leinart touchdown pass to White , and a Mario Danelo field goal . With a 24 point lead , Leinart threw two more touchdown passes before Edwards passed for the first Cardinal touchdown of the game . Leinart 's fourth touchdown pass came with three minutes left in the half to give the Trojans a 44 – 7 half @-@ time lead . The Cardinal scored on a rush in the third quarter , and with many starters out the Trojans answered in the fourth quarter with their own rushing touchdown . The Cardinal ended the scoring with 23 seconds remaining with their second rushing touchdown of the game to bring the score to 51 – 21 . With the win , the Trojans extended their winning streak to 31 games .
= = = = California = = = =
The Trojans next traveled to face rivals , the California Golden Bears , led by fourth – year head coach Jeff Tedford and quarterback Joe Ayoob . Although the Bears handed the Trojans their last loss in 2003 , they were struggling in the season , having lost three out of the last four games and dropping out of the rankings for the first time since 2003 . The Trojans scored first after Ayoob 's first of four interceptions in the game , on a LenDale White rush . Ayoob recovered after the interception , and led the Bears to a field goal to cut their deficit to four at the end of the first quarter . In the second quarter , Leinart rushed for a pair of touchdowns to give the Trojans a 21 – 3 lead at half @-@ time . After a pair of White rushing touchdowns , the Bears scored again on a Chris Manerino rush that ended scoring in the game , with the Trojans winning 35 – 10 . With the win , the Trojans clinched at least a share of the Pac @-@ 10 title and increased their winning streak to 32 games , tied for the sixth longest in history .
= = = = Fresno State = = = =
The Trojans next faced the sixteenth – ranked Fresno State Bulldogs , led by ninth – year head coach Pat Hill and quarterback Paul Pinegar . The Bulldogs took an early lead on a Pinegar touchdown pass that was answered by LenDale White 's rushing touchdown for the Trojans to leave the game tied at the end of the first quarter . After a rushing touchdown for the Bulldogs , the Trojans could only answer with a Mario Danelo field goal . A second passing touchdown by Pinegar and another Danelo field goal closed out the half with the Bulldogs leading 21 – 13 . The Trojans seemed to take control of the game in the third quarter with a Leinart touchdown run , a Reggie Bush touchdown run , and a Leinart touchdown pass that gave the Trojans a 13 point lead . Pinegar answered for the Bulldogs with his third touchdown pass of the game , but a 50 yard touchdown rush by Bush allowed the Trojans to keep the same lead , Two touchdowns in the fourth quarter , Pinegar 's fourth touchdown pass and a second rushing touchdown for the Bulldogs , gave them a 1 point lead with nine minutes left in the game . After a 65 yard run by Bush , White scored for the Trojans , who missed on a two – point conversion attempt . A Danelo field goal gave the Trojans a 50 – 42 lead , and the Trojans won after intercepting Pinegar with a minute left in the game . Bush set a Pac @-@ 10 record with 513 total yards in the game , including almost 300 yards rushing , and the Trojans increased their winning streak to 33 games .
= = = = UCLA = = = =
For their final regular season game the Trojans faced their cross @-@ town rivals , the eleventh – ranked UCLA Bruins , led by fourth – year head coach Karl Dorrell and quarterback Drew Olson . The Trojans got an early lead with a Mario Danelo field goal and did not slow down , scoring on a Leinart touchdown pass and a pair of rushing touchdowns by LenDale White and Reggie Bush . The Bruins were finally able to score midway through the second quarter with a field goal , and then four minutes later with another , but Bush ran for his second touchdown late in the quarter to give the Trojans a 31 – 6 lead at half @-@ time . In the third quarter , Leinart threw his second touchdown of the game , and then 13 seconds later , a fumble by the Bruins was returned by Justin Wyatt for another Trojan touchdown . Leinart threw his third touchdown of the game to White and White rushed for his second rushing touchdown before the Bruins would score on a Maurice Drew rush . With backups in the game , the Trojans scored on another rush , before Olson threw his only touchdown pass of the game with 11 seconds left . With the missed extra point , the Trojans won 66 – 19 , increasing their winning streak to 34 games , which tied them for the fourth longest winning streak of all @-@ time . With the win , they clinched the Pac @-@ 10 title , first place in the BCS rankings , and an invitation to the Rose Bowl , which served as the national championship game .
= = = = Rose Bowl = = = =
The Rose Bowl Game served as the BCS National Championship Game , and as a result of the Bowl Championship Series agreement , the Trojans , ranked first in the BCS and the Texas Longhorns , ranked second , would meet in the game . In the weeks leading up to the game , it had been referred to by numerous publications as one of the most @-@ anticipated match @-@ ups in college football history and even " the greatest college football game " of all time .
Less than three weeks before the game , USC 's Reggie Bush won the Heisman trophy ahead of second place finisher , and Texas quarterback , Vince Young . Bush had the second highest number of first place votes in Heisman history ( O.J. Simpson ) and the highest percentage of first place votes , while Young had a record number of second place votes . Bush 's 933 point margin of victory was the 17th highest in the history of the Heisman voting . The third finalist was Matt Leinart , winner of the Heisman trophy in 2004 . This meant that the Rose Bowl would mark the first time two Heisman trophy winners had ever played in the same backfield .
In the game , coach Mack Brown and his Texas Longhorns beat USC by the score of 41 – 38 and ended USC 's 34 game win streak . The game 's outcome was still in doubt late in the fourth quarter , when the Trojans tried to convert a fourth down play that would win the game for them . After they were stopped Young led the Longhorns on a touchdown drive that was capped by his fourth down rush for the twelve yard touchdown .
Since the game , the media , coaches , and other commentators have praised the game as one of the greatest ever .
= = After the season = =
= = = Legacy = = =
Throughout the season and especially after the win over UCLA , commentators had postulated that the Trojans were one of the " greatest teams of all @-@ time " . ESPN analysts were virtually unanimous in their declaration of the 2005 USC Trojans as the best offense in the history of college football . ESPN analysts Mark May and Kirk Herbstreit declared , before the 2005 Rose Bowl had even been played , that the 2005 USC Trojans were the 2nd best college football team of the past 50 years ( May placed them behind only the 1995 Nebraska Cornhuskers ; Herbstreit behind only the 2001 Miami Hurricanes ) . Stewart Mandel of Sports Illustrated later observed that , although the team " may have had the greatest set of skill players in history , " " ESPN spent the better part of Christmas season comparing that Trojans squad to some of the most acclaimed teams of all time only to find out that they weren ’ t even the best team that season . "
= = = = NCAA investigation and sanctions = = = =
In June 2010 , the NCAA imposed sanctions on USC as a result of an investigation into the football program . One of the major focuses was improper gifts given to Reggie Bush .
The NCAA found that Bush had received gifts from two sports agents from at least December 2004 , including a limousine ride to the 2005 Heisman Trophy presentation and a rent @-@ free home . As a result , USC was placed on four years ' probation and forced to vacate its last two wins of the 2004 season ( including the 2005 Orange Bowl ) as well as all of its wins in the 2005 season . It was also banned from bowl games in 2010 and 2011 and lost 30 scholarships over three years . Running backs coach Todd McNair was banned from off @-@ campus recruiting for one year after the NCAA determined he 'd known about Bush 's dealings with the agents . The NCAA also forced USC to permanently disassociate itself from Bush . These sanctions have been criticized by some NCAA football writers , including ESPN ’ s Ted Miller , who wrote , “ It 's become an accepted fact among informed college football observers that the NCAA sanctions against USC were a travesty of justice , and the NCAA ’ s refusal to revisit that travesty are a massive act of cowardice on the part of the organization . That 's the take of all clear @-@ thinking people . ”
= = = Awards = = =
= = = = Conference = = = =
Near the end of the season , the Pac @-@ 10 Conference named its award winners . Reggie Bush was named as the conference player of the year and Pete Carroll was named as the conference coach of the year . In addition , twelve players were named to the All @-@ Conference team . Bush , Matt Leinart , Dwayne Jarrett , Taitusi Latui , Sam Baker , Ryan Kalil , Darnell Bing , Lawrence Jackson , and Frostee Rucker were named to the first team while LenDale White , Fred Matua , and Scott Ware were named to the second team . Nine others were also named as honorable mentions .
= = = = National = = = =
After the season , a number of Trojans were named as national award winners and finalists . Reggie Bush became USC 's seventh Heisman Trophy winner with the second largest margin of victory ever . However , after the aforementioned NCAA investigation , USC would return its copy of Bush 's Heisman Trophy , considering that Bush was determined to be ineligible to play by the NCAA . On September 14 , 2010 , Bush announced that he would forfeit the Heisman and return his copy of the trophy . Bush also won the Doak Walker Award . Despite not winning the Maxwell Award , he won two other Player of the Year awards . Leinart , who was voted third in the Heisman Trophy ballot , was named as a finalist for the Davey O 'Brien Award and the Maxwell Award , won the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award , and was named by The Sporting News as their Sportsman of the Year . In addition , Pete Carroll was named a finalist for the Eddie Robinson Coach of the Year award , and Jarrett was named a finalist for the Biletnikoff Award , though neither won .
In addition to the individual awards , ten players were named to All @-@ America teams . On first teams , Bush was named by nine different publications , Leinart was named by two , Jarrett was named by seven , Lutui was named by six , Bing was named by two , and Blake was named by one publication . Besides the first teams , Kalil was named to a second team along with White and Matua , while Lawrence Jackson was named to a third team .
= = = Roster changes = = =
A week after the loss in the Rose Bowl , Reggie Bush announced his plans to skip his senior season and declare for the 2006 NFL Draft . Along with Bush , ten other Trojans were drafted . Bush was the first Trojan selected and the second overall pick by New Orleans , while 2004 Heisman @-@ winner , Matt Leinart , was taken tenth overall by Arizona . Three players were taken in the second round , Winston Justice by Philadelphia , Taitusi Lutui by Arizona , and LenDale White by Tennessee , and two more were taken in the third round , Frostee Rucker to Cincinnati and Dominique Byrd by St. Louis to end the first day of the draft . On the second day , Darnell Bing was taken in the fourth round by Oakland , David Kirtman taken in the fifth round by Seattle , LaJuan Ramsey taken in the sixth by Philadelphia , and , finally , Fred Matua was taken in the seventh by Detroit to end the Trojans ' draft day .
= Washington State Route 225 =
State Route 225 ( SR 225 ) is an 11 @.@ 32 @-@ mile ( 18 @.@ 22 km ) long two @-@ lane state highway located entirely in Benton County , Washington , United States . The highway travels over the Benton City – Kiona Bridge , which is listed on the Washington Heritage Register and National Register of Historic Places , over the Yakima River . After turning through Benton City , the highway parallels the river for the remainder of the route . Several different proposals have been introduced to alleviate traffic flow issues at the SR 224 / SR 225 interchange .
= = Route description = =
SR 225 starts at a t @-@ intersection with SR 224 just north of the Interstate 82 / U.S. Route 12 interchange in south Benton City . The highway passes over the Yakima River on the Benton City – Kiona Bridge , which is listed on the Washington Heritage Register and the National Register of Historic Places . After a brief turn to the west , the highway resumes northerly into Benton City , serving as the main street through town . The Yakima River continues to parallel the highway as it exits town , passing between a hill on the west side and the river , followed by Horn Rapids County Park on the east until the highways terminus at SR 240 .
Every year the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2009 , WSDOT calculated that as few as 1 @,@ 000 cars used the highway at the terminus at SR 240 , and as many as 7 @,@ 800 cars at the interchange with SR 224 .
= = History = =
SR 225 was added to the highway logs during the 1991 legislative session , and since then the only major changes to the highway have been the replacement of the bridge over a drainage canal about 0 @.@ 27 miles ( 0 @.@ 43 km ) from the western terminus of the highway .
WSDOT is studying several different proposed changes to the SR 224 / SR 225 interchange to improve traffic flow , including signalizing the intersection , moving the off ramp from I @-@ 84 and making a 5 @-@ way stop , and multiple different roundabout solutions , which are the WSDOT preferred methods of improving the intersection . Costs are estimated to be between $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 and $ 7 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Benton County .
= São Tomé and Príncipe at the 2012 Summer Olympics =
The African island nation of São Tomé and Príncipe competed at the 2012 Summer Olympic Games in London , United Kingdom from 27 July to 12 August 2012 . This was the nation 's fifth appearance at the Olympics since its debut in 1996 . Two track and field athletes , Christopher Lima da Costa and Lecabela Quaresma were selected to the team by wildcard places , without having qualified at any sporting event . Quaresma was selected as flag bearer for the opening and closing ceremonies . Neither of the two athletes progressed beyond the first round of their respective events .
= = Background = =
São Tomé and Príncipe participated in five Summer Olympic games between its debut in the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta and the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . The highest number of São Tomé and Príncipe athletes participating in a summer games is three in the 2008 games in Beijing , China . No São Tomé and Príncipe athlete has ever won a medal at the Olympics . Two track and field athletes from São Tomé and Príncipe were selected to compete in the London games : Christopher Lima da Costa in the men 's 100 m and Lecabela Quaresma in the women 's 100 m hurdles .
= = Athletics = =
Christopher Lima da Costa was the only male athlete representing São Tomé and Príncipe at the London Olympics . He had not previously competed in any Olympic games . He competed in the men 's 100 metres race on August 4 , competing against six other athletes in the first heat . He finished the race in 11 @.@ 56 seconds ( his personal best ) , finishing last of the seven entrants . Kilakone Siphonexay of Laos placed directly ahead of da Costa ( 11 @.@ 30 seconds ) in a heat led by Bruno Rojas of Bolivia ( 10 @.@ 62 seconds ) . The Santomean athlete placed 73rd of the 75 athletes , and therefore did not advance to later rounds .
Lecabela Quaresma competed on behalf of São Tomé and Príncipe at the London Olympic games in the women 's 100 metre hurdles . Quaresma became affiliated with sports organizations in Portugal and was 22 years old at the time of her competition at the London Olympics . She had not previously competed at any Olympic games . Quaresma competed against seven other athletes in the second heat on August 6 . Quaresma finished the race in 14 @.@ 54 seconds , finishing last out of the six finishing athletes . She ranked behind Anastassiya Pilipenko of Kazakhstan ( 13 @.@ 77 seconds ) in a heat led by Beate Schrott of Austria ( 13 @.@ 09 seconds ) and Eline Berings of Belgium ( 13 @.@ 46 seconds ) . Of the 46 finishing athletes , Quaresma placed 42nd and did not advance to later rounds .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
= Da Boom =
" Da Boom " is the third episode of the second season of the animated comedy series Family Guy and the tenth episode of the series . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on December 26 , 1999 . The episode features the Griffin family after a nuclear holocaust occurs , due to Y2K on New Year 's Eve . The family then travels in search of food , and eventually decide to establish a town around a Twinkie factory . Peter then takes over the town , establishing himself as mayor , but eventually becomes power hungry , and is overthrown .
The episode was written by Neil Goldman and Garrett Donovan and directed by Bob Jaques . The episode featured guest performances by Patrick Duffy , Victoria Principal , Jack Perkins , Will Sasso , and Joey Slotnick along with several recurring voice actors for the series . This is the first episode that aired to feature Mila Kunis as the voice of Meg Griffin .
= = Plot = =
On December 31 , 1999 , Quahog prepares for New Year 's Day ( which is the last New Year 's Day of the millennium ) , and the family has been invited to Joe 's millennium party . At a store , a man in a chicken suit asks Peter if he wants a coupon , but Peter refuses , recalling the time he got a bad coupon from Ernie the Giant Chicken and started a massive fistfight . The man warns Peter that the world will end because of the Y2K problem , so Peter locks himself and the family in their basement in hazmat suits . Just after midnight a nuclear holocaust occurs , destroying much of the world and mutating , injuring , and killing many people . The Griffins remain unharmed , and as they look for survivors , they discover that Joe has been melted into his driveway , his son Kevin has been vaporized , and Quagmire and Cleveland have fused together and are now called " Clevemire " ( or " Quagland " ) , and Tom Tucker and Diane Simmons have eaten Tricia Takanawa . Starving , Peter immediately eats all the dehydrated meals , without adding water .
Peter recalls that the snackfood Twinkies are the only food that can survive a nuclear holocaust , so the family travels to Natick , Massachusetts in hopes that the Twinkie factory has survived . On the way , Stewie is exposed to nuclear waste and mutates into an octopus @-@ like creature . Upon their arrival at Natick , they discover the factory is still standing and in perfect condition . Expecting to be able to live off of the snackfood , they establish the town of New Quahog around the factory . Peter proclaims himself mayor , and Joe and Clevemire join him to form a ruling council . One year later , New Quahog has become a fresh new community , complete with houses and wells . Peter has successfully reigned as mayor despite many mistakes , such as giving people jobs picked out of a hat rather than based on the person 's skills . However , when Brian points out how New Quahog is a peaceful place with no violence , Peter realises that they are completely defenseless and uses the pipes from the city 's water irrigation system to make guns and other weapons , outraging the citizens . Meanwhile , Stewie , who has continued to transform into an octopus , suddenly lays hundreds of eggs in the basement of their house .
Despite Peter 's insistence that he is fit to continue to be the leader of the new community , the townspeople run him out of New Quahog , and his family follows him . The citizens proceed to burn the guns Peter had made with the pipes in the middle of the town square , but as the final gun in thrown onto the pile , hundreds of newly spawned Octopus @-@ Stewies hatch and begin to destroy the city , with the townspeople unable to protect themselves from the mutants . As the family walks away , oblivious to the town 's destruction , they decide to continue to a Carvel factory in Framingham .
The episode ends with a live @-@ action parody of Dallas , in which Pam Ewing ( Victoria Principal ) wakes up and tells her husband Bobby ( Patrick Duffy ) about a dream she had of a strange episode of Family Guy . Bobby comforts her , but pauses and then asks " What 's Family Guy ? " , and the two turn and look with confusion into the camera .
= = Production = =
" Da Boom " was the third episode of the second season of Family Guy , and the first for director Bob Jaques . It first aired on December 26 , 1999 . The episode was written by writing team Neil Goldman and Garrett Donovan , who had written episodes for the show in the first season including " Mind Over Murder " .
This was the first episode to have Mila Kunis providing the voice of Meg . Lacey Chabert , the original voice of Meg , left the series due to time constraints with her acting role in Party of Five , as well as schoolwork . Kunis won the role after auditions and a slight rewrite of the character , in part due to her performance on That ' 70s Show . Seth MacFarlane , the show 's creator , called Kunis back after her first audition , instructing her to speak slower , and then told her to come back another time and enunciate more . Once she claimed that she had it under control , MacFarlane hired her .
Ernie the Giant Chicken was introduced in this episode . He is an anthropomorphic chicken who serves as a rival to Peter . He has a long , unexpected fight with Peter , which interrupts the main storyline . This has become a running gag , having reappeared in episodes such as " Blind Ambition " , " Internal Affairs " , " No Chris Left Behind " and " Meet the Quagmires " . He is voiced by regular show writer Danny Smith .
In addition to the regular cast , actress Victoria Principal , comedian and actor Will Sasso , reporter , commentator , war correspondent , anchorman Jack Perkins , voice actor Joey Slotnick , and character actor Patrick Duffy guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actress Lori Alan , writer Danny Smith , and actor Patrick Warburton also made minor appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
The live @-@ action sequence in the episode is a reference to the episode of the CBS soap opera Dallas that erased the death of Bobby Ewing ( Patrick Duffy ) , which turns out to be a dream of Pamela Ewing ( Victoria Principal ) . Randy Newman appears singing everything he sees in a musical moment . The plot includes references to the Y2K bug . Peter takes away Trix from the Rabbit , which is a reference to commercials for Trix cereal . Chris tells E.T. to run when he thinks Peter is the government coming for him . When travelling to find food they are stopped and there 's a reference to Family Feud . Stewie 's line , " Game over man ! Game over ! " is a nod to the science fiction film Aliens . Arriving at the Twinkie factory , Peter uses the same words to describe what he sees that Dr. Ellie Arroway used in Contact when witnessing a celestial event in a foreign galaxy .
= = Reception = =
The episode received positive reviews . Ahsan Haque of IGN rated the episode a 10 / 10 , saying " Overall , this episode easily ranks as one of the best episodes in the series . Almost every joke succeeds , and the far @-@ fetched alternate reality storyline thoroughly entertains . Despite the fact that all of the events in the episode are revealed to be a dream , it doesn 't take away from the high degree of amusement provided . "
= Great Raid of 1840 =
The Great Raid of 1840 was the largest raid ever mounted by Native Americans on white cities in what is now the United States . It followed the Council House Fight , in which Republic of Texas officials attempted to capture and take prisoner 33 Comanche chiefs who had come to negotiate a peace treaty , killing them together with two dozen of their family and followers . The Texas Officials were determined to force the Comanche to release all white captives among them . To avenge what the Comanche viewed as a bitter betrayal by the Texans , the Comanche war chief Buffalo Hump raised a huge war party of many of the bands of the Comanche , and raided deep into white @-@ settled areas of Southeast Texas .
= = Buffalo Hump gathers the tribes = =
Main article Buffalo Hump .
Comanche War Chief Buffalo Hump was determined to do more than merely complain about what the Comanches viewed as a bitter betrayal . Spreading word to the other bands of Comanches that he was raiding the white settlements in revenge , Buffalo Hump led the Great Raid of 1840 . Buffalo Hump gathered a huge raiding party , at least 400 warriors , with wives and young boys along to provide comfort and do the work . Altogether as many as a thousand Comanche may have set out from West Texas on the Great Raid . On this raid the Comanches went all the way from the plains of west Texas to the cities of Victoria and Linnville on the Texas coast . In what may have been the largest organized raid by the Comanches to that point , they raided and burned these towns and plundered at will .
= = Victoria is the first town attacked = =
The huge war party crossed into central Texas and first attacked the town of Victoria , August 6 . Although rangers had found the tracks of a gigantic war party coming out of West Texas , and were shadowing the onrushing Comanches , part of the war party broke off and attacked Victoria before the citizens could be warned . One resident wrote , " We of Victoria were startled by the apparitions presented by the sudden appearance of six hundred mounted Comanches in the immediate outskirts of the village . " The citizens of Victoria hid in the buildings , and the Comanches , after killing a dozen or so townspeople and riding up and down , departed Victoria when rifle fire from the buildings began to make the riding dangerous . The war party intended to gather horses and loot the coastal towns , which were not as prepared for the Comanches as the central Texas cities . After the attack on Victoria , the Comanches camped the night of August 6 on nearby Spring Creek .
= = The Sack of Linnville = =
Leaving Victoria August 7 , the Comanches continued on toward Linnville camping the night on Placido ( now Placedo ) Creek on the ranch of Plácido Benavides , about twelve miles from Linnville .
Early August 8 , 1840 , the Comanches surrounded the small port of Linnville , Texas , which was the second largest port in the Republic of Texas at the time , and began pillaging the stores and houses . Linnville , which is now a ghost town , was located 3 @.@ 5 miles northeast of present @-@ day Port Lavaca . The Comanches reportedly killed three whites , including customs officer Hugh Oran Watts , who had delayed his escape to retrieve a gold watch at his home ( reportedly a family heirloom ) . After killing Watts , the Comanche captured his wife of only three weeks , the former Juliet Constance , and a black woman and child .
Realizing that the plains Indians would have no experience on water , the townspeople fled prudently from the Comanche raiders to the safety of the water . They were saved by remaining aboard small boats and a schooner captained by William G. Marshall , which was at anchor in the bay . While safe in the water , the refugees witnessed the destruction and looting of their town , unable to do a thing except curse impotently .
For that entire day the Comanches plundered and burned buildings , draping themselves grandly in top hats and stolen linens . They tied feather beds and bolts of cloth to their horses , and dragged them . They herded large numbers of cattle into pens and slaughtered them . One outraged citizen , Judge John Hays , grabbed a gun and waded ashore through the shallow water , and roared at the bemused warriors , but the Indians chose to spare him , believing him mad . He later found that he had waded ashore to face nearly a thousand Indians with an unloaded pistol , as if that one weapon could have made a difference .
At the time of the Great Raid , many trade goods were en route from overseas to New Orleans , Louisiana to San Antonio , Texas and Austin , Texas ; a total inventory valued at over $ 300 @,@ 000 was reported to be at Linnville at that moment , including an undisclosed amount of silver bullion . Linn noted that in addition to the cloth and other trade goods usually present in his warehouse at that time were several cases of hats and umbrellas belonging to James Robinson , a San Antonio merchant . " These the Indians made free with , and went dashing about the blazing village , amid their screeching squaws and `little Injuns , ' like demons in a drunken saturnalia , with Robinson 's hats on their heads and Robinson 's umbrellas bobbing about on every side like tipsy young balloons . " After loading loot onto pack mules , the raiders , grandly attired in their booty , finally began their retreat on the afternoon on August 8 , 1840 .
= = The Battle of Plum Creek = =
Main article Battle of Plum Creek
The Rangers had been trailing the war party for some time , unable to engage them because of their sheer numbers . But the three days of looting at Linnville gave the militia and Ranger companies a chance to gather . Volunteers from Gonzales , Texas under Mathew Caldwell and from Bastrop under Ed Burleson , with all the ranger companies of east and central Texas , moved to intercept the Indians . They made contact at Plum Creek , near the city of Lockhart , Texas , on August 12 , 1840 . The Comanches , who normally fared about as a fast and deadly light cavalry , were detained considerably by the captive , slower pack mules . The normal Comanche tactic was to ride as fast as possible away from the scene of a victory , but on this occasion they slowed to a gentler pace acceptable to the heavily laden pack mules . Thus , the militia and rangers caught the raiders , which normally they found impossible . The battle of Plum Creek was really a running gun battle , where the Texans attempted to kill the raiders and recover loot , and the Indians simply attempted to get away . Although only a dozen bodies were recovered , the Texans reported killing 80 Comanches , and the war party losses were probably higher than normal . But greed saved the Comanches in turn ; when the militia discovered the stolen bullion , they abandoned the fight , divided their loot , and went home .
= = Conclusion = =
The Great Raid of 1840 was the largest Indian raid on white cities in the history of what is now the United States — though technically when it occurred it was in the Republic of Texas and not in the United States . The war party literally burned one city to the ground . They took over 3 @,@ 000 horses and mules , and hundreds of thousands of dollars of other plunder , ranging from silver to cloth and mirrors . Unfortunately for the war party , the sheer volume of loot slowed them down , and made them vulnerable to attack from a militia that otherwise would never have caught them . Equally , the militia missed an opportunity to destroy the bulk of the raiding party when they concentrated on recovering and dividing the recovered bullion and other plunder .
= = = Online sources = = =
Handbook of Texas Online .
Dawn Donalson , Buffalo Hump . < --Dead link , February 2016 .
= Chocobo Racing =
Chocobo Racing , known in Japan as Chocobo Racing : Genkai e no Rōdo ( チョコボレーシング 〜 幻界へのロード 〜 , lit . " Chocobo Racing : Road to the Spirit World " ) is a racing game for the PlayStation game console . The game was developed by Square Co . , creators of the Final Fantasy series of video games . The game was first released in Japan in March 1999 . North American and European releases followed that year .
As a formulaic kart racer , Chocobo Racing is often compared to Mario Kart and Crash Team Racing . The game 's star and namesake is the Chocobo , the mascot of the Final Fantasy series . Other figures from the game series , such as Mog the Moogle , the Black Mage , and Cid , fill out the all @-@ Final Fantasy cast . Most of the game 's soundtrack is composed using tunes from previous Final Fantasy titles .
The game was later released in Japan alongside Chocobo Stallion and Dice de Chocobo as part of the Chocobo Collection . On December 20 , 2001 , the game was re @-@ released individually as part of the PSone Books series . The game received generally average reviews , citing its low quality in several aspects of gameplay .
= = Gameplay = =
In Chocobo Racing , the player controls Final Fantasy @-@ inspired characters , most of whom race in go @-@ karts . Other characters fly , drive scooters , ride magic carpets , or even run . Players have five different racing modes to choose from : Story Mode , Versus Mode , Grand Prix , Relay Race , and Time Attack . In the Story Mode , players are guided through the story of Chocobo Racing , which is narrated by Cid , in the form of an onscreen version of a pop @-@ up book . Players who complete the Story Mode are given the chance to customize their own racer ; completing the Story Mode also unlocks secret character racers . In the Versus Mode , two players can race each other on a horizontally split screen , where one player races viewing the top half of the screen and the other player races viewing the bottom half . In Grand Prix ( GP ) Mode , the player races computer @-@ controlled opponents in four selected tracks of his or her choice . In Relay Race Mode , the player chooses three racers to compete in a relay match . In Time Attack Mode , the player can select any stage and try to beat the fastest time record set there . There are ten track options : Cid 's Test Track , Moogle Forest , The Ancient Gate , Mythril Mines , The Black Manor , Floating Gardens , Gingerbread Land , Vulcan @-@ O Valley , Fantasia , and F.F.VIII Circuit .
While racing , the player can accelerate , brake , reverse , activate Magic Stones , or use a " special ability " using the game controller 's analog stick and buttons . An additional move is the skid , which is executed by simultaneously braking and accelerating into a turn ; as the game 's cornering technique , the skid can be used to take sharp turns quickly . If the player skids too sharply , however , a spin out will occur . Before the start of any race , the player 's character receives a speed boost if the player accelerates at the correct time during the countdown .
In the world of Chocobo Racing , Magic Stones are scattered throughout each course , and can be picked up by the player by driving through them . Magic Stones can also be stolen from opponent players by bumping into another player . The player can then activate the Magic Stone for some special effect . Activating a Haste Stone , for example , gives the character a short speed boost . In some Magic Stones , the power of the stone increases if more than one of the same stone is picked up by the player . Each stone is represented by a corresponding symbol on the racetrack , while stones marked with question marks represent random Magic Stones , which grant the player either a Haste Stone , Fire Stone , Ice Stone , Thunder Stone , Minimize Stone , Reflect Stone , Doom Stone , or Ultima Stone .
Special abilities are another important aspect of Chocobo Racing . Before each race , the player is prompted to assign a special ability to the selected character . During a race , the player can only activate the chosen special ability when the meter in the upper left @-@ hand corner of the screen is full . After using the special ability , the player must wait for the meter to recharge to use it again .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Chocobo Racing borrows themes and elements from Final Fantasy I to Final Fantasy VI . The Story Mode is narrated by Cid and includes nine chapters in a pop @-@ up book fashion with FMVs . To progress , the player needs to defeat the chapter 's respective challenger . Before each chapter begins , the player is given the option of viewing the story or skipping to the race except when playing the Story Mode for the first time .
= = = Characters = = =
The cast of Chocobo Racing is drawn from recurring creatures and characters from the Chocobo 's Dungeon and Final Fantasy series . Eight characters -- Chocobo , Mog , Golem , Goblin , Black Magician , White Mage , Chubby Chocobo , and Behemoth — are immediately available , and additional , secret characters such as Cactuar , Bahamut , Cloud , Aya , and Squall may be unlocked after completing Story Mode .
= = = Story = = =
Chapter one , titled " Gadgets a go @-@ go , " begins with the inventor Cid presenting Chocobo with a pair of " Jet @-@ Blades " and offers Chocobo a chance to take a test @-@ run with them on the racetrack behind his lab . After the race , Mog the Moogle drops in and asks Cid about the progress of the racing machine he 'd commissioned . Cid promises to bring the machine by tomorrow , but later confides to Chocobo he 'd forgotten it . The next day , after presenting the doubtful Mog with his scooter , Chocobo and Mog race . After Chocobo wins , Mog confronts Cid over his vehicle 's poor performance , but Cid replies that Chocobo won because of the differences in their abilities ( i.e. , Chocobo 's " Dash " ) . He explains that the secret of Chocobo 's " Dash " ability is the Blue Crystal on his leg @-@ ring . Mog mulls over his inferior " Flap " ability and decides he wants a Blue Crystal as well , so Cid recommends that the two go on an adventure to find out the secret of the Blue Crystal .
The two head out to discover the secret behind the Blue Crystal , meeting ( and racing ) many along the way . When they reach Mysidia , the village of mages , a White Mage there notices that all the companions have Magicite , which the companions had previously referred to as " Blue Crystals . " The companions want to know the legend behind the Magicite shards ; the White Mage agrees to tell them on the condition that they race her in the Floating Gardens , with the story as the winner 's prize . Upon winning , she tells them of the legend : " There are Magicite Shards scattered all over the world . It used to be one large Magicite Crystal ... But people kept fighting each other over it . So the founder of Mysidia , the great magician Ming @-@ Wu , broke the Crystal into eight pieces . He then scattered the shards to the four winds . He did so to assure later restoration of the Magicite Crystal ... when all eight pieces are brought together again . "
After this discovery , the companions continue to search for other racers in possession of the crystal shards . Upon defeating Behemoth in a race , the monster joins their ranks , bringing the party 's number to eight . The companions then notice that their Magicite shards begin to glow , and Mog discovers that he possessed Magicite all along . The convergence of all eight shards of the Magicite crystal fulfills Ming @-@ Wu 's prophecy , and the gate to Fantasia , the Land of the Espers , opens . When the companions arrive in Fantasia , they are greeted by Bahamut , King of the Espers . Bahamut decides to test their worth with a final trial , and welcomes their attempts to defeat him in a race . After the race , Bahamut acknowledges the powers of the group . He goes on to rhetorically ask if the companions knew why Ming @-@ Wu broke up the Magicite , and explains the legend once more . Bahamut is pleased with the companions , noting that humans , moogles , chocobos , and monsters all came together in goodwill . In celebration , he decides to leave the portal between the world and Fantasia open , declaring that " Fantasia shall exist in harmony with your world from this day on . "
Upon completion of the Story Mode , players are assigned a number of points determined by their performance , with a maximum of one hundred . Using those points , the player is given the option of creating a racer with customized color and performance . The point value is distributed among five parameters : Max Speed , Acceleration , Grip , Drift , and A.G.S. , which determines how fast the racer 's ability gauge charges . A maximum of twenty points can be assigned to each of the five racing parameters . Customized racers can be used in all of the game 's modes except for the Story Mode , and only the main characters and Bahamut are open to customization .
= = Development = =
The first demonstration of Chocobo Racing was at the Fall Tokyo Game Show ' 98 ; it was then unclear if there would be a North American release . IGN editors noted its striking similarities to Mario Kart . In the release of Chocobo 's Dungeon 2 , a bonus CD included a video clip of the game . Originally slated to be released in late September / October , the release date was moved to August 1999 because " It was done early , and is now ready to go " .
On September 30 , 1999 , Square announced a " Chocobo Racing Grand Prix " contest . The contest was sponsored by Square Electronic Arts L.L.C. ( Square EA ) and ran from September 30 , 1999 to December 8 , 1999 . The contest 's title was a misnomer , because participants entered by playing through the game 's Story Mode ( rather than Grand Prix Mode ) and sending in their scores ( either through taking a photograph of the score screen or saving the score to a memory card and sending it ) .
Contest entries were divided into five age groups : seven years old and younger , eight to eleven years old , twelve to fifteen years old , sixteen to eighteen years old , and nineteen years old and older . Square EA then determined the three highest scores per week in each age group . The three participants with the highest scores of the week in their respective age group received a Chocobo Piggy Bank .
At the end of the contest , Square EA determined the three highest scorers overall in each age group . Each participant with the highest score in the contest overall in his or her respective age group received one free copy of each Square title released in the calendar year 200
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Moste , Mavčiče and Medvode power plants , while Vrhovo , Boštanj and Blanca are located downstream of the capital . There is one additional plant under construction near Krško . The Krško hydroelectric power plant , as well as two additional plants planned on the Sava River course downstream of Ljubljana — Brežice and Mokrice — should be completed by 2018 . The power plants downstream of Ljubljana , except Vrhovo , are developed as a chain of five Slovenia 's Lower Sava Valley plants since 2002 . They will have production capacity of 2 @,@ 000 Gigawatt @-@ hours per year and 570 Megawatts of installed capacity . Completion of the five power plants is expected to cost 700 million Euros . There are also plans for construction of ten new powerplants in the middle Sava valley HE Suhadol , HE Trbovlje , HE Renke , HE Ponovice , HE Kresnice , HE Jevnica , HE Zalog , HE Šentjakob , HE Ježica and HE Tacen . Croatia is planning construction of four hydroelectric power plants on the Sava River in Zagreb area . The four plants — Podsused , Prečko , Zagreb and Drenje — are scheduled to be completed by 2021 at a cost of 800 million Euros . The four power plants will have installed capacity of 122 Megawatts and annual production capacity of 610 Gigawatt @-@ hours .
= = = Water supply and food production = = =
Use of water for public water supply in the Sava River basin is estimated at 783 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 2 @.@ 77 × 1010 cubic feet ) per year , and another 289 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 1 @.@ 02 × 1010 cubic feet ) of water per year is used for industrial production purposes . Use of water for agriculture in the Sava River basin is relatively high , but most of it is applied in non @-@ consumptive uses , such as fish farming . Use of water for irrigation is relatively low , estimated at 30 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 1 @.@ 1 × 109 cubic feet ) per year . Commercial fishing on the Sava River is in decline since the middle of the 20th century . In 1978 , there were only 97 commercial fishermen there , while recreational fishing became dominant . The decline became more rapid during the wars in Croatia and Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , reducing quantity of fish caught in the river to approximately one third of the pre @-@ war catches which ranged from 719 to 988 tonnes ( 708 to 972 long tons ; 793 to 1 @,@ 089 short tons ) between 1979 and 1990 . The International Sava River Basin Commission ( ISRBC ) , a cooperative body established by Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , Croatia , Slovenia and Serbia and Montenegro in 2005 , is tasked with establishment of sustainable management of surface water and groundwater resources in the Sava River basin .
= = = Navigation and ports = = =
The Sava is navigable to larger vessels for 593 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 369 @.@ 0 miles ) between its confluence with the Danube in Belgrade , Serbia and Galdovo Bridge in Sisak , Croatia , 2 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 7 miles ) upstream from confluence of Sava and Kupa rivers . The confluence marks the westernmost point of the river course designated as a Class IV international waterway in compliance with the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe 's European Agreement on Main Inland Waterways of International Importance ( AGN ) . The classification means that the river course between Sisak and Belgrade is navigable to ships of the maximum length of 80 to 85 metres ( 262 to 279 feet ) , the maximum beam of 9 @.@ 5 metres ( 31 feet ) , the maximum draught of 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 feet 2 inches ) and tonnage up to 1 @,@ 500 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ; 1 @,@ 700 short tons ) . The Sava River downstream of Sisak , is designated as European waterway E 80 @-@ 12 , branching off from the E 80 waterway spanning the Danube and Le Havre via the Rhine . The largest ports on the Sava River are Brčko and Šamac in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , Sisak and Slavonski Brod in Croatia , and Šabac and Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia .
As of 2008 , 24 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 15 @.@ 2 miles ) of the river course between Slavonski Šamac and Oprisavci , as well as additional 219 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 136 @.@ 6 miles ) between Slavonski Brod and Sisak , are considered by Croatia 's Ministry of Maritime Affairs , Transport and Infrastructure to fail the Class IV criteria , permitting navigation of vessels up to 1 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 980 long tons ; 1 @,@ 100 short tons ) only , complying with the AGN 's Category III . The Slavonski Šamac – Oprisavci section is especially troublesome for navigation as it offers 250 centimetres ( 98 inches ) draught in less than 50 % of an average hydrological year , causing navigation to cease each summer . Similar interruptions are less frequent elsewhere on the river , occurring 30 days a year on average upstream from Oprisavci , and even more rarely downstream from Slavonski Šamac .
The restricted draft and fairway is compounded with meandering of the river 's course — limiting length of vessels — and low bridge clearance . Further problems are incurred through poor transport infrastructure along the route , including poor navigation markings , and presence of sunken vessels and unexploded munitions . Navigation along further 68 kilometres ( 42 miles ) of the river upstream to Rugvica near Zagreb is possible for vessels with tonnage below 1 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 980 long tons ; 1 @,@ 100 short tons ) , and the section of the river belongs to the AGN 's Category II . There are plans for restoration of the Category IV compliant waterway downstream of Sisak and betterment of navigation infrastructure between Sisak and Rugvica , as well as upgrading of the waterway between Brčko and Belgrade to Category Va , matching that of the Danube , with uninterrupted navigation through the year . The plan is planned to be supported by the European Union and as of October 2012 , an agreement to implement the plan was signed by Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina and Croatia , while Serbia is invited to join the project . The plan aims to increase safety and volume of river transport , which declined by about 70 % since the breakup of Yugoslavia , largely because of poor maintenance of the route . The ISRBC is tasked with establishment of an international regime of navigation on the river since 2005 .
= = = Road , rail and pipeline transport = = =
The Sava River valley is also a route for road and rail traffic . The river valley routes are a part of the Pan @-@ European Corridor X , and forming junctions with Pan @-@ European Corridors V , Vb , Vc , Xa and Xb in area of Ljubljana ( V ) , Zagreb ( Vb , Xa ) , Slavonski Šamac ( Vc ) , and Belgrade ( Xb ) . The motorways forming the Pan @-@ European Corridor X in the area — Slovenia 's A2 , Croatia 's A3 and Serbia 's A1 motorways — represent a part of European route E70 Bordeaux – Turin – Ljubljana – Zagreb – Belgrade – Bucharest , and the European route E61 Villach – Ljubljana – Trieste – Rijeka . A largely double track railroad with a railway electrification system is also a part of the Corridor X. The railroad was a part of the Simplon @-@ Orient @-@ Express and Direct @-@ Orient @-@ Express routes . The navigable river course between Belgrade and Galdovo north of Sisak is spanned by 25 bridges . The Sava River valley east of Sisak is also used as a route for the Jadranski naftovod , a crude oil pipeline . The system connects the Port of Rijeka oil terminal to oil refineries in Rijeka and Sisak , to Brod in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , as well as Novi Sad and Pančevo in Serbia .
= = Environment = =
= = = Pollution = = =
The main pressure on the Sava River basin environment is generated by activities of urban population in the basin . Even though nearly all population centres generating pollution above 10 @,@ 000 population equivalent ( PE ) have some sort of sewage treatment in place , less than a quarter of them are adequate . Wastewater from 86 % of Sava River basin settlements , generating more than 2 @,@ 000 PE , goes untreated . Pollution levels vary along the river . The best conditions in terms of the wastewater treatment are found in Slovenia , although the existing facilities are inadequate .
In Serbia , on the other hand , 68 % of population centres have no wastewater treatment facilities at all . Population centres exceeding 2 @,@ 000 PE directly discharge into the Sava River basin 's surface waters 11 @,@ 112 tonnes of nitrogen and 2 @,@ 642 tonnes of phosphorus .
Agriculture is another significant source of the Sava River basin surface water pollution , specifically through livestock manure production . It is estimated that the nutrient pollution levels generated by manure production equal 32 @,@ 394 tonnes of nitrogen and 3 @,@ 784 tonnes of phosphorus per year . As a consequence , the Sava River is microbiologically polluted in areas affected by the nutrient pollution . One such part of the river is the lowermost part of its course between Šabac and Belgrade , where acceptable freshwater bacterial counts are exceeded .
Levels of industrial pollution vary significantly throughout the basin . In 2007 , significant sources of industrial pollution were identified in Slovenia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , and Serbia . Levels of lead , cadmium and arsenic measured in the Sava River at Zagreb in 2003 did not exceed permitted concentrations , but measured levels of mercury exceeded permitted levels in four out of 216 samples . Levels of heavy metals , specifically zinc , copper , lead and cadmium , measured in sediments in the Sava River near Belgrade were assessed as representing little to no risk , and the conclusion drawn was that in order to " reduce the existing bacterial contamination of the Sava River it is necessary to control faecal discharge near cities like Belgrade . " The two countries ( Croatia and Montenegro ) with greatest direct access to the Adriatic showed by far the least polluted basin surface waters , although other factors , such as demography , agricultural / environmental development and , especially , investment ( internal and external ) , play a role .
= = = Protected areas = = =
The Sava River basin is very significant because of its biological diversity , and it contains large alluvial wetlands and lowland forests . This led to designation of six protected areas under provisions of the Ramsar Convention by the countries in the basin . Those are Lake Cerknica in Slovenia , Lonjsko Polje and Crna Mlaka in Croatia , Lake Bardača in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , and Obedska and Zasavica bogs in Serbia .
= = Sport and recreation = =
There are several sports and recreational grounds located on the river course or gravel pit and artificial lakes adjacent to the Sava . Tacen Whitewater Course , located on the right bank of the Sava in Tacen suburb of Ljubljana , was built as a permanent kayaking course in 1948 . It hosts a major international competition almost every year , examples being the ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships in 1955 , 1991 , and 2010 . In Zagreb , Jarun complex of lakes along the river course offers a range of facilities for swimming , water sports and cycling . The island of Ada Ciganlija in Belgrade is the major recreational zone of the city , gathering as much as 100 @,@ 000 visitors daily in summer months .
The Sava River is the site of several regattas . Those include the International Sava Tour rowing regatta taking place between Zagreb and Brčko , and the Belgrade Regatta ( sailing regatta ) .
The river is also the site of the Šabac Swimming Marathon — an open water swimming competition , running on an 18 @.@ 8 @-@ kilometre ( 11 @.@ 7 mi ) course between the village of Jarak and the city of Šabac in Serbia . The competition is held annually since 1970 , and was included in FINA international calendar from 1984 to 2012 .
Recreational and sport fishing is a popular activity along the Sava River course . There is a 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 feet ) long sport fishing competition ground near Hotemež , Slovenia .
= = Tradition = =
Even though the name Sava became very common among ( and not only South ) Slavs , especially as a form of personal name , either male or female , and has a " Slavic tone , " the river 's name is not Slavic but Celtic and Roman in origin ; the Latin name was Savus . Another name , used for Sava in entirety or its lower part by Strabo , is Noarus .
Worshipping of various river gods in the area is traced back to the Late Bronze Age , when the first settlements were founded along the Sava River . Taurisci associated their river goddess Adsullata with the Savus . Altars or inscriptions dedicated to the river god Savus were found at a number of locations along the river course , including at the Zelenci Pools where the Sava Dolinka rises , and a number of Roman settlements and castra built along the Via Pannonia , Roman road spanning from Aquileia to the Danube . The settlements include Emona , Andautonia and Siscia ( near modern @-@ day Ljubljana , Velika Gorica and Sisak respectively ) upstream of the Kupa River confluence , and Marsonia , itself built atop a prehistoric settlement , Cibalae , Sirmium and Singidunum ( in modern @-@ day Slavonski Brod , Vinkovci , Sremska Mitrovica and Belgrade ) downstream of the Kupa . Besides the altar found at the Zelenci Pools , inscriptions and sites dedicated to Savus were found in remains of Emona , Andautonia and Siscia . Several years after 1751 completion of the Robba Fountain in Ljubljana , the three male figures sculpted as parts of the fountain were identified as statues of the river gods of Sava , Krka and Ljubljanica . In the early 20th century , the fountain was named the Fountain of Three Carniolan Rivers .
The Baptism on the Savica ( Slovene : Krst pri Savici ) , the Slovene national epic written by the Romantic poet France Prešeren in 1835 . The poem , referring in its title to a headwater of the Sava River , inspired design of the coat of arms of Slovenia of 1991 . However , the two wavy lines at the base of the blazon represent rivers of Slovenia and the Adriatic Sea rather than the Savica or the Sava specifically .
The Sava River is represented in the coat of arms of the former Kingdom of Slavonia . The design , approved by the Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary in 1496 , incorporates two bars symbolising the Sava and the Drava rivers tracing the borders of the kingdom . The design inspired arms of several present @-@ day counties of Croatia in the region of Slavonia and it is itself a part of the coat of arms of Croatia . The Sava River is also referred to by the poem Horvatska domovina , written by Antun Mihanović in 1835 , as a national symbol of Croatia . Modified lyrics of the poem later became the Croatian anthem .
= Pretty Hurts ( song ) =
" Pretty Hurts " is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé for her eponymous fifth studio album ( 2013 ) . It impacted mainstream radio in the United States on June 10 , 2014 , as the fourth single from the album . The song was written by Ammo , Beyoncé and Sia , and its production was handled by the former two . " Pretty Hurts " was initially written for Katy Perry and then offered to Rihanna ; both artists failed to record the track and as a result it was sent to Beyoncé instead . It is a power pop , soul ballad , instrumentally complete with a sparse background honed with the use of synths , minor chords and a " booming " drum beat . The track 's lyrical content deals with subjects of third @-@ wave feminism , self @-@ empowerment and body image . Additionally , the song 's lyrics deal with the consequences of society 's high standards of beauty , and in " Pretty Hurts " eating disorders are depicted as one of the subjected results .
The song generally received acclaim from music critics who commended Beyoncé 's vocal performance and the track 's lyrical content . " Pretty Hurts " won in the category for Best Song with a Social Message at the 2014 MTV Europe Music Awards and was named the best track of 2014 by the Associated Press . Following the release of Beyoncé , the track charted in the lower regions internationally , and when released as a single , " Pretty Hurts " attained limited success commercially . It failed to enter the Billboard Hot 100 and peaked at number 63 on the UK Singles Chart . However , the song became Beyoncé 's 21st number one on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart , and was placed at number four on its 2014 year @-@ end chart .
The accompanying music video for " Pretty Hurts " was directed by Melina Matsoukas , and features Beyoncé competing in a beauty pageant . The clip was made available at iTunes Stores as part of the album 's release on December 13 , 2013 . The video was positively reviewed by critics who complimented Beyoncé 's acting and the cohesion between the clip and the song 's message . It won in the categories for Best Video with a Message and Best Cinematography at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards . Rolling Stone included the clip in their year @-@ end list of the 10 best music videos of 2014 . Beyoncé performed " Pretty Hurts " during her co @-@ headlining On the Run Tour ( 2014 ) .
= = Background and recording = =
" Pretty Hurts " was initially written by Australian musician Sia Furler at her apartment in Angelino Heights , Los Angeles . She completed the song with American musician Ammo on the same day she recorded French disc jockey David Guetta 's " Titanium " in 2011 . Sia wrote " Pretty Hurts " with American singer Katy Perry in mind , and later e @-@ mailed the song to her . However , Perry failed to read the email , and in what Sia described as an " awkward situation , " she then sent the track to the management of Beyoncé and Bajan singer Rihanna . The song was put on hold for eight months by Rihanna 's management , who failed to pay the track 's fee , and as a result Beyoncé " slid into home base and threw the money down " to secure " Pretty Hurts " for herself . Rihanna later decided to record another composition by Sia , " Diamonds " , instead . In 2012 , American producer Dr. Luke received Beyoncé 's cut of " Pretty Hurts " and played it to Perry , who later text messaged Sia , saying , " I 'm pretty hurt you never sent me this song " . Sia then responded , stating , " Check your e @-@ mail , " to which Perry replied , " It was meant to be with Beyoncé of course " .
During an interview with iTunes Radio in December 2013 , Beyoncé said , " The second I heard the song , I 'm like , ' I have to sing this song , I don 't care how hard I have to fight for this song , this is my song ' ! " The singer also decided to record " Pretty Hurts " because she wanted to shift her focus to the beauty industry , which she felt was " the most humiliating , judgmental place you can be as a woman " . She saw the track 's theme as representation of " finding that thing in the world that makes you truly happy , " and felt that the song was in line with the album 's theme of " finding beauty in imperfections " . Speaking to iTunes Radio , Beyoncé explained : " I feel like sometimes the world is a big contest , we 're all being judged . I wanted to capture how humiliating and insecure that makes you feel . "
Sia later mentioned online , in reply to a fan lamenting that her song " Elastic Heart " would have been a good single for Beyoncé , that she gave the singer " Pretty Hurts " , her " other best song " . The final version of the song was written by Sia , Beyoncé and Ammo , and its production was handled by the latter two . Rob Suchecki engineered and recorded the song 's instrumental and intro synthesizer with Derek Dixie . Beyoncé 's vocals were recorded by Stuart White who also handled the mixing of the song . " Pretty Hurts " was recorded in three studios : Kings Landing in Bridgehampton , and Jungle City Studios and Oven Studios in New York City . In the United Kingdom , the song was added to the playlist of BBC Radio 1 on June 2 , 2014 , and later impacted mainstream radio in the country on June 23 . In the United States , " Pretty Hurts " impacted rhythmic radio on June 10 , 2014 , as the fourth single from Beyoncé .
= = Composition = =
A power pop , soul ballad , " Pretty Hurts " runs for a duration of four minutes and 17 seconds ( 4 : 17 ) . It contains " mellow " R & B undertones , and a hip hop groove . Musically , the track 's sparse background is honed with the use of synths , minor chords , and a " booming " drum beat . " Pretty Hurts " is set in the time signature of common time , with a slow tempo of 65 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of B major , with Beyoncé 's vocals spanning the tonal nodes of F ♯ 3 to E5 . The song follows a basic sequence of B @-@ C ♯ m @-@ G ♯ m @-@ F ♯ as its chord progression . Beyoncé 's vocal performance in " Pretty Hurts " was likened by music critics to that of her 2008 single , " Halo " . Una Mullally of The Irish Times commented that the track 's sound recalled the works of American singer Pink . Writing for New York Magazine , Jody Rosen felt that " Pretty Hurts " was reminiscent of a more " robust " Barbra Streisand song . Jed Gottlieb of the Boston Herald likened the track 's beat to the works of New Zealand singer Lorde . Chris Bosman from Consequence of Sound described " Pretty Hurts " as a " cinematic reach of modern Top 40 pop with the patience and melancholy of post @-@ 808s & Heartbreaks hip @-@ hop . " USA Today writer Korina Lopez opined that the song showcased a " darker side " to the singer .
The lyrics in " Pretty Hurts " are related to third @-@ wave feminism and self @-@ empowerment . It confronts society 's standards and stereotypes with regard to female beauty . The song opens with a recorded snippet of a beauty pageant judge questioning Beyoncé on her life aspirations , to which she replies , " My aspiration in life would be ... to be happy " . The sample is used to frame the song in the context of the singer 's childhood . According to Michael Cragg from The Guardian , the snippets were used to question the singer 's " drive and desire that 's got her to where she is today , and whether the struggle was entirely worth it " . The song then transcends into a depiction of Beyoncé as a beauty pageant contest awaiting judgment in the lyrics , " Mama said , ' You 're a pretty girl , what 's in your head , it doesn 't matter . Brush your hair , fix your teeth . What you wear is all that matters " . The lyrical content in the second verse of " Pretty Hurts " — " Blonder hair , flat chest / TV says bigger is better / South Beach , sugar free / Vogue says thinner is better " — serve as an analysis of female body image and society 's obsession with physical perfection .
According to Tris McCall of The Star @-@ Ledger , the song implicates that " American women are flung from their cradles into competition with each other , and are coached to disguise their flaws and distrust any gesture toward solidarity . " Additionally , the track 's lyrics deal with the consequences of society 's high standards of beauty , and in " Pretty Hurts " eating disorders are depicted as one of the subjected results . The track also sees Beyoncé denouncing " plastic smiles , " and during the last verses she demands to " strip away the masquearede " . Critics observed that " Pretty Hurts " promoted its listener 's ambition for fame and personal growth . The song 's lyrical content garnered comparisons to TLC 's " Unpretty " ( 1999 ) , and Christina Aguilera 's " Beautiful " ( 2002 ) . Marc Hogan of Spin opined that " Pretty Hurts " resembled a speech accompanied by music and felt that it served as a political statement addressed to the beauty industry . Hogan 's view was echoed by McCall of The Star @-@ Ledger who wrote that had the song been performed by Phil Ochs in 1995 , it " would have instantly recognized it as a protest number " . McCall went on to opine that " Pretty Hurts " served a response to the criticism Beyoncé received for her performance of the The Star @-@ Spangled Banner during American president Barack Obama 's second inauguration in 2013 .
= = Critical reception = =
" Pretty Hurts " received acclaim from most music critics . Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph felt it was " a great opening track " for Beyoncé and lauded its " anthemic " chorus . Mesfin Fekadu of the Associated Press deemed the song " a supreme way " to open the album. musicOMH 's Philip Matusavage wrote that " Pretty Hurts " manifested Beyoncé as a " definitive personal statement rather than just another Beyoncé album " . The Guardian reviewer Michael Cragg listed the track as an " immediate " single choice on the album . Julia Leconte of Now opined that the song was " classic Beyoncé feminism " and quipped , " and if you 're a sucker for girl @-@ power hits like ' Irreplaceable ' , you 'll have this one on repeat , too " . While Claire Lobenfield of Complex stated , " What sounds like a classic Beyoncé female empowerment ballad cuts even deeper . " Tim Finney of the same publication deemed the song a " heavy @-@ handed future concert staple " . Writing for the Los Angeles Times , Mikael Wood felt that with " Pretty Hurts , " Beyoncé created " razzle @-@ dazzle pop out of small @-@ scale sentiments that might 've seemed on paper like fodder for hushed ballads " . Drowned in Sound writer Robert Leedham stated the track was " impeccably sung " .
Tris McCall of The Star @-@ Ledger commended the track 's production and complimented Beyoncé for sounding " on the verge of tears " with her " vulnerable " vocal delivery . Newsday writer Glenn Gamboa felt the song was " dynamic musically and bold lyrically " . " Pretty Hurts " was lauded as the " best thing on the album " and an " undeniably noble attempt to boost female morale " by Andy Gill of The Independent . Gill 's view was shared by Consequence of Sound 's Chris Bosman who felt the song 's " dramatic and painful exploration of female beauty " made it a highlight on Beyoncé . Billboard journalists Andrew Hampp and Erika Ramirez commented , " Unlike [ singers such as Celine Dion , Christina Aguilera and Rihanna ] , Beyoncé doesn ’ t just re @-@ sing a Sia demo – she fully makes this self @-@ empowerment anthem fully her own , with a powerhouse ' Halo ' -esque vocal , and a bridge that could take you from Houston to Brooklyn in five seconds flat " . The lyric , " It 's my soul that needs surgery , " was dubbed an " admittedly catchy slogan " by Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani . Writing for Slate , Dee Lockett called the track 's introduction the " album 's most empowering line " . Jem Aswad of Spin called " Pretty Hurts " the pièce de résistance of Beyoncé and described it as " a shimmering , melancholy @-@ yet @-@ radio @-@ friendly landscape that perfectly suits the song 's heavy subject matter " .
Entertainment Weekly reviewer Nick Catucci called the track a " mild album opener " . The placement of " Pretty Hurts " was criticized by AbsolutePunk writer Ryan Dennehy , who went on to call the song " too safe at this point in her [ Beyoncé 's ] career " . Dennehy 's view was echoed by Emily Mackay of NME who went on to deem the track " inauspicious " and felt its lyrical content was reminiscent of " a City banker lecturing you on the need for spiritual rather than material wealth " . Philip Cosores of Paste commented , " ' Pretty Hurts ' opens the album with didactic rhetoric without the grace of subtlety , with its repeated conclusion that the ' soul needs surgery , ' hardly a poetic payoff that listeners deserve " . Under the Radar writer Ryan E.C. Hamm dismissed " Pretty Hurts " as a " flaw " on Beyoncé .
" Pretty Hurts " topped the Associated Press ' top songs of 2014 list , in which they complimented the track 's " heavy , deeply felt , emotional — but most important , beautiful " qualities , and felt that Beyoncé 's " rising vocals " brought Sia 's words to life . In the 2013 Pazz and Jop Music Critics Poll , the song was ranked at number 424 . The song won in the category for Best Song with a Social Message at the 2014 MTV Europe Music Awards . At the 2014 Soul Train Music Awards , " Pretty Hurts " was nominated for The Ashford and Simpson Songwriter 's Award .
= = Commercial performance = =
Following the release of Beyoncé , " Pretty Hurts " charted in the lower regions internationally , and when released as a single , attained limited success commercially . The song failed to enter the US Billboard Hot 100 , but peaked at number 13 on Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles on January 11 , 2014 . The song bowed at number 38 on US Rhythmic Songs for the week ending July 5 , 2014 , and went on to peak at number 33 . " Pretty Hurts was more successful on US Hot Dance Club Songs where it reached number 16 by July 12 , 2014 . The following week , it entered the top ten , setting a new peak of number nine . On August 30 , 2014 , " Pretty Hurts " topped US Hot Dance Club Songs and became Beyoncé 's 21st number one hit on the chart . The song ended 2014 as the year 's fourth most successful entry on US Hot Dance Club Songs . " Pretty Hurts " peaked at number 36 on US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , and at number 78 on the Canadian Hot 100 .
In Australia , " Pretty Hurts " bowed at number 68 on the Australian Singles Chart for the week ending May 31 , 2014 . The following week , it climbed 21 positions to its peak of number 47 , before falling off the chart the week after . In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number 123 on the UK Singles Chart and number 12 on the UK R & B Chart on December 28 , 2013 . The following week , it climbed to number 93 on the singles chart . It went on to peak at number 63 on May 17 , 2014 , and became a top ten hit on the UK R & B Chart where it peaked at number eight on July 5 , 2014 . " Pretty Hurts " initially entered the Irish Singles Chart at number 82 on the chart issued for December 26 , 2013 , before dropping out the following week . On May 8 , 2014 , the song re @-@ entered the chart at a new peak position of 56 . Elsewhere , " Pretty Hurts " attained peaks of number 68 in Switzerland , number 83 in Germany , and number 87 in the Netherlands .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and release = = =
The music video for " Pretty Hurts " was directed by Melina Matsoukas . It was filmed at Bishop Loughlin Memorial High School in Fort Greene , Brooklyn , between August 11 and August 13 , 2013 . The filming of the clip saw an extended schedule surface with a variety scenes and concepts being developed during the ongoing shoot . As a result , several members of the crew quit the shoot , leaving Matsoukas with a limited team to work with . The small school in which the video 's filming took place was intended to showcase " a small @-@ town kind of pageant " . According to Matsoukas , the location created a 1980s atmosphere combined with pin @-@ up themes inspired by Blake Lively 's character in the film The Town ( 2010 ) . Several of the actresses portraying the beauty contestants in the video were models professionally , and shared their expertise for the clip 's premise . The visual also sees a cameo appearance from American actor Harvey Keitel . Speaking about Keitel 's involvement in an interview with New York Magazine , Matsoukas said that she wanted to use a " greasy , Vegas @-@ type pageant character , " and felt Keitel was well @-@ suited for the role .
Beyoncé stated that she wanted to film the video to showcase the correlation of physical beauty and happiness in life , which serves as one of the song 's themes . Speaking to MTV News , the singer mentioned : " It represents all of the things women go through to keep up with the pressure that society puts on us . I wanted to tap into the world of competition . Some of the things young women go through is just really heartbreaking for me . " Matsoukas wanted " Pretty Hurts " to follow a premise reminiscent to that of a documentary , with most of its filming occurring organically and unplanned . In an interview with MTV News , Matsoukas commented on the music video 's theme :
" Well I think we definitely wanted to speak to as many women as we could and all the pain and struggle that we go through as women to maintain this impossible standard of beauty . We wanted to give it a darker edge and take it there and not give you the Disney version of that struggle . And Beyoncé was more than willing to go that far with it . And I applaud her for that . "
The music video for " Pretty Hurts " was released on December 13 , 2013 , to iTunes Stores , as part of the release of Beyoncé . On April 24 , 2014 , it was made available for viewing on the website of Time , to coincide with Beyoncé 's cover feature on their Time 100 issue . To further promote the release , Beyoncé launched a website campaign — " What Is Pretty " — which asked fans to post photos and videos on Instagram , explaining their definition of beauty . The music video was released on Beyoncé 's Vevo account on the same day as her Time feature and " What Is Pretty " launch . A behind the scenes segment of the music video was premiered on MTV and Vevo , also on April 24 .
= = = Development = = =
The music video 's beauty contest concept was proposed by Beyoncé . In an interview with New York Magazine , Matsoukas explained her response to Beyoncé 's proposal : " I was like , ' Let 's get into the toxic world and what we really do that is so damaging to ourselves , and use it as a microcosm for our society ' . Obviously , those ideas don 't just live in the pageant world ; they live in our world . And that 's what the song is about . And it felt like we had to take it there to make it have meaning , because otherwise it would be a superficial , preachy kind of song and visual . " A scene from the clip which depicts Beyoncé preparing plastic surgery , consuming diet pills and vomiting , was initially excluded from the video 's final cut . However , Beyoncé decided to include the scene to fulfill her role in the clip 's premise . Another scene featuring Beyoncé drowning in water while the beauty contest 's host questions her life aspirations , was originally intended to depict her falling onstage . However , the scene failed to surface because of time constraints .
Matsoukas initially planned the music video to visualize Beyoncé winning the contest , where she would realize that it was meaningless to her . However , Beyoncé suggested that an albino should serve as the contest 's winner instead . Speaking to MTV News , Matsoukas elaborated : " We thought it was really important and interesting to break those ideas of what the classic beauty standards would be and to do this with this beautiful albino woman , I thought was really great . And to show ' Yeah she 's not perfect , she doesn 't always win and you put your best foot forward and you may still lose . ' " The video 's ending was originally intended to depict archival footage of American actresses Halle Berry and Vanessa A. Williams , to promote beauty for African @-@ American women . However , Beyoncé sent a note to Matsoukas suggesting that footage from her childhood should be interpolated at the end of the song in order to connect it to the second music video from the album , " Ghost " .
The scene where Beyoncé is pictured wrecking a shelf of trophies " represent [ s ] knocking down ... beauty standards and falling into a victim of that " . The scene was inspiried by Matsoukas obtaining an image of Beyoncé , during her youth , pictured afront a shelf of her personal trophies . Matsoukas opined that " [ trophies ] don 't bring you happiness , and don 't move you forward in life " . Jake Reed of The Daily Collegian interpreted the scene as a realization that the pressure of sustaining beauty is unworthy of the time and dedication spent on it . Beyoncé was styled by B. Akerlund for the music video . Her wardrobe included a 1920s rabbit ear headpiece as a means of innocence for her character in the clip . Her look was honed with a " We Are Handsome " -print bodysuit and a Dolce & Gabbana gold brace corset , as well as a tiara and sash during other scenes .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The seven @-@ minute long video depicts Beyoncé playing a
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Manchester became increasingly reliant on its Merseyside neighbour for its imports and exports , but the handling charges and dues charged by the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board made goods from Manchester uncompetitive . A solution was to build the Manchester Ship Canal . In 1887 the Bridgewater Navigation Company was purchased by the Manchester Ship Canal Company with a cheque for £ 1 @,@ 710 @,@ 000 , which was at the time the largest cheque ever written , and the building of the Manchester Ship Canal began . The canal , which was made by greatly deepening and widening the eastern section of the Mersey and Irwell Navigation , opened on 1 January 1894 . It reduced the shipping costs of raw cotton to the mills and the dispatching the finished cloth overseas . The canal had helped the region to become the centre of the Industrial Revolution , and it had transformed Manchester into England 's third largest port , despite being 40 miles ( 64 km ) inland . As the canal was built , it became clear that Brindley 's famous aqueduct would have to be demolished , as it allowed insufficient headroom for the freighters that the canal would carry . Fortunately , in 1896 the councillors of Eccles paid to have the aqueduct moved to the spot it occupies today , alongside the canal . The Bridgewater Canal is now carried over the Manchester Ship Canal by the equally celebrated Barton Swing Aqueduct , which was completed in 1893 with the novel idea of " opening " by rotating 90 degrees to allow ships to pass .
The construction of the Manchester Ship Canal and the Manchester Docks led to the development of Trafford Park as the largest industrial estate in Europe , and brought employment to the area for the next eighty years . By the 1960s however , the UK had begun to lose its position as an industrial world power . By the mid @-@ 20th century , the UK cotton industry had gone into decline because of low @-@ cost competition from Asian manufacturers . The decline of heavy industry in the area , the increasing size of freight @-@ carrying ships , and competition from road transport , brought about the decline of the terminal docks at Salford , which closed in 1982 .
= = River Irwell Flood Defence Scheme = =
The lower reaches of the Irwell have flooded many times in its history , the most well documented being the floods of 1866 , 1946 , 1954 , 1980 , and 2007 . In December 1816 rapidly thawing snow caused the river to flood , sweeping away a considerable amount of property including building materials and livestock . Locals reported the height of the river to have been almost as great as a more serious flood of 1768 . A local public house , the Black Boy , suffered extensive damage as the water caused the rear wall to collapse , a local brewery was flooded with the loss of all its stock , and a Mersey Flat came free of its moorings , hitting Regent Bridge . In 1866 , the " year of the great Flood " , rain fell for three continuous days commencing on Tuesday 13 November . By the end of the first day , the river had risen 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) above normal at Peel Park , street lamps could not be lit and mills were brought to a stop . In all , £ 1 million of property was damaged , 450 hectares of land was flooded , 700 people had to be rescued from wrecked homes , but only one man died by drowning . The height of the flood was marked by an obelisk erected in Peel Park . The construction of the ship canal is said to have reduced the risk of flooding , by providing a larger outlet below Regent bridge . In 1946 in Salford 5 @,@ 300 properties were flooded , and 600 were flooded in 1954 .
To alleviate such problems two flood storage basins with a capacity of 650 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 850 @,@ 000 cu yd ) have been constructed to the west of Littleton Road , Kersal , at a cost of around £ 11 million . As part of the River Irwell Flood Defence Scheme , the defences help to protect some 3 @,@ 000 properties in Kersal and Lower Broughton against a 1 in 75 year flood . Concerns have been raised that a 1 in a 100 @-@ year flood would breach these defences and cause some £ 55 million damage to property . The defences proved successful on 22 January 2008 , when the worst flooding to hit the region in thirty years caused the Irwell to burst its banks further downstream in the centre of Manchester .
In March 2015 work began on a £ 12m upgrade to the flood defence scheme to upgrade the protection to cope with a 100 @-@ year flood . The scheme , which was due to be completed in December 2015 , involves creating a flood storage basin to the north of the Castle Irwell student village . An area of 29 hectares will be excavated and the material will be used to construct a 3 metre high embankment around the site .
= = Regeneration = =
A large urban regeneration project , The Salford Quays Development Plan , was published in 1985 and work began a few years later to redevelop the site for residential , business and leisure purposes . The Salford Quays waterside development has made living by the Irwell , and the Manchester Ship Canal into which it flows , fashionable once again .
There are further plans to " turn the tide on the years of neglect and once again embrace the River Irwell as a fundamental part of Manchester and Salford 's heritage and future economic and social growth . The vision is to reinvent the central Manchester conurbation as the major waterfront destination in Northern England . " A number of key stakeholders are involved in the development of this regeneration vision . These include Manchester , Salford and Trafford councils , Manchester Ship Canal Company , Environment Agency , Mersey Basin Campaign , local businesses , landowners , community groups and the wider Manchester , Salford and Trafford communities .
= = = Irwell City Park = = =
In 2007 Manchester City Council , Salford City Council and Trafford Metropolitan Borough Council prepared planning guidance to support the delivery of a project for the restoration of the river and creation of a new urban park , to be called Irwell City Park . The intention is to develop 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) of riverside between The Meadows and Peel Park in the north , through Salford and Manchester city centres , Ordsall and Pomona Dock areas , around to Salford Quays and Trafford Wharfside . The three authorities formally adopted the draft Planning Guidance in March 2008 . The Guidance sets out the guidelines that the councils will use as a material consideration in determining applications for planning permission and other matters in the Irwell City Park area . It also establishes a set of principles to ensure the provision of a continuous riverside cycle / walkway , and the high quality design of new public open spaces and other infrastructure . An application is to be made to the North West Development Agency in October 2008 to support pre @-@ project implementation work , including design and technical feasibility work .
= = Sport on the Irwell = =
Rowing has existed along the river in Manchester and Salford since 1823 . A regatta was inaugurated on 12 September 1842 on a straight course from Throstle 's Nest Weir to Regent Road Bridge . Racing continued in Manchester with events such as Agecroft Regatta and Warburton Regatta . At the turn of the 20th century , rowing was very popular in the area with many local clubs such as Nemesis , Prince of Wales , Minerva , Didsbury and Agecroft all competing regularly . With the decline in the condition of the water , by the Second World War only Agecroft and Broughton rowing clubs were still active .
Agecroft Rowing Club was formed in 1861 , making it one of the oldest open membership rowing clubs in the world . The club was originally based in the grounds of Agecroft Hall and then a short distance downstream at Littleton Road . However , the river became impossible for eight 's and fours to pass due to the encroachment of weeds and river life following the clean up of the environment . The club now operates from a boat house next to the Salford Watersports Centre at Salford Quays , which it has shared with the University of Salford Boat Club since 2004 . The boat house , which the sport 's governing body , British Rowing , has nominated as the North West Centre of Excellence , also hosts the Two Cities Boat Race , which has been held on the river since 1972 .
This river is home to the Salford Friendly Anglers ' Society , the oldest angling society in the world , founded in 1817 .
= = Tributaries = =
= County Route 41 ( Onondaga County , New York ) =
County Route 41 ( CR 41 ) in Onondaga County , New York is a 6 @.@ 20 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 98 km ) highway in the Finger Lakes towns of Skaneateles and Marcellus . The route is unsigned , like most of Onondaga County 's routes , serving as a connector between the villages . The route begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) in Skaneateles and heads northeast for most of its length . Route 41 does not intersect with another state @-@ maintained highway , but does follow the former alignment of two . The highway ends at an intersection with CR 83 ( South Street ) and CR 150 ( Platt Road ) .
Route 41 was once part of a realignment of a 19th @-@ century turnpike , the Seneca Turnpike . Being a newer alignment , the signs along the highway read " New Seneca Turnpike " . The route , when the 1930 New York State Route renumbering occurred , was designated as part of New York State Route 175 ( NY 175 ) from US 20 to NY 174 , which is now part of CR 41 . The highway then followed an older alignment of Route 174 southward , out of Marcellus . Route 175 was decommissioned and realigned several times along that alignment , and the Route 174 alignment came in the 1970s . By 1989 , Route 41 was assigned along its entire alignment .
= = Route description = =
CR 41 begins at an intersection with US 20 ( East Genesee Street ) in the village of Skaneateles . Route 41 heads to the northeast through the densely populated community , passing homes and trees . The highway then intersects with the northern terminus of East Lake Street , the continuation of NY 41 . The county route , however , continues to the northeast , leaving the village portion of Skaneateles at an intersection with Highland Avenue , losing its Onondaga Street moniker . The highway , now known as the New Seneca Turnpike , parallels US 20 in a less dense area of Skaneateles .
The highway continues , leaving Skaneateles for the town of Marcellus . After a while , the dense housing becomes farmland and fields , with the highway continuing towards downtown Marcellus . However , as the route progresses farther , this reverts itself , and houses follow along the highway once again . Route 41 then intersects with Gully Road and the Old Seneca Turnpike , a realignment of itself . The real " Old Seneca Turnpike " is intersected farther north . After passing a large farm , Route 41 intersects with the northern terminus of CR 259A ( Richard Road ) .
Route 41 passes to the south of a pond , making a swing to the north . The route then makes a swing to the east , and soon after a straight path to the northeast . The highway intersects with CR 211A ( Lawrence Road ) , which heads eastward towards NY 174 . After the county route , the population around Route 41 quickly dips , and fields surround the highway . A local road , CR 202 ( Murphy Road ) , starts to the west after a short distance . The northeast curving begins to straighten into a northward track , until intersecting with the southern terminus of CR 236 ( Gypsy Road ) . A short distance after , Route 41 intersects with CR 133 , the old alignment of the Seneca Turnpike , and the two highways merge .
The county highway then follows the Old Seneca Turnpike along East Main Street , entering the village of Marcellus . Route 41 then makes a turn to the south along an old alignment of NY 174 . The population becomes dense once again , as Route 41 follows South Street towards its eastern terminus . Paralleling Marcellus County Park , the highway continues southward . Route 41 finally terminates at an intersection with CR 83 ( South Street ) and CR 150 ( Platt Road ) . South Street continues towards an intersection with NY 174 and NY 175 .
= = History = =
= = = Old roads = = =
Route 41 from US 20 to South Street , is a realignment of the Seneca Turnpike , which was assigned in 1800 . Originally chartered as Genesee Road , the Seneca Turnpike consisted of a highway from Canandaigua to Utica . The turnpike had a long track in Onondaga County , running along CR 133 , NY 174 , NY 175 , NY 173 , and NY 92 . The turnpike was realigned in 1806 onto CR 41 instead of CR 133 . After CR 41 , it continued along the same track . The Seneca Turnpike Corporation , which maintained the turnpike , closed its doors in 1852 . As of 2008 , County Routes 41 and 133 still retain the Seneca Turnpike moniker .
= = = Designation = = =
In 1930 , during a massive State Route renumbering , the Skaneateles – South Street alignment of CR 41 was assigned as NY 175 . The rest was portioned as an alignment of NY 174 . The NY 174 alignment remained intact for many years , while NY 175 went through several different alignments . NY 175 was truncated off the CR 41 alignment by 1936 , until being realigned back onto the highway in the 1960s . However , this time , the highway was maintained by the Onondaga County Department of Transportation . NY 175 was realigned by 1989 onto CR 73 ( the Lee Mulroy Highway ) south of CR 41 . The alignment of CR 41 in Marcellus was established as a county highway in the 1970s and 1980s , when NY 174 was realigned onto a different highway .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Onondaga County .
= Amber Merritt =
Amber Merritt ( born 17 February 1993 ) is a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ point wheelchair basketball player who plays forward . She represented Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , where she won a silver medal .
Born in England , Merritt moved to Australia when she was ten years old . She was originally a swimmer , but was recruited into basketball by the Paralympic Hall of Fame coach Frank Ponta in 2007 . She started playing top level club wheelchair basketball in Australia for the Perth Western Stars in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) in 2008 . In 2013 , she captained the team , and it to its first WNWBL championship . She was the league 's top scorer , and the Most Valuable Player 4 pointer in its All Star Five , in 2011 , 2012 and 2013 .
Merritt made her debut with the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , in 2009 . She has played for the Gliders in a number of international series including the 2010 U23 World Championship , 2011 U25 World Championship , 2011 , 2012 and 2013 Osaka Cups , the 2012 BT Paralympic World Cup , and 2012 Gliders and Rollers World Challenge in Sydney .
= = Personal = =
Nicknamed Bambi , Merritt was born on 17 February 1993 in Portsmouth , England , with a club foot . She moved to Perth in Western Australia when she was ten after her parents decided they wanted to see what else the world had to offer , and graduated from high school there in 2010 . As of 2013 , she lives in Wanneroo , Western Australia .
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
Merritt is a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ point wheelchair basketball who plays forward . She started playing in 2007 . She was originally a swimmer , but was recruited into basketball by the Paralympic Hall of Fame coach Frank Ponta .
In financial year 2012 / 13 , the Australian Sports Commission gave Merritt a A $ 20 @,@ 000 grant as part of their Direct Athlete Support ( DAS ) program . She received $ 17 @,@ 000 in 2011 / 12 and 2010 / 11 and $ 5 @,@ 571 @.@ 42 in 2009 / 10 .
Wearing jersey number 14 , Merritt started playing top level club wheelchair basketball in Australia for the Perth Western Stars in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League in 2008 . In the second round of that season , the Western Stars defeated the Hills Hornets 52 – 44 . Playing for the Stars , she scored 10 points in her team 's victory .
In the 2012 season during the first game loss , Merritt scored eight points , had five rebounds , and two assists . In the league 's third game and her team 's second game , a loss to the Dandenong Rangers , she scored 26 points , and had 14 rebounds . In her team 's third game victory against the Sydney Uni Flames , she scored 18 points , while having 10 rebounds . In the Western Stars ' 56 – 36 semifinal victory against the Sydney Uni Flames , she played an important role . The Western Stars played in the league 's third place match , where she led it in scoring with 34 points as they defeated Sydney 63 – 54 . She finished the season as the WNWBL Season Top Scorer ,
Merritt was the Western Stars ' captain for the 2013 season , and led the team to its first WNWBL championship , defeating the Sachs Goldcamp Bears in the final 43 – 40 despite being 11 points down at three @-@ quarter time . She was the league 's top scorer , and the Most Valuable Player 4 pointer in its All Star Five , as she had previously been in 2011 and 2012 .
Merritt made her debut with the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , in 2009 , playing in several different competitions that year including the Japan Friendly Series , Four Nations in Canada and the Under 23 World Championship where her team finished fourth . As the youngest member of the Australian team at the 2010 World Championships , she finished fourth . She competed in the 2011 Asia Oceania Regional Championships , scoring ten points for her team as the third leading scorer in the final game of a competition where her did not lose a single match . That year , she also represented Australia at the 2011 Under 25 World Championships , where she wore shirt number 7 and was a key blocker for her team . Merritt played in the 2011 Osaka Cup , and the 2012 BT Paralympic World Cup . She competed at the 2012 Gliders and Rollers World Challenge in Sydney , scoring the winning points in the first place match against the Germany women 's national wheelchair basketball team , and was named the women 's MVP for the competition , having averaged 17 @.@ 8 points per game .
Merritt was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in wheelchair basketball . The London Games were her first . In the group stage , the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics posted wins against Brazil , Great Britain , and the Netherlands , but lost to the Canada . This was enough to advance the Gliders to the quarter @-@ finals , where they beat Mexico . The Gliders then defeated the United States by a point to set up a final clash with Germany . The Gliders lost 44 – 58 , and earned a silver medal .
Since the London games , Merritt has participated in the 2013 Osaka Cup , where the Gliders successfully defended the title they had won in 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2012 .
= = Statistics = =
= Mud Creek ( Chillisquaque Creek ) =
Mud Creek is a tributary of Chillisquaque Creek in Columbia County and Montour County in Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 8 @.@ 3 miles ( 13 @.@ 4 km ) long and flows through Madison Township , Columbia County and Derry Township , Montour County . The main tributaries of the creek are unnamed tributaries . The creek 's watershed has an area of 17 @.@ 70 square miles and is in West Hemlock Township , Montour County as well as the two townships it flows through . The watershed is mostly agricultural and forested and the main developed areas are Washingtonville and Jerseytown .
As of 2011 , the daily load of sediment in Mud Creek is 24 @,@ 165 @.@ 59 pounds ( 10 @,@ 961 @.@ 33 kg ) and the daily load of phosphorus is 16 @.@ 64 pounds ( 7 @.@ 55 kg ) . Various other compounds and metals are also found in the creek . The main rock formations in the watershed include the Hamilton Group , the Trimmers Rock Formation , and the Onondaga and Old Port Formations . The main soil series are the Watson @-@ Berks @-@ Alvira series , the Chenango @-@ Pope @-@ Holly series , and the Berks @-@ Weikert @-@ Bedington series . The watershed is in the ridge and valley region of the Appalachian Mountains .
Mud Creek is named for its muddiness . An area near it was settled as early as 1772 and several bridges were built across it and its tributaries in the 20th century . The creek is designated as a warm @-@ water fishery .
= = Course = =
Mud Creek begins in central Madison Township , Columbia County . It flows south for a short distance before turning southwest and passing through Jerseytown , where it crosses Pennsylvania Route 44 . The creek then continues to flow southwest , parallel to Pennsylvania Route 254 . Over the next several miles , its direction gradually changes from southwest to west and it exits Madison Township . Mud Creek then enters Derry Township , Montour County . It turns southwest again , continuing to follow Pennsylvania Route 254 . Over the next few miles , the creek receives several unnamed tributaries . It then crosses Pennsylvania Route 54 and enters Chillisquaque Creek 16 @.@ 79 miles ( 27 @.@ 02 km ) upstream of its mouth , immediately south of Washingtonville .
= = Hydrology = =
As of 2011 , a total of 54 @.@ 78 miles ( 88 @.@ 16 km ) of streams in the watershed of Mud Creek were affected by organic enrichment , low concentrations of dissolved oxygen , and heavy loads of sediment . The entirety of every stream in the creek 's watershed was considered by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection to be impaired as of 2011 .
The daily load of sediment in Mud Creek was 24 @,@ 165 pounds ( 10 @,@ 961 kg ) as of 2011 , but the total maximum daily load , above which water quality is considered impaired , is only 11 @,@ 371 @.@ 58 pounds ( 5 @,@ 158 @.@ 06 kg ) . The largest contributor of sediment to the creek was cropland , which contributed 19 @,@ 538 @.@ 46 pounds ( 8 @,@ 862 @.@ 50 kg ) per day . 3 @,@ 188 @.@ 05 pounds ( 1 @,@ 446 @.@ 08 kg ) of sediment per day came from stream banks and 1 @,@ 016 @.@ 05 pounds ( 460 @.@ 87 kg ) came from hay and pastures . 229 @.@ 80 pounds ( 104 @.@ 24 kg ) came from land classified by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection as " transition " , 115 @.@ 78 pounds ( 52 @.@ 52 kg ) per day came from forest , and 77 @.@ 36 pounds ( 35 @.@ 09 kg ) from land classified by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection as " low @-@ intensity development " . 0 @.@ 05 pounds ( 0 @.@ 023 kg ) came from wetlands . Many of the streams in the watershed can be muddy for a number of days after thunderstorms . A United States Geological Survey report from the 1960s observed a total of 1 @.@ 5 tons of dissolved solids flowing through the creek daily .
As of 2011 , the load of phosphorus in Mud Creek was 16 @.@ 64 pounds ( 7 @.@ 55 kg ) per day , but the total maximum daily load is 6 @.@ 71 pounds ( 3 @.@ 04 kg ) . 12 @.@ 92 pounds ( 5 @.@ 86 kg ) per day came from cropland , 2 @.@ 18 pounds ( 0 @.@ 99 kg ) from groundwater , and 1 @.@ 10 pounds ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) from hay and pastures . An average of 0 @.@ 14 pounds ( 64 g ) per day of phosphorus came from land classified by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection as " transition " . 0 @.@ 07 pounds ( 32 g ) came from forest , 0 @.@ 07 pounds ( 32 g ) from land classified by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection as " low @-@ intensity development " , and 0 @.@ 07 pounds ( 32 g ) from stream banks . Septic systems contributed 0 @.@ 06 pounds ( 27 g ) of phosphorus per day to the creek and wetlands contributed 0 @.@ 0002 pounds ( 0 @.@ 091 g ) .
The discharge of Mud Creek ranges from 0 @.@ 1 to 13 cubic feet per second and averages 5 @.@ 8 cubic feet per second . Its pH ranges from 6 @.@ 3 to 7 @.@ 9 and the specific conductance is between 162 and 312 micro @-@ siemens per centimeter at 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) .
A United States Geological Survey report in the 1960s measured the concentration of bicarbonate in Mud Creek to range from 41 to 109 milligrams per liter , but there were no carbonates in the water . The creek 's nitrate concentration ranged from 3 @.@ 3 to 6 @.@ 3 milligrams per liter for filtered water and the concentration of sulfates ranged from 23 to 29 milligrams per liter , again for filtered water . The concentration of chlorides in the creek 's filtered waters ranged from 7 to 23 milligrams per liter . The calcium and magnesium concentrations in filtered water were 20 to 44 and 4 @.@ 4 to 6 milligrams per liter , respectively .
Mud Creek experiences nonpoint source pollution . The Montour County Natural Areas Inventory recommended remedying this pollution .
= = Geography , geology , and climate = =
The elevation near the mouth of Mud Creek is 502 feet ( 153 m ) above sea level . The elevation of the creek 's source is approximately 760 feet ( 230 m ) above sea level . The highest areas of the watershed are in its southeastern portion . The watershed of Mud Creek is in the ridge and valley physiographic region of the Appalachian Mountains .
The main rock type in the watershed is shale , mainly that of the Hamilton Group . Siltstone and sandstone are also found in the watershed , in the Trimmers Rock Formation and the Onondaga and Old Port Formations . The Trimmers Rock Formation occurs on the southern side of the watershed and also in the northeastern corner of it . The Onondaga and Old Port Formations occur in the lowest reaches of the watershed and the Hamilton Group occurs everywhere else . 80 percent of the watershed 's rock is of the Hamilton Group , 15 percent is of the Trimmers Rock Formation , and 5 percent is of the Onondaga and Old Port Formations .
The Lower Helderberg Limestone occurs a small distance north of Mud Creek , where it is quarried . It is a flaggy and blue @-@ colored limestone that is 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) thick and dips at an angle of six to eight degrees . There are small pieces of the Oriskany sandstone close to the confluence of the creek with Chillisquaque Creek .
The most common soil series in the watershed of Mud Creek is the Watson @-@ Berks @-@ Alvira series . It is a shaly silt loam that mostly occurs in the watershed 's plains and highlands . Other soil series in the watershed include the Berks @-@ Weikert @-@ Bedington series and the Chenango @-@ Pope @-@ Holly series . The Chenango @-@ Pope @-@ Holly occupies areas near the creek itself in its lower reaches and the Berks @-@ Weikert @-@ Bedington series occurs throughout most of the southern edge of the watershed . All other parts of the watershed lie over soil of the Berks @-@ Weikert @-@ Bedington series . 80 percent of the soil is of the Watson @-@ Berks @-@ Alvira series , 12 percent is of the Berks @-@ Weikert @-@ Bedington series , and 8 percent is of the Chenango @-@ Pope @-@ Holly series . The Holly @-@ Monogahela @-@ Basher soil association is found in the floodplain of the creek .
On average , 44 @.@ 5 inches ( 113 cm ) of precipitation fall in the watershed of Mud Creek annually . The annual level of runoff in the watershed is 0 @.@ 13 inches ( 0 @.@ 33 cm ) on average .
= = Watershed = =
The watershed of Mud Creek has an area of 17 @.@ 70 square miles . It is mainly in Madison Township , Columbia County and Derry Township , Montour County , but a small part of it is in West Hemlock Township , Montour County . The watershed of the creek is in the Washingtonville and Millville United States Geological Survey 7 @.@ 5 minute quadrangles . It is on the eastern edge of the West Branch Susquehanna River watershed . The creek 's major tributaries include several unnamed tributaries .
The main land use in the watershed of Mud Creek is agricultural land , which accounts for 62 @.@ 97 percent of the total area . 31 @.@ 49 percent of the watershed is forested and 5 @.@ 54 percent is developed land . Most of the forested land is on the watershed 's southern and eastern edges , but there are some patches of it elsewhere , most of which are fairly small . Most of the developed land is near Jerseytown and Washingtonville , but there are several other small areas of development in the watershed 's lower reaches and a few other areas in its upper reaches .
The major communities in the Mud Creek watershed are Jerseytown and Washingtonville . Major roads in the watershed include Pennsylvania Route 254 . There are also a number of township roads that go to the creek and its tributaries .
= = History and etymology = =
An early settler in the area was George Whitmoyer , who built a cabin in the valley of Mud Creek at Jerseytown in 1772 . The Mud Creek Bridge was built over Mud Creek in 1907 . It is a Pratt pony truss bridge that was built in 1907 and is 40 feet ( 12 m ) . The bridge is near to collapse and is closed to traffic . Another eight bridges also cross the creek . Four were built in the 1930s , one in 1946 , two in 1962 , and the most recent in 1984 . An additional four bridges were built over its tributaries in the 1940s .
John Gosse Freeze gives the name Mud Creek as the east branch of Chillisquaque Creek in his 1888 book A History of Columbia County , Pennsylvania : From the Earliest Times , but adds that the creek 's name is more correctly the East Branch of the Chillisquaque . Mud Creek is named for its muddiness , which is especially pronounced following storms .
= = Biology = =
There are few or no riparian buffers along Mud Creek where it flows through agricultural land . However , the Montour County Natural Areas Inventory has recommended restoring the riparian buffers in Derry Township . A wet meadow is located along the creek north of Washingtonville . Plant types typically found in wet meadows include various ferns , sedges , grasses , and red maples . Mud Creek is designated as a warm @-@ water fishery .
= Be All My Sins Remember 'd =
" Be All My Sins Remember 'd " is the 71st episode of the science fiction television series Stargate Atlantis , and the eleventh episode of the series ' fourth season . The episode was written by Atlantis co @-@ executive producer , Martin Gero , his third script of the season , and directed by Andy Mikita . The episode originally aired on the Sci Fi Channel in the United States on January 4 , 2008 , and aired on Sky One in the United Kingdom on January 8 . The episode 's title is derived from the line , " The fair Ophelia ! Nymph , in thy orisons / Be all my sins remember 'd " from the famous " To be or not to be " soliloquy in William Shakespeare 's Hamlet .
The episode is the second installment of a three @-@ episode arc that began with the mid @-@ season finale " This Mortal Coil " ( also taken from Hamlet 's soliloquy ) , in which nanite @-@ created copies of Lieutenant Colonel John Sheppard and his team give their real counterparts on Atlantis a device that reveals the presence of over thirty Asuran battleships in the Pegasus galaxy . The episode resolves the main Asuran storyline with their permanent defeat at the hands of the Atlantis Expedition . The episode received generally positive critical reviews .
= = Plot = =
The Earth ships Apollo and Daedalus , which have been upgraded with Asgard plasma beam weapons , arrive in the Pegasus galaxy to battle the Asurans . After some initial successes against their enemy , they learn that the Asurans have retreated back to the safety of their homeworld to rebuild their numbers . Rodney McKay ( David Hewlett ) works with Todd , a Wraith prisoner ( Brendan Penny , Christopher Heyerdahl ) to create a computer virus to deactivate the Asurans , but they do not succeed . However , McKay develops an alternate plan to enhance the attractive forces between the Asuran nanites , pulling them together into a superdense mass that the Expedition can then implode by overloading ZPMs around it . To carry out this plan , he creates another humanoid Replicator to serve as a nucleus , later dubbed " FRAN " ( " Friendly Replicator Android " , played by Michelle Morgan ) .
For the plan to be successful , the Expedition must also prevent the Asuran ships from escaping into hyperspace . The Wraith prisoner convinces seven Wraith hive ships to join the Earth ships ' attack . Concerned about the Asuran threat , the Travelers under Larrin contribute some of their ships as well . Back on Atlantis , Teyla ( Rachel Luttrell ) is forced to admit that she is pregnant , and is pulled off duty . The combined fleet arrives over the Asuran homeworld and engages the enemy fleet , while Fran beams down to the surface and begins to pull the other nanites towards her . However , the nanite mass collapses the power grid , meaning that the ZPMs cannot be overloaded . McKay and Colonel Carter ( Amanda Tapping ) determine that , if they increase the mass 's attraction to the ultra @-@ dense neutronium in the planet 's crust , the additional mass will cause it to sink into the core of the planet . The pressure and heat in the core initiates a fusion reaction so that the planet explodes , shortly after the allied fleet escapes . One Asuran ship survives at the end of the episode , revealing its commander as Elizabeth Weir ( Torri Higginson ) , who notes that their " work " can now begin without interference .
= = Production = =
Writer Martin Gero completed the script of " Be All My Sins Remember 'd " by May 7 , 2007 . The script included a conversation between Carter and Colonel Caldwell ( Mitch Pileggi ) , where he talks to her as an " equal " , but the filmed scene was cut when the episode was longer than anticipated . The production crew felt the scene was not important enough , but Gero also noticed with surprise that Mitch Pileggi acted it out as if it were a " romance scene " .
Mitch Pileggi returned as Colonel Caldwell , who has not appeared in the series since season three 's twelfth episode , " Echoes " , due to Pileggi 's commitments in The Batman animated series . He also appeared alongside Michael Beach , who last played Colonel Abe Ellis in " Lifeline " . Christopher Heyerdahl returned as the Wraith character who would be named " Todd " in the next episode . However , Heyerdahl was unavailable to appear for " Be All My Sins Remember 'd " , so Brendan Penny filled in for the part . Penny was made to look like Heyerdahl as convincingly as possible , but Heyerdahl was asked to provide the voice for the character since the producers feared that the audience would later pick up on Penny 's voice otherwise .
Michelle Morgan played " FRAN " , the " Friendly Replicator Android " . Morgan was originally set to play Linara , Davos ' daughter from a previous episode , " The Seer " . However , the role was given to Kimberley Warnat when Morgan had to participate in a reshoot of her role in Diary of the Dead . Morgan was disappointed that she did not get the role of Linara , but stated after her casting as FRAN that it was fun to play a character that is highly dangerous and yet completely innocent . Jill Wagner returned as Larrin for this episode , after her debut appearance in " Travelers " . Torri Higginson returned as Elizabeth Weir in her fourth appearance in the season , at the very end of the episode . The script intended her to have two lines of dialog in the episode , but producers knew that the audience would recognize Higginson 's voice and hence used a stand @-@ in to say the first line instead .
The visual effects were done by the Vancouver @-@ based Image Engine . Before the broadcasting , Atlantis visual effects supervisor Mark Savela revealed that the episode would have the " biggest effects sequence viewers will ever have seen , " which involved the epic space battle in the climax of the episode . Savela intended the visual effects to top the minute @-@ long sequence of the Horizon missiles firing to the Asuran homeworld in the season three finale " First Strike " . The sequence was reportedly so complicated that for the first time in the series , models were used to physically map out the action before creating the initial animatics . Gero later stated that the episode had a battle sequence that " we will not be able to top . It is the greatest special effects sequence that the show has ever done . " The episode used an extent of special effects and had one of the highest budgets in the entire series , comparable with the series ' pilot episode " Rising " .
= = Reception = =
When " Be All My Sins Remember 'd " aired on the Sci Fi Channel on January 4 , 2008 , the episode received a total household ratings of 1 @.@ 4 , a ratings record for the series ' fourth season , and the highest in the series since the 1 @.@ 5 rating of the season three finale , " First Strike " . " Be All My Sins Remember 'd " made Stargate Atlantis SCI FI 's highest rated original series of the week , and the second most viewed broadcasting in total , second to the Television movie " Beyond Loch Ness " , which starred Stargate veterans Don S. Davis and Paul McGillion and had a rating of 1 @.@ 7 . In its UK airing on Sky One on January 8 , 2008 , the episode was watched by approximately 485 @,@ 000 viewers , making the series the most @-@ watched series
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aureus Hispanicus flore pleno or Parkinson 's Daffodil , see illustration ) . ( " I thinke none ever had this kind before myselfe nor did I myself ever see it before the year 1618 for it is of mine own raising and flowering first in my own garden " . )
His piety as a Roman Catholic is evident from Paradisi in Sole . In his introduction , Parkinson saw the botanical world as an expression of divine creation , and believed that through gardens man could recapture something of Eden . Nonetheless , a short French poem at the foot of the title page warned the gardener against hubris and in having excessive regard for his efforts , for whoever tries to compare Art with Nature and gardens with Eden " measures the stride of the elephant by the stride of the mite and the flight of the eagle by that of the gnat " . However , struggles between Protestants and Catholics compelled Parkinson to keep a low profile . He did not attend any parish church . At the height of his success , the English Civil War ( 1642 – 1651 ) tore his family apart .
Parkinson 's London house was in Ludgate Hill , but his botanical garden was in suburban Long Acre in Covent Garden , a district of market @-@ gardens , today close to Trafalgar Square . Not much is known about the garden , but based on a study of the writings of Parkinson and others , John Riddell has suggested that it was at least 2 acres ( 8 @,@ 100 m2 ) in size and probably surrounded by a wall . Four hundred and eighty @-@ four types of plant are recorded as having been grown in the garden . Thomas Johnson and the Hampshire botanist , John Goodyer , both gathered seeds there .
Parkinson has been called one of the most eminent gardeners of his day . He maintained close relations with other important English and Continental botanists , herbalists and plantsmen such as William Coys , John Gerard , John Tradescant the elder ( who was a close friend ) , Vespasian Robin , and the Frenchman Matthias de Lobel ( also known as Matthias de L 'Obel or Matthaeus Lobelius ) . Together , they belonged to the generation that began to see extraordinary new plants coming from the Levant and from Virginia , broadly speaking . In his writings , de Lobel frequently mentioned the Long Acre garden and praised Parkinson 's abilities . Parkinson , on his part , edited and presented in Theatrum Botanicum the papers of de Lobel , who had spent the final years of his life in Highgate supervising the gardens of Edward la Zouche , the 11th Baron Zouche .
Parkinson died in the summer of 1650 , and was buried at St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields , London , on 6 August . He is commemorated in the Central American genus of leguminous trees Parkinsonia . Paradisi in Sole also inspired the children 's writer Juliana Horatia Ewing ( 1841 – 1885 ) to write the story Mary 's Meadow , which was first published from November 1883 to March 1884 in Aunt Judy 's Magazine ( 1866 – 1885 ) , produced by her mother Margaret Gatty . In the story , some children read Paradisi in Sole and are inspired to create their own garden . The magazine received much favourable correspondence about the story , and in July 1884 it was suggested that a Parkinson Society should be formed . The objects of the society were to " search out and cultivate old garden flowers which have become scarce ; to exchange seeds and plants ; to plant waste places with hardy flowers ; to circulate books on gardening amongst the Members ... [ and ] to try to prevent the extermination of rare wild flowers , as well as of garden treasures . "
= = Work = =
Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris describes the proper cultivation of plants in general , and is in three sections : the flower garden , the kitchen garden , and the orchard garden . It does not include specific growing instructions for each type of plant , but at the start of each main section Parkinson provides instructions on " ordering " each type of garden , advising on situating and laying out a garden , tools , soil improvement , grafting , planting and sowing and the types of plants that should be included in each type of garden . It contains illustrations of almost 800 plants in 108 full @-@ page plates . Most of these were original woodcuts made by the German artist Christopher Switzer , but others appear to have been copied from the works of Matthias de Lobel , Charles de l 'Écluse and the Hortus Floridus of Crispijn van de Passe the Elder .
In Paradisi in Sole Parkinson hinted that he hoped to add a fourth section , a garden of simples ( medicinal herbs ) . He delivered the promise in his other great book , the monumental Theatrum Botanicum ( The Botanical Theatre or Theatre of Plants ) which he published in 1640 at the age of 73 years . The release of this work was delayed due to the popularity of Thomas Johnson 's edition of John Gerard 's book The Herball or Generall Historie of Plantes ( 1597 ) . Theatrum Botanicum , with 1 @,@ 688 pages of text , describes over 3 @,@ 800 plants and was the most complete and beautifully presented English treatise on plants of its day . It was the first work to describe 33 native plants , 13 of which grew near Parkinson 's Middlesex home . Some of these plants , such as the Welsh poppy , the Strawberry Tree and the Lady 's Slipper , were very common but had gone unnoticed or at least unrecorded . He intended the book to be a reliable guide for apothecaries , and it remained so for more than a hundred years after his death . Parkinson presented the work to Charles I , who conferred on him the title " Botanicus Regis Primarius " ( " Royal Botanist of the First Rank " ) though this came without a salary .
= = Published works = =
Parkinson , John ( 1629 ) . Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris : Or A Garden of All Sorts of Pleasant Flowers which our English Ayre will Permitt to be Noursed Vp . With a Kitchen Garden of All Manner of Herbes , Rootes , & Fruites , for Meate or Sause Vsed with Vs , and an Orchard of All Sorte of Fruitbearing Trees and Shrubbes Fit for Our Land . Together with the Right Orderinge , Planting & Preserving of Them and Their Uses and Vertues Collected by Iohn Parkinson Apothecary of London . London : Printed by Hvmfrey Lownes and Robert Yovng at the Signe of the Starre on Bread @-@ Street Hill. doi : 10 @.@ 5962 / bhl.title.7100. Retrieved 29 December 2014 . Folio . In some copies the title page is woodcut ; in others it is printed ( dated 1635 ) . Later editions and reprints :
Parkinson , John ( 1656 ) . Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris , or , A Choise Garden of All Sorts of Rarest Flowers with their Nature , Place of Birth , Time of Flowring , Names , and Vertues to Each Plant , Useful in Physic or Admired for Beauty : To which is Annext a Kitchin @-@ Garden Furnished with All Manner of Herbs , Roots , and Fruits , for Meat or Sauce Used with Us , with the Art of Planting an Orchard ... All Unmentioned in Former Herbals . London : Printed by R.N. and are to be sold by Richard Thrale at his shop at the signe of the Cross @-@ Keys at S. Pauls @-@ gate , going into Cheap @-@ side . Folio .
Parkinson , John ; Alfred H. Hyatt ( comp . ) ( 1904 ) . A Garden of Pleasant Flowers : Being a Description of the Most Familiar of Our English Garden Flowers from the Famous Collection of John Parkinson . London : T.N. Foulis .
Parkinson , John ( 1904 ) . Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris ... Faithfully Reprinted from the Edition of 1629 . London : Methuen & Co. doi : 10 @.@ 5962 / bhl.title.24488. Retrieved 29 December 2014 .
Parkinson , John ( 1975 ) . Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris , etc . [ The English Experience ; no . 758 ] . Amsterdam ; Norwood , N.J. : Theatrum Orbis Terrarum ; Walter J. Johnson . Facsimile of the 1629 edition without the letterpress title page , made from copies in the Bodleian Library .
Parkinson , John ( 1976 ) . Paradisi in Sole , etc . New York , N.Y. : Dover Publications . ISBN 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 23392 @-@ 8 . Facsimile of the 1629 edition .
Parkinson , John ( 1976 ) . A Garden of Pleasant Flowers . New York , N.Y. ; London : Dover Publications ; Constable . ISBN 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 23392 @-@ 8 .
Parkinson , John ( 1640 ) . Theatrum Botanicum : The Theater of Plants . Or , An Herball of a Large Extent , Containing therein a More Ample and Exact History and Declaration of the Physicall Herbs and Plants that are in Other Authours , Encreased by the Accesse of Many Hundreds of New , Rare , and Strange Plants from All the Parts of the World , with Sundry Gummes , and Other Physicall Materials , than hath beene hitherto Published by Any before ; and a Most Large Demonstration of their Natures and Vertues . Shevving vvithall the Many Errors , Differences , and Oversights of Sundry Authors that have Formerly Written of Them ; and a Certaine Confidence , or most Probable Conjecture of the True and Genuine Herbes and Plants . Distributed into Sundry Classes or Tribes , for the More Easie Knowledge of the Many Herbes of One Nature and Property , with the Chiefe Notes of Dr. Lobel , Dr. Bonham , and Others Inserted therein . Collected by the Many Years Travaile , Industry , and Experience in this Subject , by Iohn Parkinson Apothecary of London , and the Kings Herbalist . And Published by the Kings Majestyes Especiall Priviledge . London : Thomas Cotes . Folio . Reprints :
Parkinson , John ( 1967 ) . A Fragment from Theatrum Botanicum , " or An Herball of a Large Extent " . Falls Village , Conn . : Herb Grower Press .
Parkinson , John ( 1982 ) . Theatrum botanicum : Or an Herball of a Large Extente . [ S.l. ] : Remous .
= = Gallery = =
= French ironclad Colbert =
The French ironclad Colbert was the lead ship of the Colbert @-@ class ironclads that were built for the French Navy in the 1870s . The ship was the flagship of the Mediterranean Squadron for most of her career . She took part in the French conquest of Tunisia , notably shelling and landing troops in Sfax on 15 – 16 July 1881 . Colbert was paid off in 1895 and condemned in 1900 . The ship was finally sold for scrap in 1909 .
= = Design and description = =
The Colbert @-@ class ships were designed by Constructor Sabattier as improved versions of the ironclad Richelieu . As a central battery ironclad , Colbert had her armament concentrated amidships . Like most ironclads of her era she was equipped with a plough @-@ shaped ram . Her crew numbered 774 officers and men . The metacentric height of the ship was low , a little above 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) .
The ship measured 101 @.@ 1 meters ( 331 ft 8 in ) overall , with a beam of 17 @.@ 4 meters ( 57 ft 1 in ) . Colbert had a maximum draft of 8 @.@ 5 meters ( 27 ft 11 in ) and displaced 8 @,@ 617 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 481 long tons ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Colbert reverted to a single propeller shaft to improve her sailing qualities . She had one Wolf 3 @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting rod compound steam engine . The engine was powered by eight oval boilers and was designed for a capacity of 4 @,@ 600 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 400 kW ) . On sea trials the engine produced 4 @,@ 652 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 469 kW ) and Colbert reached 14 @.@ 75 knots ( 27 @.@ 32 km / h ; 16 @.@ 97 mph ) . She carried a maximum of 620 metric tons ( 610 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for approximately 3 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 100 km ; 3 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Colbert was ship rigged with three masts and had a sail area around 2 @,@ 100 square meters ( 23 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Colbert had two 274 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) guns mounted in barbettes on the upper deck , one gun at the forward corners of the battery , with six additional guns on the battery deck below the barbettes . The side of the upper deck were cut away to improve the ability of the barbette guns to bear fore and aft . One 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) was mounted in the forecastle as a chase gun . The ship 's secondary armament consisted of six 138 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) guns , four forward of the battery and two aft . These latter two guns were replaced in 1878 by another 240 @-@ millimeter gun as a stern chaser . The ship also mounted four above @-@ water 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes .
All of the ship 's guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells . The 274 @-@ millimeter Modèle 1870 gun was credited with the ability to penetrate a maximum of 14 @.@ 3 inches ( 360 mm ) of wrought iron armor while the 240 @-@ millmeter Modèle 1870 gun could penetrate 14 @.@ 4 inches ( 366 mm ) of armor .
At some point the ship received fourteen to eighteen 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns . The gun had a range of about 3 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 500 yd ) and a rate of fire of about 30 rounds per minute .
= = = Armor = = =
The Colbert @-@ class ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt that was 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick amidships and tapered to 180 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) at the stern . It was backed by 89 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) of wood . The sides of the battery itself were armored with 160 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) of wrought iron , backed by 62 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) of wood , and the ends of the battery were closed by transverse armored bulkheads 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick , backed by 480 millimeters ( 18 @.@ 9 in ) of wood . The barbettes were unarmored , but the deck was 15 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick .
= = Service = =
Colbert was named in honor of Jean @-@ Baptiste Colbert , Controller @-@ General of Finances from 1665 to 1683 under King Louis XIV . She was laid down at Brest on 4 July 1870 and launched on 16 September 1875 . While the exact reason for such prolonged construction time is not known , it is believed that reduction of the French Navy 's budget after the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 and out @-@ of @-@ date work practices in French dockyards were likely causes . The ship began her sea trials on 23 May 1877 , but became flagship of the Reserve Squadron on 31 August 1878 . On 1 October 1879 she became the flagship of the Mediterranean Squadron ; which post she would hold until 14 January 1890 when she was placed in reserve . Colbert bombarded the Tunisian port of Sfax on 15 – 16 July 1881 as the French occupied Tunisia . She became flagship of the Reserve Squadron again on 12 April 1892 until she was disarmed and paid off in 1895 . She was condemned on 11 August 1900 , before being sold for scrap in 1909 .
= Typhoon Wayne ( 1986 ) =
Typhoon Wayne , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Miding , is one of the longest @-@ lived tropical cyclones on record for the north @-@ western Pacific ocean . The system meandered for 22 days in August – September 1986 between the South China sea and far western tropical North Pacific ocean , staying within the monsoon trough and causing heavy rains across the Philippines , Taiwan , southeast China , Hainan Island , and Vietnam . Its maximum sustained winds peaked at category two strength on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . Various signals were raised for Hong Kong three times due to Wayne 's unusual track . A total of 490 perished and US $ 399 million ( 1986 dollars ) in damage was due to the typhoon .
= = Meteorological history = =
This system began its long life on August 16 in the South China Sea , having formed within the monsoon trough . It drifted to the southwest , then looped back to the northwest , becoming a tropical storm on August 18 . Wayne , which remained embedded in the monsoon trough throughout its lifetime , turned to the northeast in response to a relocation of the trough , and became a typhoon according to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) on August 19 , and on August 20 according to the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) . At 2 p.m. that day , the ship M. V. Fossarus recorded 78 knots ( 144 km / h ) winds just west of its center . The typhoon came close but remained offshore of southeastern China , and after reaching maximum sustained winds of 75 knots ( 139 km / h ) it hit western Taiwan on August 22 . The building subtropical ridge forced Wayne west and southwestward through the Luzon Strait , where after weakening to a tropical storm it restrengthened briefly to a typhoon on August 24 , according to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center . The JMA did not upgrade Wayne back to a typhoon during this segment of Wayne 's existence .
Vertical shear caused Wayne to weaken to a depression on August 25 according to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , and August 26 according to the JMA , as the cyclone began to rotate around the circulation of Vera to its north . Tropical Depression Wayne sped up to the northeast , but when Vera moved far enough away , Wayne drifted northeastward through the South China Sea , becoming a tropical storm again on August 27 . Ridging to its north forced Wayne southward , where it again became a typhoon on August 30 according to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , and August 31 according to the JMA . Wayne passed close to northern Luzon on September 2 as a 75 knots ( 139 km / h ) typhoon , but turned back to the west . The JMA lowered Wayne back to a tropical storm on September 3 before restrengthening the cyclone back into a typhoon by early September 4 . On September 4 while moving quickly westward through the South China Sea , Wayne reached a peak of 85 knots ( 157 km / h ) winds according to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , or 70 knots ( 130 km / h ) winds according to the JMA , before it weakened due to land interaction . It hit northern Hainan on September 5 as an 70 knots ( 130 km / h ) typhoon . Its center passed just north of Haikou , whose pressure fell to 970 @.@ 1 hectopascals ( 28 @.@ 65 inHg ) . Wayne then entered the Gulf of Tonkin , and made its final landfall on northern Vietnam later that day as a tropical storm . The next day , Wayne dissipated over Vietnam , after 85 JTWC advisories and being the longest lasting Western Pacific system in history .
= = Preparations = =
In Hong Kong , the Stand By Signal 1 was hoisted at 11 : 30 a.m. on August 19 . As Wayne approached , the Strong Wind Signal 3 was raised at 11 : 00 a.m. on August 20 . During its first approach , the Northeast Gale / Storm Signal 8 was issued at 10 p.m. on August 20 . As winds relaxed , the Strong Wind Signal 3 replaced the Storm Signal 8 at 2 a.m. on August 21 , with all signals lowered by 5 a.m. on August 21 . During Wayne 's second approach , the Stand By Signal 1 was raised at 11 : 45 a.m. on August 25 . Signals were again lowered once Wayne moved farther away at 2 : 35 p.m. on August 26 . During Wayne 's third approach , the Stand By Signal 1 was hoisted at 1 : 30 a.m. on September 4 . As Wayne continued its approach , the Strong Wind Signal 3 was raised at 3 p.m. the same day . Once Wayne moved away to the west of the area , signals were lowered for their final time at 2 : 10 p.m. on September 5 .
= = Impact = =
During its passage of Taiwan , 63 died , 12 @,@ 000 houses collapsed , and a thousand fishing vessels were wrecked . Total damage to the island reached US $ 360 million ( 1986 dollars ) . As a result of its consistent variance in track and drifting track , Wayne brought torrential rains through its path to the Philippines , Taiwan , southeastern China , Hainan Island , and Vietnam . In Hong Kong , winds gusted to 78 knots ( 144 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn . During its various passages of Hong Kong , a total of 295 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 6 in ) of rainfall accumulated at Sai Kung . A total of 523 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 20 @.@ 61 in ) of rainfall was recorded at Clark Air Force Base in the Philippines . Thirty @-@ six perished in the Philippines . A total of 490 fatalities ( with dozens of casualties in Vietnam ) , tens of thousands left homeless , and US $ 399 million ( 1986 dollars ) in damage can be attributed to Typhoon Wayne . Despite its impact on the region and longevity , the name Wayne was not retired from the western Pacific naming list , being used again in 1989 . At the same time , President Corazon Aquino declared a state of calamity over Northern Luzon .
= The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter =
The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter : A Treasury of Myths , Legends , and Fascinating Facts is a guide to the fictional Harry Potter universe , written by David Colbert . It explores the references to history , legends , and literature in J.K. Rowling 's Harry Potter novels . Colbert conceived the idea for The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter while quizzing his nephew and nieces about the mythological references in the novels . He later wrote the book while teaching a seminar on self @-@ publishing to graduate students at the University of North Carolina . The book was published in March 2001 , without approval from Rowling , and has since received positive reviews from critics . An updated version of The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter was published in 2004 by Berkley Books .
= = Content = =
The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter explores the references to history , legends , and literature in J.K. Rowling 's Harry Potter novels . David Colbert , the author of the book , told the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch that the Harry Potter novels " are [ ... ] literary treasure hunts for [ Rowling 's ] readers . What seem like funny @-@ sounding names and places and excursions into fantasy all have a basis in either history , myth or legend . " He added , however , that he thinks Rowling has been able to turn these elements into her own , and concluded : " A couple of times , every generation , some writer gets it exactly right and really makes it their own , and J.K. Rowling has done that . "
The 220 @-@ pages @-@ long book features 53 chapters . Colbert writes about the connections between Rowling 's novels and folklore , Greek mythology , and the cultures of Ancient Egypt , Ancient Rome , and the Aztec . For example , he explains that Rowling got the name for the character Draco Malfoy from the Latin word for dragon , draco . One of the connections to folklore that Colbert find the most fascinating is the name of the evil wizard family The Malfoys . They are named after the Latin word for " evil @-@ doer " , maleficus , which was used in medieval times to describe witches . In addition , there is a chapter in the book that explains the origins of the names of the spells featured in the Harry Potter series . Expelliarmus , for example , is a spell that disarms the opponent ; it comes from the Latin words expello and arma , which mean " to drive out " and " weapon " .
Colbert explains in the introduction of the book that one of the reasons he enjoys reading Rowling is because of these references that she hides in the novels . He comments that he believes she may have inserted them into the books to encourage readers to learn more about mythology and folklore ; " As [ Rowling ] said when somebody asked her in a chat about the source of one of the unforgivable curses [ featured in the books ] , she said , ' Look it up , a little investigation is good for a person . ' "
= = Background = =
Colbert received the idea for The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter during the summer of 2000 , when his young nephew and nieces spent their vacation at his home in Wrightsville Beach , North Carolina . During the first half of the children 's vacation , Colbert noticed their excitement for the novel Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire , which was about to be released in bookstores . When his nephew and nieces received the book , they read it for the remainder of their vacation with him .
Colbert , a historian and former head writer on the television quiz show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? , became interested in the books and bought the first novel in the series , Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , to see what the story was about . As he was reading , he began to notice mythological references in the book . He commented : " I almost laughed out loud when I came across the three @-@ headed dog [ Fluffy ] . I instantly knew it was a reference to Cerberus , the threeheaded beast which Ancient Greeks believed guarded the gates to the Underworld . " Inspired by this , Colbert continued to search the book for more references and noticed that most characters ' names are based on their personality and every magic creature is a reference to mythology and folklore .
Excited about his discoveries , Colbert began quizzing his nephew and nieces about the references featured in the books . He started by asking them if they knew who Fluffy was based on , and when revealing that the answer was Cerberus , they " gave him a blank stare " . Soon , however , the children thought it was " cool that their hero , Harry , was encountering some of the creatures of mythology . " Colbert felt that knowing the origins of Rowling 's character and creatures increased " the books ' magic tenfold " and made the Harry Potter universe seem more lifelike . Feeling that he wanted to share this with others , Colbert spent a year researching the references in the novels and collected his discoveries for a guidebook to the magical world of Harry Potter .
= = Publication and reception = =
Colbert wrote The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter while teaching a seminar on self @-@ publishing to graduate students at the University of North Carolina . He had it self @-@ published in March 2001 and hired a company to take care of accounting , marketing , promotion , and selling . Colbert has never met Rowling and the book has not been approved by her or Warner Brothers ( the owner of the film rights to the Harry Potter novels ) . He was given permission to publish it as long as he noted on the cover that it had not been approved by Rowling .
The book has been met with positive reactions from critics . Margie Thomson of The New Zealand Herald commented that " it 's interesting , although light , and should keep smart @-@ alecky kids and the truly curious happy and occupied for some time . " The Sacramento Bee 's Judy Green was also positive , saying that it " comes across as smart fun just begging for a trivia game . It 's a great way to spend time with Harry while waiting for the next novel . " The Times ' Sarah Johnson said " this irresistibly dippable book gently draws children into the joys of works of reference and is also a glorious tribute to Rowling 's work . "
Despite the book not having been approved by Rowling , Marti Davis of The Knoxville News @-@ Sentinel suspected that she " would definitely approve of the wonderfully researched book which traces many of the characters , creatures and terms used in Rowling 's book to classic literature and ancient history . " The Birmingham Post 's Jayne Howarth added that the book is " fun to dip in and out of while reading the Potter stories and it illustrates just how clever these pieces of literature are . "
The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter has been praised for teaching children about literature and history . Theresa Tighe of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch commented that " grown @-@ ups might like Colbert 's book , too , because it painlessly exposes youngsters to Shakespeare , Chaucer , Ovid , Flaubert and more . " In addition , Candice Nguyen of the The Oakland Tribune said " parents may actually appreciate this book more when they realize that their children are receiving subtle history lessons while they read Harry Potter books and actually enjoying it . " The Sunday Tasmanian noted that " understanding the derivatives of language , both made up and actual such as the French , can only enrich the vocabulary of children . "
Following the success of The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter , Colbert released the book The Magical Worlds of The Lord of the Rings : The Amazing Myths , Legends and Facts Behind the Masterpiece — a guide to J. R. R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings novels — in late 2002 . An updated version of The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter was published in 2004 by Berkley Books , just before the film Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was released . Colbert wrote and published The Magical Worlds of Narnia in 2005 , a guide to the fictional Narnia universe .
= The Silence ( song ) =
" The Silence " is a song by British singer Alexandra Burke from her debut studio album Overcome ( 2009 ) . The song was written by Bilal Hajji and Savan Kotecha , along with the song 's producer Nadir " RedOne " Khayat . The song was released as a promotional single in anticipation of the re @-@ release of Overcome ( 2010 ) . Burke stated that the song was written when her aunt told the singer about how she and her partner were experiencing troubles in their relationship , and that they were not telling each other how they felt . In response , Burke asked her aunt why he was letting the silence in their relationship do the talking instead of them discussing it . " The Silence " is an R & B and pop @-@ influenced power ballad and instrumentation consists of a piano , a guitar and drums . The lyrics of the song feature the protagonist asking why the other person in the relationship remains silent about their difficulties instead of talking about them .
The song garnered positive reviews from music critics , who praised Burke 's vocal performance . It also received comparisons to songs by Bonnie Tyler , Beyoncé Knowles and Leona Lewis . Upon the release of Overcome , the song debuted at number 95 on the UK Singles Chart on the strength of digital download sales . A year later when released as a promotional single , it peaked at number 16 on the chart . It peaked inside the top thirty on the singles charts in Hungary , Ireland and Scotland , and peaked at number 66 in Switzerland . An accompanying music video was directed by Nzingha Stewart and shot in black and white . It features Burke in a variety of different stylized sets in different outfits and dresses . The singer has performed the song on The Paul O 'Grady Show and The X Factor . It was included on the set list of her All Night Long Tour ( 2011 ) .
= = Background and release = =
After the release and success of the lead single " Bad Boys " from her debut album Overcome in October 2009 , the singer released " Broken Heels " as the second single in January 2010 , with the intention of releasing " The Silence " as the album 's third single . However , a remix single version of " All Night Long " featuring Pitbull was released as the third single from the album instead in May 2010 . On 25 October 2010 , Burke announced via Twitter that " The Silence " would be the final song to be released from Overcome , writing " Some of you might be surprised at my choice of next single and some of you guys will hopefully be really happy . " The song was re @-@ recorded with a new vocal for inclusion on the re @-@ release of the album , entitled " The Silence ( New Single Mix ) " . In an interview with Eamonn Holmes for Sky News Sunrise in December 2010 , Burke stated that " The Silence " was released as a promotional single for the re @-@ release of Overcome and for Christmas . During an interview talking about the song for Virgin Media in December 2010 , Burke stated that " The Silence " is a " very special song " and that despite it being a " very emotional song to sing " , it is one of her most favourite songs on Overcome .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" The Silence " is a power ballad , which lasts for a duration of three minutes and 35 seconds . It draws influence from the music genre of R & B and pop , while instrumentation consists of a piano , a guitar and drums . The song is written in the key of A minor and is set in simple time with a metronome of 76 beats per minute . Burke 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of F3 to the high note of F5 . In an interview with Peter Andre on The Paul O 'Grady Show on 3 November 2009 , Burke explained the meaning of the songs lyrics , saying " I 'm sure everyone has been in that situation where you are in a relationship , it might not be going so well and you kinda want your other half to speak out and say what is on their mind , and I 've had relationships like that . " Burke continued to explain that when she was in the recording studio with RedOne , her Aunt was experiencing problems in her relationship which related to the lyrics in " The Silence , " and that she felt that her Aunt 's partner should not " let the silence do the talking ? Why doesn 't he let you know how he feels ? , " and that " The Silence " was written as a result . The songs begins with the lyrics " Oh , you lift me up . "
= = Response = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" The Silence " garnered positive reviews from music critics . Al Fox for BBC Music described the song as " a gargantuan power ballad " and that it displays Burke 's " rich and emotive vocals . " Fox also compared the song to the work of Bonnie Tyler and Beyoncé Knowles . Nick Levine for Digital Spy wrote that Overcome features ballads which are reminiscent to songs performed by previous X Factor winner Leona Lewis , with regard to " The Silence " and the title track " Overcome . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
Upon the release of Overcome , " The Silence " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 95 in the chart issue dated 31 October 2009 . Upon its release as a promotional single in December 2010 , it re @-@ entered the singles chart at number 126 on 11 December 2010 , and leaped to its peak of number 16 the following week . In the chart issue dated 25 December 2010 , the song fell twenty positions to number 36 . " The Silence " leaped from number 125 to number 13 on the UK Digital Chart . The following week , it dropped to number 35 . In Scotland , the song peaked at number 16 on the Scottish Singles Chart on 18 December 2010 . The following week , it descended to number 37 . " The Silence " debuted and peaked at number 30 on the Irish Singles Chart on 9 December 2010 . The following week , it dropped to number 35 . The song debuted and peaked on the Swiss Singles Chart at number 66 on 12 December 2010 , and fell to number 69 the following week . A month later , the song re @-@ entered the chart at number 72 on 23 January 2011 for one week . In Hungary , the song peaked at number 26 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " The Silence " was directed by Nzingha Stewart before the video for " All Night Long " was shot . The video was shot in black and white , and features Burke in different outfits and dresses , as well as in a variety of sets with props . It begins with a couple of establishing shots of Burke of her posing with a balloon wearing and in another set where she is sitting on music speakers . Throughout the video , Burke is visibly in a studio with different backdrops , where she is preparing to be photographed . During the first verse , Burke is shown in the two sets while she sings the lyrics . Prior to the first chorus , a new set is introduced of Burke wearing a black dress which exposes all of her back while sitting on the floor next to a stereo . During the first verse , all three sets show Burke carrying out different tasks with he props , as well as a new set where she sits in front of a white backdrop in a plain white oversized shirt . As the second verse begins , the set of Burke sitting on the floor next to a stereo changes to that of her standing up in front of a microphone singing the lyrics , with the backdrop of a city skyline . During the second verse , another set is introduced of Burke posing against a stuffed animal . During the bridge , Burke sings the lyrics standing in front of the camera without any props surrounding her ; prior to sustaining a long note , Burke has her back to the camera and is nude from the waist up . During the final verse , Burke 's anger and desperation is shown to be heightened , as she sings to her herself in the mirror and places more emphasis on her movement . The video ends with the singer nude from the waist up and facing the camera , covering herself with her arms crossed over her chest .
= = Live performances = =
Burke performed the song for the first time on MTV Push upon the release of Overcome . Burke then performed the song on 3 November 2009 on The Paul O 'Grady show , where she gave an interview about her experience on The X Factor and how the lyrics for " The Silence " were conceptualised . Upon the announcement that the song and music video were going to be released , Burke included the song on her set list of the Jingle Bell Ball concerts around the country , where other artists including Nicole Scherzinger , Olly Murs and The Wanted also performed . During the performance at The O2 Arena in London , Burke was moved to tears and apologised to the audience , saying " I 'm sorry for getting emotional , but that song means way too much to me . " Burke performed the song on the semi final of the seventh series of The X Factor on 5 December 2010 . At the end of the performance , Burke was lifted into the air on a harness . The song was also included on the set list of Burke 's All Night Long Tour ( 2011 ) .
= = Track listings = =
2009 standard edition
" The Silence " – 4 : 01
2010 deluxe edition
" The Silence " ( New Single Mix ) – 3 : 35
= = Credits and personnel = =
" The Silence " ( 2009 ) credits adapted from the liner notes of Overcome , and " The Silence " ( New Single Mix ) ( 2010 ) credits adapted from the deluxe edition of Overcome .
= = Charts = =
= Mi Tierra =
Mi Tierra ( English : My Homeland ) is the third studio album by Cuban @-@ American recording artist Gloria Estefan , released on June 14 , 1993 by Epic Records . Produced by husband Emilio Estefan , it is her first Spanish @-@ language album and pays homage to her Cuban roots . The album features Cuban musical genres , including boleros , danzan and son music . Recorded at Crescent Moon Studios in Miami , Florida , Mi Tierra features notable Latin musicians such as Arturo Sandoval , Cachao López , Chamin Correa and Paquito D 'Rivera .
The album was an international success , selling eight million copies worldwide as of 2006 . In the United States it was the first record to reach number one on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , and peaked at number twenty @-@ seven on the Billboard 200 chart . Mi Tierra has sold over one million copies in the US and Spain . The album received favorable reviews from critics , who praised the album 's production , songs and Estefan 's vocals . Its success won the singer a Grammy Award for Best Tropical Latin Album . Mi Tierra spawned seven singles : " Mi Tierra " , " Con Los Años Que Me Quedan " , " Tradición " , " Montuno " , " ¡ Sí Señor ! ... " , " Mi Buen Amor " and " Ayer " .
= = Background = =
Gloria Estefan had wanted to record a Spanish @-@ language album reflecting her Cuban heritage since the beginning of her musical career . Before recording in English , Estefan and her band performed at Latino nightclubs ; she also remembered her grandmother teaching her old Cuban songs . Music had an important role in Estefan 's family ; her paternal grandmother was a poet , and an uncle played the flute in a salsa band . The singer 's desire to record an album in Spanish was also influenced by her son , Nayib ; she wanted him to recognize his Cuban heritage .
= = Recording and production = =
Mi Tierra was produced by Estefan 's husband , Emilio Estefan , and fellow Miami Sound Machine members Clay Ostwald and Jorge Casas . It features notable Latin musicians , including Nestor Torres , Cachao López , Paquito Hechavarría , Chamin Correa , Paquito D 'Rivera , Arturo Sandoval , Luis Enrique and Tito Puente . Additional performers include Sheila E. and the London Symphony Orchestra . The album was recorded at Crescent Moon Studios in Miami , Florida . Celia Cruz was invited to perform , but was unable to do so because of her touring schedule . The album 's cover features Estefan in a black @-@ and @-@ white photo at a Havana nightclub before the Cuban Revolution .
= = Musical style and songs = =
The opening track on the album , " Con los Años Que Me Quedan " ( " With the Years I Have Left " ) , is a Cuban bolero song . Three other bolero tracks on Mi Tierra are " Mi Buen Amor " ( " My True Love " ) , " Volverás " ( " You 'll Be Back " ) , and " Hablas de Mí " ( " You 're Talking About Me " ) . The title track details the passion of Estefan 's homeland in a salsa arrangement . In " Ayer " ( " Yesterday " ) the singer finds a flower given to her by a lover and yearns for him to return , since life is short . Its music combines bolero and son music . " No Hay Mal Que Por Bien No Bien " ( " Out of All Bad , Some Good Things Come " ) is a danzón recalling a brief love affair .
" ¡ Sí Señor " ( " Yes Sir ! " ) is another son track featured on the album . The bolero " Volverás " was later covered by Mexican recording artist Alejandro Fernández on his album Me Estoy Enamorando ( 1997 ) , also produced by Emilio Estefan . " Montuno " takes its name from the musical genre of the same name . " Hablemos El Mismo Idioma " ( " Let 's Speak The Same Language " ) is an anthem , reaching out to other Latino groups , telling them that since they speak the same language they should leave their differences behind . The album closes with " Tradición " ( " Traditional " ) , which is performed as a guaguancó .
= = Commercial reception = =
= = = Album = = =
In the United States , Mi Tierra peaked at number twenty @-@ seven on the Billboard 200 chart . It was the first number @-@ one album on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , established when it was released . The album spent a total of fifty @-@ eight weeks atop the chart , until it was displaced by Selena 's album Amor Prohibido the week of June 11 , 1994 . It was more successful on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart , where it spent ninety @-@ one weeks on top . Mi Tierra debuted at number one on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart the week of July 10 , 1993 , but it was removed from the chart following week since it did not meet its criteria .
Mi Tierra ended 1994 as the best @-@ selling Latin album of the year in the United States . The album was certified 16 × platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America by Latin standards , for shipments of 1 @.@ 6 million copies in the U.S. According to Nielsen SoundScan , it sold 1 @,@ 198 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S. by 2007 ; according to Billboard , most purchasers did not speak Spanish . In Latin America , the album was certified double platinum in Argentina and triple platinum in Mexico . It sold over 30 @,@ 000 copies in Chile .
In Europe , Mi Tierra peaked at number fifty @-@ nine in Germany , number nine in the Netherlands , number one in Spain , number twenty @-@ five in Switzerland and number eleven in the United Kingdom . The album was certified 10 × platinum in Spain ( for shipping one million copies ) and certified gold in Switzerland . It also sold 200 @,@ 000 in England . Mi Tierra was the 60th @-@ best @-@ selling album of the 1990s , and sold over eight million copies worldwide by 2006 .
= = = Singles = = =
" Mi Tierra " was the first single released from the album . In the United States , it reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and number five on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . In Europe , the song peaked at number seventy @-@ seven on the Media Control charts in Germany , twenty @-@ seventh on the Mega Single Top 100 chart in Netherlands and thirty @-@ sixth on the UK Singles Chart . The second single , " Con Los Años Que Me Quedan " , also reached number one on the Hot Latin Songs chart in the United States . An English version , " If We Were Lovers " , was released as a single and peaked at number forty on the UK Singles Chart . The third single , " Tradición " , reached number one the Hot Dance Clubs chart in the United States .
" Montuno " was the fourth single released from the album , peaking at number fifty @-@ five on the UK Singles chart . The fifth single , " ¡ Sí Señor ! ... " peaked at number forty @-@ four on the Mega Single Top 100 chart in the Netherlands . The sixth , " Mi Buen Amor " , reached number one on the Hot Latin Songs chart in the United States . The last single released from the album was " Ayer " , which peaked at number five on the Hot Latin Songs chart .
= = Critical reception and accolades = =
Jose F. Promis of Allmusic awarded the album four stars out of five , calling it " one of [ Estefan 's ] most satisfying . " Mi Tierra was " a breezy , sunny album with moments of melancholy , " and " one of her most consistent albums to date . " Achy Obejas of the Chicago Tribune gave the album four out of four stars , praised it as " dispensing with the brash sound of more contemporary salsa " and lauded Emilio Estefan for the album 's production . Anne Hurley of Entertainment Weekly said that Mi Tierra " will whirl you through an intoxicating landscape of traditional Cuban rhythms and aromatic flavors , " and applauded the guest musicians on the album .
Parry Gettelman of the Orlando Sentinel gave Mi Tierra four out of five stars , commending the album as " uncompromising , offering up songs and arrangements firmly rooted in Cuban traditions . " He compared it to Estefan 's earlier recordings with the Miami Sound Machine , including her musical style and songwriting : " She ditches the synths and employs the London Symphony Orchestra 's strings to graceful effect ... abandoning melodrama for real color and emotional shading . " John Lannert described Mi Tierra for the Sun @-@ Sentinel as " Estefan`s Latin ' unplugged ' album " and her " most satisfying effort to date . "
At the 36th Grammy Awards , Mi Tierra was the Best Tropical Latin Album . At the 6th Lo Nuestro Awards Estefan received two awards in the tropical category , for Female Artist of the Year and Album of the Year . The singer was Female Artist of the Year at the first Billboard Latin Music Awards , and Mi Tierra was Album of the Year in the tropical @-@ salsa category . At the 1994 Spanish Ondas Awards , Mi Tierra was the Best International Album and Estefan the Best International Artist . It was recognized as the best @-@ selling Latin album of the year with a 1993 – 94 NARM Best Seller Award . In 2015 , Billboard listed Mi Tierra as one of the Essential Latin Albums of Past 50 Year stating that " Through son , she transports us to a magical place in the ‘ 50s where time stood still on her beloved island " .
= = Track listing = =
Official translations provided by Allmusic and by Gloria Estefan on the Mi Tierra liner notes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from Allmusic and from the Mi Tierra liner notes :
= = = Performance credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
= = Release history = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= Hurricane Isaac ( 2006 ) =
Hurricane Isaac was the final tropical cyclone of the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season . Isaac originated in a tropical wave that entered the Atlantic Ocean on September 18 . An associated area of disturbed weather eventually organized sufficiently to be declared a tropical depression on September 27 , while located 930 mi ( 1 @,@ 500 km ) southeast of Bermuda . The depression was upgraded to a tropical storm just 12 hours later , though unfavorable atmospheric conditions , including high wind shear and cool water temperatures , initially inhibited further intensification . Isaac ultimately peaked as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and brushed Newfoundland as a tropical storm . Effects from the storm were minimal and limited to gusty winds , rough surf , and sporadic rainfall .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave emerged from the western coast of Africa and entered the Atlantic Ocean on September 18 , 2006 . On September 23 , an associated area of disturbed weather began to exhibit indications of organization ; in response , Dvorak classifications were initiated . Influenced by moderate to strong wind shear , the system moved west @-@ northwestward for several days . Once environmental conditions became more favorable for tropical cyclone development , the storm had sufficiently organized to be designated a tropical depression on September 27 . At this time , the depression was located about 930 mi ( 1 @,@ 500 km ) southeast of Bermuda . Despite being upgraded , deep convection had not wrapped around the entire center of circulation . Although the depression was approaching tropical storm status by later on September 27 , wind shear continued to affect the cyclone . On September 28 — about 12 hours after the storm 's formation — it became the tenth tropical storm of the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season , and received the name Isaac .
Initially , the storm was tracking towards the northwest , between another low pressure system to its west and a low- to mid @-@ level ridge to its east . Throughout the day , thunderstorm activity remained unstable , possibly as a result of cooler waters churned up by previous storms . In addition , mid- to upper @-@ level dry air had become entrained into the circulation , and the storm contained some subtropical characteristics with a baroclinic @-@ type cloud pattern . By early September 29 , Isaac had slowed and turned towards the west . Convection began to intensify and consolidate later that day ; outflow had also improved , and became more symmetric in nature . Moving into warmer waters , Isaac continued to strengthen , and attained hurricane status on September 30 . However , this period of intensification was short @-@ lived , and the cyclone reached its peak intensity with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) at around 0000 UTC on October 1 . Around that time , a ragged eye feature appeared on satellite imagery .
" A fairly well @-@ defined hurricane " , Isaac began to recurve around the periphery of a subtropical ridge while accelerating in forward speed . While tracking towards the north @-@ northeast , the storm began to gradually weaken as a result of increasing southwesterly wind shear and colder sea surface temperatures . At about 1200 UTC on September 2 , Isaac was downgraded to a tropical storm . The storm passed about 40 mi ( 64 km ) to the southeast of the Avalon Peninsula on October 2 , spawning tropical storm @-@ force winds on land . After passing Newfoundland Isaac transitioned into an extratropical storm , and subsequently merged with a larger storm on October 3 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
A tropical storm watch was issued in response to Isaac on October 1 for the Avalon Peninsula . The watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning the next day , while a separate watch was posted for the Burin and Bonavista peninsulas , though it was quickly discontinued . By 2100 UTC on October 2 , all tropical cyclone watches and warnings were lifted . Heavy rainfall and gusty winds were expected , prompting the issuance of rainfall warnings for parts of southeastern Newfoundland , while wind and gale advisories were declared offshore .
On October 2 , the Elektra ( call sign SIWB ) reported winds of 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) while located about 170 mi ( 270 km ) to the east of the storm 's center . Two other ships , several buoys , and several oil platforms also recorded tropical storm @-@ force winds . Waves offshore reached 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) in height .
Impacts on land were generally insignificant ; no damages or fatalities were reported . However , parts of the Avalon Peninsula experienced tropical storm conditions . At Cape Race , sustained winds peaked at 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) , with gusts of up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) . The most intense winds remained offshore . Due to the storm 's rapid passage , rainfall was primarily light and amounted to less than 1 in ( 25 mm ) .
= Military of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth =
The military of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth evolved from the merger of the armies of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania following the 1569 Union of Lublin , which formed the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . The army was commanded by the Hetmans of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . The most unique formation of the army was the heavy cavalry in the form of the Polish winged hussars . The Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy never played a major role in the military structure , and ceased to exist in the mid @-@ 17th century .
Commonwealth forces were engaged in numerous conflicts in the south ( against the Ottoman Empire ) , the east ( against the Tsardom of Muscovy and later , the Russian Empire ) and the north ( the Kingdom of Sweden ) ; as well as internal conflicts ( most notably , numerous Cossack uprisings ) . For the first century or so , the Commonwealth military was usually successful , but became less so from around the mid @-@ 17th century . Plagued by insufficient funds , it found itself increasingly hard @-@ pressed to defend the country , and inferior in numbers to the growing armies of the Commonwealth 's neighbors .
Following the end of the Commonwealth , the Polish military tradition would be continued by Napoleonic Polish Legions and the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw .
= = Background = =
The Commonwealth was formed at the Union of Lublin of 1569 from the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The armies of those states differed from the organization common in the west of Europe , as according to Bardach , the mercenary formations ( Polish : wojsko najemne ) , common there , never gained popularity in Poland . Brzezinski , however , notes that foreign mercenaries did form a significant portion of the more elite infantry units , at least till the early 17th century . In the 15th century Poland , several other formations formed the core of the military . There was a small standing army , obrona potoczna ( " continuous defense " ) about 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 strong , paid for by the king , and primarily stationed at the troubled south and eastern borders . It was supplemented by two formations mobilized in case of war : the pospolite ruszenie ( Polish levée en masse – feudal levy of mostly noble knights @-@ landholders ) , and the wojsko zaciężne , recruited by the Polish commanders for the conflict ( it differed from Western mercenary formations in that it was commanded by Polish officers , and dissolved after the conflict has ended ) .
Several years before the Union of Lublin , the Polish obrona potoczna was reformed , as the Sejm ( national parliament of Poland ) legislated in 1562 – 1563 the creation of wojsko kwarciane ( named after kwarta , the type of tax levied on the royal lands for the purpose of maintaining this formation ) . This formation was also paid for by the king , and in the peace time , numbered about 3 @,@ 500 – 4 @,@ 000 men according to Bardach ; Brzezinski gives the range of 3 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 . It was composed mostly of the light cavalry units manned by nobility ( szlachta ) and commanded by hetmans . Often , in wartime , the Sejm would legislate a temporary increase in the size of the wojsko kwarciane .
= = Operational history = =
At its heyday , the Commonwealth comprised the territories of present @-@ day Poland , and large parts of Ukraine , Belarus , Lithuania , Latvia , Estonia , and Russia . It was engaged in the struggles along most of its borders , with only the Western border with the lands of the Holy Roman Empire being relatively peaceful . In its first decades , major conflicts included the Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory , the interventions in Moldavia , the Danzig rebellion , and the War against Sigismund . Early 17th century saw a number of the Polish – Swedish wars , the Polish – Ottoman Wars , and the Polish – Russian Wars ( Dymitriads , the Smolensk War ) . The Commonwealth also suffered from a number of Cossacks uprisings , culminating in the devastating Chmielnicki Uprising of 1648 . That period also saw some of the Commonwealth 's most talented military commanders : Stanisław Żółkiewski ( 1547 @-@ 1620 ) , Jan Karol Chodkiewicz ( 1560 @-@ 1621 ) , Stanisław Koniecpolski ( 1593 @-@ 1646 ) and Stefan Czarniecki ( 1599 @-@ 1665 ) . The Commonwealth managed to hold its weight in most of those conflicts , and scored a number of major victories on all fronts , such as the battle of Kircholm , the battle of Klushino , and had briefly garrisoned Moscow . However , the Chmielnicki Uprising , together with the Russo @-@ Polish War and the Swedish Deluge , all taking place around the same period of the 1650s , proved devastating for the country , resulting in a loss of most of Ukraine to Russia in the Treaty of Andrusovo in 1667 . In 1683 the Commonwealth scored its last major victory that resounded on the European scene , the relief of Vienna by king Jan III Sobieski . During the 18th century , European powers ( most frequently consisting of Russia , Sweden , Prussia and Saxony ) fought several wars for the control of the territories of the former Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , particularly during the Great Northern War . By the end of the 18th century a series of internal conflicts and wars with foreign enemies ( the War of the Bar Confederation ) led to the dissolution of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth and the partitioning of most of its dependent territories among other European powers . The final attempts to preserve independence of the Commonwealth , including the political reforms of the Great Sejm , eventually failed on the military front , with the Commonwealth defeats in the Polish – Russian War of 1792 and the Kościuszko Uprising of 1794 , ultimately ending in Poland 's final partition and the final dissolution of the remains of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth .
= = Composition = =
= = = Organization = = =
By the time of the Commonwealth formation , there was little practical difference between the Polish and Lithuanian components ; the Lithuanian component formed about a fourth to a third of the Commonwealth army . The army of the Commonwealth was organized along several different models , with the primary division being that into two ' contingents ' or ' enlistments ' ( or in Polish : autorament ) : national and foreign . The name applied to types of formation , regulations and the officer cadres ; the majority of regular recruits for both came from within the Commonwealth , particularly from the 1630s onward . National units included the towarzysz cavalry ( including the Polish hussars and lighter pancerni ( Polish ) and petyhorcy ( Lithuanian ) units ) and some light cavalry units , with infantry being the distant second in reputation ; whereas the foreign units were primarily centered around the infantry and artillery formations , with dragoons gaining prominence from the 1620s , and reiter cavalry soon afterward .
The Polish – Lithuanian national contingent was organized in traditional formations dating back to the earlier medieval times , with chorągiew ( banner ) unit , commanded by a rotmistrz and composed of smaller poczet ( lance ) retinues , each composed of one towarzysz and a varying number of aides . The size of a chorągiew could vary from as little as 60 to as many as 300 men . Two or more choragwie ( through rarely more than a dozen , and never more than about forty ) formed a regiment ( pułk ) unit , a type of a unit similar to the medieval battle or modern division or corps . Its senior commander was known as pułkownik ( colonel ) . The foreign contingent was organized into regiments , often numbering around 500 @-@ 1 @,@ 000 , and divided into companies . King Jan III Sobieski made an attempt in the 1670s to replace the national @-@ foreign contingent divisions with a single structure , dividing units into infantry , cavalry and dragoons , but it would take many decades before those reforms bore fruit .
= = = Formations and their evolution = = =
After the creation of the Commonwealth , several new types of military units were introduced . First among these were the registered Cossacks , formed in 1578 . These were the troops made up of Cossacks , paid for their service and not subject to serfdom . Their numbers varied from about 500 to many times that number , with the Treaty of Zboriv setting the record at 40 @,@ 477 . The Cossacks ' refusal to submit to serfdom , and the Commonwealth 's nobility attempts to force them into it led to much political wrangling with regard to the size of the Cossack register , and to numerous Cossack uprisings , particularly in the 17th century . These weakened the state , and eventually led to the Cossack subjugation and destruction by the Russian Empire . In addition to the Cossack formations , another group that provided notable service to the Polish state were the Tatars , some of whom resided in Lithuania , and were Commonwealth subjects . Known as Lipka Tatars , they provided some light and medium cavalry units for the Lithuanian army .
In the late 16th century , during the reign of Stefan Batory ( 1576 – 1586 ) , a peasant @-@ based levy formation , piechota wybranicka ( lit. drafted or selected infantry , also known as piechota łanowa , lit. acreage infantry ) was formed . It was based on peasants from the royal estates only , who received a unit of land ( łan ) in exchange for their service . The formation numbered about 2 @,@ 300 and after early disappointments was never seen as of much military value . It supplemented the few small units of haiduk infantry , which saw service in Poland primarily around late 16th and 17th centuries . In 1655 a new infantry unit was created , the żołnierz dymowy ( or żołnierz łanowy – lit. chimney or łan soldier , named again after the type of tax applied ) . It required all lands , no matter whether owned by king , nobles or the Church , to provide peasant recruits , and applied a similar requirement to towns .
Starting in 1613 , the growing inefficiencies of the central government , as well as an increase in foreign threats , led to the creation of a local territorial defense force , known as żołnierz powiatowy ( district 's soldiers raised by the powiat regions ) . The artillery formations , at first staffed by foreigners , were reformed in the 1630s , with a new tax levied to support them . This time also marked the introduction of the General of the Artillery post into the Commonwealth army . In the mid @-@ 17th century , the numbers of wojsko zaciężne and kwarciane proved to be insufficient , which led to the creation of wojsko komputowe ( named after komput , a document passed by the Sejm ) . Wojsko komputowe numbered ( in 1649 ) 26 @,@ 000 . At the same time , wojsko kwarciane was disbanded , and kwarta directed towards the newly created artillery forces . Brzezinski notes that wojsko kwarciane was dissolved in the aftermath of its defeat at the battle of Batoh in 1652 . In 1659 , in aftermath of a series of wars , the reformed army numbered around 54 @,@ 000 @-@ 60 @,@ 000 ; it would decline from that point onward , as the country , impoverished from those wars , would not be able to support such a number again .
Another element of the Commonwealth army consisted of various private armies fielded by the most powerful magnates . In time of peace these consisted of usually small regiments of a few hundred men , but at their extreme they could number up to 10 @,@ 000 , including cavalry and artillery . In some instances the magnate contribution could surpass that of the main Commonwealth army on the frontlines , although often the magnates preferred to save their troops , as they were not compensated for the state for their contributions . The troops were paid for and equipped by the richest of the noble families , such as the Opaliński , Lubomirski , Potocki , Ossoliński , Zamoyski , Koniecpolski , Sieniawski , Żółkiewski , Sapieha , Chodkiewicz , Pac and Radziwiłł families . This was one of the reasons why the magnates played a major role in Polish politics , and on occasion , allowed them to engage in bloody civil wars ( such as the Lithuanian Civil War in 1700 ) amongst themselves .
Similarly , occasional forces of town guard and militia were fielded by some cities . The most impressive town guard and accompanying fortifications belonged to the port of Gdańsk ( Danzig ) , which in 1646 boasted 12 infantry companies of 6 @,@ 000 men total . There was also a small royal guard regiment , paid for directly by the king . In peace time , the royal guard numbered around 1 @,@ 200 , but would often be expanded during time of war . The royal force included a hussar banner , reiter cavalry element , and an infantry unit , based upon the " foreign " model . Finally , there were also some irregular militia or mercenary troops which received no official pay but operated with the permission of the government and were allowed to retain their loot ; most notable of these were the Lisowczycy mercenary group which operated in the first half of the 17th century .
Both the state and the magnates supported the construction and renovations of several fortifications ( such as the Kamianets @-@ Podilskyi Castle ) .
= = = Command structure = = =
The army of the Commonwealth was commanded by king , under who served four hetmans : two Grand Hetmans ( the Grand Crown Hetman and Grand Lithuanian Hetman ) and two Field Hetmans ( the Field Crown Hetman and Field Lithuanian Hetman ) . The office of a hetman appeared in the late 15th century as a consequence of the introduction of the wojsko zaciężne , and a need for a more professional army commanders than the king could usually provide . By the 1530
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soul : there are extraordinary cross @-@ currents of affinity between himself , his own state of health and mind , Thomas Mann , Aschenbach ( Mann 's dying protagonist ) , and Peter Pears , who must have had to tear himself in three in order to reconstitute himself as the principal character .
After the completion of the opera Britten went into the National Heart Hospital and was operated on in May 1973 to replace a failing heart valve . The replacement was successful , but he suffered a slight stroke , affecting his right hand . This brought his career as a performer to an end . While in hospital Britten became friendly with a senior nursing sister , Rita Thomson ; she moved to Aldeburgh in 1974 and looked after him until his death .
Britten 's last works include the Suite on English Folk Tunes " A Time There Was " ( 1974 ) ; the Third String Quartet ( 1975 ) , which drew on material from Death in Venice ; and the dramatic cantata Phaedra ( 1975 ) , written for Janet Baker .
In July 1976 , the last year of his life , Britten accepted a life peerage – the first composer so honoured – becoming Baron Britten of Aldeburgh in the County of Suffolk . After the 1976 Aldeburgh Festival , Britten and Pears travelled to Norway , where Britten began writing Praise We Great Men , for voices and orchestra based on a poem by Edith Sitwell . He returned to Aldeburgh in August , and wrote Welcome Ode for children 's choir and orchestra . In November , Britten realised that he could no longer compose . On his 63rd birthday , 22 November , at his request Rita Thomson organised a champagne party and invited his friends and his sisters Barbara and Beth , to say their goodbyes to the dying composer . When Rostropovich made his farewell visit a few days later , Britten gave him what he had written of Praise We Great Men .
Britten died of congestive heart failure on 4 December 1976 . His funeral service was held at Aldeburgh Parish Church three days later , and he was buried in its churchyard , with a gravestone carved by Reynolds Stone . The authorities at Westminster Abbey had offered burial there , but Britten had made it clear that he wished his grave to be side by side with that , in due course , of Pears . A memorial service was held at the Abbey on 10 March 1977 , at which the congregation was headed by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother .
= = Personal life and character = =
Despite his large number of works on Christian themes , Britten has sometimes been thought of as agnostic . Pears said that when they met in 1937 he was not sure whether or not Britten would have described himself as a Christian . In the 1960s Britten called himself a dedicated Christian , though sympathetic to the radical views propounded by the Bishop of Woolwich in Honest to God . Politically , Britten was on the left . He told Pears that he always voted either Liberal or Labour and could not imagine ever voting Conservative , but he was never a member of any party , except the Peace Pledge Union .
Physically , Britten was never robust . He walked and swam regularly and kept himself as fit as he could , but Carpenter in his 1992 biography mentions 20 illnesses , a few of them minor but most fairly serious , suffered over the years by Britten before his final heart complaint developed . Emotionally , according to some commentators , Britten never completely grew up , retaining in his outlook something of a child 's view of the world . He was not always confident that he was the genius others declared him to be , and though he was hypercritical of his own works , he was acutely , even aggressively sensitive to criticism from anybody else .
Britten was , as he acknowledged , notorious for dumping friends and colleagues who either offended him or ceased to be of use – his " corpses " . The conductor Sir Charles Mackerras believed that the term was invented by Lord Harewood . Both Mackerras and Harewood joined the list of corpses , the former for joking that the number of boys in Noye 's Fludde must have been a delight to the composer , and the latter for an extramarital affair and subsequent divorce from Lady Harewood , which shocked the puritanical Britten . Among other corpses were his librettists Montagu Slater and Eric Crozier . The latter said in 1949 , " He has sometimes told me , jokingly , that one day I would join the ranks of his ' corpses ' and I have always recognized that any ordinary person must soon outlive his usefulness to such a great creative artist as Ben . " Dame Janet Baker said in 1981 , " I think he was quite entitled to take what he wanted from others ... He did not want to hurt anyone , but the task in hand was more important than anything or anybody . " Matthews feels that this aspect of Britten has been exaggerated , and he observes that the composer sustained many deep friendships to the end of his life .
= = = Controversies = = =
= = = = Boys = = = =
Throughout his adult life , Britten had a particular rapport with children and enjoyed close friendships with several boys , particularly those in their early teens . The first such friendship was with Piers Dunkerley , 13 years old in 1934 when Britten was aged 20 . Other boys Britten befriended were the young David Hemmings and Michael Crawford , both of whom sang treble roles in his works in the 1950s . Hemmings later said , " In all of the time that I spent with him he never abused that trust " , and Crawford wrote " I cannot say enough about the kindness of that great man ... he had a wonderful patience and affinity with young people . He loved music , and loved youngsters caring about music . "
It was long suspected by several of Britten 's close associates that there was something exceptional about his attraction to teenage boys : Auden referred to Britten 's " attraction to thin @-@ as @-@ a @-@ board juveniles ... to the sexless and innocent " , and Pears once wrote to Britten : " remember there are lovely things in the world still – children , boys , sunshine , the sea , Mozart , you and me " . In public , the matter was little discussed during Britten 's lifetime and much discussed after it . Carpenter 's 1992 biography closely examined the evidence , as do later studies of Britten , most particularly John Bridcut 's Britten 's Children ( 2006 ) , which concentrates on Britten ’ s friendships and relationships with various children and adolescents . Some commentators have continued to question Britten 's conduct , sometimes very sharply . Carpenter and Bridcut conclude that he held any sexual impulses under firm control and kept the relationships affectionate – including bed @-@ sharing , kissing and skinny dipping – but strictly platonic .
= = = = Cause of death = = = =
A more recent controversy was the statement in a 2013 biography of Britten by Paul Kildea that the composer 's heart failure was due to undetected syphilis , which Kildea speculates was a result of Pears 's promiscuity while the two were living in New York . In response , Britten 's consultant cardiologist said that , like all the hospital 's similar cases , Britten was routinely screened for syphilis before the operation , with negative results . He described as " complete rubbish " Kildea 's allegation that the surgeon who operated on Britten in 1973 would or even could have covered up a syphilitic condition . Kildea continued to maintain , " When all the composer 's symptoms are considered there can be only one cause " . In The Times , Richard Morrison praised the rest of Kildea 's book , and hoped that its reputation would not be " tarnished by one sensational speculation ... some second @-@ hand hearsay ... presenting unsubstantiated gossip as fact " .
= = Music = =
= = = Influences = = =
Britten 's early musical life was dominated by the classical masters ; his mother 's ambition was for him to become the " Fourth B " – after Bach , Beethoven and Brahms . Britten was later to assert that his initial development as a composer was stifled by reverence for these masters : " Between the ages of thirteen and sixteen I knew every note of Beethoven and Brahms . I remember receiving the full score of Fidelio for my fourteenth birthday ... But I think in a sense I never forgave them for having led me astray in my own particular thinking and natural inclinations " . He developed a particular animosity towards Brahms , whose piano music he had once held in great esteem ; in 1952 he confided that he played through all Brahms 's music from time to time , " to see if I am right about him ; I usually find that I underestimated last time how bad it was ! "
Through his association with Frank Bridge , Britten 's musical horizons expanded . He discovered the music of Debussy and Ravel which , Matthews writes , " gave him a model for an orchestral sound " . Bridge also led Britten to the music of Schoenberg and Berg ; the latter 's death in 1935 affected Britten deeply . A letter at that time reveals his thoughts on the contemporary music scene : " The real musicians are so few & far between , aren 't they ? Apart from the Bergs , Stravinskys , Schoenbergs & Bridges one is a bit stumped for names , isn 't one ? " – adding , as an afterthought : " Shostakovitch – perhaps – possibly " . By this time Britten had developed a lasting hostility towards the English pastoral school represented by Vaughan Williams and Ireland , whose work he compared unfavourably with the " brilliant folk @-@ song arrangements of Percy Grainger " ; Grainger became the inspiration of many of Britten 's later folk arrangements . Britten was also impressed by Delius , and thought Brigg Fair " delicious " when he heard it in 1931 . Also in that year he heard Stravinsky 's The Rite of Spring , which he found " bewildering and terrifying " , yet at the same time " incredibly marvellous and arresting " . The same composer 's Symphony of Psalms , and Petrushka were lauded in similar terms . However , he and Stravinsky later developed a mutual antipathy informed by jealousy and mistrust .
Besides his growing attachments to the works of 20th century masters , Britten – along with his contemporary Michael Tippett – was devoted to the English music of the late 17th and early 18th centuries , in particular the work of Purcell . In defining his mission as a composer of opera , Britten wrote : " One of my chief aims is to try to restore to the musical setting of the English Language a brilliance , freedom and vitality that have been curiously rare since the death of Purcell " . Among the closest of Britten 's kindred composer spirits – even more so than Purcell – was Mahler , whose Fourth Symphony Britten heard in September 1930 . At that time Mahler 's music was little regarded and rarely played in English concert halls . Britten later wrote of how the scoring of this work impressed him : " ... entirely clean and transparent ... the material was remarkable , and the melodic shapes highly original , with such rhythmic and harmonic tension from beginning to end " . He soon discovered other Mahler works , in particular Das Lied von der Erde ; he wrote to a friend about the concluding " Abschied " of Das Lied : " It is cruel , you know , that music should be so beautiful " . Apart from Mahler 's general influence on Britten 's compositional style , the incorporation by Britten of popular tunes ( as , for example , in Death in Venice ) is a direct inheritance from the older composer .
= = = Operas = = =
The Britten @-@ Pears Foundation considers the composer 's operas " perhaps the most substantial and important part of his compositional legacy . " Britten 's operas are firmly established in the international repertoire : according to Operabase , they are performed worldwide more than those of any other composer born in the 20th century , and only Puccini and Richard Strauss come ahead of him if the list is extended to all operas composed after 1900 .
The early operetta Paul Bunyan stands apart from Britten 's later operatic works . Philip Brett , in Grove 's article on Britten , calls it " a patronizing attempt by W H Auden to evoke the spirit of a nation not his own in which Britten was a somewhat dazzled accomplice " . The American public liked it , but the critics did not , and it fell into neglect until interest revived near the end of the composer 's life .
Britten 's subsequent operas range from large @-@ scale works written for full @-@ strength opera companies , to chamber operas for performance by small touring opera ensembles or in churches and schools . In the large @-@ scale category are Peter Grimes ( 1945 ) , Billy Budd ( 1951 ) , Gloriana ( 1953 ) , A Midsummer Night 's Dream ( 1960 ) and Death in Venice ( 1973 ) . Of the remaining operas , The Rape of Lucretia ( 1946 ) , Albert Herring ( 1947 ) , The Little Sweep ( 1949 ) and The Turn of the Screw ( 1954 ) were written for small opera companies . Noye 's Fludde ( 1958 ) , Curlew River ( 1964 ) , The Burning Fiery Furnace ( 1966 ) and The Prodigal Son ( 1968 ) were for church performance , and the secular The Golden Vanity was intended to be performed in schools . Owen Wingrave , written for television , was first presented live by the Royal Opera at Covent Garden in 1973 , two years after its broadcast premiere .
Music critics have frequently commented on the recurring theme in Britten 's operas from Peter Grimes onward of the isolated individual at odds with a hostile society . The extent to which this reflected Britten 's perception of himself , pacifist and homosexual , in the England of the 1930s , 40s and 50s is debated . Another recurrent theme is the corruption of innocence , most sharply seen in The Turn of the Screw .
Over the 28 years between Peter Grimes and Death in Venice Britten 's musical style changed , as he introduced elements of atonalism – though remaining essentially a tonal composer – and of eastern music , particularly gamelan sounds but also eastern harmonies . In A Midsummer Night 's Dream the orchestral scoring varies to fit the nature of each set of characters : " the bright , percussive sounds of harps , keyboards and percussion for the fairy world , warm strings and wind for the pairs of lovers , and lower woodwind and brass for the mechanicals " . In Death in Venice Britten turns Tadzio and his family into silent dancers , " accompanied by the colourful , glittering sounds of tuned percussion to emphasize their remoteness . "
As early as 1948 the music analyst Hans Keller , summarising Britten 's impact on 20th @-@ century opera to that date , compared his contribution to that of Mozart in the 18th century : " Mozart may in some respects be regarded as a founder ( a ' second founder ' ) of opera . The same can already be said today , as far as the modern British – perhaps not only British – field goes , of Britten " . In addition to his own original operas , Britten , together with Imogen Holst , extensively revised Purcell 's Dido and Aeneas ( 1951 ) and The Fairy @-@ Queen ( 1967 ) . These " realisations " brought Purcell , who was then neglected , to a wider public , but have themselves been neglected since the dominance of the trend to authentic performance practice . His 1948 revision of The Beggar 's Opera amounts to a wholesale recomposition , retaining the original melodies but giving them new , highly sophisticated orchestral accompaniments .
= = = Song cycles = = =
Throughout his career Britten was drawn to the song cycle form . In 1928 , when he was 14 , he composed an orchestral cycle , Quatre chansons françaises , setting words by Victor Hugo and Paul Verlaine . Brett comments that though the work is much influenced by Wagner on the one hand and French mannerisms on the other , " the diatonic nursery @-@ like tune for the sad boy with the consumptive mother in ' L 'enfance ' is entirely characteristic " . After he came under Auden 's influence Britten composed Our Hunting Fathers ( 1936 ) , ostensibly a protest against fox @-@ hunting but which also alludes allegorically to the contemporary political state of Europe . The work has never been popular ; in 1948 the critic Colin Mason lamented its neglect and called it one of Britten 's greatest works . In Mason 's view the cycle is " as exciting as Les Illuminations , and offers many interesting and enjoyable foretastes of the best moments of his later works . "
The first of Britten 's song cycles to gain widespread popularity was Les Illuminations ( 1940 ) , for high voice ( originally soprano , later more often sung by tenors ) with string orchestra accompaniment , setting words by Arthur Rimbaud . Britten 's music reflects the eroticism in Rimbaud 's poems ; Copland commented of the section " Antique " that he did not know how Britten dared to write the melody . Matthews judges the piece the crowning masterpiece of Britten 's early years . By the time of Britten 's next cycle , Seven Sonnets of Michelangelo ( 1942 ) for tenor and piano , Pears had become his partner and muse ; in Matthews 's phrase , Britten wrote the cycle as " his declaration of love for Peter " . It too finds the sensuality of the verses it sets , though in its structure it resembles a conventional 19th @-@ century song cycle . Mason draws a distinction between this and Britten 's earlier cycles , because here each song is self @-@ contained , and has no thematic connection with any of the others .
The Serenade for Tenor , Horn and Strings ( 1943 ) sets verses by a variety of poets , all on the theme of night @-@ time . Though Britten described the cycle as " not important stuff , but quite pleasant , I think " , it was immediately greeted as a masterpiece , and together with Peter Grimes it established him as one of the leading composers of his day . Mason calls it " a beautifully unified work on utterly dissimilar poems , held together by the most superficial but most effective , and therefore most suitable symphonic method . Some of the music is pure word @-@ painting , some of it mood @-@ painting , of the subtlest kind . " Two years later , after witnessing the horrors of Belsen , Britten composed The Holy Sonnets of John Donne , a work whose bleakness was not matched until his final tenor and piano cycle a quarter of a century later . Britten 's technique in this cycle ranges from atonality in the first song to firm tonality later , with a resolute B major chord at the climax of " Death , be not proud " .
Nocturne ( 1958 ) is the last of the orchestral cycles . As in the Serenade , Britten set words by a range of poets , who here include Shakespeare , Coleridge , Keats , Shelley , Tennyson and Wilfred Owen . The whole cycle is darker in tone than the Serenade , with pre @-@ echoes of the War Requiem . All the songs have subtly different orchestrations , with a prominent obbligato part for a different instrument in each . Among Britten 's later song cycles with piano accompaniment is the Songs and Proverbs of William Blake , composed for the baritone Dietrich Fischer @-@ Dieskau . This presents all its poems in a continuous stream of music ; Brett writes that it " interleaves a ritornello @-@ like setting of the seven proverbs with seven songs that paint an increasingly sombre picture of human existence . " A Pushkin cycle , The Poet 's Echo ( 1965 ) , was written for Galina Vishnevskaya , and shows a more robust and extrovert side of the composer . Though written ostensibly in the tradition of European song cycles , it draws atmospherically on the polyphony of south @-@ east Asian music . Who Are These Children ? ( 1969 ) , setting 12 verses by William Soutar , is among the grimmest of Britten 's cycles . After he could no longer play the piano , Britten composed a cycle of Robert Burns settings , A Birthday Hansel ( 1976 ) , for voice and harp .
= = = Other vocal works = = =
Nicholas Maw said of Britten 's vocal music : " His feeling for poetry ( not only English ) and the inflexions of language make him , I think , the greatest musical realizer of English " . One of the best @-@ known works in which Britten set poetry was the War Requiem ( 1962 ) . It intersperses the Latin requiem mass , sung by soprano and chorus , with settings of works by the First World War poet Wilfred Owen , sung by tenor and baritone . At the end the two elements are combined , as the last line of Owen 's " Strange meeting " mingles with the In paradisum of the mass . Matthews describes the conclusion of the work as " a great wave of benediction [ which ] recalls the end of the Sinfonia da Requiem , and its similar ebbing away into the sea that symbolises both reconciliation and death . " Other works for voices and orchestra include the Missa Brevis and the Cantata academica ( both 1959 ) on religious themes , and the late cantata Phaedra ( 1975 ) , a story of fated love and death modelled on Handel 's Italian cantatas .
Smaller @-@ scale works for accompanied voice include the five Canticles , composed between 1947 and 1974 . They are written for a variety of voices ( tenor in all five ; counter @-@ tenor or alto in II and IV and baritone in IV ) and accompaniments ( piano in I to IV , horn in III and harp in V ) . The first is a setting of Francis Quarles 's 17th century poem " A Divine Rapture " , and according to Britten was modelled on Purcell 's Divine Hymns . Matthews describes it as one of the composer 's most serene works , which " ends in a mood of untroubled happiness that would soon become rare in Britten 's music " . The second Canticle was written in 1952 , between Billy Budd and Gloriana , on the theme of Abraham 's obedience to Divine Authority in the proffered sacrifice of his son Isaac . " Canticle III " from 1954 is a setting of Edith Sitwell 's wartime poem " Still Falls the Rain " , composed just after The Turn of the Screw with which it is structurally and stylistically associated . The twelve @-@ note cycle in the first five bars of the piano part of the Canticle introduced a feature that became thereafter a regular part of Britten 's compositional technique . The fourth Canticle , premiered in 1971 is based on T. S. Eliot 's poem " Journey of the Magi " . It is musically close to The Burning Fiery Furnace of 1966 ; Matthews refers to it as a " companion piece " to the earlier work . The final Canticle was another Eliot setting , his juvenile poem " Death of Saint Narcissus " . Although Britten had little idea of what the poem was about , the musicologist Arnold Whittall finds the text " almost frighteningly apt ... for a composer conscious of his own sickness " . Matthews sees Narcissus as " another figure from [ Britten 's ] magic world of dreams and ideal beauty " .
= = = Orchestral works = = =
The Britten scholar Donald Mitchell has written , " It is easy , because of the scope , stature , and sheer volume of the operas , and the wealth of vocal music of all kinds , to pay insufficient attention to the many works Britten wrote in other , specifically non @-@ vocal genres . " Maw said of Britten , " He is one of the 20th century 's great orchestral composers ... His orchestration has an individuality , incisiveness and integration with the musical material only achieved by the greatest composers . " Among Britten 's best @-@ known orchestral works are the Variations on a Theme of Frank Bridge ( 1937 ) , the Sinfonia da Requiem ( 1940 ) , the Four Sea Interludes ( 1945 ) and The Young Person 's Guide to the Orchestra ( 1945 ) . The Variations , an affectionate tribute to Britten 's teacher , range from comic parodies of Italian operatic clichés and Viennese waltzes to a strutting march , reflecting the rise of militarism in Europe , and a Mahlerian funeral march ; the piece ends with an exuberant fugal finale . The Sinfonia moves from an opening Lacrymosa filled with fear and lamentation to a fierce Dies Irae and then to a final Requiem aeternam , described by the critic Herbert Glass as " the most uneasy ' eternal rest ' possible " . Mason considers the Sinfonia a failure : " less entertaining than usual , because its object is not principally to entertain but to express symphonically . It fails because it is neither picturesquely nor formally symphonic " . The Sea Interludes , adapted by Britten from the full score of Peter Grimes , make a concert suite depicting the sea and the Borough in which the opera is set ; the character of the music is strongly contrasted between " Dawn " , " Sunday Morning " , " Moonlight " and " Storm " . The commentator Howard Posner observes that there is not a bar in the interludes , no matter how beautiful , that is free of foreboding . The Young Person 's Guide , based on a theme by Purcell , showcases the orchestra 's individual sections and groups , and gained widespread popularity from the outset . Christopher Headington calls the work " exuberant and uncomplicated music , scored with clarity and vigour [ that ] fits well into Britten 's oeuvre . " David Matthews calls it " a brilliant educational exercise . "
Unlike his English predecessors such as Elgar and Vaughan Williams , and composers from mainland Europe whom he admired , including Mahler and Shostakovich , Britten was not a classical symphonist . His youthful jeux d 'esprit the Simple Symphony ( 1934 ) is in conventional symphonic structure , observing sonata form and the traditional four @-@ movement pattern , but of his mature works his Spring Symphony ( 1949 ) is more a song cycle than a true symphony , and the concertante Cello Symphony ( 1963 ) is an attempt to balance the traditional concerto and symphony . During its four movements the Cello Symphony moves from a deeply pessimistic opening to a finale of radiant happiness rare for Britten by this point . The composer considered it " the finest thing I 've written " .
The Piano Concerto ( 1938 ) was at first criticised for being too light @-@ hearted and virtuoso . In 1945 Britten revised it , replacing a skittish third movement with a more sombre passacaglia that , in Matthews 's view , gives the work more depth , and makes the apparent triumph of the finale more ambivalent . The Violin Concerto ( 1940 ) has virtuoso elements , but they are balanced by lyrical and elegiac passages , " undoubtedly reflecting Britten 's growing concern with the escalation of world hostilities . " Neither concerto is among Britten 's most popular works , but in the 21st century the Violin Concerto has been performed more frequently than before , both in the concert hall and on record .
Britten 's incidental music for theatre , film and radio , much of it unpublished , was the subject of an essay by William Mann , published in 1952 in the first detailed critical assessment of Britten 's music to that date . Of these pieces the music for a radio play , The Rescue , by Edward Sackville @-@ West , is praised by the musicologist Lewis Foreman as " of such stature and individual character as to be worth a regular place alongside [ Britten 's ] other dramatic scores . " Mann finds in this score pre @-@ echoes of the second act of Billy Budd , while Foreman observes that Britten " appears to have made passing allusions to The Rescue in his final opera , Death in Venice .
= = = Chamber and instrumental works = = =
Britten 's close friendship with Rostropovich inspired the Cello Sonata ( 1961 ) and three suites for solo cello ( 1964 – 71 ) . String quartets featured throughout Britten 's composing career , from a student work in 1928 to his Third String Quartet ( 1975 ) . The second Quartet , from 1945 , was written in homage to Purcell ; Mason considered it Britten 's most important instrumental work to that date . Referring to this work , Keller writes of the ease with which Britten , relatively early in his compositional career , solves " the modern sonata problem – the achievement of symmetry and unity within an extended ternary circle based on more than one subject " . Keller likens the innovatory skill of the Quartet to that of Walton 's Viola Concerto . The third Quartet was Britten 's last major work ; the critic Colin Anderson said of it in 2007 , " one of Britten 's greatest achievements , one with interesting allusions to Bartók and Shostakovich , and written with an economy that opens out a depth of emotion that can be quite chilling . " The Gemini Variations ( 1965 ) , for flute , violin and piano duet , were based on a theme of Zoltán Kodály and written as a virtuoso piece for the 13 @-@ year @-@ old Jeney twins , musical prodigies whom Britten had met in Budapest in the previous year . For Osian Ellis , Britten wrote the Suite for Harp ( 1969 ) , which Joan Chissell in The Times described as " a little masterpiece of concentrated fancy " .
= = = Legacy = = =
Britten 's fellow @-@ composers had divided views about him . To Tippett he was " simply the most musical person I have ever met " , with an " incredible " technical mastery ; some contemporaries , however , were less effusive . In Tippett 's view Walton and others were convinced that Britten and Pears were leaders of a homosexual conspiracy in music , a belief Tippett dismisses as ridiculous , inspired by jealousy at Britten 's postwar successes . Leonard Bernstein considered Britten " a man at odds with the world " , and said of his music : " [ I ] f you hear it , not just listen to it superficially , you become aware of something very dark " . The tenor Robert Tear , who was closely associated with Britten in the latter part of the composer 's career , made a similar point : " There was a great , huge abyss in his soul ... He got into the valley of the shadow of death and couldn 't get out " .
In the decade after Britten 's death , his standing as a composer in Britain was to some extent overshadowed by that of the still @-@ living Tippett . The film @-@ maker Tony Palmer thought that Tippett 's temporary ascendancy might have been a question of the two composers ' contrasting personalities : Tippett had more warmth and had made fewer enemies . In any event this was a short @-@ lived phenomenon ; Tippett adherents such as the composer Robert Saxton soon rediscovered their enthusiasm for Britten , whose audience steadily increased during the final years of the 20th century . Britten has had few imitators ; Brett describes him as " inimitable , possessed of ... a voice and sound too dangerous to imitate " . Nevertheless , after his death Britten was lauded by the younger generation of English composers to whom , in the words of Oliver Knussen , he became " a phenomenal father @-@ figure " . Brett believes that he affected every subsequent British composer to some extent : " He is a key figure in the growth of British musical culture in the second half of the 20th century , and his effect on everything from opera to the revitalization of music education is hard to overestimate . "
Whittall believes that one reason for Britten 's enduring popularity is the " progressive conservatism " of his music . He generally avoided the avant garde , and did not challenge the conventions in the way that contemporaries such as Tippett did . Perhaps , says Brett , " the tide that swept away serialism , atonality and most forms of musical modernism and brought in neo @-@ Romanticism , minimalism and other modes of expression involved with tonality carried with it renewed interest in composers who had been out of step with the times " . Britten defined his mission as a composer in very simple terms : composers should aim at " pleasing people today as seriously as we can " .
= = Pianist and conductor = =
Britten , though a reluctant conductor and a nervous pianist , was greatly sought after in both capacities . The piano accompanist Gerald Moore wrote in his memoirs about playing at all the main music festivals except for Aldeburgh , because " as the presiding genius there is the greatest accompanist in the world , my services are not needed " . Britten 's recital partnership with Pears was his best @-@ known collaboration , but he also accompanied Kathleen Ferrier , Rostropovich , Dietrich Fischer @-@ Dieskau , James Bowman and John Shirley @-@ Quirk , among others . Though usually too nervous to play piano solos , Britten often performed piano duets with Clifford Curzon or Richter , and chamber music with the Amadeus Quartet . The composers whose works , other than his own , he most often played were Mozart and Schubert ; the latter , in Murray Perahia 's view , was Britten 's greatest idol . As a boy and young man , Britten had intensely admired Brahms , but his admiration waned to nothing , and Brahms seldom featured in his repertory .
Singers and players admired Britten 's conducting , and David Webster rated it highly enough to offer him the musical directorship of the Covent Garden Opera in 1952 . Britten declined ; he was not confident of his ability as a conductor and was reluctant to spend too much time performing rather than composing . As a conductor , Britten 's repertory included Purcell , Bach , Haydn , Mozart and Schubert , and occasional less characteristic choices including Schumann 's Scenes from Goethe 's Faust ; Elgar 's The Dream of Gerontius and Introduction and Allegro ; Holst 's Egdon Heath and short pieces by Percy Grainger .
= = Recordings = =
Britten , like Elgar and Walton before him , was signed up by a major British recording company , and performed a considerable proportion of his output on disc . For the Decca Record Company he made some monaural records in the 1940s and 1950s , followed , with the enthusiastic support of the Decca producer John Culshaw , by numerous stereophonic versions of his works . Culshaw wrote , " The happiest hours I have spent in any studio were with Ben , for the basic reason that it did not seem that we were trying to make records or video tapes ; we were just trying to make music . "
In May 1943 Britten made his debut in the Decca studios , accompanying Sophie Wyss in five of his arrangements of French folk songs . The following January he and Pears recorded together , in Britten 's arrangements of British folk songs , and the following day , in duet with Curzon he recorded his Introduction and Rondo alla burlesca and Mazurka elegiaca . In May 1944 he conducted the Boyd Neel string orchestra , Dennis Brain and Pears in the first recording of the Serenade for Tenor , Horn and Strings , which has frequently been reissued , most recently on CD .
Britten 's first operatic recording was The Turn of the Screw , made in January 1955 with the original English Opera Group forces . In 1957 he conducted The Prince of the Pagodas in an early stereo recording , supervised by Culshaw . Decca 's first major commercial success with Britten came the following year , with Peter Grimes , which has , at 2013 , never been out of the catalogues since its first release . From 1958 Britten conducted Decca recordings of many of his operas and vocal and orchestral works , including the Nocturne ( 1959 ) , the Spring Symphony ( 1960 ) and the War Requiem ( 1963 ) . The last sold in unexpectedly large numbers for a classical set , and thereafter Decca unstintingly made resources available to Culshaw and his successors for Britten recordings . Sets followed of Albert Herring ( 1964 ) , the Sinfonia da Requiem ( 1964 ) Curlew River ( 1965 ) , A Midsummer Night 's Dream ( 1966 ) , The Burning Fiery Furnace ( 1967 ) , Billy Budd ( 1967 ) and many of the other major works . In 2013 , to mark the anniversary of Britten 's birth , Decca released a set of 65 CDs and one DVD , " Benjamin Britten – Complete Works " . Most of the recordings were from Decca 's back catalogue , but in the interests of comprehensiveness a substantial number of tracks were licensed from 20 other companies including EMI , Virgin Classics , Naxos , Warner and NMC .
As a pianist and conductor in other composers ' music , Britten made many recordings for Decca . Among his studio collaborations with Pears are sets of Schubert 's Winterreise and Die schöne Müllerin , Schumann 's Dichterliebe , and songs by Haydn , Mozart , Bridge , Ireland , Holst , Tippett and Richard Rodney Bennett . Other soloists whom Britten accompanied on record were Ferrier , Rostropovich and Vishnevskaya . As a conductor he recorded a wide range of composers , from Purcell to Grainger . Among his best @-@ known Decca recordings are Purcell 's The Fairy @-@ Queen , Bach 's Brandenburg concertos , Cantata 151 , Cantata 102 and St John Passion , Elgar 's The Dream of Gerontius and Mozart 's last two symphonies .
= = Honours , awards and commemorations = =
State honours awarded to Britten included Companion of Honour ( Britain ) in 1953 ; Commander of the Royal Order of the Polar Star ( Sweden ) in 1962 ; the Order of Merit ( Britain ) in 1965 ; and a life peerage ( Britain ) in July 1976 . He received honorary degrees and fellowships from 19 conservatories and universities in Europe and America . His awards included the Hanseatic Goethe Prize ( 1961 ) ; the Aspen Award , Colorado ( 1964 ) ; the Royal Philharmonic Society 's Gold Medal ( 1964 ) ; the Sibelius Prize ( 1965 ) ; the Mahler Medal ( Bruckner and Mahler Society of America , 1967 ) ; the Léonie Sonning Music Prize ( Denmark , 1968 ) ; the Ernst von Siemens Prize ( 1974 ) ; and the Ravel Prize ( 1974 ) .
Prizes for individual works included UNESCO 's International Rostrum of Composers 1961 ( for A Midsummer Night 's Dream ) ; and for the War Requiem Grammy Awards 1963 – Classical Album of the Year , Best Classical Composition by a Contemporary Composer and Best Classical Performance – Choral ( Other than Opera ) ; the BRIT Awards 1977 – Best Orchestral Album of the past 25 years ; and the Grammy Hall of Fame Award 1998 .
The Red House in Aldeburgh , where Britten and Pears lived and worked together from 1957 until Britten 's death in 1976 , is now the home of the Britten @-@ Pears Foundation , established to promote their musical legacy . In Britten 's centenary year his studio at the Red House was restored to the way it was in the 1950s and opened to the public . The converted hayloft was designed and built by H T Cadbury Brown in 1958 and was described by Britten as a " magnificent work " . In June 2013 Dame Janet Baker officially opened the Britten @-@ Pears archive in a new building in the grounds of the Red House .
A memorial stone to Britten was unveiled in the north choir aisle of Westminster Abbey in 1978 . There are memorial plaques to him at three of his London homes : 173 Cromwell Road , 45a St John 's Wood High Street , and 8 Halliford Street in Islington . In April 2013 Britten was honoured by the Royal Mail in the UK , as one of ten people selected as subjects for the " Great Britons " commemorative postage stamp issue .
Other creative artists have celebrated Britten . In 1970 Walton composed Improvisations on an Impromptu of Benjamin Britten , based on a theme from Britten 's Piano Concerto . Works commemorating Britten include Cantus in Memoriam Benjamin Britten an orchestral piece written in 1977 by Arvo Pärt , and Sally Beamish 's Variations on a Theme of Benjamin Britten , based on the second Sea Interlude from Peter Grimes ; she composed the work to mark Britten 's centenary . Alan Bennett depicts Britten in a 2009 play The Habit of Art , set while Britten is composing Death in Venice and centred on a fictional meeting between Britten and Auden . Britten was played in the premiere production by Alex Jennings .
Tony Palmer made three documentary films about Britten : Benjamin Britten & his Festival ( 1967 ) ; A Time There Was ( 1979 ) ; and Nocturne ( 2013 ) .
= = = Centenary = = =
In September 2012 , to mark the composer 's forthcoming centenary , the Britten @-@ Pears Foundation launched " Britten 100 " , a collaboration of leading organisations in the performing arts , publishing , broadcasting , film , academia and heritage . Among the events were the release of a feature film Benjamin Britten – Peace and Conflict , and a centenary exhibition at the British Library . The Royal Mint issued a 50 @-@ pence piece , to mark the centenary – the first time a composer has featured on a British coin .
Centenary performances of the War Requiem were given at eighteen locations in Britain . Opera productions included Owen Wingrave at Aldeburgh , Billy Budd at Glyndebourne , Death in Venice by English National Opera , Gloriana by The Royal Opera , and Peter Grimes , Death in Venice and A Midsummer Night 's Dream by Opera North . Peter Grimes was performed on the beach at Aldeburgh , opening the 2013 Aldeburgh Festival in June 2013 , with Steuart Bedford conducting and singers from the Chorus of Opera North and the Chorus of the Guildhall School of Music and Drama , described by The Guardian as " a remarkable , and surely unrepeatable achievement . "
Internationally , the anniversary was marked by performances of the War Requiem , Peter Grimes and other works in four continents . In the US the centennial events were described as " coast to coast , " with a Britten festival at Carnegie Hall , and performances at the New York Philharmonic , the Metropolitan Opera and Los Angeles Opera .
= Dawson Creek Rage =
The Dawson Creek Rage ( aka DC Rage ) were a Tier II Junior A ice hockey team , based out of Dawson Creek , British Columbia . Formed in 2010 , they played in the North American Hockey League 's West Division for two seasons . Their 2010 – 11 season included a six @-@ game win streak , though they ended the season fifth in a six team division with 24 wins in 58 games . The 2011 – 12 season included an 11 @-@ game homestand in which they only won 2 games , and a last place finish ( in their division ) with only 12 wins overall . With losing records in both seasons , the team did not make the playoffs in either season . Despite attracting better than average attendance for a NAHL team , high travelling and operating costs resulted in the team ceasing operations in April 2012 .
The Rage played in the 4 @,@ 500 seat EnCana Events Centre where their first win came on September 24 , 2010 , against the Alaska Avalanche . Their final home game was a loss to the Wenatchee Wild in March 2012 . The team 's name and symbol was intended to represent an outward expression of passion and internal desire to dominate other teams . The Rage players , all aged between 15 and 20 years old in accordance with league rules , were active with charities and within the community . Prior to the team 's formation , the ownership group attempted to establish the team in the British Columbia Hockey League but were refused with the league citing the lack of a competitive base for a northern division . The group also attempted to establish the team in the Alberta Junior Hockey League but that league was not interested in expanding or re @-@ locating teams at that time . Another unsuccessful attempt at moving the team to either of those league was made before their dissolution .
= = Formation = =
Dawson Creek was last home to a Junior A hockey team in the 1980s when the Dawson Creek Kodiaks of the Peace @-@ Cariboo Junior Hockey League spent time at the equivalent level . While the Kodiaks ended operations in 1990 , a new Junior A team was proposed in 2006 by Global Spectrum , the contracted management company responsible for operating the city 's new South Peace Community Multiplex which included the EnCana Events Centre , capable of hosting ice hockey events with a seating capacity of 4 @,@ 500 people . The objective was to create an anchor tenant which could help fill the Multiplex 's schedule with several dozen home games per year . The company recruited several Dawson Creek @-@ based businessmen to form a non @-@ profit society ( eventually named the DC Rage Society ) that would fund the start @-@ up of the team . To add credibility to their application , Dawson Creek resident Rob Bremner , who was the head coach of the Junior A @-@ level Vernon Vipers when they won the 1996 Royal Bank Cup , was appointed the General Manager of the team and tasked with recruiting potential players .
The group first approached the British Columbia Hockey League with the intention of creating a new franchise for the 2007 – 08 season , which came with a $ 400 @,@ 000 expansion franchise fee . While the Multiplex arena was well over the BCHL 's minimum requirement of a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ seat arena , the Society estimated the franchise would need an average attendance of 1 @,@ 200 @-@ 1 @,@ 500 tickets sold to cover operational costs . At the same time , the group pursued entry into the Alberta Junior Hockey League , which had a $ 250 @,@ 000 franchise fee , even though AJHL communicated they had no intention of expanding until at least 2011 . As the BCHL also communicated they were not interested in expansion at that time , the group additionally pursued relocation of an existing team to Dawson Creek . However , at a late @-@ 2006 meeting , the BCHL board of governors voted to not accept the Dawson Creek application as a potential site for a team , citing delays with the construction of the Multiplex arena and a question over compensation for the expenses of visiting teams . On appeal , the BCHL reversed this decision two months later and actively considered both Dawson Creek and Wenatchee , Washington , as possible sites for a requested relocation of the Williams Lake TimberWolves . The BCHL noted two concerns with a Dawson Creek team : the cost and time of travel required ( at the time the league 's most northerly team was the Prince George Spruce Kings ) to reach the city and the lack of a rival team . To address these concerns , the Society attempted to initiate a Fort St. John team , as well , who would be a rival to Dawson Creek and enable a northern division within the BCHL .
At their 2007 meeting , the BCHL board of governors rejected moving the Williams Lake TimberWolves to Dawson Creek , but then voted to allow the move if the Burnaby Express ( who was also seeking relocation ) moved to Fort St. John . However , the Society was not able to recruit sufficient support in Fort St. John to form an ownership group and the Burnaby Express re @-@ arranged its management and ownership so that it could stay in Burnaby . The Williams Lake TimberWolves , after one year of dormancy , relocated to Wenatchee , Washington . Efforts at relocating an Alberta Junior Hockey League team were also unsuccessful as no team expressed interest
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in moving at that time .
Over the next year , still seeking a league , the US @-@ based North American Hockey League , which was looking to expand , was approached as a possibility . In an April 2009 announcement , they accepted the Dawson Creek franchise , which would be the only Canadian team in the league and the first since the Fernie Ghostriders left the league in 2004 to become a Junior B team . The ownership group agreed to pay the $ 400 @,@ 000 franchise fee with the team entering the league for the 2010 – 11 season with 31 home games to be played in the Multiplex each season . The local government , the City of Dawson Creek , agreed to contribute $ 675 @,@ 000 over 3 years to help establish the team as a reliable tenant for the Multiplex which was operating at a loss due to the lack of events . The team , now known as the Dawson Creek Rage , selected Scott Robinson , a former BCHL coach of the year , to lead the new team as its general manager and head coach . To recruit and evaluate potential players ( aged 15 – 20 ) , they held Spring 2010 try @-@ out camps in Princeton , Abbotsford and Dawson Creek which attracted about 200 players .
= = Team history = =
= = = 2010 – 11 season = = =
With the roster filled , the team debuted at a late @-@ August 2010 exhibition tournament , Face Off Fever 2 , where Dawson Creek hosted the Prince George Spruce Kings and Quesnel Millionaires of the BCHL and the Grande Prairie Storm of the AJHL . The NAHL 2010 – 11 season began at the Showcase Tournament , held Minneapolis in mid @-@ September . The Rage lost their first game 3 – 0 to the St. Louis Bandits on September 15 , but the next day won their second game , in an overtime shoot @-@ out , 2 – 1 against the Alexandria Blizzard . The team emerged from the tournament with a 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 record . Returning to Dawson Creek , the Rage held their home @-@ opener in a three @-@ game series against the Alaska Avalanche , losing the first and third games but winning their September 24 game . The Rage also lost two of three games the next weekend against the Kenai River Brown Bears . On their Alaska road trip , they lost three straight to the Avalanche and won three straight against the Brown Bears . In California , the Rage lost both games in a two @-@ game series against the Fresno Monsters and in Washington the Rage lost two of three against the Wenatchee Wild .
Back in Dawson Creek in November , the Rage split a three @-@ game series against the Monsters , 1 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 , and won both games against the Chicago Hitmen . Following another 6 @-@ game road trip to Alaska , the Rage continued into December winning approximately one @-@ in @-@ three games , with an 11 @-@ 22 @-@ 2 record near the mid @-@ season break , when they traded their 20 @-@ year @-@ old captain , Blaine Bokenfohr , to the Merritt Centennials in exchange for future considerations . Scott Fellnermayr became the new captain of the Rage , and would remain the captain for the remainder of the season and the next . In January , the Rage split two @-@ game series against the Wild and split another in Chicago . The team put together a six @-@ game winning streak in January – February , winning games against the Brown Bears and the Avalanche before splitting a two @-@ game series with the Monsters . On their next road trip , they lost their two games against the Wild and won the next three against the Monsters . The season ended in early March with Rage in fifth place with a 24 @-@ 31 @-@ 3 record , in the six @-@ team West division .
Despite the losing record , attendance at the home games averaged over 1 @,@ 000 people , the tenth highest attendance in the 26 @-@ team league . They sent two players to the league 's Top Prospects Tournament : goalie Andrew Walsh and the team 's top scorer Dakota Mason . The team gave Scott Fellnermayr their most valuable player award and named goalie Edward Dyson their rookie of the year .
In the off @-@ season , with numerous players reaching the league 's age limit , the team held open camps in Kelowna and Dawson Creek in April – May 2011 which attracted about 150 potential players . Dakota Mason requested a trade and was sent to the Brooks Bandits for Mitch Chagnon . In pre @-@ season play , the Rage played the Grande Prairie Storm in Peace River , Alberta , in an exhibition fundraiser game called the Tiggo Cup Challenge , with proceeds going towards the North Peace Navigators Junior " B " hockey team . In early September , they split a two @-@ game exhibition series with the Prince George Spruce Kings . In finalizing the roster , the team kept rookie Luke Ripley and veteran Rage defenseman Evan Ripley , allowing the brothers to play on the same team .
= = = 2011 – 12 season = = =
The Rage began the 2011 – 12 season with the NAHL 's Showcase Tournament in Michigan where they lost to the Corpus Christi Ice Rays and the Kalamazoo Jr . K @-@ Wings but beat the Michigan Warriors , before ending with a loss to the Coulee Region Chill . They started with a 3 – 7 record , winning two out of three games against the Minot Minotauros but then losing two games against the Monsters in Fresno and two games against the Bismarck Bobcats in Dawson Creek . Trying to add scoring , they acquired Shawn Mueller from the Chilliwack Chiefs . They fell to 5 @-@ 13 @-@ 1 after splitting a series in Minot , losing in Bismarck , and splitting a series against the Alaska Avalanche back in Dawson Creek . Between mid @-@ November and the mid @-@ season break the team played a 12 @-@ game road trip , spending the first two weekends in Alaska and the next two in Wenatchee and Fresno , and entered the break last in their division with a 7 @-@ 24 @-@ 2 overall record . They acquired defenceman Zach Ovics from the Nanaimo Clippers and goalie Paul Bourbeau from the Kenai River Brown Bears . In a January – February 11 game homestand , the Rage only won 2 games , falling to 9 @-@ 32 @-@ 3 , as they lost three to the Wild ( all shut outs ) , two each to the Monsters and the Ice Dogs , and split their series against the Avalanche and Brown Bears . The team 's struggles continued , losing two games each to the Monsters and the Ice Dogs . Against the Wild , they lost all three games in their homestand which ended with brawl . They ended the season going 1 – 2 in both Kenai River and Wenatchee and splitting the series against the Alaska Avalanche , 1 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 . They played their last home game in mid @-@ March losing to the Wenatchee Wild and ending the game with brawl . The Rage ended their season with a road trip , losing both three @-@ game series 2 – 1 in Kenai River and then Wenatchee . Three players were sent to the NAHL 's Top Prospects Showcase : Scott Fellnermayr , Luke Ripley and Josh Hartley .
= = Dissolution = =
In early 2011 , the Rage along with the Fresno Monsters , Wenatchee Wild , and Alaska Avalanche , all declared dormancy for various reasons , not committing to playing the next season ; the Rage were pursuing entry into the AJHL . As the season was ending , the other teams in the division came out of dormancy ; the Wenatchee team had their BCHL move denied and the Fresno Monsters were able to secure a lease agreement for their arena . The bid by the DC Rage Society to move the team into the AJHL , by purchasing the rights to the St. Albert Steel , failed as the Steel were moved to Whitecourt . While the team was achieving the expected levels of corporate sponsorship and had an average attendance of 1 @,@ 010 people ( 13th best in the league of 28 teams ) , the Rage 's costs ( especially the travel costs ) were higher than expected . In the first week of April 2012 , a final appeal by the DC Rage Society to the City of Dawson Creek to cover certain fees was denied and the society announced the team was ending operations .
= = Community = =
The Rage were operated by a Dawson Creek @-@ based non @-@ profit group , the DC Rage Society . They obtained over $ 200 @,@ 000 each year in financial support from the City of Dawson Creek who wanted the team to help fill the schedule of their new 6 @,@ 500 @-@ seat arena . Compared to other NAHL teams , the Rage received above average fan support with over 1 @,@ 000 people attending each game . With few of the players were native to the Peace Region , billet families housed team players while they were in town . The team participated in visits to local elementary schools , hosted meet @-@ and @-@ greets with community members , and fund @-@ raised for the local branch of the Canadian Cancer Society and other charities . Likewise , the community supported the team by fund @-@ raising for pay for general team activities and for a scholarship fund for players going onto university . In August 2011 , the team took over hosting duties ( from the city 's minor hockey association ) of Dawson Creek 's annual week @-@ long hockey camp in which 95 players attended , as well , in the same month , they hosted an open house for Dawson Creek community members meet the team .
= = Uniform = =
In May 2010 , the team unveiled their logo and uniform . Designed by a Dawson Creek resident , it featured predominately orange , black , and silver colours stylized as a warrior helmet . The logo was meant to illustrate the team 's dominance with the burning eyes representing the rage within . Between seasons , they altered the logo by adding the words " Dawson Creek " and " Rage " with the Canadian maple leaf symbol , replacing the longhorn symbol with a plume on the helmet , eliminating the red colouring , and removing the flames .
= = Season Records = =
= Casino Royale ( 1967 film ) =
Casino Royale is a 1967 spy comedy film originally produced by Columbia Pictures starring an ensemble cast of directors and actors . It is loosely based on Ian Fleming 's first James Bond novel . The film stars David Niven as the " original " Bond , Sir James Bond 007 . Forced out of retirement to investigate the deaths and disappearances of international spies , he soon battles the mysterious Dr. Noah and SMERSH . The film 's slogan : " Casino Royale is too much ... for one James Bond ! " refers to Bond 's ruse to mislead SMERSH in which six other agents are pretending to be " James Bond " , namely , baccarat master Evelyn Tremble ( Peter Sellers ) ; millionaire spy Vesper Lynd ( Ursula Andress ) ; Bond 's secretary Miss Moneypenny ( Barbara Bouchet ) ; Mata Bond ( Joanna Pettet ) , Bond 's daughter with Mata Hari ; and British agents " Coop " ( Terence Cooper ) and " The Detainer " ( Daliah Lavi ) .
Charles K. Feldman , the producer , had acquired the film rights in 1960 and had attempted to get Casino Royale made as an Eon Productions Bond film ; however , Feldman and the producers of the Eon series , Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman , failed to come to terms . Believing that he could not compete with the Eon series , Feldman resolved to produce the film as a satire . The budget escalated as various directors and writers got involved in the production , and actors expressed dissatisfaction with the project .
Casino Royale was released on 13 April 1967 , two months prior to Eon 's fifth Bond movie , You Only Live Twice . The film was a financial success , grossing over $ 41 @.@ 7 million worldwide , and Burt Bacharach 's musical score was praised , earning him an Academy Award nomination for the song " The Look of Love " . Critical reception to Casino Royale , however , was generally negative ; some critics regarded it as a baffling , disorganised affair . Since 1999 , the film 's rights have been held by Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , distributors of the official Bond movies by Eon Productions .
= = Plot = =
= = = Overview = = =
The story of Casino Royale is told in an episodic format . Val Guest oversaw the assembly of the sections , although he turned down the credit of " co @-@ ordinating director " .
= = = Opening sequence = = =
Evelyn Tremble / James Bond 007 ( Peter Sellers ) and Inspector Mathis meet in a pissoir , where Mathis presents his credentials — in a shot suggesting a display of Mathis ' genitals , and setting the tone of the film by satirising the dramatic opening sequences in the Eon Bond films .
= = = Plot summary = = =
Sir James Bond 007 , a legendary British spy who retired from the secret service 20 years previously , is visited by the head of British MI6 , M , CIA representative Ransome , KGB representative Smernov , and Deuxième Bureau representative Le Grand . All implore Bond to come out of retirement to deal with SMERSH who have been eliminating agents : Bond spurns all their pleas . When Bond continues to stand firm , his mansion is destroyed by a mortar attack at the orders of M , who is , however , killed in the explosion .
Bond travels to Scotland to return M 's remains to the grieving widow , Lady Fiona McTarry . However , the real Lady Fiona has been replaced by SMERSH 's Agent Mimi . The rest of the household have been likewise replaced , with SMERSH ’ s aim to discredit Bond by destroying his " celibate image " . Attempts by a bevy of beauties to seduce Bond fail , but Mimi / Lady Fiona becomes so impressed with Bond that she changes loyalties and helps Bond to foil the plot against him . On his way back to London , Bond survives another attempt on his life .
Bond is promoted to the head of MI6 . He learns that many British agents around the world have been eliminated by enemy spies because of their inability to resist sex . Bond is also told that the " sex maniac " who was given the name of " James Bond " when the original Bond retired has gone to work in television . He then orders that all remaining MI6 agents will be named " James Bond 007 " , to confuse SMERSH . He also creates a rigorous programme to train male agents to ignore the charms of women . Moneypenny recruits " Coop " , a karate expert who begins training to resist seductive women : he also meets an exotic agent known as the Detainer .
Bond then hires Vesper Lynd , a retired agent turned millionaire , to recruit baccarat expert Evelyn Tremble , whom he intends to use to beat SMERSH agent Le Chiffre . Having embezzled SMERSH 's money , Le Chiffre is desperate for money to cover up his theft before he is executed .
Following up a clue from agent Mimi , Bond persuades his estranged daughter Mata Bond to travel to East Berlin to infiltrate International Mothers ' Help , an au pair service that is a cover for a SMERSH training center . Mata uncovers a plan to sell compromising photographs of military leaders from the US , USSR , China and Great Britain at an " art auction " , another scheme Le Chiffre hopes to use to raise money : Mata destroys the photos . Le Chiffre 's only remaining option is to raise the money by playing baccarat .
Tremble arrives at the Casino Royale accompanied by Lynd , who foils an attempt to disable him by seductive SMERSH agent Miss Goodthighs . Later that night , Tremble observes Le Chiffre playing at the casino and realises that he is using infrared sunglasses to cheat . Lynd steals the sunglasses , allowing Evelyn to eventually beat Le Chiffre in a game of baccarat . Lynd is apparently abducted outside the casino , and Tremble is also kidnapped while pursuing her . Le Chiffre , desperate for the winning cheque , hallucinogenically tortures Tremble . Lynd rescues Tremble , only to subsequently kill him . Meanwhile , SMERSH agents raid Le Chiffre 's base and kill him .
In London , Mata Bond is kidnapped by SMERSH in a giant flying saucer , and Sir James and Moneypenny travel to Casino Royale to rescue her . They discover that the casino is located atop a giant underground headquarters run by the evil Dr. Noah , secretly Sir James ' nephew Jimmy Bond , a former MI6 agent who defected to SMERSH to spite his famous uncle . Jimmy reveals that he plans to use biological warfare to make all women beautiful and kill all men over 4 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 37 m ) tall , leaving him as the " big man " who gets all the girls . Jimmy has already captured The Detainer , and he tries to convince her to be his partner ; she agrees , but only to dupe him into swallowing one of his " atomic time pills " , turning him into a " walking atomic bomb " .
Sir James , Moneypenny , Mata and Coop manage to escape from their cell and fight their way back to the Casino Director 's office where Sir James establishes Lynd is a double agent . The casino is then overrun by secret agents and a battle ensues . American and French support arrive , but just add to the chaos . Eventually , Jimmy 's atomic pill explodes , destroying Casino Royale with everyone inside . Sir James and all of his agents then appear in heaven , and Jimmy Bond is shown descending to hell .
= = Cast = =
David Niven as Sir James Bond – A legendary British secret agent forced out of retirement to fight SMERSH .
Peter Sellers as Evelyn Tremble / James Bond 007 – A baccarat master recruited by Vesper Lynd to challenge Le Chiffre at Casino Royale .
Ursula Andress as Vesper Lynd / 007 – A retired British secret agent forced back into service in exchange for writing off her tax arrears .
Orson Welles as Le Chiffre – SMERSH 's financial agent , desperate to win at baccarat to repay the money he has embezzled from the organisation .
Woody Allen as Dr. Noah / Jimmy Bond – Bond 's nephew and head of SMERSH .
Barbara Bouchet as Miss Moneypenny – The beautiful daughter of Bond 's original Miss Moneypenny . She works for the service in the same position her mother had years before .
Deborah Kerr as Agent Mimi / Lady Fiona McTarry – A SMERSH agent who masquerades as the widow of M but cannot help falling in love with Bond .
Jacqueline Bisset ( credited as Jacky Bisset ) as Giovanna Goodthighs – A SMERSH agent who attempts to kill Evelyn Tremble at Casino Royale .
Also , as an extra who stands behind Le Chiffre at the casino .
Joanna Pettet as Mata Bond – Bond 's daughter , born of his love affair with Mata Hari .
Daliah Lavi as The Detainer – A British secret agent who successfully poisons Dr. Noah with his own atomic pill .
Terence Cooper as Coop – A British secret agent specifically chosen , and trained for this mission to resist the charms of women .
Bernard Cribbins as Carlton Towers – A British Foreign Office official who drives Mata Bond all the way from London to Berlin in his taxi .
Ronnie Corbett as Polo – A SMERSH agent at the International Mothers ' Help who was in love with Mata Hari and expresses the same feelings for Mata Bond .
Anna Quayle as Frau Hoffner – Frau Hoffner is Mata Hari 's teacher , portrayed as a parody of Cesare in the German Expressionist film The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari ( her school is modelled on the film 's expressionist decor ) .
John Huston as M / McTarry – Head of MI6 who dies from an explosion caused by his own bombardment of Bond 's estate .
William Holden as Ransome – A CIA agent who accompanies M to persuade Bond out of retirement , then reappears in the final climactic fight scene .
Charles Boyer as LeGrand – A Deuxième Bureau agent who accompanies M and Ransom to see Bond .
Geoffrey Bayldon as Q.
Casino Royale also takes credit for the greatest number of actors in a Bond film either to have appeared or to go on to appear in the rest of the Eon series – besides Ursula Andress in Dr. No , Vladek Sheybal appeared as Kronsteen in From Russia with Love , Burt Kwouk featured as Mr. Ling in Goldfinger and an unnamed SPECTRE operative in You Only Live Twice , Jeanne Roland plays a masseuse in You Only Live Twice , and Angela Scoular appeared as Ruby Bartlett in On Her Majesty 's Secret Service . Jack Gwillim , who had a tiny role as a British army officer , played a Royal Navy officer in Thunderball . Caroline Munro , who can be seen very briefly as one of Dr Noah 's gun @-@ toting guards , received the role of Naomi in The Spy Who Loved Me . Milton Reid , who appears in a bit part as the temple guard , opening the door to Mata Bond 's hall , played one of Dr. No 's guards and Stromberg 's underling , Sandor , in The Spy Who Loved Me . John Hollis , who plays the temple priest in Mata Bond 's hall , went on to play the unnamed figure clearly intended to be Blofeld in the pre @-@ credits sequence of For Your Eyes Only . John Wells , Q 's assistant , appeared in For Your Eyes Only as Denis Thatcher . Hal Galili , who appears briefly as a US army officer at the auction , had earlier played gangster Jack Strap in Goldfinger .
Major stars like George Raft and Jean @-@ Paul Belmondo were given top billing in the film 's promotion and screen trailers despite the fact that they only appeared for a few minutes in the final scene .
= = = Uncredited cast = = =
Well established stars like Peter O 'Toole and sporting legends like Stirling Moss were prepared to take uncredited parts in the film just to be able to work with the other members of the cast . Stunt director Richard Talmadge employed Geraldine Chaplin to appear in a brief Keystone Cops insert . The film also proved to be young Anjelica Huston 's first experience in the film industry as she was called upon by her father , John Huston , to cover the screen shots of Deborah Kerr 's hands . The film also marks the debut of Dave Prowse , later the physical form of Darth Vader in the Star Wars series , as Frankenstein 's monster , a role he would later play again in the Hammer films The Horror of Frankenstein and Frankenstein and the Monster from Hell . John Le Mesurier also features in the early scenes of the film as M 's driver .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In March 1955 Ian Fleming sold the film rights of his novel Casino Royale , the first book featuring the character of James Bond , to the producer Gregory Ratoff for $ 6 @,@ 000 ( $ 53 @,@ 001 in 2016 dollars ) . In 1956 Ratoff set up a production company with Michael Garrison to produce a film adaptation , but wound up not finding financial backers before his death in December 1960 . After Ratoff 's death , the producer Charles K. Feldman represented Ratoff 's widow and obtained the Casino Royale rights . Albert R. Broccoli , who had a long time interest in adapting James Bond , offered to purchase the Casino Royale rights from Feldman , but he declined . Feldman and his friend , the director Howard Hawks , had an interest in adapting Casino Royale , considering Leigh Brackett as a writer and Cary Grant as James Bond . They eventually gave up once they saw the 1962 film Dr. No , the first Bond adaptation made by Broccoli and his partner Harry Saltzman through their company Eon Productions .
By 1964 , with Feldman having invested nearly $ 550 @,@ 000 of his own money into pre @-@ production of Casino Royale , he decided to try a deal with Eon Productions and its distributor United Artists . The attempt at a co @-@ production eventually fell through as Feldman frequently argued with Broccoli and Saltzman , specially regarding the profit divisions and when the Casino Royale adaptation would start production . Feldman approached Sean Connery to play Bond , with Connery 's offering to do the film for one million dollars being rejected . Feldman eventually decided to offer his project to Columbia Pictures through a script written by Ben Hecht , and the studio accepted . Given Eon 's series led to a spy film craze at the time , Feldman opted to make his film a spoof of the Bond series instead of a straightforward adaptation .
= = = Screenplay development = = =
Ben Hecht 's contribution to the project , if not the final result , was in fact substantial . The Oscar @-@ winning writer was recruited by Feldman to produce a screenplay for the film and wrote several drafts , with various evolutions of the story incorporating different scenes and characters . All of his treatments were " straight " adaptations , far closer to the original source novel than the spoof which the final production became . A draft from 1957 discovered in Hecht 's papers – but which does not identify the screenwriter – is a direct adaptation of the novel , albeit with the Bond character absent , instead being replaced by a poker @-@ playing American gangster .
Later drafts see vice made central to the plot , with the Le Chiffre character becoming head of a network of brothels ( as he is in the novel ) whose patrons are then blackmailed by Le Chiffre to fund Spectre ( an invention of the screenwriter ) . The racy plot elements opened up by this change of background include a chase scene through Hamburg 's red light district that results in Bond escaping whilst disguised as a female mud wrestler . New characters appear such as Lili Wing , a brothel madam and former lover of Bond whose ultimate fate is to be crushed in the back of a garbage truck , and Gita , wife of Le Chiffre . The beautiful Gita , whose face and throat are hideously disfigured as a result of Bond using her as a shield during a gunfight in the same sequence which sees Wing meet her fate , goes on to become the prime protagonist in the torture scene that features in the book , a role originally Le Chiffre 's .
Virtually nothing from Hecht 's scripts were ever filmed . He died from a heart attack in April 1964 , two days before he was due to present it to Feldman . Time reported in 1966 that the script had been completely re @-@ written by Billy Wilder , and by the time the film reached production only the idea that the name James Bond should be given to a number of other agents remained . This key plot device in the finished film , in the case of Hecht 's version , occurs after the demise of the original James Bond ( an event which happened prior to the beginning of his story ) which , as Hecht 's M puts it " not only perpetuates his memory , but confuses the opposition . "
Peter Sellers hired Terry Southern to write his dialogue ( and not the rest of the script ) to " outshine " Orson Welles and Woody Allen .
= = = Filming = = =
The principal filming was carried out at Pinewood Studios , Shepperton Studios and Twickenham Studios in London . Extensive sequences also featured London , notably Trafalgar Square and the exterior of 10 Downing Street . Mereworth Castle in Kent was used as the home of Sir James Bond , which is blown up at the start of the film . Much of the filming for M 's Scottish castle was actually done on location in County Meath , Ireland , with Killeen Castle , Dunsany , as the focus . However , the car chase sequences where Bond leaves the castle were shot in the Perthshire village of Killin with further sequences in Berkshire ( specifically Old Windsor and Bracknell ) .
The production proved to be rather troubled , with five different directors helming different segments of the film and with stunt co @-@ ordinator Richard Talmadge co @-@ directing the final sequence . In addition to the credited writers , Woody Allen , Peter Sellers , Val Guest , Ben Hecht , Joseph Heller , Terry Southern , and Billy Wilder are all believed to have contributed to the screenplay to varying degrees . Val Guest was given the responsibility of splicing the various " chapters " together , and was offered the unique title of " Co @-@ ordinating Director " but declined , claiming the chaotic plot would not reflect well on him if he were so credited . His extra credit was labelled " Additional Sequences " instead .
Part of the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes drama of this film 's production concerned the filming of the segments involving Peter Sellers . Screenwriter Wolf Mankowitz declared that Sellers felt intimidated by Orson Welles to the extent that , except for a couple of shots , neither was in the studio simultaneously . Other versions of the legend depict the drama stemming from Sellers being slighted , in favour of Welles , by Princess Margaret ( whom Sellers knew ) during her visit to the set . Welles also insisted on performing magic tricks as Le Chiffre , and the director obliged . Director Val Guest wrote that Welles did not think much of Sellers , and had refused to work with " that amateur " . Director Joseph McGrath , a personal friend of Sellers , was punched by the actor when he complained about Sellers ' behavior on the set .
Some biographies of Sellers suggest that he took the role of Bond to heart , and was annoyed at the decision to make Casino Royale a comedy , as he wanted to play Bond straight . This is illustrated in somewhat fictionalised form in the film The Life and Death of Peter Sellers , based on the biography by Roger Lewis , who has claimed that Sellers kept re @-@ writing and improvising scenes to make them play seriously . This story is in agreement with the observation that the only parts of the film close to the book are the ones featuring Sellers and Welles . In the end , Sellers ' involvement with the film was cut abruptly short .
Jean @-@ Paul Belmondo and George Raft received major billing , even though both actors appear only briefly . Both appear during the climactic brawl at the end , Raft flipping his trademark coin and promptly shooting himself dead with a backwards @-@ firing pistol , while Belmondo appears wearing a fake moustache as the French Foreign Legion officer who requires an English phrase book to translate " merde ! " into " ooch ! " during his fistfight . Raft 's coin flip , which originally appeared in Scarface ( 1932 ) , had been spoofed a few years earlier in Some Like It Hot ( 1959 ) .
At the Intercon science fiction convention held in Slough in 1978 , David Prowse commented on his part in this film , apparently his big @-@ screen debut . He claimed that he was originally asked to play " Super Pooh " , a giant Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh in a superhero costume who attacks Tremble during the Torture of The Mind sequence . This idea , as with many others in the film 's script , was rapidly dropped , and Prowse was re @-@ cast as a Frankenstein @-@ type Monster for the closing scenes . The final sequence was principally directed by former actor and stuntman Richard Talmadge .
Director credits :
= = = Unfinished scenes = = =
Sellers left the production before all his scenes were shot , which is why his character , Tremble , is so abruptly captured in the film . Whether Sellers was fired or simply walked off is unclear . Given that he often went absent for days at a time and was involved in conflicts with Welles , either explanation is plausible . Regardless , Sellers was unavailable for the filming of an ending and of linking footage to explain the details , leaving the filmmakers to devise a way to make the existing footage work without him . The framing device of a beginning and ending with David Niven was invented to salvage the footage . Val Guest said that he was given the task of creating a narrative thread which would link all segments of the film . He chose to use the original Bond and Vesper as linking characters to tie the story together . In the originally released versions of the film , a cardboard cutout of Sellers in the background was used for the final scenes . In later versions , this cardboard cutout was replaced by footage of Sellers in highland dress , inserted by " trick photography " .
Signs of missing footage from the Sellers segments are evident at various points . Evelyn Tremble is not captured on camera ; an outtake of Sellers entering a racing car was substituted . In this outtake , he calls for the car , à la Pink Panther , to chase down Vesper and her kidnappers ; the next thing that is shown is Tremble being tortured . Out @-@ takes of Sellers were also used for Tremble 's dream sequence ( pretending to play the piano on Ursula Andress ' torso ) , in the finale - blowing out the candles whilst in highland dress - and at the end of the film when all the various " James Bond doubles " are together . In the kidnap sequence , Tremble 's death is also very abruptly inserted ; it consists of pre @-@ existing footage of Tremble being rescued by Vesper , followed by a later @-@ filmed shot of her abruptly deciding to shoot him , followed by a freeze @-@ frame over some of the previous footage of her surrounded by bodies ( noticeably a zoom @-@ in on the previous shot ) .
As well as this , an entire sequence involving Tremble going to the front for the underground James Bond training school ( which turns out to be under Harrods , of which the training area was the lowest level ) was never shot , thus creating an abrupt cut from Vesper announcing that Tremble will be James Bond to Tremble exiting the lift into the training school .
So many sequences from the film were removed , that several well @-@ known actors never appeared in the final cut , including Ian Hendry ( as 006 , the agent whose body is briefly seen being disposed of by Vesper ) , Mona Washbourne and Arthur Mullard .
= = Music = =
For the music , Feldman decided to bring Burt Bacharach , who had done the score for his previous production What 's New Pussycat ? . Bacharach worked over two years writing for Casino Royale , in the meantime composing the After the Fox score and being forced to decline participation in Luv . Lyricist Hal David contributed with various songs , many of which appeared in just instrumental versions . Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass performed some of the songs with Mike Redway singing the lyrics to the title song as the end credits rolled ( a version of the song was also sung by Peter Sellers ) . The title theme was Alpert 's second number one on the Easy Listening chart where it spent two weeks at the top in June 1967 and peaked at number 27 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
The fourth chapter of the film features the song " The Look of Love " performed by Dusty Springfield . It is played in the scene of Vesper Lynd recruiting Evelyn Tremble , seen through a man @-@ size aquarium in a seductive walk . " The Look of Love " was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Song . The song was a Top 10 radio hit at the KGB and KHJ radio stations . It was heard again in the first Austin Powers film , which was to a degree inspired by Casino Royale . For the European release , Mireille Mathieu sang versions of " The Look of Love " in both French ( " Les Yeux D 'Amour " ) , and German ( " Ein Blick von Dir " ) .
Bacharach would later rework two tracks of the score into songs : " Home James , Don 't Spare the Horses " was re @-@ arranged as " Bond Street " , appearing on Bacharach 's album Reach Out ( 1967 ) , and " Flying Saucer – First Stop Berlin " , was reworked with vocals as " Let the Love Come Through " by orchestra leader and arranger Roland Shaw . A clarinet melody would later be featured in a Cracker Jack commercial . As an in @-@ joke , a brief snippet of John Barry 's song " Born Free " is used in the film . At the time , Barry was the main composer for the Eon Bond series , and said song won an Academy Award over Bacharach 's own " Alfie " .
The original album cover art was done by Robert McGinnis , based on the film poster and the original stereo vinyl release of the soundtrack ( Colgems # COSO @-@ 5005 ) is still highly sought after by audiophiles . It has been regarded by some music critics as the finest @-@ sounding LP of all time . The original LP was later issued by Varèse Sarabande in the same track order as shown below :
Soundtrack listing
" Casino Royale Theme " – Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass
" The Look of Love " – Dusty Springfield
" Money Penny Goes for Broke "
" Le Chiffre 's Torture of the Mind "
" Home James , Don 't Spare the Horses "
" Sir James ' Trip to Find Mata "
" The Look of Love " ( Instrumental )
" Hi There Miss Goodthighs "
" Little French Boy "
" Flying Saucer – First Stop Berlin "
" The Venerable Sir James Bond "
" Dream on James , You 're Winning "
" The Big Cowboys and Indians Fight at Casino Royale " / " Casino Royale Theme " ( reprise )
The soundtrack album became famous among audio purists for the excellence of its recording . It then became a standard " audiophile test " record for decades to come , especially the vocal performance by Dusty Springfield on " The Look of Love . "
The film soundtrack has since been released by other companies in different configurations ( including complete score releases ) .
= = Budget = =
The studio approved the film 's production budget of $ 6 million , already quite large in 1966 . However , during filming the project ran into several problems and the shoot ran months over schedule , with the costs also running well over . When the film was finally completed it had doubled its original budget . The final production budget of $ 12 million made it one of the most expensive films that had been made to that point . The previous Eon Bond film , Thunderball ( 1965 ) , had a budget of $ 11 million while the nearly contemporary You Only Live Twice ( 1967 ) , had a budget of $ 9 @.@ 5 million . The extremely high budget of Casino Royale led to comparisons with a troubled production from 1963 , and it was referred to as " a runaway mini @-@ Cleopatra " . Columbia at first announced the film was due to be released in time for Christmas 1966 . The problems postponed the launch until April 1967 .
= = Release and reception = =
Casino Royale had its world premiere in London 's Odeon Leicester Square on 13 April 1967 , breaking many opening records in the theatre 's history . Its American premiere was held in New York on 28 April , at the Capitol and Cinema I theatres . It opened two months prior to the fifth Bond film by Eon Productions , You Only Live Twice .
= = = Box office and marketing = = =
Despite the lukewarm nature of the contemporary reviews , the pull of the James Bond name was sufficient to make it the 13th highest grossing film in North America in 1967 with a gross of $ 22 @.@ 7 million and a worldwide total of $ 41 @.@ 7 million ( $ 296 million in 2016 dollars ) . Orson Welles attributed the success of the film to a marketing strategy that featured a naked tattooed woman on the film 's posters and print ads as well as a billboard in New York 's Times Square . The campaign also included a series of commercials featuring British model Twiggy . As late as 2011 , the film was still making money for the estate of Peter Sellers , who negotiated an extraordinary 3 % of the gross profits ( an estimated £ 120 million ) , with the proceeds currently going to Cassie Unger , the daughter and sole heir of Sellers ' beneficiary , fourth wife Lynne Frederick .
= = = Critical reception = = =
No advance press screenings of Casino Royale were held , leading reviews to only appear after the premiere . The chaotic nature of the production was featured heavily in contemporary reviews , while later reviewers have sometimes been kinder towards this . Roger Ebert said " This is possibly the most indulgent film ever made " , Time described Casino Royale as " an incoherent and vulgar vaudeville " , and Variety declared the film to be " a conglomeration of frenzied situations , ‘ in ’ gags and special effects , lacking discipline and cohesion . " Bosley Crowther of The New York Times had some positive statements about the film , considering Casino Royale had " more of the talent agent than the secret agent " and praising the " fast start " and the scenes up to the baccarat game between Bond and Le Chiffre . Afterwards , Crowther felt , the script became tiresome , repetitive and filled with clichés due to " wild and haphazard injections of ' in ' jokes and outlandish gags " , leading to an excessive length that made the film a " reckless , disconnected nonsense that could be telescoped or stopped at any point " .
Since its release the film has been widely criticised by a number of people . The film currently holds a 29 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 34 reviews with the consensus stating : " A goofy , dated parody of spy movie cliches , Casino Royale squanders its all @-@ star cast on a meandering , mostly laugh @-@ free script . " For instance , Simon Winder called Casino Royale " a pitiful spoof " , while Robert Druce described it as " an abstraction of real life " . In his review of the film , Leonard Maltin remarked , " Money , money everywhere , but [ the ] film is terribly uneven – sometimes funny , often not . "
Some later reviewers have been more impressed by the film . Andrea LeVasseur , in the AllMovie review , called it " the original ultimate spy spoof " , and opined that the " nearly impossible to follow " plot made it " a satire to the highest degree " . Further describing it as a " hideous , zany disaster " LeVasseur concluded that it was " a psychedelic , absurd masterpiece " . Cinema historian Robert von Dassanowsky has written about the artistic merits of the film and says " like Casablanca , Casino Royale is a film of momentary vision , collaboration , adaption , pastiche , and accident . It is the anti @-@ auteur work of all time , a film shaped by the very zeitgeist it took on . " Romano Tozzi complimented the acting and humour , although he also mentioned that the film has several dull stretches .
Writing in 1986 , Danny Peary noted , " It 's hard to believe that in 1967 we actually waited in anticipation for this so @-@ called James Bond spoof . It was a disappointment then ; it 's a curio today , but just as hard to get through . " Peary described the film as being " disjointed and stylistically erratic " and " a testament to wastefulness in the bigger @-@ is @-@ better cinema , " before adding , " It would have been a good idea to cut the picture drastically , perhaps down to the scenes featuring Peter Sellers and Woody Allen . In fact , I recommend you see it on television when it 's in a two @-@ hour ( including commercials ) slot . Then you won 't expect it to make any sense . "
= = = Home video and film rights = = =
Columbia Pictures released Casino Royale on VHS in 1989 , and on Laserdisc in 1994 . In 1997 , following the Columbia / MGM / Kevin McClory lawsuit on ownership of the Bond film series , the rights to the film reverted to Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( whose sister company United Artists co @-@ owns the Bond film franchise ) as a condition of the settlement . MGM then issued the first DVD release of Casino Royale in 2002 , followed by a 40th anniversary special edition in 2007 .
Years later , as a result of the Sony / Comcast acquisition of MGM , Columbia would once again become responsible for the co @-@ distribution of this film as well as the entire Eon Bond series , including the 2006 adaptation of Casino Royale . However , MGM Home Entertainment changed its distributor to 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment in May 2006 . Fox has since been responsible for the debut of the 1967 Casino Royale on Blu @-@ ray disc in 2011 . Danjaq LLC , Eon 's holding company , is shown as one of its present copyright owners .
Alongside six other MGM @-@ owned films , the studio posted Casino Royale on YouTube .
= Characters of Final Fantasy XII =
Final Fantasy XII , a role @-@ playing video game released by Square Enix in 2006 , revolves around the attempt to liberate the kingdom of Dalmasca from the Archadian Empire . The story is told through the eyes of Vaan , an orphan who wishes to be a sky pirate , and the cadre of other characters he encounters throughout the adventure . The visuals of the characters were designed by Akihiko Yoshida , while their stories were created by Yasumi Matsuno . The characters were designed to look and behave unlike any that had existed in the Final Fantasy series . Their stories were written to create a script where neither side was truly right or wrong , but instead just had different opinions and interpretations of the events occurring in the game .
There are a total of six main playable characters in Final Fantasy XII ; Vaan , an energetic orphan of Rabanastre who dreams of becoming a sky pirate ; Ashe , a determined princess of Dalmasca who lost her husband in the Archadian invasion ; Basch , a disgraced knight of Dalmasca charged with treason for slaying the king ; Balthier , a gentlemanly sky pirate who pilots his airship , the Strahl ; Fran , Balthier 's partner and a viera exile whose knowledge extends to legends and myths ; and Penelo , Vaan 's childhood friend who accompanies him in journeys to keep an eye over him . There is also a number of " Guest " characters , who temporarily join the main party at various points in the plotline , such as Larsa , the young prince of Archadia , Vossler , a member of the resistance against the Archadian Empire , and Reddas , a disillusioned former Magistrate of Archadia . Other major characters who influence the plot of the game but are not playable characters include Vayne , the eldest prince of Archadia and main antagonist of the story , Gabranth , the twin brother of Basch , and Cid , a brilliant scientist and father to Balthier .
The characters in the game have been the basis of several pieces of merchandise produced by Square Enix , such as statues , action figures , and jewelry . They have been subject to mixed reviews ; some reviews have applauded the characters ' dialogue and relationships to each other , while others dismissed the story and characters as uninteresting . Critiques of the voice acting for the characters has also been mixed , with different reviews either praising or criticizing both the acting and the technical quality of the recordings .
= = Cast creation and influences = =
Final Fantasy XII 's characters were designed by Akihiko Yoshida . It was his first involvement in a main @-@ series Final Fantasy game , though he worked as the character designer for Final Fantasy Tactics and Vagrant Story , both of which were set in the same game world as XII , Ivalice . Comments have been made about the similarity between Yoshida 's creations and those of Tetsuya Nomura , the character designer for Final Fantasy VII , VIII , X , and XIII . Yoshida feels this connection is sparked by the style of color used by both artists , which involves a color consistency between the characters and the environments . In an interview included in a bonus disc of the collector 's edition of the game , he states that he created the design of the characters after reading all of the design documents on their history and beliefs . He tried to create designs and clothing that did not exist anywhere in real life and had never been seen before , designing for example the armor for the Judges on a combination of historical armor , mountain bike gear , and futuristic ideas .
The story of the characters was created by scenario writer Daisuke Watanabe . In the bonus disc interview , he states that he endeavored to create characters that were neither fully good nor evil , adding flaws such as selfishness to the heroes and virtues such as kindness to the villains , in an attempt to make them more realistic . He also said he tried to create a scenario in which neither side was truly right or wrong , but instead just had different interpretations of the events in the game . He tried to convey the emotions of the characters through their lines , the acting of the voice actors , and in the facial expressions of the in @-@ game models . Alexander O. Smith , the English translator for the game , included accents to the characters for the English version of the game to add a layer of depth to the game by having characters from different areas of Ivalice sound different . He based these accents off the extensive notes made by game designer Yasumi Matsuno on the backgrounds of the characters . Smith chose voice actors for the project who had stage and film acting experience , in an attempt to avoid the common problem of " flat " reading he felt was prevalent in video game voice acting .
The designers have stated that non @-@ human characters and races feature a prominent role in the game , which was influenced by an interest in history among the developers . Comparing the non @-@ human races in Final Fantasy IX with those of XII , the developers have stated that the former were modeled after humans , while the latter were fundamentally different in terms of biological characteristics . These non @-@ human races include Bangaa , Viera , Seeq , and Moogles . In the game humans are referred to as Humes . Some of the races in the game that first appeared in Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , such as Bangaa , were originally designed for Final Fantasy XII .
Basch was initially meant to be the main character of the story , but the focus was eventually shifted to Vaan and Penelo when the two characters were created later in development . The development team explained that their previous game , Vagrant Story , which featured a " strong man in his prime " as the protagonist had been unsuccessful and unpopular ; the change regarding Final Fantasy XII from a " big and tough " protagonist to a more effeminate one was thus decided after targeting demographics were considered . The game 's art director Hideo Minaba has said that Vaan is not comparable to any previous protagonist of the series , which he explained as partially a result of the game using a different character designer than previous ones . The geography of Ivalice , particularly Dalmasca , had an influence in the character 's initial designs . When asked about the characters ' revealing clothing , Yoshida commented that " Dalmasca is supposed to have a hot climate " , and that the idea of the characters revealing skin was his .
= = Playable characters = =
= = = Vaan = = =
Vaan ( ヴァン , Van ) is the main protagonist in Final Fantasy XII . He is a 17 @-@ year @-@ old orphaned Hume street urchin who lost his parents in a plague when he was 12 years old . His only brother , Reks , died two years before the start of the game , during the Archadian invasion of Dalmasca . He makes a living as Migelo 's assistant , running various errands for him , while at the same time pickpocketing from Archadian soldiers while claiming to take back what is Dalmasca 's . He is a cheerful and energetic boy . Vaan dreams of someday becoming a sky pirate in command of his own airship . He trains to meet this goal by killing large dire rats in the sewers of Rabanastre on a daily basis , for which Dalan gave him the nickname " Vaan Ratsbane . " Despite nominally being the main protagonist ( as the player starts the game controlling him ) , the majority of the game focuses on the events and conflicts of the world as a whole and of Ashe , rather than Vaan 's individual problems , with his character instead used as a narrative device to allow the player to follow the events as an outside observer . During the course of the game , Vaan comes to understand he has spent his time running from his problems and blaming the Archadian empire for them , rather than moving on with his life after his brother and parents ' deaths . Vaan ends the game as a sky pirate , traveling the world along with Penelo .
During the events of Revenant Wings , Vaan becomes captain of the Airship Galbana and uses it to travel to Lemures , meeting old friends while making new ones . He is given the title of the " leading man " formerly held by Balthier , and other characters suggest a teacher / student relationship between them , though Balthier denies this . In the aftermath , Vaan and Penelo , now a couple , take their leave from Rabanastre to have their own adventure , sporting a shirt over his outfit by the time of Final Fantasy Tactics A2 .
Although Basch was originally intended to be the rugged main character , Vaan was added at the last minute during development of the game to have a more effeminate leading role after " taking into consideration the target demographic " . With the casting of Kouhei Takeda for the voice acting and motion capture , however , Vaan became a little less feminine and more " active , upbeat , bright and positive " than planned . He was designed by character designer Akihiko Yoshida to look Asian . Vaan was voiced in Final Fantasy XII by Bobby Edner in English and by Kouhei Takeda in Japanese . Vaan also made appearances in other video games ; despite having been created for Final Fantasy XII , Vaan was first introduced in the 2004 crossover board game Itadaki Street Special for the PlayStation 2 . He also appears in Itadaki Street Portable for the PlayStation Portable . He also appears in the PSP game Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , where , as in Final Fantasy XII he is voiced by Bobby Edner in the English version ; however , Takeda was unable to reprise his role as Vaan and he was replaced by Kensho Ono in the Japanese version .
= = = Ashe = = =
Ashelia B 'nargin Dalmasca ( アーシェ ・ バナルガン ・ ダルマスカ , Āshe Banarugan Darumasuka ) or Ashe , is a 19 @-@ year @-@ old Hume princess and a main character of Final Fantasy XII , fighting to liberate her kingdom , Dalmasca , from the Archadian Empire . The only living child of King Raminas and the sole heir to the throne , she married Rasler Heios Nabradia shortly before Archadia 's invasion of Dalmasca . Her husband died in the battle to protect Nalbina Fortress directly following their marriage , ( on the border of fellow Nabradia , Rasler 's home state ) , making Ashe a young widow . While many believed their marriage was driven by politics , she spent the two years following his death in mourning and continued to wear her wedding ring .
She was thought to have committed suicide , but took on the alias , Amalia ( アマリア , Amaria ) , to serve as the leader of the Resistance before joining the group . Her desire for revenge against Archadia , for the horrors its army committed on her people , was manipulated by the Occuria to reinforce their rule over Ivalice . Along the course of the story , the Occuria created an image of the late Rasler to lead Ashe wherever they needed her to go . In their encounter , the Occuria offered her nethicite to rule as another Dynast @-@ King , and conquer Ivalice in their stead . At the final moment , however , Ashe rejected Occuria 's offer to use the nethicite . Ashe acknowledges Larsa 's intention to stop the war and finally makes her way to Vayne in the Sky Fortress Bahamut to end it . A year after the Bahamut 's crash , Ashe is crowned Queen of Dalmasca and eventually rejoins her friends in protecting the peace from the mysterious Judge of Wings in Revenant Wings . She is also featured in the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy as a subcharacter representing Final Fantasy XII .
Akihiko Yoshida has stated that Ashe 's physical features were designed with the intent of making her look vaguely French , stating that " the base of her bone structure is a French person 's . We were given orders from the start to not make her look like an Asian . But we modified her a bit to look more like a Japanese for the sake of the Japanese audience , and also since a character that looks completely French makes some of the CG expressions difficult . " Ashe was voiced by Kari Wahlgren in English and by Mie Sonozaki in Japanese . Despite having been created for Final Fantasy XII , she was first introduced in the 2004 crossover board game Itadaki Street Special . She also appears in Itadaki Street Portable , and was set to appear in Fortress , as revealed in concept art for the game .
= = = Basch fon Ronsenburg = = =
Basch fon Ronsenburg ( バッシュ ・ フォン ・ ローゼンバーグ , Basshu fon Rōzenbāgu ) is a 36 @-@ year @-@ old Captain in the Order of Knights of Dalmasca . He and his twin brother Noah are natives of the Republic of Landis , which was conquered by the Archadians long before the events of the game . When Landis was overthrown , Basch fled to Dalmasca and Noah to Archadia , and the brothers lost contact . Basch joined the Dalmascan army , eventually rising to become one of its most respected officers . When Archadia attacked Nalbina Fortress , Basch and Ashe 's husband , Lord Rasler Heios , led the defense . However , the Archadian forces overwhelmed their troops and Lord Rasler was mortally wounded by an archer . Basch carried Rasler 's body from the battlefield and went into hiding with the surviving commanders of the Dalmascan military . Shortly after the Archadians moved in to occupy Rabanastre , he and Captain Azelas led an assault on Nalbina Fortress in an attempt to save the king , only to be captured by Imperial forces . His brother Noah , now called Gabranth and in the employ of Archadia , posed as Basch and slew the Dalmascan king and Vaan 's older brother , Reks , who witnessed the crime . Basch was denounced by the Dalmascans as a traitor and reportedly executed by Marquis Ondore . In reality , he was imprisoned in the Nalbina Dungeons by Vayne to ensuring Ondore 's loyalty to the Empire — if Ondore betrayed the Archadians , Vayne could destroy his credibility by revealing that Basch was still alive .
During their attempt to escape Nalbina Dungeon , Vaan , Balthier , and Fran discovered Basch chained in a cage suspended from the ceiling . Though all three were initially suspicious of him ( especially Vaan , who blamed him for Reks 's death ) , Basch protested his innocence and told them about his twin . The party decided his story was plausible and released him . After being freed , he made it his mission to protect Ashe and support the resistance . When he and his brother were reunited , Gabranth was deeply puzzled by Basch 's continued ability to hold his head high in spite of his past failures . Basch explained that his vow to defend Ashe had given him purpose and a renewed sense of honor . After the final battle against Vayne , as Noah was dying , he asked Basch to take his place as Larsa 's protector . Because it was still widely believed that Basch was dead , he adopted his brother 's name and title when he entered Larsa 's service . In Revenant Wings , Basch is sent by Larsa to be the Empire 's representative in dealing with the Judge of Wings . Basch was voiced by Keith Ferguson in English and by Rikiya Koyama in Japanese . He also appears in Itadaki Street Portable .
= = = Penelo = = =
Penelo ( パンネロ , Pannero ) is a 17 @-@ year @-@ old ( 16 @-@ year @-@ old in the Japanese version ) Hume orphan and Vaan 's childhood friend , being the voice of reason to keep him out of trouble . She dreams of being a dancer , and learned martial arts from her older brothers . Five years before the Archadian invasion , a plague struck Rabanastre , killing Vaan 's parents , and as a result Vaan and Reks were adopted into Penelo 's household . The Archadian invasion claimed the lives of Penelo 's family members as well as Reks , leaving her and Vaan as orphans . Migelo , a friend to Penelo 's parents , took them under his care and gave them work at his sundry shop .
Penelo is usually trying to keep Vaan out of trouble , but she could not stop Vaan from intruding into the palace grounds . She encountered Vaan , who was arrested along with Balthier and Fran . This encounter forced her into a series of events , when she was kidnapped by Bangaa headhunter Ba 'gamnan and held as hostage in exchange for Balthier . When she managed to escape , she met with Larsa Solidor , one of the sons of Archadian Emperor Gramis , who took care of her and convinced her he wished to make peace with Dalmasca . When she is finally reunited with Vaan , she made him promise not to leave her side , and ever since traveled with Vaan , furthering their relationship as sky pirate and partner .
A year after the Bahamut , during the game epilogue , Penelo serves as Vaan 's navigator from their adventure in Revenant Wings . In the backstory of Final Fantasy XII , she has terrible cooking skills , despite being the motherly figure to the other orphans , and in the sequel , she is trying her best to improve her skills by running a diner on the Galbana . Her relationship with Vaan was also explored , and there had been a conflict when Penelo cared deeply for a Dalmascan knight who appeared in Lemures , much to Vaan 's chagrin . By the events of Final Fantasy Tactics A2 , Penelo gains much reputation as a Sky Pirate . She was voiced by Catherine Taber in English and by Yuna Mikuni in Japanese . Penelo also appears in Itadaki Street Portable .
= = = Balthier = = =
Balthier , known as
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Balflear ( バルフレア , Barufurea ) in the original Japanese language version , is a 22 @-@ year @-@ old Hume sky pirate and owner of the airship Strahl ( German for " streak " or " beam " [ of light ] ) . He and his Viera companion , Fran , prefer to remain outside politics , making their living off of whomever has the most for the taking . They are inadvertently drawn into the war , however , when they attempt to steal the Goddess 's Magicite — later revealed to be the Dusk Shard — from the Dalmascan Royal Palace . Vaan gets to the magicite first , and when Balthier and Fran confront him , the three of them are caught up in the chaos of a rebel assault on the palace .
Balthier is Archadian by birth ( as evidenced by his English accent , which is used by Archadian characters in the game ) , and eventually reveals he is Ffamran mied Bunansa ( ファムラン ・ ミド ・ ブナンザ , Famuran Mido Bunanza ) , the son of Imperial magicite researcher Dr. Cid ( Cidolfus Demen Bunansa ) . Balthier received many privileges as Cid 's son , including being made an Imperial Judge , but eventually cut ties with his father when Cid became consumed by his experimentation with nethicite . He left the service of the empire , stole an Archadian airship , and took a new name . Balthier is now a renowned career criminal with a sizable bounty on his head , and must be careful to avoid the attention of both the law and the bounty hunters seeking the reward for his capture . He originally joins the resistance in the hope of reacquiring the Dusk Shard , but when he learns it is actually a piece of nethicite , he sees too much of his father 's obsession in his own quest and decides to abandon the search . After the party defeats Dr. Cid at the Pharos , Balthier makes peace with his father and helps the group to destroy the Sky Fortress Bahamut as penance for Cid 's deeds .
Balthier says that he is be the " leading man " of the story many times throughout the game , and insists that this makes him invincible , since the hero always emerges in one piece . He and Fran are feared dead after they go down with the Sky Fortress Bahamut , but later reappear to retrieve the Strahl from Vaan and Penelo and leave a note for Ashe .
Both he and Fran intend on finding the Cache of Glabados , which is resolved in Revenant Wings when it turned out to be tied to Eternal . Balthier was at first intent to take Lemures ' treasure , the Auracite , but knew the truth behind it and attempted to destroy the Auralith , eventually rejoining Vaan 's group to fight the Judge of Wings , letting Vaan be the " leading man " while he himself leaves the limelight . Balthier was voiced by Gideon Emery in English and by Hiroaki Hirata in Japanese . He made a crossover appearance in Final Fantasy Tactics : The War of the Lions . He also appears in Itadaki Street Portable .
= = = Fran = = =
Fran ( フラン , Furan ) is a Viera warrior , mechanic to the Strahl , and Balthier 's copilot . Like all Viera , she is exceptionally sensitive to the magical Mist that permeates Ivalice , and is affected by it on three separate occasions : in the Tomb of Raithwall , when Judge Ghis heats the Dawn Shard in his airship 's engine , and when she is in the presence of the Sun @-@ Cryst . When the party reaches Giruvegan , she can detect the Mist nearby has cooled and is less intense . She is the oldest of all the characters , Viera being very long @-@ lived , but still appears youthful .
Fran once lived with her sisters Jote and Mjrn in Eruyt Village , the secluded Viera settlement in Golmore Jungle , but became restless and desired to see the outside world . This was a major source of conflict between her and the other viera , especially her elder sister Jote , who served as the village matriarch . Fran argued that although all Viera begin their lives in the forest , they are not necessarily bound to remain there to the end . When the party encounters an impassable Viera barrier on the path through Golmore , Fran is forced to return to the village and ask for help . She learns from Jote that their youngest sister Mjrn has run off to the nearby magicite mines . When Fran finds her and brings her back , Mjrn reveals she wishes to leave Golmore , but Fran advises her against doing so , relating how her own independence has cost her her family and the ability to commune with the Wood . Fran accepts that she is now part of the Hume world , and asks for a confirmation from Jote that the Wood accepts her before she leaves . In Revenant Wings , Balthier and Fran are searching for the Cache of Glabados . Fran was voiced by Nicole Fantl in English and by Rika Fukami in Japanese . She also appears in Itadaki Street Portable .
= = = Larsa Solidor = = =
Larsa Ferrinas Solidor ( ラーサー ・ ファルナス ・ ソリドール , Rāsā Farunasu Soridōru ) is a 12 @-@ year @-@ old Hume , the fourth and youngest son of Emperor Gramis of Archadia , and brother of Vayne . He is by far and quite obviously the Emperor 's favorite , and Gramis works tirelessly to ensure that Larsa remains pure and free from the stain of politics and war . Though only twelve years old , Larsa is idealistic and believes that the strife within Ivalice can be quelled without war . Larsa possesses a great deal of respect for House Solidor and the men of his family , especially his older brother . The Senate , however , fears Vayne 's growing power and the perceived threat to their own , and thus plot from the beginning of the game to place Larsa on the throne with the hopes of easily manipulating him from behind the scenes .
During the course of the game , however , Larsa proves himself to be more capable than the Senate believes . He travels with Vaan and company under the alias " Lamont " during their trip to the Lhusu Mines to rescue Penelo . However , his knowledge of nethicite exposes him . Larsa helps Vaan and company escape from the Leviathan and later joins the party again at Jahara , urging Ashe to use her influence on the Resistance to prevent an aggravation between the warring countries . He leaves the party at Mt . Bur @-@ Omisace , after learning from Al @-@ Cid Margrace that his father had been murdered , attempting to reason with Vayne . However , seeing Vayne wouldn 't listen to reason , Larsa aided Vaan and company in battling Vayne . After his brother is defeated , Larsa takes his place in the Archadian throne and settles into peace agreements with Basch as his protector . In Revenant Wings , Larsa journeys to the Dalmascan Estersand with Basch , joining the Galbana 's crew with intent to stop the Judge of Wings who is creating Anti @-@ Archadian propaganda with her actions . Larsa was voiced by Johnny McKeown in English and by Yuka Imai in Japanese .
= = = Vossler Azelas = = =
Vossler York Azelas ( ウォースラ ・ ヨーク ・ アズラス , Wōsura Yōku Azurasu ) , a 38 @-@ year @-@ old Hume , is a former Dalmascan Knight and a close colleague of Basch . Vossler fought alongside Basch , during the counter @-@ attack at Nalbina Fortress . Like Reks , he too was tricked into thinking Basch was responsible for killing King Raminas . After the battle , he fled underground , and joined the Resistance , alongside Princess Ashe . For the next two years , he protected the Princess , as well as trying to restore their lost Kingdom . During the events of Final Fantasy XII , he reunites with Basch , after the captain escaped Nalbina Dungeon with Vaan . Skeptical of the traitor , Vossler eventually learns to trust his friend once again . They meet up on the Leviathan , when they are on their way to rescue Ashe . Vossler dons an Archadian judge armor to fool the guards and enable them to rescue the Princess , and escape to Bhujerba where they plan to keep the Princess safe .
However , the Princess decides to take matters in her own hands and travel to the Tomb of Raithwall to obtain the treasure of the Dynast @-@ King . Vossler catches up , after being left behind , at the Ogir @-@ Yensa Sandsea , while on their way to the Tomb . He offers to protect Princess Ashe once again , despite objecting to Balthier and Fran 's invading the royal tomb . However , once the party gets the treasure , the Dawn Shard , from the tomb , they are taken aboard the Leviathan once again . Here , Vossler reveals that he , embittered by their " profitless battle " , has made a deal with the Archadian Empire so that Dalmasca 's sovereignty could be restored . After he was defeated he tells Basch that it 's up to him to protect the Princess now . As Ashe and the others escape in an airship , the nethicite explosion from the Leviathan annihilates the fleet , Vossler is presumably alive because the Shiva was seen able to escape the explosion , albeit badly damaged . Vossler was voiced by Nolan North in English and by Masaki Terasoma in Japanese .
= = = Reddas = = =
Reddas ( レダス , Redasu ) is a 33 @-@ year @-@ old Hume sky pirate from Balfonheim . In truth , he was originally the missing Judge Magister Foris Zecht ( フォーリス ・ ゼクト , Fōrisu Zekuto ) of Archadia . In the war with Nabradia , he was responsible for the Midlight Shard destroying the kingdom under orders from Cid without being told what the effect would be . Filled with guilt , he abandoned his post and took on the name " Reddas " , arriving in Balfonheim where he cleaned up the town and became a patron to pirates . He was eventually approached by Ondore who asked that he retrieve deifacted nethicite , the shards of the Sun @-@ Cryst , from Doctor Cid . Later , he accompanied Ashe to the Pharos at Ridorana to find the Sun @-@ Cryst . When Cid activated the Sun @-@ Cryst , Reddas sacrificed himself by using the Sword of Kings to destroy the crystal , unleashing an explosion which vaporized him and most of the upper Pharos . Reddas was voiced by Phil LaMarr in English and by Takayuki Sugo in Japanese .
= = Major characters = =
= = = Vayne Solidor = = =
Vayne Carudas Solidor ( ヴェイン ・ カルダス ・ ソリドール , Vein Karudasu Soridōru ) is the third son of Emperor Gramis and Larsa 's older brother , as well as the main antagonist of Final Fantasy XII . He is the 27 @-@ year @-@ old Hume Consul of the Archadian @-@ occupied Dalmasca , Commandant of the Archadian Empire 's Western Armada and a member of House Solidor , whose members had led the Empire for four generations . This in effect makes him a " Prince " , though as he claims the democratic nature of the Empire makes him no more eligible for the throne than anyone .
However , while he cares for the welfare of the people and of his family , Vayne is willing to use any means necessary to maintain order and retain power . He ensures the complete subjugation of Nabradia and Dalmasca and exterminates their royal families in order to acquire their deifacted nethicite . He confronts Dalmasca 's resistance movement with absolute ruthlessness , accepting no surrender . He even goes so far as to murder his own ailing father and frame the Imperial senators , to put an end to their scheming against himself and Larsa , and to level cities in nethecite testing experiments . Vayne 's ultimate goal is to free humanity from the control of the Occurians , a race of god @-@ like beings that have for centuries secretly meddled with the course of human history .
During the battle over Rabanastre at the end of the game , Vayne commands the Sky Fortress Bahamut , and when confronted by the team , uses the nethicite to become " Vayne Novus " before being mortally wounded by Vaan . Venat , however , awards Vayne for helping it by giving him the power of an Occurian , causing Vayne to become the monstrous " Undying " and grafting pieces of the Bahamut 's superstructure onto his body . In the ensuing battle , Vayne is finally killed by Vaan . Vayne is voiced in English by Elijah Alexander and by Nobuo Tobita in Japanese .
= = = Gabranth = = =
Gabranth ( ガブラス , Gaburasu ) , also known as Noah fon Ronsenburg ( ノア ・ フォン ・ ローゼンバーグ , Noa fon Rōzenbāgu ) , is a 36 @-@ year @-@ old Hume Judge Magister of Archadia , as well as the secondary antagonist of Final Fantasy XII . He is Basch 's twin brother , and in the introduction to the game is responsible for the deaths of Reks and King Raminas , which are blamed on Basch . After the fall of Landis years prior to the start of the game , Basch left for Dalmasca , leaving behind Noah and their mother , who was suffering from an illness at the time . Noah , however , remained with their mother and moved with her to her home country of Archadia , where he took on his mother 's surname of Gabranth . After his mother died of her illness , Gabranth began to hate Basch for abandoning his homeland and family . Noticed by Emperor Gramis , Gabranth joined the Archadian Judges with the Emperor 's backing and rose to become a Judge Magister , the position that he holds at the beginning of the game .
During the game , at the Emperor 's behest , he acts as an informant on Vayne and is selected as Larsa 's protector . Gabranth loathes himself for the framing of his brother and the horrible tasks Vayne and the Empire have commanded him to do , such as killing Drace to prove his loyalty to Vayne after his rise to power . He accompanies Bergan and Zargabaath to Mt . Bur @-@ Omisace where Larsa agrees to return with him , to avoid any trouble . Gabranth later was sent to Pharos to " test " Ashe if she would take revenge , attacking the group in rage when they refused to exact vengeance for the wrongs against them as he had ; he leaves after his defeat and the arrival of Cid . At the end of the game , after a discussion and fight with Basch , Gabranth decides to make up for his wrongs by protecting Larsa and helping the Resistance kill Vayne . He is fatally injured by Vayne in the process . He dies after the battle , requesting that Basch replace him as the protector of the new Emperor Larsa . Basch agrees , and is later shown serving as " Gabranth " and Larsa 's protector . Gabranth is one of the villains and the sole character representing Final Fantasy XII in Dissidia : Final Fantasy , where , as in Final Fantasy XII , he is voiced by Akio Ōtsuka in the Japanese version ; in the English version of XII he was voiced by Michael E. Rodgers , but in Dissidia he is instead voiced by Keith Ferguson , the voice for his twin brother Basch in XII .
= = = Cid Bunansa = = =
Cidolfus Demen Bunansa ( シドルファス ・ デム ・ ブナンザ , Shidorufasu Demu Bunanza ) , also referred to as Doctor Cid , is a fifty @-@ eight @-@ year @-@ old Archadian Hume scientist who is the head of the Draklor Laboratory in Archades . He is one of the main antagonists of Final Fantasy XII . He is the man responsible for discovering the technology behind airships , as well as for the creation of manufacted , or artificial , nethicite . Cid is revealed during the game to be Balthier 's father , whose ambitions drove Balthier away ; this incident was the result of Cid going to Giruvegan to study more of the nethicite , only to return as a maniacal shell of his former self . During the game , Cid seems to talk to himself multiple times , but it is revealed that he is instead talking to Venat , a renegade Occurian ; Occurians have the ability to make themselves seen and heard only by whom they wish . Under Venat 's guidance , Cid helped Vayne encourage the war to gain shards of the Sun @-@ Cryst in order to help him create manufacted nethicite .
Cid is confronted by Vaan , Balthier and company at the Draklor Laboratory , which results in a fight that Cid loses . Cid survives the encounter and flees . Cid goes to the Pharos lighthouse to invoke the Sun @-@ Cryst 's full power , revealing himself to the main characters there once Gabranth is defeated . Enraged , Gabranth tries to attack Cid , who teleports out of the way as Venat throws the judge against a wall . Cid fights Vaan , Balthier and the rest of the party once again , and again loses . Cid dies after the battle , dissolving into energy absorbed by the Sun @-@ Cryst before it is destroyed and fully activates his final airship , the Bahamut . A character named Cid appears or is mentioned in every main Final Fantasy . He made his debut appearance in Final Fantasy II , though this appearance is the first Final Fantasy game to feature a Cid character as a villain . Cid was voiced by John Rafter Lee in English and by Chikao Ōtsuka in Japanese .
= = = Halim Ondore IV = = =
Halim Ondore IV ( ハルム ・ オンドール4世 , Harumu Ondōru Yonsei ) is the Hume Marquis of the Skycity of Bhujerba , the most recent in a line of nobles that ruled Bhujerba for generations . Ondore is also Ashe 's uncle , serving as the preacher to her wedding and Rasler 's funeral soon after . At the opening of the game , Ondore appears to have yielded to Archadian rule , though he secretly supports the resistance movement . He is being blackmailed by Vayne who forced him to announce the execution of Basch and the death of Ashe in an attempt to keep the resistance from trusting him or accepting his support . During the game , once the Archadian 8th Fleet was destroyed , Ondore openly announces his support of the rebel forces and enlists Rozarria 's aid for a large assault against the Archadian Empire . Ondore is the narrator character in the story , as his memoirs are read during certain points of the game . He is voiced by Tom Kane in English and by Akio Nojima in Japanese .
= = = Al @-@ Cid Margrace = = =
Al @-@ Cid Margrace ( アルシド ・ マルガラス , Arushido Marugarasu ) is a member of the Rozarrian ruling family , the House of Margrace . Al @-@ Cid is seen during the game attempting to keep Rozarria and Archadia from fighting a costly war , as well as informing the main characters of political developments in Archadia . Although he succeeds in keeping the two countries from fighting for most of the game , Rozarria does join the resistance in a strike against Vayne at the end of the game . Al @-@ Cid made an appearance in Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift when Vaan requests his aid . After Vaan and Penelo join Luso 's party , Al @-@ Cid requests membership as well to lie low from his duties as royalty . Al @-@ Cid was initially given only a small role in the original storyline , but Norio Wakamoto , his Japanese voice actor , had " voiced Al @-@ Cid in such an interesting way " that the developers decided to expand on Al @-@ Cid 's role . He was voiced in English by David Rasner .
= = = Occuria = = =
The Occuria ( オキューリア , Okyūria ) are a small group of immortal beings , often called ( by both themselves and others ) the Undying ( 不滅なる神 , Fumetsunaru Kami ) . Referred to as gods by some , but unknown to the major religions in Ivalice , the Occuria race played a vital role in the history of Ivalice such as the creation of the Espers and granting power to King Raithwall to conquer the countries of Ivalice with the Dawn , Dusk , and Midlight shards of nethicite . The Occuria were first designed to be a race of Mindflayers , a type of enemy monster in the game . Earlier concept artwork portrayed these " Mindflayers " as wearing luxurious robes and turbans and lounging in a bar and smoking pipes . The design was changed during development and the Mindflayer was placed as a special monster , retaining the initial design ; the Occuria were then given a different design of glowing eyes in a mist @-@ like form .
The Occurian with the greatest influence on the story is Venat ( ヴェーネス , Vēnesu ) , one of the primary antagonists of Final Fantasy XII , who rebels against the other Occuria and tries to give the people of Ivalice the power to not be manipulated by the Occuria ; for its defiance it is labeled a heretic . Venat taught Doctor Cid the secrets of nethicite , allowing them to manufacture it themselves ; it also convinced Cid and Vayne to seek out the nethicite shards originally cut from the Sun @-@ Cryst by Raithwall . In the game , Venat is seen talking to Cid both while visible and not . Venat 's ambitions were ultimately fulfilled when Ashe resisted the Occurians ' plans and Reddas destroyed the Sun @-@ Cryst , later sacrificing itself to give Vayne his power while proclaiming they will die together , as it has accomplished everything it set out to do . It was voiced by Anita Carey and Narumi Tsunoda for the English and Japanese versions of the game .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
In conjunction with the game 's release , Square Enix has produced a lineup of merchandise including jewelry , action figures and other goods related to the characters . Most of the merchandise are released in Japan . The items produced include Vaan 's necklace , Ashe 's wedding ring , a Judge Magister @-@ themed lighter and a Magister @-@ themed card case . A plush doll of Nono and four full @-@ colored action figures of Ashe , Balthier , Vaan , and Judge Gabranth have also been displayed in the Square Enix Japan merchandise page , along with a full @-@ sized replica of Judge Gabranth 's helmet from the game , a statue of Gabranth , and a statue of Balthier and Fran riding a flying machine through a collapsing building .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The characters in Final Fantasy XII have received mixed opinions from reviewers . Praises were given by Calvin Smith of PSX Extreme , who stated that the characters are " classy and well thought out , an ensemble cast whose players rarely descend into needless melodrama or writhing angst " . He also said that the supposed main character 's role was changed to become an observer , " a different outlook than in the previous installments " . 1UP.com 's Andrew Pfister applauded the character dialogues as being " intelligent , subtle and sharp " ; the relationships between characters were lauded as well . Balthier and Fran 's relationship was compared to Han Solo and Chewbacca of Star Wars , being " far more interesting than anything Square 's put out in the modern FF era " . IGN editor Jeremy Dunham praised the game and its writers for " evolving the personalities , histories , and motives of characters you already thought you knew , but didn 't " and for " capitaliz [ ing ] on the opportunity to tell you about them " . He also noted the visual and auditory detail of the characters , saying that " each and every model , down to the most obscure NPC , has an immense level of attention paid to them -- from their clothes and facial expressions , to their walking and idle animations " and that the voice acting was " top @-@ notch " . GameSpy 's Justin Speer also praised the characters , saying that it was hard to " resist being charmed by a few of the characters " and that they " interact with each other in dramatic and interesting ways " . The voice acting was praised by Keith Schleicher of Gaming Trend , who said that the characters voices all matched their appearances well .
Other reviewers have criticized the character development . Shane Bettenhausen of Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine found the game 's cast " a tad mundane " compared to characters from previous installments . Moreover , they found both Vaan and Ashe uninteresting , making the story lack " the emotional punch " . They also criticized the voice acting as uneven and rife with mispronunciations . GameTrailers also criticized the characters , saying that many of the game 's " other characters " are " more interesting than the ones you ’ ll actually control " , and that the " characters ’ motivations are thin to non @-@ existent " . RPGFan editor Stephen Harris , while praising the quality of most of the voice acting and especially Balthier 's , criticized Fran 's as " monotone and subdued " with an " indecipherable accent " . Cortney Stone of RPGamer found fault with the voice acting recording , describing it as " substandard " and said that " it sounds as though a few of the actors were too close to the microphones or the equipment was faulty " , though she called " the voice acting itself quite good , with characters of different nations having distinctive accents . "
= Do You ... ( Miguel song ) =
" Do You ... " is a song by American R & B recording artist Miguel . It was released on September 18 , 2012 , as the second single from his 2012 album Kaleidoscope Dream . It was written by producer Jerry Duplessis , co @-@ producer Arden Altino , guitarist Paul Pesco , and Miguel , who recorded the song at Platinum Sound Recording Studios in New York City . " Do You ... " is a love song built around gentle guitar strumming and a playful rhythm section . Its lyrics pose flirtatious , rhetorical questions and feature both metaphorical and literal references to narcotics .
As a single , " Do You ... " charted for eight weeks on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , peaking at number 32 . It was well received by music critics , who praised Miguel 's playful delivery and cited it as a highlight on Kaleidoscope Dream . A music video for the song was filmed in Las Vegas and showed Miguel and his girlfriend Nazanin Mandi on an intimate date . He performed " Do You ... " on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon and incorporated elements of Bob Marley 's " Stir It Up " into the song in his other concert performances .
= = Composition = =
" Do You ... " was written by Miguel , producer Jerry Duplessis , co @-@ producer Arden Altino , and guitarist Paul Pesco . It was recorded at Platinum Sound Recording Studios in New York City and mixed by engineer Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Studios in North Hollywood . The song features slap bass by Duplessis .
" Do You ... " is built around gentle guitar strumming and a playful rhythm section , featuring a walking bassline and double @-@ time drums . Chris Kelly of Fact categorizes it as an atmospheric pop rock song , while Mesfin Fekadu of the Associated Press calls it " a mellow R & B outtake " . The song begins with an echoed haze and acoustic guitar , with Miguel asking , " Have you ever felt alone ? " It is then followed by a euphoric vocal reverb that leads to blasting drums , and Miguel asks " Do you like drugs " over a smooth guitar riff .
A wooing love song , " Do You ... " poses flirtatious , rhetorical questions such as " Do you like hugs ? " and " Do you like love ? " . Miguel melismatizes with three syllables at the end of each question , before he replies with " Well , me too . " He evokes a romantic relationship with simple , imagistic lyrics : " What about matinee movies , pointless secrets / Midnight summer swims , private beaches / Rock , paper , scissors . Wait ! Best out of three . "
The song references drugs both metaphorically and literally , and innocently delivers a transgressive message through the use of simile : " I 'm going to do you like drugs tonight " . Miguel said of the song 's lyrics , " I have this propensity to just come out and say things . That 's how I am in real life . If I wanna know something I just ask . Like , ' Hey , do you like drugs ? ' Because I do ! Sometimes ! ... MDMA … on occasion . " Alex Macpherson of The Guardian observes " faded psychedelia " and " promises of narcotic trysts " in the song 's lyrics . Pitchfork Media 's Carrie Battan said that " Do You ... " is " not so much about being in love as about a shared love of vices . "
= = Release and reception = =
" Do You ... " was originally featured on Kaleidoscope Dream : The Air Preview , which was released on September 11 , 2012 , as the second in a three @-@ part series of EPs released by Miguel to preview Kaleidoscope Dream . It was released as a digital single on September 18 by ByStorm Entertainment and RCA Records . In the week of November 3 , it debuted at number 49 on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . It spent eight weeks on the chart , peaking at number 32 in the week of January 26 , 2013 . It also charted for 19 weeks and reached number 24 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Airplay . On the R & B Songs chart , " Do You ... " spent 24 weeks and peaked at number 10 .
" Do You ... " was well received by critics . Evan Rytlewski from The A.V. Club said the song " spins the ostensibly sleazy pickup line ' Do you like drugs ? ' into an irresistibly sweet proposal , imagining lovely , perfectly wasted afternoons spent in a content daze . " Erin Thompson of Seattle Weekly called it a " fabulous song " and felt that " Miguel 's smooth , subtle swagger is so appealing that a line like ' I wanna do you like drugs tonight ' comes off as audacious instead of offensive . " Rob Tannenbaum of Rolling Stone quipped , " Just when you thought there were no new ways to say ' I love you ' " .
In MSN Music , Robert Christgau found the lyric " Do you like drugs ? " to be one of " the two most memorable lines " on Kaleidoscope Dream , while Kevin Ritchie of Now cited " Do You ... " as the album 's best song . Andrew Ryce from Pitchfork Media cited it as a " standout " on the album and commented that it " unfolds in an ethereal cloud of synth , voices streaming like angelic choirs before stumbling into a verse buoyed by its own euphoria . " The website 's Carrie Battan called " Do You ... " " one of Miguel 's best songs [ and ] also his glibbest " . However , Ken Capobianco of The Boston Globe felt that its " good hook ... gets washed away by effects " .
= = Promotion = =
A music video for the song was released on October 3 , 2012 . It juxtaposes tableaus of the Great Basin Desert in Nevada with black @-@ and @-@ white shots of Miguel and his real @-@ life girlfriend , actress and model Nazanin Mandi . Set in Las Vegas , the video shows them on a date , driving a 1967 Pontiac GTO convertible through the desert , " making out on a pool table , and taking a helicopter trip " . Miguel and Mandi become increasingly intimate as the night progresses in the video , which is " intercut with a sequence of Miguel performing on stage in a packed nightclub " .
On November 16 , Miguel performed the song as a musical guest on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon . He incorporated elements of Bob Marley 's 1973 reggae song " Stir It Up " into " Do You ... " when performing the song live at Oracle Arena in Oakland on November 23 , at Madison Square Garden in New York City on December 5 , and at Shepherds Bush Empire in London on January 14 , 2013 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from liner notes for Kaleidoscope Dream .
Arden " Keyz " Altino – co @-@ producer
Delbert Bowers – mixing assistant
Tyler Bunting – assistant engineer
Jerry " Wonda " Duplessis – producer
Chris Galland – mixing assistant
Koby Hass – assistant engineer
Manny Marroquin – mixing
Miguel – co @-@ producer
Michel Michelakis – additional drum programming
Paul Pesco – guitar
Lance Powell – assistant engineer
Serge " Sergical " Tsai – engineer
Kevin ' Kev @-@ O ' Wilson – assistant engineer
= = Charts = =
= Mississippi Highway 473 =
Mississippi Highway 473 ( MS 473 ) is a short highway in central Mississippi . Its southern terminus is at the Hinds – Copiah county line . The route travels north to Terry , and turns west . MS 473 enters Terry , and ends at Interstate 55 ( I @-@ 55 ) and U.S. Route 51 ( US 51 ) . The route was designated in 1957 , from MS 27 to US 51 . MS 473 was removed from the state highway system in 1967 . It was restored into the system in 1995 , from the county line to I @-@ 55 / US 51 .
= = Route description = =
All of the route is a paved road , located inside Hinds County . MS 473 is not included as a part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation . MS 473 is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 . In 2012 , Mississippi Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) calculated as many as 5 @,@ 300 vehicles traveling east of I @-@ 55 / US 51 , and as few as 1 @,@ 300 vehicles traveling north of the Hinds – Copiah county line . MS 473 is maintained by Mississippi Department of Transportation for four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) , and Terry for 0 @.@ 95 miles ( 1 @.@ 53 km ) .
MS 473 starts at the Hinds – Copiah county and travels north . It passes nearby ponds and intersects various dirt roads . About one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later , MS 473 intersects Moncure Road and continues north . At Bozeman Road , the route turns northeast , passing through a small forest . The road then turns north and passes over Vaughn Creek . MS 473 intersects Rosemary Road as it turned northwest , and soon travels west near Gaines Drive and Shady Oaks Road . The route enters Terry and crossed over a railroad , owned by Canadian National and Illinois Central . The route turns northwest , and enters downtown Terry . MS 473 leaves downtown Terry , and intersects a frontage road of I @-@ 55 . The route ends at I @-@ 55 at a diamond interchange , and the road continues west as Green Gable Road .
= = History = =
MS 473 was designated in 1957 , as a gravel road connecting from MS 27 to US 51 . The next year , the section in Hinds County was paved . By 1960 , MS 473 in Copiah County was transferred to local maintenance . Two years later , US 51 was realigned to I @-@ 55 , and MS 473 's northern terminus remained on old US 51 's alignment . MS 473 was temporarily removed from the state highway system in 1967 , and an interchange with I @-@ 55 / US 51 was built near Terry in the same year . In 1974 , the route 's old alignment in Copiah County became paved . By 1995 , MS 473 in Hinds County was restored in the state highway system , and was also extended to I @-@ 55 / US 51 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Church of St. Polyeuctus =
The Church of St. Polyeuctus ( Greek : Ἅγιος Πολύευκτος , Hagios Polyeuktos ) was an ancient Byzantine church in Constantinople ( now Istanbul , Turkey ) built by the noblewoman Anicia Juliana and dedicated to Saint Polyeuctus . Intended as an assertion of Juliana 's own imperial lineage , it was a lavishly decorated building , and the largest church of the city before the construction of the Hagia Sophia . It introduced the large @-@ scale use of Sassanid Persian decorative elements , and may have inaugurated the new architectural type of domed basilica , perfected in the later Hagia Sophia .
Little is known of the church 's history after its construction . The building survived until the 11th century , after which it fell into decay , while several architectural elements were removed and reused in Constantinople and other cities . After being built over in the Ottoman period , the site of the church was rediscovered during excavations in the 1960s . The area , directly opposite the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality City Hall , is now a preserved archaeological site open to visitors , although the sculptures have been removed to the Istanbul Archaeological Museum .
= = History = =
The church was commissioned by the noblewoman Anicia Juliana , descendant of several Western emperors , and was constructed between 524 and 527 , during the reign of Justin I ( r . 518 – 527 ) . It was meant to replace an earlier church , built by Eudocia , wife of Theodosius II and Juliana 's great @-@ grandmother , to enshrine the relic skull of Saint Polyeuctus . The new church was thought to have been the largest in Constantinople before the building of the Hagia Sophia by Justin 's nephew and heir , Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) .
In a laudatory 76 @-@ line epigram inscribed on the walls of the church and preserved in its entirety ( Anthologia Graeca , I.10 ) , Juliana compares herself to past emperors Constantine I and Theodosius II as a monumental builder , and claims to have surpassed Solomon 's Temple , on whose proportions the new church was allegedly based . The building constituted thereby a direct challenge to the prestige and authority of the low @-@ born reigning dynasty , and it may have been one of the reasons for the massive scale of Justinian 's reconstruction of the Hagia Sophia a few years later . In light of this rivalry , it is perhaps no coincidence that Justinian too , when he beheld the completed Hagia Sophia , is said to have cried out : " Solomon , I have surpassed thee . " The importance of the Solomonic allusions is however questioned by some scholars , who see the church more as a statement of the imperial prestige of the Old Roman aristocracy , from which Juliana descended , and of Chalcedonian orthodoxy , which she had championed during the reign of the Monophysite emperor Anastasius I ( r . 491 – 518 ) . A further aspect of the antagonism with Justinian however is evidenced by a tale recorded by Gregory of Tours : shortly after his accession , Justinian called upon the aged Juliana to contribute a part of her large fortune to the state treasury . After stalling for time , she had her gold melted down and fashioned into plates , with which she adorned the interior of the roof of the newly built church of St. Polyeuctus , thus preserving it from the emperor 's avarice .
The church survived until the 11th century , when it was abandoned . Thereafter it was liberally plundered for sculptures and other architectural elements ( spolia ) by both the Byzantines and , after the sack of the city in 1204 , by the Crus
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two All @-@ Star Games per season through 1962 , but was selected as a reserve player . Banks was a pinch hitter in the second All @-@ Star game .
The Cubs began playing under the College of Coaches in 1961 , a system in which decisions were made by a group of 12 coaches rather than by one manager . By the 1962 season , Banks hoped to return to shortstop but the College of Coaches had determined that he would remain at first base indefinitely . In May 1962 , Banks was hit in the head by a fastball from former Cubs pitcher Moe Drabowsky and was taken off the field unconscious . He sustained a concussion , spent two nights in a hospital , sat out a Monday game , and hit three home runs and a double on Tuesday .
In May 1963 , Banks set a single @-@ game record of 22 putouts by a first baseman . However , he caught mumps that year and finished the season with 18 home runs , 64 RBI , and a .227 batting average . Despite Banks ' struggles that season , the Cubs had their first winning record since the 1940s . Banks , following his doctor 's orders , avoided his usual off @-@ season participation in handball and basketball , and began the 1964 season weighing seven pounds ( 3 @.@ 2 kg ) more than the previous year . In February , Cubs second baseman Ken Hubbs was killed in an airplane crash . Banks finished the season with 23 home runs , 95 RBI , and a .264 batting average . The Cubs finished in eighth place in 1964 , losing over $ 315 @,@ 000 . In 1965 , Banks hit 28 home runs , had 107 RBI , a .265 batting average , and played and started at first base in the All @-@ Star Game . On September 2 , he hit his 400th home run . The Cubs finished the season with a baseball operations deficit of $ 1 @.@ 2 million , though this was largely offset by television and radio revenue , and the rental of Wrigley Field to the Chicago Bears football team .
The Cubs hired Leo Durocher as manager in 1966 , hoping he could inspire renewed interest in the team 's fan base . Banks hit only 15 home runs ; Cubs finished the 1966 season in last place with a 59 – 103 win @-@ loss record , the worst season of Durocher 's career . From the time Durocher arrived in Chicago , he was frustrated at his inability to trade or bench the aging Banks . In Durocher 's autobiography , he says :
... [ Banks ] was a great player in his time . Unfortunately , his time wasn 't my time . Even more unfortunately , there was not a thing I could do about it . He couldn 't run , he couldn 't field ; toward the end , he couldn 't even hit . There are some players who instinctively do the right thing on the base paths . Ernie had an unfailing instinct for doing the wrong thing . But I had to play him . Had to play the man or there would have been a revolution in the street . "
Banks said of Durocher , " I wish there had been someone around like him early in my career ... He 's made me go for that little extra needed to win " . Durocher served as Cubs manager until mid @-@ 1972 , the season after Banks retired . In his memoir Mr. Cub , published around the time that Banks retired , Banks said too much had been made of the racial implications in his relationship with Durocher ; ; he said :
My philosophy about race relations is that I 'm the man and I 'll set my own patterns in life . I don 't rely on anyone else 's opinions . I look at a man as a human being ; I don 't care about his color . Some people feel that because you are black you will never be treated fairly , and that you should voice your opinions , be militant about them . I don 't feel this way . You can 't convince a fool against his will ... If a man doesn 't like me because I 'm black , that 's fine . I 'll just go elsewhere , but I 'm not going to let him change my life .
The Cubs appointed Banks a player @-@ coach for the 1967 season . Banks competed with John Boccabella for a starting position at first base . Shortly after , Durocher named Banks the outright starter at first base . Banks hit 23 home runs and drove in 95 runs , and went to the All @-@ Star Game that year . After the 1967 season , an article in Ebony said Banks was not thought to have made more than $ 65 @,@ 000 ( equal to $ 461 @,@ 292 today ) in any season . He had received a pay increase from $ 33 @,@ 000 to $ 50 @,@ 000 between his MVP seasons in 1958 and 1959 , but Ebony said several MLB players were making $ 100 @,@ 000 at the time .
= = = Final seasons = = =
Banks won the Lou Gehrig Memorial Award in 1968 , an honor recognizing playing ability and personal character . The 37 @-@ year @-@ old Banks hit 32 home runs , had 83 RBI , and finished that season with a .246 batting average . In 1969 , he came the closest to helping the Cubs win the National League pennant ; the Cubs fell from first place after holding an 8 1 ⁄ 2 game lead in August . Banks made his 11th and final All @-@ Star season appearance as a pinch hitter ; it was his 14th All @-@ Star Game appearance that season . Banks hit his 500th home run on May 12 , 1970 , at Chicago 's Wrigley Field . On December 1 , 1971 , Banks retired as a player but continued to coach for the Cubs until 1973 . He was an instructor in the minor leagues for the next three seasons and also worked in the Cubs ' front office .
Banks finished his career with 512 home runs ; his 277 home runs as a shortstop were a career record at the time of his retirement . ( Cal Ripken , Jr now holds the record for most home runs as a shortstop with 345 . ) Banks holds Cubs records for games played ( 2 @,@ 528 ) , at @-@ bats ( 9 @,@ 421 ) , extra @-@ base hits ( 1 @,@ 009 ) and total bases ( 4 @,@ 706 ) . Banks also excelled as an infielder ; he won a National League Gold Glove Award for shortstop in 1960 . He led the NL in putouts five times and was the NL leader in fielding percentage as shortstop three times , and once as first baseman .
Banks holds the major league record for most games played without a postseason appearance ( 2 @,@ 528 ) . In his memoir , citing his fondness for the Cubs and owner Philip K. Wrigley , Banks said he did not regret signing with the Cubs rather than one of the more successful baseball franchises . Banks ' popularity and positive attitude led to the nicknames " Mr. Cub " and " Mr. Sunshine " . Banks was known for his catchphrase , " It 's a beautiful day for a ballgame ... Let 's play two ! " , expressing his wish to play a doubleheader every day out of his love of baseball .
= = Personal life = =
In 1953 , after returning from military service in Germany , Banks married his first wife Mollye Ector . He proposed to her in a letter from Germany . Although he filed for divorce two years later , the couple briefly reconciled in early 1959 . By that summer , they agreed on a divorce settlement that would pay $ 65 @,@ 000 to Ector in lieu of alimony . Shortly thereafter , Banks eloped with Eloyce Johnson . The couple had twin sons within a year and a daughter four years after that . Ector filed suit against Banks in 1963 for failure to make payments on a life insurance policy agreed upon in their divorce settlement .
Banks was a lifelong Republican – and he also once stated that " I 'm not goin ' anywhere I 'm not wanted " – prompting critics to claim that he was " soft " on Jim Crow ; he ran for alderman in Chicago in 1963 . He lost the election and later said , " People knew me only as a baseball player . They didn 't think I qualified as a government official and no matter what I did I couldn 't change my image ... What I learned , was that it was going to be hard for me to disengage myself from my baseball life and I would have to compensate for it after my playing days were over . "
In 1966 , Banks worked for Seaway National Bank in the off @-@ season and enrolled in a banking correspondence course . He bought into several business ventures , including a gas station , during his playing career . Though he had been paid modestly in comparison to other baseball stars , Banks had taken the advice of Wrigley and invested much of his earnings . He later spent time working for an insurance company and for New World Van Lines . Banks began building assets that would be worth an estimated $ 4 million by the time he was 55 years old .
Banks and Bob Nelson became the first black owners of a U.S. Ford Motor Company dealership in 1967 . Nelson had been the first non @-@ white commissioned officer in the United States Army Air Forces during World War II ; he operated an import car dealership before the venture with Banks . Banks was appointed to the board of directors of the Chicago Transit Authority in 1969 . On a trip to Europe , Banks visited the Pope , who presented him with a medal that became a proud possession .
Banks was divorced from Eloyce in 1981 . She received several valuable items from his playing career as part of their divorce settlement , including his 500th home run ball . She sold the items not long after the divorce . He remarried in 1984 . In 1993 , his third wife Marjorie was part of a group that met with MLB executives to discuss race relations in baseball after allegations of racial slurs surfaced against Cincinnati Reds owner Marge Schott . Banks married Liz Ellzey in 1997 and Hank Aaron served as his best man . In late 2008 , Banks and Ellzey adopted an infant daughter .
Banks 's nephew , Bob Johnson , was a major league catcher and first baseman for the Texas Rangers between 1981 and 1983 . His great nephew , Acie Law , is a professional basketball player who attended Texas A & M University before playing in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) .
= = Later years = =
Banks was voted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1977 , his first year of eligibility . He received votes on 321 of the 383 ballots . Though several players were selected through the Veterans Committee and the Special Committee on the Negro Leagues that year , Banks was the only player elected by the Baseball Writers ' Association of America . He was inducted on August 8 of that year . During his induction speech , Banks said , " We 've got the setting – sunshine , fresh air , the team behind us . So let 's play two ! "
The Cubs retired Banks ' uniform number 14 in 1982 . He was the first player to have his number retired by the team . At the time of the ceremony , Banks was employed as the Cubs ' corporate sales representative . The team did not retire any more numbers for another five years , when Billy Williams received the honor . Through the 2014 season , only six former Cubs , along with Brooklyn Dodger Jackie Robinson , have had their numbers retired by the organization .
Banks served as a team ambassador after his retirement , though author Phil Rogers says the team had never placed Banks in a position of authority or significant influence . In 1983 , shortly after Wrigley sold the team to the Tribune Company , Banks and the Cubs briefly severed ties . Rogers wrote that after the sale , Banks was viewed as " something of a crazy uncle who hung around the house for no apparent reason " , and that team officials anonymously told the press that Banks had been fired because he was unreliable . Soon Banks and the Cubs reconciled and he resumed making appearances on behalf of the team .
In 1984 , when the Cubs won the NL East division , the club named Banks an honorary team member . At the 1990 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game , the first one held at Wrigley Field since Banks ' playing days , he threw out the ceremonial first pitch to starting catcher Mike Scioscia . Banks was named to the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team in 1999 . In the same year , the Society for American Baseball Research listed him 27th on a list of the 100 greatest baseball players .
In June 2006 , Crain 's Chicago Business said Banks was part of a group looking into buying the Chicago Cubs in case the Tribune Company decided to sell the club . Banks established a charity , the Live Above & Beyond Foundation , which assists youth and the elderly with issues including self @-@ esteem and healthcare . In 2008 , Banks released a charity wine called Ernie Banks 512 Chardonnay , the proceeds of which were donated to his foundation .
Banks was an ordained minister ; he presided at the wedding of MLB pitcher Sean Marshall . On March 31 , 2008 , a statue of Banks ( " Mr. Cub " ) was unveiled in front of Wrigley Field . That year , Eddie Vedder released a song called " All The Way " , which Banks had asked Vedder to write about the Cubs as a birthday gift .
In 2009 , Banks was named a Library of Congress Living Legend , a designation that recognizes those " who have made significant contributions to America 's diverse cultural , scientific and social heritage " . In 2013 , he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom with 15 other people , including Bill Clinton and Oprah Winfrey . During the ceremony , he presented President Obama with a bat that had belonged to Jackie Robinson . Banks remained close to the Cubs team and made frequent appearances at their spring training grounds , HoHoKam Stadium in Arizona . Author Harry Strong wrote in 2013 that " the Chicago Cubs do not have a mascot , but they hardly need one when the face of the franchise is still so visible " .
Ernie Banks was inducted as a Laureate of The Lincoln Academy of Illinois and awarded the Order of Lincoln ( the State 's highest honor ) by the Governor of Illinois in 1970 in the area of Sports .
= = = Death = = =
Banks died of a heart attack at a Chicago hospital on January 23 , 2015 , eight days before his 84th birthday . Following a public visitation , a memorial service was held at the Fourth Presbyterian Church . Several well @-@ known people spoke at the service , including Chicago mayor Rahm Emanuel and baseball personalities Joe Torre and Billy Williams . After the service , a procession moved from Downtown Chicago toward Wrigley Field .
In the weeks after his death , a legal battle arose over Banks ' estate and the disposition of his body . His estranged widow Elizabeth said that he had amended his will in October without her knowledge . The new will left all of Banks ' assets to his longtime caregiver , Regina Rice . Banks had been diagnosed with dementia shortly before the change in his will . A Chicago funeral home sent Elizabeth a bill for $ 35 @,@ 000 in funeral costs , but the bill went unpaid as Elizabeth challenged the legality of Banks ' new will . In March 2015 , the Chicago Cubs announced that they would pay the funeral home costs .
= Japanese cruiser Yakumo =
Yakumo ( 八雲 , sometimes transliterated as Yagumo ) was an armored cruiser built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the late 1890s . As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships herself , the ship was built in Germany . She participated in most of the naval battles of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 , and was lightly damaged during the Battle of the Yellow Sea and the Battle of Tsushima . Yakumo saw no combat during World War I and began the first of many training cruises in 1917 , although she was not officially reclassified as a training ship until 1931 . Her last training cruise was in 1939 , but the ship continued to conduct training in home waters throughout the Pacific War . Yakumo became a repatriation transport after the war and was broken up in 1946 – 47 .
= = Background and design = =
The 1896 Naval Expansion Plan was made after the First Sino @-@ Japanese War , and included four armored cruisers in addition to four more battleships , all of which had to be ordered from overseas shipyards as Japan lacked the capability to build them itself . Further consideration of the Russian building program caused the IJN to believe that the battleships ordered under the original plan would not be sufficient to counter the Imperial Russian Navy . Budgetary limitations prevented ordering more battleships , and the IJN decided to expand the number of more affordable armored cruisers to be ordered from four to six ships , believing that the recent introduction of tougher Krupp cemented armor would allow them to stand in the line of battle . The revised plan is commonly known as the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " . The first four ships were built by Armstrong Whitworth in the United Kingdom , but the last two ships were built in Germany and France . To ensure ammunition compatibility , the IJN required their builders to use the same British guns as the other four ships . In general , the IJN provided only a sketch design and specifications that each builder had to comply with ; otherwise each builder was free to build the ships as they saw fit . Unlike most of their contemporaries which were designed for commerce raiding or to defend colonies and trade routes , Yakumo and her half @-@ sisters were intended as fleet scouts and to be employed in the battleline .
= = Description = =
The ship was 132 @.@ 3 meters ( 434 ft 1 in ) long overall and 124 @.@ 64 meters ( 408 ft 11 in ) between perpendiculars . She had a beam of 19 @.@ 57 meters ( 64 ft 2 in ) and had an average draft of 7 @.@ 21 meters ( 23 ft 8 in ) . Yakumo displaced 9 @,@ 646 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 494 long tons ) at normal load and 10 @,@ 288 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 126 long tons ) at deep load . The ship had a metacentric height of 0 @.@ 95 meters ( 3 ft 1 in ) . She had a double bottom and her hull was subdivided into 247 watertight compartments . Her crew consisted of 670 officers and enlisted men .
Yakumo had two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single propeller shaft . Steam for the engines was provided by 24 Belleville boilers and the engines were rated at a total of 15 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 600 kW ) . The ship had a designed speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) and reached 21 @.@ 005 knots ( 38 @.@ 901 km / h ; 24 @.@ 172 mph ) during her sea trials from 16 @,@ 960 ihp ( 12 @,@ 650 kW ) . She carried up to 1 @,@ 300 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 300 long tons ; 1 @,@ 400 short tons ) of coal and could steam for 7 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 000 km ; 8 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament for all of the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " armored cruisers was four Armstrong Whitworth @-@ built 45 @-@ caliber eight @-@ inch guns in twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . The electrically operated turrets were capable of 130 ° rotation left and right , and the guns could be elevated to + 30 ° and depressed to − 5 ° . The turret accommodated 65 shells , but could only be reloaded through doors in the turret floor and the ship 's deck that allowed the electric winch in the turret to hoist shells up from the shell room deep in the hull . The ship carried a total of 320 eight @-@ inch shells . The guns were manually loaded and had a rate of fire about 1 @.@ 2 rounds per minute . The 203 @-@ millimeter gun fired 113 @.@ 5 @-@ kilogram ( 250 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 760 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ) to a range of 18 @,@ 000 meters ( 20 @,@ 000 yd ) .
The secondary armament consisted of a dozen Elswick Ordnance Company " Pattern Z " quick @-@ firing ( QF ) , 40 @-@ caliber , 6 @-@ inch guns . Only four of these guns were not mounted in armored casemates on the main and upper decks , and their mounts on the upper deck were protected by gun shields . Their 45 @.@ 4 kilograms ( 100 lb ) AP shells were fired at a muzzle velocity of 700 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ) . The guns were provided with 150 rounds each . Yakumo was also equipped with a dozen 40 @-@ caliber QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 @-@ cwt guns and eight QF 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Yamauchi guns as close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . The former gun fired 76 @-@ millimeter ( 3 in ) , 5 @.@ 7 @-@ kilogram ( 12 @.@ 5 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 719 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 359 ft / s ) .
Yakumo was equipped with five 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , one above water in the bow and four submerged tubes , two on each broadside . The Type 30 torpedo had a 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) warhead and three range / speed settings : 800 meters ( 870 yd ) at 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) , 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) at 23 @.@ 6 knots ( 43 @.@ 7 km / h ; 27 @.@ 2 mph ) or 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 yd ) at 14 @.@ 2 knots ( 26 @.@ 3 km / h ; 16 @.@ 3 mph ) .
= = = Armor = = =
All of the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " armored cruisers used the same armor scheme with some minor differences , one of which was that the four later ships all used Krupp cemented armor . The waterline belt ran the full length of the ship and its thickness varied from 178 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 0 in ) amidships to 89 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) at the bow and stern . It had a height of 2 @.@ 13 meters ( 7 ft 0 in ) , of which 1 @.@ 49 meters ( 4 ft 11 in ) was normally underwater . The upper strake of belt armor was 127 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) thick and extended from the upper edge of the waterline belt to the main deck . It extended 61 @.@ 49 meters ( 201 ft 9 in ) from the forward to the rear barbette . Yakumo had only a single transverse 127 mm armored bulkhead that closed off the forward end of the central armored citadel .
The barbettes , gun turrets and the front of the casemates were all 152 millimeters thick while the sides and rear of the casemates were protected by 51 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor . The deck was 63 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) thick and the armor protecting the conning tower was 356 millimeters ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) in thickness .
= = Construction and career = =
Yakumo , named from a stanza of the waka poem by Susanoo in the Japanese mythology , was ordered on 1 September 1897 and laid down a year later by AG Vulcan Stettin in Stettin , Germany . The ship was launched on 8 July 1899 and completed on 20 June 1900 . She departed Stettin two days later and arrived in Yokosuka , Japan , on 30 August .
= = = Russo @-@ Japanese War = = =
At the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Yakumo was assigned to the 2nd Division of the 2nd Fleet . She participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904 , when Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the Combined Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur . Tōgō had expected the surprise night attack by his destroyers to be much more successful than it was , anticipating that the Russians would be badly disorganized and weakened , but they had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack . The Japanese ships were spotted by the protected cruiser Boyarin , which was patrolling offshore and alerted the Russians . Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defenses with his main armament and engage the ships with his secondary guns . Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as the Japanese eight- and six @-@ inch guns inflicted little damage on the Russian ships , which concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect . Although many ships on both sides were hit , Russian casualties numbered some 150 , while the Japanese suffered roughly 90 killed and wounded before Tōgō disengaged . Yakumo was not hit during the engagement , although she did hit the protected cruiser Novik one time with an eight @-@ inch shell .
In early March , Vice Admiral Kamimura Hikonojō was tasked to take the reinforced 2nd Division north and make a diversion off Vladivostok . While scouting for Russian ships in the area , the Japanese cruisers bombarded the harbor and defenses of Vladivostok on 6 March to little effect . Upon their return to Japan a few days later , the 2nd Division was ordered to escort the transports ferrying the Imperial Guards Division to Korea and then to join the ships blockading Port Arthur . Yakumo was then transferred to Rear Admiral Dewa Shigetō 's 3rd Division . On 23 June , the ship was Dewa 's flagship when the Pacific Squadron sortied in an abortive attempt to reach Vladivostok , but the new squadron commander , Rear Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft , ordered the squadron to return to Port Arthur when it encountered the Japanese battleline shortly before sunset , as he did not wish to engage his numerically superior opponents in a night battle .
= = = = Battle of the Yellow Sea = = = =
On the morning of 10 August 1904 , Dewa 's cruisers were over 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) south of Tōgō 's 1st Division when the Russians sortied from Port Arthur in another attempt to reach Vladivostok . In the early stages of the battle , Dewa attempted to engage the Russian cruisers trailing the battleships in accordance with Tōgō 's standing orders , but was rebuffed by fire from the battleships . As Dewa closed with the Russians later in the afternoon in another attempt to attack the Russian cruisers , a 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) shell struck Yakumo amidships at 15 : 40 , killing 12 and wounding 11 . The range at this time exceeded 8 nautical miles ( 15 km ; 9 @.@ 2 mi ) , beyond the range of any gun in his squadron , so Dewa ordered his ships to disengage . By 17 : 45 , Yakumo had maneuvered to about 8 @,@ 000 or 9 @,@ 000 meters ( 8 @,@ 700 or 9 @,@ 800 yd ) from the damaged Russian battleship Poltava and opened fire . Yakumo continued to close until the Russian squadron was thrown into confusion by the death of Vitgeft around 18 : 40 .
The 3rd Division then followed Tōgō 's ships as they circled the Russian ships while they sorted themselves out , now firing at the Russian cruisers with little effect , until Tōgō ordered Dewa to attack the Russian destroyers at about 19 : 44 . Dewa cancelled that last order and turned south around 20 : 00 in pursuit of several Russian cruisers that were fleeing to the south , in an attempt to intercept them before they reached the isolated flotillas of destroyers and torpedo boats . The Russian ships were engaged by other Japanese cruisers before they could reach the small ships , and Dewa broke off the pursuit around 20 : 25 as light was fading . He continued south @-@ eastwards overnight and spotted one cruiser and two destroyers , but was unable to catch any of them . On 14 August , Yakumo and the 3rd Division was ordered to Tsingtao to confirm that the Germans had indeed interned the battleship Tsesarevich and three destroyers that had taken shelter there after the battle . After their return , they were reassigned to the blockade of Port Arthur .
In mid @-@ September , Yakumo was transferred back to Kamimura 's 2nd Division , which was defending the Strait of Tsushima , although she began a refit at the end of the month . The ship returned to Dewa on 15 November and he transferred his flag back to her . On 13 December , the ship attempted to rescue survivors of the Takasago after she had struck a mine , but found no one still living . Yakumo was sent to Sasebo Naval Arsenal for another refit five days later . On 1 February 1905 , the ship was ordered to join Rear Admiral Shimamura Hayao 's 2nd Division blockading Vladivostok , although this only lasted for a few weeks as she was ordered to Kure Naval Arsenal for a final refit in mid @-@ February before the anticipated battle with the Russian ships sent from the Baltic Fleet .
= = = = Battle of Tsushima = = = =
As the Russian 2nd and 3rd Pacific Squadrons approached Japan on 27 May , having sailed from the Baltic Sea , Yakumo was assigned to Kamimura 's 2nd Division of the 2nd Fleet . The Russians were spotted by patrolling Japanese ships early that morning , but visibility was limited and radio reception poor . The preliminary reports were enough to cause Tōgō to order his ships to put to sea and the 2nd Division spotted the Russian ships under the command of Vice Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky at around 11 : 30 . Kamimura closed to about a range of 8000 meters before sheering off under fire to join Tōgō 's battleships . Yakumo was fourth of six when Tōgō opened fire on the 2nd Pacific Squadron at 14 : 10 and , like most of the ships in the division , engaged the battleship Oslyabya which was forced to fall out of formation at 14 : 50 and sank 20 minutes later . By this time the Russian formation was in disorder and the battleship Knyaz Suvorov suddenly appeared out of the mist at 15 : 35 at a range of about 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . All of Kamimura 's ships engaged her for five minutes or so , with Yakumo and the armored cruiser Azuma also firing torpedoes at the Russian ship without effect .
After 17 : 30 Kamimura led his division in a fruitless pursuit of some of the Russian cruisers , leaving Tōgō 's battleships to their own devices . He abandoned his chase around 18 : 03 and turned northwards to rejoin Tōgō . His ships spotted the rear of the Russian battleline around 18 : 30 and opened fire when the range closed to 8000 – 9000 meters . Nothing is known of any effect on the Russians , and they ceased fire by 19 : 30 and rejoined Tōgō at 20 : 08 as night was falling . The surviving Russian ships were spotted the next morning and the Japanese ships opened fire around 10 : 30 , staying beyond the range at which the Russian ships could effectively reply . Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov therefore decided to surrender his ships , as he could neither return fire nor close the range .
In the meantime , the coast defense ship Admiral Ushakov had fallen well behind Nebogatov 's ships and was spotted by the protected cruiser Chiyoda early in the morning , but the Japanese were more intent on locating the main body of the Russian fleet than attacking a single isolated ship . Admiral Ushakov was then spotted at 14 : 10 , well after Nebogatov 's surrender , by Shimamura who received permission to pursue her with his flagship , the armored cruiser Iwate , and Yakumo . They caught up with the Russian ship at 17 : 00 and demanded her surrender . Admiral Ushakov attempted to close the range to bring the Japanese cruisers within range of her guns , but they were fast enough to keep the range open and the Russian ship never hit either one . After about half an hour , Admiral Ushakov was listing heavily enough that her guns could not elevate enough to bear , and her commander ordered his crew to abandon ship and the scuttling charges detonated . The ship sank in three minutes and 12 officers and 327 crewmen were rescued by the Japanese . Between them , Yakumo and Iwate fired 89 eight- and 278 six @-@ inch shells during the engagement . Over the course of the entire battle , Yakumo was struck by a single twelve @-@ inch shell and six others , of which three or four were six inches in size . They inflicted only minor damage .
On 14 June , Yakumo was assigned as the flagship of Vice Admiral Kataoka Shichirō , commander of the 3rd Fleet , as part of the operation to capture the island of Sakhalin in July .
= = = World War I = = =
In November 1914 , Yakumo was deployed to Singapore preparatory to searching for the German commerce raider Emden , but the ship was sunk before the mission began . Yakumo served as the flagship of Destroyer Squadron ( Suiraisentai ) 2 from 13 December 1915 to 1 December 1916 and then of Suiraisentai 1 from 1 to 12 December . In February 1917 , the ship began patrolling the South Pacific and Indian Oceans , searching for German commerce raiders . She began the first of her many training cruises on 5 April when she departed for North America and Hawaii , before arriving back in Japan on 17 August . In October 1918 , Kichisaburō Nomura was appointed captain of Yakumo for two months , only one of which he spent on board the vessel , as a political appointment to qualify Nomura for flag rank .
= = = Interwar years = = =
On 1 September 1921 , Yakumo was re @-@ designated as a 1st class coast @-@ defense ship and used primarily for training duties in long @-@ distance oceanic navigation and officer training for cadets in the Imperial Japanese Navy Academy . In this capacity , she participated in 13 more voyages in the 1920s and 1930s to Europe , North and South America , and the South Pacific , including a circumnavigation of the globe from August 1921 to April 1922 , in company with the armored cruiser Izumo . Two of the naval cadets that participated in this cruise were Princes Kuni Asaakira and Kachō Hirotada .
In 1924 , four of Yakumo 's 12 @-@ pounder guns were removed , as were all of her QF 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder guns , and a single 8 cm / 40 3rd Year Type anti @-@ aircraft gun was added . In addition three of her torpedo tubes were removed . Three years later , her boilers were replaced by six Yarrow boilers , formerly from the battleship Haruna , which reduced her power to 7 @,@ 000 ihp ( 5 @,@ 200 kW ) and maximum speed to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . These boilers used a mix of coal and fuel oil , and the ship now carried a total of 1 @,@ 210 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 190 long tons ) of coal and 306 metric tons ( 301 long tons ) of oil .
During a visit to Tsingtao in 1930 , Yakumo and Izumo had to land marines on 13 January to quell a riot by Japanese residents there . The following year , the ship was reclassified as a training ship . On 6 November 1936 , between the islands of Saipan and Truk , an accidental explosion in her front magazine killed four crewmen and flooded her front food locker . Repairs were made underway and Yakumo arrived home two weeks later . A month after her return , in December 1936 , Captain Matome Ugaki assumed command of Yakumo until he took command of the battleship Hyūga the next year . Her last training cruise ended on 20 November 1939 .
= = = World War II = = =
After the start of the Pacific War , Yakumo was reclassified as a 1st class cruiser on 1 July 1942 , and her eight @-@ inch guns were replaced by four 12 @.@ 7 cm ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) Type 89 dual @-@ purpose guns in two twin mounts . In addition her light anti @-@ aircraft armament was augmented . However , Yakumo remained within the confines of the Seto Inland Sea throughout the war as she was assigned to training duties , and was not used in any combat operations . She was stricken from the navy list on 1 October 1945 . Yakumo began service as a repatriation transport on 7 December . Her mission was to return troops and civilians to the home islands from Japan 's former overseas possessions , primarily from Taiwan and mainland China . She completed her last voyage in June 1946 , repatriating a total of 9 @,@ 010 people . Yakumo arrived at the Maizuru shipyard of Hitachi Shipbuilding & Engineering on 20 July 1946 to begin demolition that lasted until 1 April 1947 .
= U.S. Route 16 in Michigan =
US Highway 16 ( US 16 ) , also called Grand River Avenue for much of its length in the state , was one of the principal pre @-@ Interstate roads in the state of Michigan . Before the creation of the United States Numbered Highway System in 1926 , the highway had been designated M @-@ 16 . The modern route of Grand River Avenue cuts across the Lower Peninsula in a northwest – southeast fashion from near Grand Rapids to Detroit . Before the late 1950s and early 1960s , US 16 followed other roads between Muskegon and Grand Rapids , and then Grand River Avenue through Lansing to Detroit . In the years immediately preceding the creation of the Interstate Highway System , US 16 was shifted from older roads to newer freeways . Later , it was co @-@ designated as an Interstate . When the gap in the freeway was filled in around Lansing , the US 16 designation was decommissioned in the state . The freeway was then solely designated Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) east of Grand Rapids and I @-@ 196 west of that city .
The original pathway along the Grand River Avenue corridor was an Indian trail , a footpath used by the native population . This trail was later used by the first European settlers to the area now known as Michigan . In Detroit , Grand River is one of five major avenues ( along with Woodward , Michigan , Gratiot , and Jefferson ) planned by Judge Augustus Woodward in 1805 that extended from Downtown Detroit in differing directions ; Grand River Avenue extends northwesterly from the city 's downtown . In the middle of the 19th century , the trail was expanded into a plank road that formed the basis for one of the first state trunkline highways as M @-@ 16 in the early 20th century . Later , the highway was rerouted to replace M @-@ 126 and create M @-@ 104 . Current segments of the roadway are still part of the state highway system as sections of M @-@ 5 , M @-@ 11 , M @-@ 43 or business loops off I @-@ 96 . The portion of Grand River Avenue in Detroit between I @-@ 96 and the intersection with Cass Avenue and Middle Street in Downtown Detroit is an unsigned state trunkline , sometimes referred to as Old Business Spur I @-@ 96 ( Old BS I @-@ 96 ) .
= = Route description = =
At the time of its decommissioning , US 16 started its run through Michigan at the Grand Trunk Western Railroad docks in Muskegon . The SS Milwaukee Clipper operated as a car ferry across Lake Michigan , connecting Muskegon to Milwaukee , Wisconsin , where US 16 continued to the west . From the docks , US 16 and M @-@ 46 traveled concurrently south and then east through downtown Muskegon . At Peck Street , US 16 turned south along Business US 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) . These two highways ran concurrently out of town to the south through Muskegon Heights to Norton Shores . There , the business loop ended at US 31 , and US 16 joined the I @-@ 196 freeway headed east . ( Later , the I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 196 designations west of Grand Rapids would be flipped , but at the time leading up to US 16 's decommissioning in the state of Michigan , this had not yet been approved . ) The I @-@ 196 / US 16 freeway traveled southeast of Norton Shores through woodlands in rural Muskegon County parallel to the former US 16 routing through Fruitport to Nunica in Ottawa County . The freeway turned more directly east in Nunica past the eastern terminus of M @-@ 104 , and continued through more mixed forest and grassland terrain to serve the communities of Coopersville and Marne .
As the freeway approached Kent County , it met the western terminus of M @-@ 11 which was the former routing of US 16 through the Grand Rapids metropolitan area . I @-@ 196 / US 16 continued eastward around the north side of the metropolitan area through the suburbs of Walker and Comstock Park . The freeway intersected the contemporaneous routing of US 131 along the East Beltline and curved south through the eastern edge of Grand Rapids to meet the end of I @-@ 96 east of downtown . There I @-@ 196 ended and US 16 was transferred to the I @-@ 96 freeway . I @-@ 96 / US 16 continued southward intersecting Cascade Road , which was previously US 16 . Cascade Road east of this interchange meets the westernmost part of Grand River Avenue , which carried US 16 east continuously to Downtown Detroit .
M @-@ 50 also joined the freeway at Cascade Road headed east , and together I @-@ 96 / US 16 / M @-@ 50 continued through eastern Kent County . M @-@ 50 departed to the south near Lowell , and the freeway crossed into southern Ionia County . Passing south of Portland , the freeway crossed east into Clinton County . North of Grand Ledge , I @-@ 96 ended and US 16 followed Wright Road off the freeway to Grand River Avenue . From there east , US 16 resumed its historic routing into the city of Lansing . Grand River Avenue carried the highway past the Capital City Airport and east to Larch Street , where US 16 turned south along US 27 north of downtown Lansing . At Saginaw Street , eastbound US 16 turned east on the one @-@ way street , while westbound traffic ran a block north on Grand River Avenue . The two directions of travel merge at the east end of Saginaw Street in East Lansing . Grand River Avenue through East Lansing follows a tree @-@ lined boulevard that forms the division between the campus of Michigan State University to the south and the rest of the city to the north . US 16 continued east in Ingham County through Okemos and rural parts of the county through Williamston and Webberville .
Grand River Avenue crosses to the east into Livingston County through Fowlerville to Howell . In Howell , Grand River Avenue meets Hartland Road which carries M @-@ 59 ; the highway also met M @-@ 155 in downtown , which at the time provided access to the Howell State Hospital . In the approach to Brighton , Grand River Avenue passes through rural southeast Michigan lake country . In Brighton , Grand River Avenue crossed the western end of the I @-@ 96 freeway . US 16 merged onto the freeway , and I @-@ 96 / US 16 met the northern end of the US 23 freeway . I @-@ 96 / US 16 continued east into Oakland County through Wixom and Novi .
Near Farmington , I @-@ 96 / US 16 continued to the southeast of the present @-@ day I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 275 / I @-@ 696 / M @-@ 5 interchange along the current M @-@ 5 freeway . Grand River Avenue through there was Business Loop I @-@ 96 ( BL I @-@ 96 ) . The freeway ends at a junction with Grand River Avenue that also marked the end of the business loop and the eastern end of I @-@ 96 at the time . From there , US 16 continued along Grand River Avenue the rest of way into Downtown Detroit . Along that routing , it intersected US 24 at Telegraph Road and M @-@ 39 at Southfield Road . US 12 joined US 16 along Grand River Avenue at Plymouth Road . The two ran the rest of the way concurrently to Cadillac Square . There they terminated at a common point with US 10 ( Woodward Avenue ) and US 112 ( Michigan Avenue ) . US 25 ran through the square on Fort Street and Gratiot Avenue .
= = History = =
The history of Grand River Avenue , and US 16 in Michigan , dates back to before the earliest settlement of Michigan by Europeans . The route has been the basis for an Indian trail , a pathway for European settlers , a state highway , a part of the US Highway System , and a section of the Interstate Highway System .
= = = Indian trail to state highway = = =
The chief transportation routes in 1701 were the Indian footpaths that crossed the future state of Michigan ; the Grand River Trail was one of these thirteen trails at the time . In 1805 , Detroit created 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) rights @-@ of @-@ way for the principal streets of the city , Grand River Avenue included . This street plan was devised by Augustus Woodward and others following a devastating fire in Detroit . A ten @-@ year project to construct a plank road between Detroit and Howell was authorized in 1820 along the Grand River Trail . Grand River Avenue was included as one of Five Great Military Roads by Governor Lewis Cass in 1825 , along with the River Road , Michigan Avenue , Woodward Avenue and Gratiot Avenue . The Grand River Road , precursor to the modern Grand River Avenue was named by Benjamin Williams , cofounder of Owosso . The original Native American name for the river was Wash @-@ ten @-@ ong sibi meaning " the river that extends far off " , or " far into the interior " , which was translated as La Grande Riviere , the French name for the river ; this name was then applied to the name of the trail that paralleled at least half of the river 's length .
The opening of the Erie Canal in New York in 1826 brought new settlers to the Great Lakes region , and to the future state of Michigan . Many of these settlers began their inland journeys in Detroit . At first the Grand River Road was a " deep rutted , ditch bordered road " . The road branched into two at Rouge ( now Redford ) ; the southern branch roughly followed the modern route of Grand River Avenue and the northern route ran by way of Pontiac along Woodward Avenue and the modern M @-@ 21 to the north of the Lansing area . From Bancroft , several trails branched off , including the northern branch of the Grand River Road and the Saginaw Trail . The two branches merged back together near Dewitt and continued west toward Ionia and on to Grand Rapids and Newton ( now Grand Haven ) . The early travelers plied the road in wagons pulled by oxen or horses , and drivers charged between four and seven cents a mile ( equivalent to $ 0 @.@ 84 – 1 @.@ 46 / mi in 2015 ) . The horses were exchanged every 12 – 15 miles ( 19 – 24 km ) with the speed averaging around 8 – 10 miles per hour ( 13 – 16 km / h ) with few obstacles .
Congress further aided the road in 1835 with an appropriation of $ 25 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 15 @.@ 5 million in 2015 ) for a 20 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 6 m ) road on 100 feet ( 30 m ) of right @-@ of @-@ way . These improvements included removing brush and debris and the construction of bridges across the Rouge , Shiawassee , Red Cedar and Grand rivers . The Grand River Road was a major route for settlers headed inland to Grand Rapids in 1836 , as the shortest route for travelers coming from Detroit . An economic panic in 1837 drove settlers from New York to Michigan ; these were the travelers who followed the Grand River Road . New settlements were created along the route , every six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) or so , that distance being a good day 's travel by horse . Approximately 120 wagons left Detroit each day between August and November 1843 .
After statehood in 1837 , Michigan assumed the costs for construction work to the Grand River Trail . At that time , about 60 miles ( 97 km ) had been surveyed from Detroit westward . The new state lacked the money to continue improvements to the road , and Michigan petitioned Congress for the better part of the next decade for money to complete the work . When the state capital was moved to Lansing in 1847 , an improved road was needed to the capital city . The first segments of roadway were privatized starting in 1844 . In 1850 , the Michigan State Legislature established the Lansing and Howell Plank Road Company , which set about converting various Indian trails into the Lansing – Howell Plank Road , a task the company completed by 1853 . At Howell the road connected with the Detroit – Howell Plank Road , establishing the first improved connection direct from the state capital to Michigan 's largest metropolis . The Lansing – Detroit Plank Road was a toll road until the 1880s , and it eventually evolved into the eastern part of the modern Grand River Avenue .
By 1900 , only a short stretch of the Detroit – Howell Plank Road was still made of planks ; most of the other plank roads had been converted to gravel by this time . On May 13 , 1913 , the Michigan Legislature passed the State Reward Trunk Line Highway Act ( Public Act 334 of 1913 ) that created the original state highway system . In that act , Grand River Avenue between Detroit and Grand Rapids was included as Division 9 of the system . The state highways were signposted starting in 1919 , and on the first maps published on July 1 of that year , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) had applied the M @-@ 16 number to Grand River Avenue across the state between Grand Haven and Detroit . M @-@ 16 was rerouted in the Lansing area in 1925 , running along Grand River Avenue from Grand Ledge to East Lansing . The former routing through Downtown Lansing on Michigan Avenue became part of M @-@ 39 and the section north of Grand Ledge was eventually redesignated M @-@ 100 . A second realignment moved M @-@ 16 to follow Grand River Avenue from Ionia through Ada . The former alignment became a part of M @-@ 21 . On August 7 , 1926 , the state completed paving on M @-@ 16 , opening it to traffic as " the first paved highway across the state " .
The M @-@ 16 designation lasted for seven years . As the states were meeting with the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO , now AASHTO ) to plan the United States Numbered Highway System , the route of M @-@ 16 was originally planned for inclusion in US 18 . When the system was created on November 11 , 1926 , Grand River Avenue and M @-@ 16 became part of US 16 .
= = = US Highway to Interstate = = =
In 1929 , Allan Williams placed a picnic table on the side of the road along US 16 south of Saranac . Williams was the Ionia County engineer in charge of the various roads in the county , and that location is " what many consider to be the nation 's first roadside table " . The first change to the US 16 routing was made in 1933 when the highway was moved to bypass Farmington , with the old routing retained as a state highway . The next year , in 1934 , M @-@ 126 was created between Nunica and Muskegon . In 1940 , US 16 was rerouted to replace M @-@ 126 , and the former route of US 16 between Nunica and Grand Haven was redesignated M @-@ 104 . Two further changes during 1941 – 42 rerouted the western end in Muskegon to end at the car ferry docks . Previously , motorists had to navigate from the western end along other roads to the ferry connection to the rest of US 16 in Wisconsin . The second change routed Bypass US 16 ( Byp . US 16 ) along 28th Street and Wilson ( previously the South Beltline and West Beltline sections of M @-@ 114 ) in the Grand Rapids area . The US 16 designation was moved in 1953 to replace Byp . US 16 while the former routing through downtown Grand Rapids was redesignated Business US 16 ( Bus . US 16 ) .
MSHD had plans to upgrade the US 16 corridor to freeway standards in the middle of the 20th century . The first planning map in 1947 for what later became the Interstate Highway System showed a highway in the corridor . The General Location of National System of Interstate Highways Including All Additional Routes at Urban Areas Designated in September 1955 , showed generalized plans for the locations of Interstate Highways as designated in 1955 . This also included a highway in the US 16 corridor . The 1957 approval for the Interstate Highway System replaced the Grand Rapids – Detroit section of US 16 with a portion of Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) , with the remainder to be I @-@ 94N . MSHD submitted a recommended numbering plan for the Interstates in 1958 that showed I @-@ 96 following the US 16 corridor . When initially approved , the Muskegon – Grand Rapids segment of US 16 was to be numbered as I @-@ 196 while the remainder was part of I @-@ 96 .
Segments of the road were upgraded in 1956 between Coopersville and Marne , Portland and Eagle , and Brighton and Farmington . By 1962 , freeway construction allowed motorists to travel between Muskegon and the Lansing area on a freeway , bypassing the old Grand River Avenue route . The final connection between Lansing and Brighton was completed in late 1962 . At that time , the US 16 designation , which had been applied alongside the I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 196 designations , was decommissioned . Segments of the old highway were retained in the state highway system under different numbers . Sections through Portland , Lansing , Howell , Farmington and Detroit were given Business Loop ( BL ) or Business Spur ( BS ) I @-@ 96 designations . The section between Lansing and Webberville became part of an extended M @-@ 43 . Other sections in the Detroit area became parts of M @-@ 102 , M @-@ 5 , or unsigned state highway .
= = = Post @-@ Interstate era = = =
After US 16 was transferred to the new freeway , Grand River Avenue lost its state highway status along most of its length . Today the roadway remains the " Main Street " of over a dozen Michigan cities and a scenic route through one of the state 's most populated corridors . In 1995 , major reconstruction work along Grand River Avenue in East Lansing uncovered rotting logs , buried about 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) below the present grade , that had been used as underlayment for the plank road surface in a low , swampy area . The logs had been in place for nearly 150 years . In 2004 , the state transferred several blocks at the eastern end of Grand River Avenue to the City of Detroit . State trunkline control now ends at the corner of Grand River Avenue , Middle Street , and Cass Avenue .
Community leaders in Lansing have proposed renaming a section of Grand River Avenue in Old Town Lansing for César Chávez , the Mexican @-@ American civil rights activist . The group " Lansing for Cesar E. Chavez " was raising funds to rename the section between Oakland and Pine streets in Old Town . Previously , a section of Grand Avenue was renamed for Chávez in 1994 , but the voters overturned the decision . The renaming proposal was even mentioned as a way to untangle a maze of different branches of Grand River Avenue running through Old Town . Currently , East Grand River Avenue and North Grand River Avenue bridge between sections of Grand River Avenue , in addition to Grand Avenue which runs along the Grand River near downtown . While Lansing 's Latino community supported the proposal , the business community opposed it . One shop owner said she would have $ 10 @,@ 000 in costs associated with a name change , adding , " I think there 's many beautiful ways to honor such an incredible man . Changing five blocks of a street doesn 't seem to do justice . " Another business owner cited the work the Old Town Commercial Association has done to market the area using the Grand River Avenue name , marketing that would be useless after a name change . The compromise solution reached in August 2010 was to rename lot 56 , where Old Town holds festivals , to Cesar Chavez Plaza . Street signs would be installed marking parts of Grand River Avenue as Cesar E. Chavez Avenue , but only in a memorial capacity ; the street would still be officially named Grand River Avenue .
= = Memorial highway designations = =
Born in Grand Rapids in 1884 , Arthur H. Vandenberg was appointed to the United States Senate upon the death in office of Woodbridge N. Ferris in 1928 . Vandenberg , a Republican , served as a member of the " isolationist bloc " , and was an active opponent of the New Deal policies of Franklin D. Roosevelt . The senator declined a nomination for Vice President in 1936 . In the aftermath of World War II , Vandenberg 's world view changed significantly . He helped to draft the United Nations Charter and worked to secure is unanimous ratification in the Senate . He also worked to secure passage of the Marshall Plan and helped to establish the North Atlantic Treaty Organization . After his death in 1951 , Michigan residents wanted to memorialize Vandenberg . The following year , the Michigan Legislature dedicated the length of US 16 from Muskegon to Detroit as the Arthur Vandenberg Memorial Highway by enacting Public Act 70 of 1952 .
Vandenberg was not the only national figure honored with a memorial designation along the route of US 16 in Michigan . For a period from the 1930s through the 1950s , the highway used a few blocks of Washington Boulevard to connect between Grand River and Michigan avenues on its route through Detroit to its terminus at Cadillac Square . This street was named in honor of George Washington for his service as the " father of his country " . The street was named by Judge Woodward as a part of his general street plan for the city of Detroit in 1807 .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Related trunklines = =
= = = Grand Rapids bypass = = =
Bypass US Highway 16 ( Byp . US 16 ) was a bypass route of US 16 in the Grand Rapids area . The highway became a part of the state highway system c . 1930 as a part of M @-@ 114 , which was a beltline around the Grand Rapids area . By 1942 , the trunkline was completed and reassigned a Byp . US 16 designation along the southern and western legs . The designation connected to US 16 in Walker Township ( now the city of Walker ) and ran south along what is now Wilson Avenue over the Grand River into Grandville . From there it turned easterly along what is now 28th Street through Wyoming and Paris townships ( now the cities of Wyoming and Kentwood ) before terminating at US 16 in Cascade Township . The designation was used until the mainline US 16 was rerouted over the bypass in 1953 .
= = = Grand Rapids business loop = = =
Business US Highway 16 ( Bus . US 16 ) was a business route in the Grand Rapids area in the 1950s and 1960s . When US 16 was rerouted to replace Byp . US 16 around the southern and western sides of the city in 1953 , the former route of the mainline through downtown was redesignated as the business loop . That loop followed Remembrance Avenue southeasterly to Leonard Avenue in Walker Township . From there , the loop turned easterly on Leonard over the Grand River to Monroe Avenue before turning south parallel to the river along Monroe into downtown . In downtown Grand Rapids , Bus . US 16 turned eastward on Fulton Avenue into East Grand Rapids . There the loop followed Cascade Road into Cascade Township where it reconnected to US 16 at the intersection with 28th Street . Bus . US 16 lasted until 1962 when US 16 was decommissioned in Michigan .
= = = Farmington alternate route = = =
US Highway 16A ( US 16A ) was an alternate route for US 16 that bypassed Farmington . It was designated in 1933 for a new highway that bypassed downtown along what is now Freedom Road . In 1956 , the designation was decommissioned when mainline US 16 was rerouted out of downtown Farmington , replacing US 16A . At the same time , the former route of the mainline through downtown was redesignated Bus . US 16 .
= = = Farmington business loop = = =
Business US Highway 16 ( Bus . US 16 ) was a business loop through downtown Farmington along Grand River Avenue . Its western terminus was at the junction of US 16 and Grand River Avenue west of the city , and the eastern terminus was at the intersection between US 16 and Grand River Avenue southeast of Farmington . This highway was the original route of US 16 though downtown Farmington . In 1933 , US 16 was routed onto a bypass route which had been constructed south of the city ( the present @-@ day Freedom Road ) and the route through Farmington was retained as state trunkline . In 1956 , a new bypass freeway was built just to the south of the old bypass as part of the " Brighton – Farmington Expressway " and the route through downtown was designated Bus . US 16 . The original plans for I @-@ 96 called for it to replace US 16 and to run parallel to Grand River Avenue all the way from Farmington into downtown Detroit . In 1959 , the Farmington bypass freeway was given the I @-@ 96 designation in addition to the US 16 moniker , and the business route was redesignated as Business Loop I @-@ 96 two years later .
= 2008 Sichuan earthquake =
The 2008 Sichuan earthquake or the Great Sichuan earthquake , measured at 8 @.@ 0 Ms and 7 @.@ 9 Mw , and occurred at 02 : 28 : 01 PM China Standard Time at epicenter ( 06 : 28 : 01 UTC ) on May 12 in Sichuan province , killed 69 @,@ 197 people and left 18 @,@ 222 missing .
It is also known as the Wenchuan earthquake ( Chinese : 汶川大地震 ; pinyin : Wènchuān dà dìzhèn ; literally : " Great Wenchuan earthquake " ) , after the location of the earthquake 's epicenter , Wenchuan County , Sichuan . The epicenter was 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) west @-@ northwest of Chengdu , the provincial capital , with a focal depth of 19 km ( 12 mi ) . The earthquake was also felt in nearby countries and as far away as both Beijing and Shanghai — 1 @,@ 500 km ( 930 mi ) and 1 @,@ 700 km ( 1 @,@ 060 mi ) away — where office buildings swayed with the tremor . Strong aftershocks , some exceeding magnitude 6 , continued to hit the area even months after the main quake , causing new casualties and damage .
Official figures ( as of July 21 , 2008 12 : 00 CST ) stated that 69 @,@ 197 were confirmed dead , including 68 @,@ 636 in Sichuan province , and 374 @,@ 176 injured , with 18 @,@ 222 listed as missing . The earthquake left about 4 @.@ 8 million people homeless , though the number could be as high as 11 million . Approximately 15 million people lived in the affected area . It was the deadliest earthquake to hit China since the 1976 Tangshan earthquake , which killed at least 240 @,@ 000 people , and the strongest in the country since the 1950 Chayu earthquake , which registered at 8 @.@ 5 on the Richter magnitude scale . It is the 21st deadliest earthquake of all time . On November 6 , 2008 , the central government announced that it would spend 1 trillion RMB ( about US $ 146 @.@ 5 billion ) over the next three years to rebuild areas ravaged by the earthquake , as part of the Chinese economic stimulus program .
= = Effects of the earthquake = =
The earthquake had a magnitude of 8 @.@ 0 Ms and 7 @.@ 9 Mw . The epicenter was in Wenchuan County , Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture , 80 km west / northwest of the provincial capital of Chengdu , with its main tremor occurring at 14 : 28 : 01 @.@ 42 China Standard Time ( 06 : 28 : 01 @.@ 42 UTC ) , on May 12 , 2008 lasting for around 2 minutes ; in the quake almost 80 % of buildings were destroyed .
According to a study by the China Earthquake Administration ( CEA ) , the earthquake occurred along the Longmenshan fault , a thrust structure along the border of the Indo @-@ Australian Plate and Eurasian Plate . Seismic activities concentrated on its mid @-@ fracture ( known as Yingxiu @-@ Beichuan fracture ) . The rupture lasted close to 120 sec , with the majority of energy released in the first 80 sec . Starting from Wenchuan , the rupture propagated at an average speed of 3 @.@ 1 kilometers per second 49 ° toward north east , rupturing a total of about 300 km . Maximum displacement amounted to 9 meters . The focus was deeper than 10 km .
In a United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) study , preliminary rupture models of the earthquake indicated displacement of up to 9 meters along a fault approximately 240 km long by 20 km deep . The earthquake generated deformations of the surface greater than 3 meters and increased the stress ( and probability of occurrence of future events ) at the northeastern and southwestern ends of the fault . On May 20 , USGS seismologist Tom Parsons warned that there is " high risk " of a major M > 7 aftershock over the next weeks or months .
Japanese seismologist Yuji Yagi at the University of Tsukuba said that the earthquake occurred in two stages : " The 155 @-@ mile Longmenshan Fault tore in two sections , the first one ripping about seven yards , followed by a second one that sheared four yards . " His data also showed that the earthquake lasted about two minutes and released 30 times the energy of the Great Hanshin
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lit , cool in the summer and provided with several fireplaces for the winter months .
The entrance to the keep was located in an avant @-@ corps on the northern side , with a vaulted passageway between two gates leading from the outer courtyard to the inner rooms of the keep . The keep itself features just two round towers of 5 m diameter with square bases , both located on the western side and within the outer ward . The more southern of the two is almost totally ruined , probably as a result of Ibrahim Pasha 's destruction . The more exposed eastern and southern sides featured no towers . According to the historian Kevin Andrews , this is perhaps because they were judged to be adequately protected by the steep terrain .
The roof of the keep appears to have originally been sloping or gable @-@ shaped , with a chemin de ronde and parapet on its outer face , but was latter rebuilt with the outer wall raised and the roof replaced by the current , platform @-@ like terrace . Access to the roof is given via a staircase from the courtyard , immediately next to the main entrance into the keep , and by a spiral staircase , now collapsed , in the western corner . The inner parapet of the new roof survives , but few traces of the outer parapet remain , except for a few Ottoman @-@ era merlons . No provision appears to have been made for the installation of guns here .
= = = Architecture and importance = = =
Judging by the relative uniformity of construction , the castle of Chlemoutsi appears to have been built within a few years , c . 1220 – 23 . Most of the architectural elements found in the castle are typical of French 12th @-@ century architecture ; as K. Andrews writes , " lacking purely Gothic features , it appears to be more a transition from the Romanesque " . A few native Byzantine elements are also apparent , as in the impost blocks or in the use of local material .
Chlemoutsi remains " one of the most important and best @-@ preserved castles in Greece " ( A. Ralli ) , and maintains its Frankish character intact . After the Frankish period and the decline of its military importance , occupiers made few additions or alterations ; the Byzantine rule left no traces , and only the Ottomans made some minor repairs and modifications for artillery .
= Dibatag =
The dibatag ( Ammodorcas clarkei ) , or Clarke 's gazelle , is a medium @-@ sized slender antelope endemic to Ethiopia and Somalia . Though not a true gazelle , it is similarly marked , with long legs and neck . It is often confused with the gerenuk due to their striking resemblance . The typical head @-@ and @-@ body length is about 103 to 117 cm ( 41 to 46 in ) . They stand up to about 80 to 90 cm ( 31 to 35 in ) . Male dibatag weigh between 20 and 35 kg ( 44 and 77 lb ) , whereas females range from 22 and 29 kg ( 49 and 64 lb ) . The length of the curved horns , present only on males , is typically between 10 and 25 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 and 9 @.@ 8 in ) . The upper parts are gray to fawn , while the dorsal and lateral areas are cinnamon to rufous ( reddish brown ) . The underparts , rump and the insides of the legs are all white . While markings are visible on the face , there are none on the flanks or the buttocks .
Dibatag are alert and secretive , and their brown coat provides an excellent camouflage , making the dibatag one of the antelopes most difficult to hunt . They are diurnal animals , and navigate in very small herds . Both sexes attain sexual maturity at 12 to 18 months . The species is polygynous . After a gestational period of six to seven months , a single offspring is born . Parturition usually occurs from September to November . The lifespan typically averages 10 to 12 years . Dibatag may maintain temporary territories demarcated by preorbital gland secretions , urine or faeces . Primarily browsers , the dibatag feed on foliage and young shoots and shrubs . Dibatag are well adapted to semi @-@ arid habitats , with the capability of surviving on very little or no water .
Several factors including human settlement , habitat degradation , large numbers of livestock , political unrest and armed conflicts in the areas covering its range and lack of conservation measures for two to three decades in the late 20th century have now reduced the population to only a few thousands . Significant populations still occur in southern Ogaden ( Ethiopia ) . The dibatag is listed by the IUCN as " Vulnerable " .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The dibatag was first described in 1891 by British zoologist Oldfield Thomas , who he gave it the scientific name Ammodorcas clarkei . It is the sole member of the genus Ammodorcas , and is placed in the family Bovidae . Some authors such as Rod East of the IUCN SSC Antelope specialist group have classified it under a separate tribe Ammodorcadini . When Thomas first studied specimens from Somalia in 1891 , he observed that the animal seemed to combine the horns of a reedbuck with the characteristic features of a gazelle ( muzzle , facial markings and anteorbital glands ) . At first he considered it to be a reedbuck , though it appeared unnatural that a reedbuck should occur in the dry sandy plateau of Somalia . Thomas originally considered it a relative of the genus Redunca due to similarities in the morphology of horns , and placed it under the genus Cervicapra . However , after considering further specimens , he placed it under the separate genus Ammodorcas . No subspecies have been identified .
The dibatag , which holds its black tail straight up when it is fleeing , gets its common name from the Somali words for ' tail ' and ' erect ' : dabu and tag . The dibatag is also known as Clarke 's gazelle , after T. W. H. Clarke , an Australian big game hunter who collected the type specimen .
= = Description = =
The dibatag is a medium @-@ sized antelope with a slim body and long neck and legs . The typical head @-@ and @-@ body length is about 103 to 117 cm ( 41 to 46 in ) . It stands up to about 80 to 90 cm ( 31 to 35 in ) at the shoulder . The male weighs between 20 and 35 kg ( 44 and 77 lb ) , whereas the female ranges from 22 and 29 kg ( 49 and 64 lb ) . The long dark tail ends in a rounded but indistinct tassel . The tail is nearly 30 to 36 cm ( 12 to 14 in ) long . The curved horns , resembling those of reedbuck , are present only on males , with the pointing tips facing forward . The length of horns is typically between 10 and 25 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 and 9 @.@ 8 in ) , though Rowland Ward recorded a length of 33 cm ( 13 in ) from Somalia . This antelope is sexually dimorphic , because females tend to be smaller than males and lack horns .
The species has a small , flat , pointed , wedge @-@ shaped head with large eyes and medium @-@ sized ears . A similarity to the gazelles is the black , branched structure in the interior of the ears . The mouth is very small and the upper lip slightly elongated . There are strong facial markings resembling those of a gazelle . A chestnut brown streak runs from the crown up to the nostrils along the nose , flanked on both sides by parallel white stripes that circle the eyes . A white spot marks the throat . The soft and smooth coat is gray to fawn in the upper parts . The ventral side , rump and the insides of the legs are completely white , and the flanks and the buttocks are unmarked .
The dibatag closely resembles the gerenuk , with which it is sympatric in eastern and central Somalia and southeastern Ethiopia . Both are brachyodonts and share several facial and cranial features , along with a two @-@ tone colouration of the pelage and strong thick horns ( only in males ) . However , there are also some features distinguishing it from the gerenuk , including major morphological differences in horns , horn cores , tail , postorbital area and basioccipital processes . The gerenuk has a longer , heavier neck and a shorter tail . A finer point of difference is the absence of a inward @-@ curving lobe in the lower edge of the ear ( near its tip ) in the gerenuk .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
Dibatag are diurnal animals ( they are active in the daytime ) . They navigate either in solitude or in very small herds , resembling the social behaviour of the gerenuk . Singles and pairs are most common , though groups of up to six individuals have been reported . Generally groups of over four individuals are rarely observed . The reaction of dibatag towards gerenuk is obscure , with there being reports of their loose associations as well as avoidance of each other . These territorial animals may maintain temporary territories demarcated by preorbital gland secretions , urine or faeces . They defecate at fixed points and form dung piles . Males fight one another to defend their territory . Sparring is a notable part of fighting behaviour : one male pushes and shoves against the neck and horns of the opponent , trying to throw him off balance . The stance is head down with the nose tucked between the forelegs for protection .
Dibatag are well adapted to semi @-@ arid habitats , with the capability of surviving on very little or no water . They meet most water requirements only from food . Their long neck and limbs enable them to place their forelegs on branches and reach higher branches . The brown pelage helps them hide in bushes . Alert and secretive , the dibatag hides in vegetation and remains motionless while watching for possible threats . When alarmed it flees in a slow and relaxed manner with the neck upright and tail erect . The antelope may even resort to stotting ( a behavior particular to the gazelles ) , a kind of leaping with all four limbs in the air , but this gait is most often used during play . It gallops only when in real danger . Predators include the cheetah , lion , spotted hyaena , black @-@ backed jackal , caracal , Cape hunting dog and large eagles . Eagles usually target juveniles .
= = = Diet = = =
The dibatag is a typical browser , whose diet consists of foliage and young shoots and shrubs . It limits itself to a small area for foraging . Dibatag have hardly been observed drinking water in the wild . The elongated upper lip assists in the ingestion of thorny vegetation , while leaves are plucked off by the front teeth and mobile lips . They prefer Commiphora , Acacia , Boscia , Dichrostachys and Maerua species . They often gather in areas with leafy Commiphora stands due to the high water content of their leaves and shoots . In the rainy season young soft grasses are preferred , while in the dry season they feed on fry fruits , flowers , buds , shrubs and tall herbs . They choose a wide variety of species for browsing , hence no clear diet specialisation is identified .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Both sexes attain sexual maturity at 12 to 18 months . The species is polygynous . Rutting appears to be related to the onset of the wet season in several parts of the range . Observations in the Naples Zoo show much similarity between the courtship behaviour of the dibatag and that of the gerenuk . The male dibatag pursues the female ; during the march his body is upright and the nose is held high . The male uses preorbital gland secretions to mark the female on her chest and rump . Flehmen , leg @-@ tapping , urine testing and nosing of female genitalia are notable features of the courtship . Once in close contact with the female , he slowly raises his foreleg between her hindlegs ; this is followed by copulation .
After a gestational period of six to seven months , a single offspring is born . Parturition usually occurs from September to November , though births have been reported even in June and July . The infant remains in hiding for one or two weeks , with its mother close by . No further information of parental care is available . The lifespan of a dibatag averages 10 to 12 years .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Dibatag inhabit a mix of different habitat types . They may occasionally visit treelands . They are thought to be more commonly found in areas where Commiphora shrubs grow . They occur within the altitude range of 200 to 1 @,@ 200 m ( 660 to 3 @,@ 940 ft ) . Habitat preference does not vary significantly with seasons . A study published in 1972 found a greater number of the dibatag in areas rich in red soil .
The dibatag is endemic to the evergreen bushland of the Ogaden region of southeastern Ethiopia and adjoining parts in northern and central Somalia . In the past their range extended from the southern parts of northern Somalia through southeastern Ethiopia and central Somalia ( between the coastline of the Indian Ocean and bounded by the Fafen River in the west and the Shebelle River in the southwest ) . Rock paintings of two dibatag were discovered on the west bank of the river Nile and north of the Aswan Dam in Egypt , suggesting a southward migration of the species in the Predynastic period in Egypt .
Nowadays , however , the dibatag has disappeared from majority of its historical range . From 1985 to 2006 , over two decades , the overall decline has been estimated at more than 30 percent of the original population . In the northern Ogaden , the animal has become very rare owing to high density of human settlements and large numbers of armed pastoralists and their livestock . However , in the southern Ogaden it is still common due to greater wealth of natural flora and fewer human settlements .
= = Threats and conservation = =
Droughts and habitat degradation are the major threats across the range . In Somalia , conservation measures have been hindered by lack of political stability due to conflicts over two to three decades in the latter half of the 20th century . During this period its habitat was adversely affected by over @-@ exploitation of wildlife , prevalence of weapons and deforestation . In Ethiopia hunting is the most severe threat to the dibatag ; locals have claimed that dibatag meat is preferred due to its excellent taste . However its brown pelage and alertness and timidity make hunting for it in dense bushes considerably difficult compared to other antelopes .
The dibatag has been identified as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) . It has not been listed under the Washington Convention ( CITES ) . There are no protected areas in its range . No population estimates or surveys could be made in the three decades from 1960s to the 1990s due to political unrest and armed conflicts in the areas covering the range . The total surviving population is not known . In 1998 , Rod East gave an estimate that the populations must be in only a few thousands given a total remaining range of 10 @,@ 000 km2 ( 3 @,@ 900 sq mi ) and a population density of 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 3 per square kilometre . In 2006 , the population in Ogaden was estimated at 1 @,@ 500 . The scenario is grim in Somalia : the dibatag have been overhunted , and their habitat faces destruction due to farming practices such as livestock grazing . They are also threatened by drought . It had nearly disappeared from most of the country by the early 1980s . Though locals claimed to have seen it in the central coastal hinterland even in the late 1980s , no clear surveys have been conducted since then to support this . Captive populations are not known .
= Admiral Clarey Bridge =
Admiral Clarey Bridge , also known as the Ford Island Bridge , is a pontoon bridge , commonly called a floating concrete drawbridge , providing access to Ford Island , a United States Navy installation situated in the middle of Pearl Harbor . The bridge provides access to Ford Island 's historic sites to the public via tour bus and provides access to O 'ahu for US military families housed on the island . Before the completion of the bridge , the island 's residents were required to use ferry boats operated by Naval personnel that operated on an hourly basis . The bridge is one of only a few floating bridges and its floating moveable span is the largest worldwide . Its namesake , Admiral Bernard A. Clarey , was one of the Navy 's most decorated officers .
= = History = =
Prior to the bridge being built , access to Ford Island was provided via ferryboats . Two diesel @-@ powered ferries served the island , Waa Hele Honoa ( YFB @-@ 83 ) and Moko Holo Hele ( YFB @-@ 87 ) . The Waa Hele Honoa , translated to " Canoe go to land " , was purchased in 1959 for $ 274 @,@ 000 . Later , the ferry was pressed into service by the Navy on 3 March 1961 . It is the older and larger of the two ferries at 181 feet long . It could carry 750 people and 33 vehicles . The other , Moko Holo Hele , translated to " boat go back and forth " , was purchased for $ 1 @.@ 1 million on 25 May 1970 . It is 162 feet long , but can hold 750 people and 42 vehicles . Both ferries were operated by U.S. Navy personnel . Access to the island was restricted to U.S. military personnel , their dependents , and invited guests . In addition to the two car ferries there were several smaller " foot ferries " that allowed pedestrians to transit between Ford Island and several alternate landings around Pearl Harbor .
= = = Funding = = =
Proposals to connect the island had been around since 1967 . A 1967 study suggested that there were only three ways to connect the island : a bridge , a tunnel , or a rubble @-@ filled causeway . The 1976 military construction budget included a proposal for a $ 25 million causeway but it was removed from the budget for being too expensive . Other proposals such as a steel bridge were considered but were never constructed because of the cost . Not until Sen. Inouye 's special legislation , 10 U.S.C. § 2814 , to authorize the Navy to sell land to fund the bridge did a real proposal come to fruition . The bridge was primarily funded through the " Manana deal " with Pearl City where the Navy sold 109 acres ( 44 ha ) , called the Manana storage site , to Pearl City for development for $ 94 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The Navy was also able to lease and sell 34 acres ( 14 ha ) of Ford Island as part of Sen. Inouye 's renovation project to use private funds to redevelop the island .
= = = Rebirth of Ford Island = = =
Initially termed " the bridge to nowhere " , the Admiral Clarey bridge was instrumental in Senator Daniel Inouye 's " rebirth " of Ford Island and enabled over $ 500 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in development on the island . It connected 45 families and 3 @,@ 000 civilian workers to Kamehameha Highway . The completion of the bridge also enabled the Navy to further develop the island to include the $ 331 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 NOAA 's Senator Daniel Inouye Pacific Tsunami warning center . In addition , visitor access to the island with the bridge enabled the construction of the $ 50 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 16 @-@ acre ( 6 @.@ 5 ha ) Pacific Aviation Museum .
It was designed by Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglas , Inc and constructed by the joint venture of Dillingham @-@ Manson . Ground was broken on the causeway bridge on 10 January 1996 and was completed in 1998 and dedicated on 15 April of that year . The entire project cost $ 78 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to complete . The design of the bridge earned the 1999 American Society of Civil Engineers Outstanding Projects and leaders award of merit and the United States Department of Transportation 2000 Honor Award for design excellence . The project was completed ahead of time and under budget .
Future plans for the bridge include a plan by the city of Honolulu to build a second bridge from Ford Island to ' Ewa Beach to reduce the stress on existing highways caused by high traffic and congestion . Currently , Interstate H @-@ 1 provides the only access from the west side of the island to Honolulu . The plan would include a public use or toll roadway that would come near the Navy 's West Loch Naval Magazine , which stores ammunition for the military ; a concern for the Navy . The Navy also expressed concerns about the infrastructure of Pearl Harbor and Ford Island 's historical significance being affected by the project .
= = Design = =
The bridge has a total length of 4 @,@ 672 ft ( 1 @,@ 424 m ) , including a 930 ft ( 280 m ) pontoon section that can be retracted under the fixed bridge to allow the largest battleships and aircraft carriers to pass . The bridge consists of a 650 @-@ foot ( 200 m ) wide channel as well as a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) wide 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) high opening for smaller craft under an elevated span . The entry control point at the east end of the bridge provides room for two traffic lanes of entry , a single exit lane , and a guard tower with a turnaround .
= = = Design – build = = =
The project was developed using a design – build , operate and maintain ( DBOM ) approach . The Navy did pre @-@ planning and conducted an environmental impact statement and studied various bridge alternatives and had already settled on a combination fixed and floating bridge . The Navy then awarded contracts of $ 350 @,@ 000 to three major contractors to solicit designs for the bridge . On 19 August 1994 the Navy awarded a design @-@ build contract to Dillingham @-@ Manson , JV .
= = = Construction = = =
350 to 400 24 @-@ inch prestressed concrete piles were used to support the bridge and constructed on site . The piles were driven at angles 137 feet ( 42 m ) into the seabed . In 2001 , three years after construction had completed , cracks were discovered in four pillars . Under a maintenance contract , the cracks were repaired with concrete sleeves at no cost to the Navy .
The majority of the pre @-@ cast girders and deck panels were constructed in Tacoma , Washington and shipped by 300 @-@ foot ( 91 m ) barge . The three concrete pontoons for the floating moveable span were also constructed in Tacoma by Concrete Technology Corporation in a graving dock and floated to Ford Island by barge in three shipments . They are 310 feet ( 94 m ) long , 50 feet ( 15 m ) wide , and 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) tall , and contain 21 water @-@ tight air @-@ filled cells with leak detectors to provide buoyancy . The three sections were assembled at the site using large steel bolts .
Because of the vulnerability of pontoon bridges , as they rest on water , they have to be designed to withstand not only stresses from traffic but from nature as well . A similar bridge in Washington , the Hood Canal bridge , sank in 1979 after flooding of the pontoons due to 80 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 130 km / h ) winds . Experience from the replacement for that bridge helped engineers better design the pontoons for wave load resistance for the Admiral Clarey bridge . The Admiral Clarey bridge was designed to withstand winds as high as 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) and waves as high as 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) .
= = = Moveable span = = =
The bridge was designed with a movable floating pontoon . Steel transition spans connect the two ends of the fixed bridge to the pontoon . Two hydraulic rams , located on either side of the transition spans , lift the transition spans off the pontoon allowing the pontoon to retract under the fixed bridge . The transition spans accommodate 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of tide movement and 4 @.@ 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) of pontoon movement . In addition , the spans sit on a central pivot that assists with the movement caused by waves . In the event that the transition spans are unable to bear the stress of movement of the pontoon , specifically in the case of seismic activity , the bridge has a breakaway feature that can be easily repaired .
The floating portion is then retracted under the O 'ahu side of the fixed bridge at a rate of 14 inches per second to create a 650 ft navigation channel . The entire process takes 25 minutes to complete . Retraction of the movable span is accomplished by two hydraulic winches located on the control pier on the southeast side of the bridge . Two @-@ inch steel cables are used to connect each winch to the pontoon : one is connected to the far and the other to the near end of the pontoon . The opening sequence consists of activating the warning lights and bells , lowering the warning gates and barriers , lifting the transition spans on both sides , and operating the winches . During the opening , winch connected to the west end pulls while the winch on the east end pays out . As the span nears fully open , the winch speeds are slowed to allow the pontoon to stop without snapping a cable . This entire operation is operated from a control room on the east section of the bridge at the highest point and monitored from wireless cameras . 36 post @-@ tensioned straddle bents span 60 @-@ ft under the elevated span to form a pocket for the movable span to rest while the bridge is open .
= = Public reception = =
Although access to the bridge is limited to those who hold a US military ID card , several events are hosted annually that are open to the public . The bridge is the location of the annual Ford Island 10K Bridge run which has been one of the largest runs in O 'ahu . Starting in 2012 , the Tripler Fisher House started its " Boots on the Bridge " event which honors fallen military members by placing boots with photos across Ford Island and the Admiral Clarey Bridge . More than 6 @,@ 000 boots line the route to remember each fallen soldier since the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City . In 2009 , the American Cancer Society raised over $ 150 @,@ 000 from 3 @,@ 000 participating for breast cancer research through the Making Strides Against Breast Cancer walk over the bridge and in 2011 had over 8 @,@ 000 participants and raised over $ 200 @,@ 000 .
National Park Service officials criticized the construction of the Admiral Clarey bridge fearing that by connecting road traffic to the mainland , the increased flow of island visitors would raise the level of theft of historical artifacts from the USS Arizona and other memorials on or around Ford Island .
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , which has a facility on Ford Island , criticized the US Navy 's hurricane and tsunami disaster plans which calls for closing the bridge to traffic and opening the channel to allow all ships to vacate the harbor . The NOAA 's concerns were that with the bridge outage , the tsunami warning center would not be able to operate effectively at a time when its need was greatest . The Navy 's plan calls for the use of the tour boats to act as ferries whenever the bridge would be unavailable for long periods of time and offered them as a solution to the NOAA 's concerns . However , an organization called Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility ( PEER ) believed that the boats would be unable to provide for a speedy evacuation in a Tsunami . In the event of a storm , PEER also noted that if the Navy was so concerned that they would evacuate their largest ships , that the small ferries would be unable to operate in those storm conditions . If the ferries were unable to operate , NOAA employees could not rotate shifts with fresh staff to relieve stranded employees sheltering in place . The NOAA assured its employees that a Tsunami affecting Ford Island was unlikely despite that O 'ahu is an area of high tsunami danger .
= = Namesake = =
The Admiral Clarey bridge was named after United States Navy Admiral Bernard A. Clarey . Admiral Clarey served as Commander U.S. Second Fleet ( COMSECONDFLT ) and later was Commander U.S. Pacific Fleet . He was awarded three Navy Crosses for valor . Admiral Clarey is a survivor of the attack on Pearl Harbor while he was the executive officer of the submarine Dolphin ( SS @-@ 169 ) . After his service in the Navy , Clarey served as vice president for the Bank of Hawaii . He died at Tripler Army Medical Center in Hawaii on 15 June 1996 .
= = Memorials = =
The submarine Bowfin lies just south of the sentry tower . Visible from the Admiral Clarey bridge , also to the south but on the Ford Island side , are the USS Arizona Memorial and USS Missouri . While ferry boats still provide access to the USS Arizona memorial , the bridge is the only access to the Missouri tour , the USS Oklahoma memorial , the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor , and USS Utah for the public via Roberts Hawaii tour bus .
The Navy Facilities Engineering Command required that the bridge be low @-@ profile to prevent any visual degradation to the USS Arizona memorial and to maintain Ford Island 's historical and cultural value .
= RAF Eastcote =
RAF Eastcote , also known over time as RAF Lime Grove , HMS Pembroke V and Outstation Eastcote , was a Ministry of Defence site in Eastcote , within the London Borough of Hillingdon .
The British Government first used the site during the Second World War , constructing a military hospital in preparation for casualties from the D @-@ Day landings . They were not required for the purpose and later became an outstation of the Bletchley Park codebreaking operations . During this time , Royal Air Force technicians and Navy Wrens supported the operations . The outstation closed soon after the end of the war , though became the first headquarters of Government Communications Headquarters ( GCHQ ) , when the Bletchley Park codebreaking operations , including two Colossus computers , were moved there and renamed in 1946 . These remained at Eastcote until 1954 when the new agency moved to its purpose @-@ built headquarters in Cheltenham .
Other buildings on the site were used by the General Post Office and to support the United States Air Forces in Europe 's ( USAFE ) Third Air Force and 7th Air Division ( SAC ) activities at RAF South Ruislip .
As part of the Ministry of Defence 's Project MoDEL , the site became surplus to military requirements and was sold in 2007 to be redeveloped for new housing . The site was cleared in 2008 and a total of 385 new homes were approved for construction . The name for the development , Pembroke Park , was chosen to reflect the heritage of the site .
= = History = =
Before coming under the ownership of the British Government , the land the site was built on was mainly open fields . A public footpath dating from around 1565 crossed the area from Eastcote High Road to Field End Road . In 1911 , cricket matches were played on the field by the Eastcote Institute .
During the Second World War , the land was requisitioned by the Government from the owners , Telling Brothers . The first buildings on the site were constructed for use as a military hospital in preparation for military casualties from the Normandy landings . Subsequently , it became clear they would not be required for that purpose and became barracks for Navy Wrens . Bletchley Park established an outpost at the Eastcote site , known during the Second World War as HMS Pembroke V , to house some of the Bombe codebreaker machines used to decode German Enigma messages . A total of 100 machines were operated at Eastcote , controlled by 800 Wrens and 100 RAF technicians . A detachment of American personnel were stationed in a separate area , operating their own Bombe machines .
The site was split into two blocks : A and B. Block A was sited near Lime Grove and housed personnel accommodation and administrative services , while Block B was protected by brick walls and military police since it contained the codebreaking computers . The public footpath passed between the two blocks . The level of security meant that support staff in the administrative block did not know of the activities in Block B , nor did local residents .
At the end of the war in 1945 , the Bombes were dismantled by the Wrens to be recycled , maintaining the secrecy of the operations . The operations at Bletchley Park under the name " Government Code and Cypher School " ( GCCS ) moved to Eastcote on 1 April 1946 . The Crown purchased the estate in 1947 . Eastcote 's proximity to Whitehall meant staff were not far from London , and the site became known as the " London Signals Intelligence Centre " . Six years later , in July 1952 , GCCS became " Government Communications Headquarters " ( GCHQ ) and began to move from Eastcote to new purpose @-@ built buildings in Cheltenham . The move was completed in February 1954 .
Aside from the GCCS operations , the General Post Office ( GPO ) established a training school , and a women 's teacher training college was opened in 1948 . The Ministry of Aviation also opened the Navaid training school on part of the site . The GPO had blocks built in the south @-@ east area of the site , and other blocks were adapted from their original conditions for new uses . The CTS division of GCHQ remained on the site within Blocks C and D until 1987 . Aerial masts which had been erected by the division became unusable after the nearby train line was electrified , and were removed the year CTS left .
In 1949 the United States Air Force established a non @-@ flying base at RAF South Ruislip to coordinate the USAFE 's Third Air Force and 7th Air Division ( SAC ) activities in Great Britain with the British Government . A school for the children of American service personnel was established on the Eastcote site in the 1950s . In the 1960s , this was joined by veterinary , dental , and mental health clinics , and also by a morgue .
The United States military continued to use buildings on the site until the closure in 2007 .
= = Redevelopment = =
The 19 @-@ acre ( 77 @,@ 000 m2 ) site was the first to be sold as part of the Ministry of Defence 's Project MoDEL ( Ministry of Defence Estates London ) , a programme to reduce the number of military sites in the Greater London area . George Wimpey purchased the site in 2007 , planning to build 385 new homes . The entire site was cleared in 2008 and building commenced .
George Wimpey became Taylor Wimpey through a corporate merger and submitted an application in 2010 to build a further 15 homes on the site . A report by the London Borough of Hillingdon 's planning department rejected the proposal in December that year on the grounds that the site was already overdeveloped . Local residents had raised this concern in November that year , which the leader of the council explained was out of the council 's control due to planning laws .
As of May 2011 the new development has not been completed entirely , although residents began to move into the first of the newly built houses in December 2009 . The development has been named " Pembroke Park " in recognition of the heritage of the site ; roads and the play area also received names related to the wartime codebreaking that went on there .
= Amanita daucipes =
Amanita daucipes is a species of fungus in the Amanitaceae family of the Agaricales order of mushrooms . Found exclusively in North America , the mushroom may be recognized in the field by the medium to large white caps with pale orange tints , and the dense covering of pale orange or reddish @-@ brown powdery conical warts on the cap surface . The mushroom also has a characteristic large bulb at the base of its stem with a blunt short rooting base , whose shape is suggestive of the common names carrot @-@ footed Lepidella , carrot @-@ foot Amanita , or turnip @-@ foot Amanita . The mushroom has a strong odor that has been described variously as " sweet and nauseous " , or compared to an old ham bone , or soap . Edibility is unknown for the species , but consumption is generally not recommended due its position in the Amanita subgroup Lepidella , which contains some poisonous members .
= = Taxonomy = =
Amanita daucipes was first described in 1856 by the mycologists Miles Joseph Berkeley and Camille Montagne , who named it Agaricus daucipes . It was later renamed to Amanitopsis daucipes by Pier Andrea Saccardo , in 1887 . In 1899 , American mycologist Curtis Gates Lloyd transferred the species to the genus Amanita . It is in the section Lepidella of the genus Amanita , in the subgenus Lepidella , a grouping of related Amanita mushrooms characterized by their amyloid spores . Other North American species in this subgenus include A. abrupta , A. atkinsoniana , A. chlorinosma , A. cokeri , A. mutabilis , A. onusta , A. pelioma , A. polypyramis , A. ravenelii and A. rhopalopus . Its common names include the " carrot @-@ foot Amanita " , the " turnip @-@ foot Amanita " , or the " carrot @-@ footed Lepidella " . The specific epithet daucipes means " carrot foot " .
= = Description = =
The caps of the fruit bodies initially have a convex shape before flattening out in maturity , and measure 6 to 25 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 9 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter . The cap surface is dry to shiny , and white with a pale orange hue . It is densely covered with white to pale orange or reddish brown conical warts . The warts , remnants of the universal veil , are randomly distributed on the cap surface and become fluffier and cotton @-@ like ( flocculent ) near the edge ( or margin ) of the cap . Drier specimens may have the cap surface completely cracked around the bases of the individual warts .
The conical warts are detersile , meaning they may be easily removed from the cap surface without leaving a residue or a scar . The margin of the cap does not have striations , and like other Lepidella members , may have irregular veil remnants hanging from it . The gills are free , crowded closely together , moderately narrow , and white to yellowish white in color . The short gills that do not extend the full distance from the stem to the cap edge ( known as lamellulae ) are rounded to attenuate ( gradually narrowing ) , and of varying lengths .
The stem is 7 @.@ 5 to 20 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) long , 0 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , and is attached to the center of the cap . It tapers slightly towards the apex , and is solid , dry , white or sometimes with a pale orange tint , and covered with tufts of soft woolly hairs . If handled , the stem will slowly bruise and discolor to approximately the same color as the cap . The basal bulb is large , reaching up to 15 by 12 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 by 4 @.@ 7 in ) , and is broadly spindle- to turnip @-@ shaped . The bulb has a circular ridge on its upper part where the universal veil was previously attached , and the bulb may have longitudinal splits . It is covered with pinkish to reddish veil remains . The partial veil forms an ephemeral ring on the upper part of the stem . It is white to pale yellow , and usually falls off as the cap expands ; fragments of the ring may often be found lying on the ground near the base of the stem . The universal veil remnants , when present , are similar to that on the cap . The flesh is firm and white . Fruit bodies have an odor that is strong and unpleasant , described as " sweet and nauseous " . The odor has also been compared to that of " an old ham bone or soap " or " decaying protein " , especially older specimens .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
Viewed in deposit , such as with a spore print , the spores of A. daucipes are white , cream , or yellowish in color . Viewed with a microscope , they have an ellipsoid to elongate shape ( sometimes kidney @-@ shape , or reniform ) , and dimensions of 8 – 11 by 5 – 7 µm . They are translucent ( hyaline ) , with thin walls , and are amyloid , meaning that they absorb iodine when stained Melzer 's reagent . The basidia ( the spore @-@ bearing cells ) are 30 – 50 by 7 – 11 µm , club @-@ shaped , and 4 @-@ spored , with clamps at their bases . The cheilocystidia are abundant , small , roughly spherical to club @-@ shaped cells , with dimensions of 15 – 40 by 10 – 28 µm . The cap cuticle is between 75 and 180 µm thick , and consists of a dense layer of thin @-@ walled , interwoven , and slightly gelatinized hyphae that are 2 – 5 µm in diameter . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of this species .
= = = Edibility = = =
The edibility of A. daucipes is unknown , but the mushroom is not recommended for consumption because the Lepidella section of Amanita also contains several poisonous species .
= = = Similar species = = =
Amanita daucipes is superficially similar to another related North American species , the chlorine Lepidella ( A. chlorinosma ) , but may be distinguished from the latter by its color and the large basal bulb . Further , A. daucipes has " tougher , more distinct volval scales that are tinged with orange @-@ yellow to orange @-@ brown or light reddish @-@ brown . "
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Amanita daucipes is a mycorrhizal species , and its fruit bodies may be found growing solitary or scattered on the ground in mixed coniferous and deciduous forests ( especially those dominated by oak trees ) in Maryland , North Carolina , New Jersey , Ohio , Pennsylvania , Tennessee , Virginia , West Virginia , Kentucky , and Texas ; other associated tree species include hickory ( genus Carya ) and birch ( Betula ) . A predilection for disturbed soil , such as roadsides , has been noted . Amanita authority Cornelis Bas , writing in his extensive 1969 monograph on the genus , claimed A. daucipes to be a rare species ; subsequent investigations have shown it to be common in oak forests in the eastern United States . The southern end of its distribution extends to Sonora , Mexico .
= Marco Polo =
Marco Polo ( / ˈmɑːrkoʊ ˈpoʊloʊ / ; Italian pronunciation : [ ˈmarko ˈpɔːlo ] ; 1254 – January 8 – 9 , 1324 ) was a Venetian merchant traveller whose travels are recorded in Livres des merveilles du monde ( Book of the Marvels of the World , also known as The Travels of Marco Polo , c . 1300 ) , a book that introduced Europeans to Central Asia and China .
He learned the mercantile trade from his father and uncle , Niccolò and Maffeo , who travelled through Asia and met Kublai Khan . In 1269 , they returned to Venice to meet Marco for the first time . The three of them embarked on an epic journey to Asia , returning after 24 years to find Venice at war with Genoa ; Marco was imprisoned and dictated his stories to a cellmate . He was released in 1299 , became a wealthy merchant , married , and had three children . He died in 1324 and was buried in the church of San Lorenzo in Venice .
Marco Polo was not the first European to reach China ( see Europeans in Medieval China ) , but he was the first to leave a detailed chronicle of his experience . This book inspired Christopher Columbus and many other travellers . There is a substantial literature based on Polo 's writings ; he also influenced European cartography , leading to the introduction of the Fra Mauro map .
= = Life = =
= = = Family origin = = =
Marco Polo was born in 1254 in Venice Republic . His exact date and place of birth are archivally unknown . Some historians mentioned that he was born on September 15 but that date is not endorsed by mainstream scholarship . Marco Polo 's birthplace is generally considered Venice , but also varies between Constantinople , and the island of Korčula . There is dispute as to whether the Polo family is of Venetian origin , as Venetian historical sources considered them to be of Dalmatian origin .
The first recorded Polo is Venetian Domenico Polo who was mentioned in 971 regarding the prohibition of trade with the Arabs . Later other Polos were also mentioned in the service of the realm . Whether they were related with the family of Marco Polo is uncertain , but this could indicate that his ancestors traveled between Venice and Dalmatia .
Some of the first indications of where his family originated and were resident come from Venetian documents and manuscripts . In the 1280 testament of Marco Polo 's homonymous uncle it is said that the uncle previously lived in Constantinople , and that his son Nicollo and daughter Marota at the time of testament lived in family house in Soldaia ( in Crimea ) . Some scholars argued that this account could go along with the note from Il Milione that his father and uncle , Niccolò and Maffeo Polo , in 1250 stayed in Constantinople with merchandise from Venice .
The non @-@ Venetian i.e. Dalmatian origin of his family was considered by the Venetians themselves since the 14th century ; in the Chronicon Iustiniani ( 1385 ) his family was mentioned among immigrants in Venice , in the Cronaca di Venezia ( 1446 ) along his family coat of arms it states " antigamente vene de Dalmatia " ( in ancient times came from Dalmatia ) , and the same again was recorded by Marino Sanuto the Younger in Le Vite dei Dogi ( 1552 ) . Sanuto also mentioned a captain from Korčula , Antonio di Polo . Marco Barbaro in his Genealogie Patrizie ( 1566 ) mentioned a document from 1033 by which time the family arrived from Šibenik , but the year was probably symbolically chosen by Barbaro himself as in that is the year that Dalmatian cities were conquered by Venetian Doge Pietro II Orseolo . Arthur C. Moule cited two early 17th century Venetian manuscripts " questi ueneno de dalmatia " , " Polo questi uene de Dalmatia " .
Scholars etymologically argued that his family name derives from Latin Paulus , the name of a certain bird species , or like Albert t 'Serstevens considered - from Eastern origin . By the scholars is related to the three bird specifes who in Old Croatian dialect from Poljica were called pol , while in the Old Venetian dialect pola / pole ; for the shorebird wader , and the jackdaw or chough , with all fitting the representation of the bird ( s ) in family coat of arms ( compared to Italian pollo , rooster ) . However , the habitat of the shorebird is non @-@ existent on Korčula , and should be related to Venice laguna or wetland areas of Dalmatia like that of Šibenik . The surname Polo seems related with other widespread Dalmatian surnames . The lack of evidence makes the Korčula theory ( probably under Ramusio influence ) as a specific birthplace strongly disputed , and even some Croatian scholars consider it justly invented .
= = = Early life and Asian travel = = =
In 1168 , his great @-@ uncle , Marco Polo , borrowed money and commanded a ship in Constantinople . His grandfather , Andrea Polo of the parish of San Felice , had three sons , Maffeo , yet another Marco , and the travelers father Niccolò . This genealogy , described by Ramusio , is not universally accepted as there 's no additional evidence to support it .
His father , Niccolò Polo , a merchant , traded with the Near East , becoming wealthy and achieving great prestige . Niccolò and his brother Maffeo set off on a trading voyage before Marco 's birth . In 1260 , Niccolò and Maffeo , while residing in Constantinople , then the capital of the Latin Empire , foresaw a political change ; they liquidated their assets into jewels and moved away . According to The Travels of Marco Polo , they passed through much of Asia , and met with the Kublai Khan , a Mongol ruler and founder of the Yuan dynasty . Their decision to leave Constantinople proved timely . In 1261 Michael VIII Palaiologos , the ruler of the Empire of Nicaea , took Constantinople , promptly burned the Venetian quarter and re @-@ established the Eastern Roman Empire . Captured Venetian citizens were blinded , while many of those who managed to escape perished aboard overloaded refugee ships fleeing to other Venetian colonies in the Aegean Sea .
Almost nothing is known about the childhood of Marco Polo until he was fifteen years old , excepting that he probably spent part of his childhood in Venice . Meanwhile , Marco Polo 's mother died , and an aunt and uncle raised him . He received a good education , learning mercantile subjects including foreign currency , appraising , and the handling of cargo ships ; he learned little or no Latin . His father later married with Floradise Polo ( née Trevisan ) .
In 1269 , Niccolò and Maffeo returned to their families in Venice , meeting young Marco for the first time . In 1271 , during the rule of Doge Lorenzo Tiepolo , Marco Polo ( at seventeen years of age ) , his father , and his uncle set off for Asia on the series of adventures that Marco later documented in his book . They returned to Venice in 1295 , 24 years later , with many riches and treasures . They had travelled almost 15 @,@ 000 miles ( 24 @,@ 000 km ) .
= = = Genoese captivity and later life = = =
Marco Polo returned to Venice in 1295 with his fortune converted in gemstones . At this time , Venice was at war with the Republic of Genoa . Polo armed a galley equipped with a trebuchet to join the war . He was probably caught by Genoans in a skirmish in 1296 , off the Anatolian coast between Adana and the Gulf of Alexandretta and not during the battle of Curzola ( September 1298 ) , off the Dalmatian coast . The latter claim is due to a later tradition ( 16th Century ) recorded by Giovanni Battista Ramusio .
He spent several months of his imprisonment dictating a detailed account of his travels to a fellow inmate , Rustichello da Pisa , who incorporated tales of his own as well as other collected anecdotes and current affairs from China . The book soon spread throughout Europe in manuscript form , and became known as The Travels of Marco Polo . It depicts the Polos ' journeys throughout Asia , giving Europeans their first comprehensive look into the inner workings of the Far East , including China , India , and Japan .
Polo was finally released from captivity in August 1299 , and returned home to Venice , where his father and uncle in the meantime had purchased a large palazzo in the zone named contrada San Giovanni Crisostomo ( Corte del Milion ) . For such a venture , Polo family probably invested profits from trading , and even many gemstones they brought from the East . The company continued its activities and Marco soon became a wealthy merchant . Marco and his uncle Maffeo financed other expeditions , but likely never left Venetian provinces , nor did return to the Silk Road and Asia . Somewhere before 1300 , his father Niccolò died . In 1300 , he married Donata Badoèr , the daughter of Vitale Badoèr , a merchant . They had three daughters , Fantina ( married Marco Bragadin ) , Bellela ( married Bertuccio Querini ) , and Moreta .
In 1305 is mentioned in a Venetian document among local sea captains regarding the payment of taxes . His relation with certain Marco Polo , who in 1300 was mentioned with riots against the aristocratic government , and escaped the death penalty , as well riots from 1310 led by Bajamonte Tiepolo ( by mother side grandson of Trogir count Stjepko Šubić ) and Marco Querini , among whose rebels were Jacobello and Francesco Polo from another family branch , is unclear . Polo after 1305 is certainly again mentioned in Maffeo 's testament from 1309 – 1310 , in 1319 document according which became owner of some estate of deceased father , and in 1321 , when from wife Donate bought part of her family property .
= = = Death = = =
In 1323 , Polo was confined to bed , due to illness . On January 8 , 1324 , despite physicians ' efforts to treat him , Polo was on his deathbed . To write and certify the will , his family requested Giovanni Giustiniani , a priest of San Procolo . His wife , Donata , and his three daughters were appointed by him as co @-@ executrices . The church was entitled by law to a portion of his estate ; he approved of this and ordered that a further sum be paid to the convent of San Lorenzo , the place where he wished to be buried . He also set free Peter , a Tartar servant , who may have accompanied him from Asia , and to whom Polo bequeath 100 lire of Venetian denari .
He divided up the rest of his assets , including several properties , among individuals , religious institutions , and every guild and fraternity to which he belonged . He also wrote @-@ off multiple debts including 300 lire that his sister @-@ in @-@ law owed him , and others for the convent of San Giovanni , San Paolo of the Order of Preachers , and a cleric named Friar Benvenuto . He ordered 220 soldi be paid to Giovanni Giustiniani for his work as a notary and his prayers .
The will , which was not signed by Polo , but was validated by the then relevant " signum manus " rule , by which the testator only had to touch the document to make it abide to the rule of law . Due to the Venetian law stating that the day ends at sunset , the exact date of Marco Polo 's death cannot be determined , but according to some scholars it was between the sunsets of January 8 and 9 , 1324 . Biblioteca Marciana , which holds the original copy of his testament , dates the testament in January 9 , 1323 , and gives the date of his death at some time in June 1324 .
= = Travels of Marco Polo = =
An authoritative version of Marco Polo 's book does not and cannot exist , for the early manuscripts differ significantly . The published editions of his book either rely on single manuscripts , blend multiple versions together , or add notes to clarify , for example in the English translation by Henry Yule . The 1938 English translation by A.C. Moule and Paul Pelliot is based on a Latin manuscript found in the library of the Cathedral of Toledo in 1932 , and is 50 % longer than other versions . Approximately 150 manuscript copies in various languages are known to exist , and before availability of the printing press discrepancies were inevitably introduced during copying and translation . The popular translation published by Penguin Books in 1958 by R.E. Latham works several texts together to make a readable whole .
Polo related his memoirs orally to Rustichello da Pisa while both were prisoners of the Genova Republic . Rustichello wrote Devisement du Monde in Langues d 'Oil , a lingua franca of crusaders and western merchants in the Orient . The idea probably was to create a handbook for merchants , essentially a text on weights , measures and distances .
= = = Narrative = = =
The book opens with a preface describing his father and uncle traveling to Bolghar where Prince Berke Khan lived . A year later , they went to Ukek and continued to Bukhara . There , an envoy from the Levant invited them to meet Kublai Khan , who had never met Europeans . In 1266 , they reached the seat of Kublai Khan at Dadu , present day Beijing , China . Kublai received the brothers with hospitality and asked them many questions regarding the European legal and political system . He also inquired about the Pope and Church in Rome . After the brothers answered the questions he tasked them with delivering a letter to the Pope , requesting 100 Christians acquainted with the Seven Arts ( grammar , rhetoric , logic , geometry , arithmetic , music and astronomy ) . Kublai Khan requested that an envoy bring him back oil of the lamp in Jerusalem . The long sede vacante between the death of Pope Clement IV in 1268 and the election of his successor delayed the Polos in fulfilling Kublai 's request . They followed the suggestion of Theobald Visconti , then papal legate for the realm of Egypt , and returned to Venice in 1269 or 1270 to await the nomination of the new Pope , which allowed Marco to see his father for the first time , at the age of fifteen or sixteen .
In 1271 , Niccolò , Maffeo and Marco Polo embarked on their voyage to fulfill Kublai 's request . They sailed to Acre , and then rode on camels to the Persian port of Hormuz . The Polos wanted to sail straight into China , but the ships there were not seaworthy , so they continued overland through the Silk Road , until reaching Kublai 's summer palace in Shangdu , near present @-@ day Zhangjiakou . In one instance during their trip , the Polos joined a caravan of travelling merchants whom they crossed paths with . Unfortunately , the party was soon attacked by bandits , who used the cover of a sandstorm to ambush them . The Polos managed to fight and escape through a nearby town , but many members of the caravan were killed or enslaved . Three and a half years after leaving Venice , when Marco was about 21 years old , the Polos were welcomed by Kublai into his palace . The exact date of their arrival is unknown , but scholars estimate it to be between 1271 and 1275 . On reaching the Yuan court , the Polos presented the sacred oil from Jerusalem and the papal letters to their patron .
Marco knew four languages , and the family had accumulated a great deal of knowledge and experience that was useful to Kublai . It is possible that he became a government official ; he wrote about many imperial visits to China 's southern and eastern provinces , the far south and Burma . His travels also brought him farther to the Bay of Bengal , where he possibly met and gave one of the earliest accounts of the hostile North Sentinelese tribe . Highly respected and sought after in the Mongolian court , Kublai Khan decided to decline the Polos ' requests to leave China . They became worried about returning home safely , believing that if Kublai died , his enemies might turn against them because of their close involvement with the ruler . In 1292 , Kublai 's great @-@ nephew , then ruler of Persia , sent representatives to China in search of a potential wife , and they asked the Polos to accompany them , so they were permitted to return to Persia with the wedding party — which left that same year from Zaitun in southern China on a fleet of 14 junks . The party sailed to the port of Singapore , travelled north to Sumatra , sailed west to the Point Pedro port of Jaffna under Savakanmaindan and to Pandyan of Tamilakkam . Eventually Polo crossed the Arabian Sea to Hormuz . The two @-@ year voyage was a perilous one — of the six hundred people ( not including the crew ) in the convoy only eighteen had survived ( including all three Polos ) . The Polos left the wedding party after reaching Hormuz and travelled overland to the port of Trebizond on the Black Sea , the present day Trabzon .
= = = Debate = = =
Skeptics have wondered if Marco Polo actually went to China or if he perhaps wrote his book based on hearsay . While Polo describes paper money and the burning of coal , he fails to mention the Great Wall of China , Chinese characters , chopsticks , or footbinding . In The Book of Marvels , Polo claimed that he was a close friend and advisor to Kublai Khan and that he was the governor of the city of Yangzhou for three years – yet no Chinese source mentions him as either a friend of the Emperor or as the governor of Yangzhou – indeed no Chinese source mentions Polo at all . Likewise , Polo claimed to have provided the Mongols with technical advice on building mangonels during the Siege of Xiangyang , a claim that cannot possibly be true as the siege was over before Polo had arrived in China . The Mongol army that besieged Xiangyang had several Chinese military engineers attached to it who would have known how to build catapults the equal of anything to be found in Europe . Polo 's leading latter @-@ day critic , Dr. Frances Wood in her 1995 book Did Marco Polo Go to China ? has argued that at best Polo never went further east than Persia ( modern Iran ) and that there is nothing in The Book of Marvels about China that could not be obtained via reading Persian books . Wood maintains that it is more probable that Polo only went to Constantinople ( modern Istanbul , Turkey ) and some of the Italian merchant colonies around the Black Sea , picking hearsay from those travelers who had been further east .
Supporters of the book 's basic accuracy have replied . Responses to skeptics have stated that if the purpose of Polo 's tales was to impress others with tales of his high esteem for an advanced civilization , then it is possible that Polo shrewdly would omit those details that would cause his listeners to scoff at the Chinese with a sense of European superiority ; Marco lived among the Mongol elite ; foot binding was rare even among Chinese during Polo 's time and almost unknown among the Mongols ; the Great Walls were built to keep out northern invaders , whereas the ruling dynasty during Marco Polo 's visit were those very northern invaders ; researchers note that the Great Wall familiar to us today is a Ming structure built some two centuries after Marco Polo 's travels ; and that the Mongol rulers whom Polo served controlled territories both north and south of today 's wall , and would have no reasons to maintain any fortifications that may have remained there from the earlier dynasties . Other Europeans who traveled to Khanbaliq during the Yuan Dynasty , such as Giovanni de ' Marignolli and Odoric of Pordenone , said nothing about the wall either .
The British historian David Morgan argued that Polo and / or his ghost @-@ writer Rustichello da Pisa certainly exaggerated and lied about his status in China , making him the friend of Kublai Khan , the governor of Yangzhou and helping the Mongols take Xiangyang , but these falsehoods do not prove that Polo never went to China . Morgan argued that it is possible that Polo served in the Imperial Salt Monopoly in Yangzhou , but he was never the governor of Yangzhou as a European ruling an important and wealthy city like Yangzhou would have been a sufficient novelty in 13th century China to merit a mention in the Chinese records , and there is none . In defense of Polo , Morgan noted that the voyage of the princess from China to Persia to marry the Īl @-@ khān is confirmed by a 15th @-@ century Chinese encyclopedia and by the Persian historian Rashid @-@ al @-@ Din Hamadani in the Jami ' al @-@ tawarikh @-@ through neither mentions Polo or indeed any European as part of the bridal party . Morgan argued that Polo as a mere Venetian merchant would not had been considered an important person in the Mongol Empire , so his omission is not surprising , especially if one considers that the bridal entourage numbered in the hundreds . Moreover , Rashid @-@ al @-@ Din had a strong dislike of " Franks " ( in the medieval Middle East , Muslims called Western Europe " Frankstan " and all Western Europeans were " Franks " ) , having almost nothing positive to say about them in the Jami ' al @-@ tawarikh , and so he may have omitted that " Franks " were given the honor of being members of the bridal party . Morgan maintained that since this marriage between a member of the Yuan dynasty of China and their cousins , the Īl @-@ khāns of Persia was known only in Asia that the only way that a European like Polo would had known of it would have been if he been in Asia . Morgan wrote that since much of what The Book of Marvels has to say about China is " demonstrably correct " that to claim that Polo did not go to China " creates far more problems than it solves " and so that the " balance of probabilities " strongly suggests that Polo really did go to China , even if he exaggerated somewhat his importance in China .
The British scholar Ronald Latham has pointed out that The Book of Marvels was in fact a collaboration written in 1298 – 1299 between Polo and a professional writer of romances , Rustichello of Pisa . Rustichello 's intention was to use today 's language , to write a best @-@ seller , and as such he preferred to stress the fantastic , bizarre and the romantic at the expense of accuracy . Latham has argued that today it is difficult to tell precisely just how much of The Book of Marvels was Polo and how much Rustichello . However , it is firmly established that the book was written in the same " leisurely , conversational style " that characterized Rustichello 's other books , which would very strongly suggest that The Book of Marvels was written by Rustichello with Polo just merely reminiscing about his travels to him . Likewise , the opening introduction in The Book of Marvels to " emperors and kings , dukes and marquises " was lifted straight out of an Arthurian romance Rustichello had written several years earlier , and many of the episodes in The Book of Marvels were taken out of the same Arthurian romance to be reset in China . For an example , in his Arthurian romance , Rustichello described the first arrival of Sir Tristan at the court of King Arthur at Camelot ; the first meeting described between Polo and Kublai Khan at the latter 's court is almost the same right down to the same words used in the Arthurian romance with only Polo inserted in place of Sir Tristan and Kublai Khan in place of King Arthur , and a few other adjustments . In the same way , much of the account of the Siege of Xiangyang is a reworked version of an epic siege by King Arthur described in Rustichello 's Arthurian romance . Latham wrote that many of the fantastic aspects in The Book of Marvels were added in by Rusticello who was giving what medieval European readers expected to find in a travel book . As such , the fantastic and bizarre accounts of people with heads of dogs or faces in their chests — which were staples of medieval travel literature — were almost certainly the work of Rustichello . In the same way , Rustichello may have dropped references to ordinary life in China that were presumably of little interest to a European audience . Lathem wrote :
" There are other features of the book that are as likely to be due to Rustichello as to Marco , such as the tendency to glamorize the status of the Polos at the Tartar court , particularly their relation to the princess entrusted to their care , the vein of facetiousness that often accompanies references to their sexual customs and the eagerness to acclaim every exotic novelty as a ' marvel ' . It is likely that without the aid of Rustichello Marco would never have written a best @-@ seller . Conceivably he might have produced something not much more readable than Pegolotti 's Handbook . More probably he would never have written a book at all "
Latham noted that there are references to daily life , culture , geography and history of China and the Far East in general that would have been unknown to someone like Rusticello , and that could only had come from Polo . As far as it can be established , Rusticello had never been further east than the Holy Land , which he visited as a pilgrim ; as such , Rusticello would have known something of the Near East , and the rest of Asia would have been unknown to him . The University of Tübingen Sinologist and historian Hans Ulrich Vogel argued that Polo 's description of paper money and salt production supported his presence in China because he included details which he could not have otherwise known . Economic historian Mark Elvin , in his preface to Vogel 's 2013 monograph , concludes that Vogel " demonstrates by specific example after specific example the ultimately overwhelming probability of the broad authenticity " of Polo 's account . Many problems were caused by the oral transmission of the original text and the proliferation of significantly different hand @-@ copied manuscripts . For instance , did Polo exert " political authority " ( seignora ) in Yangzhou or merely " sojourn " ( sejourna ) there . Elvin concludes that " those who doubted , although mistaken , were not always being casual or foolish , " but " the case as a whole had now been closed " : the book is , " in essence , authentic , and , when used with care , in broad terms to be trusted as a serious though obviously not always final , witness . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Further exploration = = =
Other lesser @-@ known European explorers had already travelled to China , such as Giovanni da Pian del Carpine , but Polo 's book meant that his journey was the first to be widely known . Christopher Columbus was inspired enough by Polo 's description of the Far East to want to visit those lands for himself ; a copy of the book was among his belongings , with handwritten annotations . Bento de Góis , inspired by Polo 's writings of a Christian kingdom in the east , travelled 4 @,@ 000 miles ( 6 @,@ 400 km ) in three years across Central Asia . He never found the kingdom but ended his travels at the Great Wall of China in 1605 , proving that Cathay was what Matteo Ricci ( 1552 – 1610 ) called " China " .
= = = Cartography = = =
Marco Polo 's travels may have had some influence on the development of European cartography , ultimately leading to the European voyages of exploration a century later . The 1453 Fra Mauro map was said by Giovanni Battista Ramusio ( disputed by historian / cartographer Piero Falchetta , in whose work the quote appears ) to have been partially based on the one brought from Cathay by Marco Polo :
That fine illuminated world map on parchment , which can still be seen in a large cabinet alongside the choir of their monastery ( the Camaldolese monastery of San Michele di Murano ) was by one of the brothers of the monastery , who took great delight in the study of cosmography , diligently drawn and copied from a most beautiful and very old nautical map and a world map that had been brought from Cathay by the most honourable Messer Marco Polo and his father .
Though Marco Polo never produced a map that illustrated his journey , his family drew several maps to the Far East based on the wayward 's accounts . These collection of maps were signed by Polo 's three daughters : Fantina , Bellela and Moreta . Not only did it contain maps of his journey , but also sea routes to Japan , Siberia ’ s Kamchatka Peninsula , the Bering Strait and even to the coastlines of Alaska , centuries before the rediscovery of Americas by Europeans .
= = = Commemoration = = =
The Marco Polo sheep , a subspecies of Ovis ammon , is named after the explorer , who described it during his crossing of Pamir ( ancient Mount Imeon ) in 1271
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According to Hilson , the song was Ne @-@ Yo 's idea . She said , " I remember Ne @-@ Yo playing it for me in the studio . I loved it as soon as I heard it ! " Hilson debuted the song at the Beats By Dr. Dre concert in New York City on September 29 , 2010 . Later that same day , Rap @-@ Up magazine unveiled the single cover and confirmed that it would serve as the second single from Hilson 's second studio album , No Boys Allowed , following its lead single , " Breaking Point " . In an interview with 4Music , Hilson explained the concept of the song :
I 'm giving you an example of how I think every woman should feel about herself . No matter what anyone tells you – you 're too tall , you 're too short , you 're too big , you 're too skinny ... there 's so many ' rules ' to society 's view of beauty . I wanted to dispel that and get rid of that . We 're all beautiful in our own unique ways , you just have to find that happy place within yourself . And that 's what the record 's all about .
" Pretty Girl Rock " premiered online on October 4 , 2010 and was then released for digital download on October 12 . The song was sent for rhythmic contemporary airplay in the United States on October 19 , and contemporary hit radio airplay on October 26 . The official remix , featuring Kanye West , premiered online on November 23 , 2010 , and was later included on No Boys Allowed as the thirteenth track . An extended play , featuring three additional remixes produced by dance group Cahill , were released for digital download in the United Kingdom on January 9 , 2011 . On June 10 , 2011 , " Pretty Girl Rock " was released as a Compact Disc single containing two additional remixes , in Germany .
= = Composition = =
" Pretty Girl Rock " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B and pop song , that incorporates an interpolation of " Just the Two of Us " by Grover Washington , Jr .. The song makes use of heavy drums and slinky piano and is built on bouncy R & B beats . Sara Anderson from AOL Radio noted that it " weaves in piano trills , prominent backbeats , ska slang ' eh 's and self @-@ awareness . " According to Georgette Cline from The Boombox , the song is a " self @-@ love anthem " that showcases Hilson 's " attempt at uniting women over their shared beauty rather than the jealousy that drives them apart . " Luke Gibson from Hip Hop DX noted that lyrics such as : " ' Girls think I 'm conceited ' cause I know I 'm attractive / Don 't worry about what I think , why don 't you ask him ? ' , capture the attitude of a Fabolous or Jadakiss track . " Chad Grischow from IGN Music referred to " Pretty Girl Rock " as a " girl @-@ power jam " and noted that Hilson " exudes confidence " with the lines : " Pretty as a picture / Sweet as a Swisher / Mad cuz I 'm cuter than the girl that 's with ya . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Pretty Girl Rock " received mixed to positive reviews from music critics . Andy Kellman of Allmusic , Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly and editors of USA Today , all considered it to be the stand out track from No Boys Allowed . Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine wrote that the song , " comes on like a cat fight , but it eventually reveals itself to be a tough @-@ loving ' love yourself ' anthem , a stately but danceable approximation of Dove 's campaign for ' real beauty ' " . Matthew Horton of BBC Music called it a " lovely single " , while Ken Capobianco of The Boston Globe called it " swaggering " . Glenn Gamboa of Newsday wrote that , " Though Ne @-@ Yo gives ' Pretty Girl Rock ' an addictive sheen , it 's the remix featuring some memorable verses from Kanye West that gets the point across best . " Kyle Anderson of MTV Newsroom praised Hilson 's " confidence and sweetness " on the song , and described the beat as " funky and sick . " Editors of DesiHits described " Pretty Girl Rock " as an " upbeat and catchy track ... and we have to say the beat really rocks ! . "
Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone called " Pretty Girl Rock " one of the " high points " on No Boys Allowed , describing the track as " a lighter @-@ than @-@ air jump @-@ rope rhyme about how hot [ Keri ] is . " Ben Ratliff of The New York Times wrote that " Pretty Girl Rock " was one of the tracks on the album that was " good enough to stop the overthinking comparisons " with Rihanna . He described it as " four minutes of schoolyard singsong about [ Keri 's ] fabulousness . " Becky Bain of Idolator called it a " saucy R & B number " and wrote that " the song 's not too bad " . Chad Grischow of IGN Music wrote that , " there are plenty of reasons to despise ' Pretty Girl Rock ' , but the twinkling girl @-@ power jam is too charming and catchy to stay mad . " Karen Tye of Adelaide Now described it as " catchy , sparkly pop " , but also added that the song is " complete with mindless lyrics . " Katie Hasty of HitFix criticized the song 's lyrics for being " tacky " . Hasty also mentioned that the track was intended " to empower women but fails in anti @-@ feminist . " Melinda Newman , also writing for HitFix , agreed writing that the song is " absolutely paper thin and not even remotely girl @-@ empowering . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Pretty Girl Rock " entered the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart at number 76 on the chart issue dated November 20 , 2010 , and peaked at number four on the chart issue dated February 12 , 2011 . The song also peaked at number 24 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . On June 7 , 2011 , " Pretty Girl Rock " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for selling over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 digital copies . In Canada , " Pretty Girl Rock " debuted and peaked at number 81 on the Canadian Hot 100 . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , the song debuted at number 12 on December 27 , 2010 , and peaked at number 11 on January 10 , 2011 . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , for selling over 7 @,@ 500 digital copies .
In Ireland , " Pretty Girl Rock " debuted at number 50 on the Irish Singles Chart on January 13 , 2011 , and left the chart the following week . In the United Kingdom , it debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 53 on January 22 , 2011 , before dropping 38 places to number 91 the following week . " Pretty Girl Rock " also charted on the UK R & B Singles Chart , where it peaked at number 17 . On the Austrian Singles Chart , the song debuted at number 50 on June 10 , 2011 , and peaked at number 21 in its third week , spending a total of eight consecutive weeks on the chart . In Germany , " Pretty Girl Rock " debuted and peaked at number 14 on the German Singles Chart on June 27 , 2011 , and spent a total of ten consecutive weeks on the chart . " Pretty Girl Rock " entered the Slovak Airplay Chart at number 39 , and peaked at number 25 the following week .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Pretty Girl Rock " was directed by Joseph Kahn . Hilson told Kahn that she did not want the video to be about her , since she felt that the song was already very much about herself . During an interview with MTV News while on the set of the video , Hilson explained that in the video she does nine outfit changes because it will show " 10 different eras " , starting from 1920 and up until 2010 , in which she portrays herself . She also said , " [ The video is my ] way of paying homage to groundbreaking women , strong women who were fearless and so bold and so confident that they made women feel that way ... And I hope to do the same . " Kahn wanted Hilson to pay homage to some female singers in the video . He discussed about it with Hilson , who chose the singers she loved and was inspired by as a youth to appear in the video . The completed video premiered on 106 & Park on November 11 , 2010 .
The video opens in black @-@ and @-@ white and shows Hilson portraying Josephine Baker , before transforming into Dorothy Dandridge . The video then switches to color and Hilson is shown portraying lead singer Patty from the singing group The Andrews Sisters . She is then seen channeling Diana Ross as lead singer of The Supremes , before switching to Donna Summer while wearing a blue sequined mini @-@ dress . Hilson then portrays Janet Jackson from the military @-@ inspired " Rhythm Nation " music video . Lastly , she is shown as singer T @-@ Boz of the R & B girl group TLC , wearing light blue silk pajamas from their " Creep " music video . Two background dancers appear as Left Eye wearing red pajamas , and Chilli wearing white pajamas . At the end of the video , Hilson is shown dressed as herself in a simple T @-@ shirt and jeans , singing in front of a black backdrop .
Ed Easton Jr. from radio station WNOW @-@ FM wrote that the video was " different , creative and fun " and awarded it eight out of ten stars . Billy Johnson , Jr. from Yahoo ! Music called the video " very nice " and wrote that Hilson 's portrayal of Janet Jackson was her " best remake " in the video . Mariel Concepcion from Billboard magazine commented that the " video made her like the song [ even more ] . " Nicole James from MTV Buzzworthy gave Hilson 100 bonus points for the authenticity of the wig she wore portraying T @-@ Boz . Becky Bain from Idolator was unsure if the video " was [ a ] nice homage to the women in music who have come before her , " or if Hilson was " just playing a hilarious game of dress up . " The video was nominated for Video of the Year at the 2011 BET Awards , and Best Dance Performance at the 2011 Soul Train Music Awards .
= = Live performances = =
On November 22 , 2010 , Hilson performed " Pretty Girl Rock " on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . She later performed the song at the 84th Annual Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade on November 25 . Hilson was dressed in pink and performed the song on My Princess Academy 's " Castle of Dreams " float high above a pink castle . On December 3 , Hilson performed " Pretty Girl Rock " at the VH1 Divas Salute the Troops concert . She took to the stage dressed in a gold bustier with high @-@ waisted pants and a fringe @-@ laden jacket to perform the song in front of an audience that included members of the US Armed Forces . Hilson was backed by four female dancers , who wore stylized military jackets . Mawuse Ziegbe from MTV News wrote that , " Hilson brought her saucy , sexpot swagger to the stage . " The promotion of the song continued on December 7 , when she performed a remixed version of " Pretty Girl Rock " on Lopez Tonight , dressed in a silver and black leotard . Hilson later performed " Pretty Girl Rock " on December 14 on the Today Show , mixing the track with James Blunt 's single " You 're Beautiful " . For the performance , she wore a glittery multi @-@ colored jacket over a black blouse , skin @-@ tight jeans and stilettos .
A day before the release of No Boys Allowed , Hilson performed the song at Billboard 's first live Tastemakers event in New York City on December 20 . On January 4 , 2011 , Hilson gave a Motown @-@ themed performance of " Pretty Girl Rock " on the Late Show with David Letterman , by paying tribute to Diana Ross and The Supremes with her two female back @-@ up singers . On January 25 , she performed " Pretty Girl Rock " on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , also mixing Blunt 's " You 're Beautiful " into the song . Backed by four female dancers , Hilson wore a white button @-@ down shirt , knee @-@ length pants and black heels . Robbie Daw from Idolator wrote that , " Keri Hilson amped up the sex factor . " In April 2011 , Hilson performed " Pretty Girl Rock " during her set at the Supafest Festival in Australia , dressed in a denim jacket , black bra and cutoff shorts . On June 9 , Hilson performed a remix of the song on the finale of Germany 's Next Topmodel , as models strutted down the runway . The song was added to Hilson 's set list on Lil Wayne 's I Am Still Music Tour in North America in July 2011 , in which she served as an opening act . It was also included to the set list of Hilson 's first headlining European tour in October 2011 .
= = Remixes and cover version = =
R & B girl group RichGirl recorded their own remix to the song renamed " RichGirl Rock " , which was included on their mixtape Fall in Love with RichGirl in February 2011 . American rapper Lil ' Kim also remixed " Pretty Girl Rock " and renamed it " Kimmy Girl " for her mixtape Black Friday in March 2011 . American rock band Parachute covered the song during their Mashup Mondays session for Billboard magazine in September 2011 . Jessica Letkemann of Billboard magazine wrote that the band transformed " the super self @-@ assured R & B strut of Keri Hilson 's ' Pretty Girl Rock ' into a sweet , poppy acoustic rock bounce . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Source :
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= HTC Dream =
The HTC Dream ( also known as the T @-@ Mobile G1 in the United States and parts of Europe , and as the Era G1 in Poland ) is a smartphone developed by HTC . First released in October 2008 , the Dream was the first commercially released device to use the Linux @-@ based Android operating system , which was purchased and further developed by Google and the Open Handset Alliance to create an open competitor to other major smartphone platforms of the time , such as Symbian operating system , BlackBerry OS , and iOS . The operating system offers a customizable graphical user interface , integration with Google services such as Gmail , a notification system that shows a list of recent messages pushed from apps , and Android Market for downloading additional apps .
The Dream was released to mixed , but mostly positive reception . While the Dream was praised for its solid and robust hardware design , the introduction of the Android operating system was met with criticism for its lack of certain functionality and third @-@ party software in comparison to more established platforms , but was still considered to be innovative due to its open nature , notifications system , and heavy integration with Google 's services .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
In July 2005 , Google acquired Android Inc . , a company led by Andy Rubin which was working on unspecified software for mobile devices . Under the leadership of Google , the team was in the process of developing a standardized , Linux @-@ based operating system for mobile phones to compete against the likes of Symbian and Windows Mobile , which would be offered for use by individual original equipment manufacturers . Initial development of what would become Android was targeted towards a prototype device codenamed " Sooner " ; the device was a messaging phone in the style of BlackBerry , with a small , non @-@ touch screen , navigation keys , and a physical QWERTY keyboard . The January 2007 unveiling of the iPhone , Apple 's first smartphone , and its pioneering design aspects , caught Rubin off @-@ guard and led to a change in course for the project . The operating system 's design was quickly reworked , and attention shifted to a new prototype device codenamed " Dream " — a touchscreen device with a sliding , physical keyboard . The inclusion of a physical keyboard was intentional , as Android developers recognized users did not like the idea of a virtual keyboard as they lacked the physical feedback that makes hardware keyboards useful .
The Android operating system was officially unveiled in November 2007 along with the founding of the Open Handset Alliance ( OHA ) ; a consortium of hardware , software , and telecommunication companies devoted to advancing open standards for mobile devices . These companies included Google , along with HTC , a company who was at the time , one of the largest manufacturers of phones . While Google indicated in 2008 that several linux devices were being tested in preparation for the official public launch of Android , only one was to be released in the United States that year — the HTC Dream . Plans called for the Dream to be released on T @-@ Mobile USA by the end of the year ( with some reports suggesting October 2008 ) , targeting the holiday shopping season . Sprint had worked with the OHA , but had not yet unveiled any plans to release an Android phone of its own , while Verizon Wireless and AT & T did not have any plans for Android devices yet at all .
= = = Release = = =
HTC officially announced the Dream on 23 September 2008 . It would first be released by T @-@ Mobile as the T @-@ Mobile G1 , starting in the United States. on 20 October 2008 in its 3G @-@ enabled markets only ( it became available in all markets on 24 January 2009 ) , followed by a British release in November 2008 , and a release in other European territories in early 2009 . On 10 March 2009 , it became available in Poland as the Era G1 on Era . On 2 June 2009 , both the Dream and its successor ( the HTC Magic ) were released by Rogers Wireless in Canada .
The Dream was discontinued by T @-@ Mobile on 27 July 2010 . The G1 was spiritually succeeded in October 2010 by the T @-@ Mobile G2 , a new HTC device which also featured stock Android and a sliding keyboard , and was T @-@ Mobile USA 's first " 4G " smartphone . In Canada , Rogers suspended sales of the Dream on 15 January 2010 due to a bug affecting the proper use of emergency calls .
= = Features = =
= = = Hardware = = =
The Dream 's exterior uses a soft , matte plastic shell , and was made available in white , black , and bronze colors . The Dream 's design features a distinctive " chin " on the bottom , which houses 5 navigation buttons ( " Call " , " Home " , " Menu " , " Back " , and " End Call " ) and a clickable trackball in the center which can be used for scrolling and selecting . The device uses a 3 @.@ 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 1 cm ) capacitive touchscreen LCD at a resolution of 320 × 480 ; the screen can be slid along a curved hinge to expose a five @-@ row QWERTY keyboard — as the first releases of Android did not include a virtual keyboard , the keyboard was originally the only method of text input on the device . While supporting multitouch at the hardware level , the Linux kernel in the Dream 's Android distribution was patched to remove multitouch support from its touchscreen drivers for undisclosed reasons . The Dream does not include a traditional headphone jack , requiring an adapter for HTC 's proprietary ( but Mini @-@ USB compatible ) " ExtUSB " port located on the bottom of the device . The rear of the device houses a 3 @.@ 15 @-@ megapixel rear camera with auto @-@ focus .
The Dream uses a 528 MHz Qualcomm MSM7201A system on a chip with 192 MB of RAM , and comes with 256 MB of internal storage , which can be expanded by up to 16 GB using a Micro SD card slot . For network connectivity , the Dream supports Quad @-@ band GSM 850 / 900 / 1800 / 1900 MHz and GPRS / EDGE , plus Dual band UMTS Bands I and IV ( 1700 & 2100 MHz ) and HSDPA / HSUPA ( in US / Europe ) at 7 @.@ 2 / 2 Mbit / s . The device also supports standalone GPS and A @-@ GPS .
= = = Software = = =
The HTC Dream was the first ever smartphone to ship with the Android operating system . The operating system heavily integrates with , and provides apps for various Google services , such as Gmail ( with push email support ) , Maps , Search , Talk , and YouTube , while the contacts and calendar apps can sync with the online Google Contacts and Google Calendar services respectively . The device also ships with an email app supporting other POP3 and IMAP @-@ based mail services , an instant messaging app with support for multiple services , and a WebKit @-@ based web browser . A notification system displays icons for certain events ( such as e @-@ mails and text messages ) on the left side of the status bar across the top of the screen ; dragging down from the top of the screen exposes a tray with more detailed information for each notification . The Android Market can be used to download additional apps for the device . The G1 as sold by T @-@ Mobile also shipped with an Amazon MP3 app , allowing users to purchase DRM @-@ free music online , and download them straight to the device via Wi @-@ Fi .
The Dream could also be upgraded to newer versions of Android , which added new features and enhancements to the platform . The latest version of Android officially made available for the Dream , 1 @.@ 6 " Donut " , was released for T @-@ Mobile USA 's G1 in October 2009 . The 1 @.@ 6 update was not released on the Rogers HTC Dream in Canada ( which stayed on 1 @.@ 5 " Cupcake " ) ; Rogers claimed that the update was only being made available for " ' Google ' -branded " models of the device .
= = Development and modding = =
Due to the open source nature of the Android platform , the Dream became a popular target for modding . Shortly after the release of the Dream , developers discovered a software exploit which would allow a user to gain superuser access to the phone — a process which would be referred to as " rooting " . As a parallel to " jailbreaking " on iOS devices , root access would enable users to perform tweaks and other changes at the system level that cannot be performed under normal circumstances ( such as adding auto @-@ rotation , and installing a custom kernel that restored the aforementioned multitouch support ) .
After the Dream 's bootloader was dumped , work began on modifying it so that it could install third @-@ party firmware , and on converting official Android update files into a format that could be installed using the modified bootloader . Around the same time , Google made the Android Dev Phone 1 available for registered Android developers ; the Dev Phone 1 was a SIM- and hardware @-@ unlocked version of the HTC Dream that came pre @-@ configured for superuser access to the internal files of the phone , allowing users to completely replace the bootloader and operating system .
As a result of these developments , a dedicated community , centered on forums such as XDA Developers , emerged surrounding the creation of custom firmware ( " ROMs " ) built from the Android source code . Projects such as CyanogenMod continued to produce ports of newer versions of Android for the Dream and later Android devices , while adding their own features and enhancements to the operating system as well .
On later Android devices , where a number of factors ( including carrier practices , and custom software provided by device manufacturers that sit atop Android , such as HTC Sense and Samsung TouchWiz ) led to fragmentation regarding the availability of newer versions of the OS for certain devices , the development and use of custom ROMs ( which are usually based off the " stock " version of Android ) have ultimately become an important , yet controversial aspect of the Android ecosystem . In August 2012 , a group of users released an unofficial port of a later version of Android , 4 @.@ 1 " Jelly Bean " , for the Dream as a proof of concept . However , the port lacked key functionality , and had severe performance issues due to the phone 's relatively weak hardware in comparison to the modern devices that 4 @.@ 1 was designed for .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Dream was released to mixed reviews . The design of the Dream was considered to be solid and robust ; Joshua Topolsky of Engadget considered its hardware design a contrast to that of the iPhone , due to its numerous navigation buttons ( in comparison to just a home button ) and its " charming , retro @-@ future look ; like a gadget in a 1970 's sci @-@ fi movie set in the year 2038 . " The Dream 's keyboard , as the only method of text input prior to Android 1 @.@ 5 's introduction of a virtual keyboard , was considered to be sufficient , although some felt that its keys were too small . Its display was considered sufficient for a phone of its class , but John Brandon of TechRadar felt that it was not good enough for watching videos due to its poor contrast and small size in comparison to the iPhone . Android itself was considered to still be in its infancy ( primarily due to its bare @-@ bones functionality in certain areas , limited application catalog , lack of multitouch gestures , or syncing with certain enterprise platforms ) , but showed promise through its customizable interface , increased flexibility over iOS , its notification system , ability to display security permissions when downloading apps , and its heavy integration with Google services .
Brandon gave the Dream a 4 @.@ 5 / 5 , despite stating that it was " no Apple iPhone killer " , given its lower quality of its application selection and multimedia features in comparison . In conclusion , the Dream was considered to be a " stellar " phone that " points to a future when a phone is as flexible and useful as the PC on your desk . " Engadget felt that the Dream " isn 't going to blow anyone 's mind right out of the gate " due to its hardware , but that the Android platform as a whole held its own against its competitors , and that early adopters of Android through the G1 were " buying into one of the most exciting developments in the mobile world in recent memory . " GSMArena noted that the Dream would have been " another average smart QWERTY messenger " had it not been for its introduction of Android ; in conclusion , the Dream was considered " far from the perfect package " , but still believed that " it gets the things that matter done and gets them done right . "
= = = Commercial reception = = =
In April 2009 , T @-@ Mobile announced that it had sold over a million G1 's in the United States , accounting for two thirds of the devices on its 3G network . AdMob estimated in March 2009 that Android and the G1 had reached a market share of 6 % in the United States .
= A Very Gaga Thanksgiving =
A Very Gaga Thanksgiving is a Thanksgiving television special that originally aired on November 24 , 2011 , in the United States on ABC . Conceived and directed by Lady Gaga , it discusses her personal life and the inspiration behind her music . Development for A Very Gaga Thanksgiving immediately surfaced in November 2011 , when it was announced that Gaga would host a television special on Thanksgiving . Principal photography took place at the Convent of the Sacred Heart in New York City .
It features guest appearances from Katie Couric , Art Smith , and Tony Bennett . Gaga performed stripped down , acoustic versions of four songs from her second studio album , Born This Way , along with two Christmas songs and a duet with Bennett . The special received critical acclaim and gave ABC its best ratings in four years for its respective time slot on Thanksgiving Day . At the 2012 Dorian Awards , the special was nominated in the category of Best TV Musical Program of the Year , but did not win the award . A live EP of performances from the special , titled A Very Gaga Holiday , was made available for purchase from the iTunes Store . The EP debuted on the Billboard 200 chart at number 52 .
= = Synopsis = =
Couric interviews Lady Gaga about her life and the inspiration behind her music at the Convent of the Sacred Heart in Manhattan , the school she attended as a child . Gaga also performs nine songs to a small audience of friends and family , including " Born This Way " , " Marry the Night " , " You and I " , " Hair " and " The Edge of Glory " , as well as covers of Irving Berlin 's holiday classic " White Christmas " and Nat King Cole 's " Orange Colored Sky " . She also sings " The Lady Is a Tramp " , originally from the 1937 musical comedy Babes in Arms , as a duet with Tony Bennett . The duet also featured the work of Gaga 's trumpeter , Brian Newman . Gaga sings " Bad Romance " onstage in a different scene . American chef Art Smith accompanies Gaga with a turkey dinner and waffles . In another scene , a small group of children gather around her as she blows glitter on them .
= = Production = =
A Very Gaga Thanksgiving was conceived and directed by Gaga herself , while it was produced by Steven Johnson , Rudy Bendar , and David Saltz . Principal photography took place at the Convent of the Sacred Heart in New York City . Gaga told Women 's Wear Daily : " My dad will be so excited . I actually directed it . It 's the first of two things I directed . I directed this as well as the video for ' Marry The Night , ' my new single ... So we 'll be watching that and eating turkey and doing what all New Yorkers do , which is getting ready for every window to be filled with Christmas cheer the next day . "
Gaga received dresses designed by Giorgio Armani , Stéphane Rolland , Azzedine Alaïa , and Martin Grant . A promotional photo of Gaga was released that shows her " going full ice princess " , which Erin Strecker of Entertainment Weekly presumed will be her primary apparel . In a press statement early in November 2011 , Couric commented that the special 's story will amaze viewers and show a different side of Gaga :
This is a chance to see more of who she is beneath the wild costumes and staged musical numbers ... Lady Gaga as a high school student still bruised by being excluded from the party , Lady Gaga as a devoted daughter and caring sister , Lady Gaga as a 25 @-@ year @-@ old woman embracing fame and fortune that seemed to come overnight . She will impress you , delight you and surprise you .
Smith commented , " It 's important for people to see that this amazing woman [ Gaga ] has a family that supports her . " A 30 @-@ second preview of the special premiered on November 20 , 2011 on Lady Gaga 's YouTube channel . It revealed the appearances of Bennett , Couric and Smith . After watching the preview , a staff member of Idolator commented that it " reminds us of our own family Turkey Day get @-@ togethers : there are people running around in ridiculous attire , someone ’ s crying and the hostess is a ( Mother ) Monster of sorts . " In a three @-@ minute teaser trailer , Gaga makes crafts and shares holiday food with third @-@ grade children . The full TV special premiered on November 24 , 2011 , at 9 : 30 pm ET .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
A Very Gaga Thanksgiving initially aired on November 24 , 2011 in the United States on ABC . It attained 5 @.@ 749 million viewers and garnered a 1 @.@ 8 / 5 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic in its first hour . Gaga 's special aired simultaneously with the reruns of The Simpsons on FOX , Person of Interest on CBS , and The Secret Circle on The CW . In its second hour , total viewership and ratings slightly declined to 5 @.@ 388 million viewers and a 1 @.@ 6 / 5 ratings in the 18 – 49 demographic , despite airing simultaneously with a recap of the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade on NBC and a rerun of The Mentalist on CBS . A Very Gaga Thanksgiving failed to beat other Thanksgiving specials in the ratings , including A Charlie Brown Thanksgiving . A Very Gaga Thanksgiving had the highest rating in the 18 – 49 demographic in its time slot , and total viewership increased by 23 % ( 1 @.@ 3 million viewers ) from its predecessor , singer Beyoncé 's 2009 concert , I Am ... World Tour . It subsequently gave ABC its best ratings in four years for its respective time slot on Thanksgiving Day .
= = = Critical response = = =
It was met with general acclaim from television critics . Calling it engaging , Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly opined that A Very Gaga Thanksgiving was " disarmingly direct , sincere , and unpretentious . " Tucker praised Lady Gaga 's performances in the television special , expressing that they were a " warm , low @-@ key collection of solid performances of her hits and pop standards . " Dave Itzkoff of The New York Times deemed the television special as a " dream or a hallucination . " The Guardian journalist Hadley Freeman wrote , " It was all inoffensive , silly and knowing , and laid down the groundwork for what looks likely to be the singer 's next career : as America 's in @-@ house eccentric , fearless enough to satirize the country 's traditions but canny enough to know that while you can deface as many Irving Berlin songs as you like , the turkey is non @-@ negotiable . " In contrast , A Very Gaga Thanksgiving was critically panned by Jen Carlson of Gothamist , who felt that it was a " very transparent marketing ploy for the new Gaga holiday release . "
The Washington Post 's Sarah Anne Hughes stated that she was shocked at how traditional Gaga was in the television special . Cavan Sieczkowski of International Business Times asserted that A Very Gaga Thanksgiving was a " charming throwback to holiday specials of times past . " Sieczkowski praised the outfits , and drew comparisons to those of Elizabeth Taylor and Ava Gardner . In concurrence , Joe Drake of Ology wrote : " This special was [ fabulous ] . I have nothing bad to say about it . Lady Gaga proves , yet again , that she is the artist of our generation . Her talent , beauty , personality and spirit make her such an incredible person to look up to and respect . " At the 2012 Dorian Awards , the special was nominated in the category of Best TV Musical Program of the Year , but lost to Glee and Gaga 's own concert special , Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden .
= = Music = =
On November 22 , 2011 , iTunes Store began selling a live EP of performances from the special , which included " White Christmas " , " Orange Colored Sky " , " You and I " , and " The Edge of Glory " . The EP was made available for purchase from the iTunes Store only . Titled A Very Gaga Holiday , the release entered the Billboard 200 chart at number 52 selling 22 @,@ 000 copies , and number nine on the Top Holiday Albums chart . The same week , the special also had an impact on Gaga 's second studio album , Born This Way , which moved up the Billboard 200 chart from 72 – 21 , with sales of 47 @,@ 000 copies ( up 416 % from previous week ) .
= Sesame Workshop =
Sesame Workshop ( SW , or " the Workshop " ) , formerly known as the Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) , is an American non @-@ profit organization behind the production of several educational children 's programs — including its first and best @-@ known , Sesame Street — that have run on public broadcasting around the world . Television producer Joan Ganz Cooney and foundation executive Lloyd Morrisett came up with the idea to form an organization to oversee the production of Sesame Street , a television show which would help children , especially those from low @-@ income families , prepare for school . They spent two years , from 1966 to 1968 , researching , developing , and raising money for the new show . Cooney was named as the Workshop 's first executive director , which was called " one of the most important television developments of the decade " .
Sesame Street premiered on PBS in the United States in November 1969 , and the Workshop was formally incorporated shortly after , in 1970 . Gerald S. Lesser and Edward L. Palmer were hired to conduct research for the show ; they were responsible for developing a system of planning , production , and evaluation , and the interaction between television producers and educators , later called the " CTW model " . They also hired a staff of producers and writers . After the initial success of Sesame Street , they began to plan for its continued survival , which included procuring additional sources of funding and creating other TV shows . The early 1980s were a challenging period for the Workshop ; difficulty in finding audiences for their other productions and a series of bad investments hurt the organization until licensing agreements stabilized its revenues by 1985 .
After Sesame Street 's initial success , the CTW began to think about its survival beyond the development and first season of the show , since their funding sources were made up of organizations and institutions that tended to start projects , not sustain them . Government funding ended by 1981 , so the CTW expanded into other areas , including unsuccessful ventures into adult programs , the publications of books and music , international co @-@ productions , interactive media and new technologies , licensing arrangements , and outreach programs to preschools . By 2005 , income from the CTW 's international co @-@ productions of the show was $ 96 million . By 2008 , the Sesame Street Muppets accounted for $ 15 – 17 million per year in licensing and merchandising fees . Cooney stepped down as CEO in 1990 ; David Britt was named as her replacement . In June 2000 , the CTW changed its name to Sesame Workshop , to better reflect its work beyond television and into interactive media , and Gary Knell became CEO . H. Melvin Ming replaced Knell in 2011 . In 2014 , Ming was succeeded by Jeffrey D. Dunn .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
In the late 1960s , 97 % of all American households owned a television set , and preschool children watched an average of 27 hours of television per week . Early childhood educational research at the time had shown that when children were prepared to succeed in school , they earned higher grades and learned more effectively . Children from low @-@ income families , however , had fewer resources than children from higher @-@ income families to prepare them for school . Research had shown that children from low @-@ income , minority backgrounds tested " substantially lower " than middle @-@ class children in school @-@ related skills , and that they continued to have educational deficits throughout school . The field of developmental psychology had grown during this period , and scientists were beginning to understand that changes in early childhood education could increase children 's cognitive growth .
In the winter of 1966 , Joan Ganz Cooney hosted what she called " a little dinner party " at her apartment near Gramercy Park . In attendance was her husband Tim Cooney , her boss Lewis Freedman , and Lloyd and Mary Morrisett , whom the Cooneys knew socially . Cooney was a producer of documentary films at New York public broadcasting station Channel 13 , and won an Emmy for a documentary about poverty in America . Lloyd Morrisett was a vice @-@ president at Carnegie Corporation , and was responsible for funding educational research , but had been frustrated in his efforts because they were unable to reach the large numbers of children in need of early education and intervention . Cooney was committed to using television to change society , and Morrisett was interested in using television to " reach greater numbers of needy kids " . The conversation during the party , which according to writer Michael Davis was the start of a five @-@ decade long professional relationship between Cooney and Morrisett , turned to the possibilities of using television to educate young children . A week later , Cooney and Freedman met with Morrisett at the offices of Carnegie Corporation to discuss doing a feasibility study on creating an educational television program for preschoolers . Cooney was chosen to conduct the study .
In the summer of 1967 , Cooney took a leave of absence from Channel 13 , and funded by Carnegie Corporation , traveled the U.S. and Canada interviewing experts in child development , education , and television . She reported her findings in a fifty @-@ five @-@ page document entitled " The Potential Uses of Television in Preschool Education " . The report described what the new show , which became Sesame Street , would look like and proposed the creation of a company that oversaw its production , which eventually became known as the Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) .
= = = Founding = = =
For the next two years , Cooney and Morrisett worked on researching and developing the new show , raising $ 8 million for Sesame Street , and establishing the CTW . Due to her professional experience , Cooney always assumed the show 's natural home would be PBS . Morrisett was open to airing it on commercial stations , but all three networks rejected the idea . Davis , considering Sesame Street 's stream of licensing income in the decades to come , called their decision " a billion @-@ dollar blunder " . Morrisett was responsible for fund @-@ raising , and was so successful at it that writer Lee D. Mitgang later said that it " defied conventional media wisdom " . Cooney was responsible for the show 's creative development , and for hiring the production and research staff for the CTW . The Carnegie Corporation provided their initial $ 1 million grant , and Morrisett , using his contacts , procured additional multimillion @-@ dollar grants from the U.S. federal government , the Arthur Vining Davis Foundations , the Corporation for Public Broadcasting , and the Ford Foundation . Morrisett 's friend Harold Howe , who was the commissioner for the U.S. Department of Education , promised $ 4 million , half of the new organization 's budget . The Carnegie Corporation donated an additional $ 1 million . Mitgang stated , " Had Morrisett been any less effective in lining up financial support , Cooney 's report likely would have become just another long @-@ forgotten foundation idea " . Funds gained from a combination of government agencies and private foundations protected them from the economic pressures experienced by commercial networks , but caused challenges in procuring future funding .
Cooney 's proposal included using in @-@ house formative research that would inform and improve production , and independent summative evaluations to test the show 's impact on its young viewers ' learning . In 1967 , Morrisett recruited Harvard professor Gerald S. Lesser , whom he had met while they were both psychology students at Yale , to help develop and lead the Workshop 's research department . In 1972 , the Markle Foundation donated $ 72 @,@ 000 to Harvard to form the Center for Research in Children 's Television , which served as a research arm for the CTW . Harvard produced about 20 major research studies about Sesame Street and its effect on young children . Lesser also served as the first chairman of the Workshop 's advisory board , a position he held until his retirement in 1997 . According to Lesser , the CTW 's advisory board was unusual because instead of rubber @-@ stamping the Workshop 's decisions like most boards for other children 's TV shows , it contributed significantly to the show 's design and implementation . Lesser reported in Children and Television : Lessons from Sesame Street , his 1974 book about the beginnings of Sesame Street and the Children 's Television Workshop , that roughly 8 — 10 % of the Workshop 's initial budget was spent on research .
CTW 's summative research was done by the Workshop 's first research director , Edward L. Palmer , whom they met at the curriculum seminars Lesser conducted in Boston in the summer of 1967 . In the summer of 1968 , Palmer began to create educational goals , define the Workshop 's research activities , and hire his research team . Lesser and Palmer were the only scientists in the U.S. studying children and television at the time . They were responsible for developing a system of planning , production , and evaluation , and the interaction between television producers and educators , later called the " CTW model " . Cooney observed of the CTW model : " From the beginning , we — the planners of the project — designed the show as an experimental research project with educational advisers , researchers , and television producers collaborating as equal partners " . She described the collaboration as an " arranged marriage " .
The CTW devoted 8 % of its initial budget to outreach and publicity . In what television historian Robert W. Morrow called " an extensive campaign " that Lesser stated " would demand at least as much ingenuity as production and research " , the Workshop promoted the show with educators , the broadcast industry , and the show 's target audience , which consisted of inner @-@ city children and their families . They hired Evelyn Davis from the Urban League , whom Michael Davis called " remarkable , unsinkable , and indispensable " , as the Workshop 's first Vice President of Community Relations and head of the Workshop 's Community Educational Services ( CES ) division . Bob Hatch was hired to publicize their new show , both before its premiere and to take advantage of the media attention that surrounded Sesame Street in its first year of production .
According to Davis , despite her leadership in the project 's initial research and development , Cooney 's installment as CTW 's executive director was put in doubt due to her lack of high @-@ level managerial experience and leadership , untested financial management skills , and lack of experience in children 's television and education . Davis also speculated that sexism was involved , stating , " Doubters also questioned whether a woman could gain the full confidence of a quorum of men from the federal government and two elite philanthropies , institutions whose wealth exceeded the gross national product of entire countries " . At first , Cooney did not fight for the position . However she had the support of her husband and Morrisett , and the project 's investors soon realized they could not go forward without her . She was eventually named to the post in February 1968 . As one of the first female executives in American television , her appointment was called " one of the most important television developments of the decade " . The formation of the Children Television Workshop was announced at a press conference at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel in New York City on 20 May 1968 .
After her appointment , Cooney hired Bob Davidson as her assistant ; he was responsible for making agreements with approximately 180 public television stations to air the new show . She assembled a team of producers : Jon Stone was responsible for writing , casting , and format ; David Connell took over animation and volume production ; and Samuel Gibbon served as the show 's chief liaison between the production staff and the research team . Stone , Connell , and Gibbon had worked on another children 's show , Captain Kangaroo , together . Cooney later said about Sesame Street 's original team of producers , " collectively , we were a genius " . CTW 's first children 's show , Sesame Street , premiered on 10 November 1969 . The CTW was not incorporated until 1970 because its creators wanted to see if the show was a success before they hired lawyers and accountants . Morrisett served as the first chair of CTW 's board of trustees , a position he held for 28 years .
= = = Early years = = =
During the second season of Sesame Street , to capitalize on the momentum the Workshop was enjoying and the attention it received from the press , the Workshop created its second show , The Electric Company , in 1971 . Morrisett used the same fund @-@ raising techniques as he had used for Sesame Street . The Electric Company stopped production in 1977 , but continued in re @-@ runs until 1985 ; it eventually became one of the most widely used TV shows in American classrooms and was revived in 2009 . Starting in the early 1970s , the Workshop ventured into adult programming , but found that it was difficult to make their programs accessible to all socio @-@ economic groups . In 1971 , it produced a medical program for adults called Feelin ' Good , hosted by Dick Cavett , which ran until 1974 . According to writer Cary O 'Dell , the show " lacked a clear direction and never found a large audience " . In 1977 , the Workshop aired an adult drama called Best of Families , which was set in New York City around the turn of the 20th century . However , it lasted for six or seven episodes and helped the Workshop decide to focus on children 's programs only .
Throughout the 1970s , the CTW 's outreach efforts turned from promotion to the development of educational materials used in preschool settings . Early outreach efforts included mobile viewing units that broadcast the show in the inner cities , in Appalachia , in Native American communities , and in migrant worker camps . In the early 1980s , the CTW created the Preschool Education Program ( PEP ) , whose goal was to assist preschools , by combining television viewing , books , hands @-@ on activities , and other media , in using the show as an educational resource . The Workshop also provided materials to non @-@ English speaking children and adults . Starting in 2006 , the Workshop expanded its outreach by creating a series of PBS specials and DVDs focusing on how military deployment affects the families of soldiers . The Workshop 's outreach efforts also focused on families of prisoners , health and wellness , and safety .
According to Cooney and O 'Dell , the 1980s were a challenging period for the Workshop . Other than Sesame Street , many of its productions struggled finding an audience . 3 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 Contact premiered in 1980 , and ran in various forms until 1988 . The CTW found that finding funding for this show and other science @-@ oriented shows like Square One TV , which ran from 1987 to 1994 , was easy because the National Science Foundation and other foundations were interested in funding science education . A series of poor investments in video games , motion picture production , theme parks , and other business ventures hurt the organization financially . Cooney brought in Bill Whaley in the late 1970s to work on their licensing agreements , but he was unable to make up for the CTW 's losses until 1986 , when licensing revenues stabilized and its portfolio investments increased .
= = = Later years = = =
Cooney stepped down as chairman and chief executive officer of the CTW in 1990 , when she was replaced by David Britt , who was her " chief lieutenant in the executive ranks through the mid @-@ 1990s " and whom Cooney called her " right @-@ hand for many years " . Britt had worked for her at the CTW since 1975 and had served as its president and chief operating officer since 1988 . At that time , Cooney became chairman of the Workshop 's executive board , which oversaw its businesses and licensing , and became more involved in the organization 's creative side .
The Workshop went through a reorganization in 1995 , and laid off about 12 percent of its staff . In 1998 , for the first time in the show 's history , they accepted funds from corporations to support Sesame Street and its other programs , a move criticized by consumer advocate Ralph Nader . The Workshop defended the move to corporate sponsorship , stating that it made up for a decrease in government subsidies and financial support by PBS . Also in 1998 , the Workshop invested $ 25 million in the cable channel Noggin , launched in 1999 by the Workshop and Viacom 's Nickelodeon . In 2000 , the profit the CTW earned from the deal , along with its 1998 spike in revenue caused in part by the " Tickle Me Elmo " craze , enabled the CTW to purchase The Jim Henson Company 's rights to the Sesame Street Muppets from the German media company EM.TV , which had acquired Henson earlier that year . The transaction , valued at $ 180 million , also included a small interest Henson held in the Noggin cable channel . Gary Knell stated , " Everyone , most especially the puppeteers , were thrilled that we were able to bring them home . It protected Sesame Street and allowed our international expansion to continue . Owning these characters has allowed us to maximize their potential . We are now in control of our own destiny " .
The CTW changed its name to the Sesame Workshop ( SW ) in June 2000 to better reflect its entry into non @-@ television and interactive media . Also in 2000 , Gary Knell succeeded Britt as president and CEO of the Workshop ; according to Davis , he " presided over an especially fertile period in the nonprofit 's history " . Knell was instrumental in the creation of the cable channel Sprout in 2005 . Sprout ( launched as PBS Kids Sprout ) was founded as a partnership between the Workshop , Comcast , PBS , and HIT Entertainment , all of whom contributed programming to the new network . After seven years as a partner , the Workshop divested its stake in Sprout in December 2012 .
In 2007 , the Sesame Workshop founded The Joan Ganz Cooney Center , an independent , non @-@ profit organization that studies how to improve children 's literacy by using and developing digital technologies " grounded in detailed educational curriculum " , just as was done during the development of Sesame Street . In 2009 , the SW launched a website with a library of free video clips and free podcasts from throughout the show 's history .
The 2008 – 2009 recession , which led to budget cuts for many nonprofit arts organizations , severely affected the SW ; in 2009 , it had to lay off 20 % of its staff . Despite earning about $ 100 million from licensing revenue , royalties , and foundation and government support in 2012 , the Workshop 's total revenue was down 15 % and its operating loss doubled to $ 24 @.@ 3 million . In 2013 , it responded by laying off 10 % of its staff , saying that it was necessary to " strategically focus " their resources because of " today 's rapidly changing digital environment " . In 2011 , Knell left the SW to become the chief executive at NPR ; H. Melvin Ming was named as his replacement . Ming had been chief financial officer since 1999 and its chief operating officer since 2002 .
In 2014 , H. Melvin Ming retired and was succeeded by former HIT Entertainment and Nickelodeon executive Jeffery D. Dunn . Dunn 's appointment marked the first time someone outside of the SW became its leader , although he had close ties with the organization previously . As of December 2014 , the senior management at the SW consisted of : Dr. Lewis Bernstein , Executive Vice President and head of Education Research and Outreach ; Terry Fitzpatrick , who was Executive Vice President and responsible for content distribution ; Myung Kang @-@ Huenke , Executive Vice President and General Counsel and Secretary ; Daryl Mintz , Chief Financial Officer ; Sherrie Westin , Executive Vice President and Chief Marketing Officer ; and Michael H. Levine , Executive Director of the Joan Ganz Cooney Center . The organization 's board of trustees included , among others : its chair , Vincent A. Mai , who was also chairman of AEA Investors , Inc . ; Cooney , Morrisett , and Dunn .
= = Funding sources = =
After Sesame Street 's initial success , the CTW began to think about its survival beyond the development and first season of the show , since its funding sources were made up of organizations and institutions that tended to start projects , not sustain them . Although the organization was what Cooney called " the darling of the federal government for a brief period of two or three years " , its first ten years of existence was marked by conflicts between the two ; in 1978 , the US Department of Education refused to deliver a $ 2 million check until the last day of the CTW 's fiscal year . According to Davis , the federal government was opposed to funding public television , but the Workshop used Cooney 's prestige and fame , and the fact that there would be " great public outcry " if the show was de @-@ funded , to withstand the government 's attacks on PBS . Eventually , the CTW got its own line item in the federal budget , but by 1981 , government funding for Sesame Street had been terminated .
For the first time , a public broadcasting show had the potential to earn a great deal of money . Immediately after its premiere , Sesame Street gained attention from marketers , so the Workshop explored sources such as licensing arrangements , publishing , and international sales , and became , as Cooney envisioned , a " multiple media institution " . Licensing became the foundation of , as writer Louise Gikow put it , the Sesame Workshop endowment , which had the potential to support the organization and fund future productions and projects . Muppet creator Jim Henson owned the trademarks to the Muppet characters : he was reluctant to market them at first , but agreed when the CTW promised that the profits from toys , books , and other products were to be used exclusively to fund the CTW . The producers demanded complete control over all products and product decisions throughout its history ; any product line associated with the show had to be educational , inexpensive , and not advertised during airings of Sesame Street . As Davis reported , " Cooney stressed restraint , prudence , and caution " in their marketing and licensing efforts . In the early 1970s , the CTW approached Random House to establish and manage a non @-@ broadcast materials division . Random House and the CTW named Christopher Cerf to assist the CTW in publishing books and other materials that emphasized the show 's curriculum .
Shortly after the premiere of Sesame Street , the CTW was approached by producers , educators , and officials in other nations , requesting that a version of the show be aired in their countries . Former CBS executive Mike Dann left commercial television to become vice @-@ president of the CTW and Cooney 's assistant , and began what Charlotte Cole , vice president for the CTW 's International Research department in 2001 , called the " globalization " of Sesame Street by arranging what came to be called co @-@ productions , or independent programs with their own sets , characters , and curriculum goals . By 2009 , Sesame Street had expanded into 140 countries ; The New York Times reported in 2005 that income from the CTW 's international co @-@ productions of the show was $ 96 million . By 2008 , the Sesame Street Muppets accounted for between $ 15 million and $ 17 million per year in licensing and merchandising fees , split between the Workshop and Henson Associates .
= = = Publishing = = =
In 1970 , the CTW established a department overseeing the development of " nonbroadcast " materials based upon Sesame Street . The Workshop decided that all materials its licensing program created would " underscore and amplify " the show 's curriculum . Coloring books , for example , were prohibited because the Workshop felt they would restrict children 's imaginations . The CTW published Sesame Street Magazine in 1970 , which incorporated the show 's curriculum goals in a magazine format . As with the show , research was conducted for the magazine , initially by CTW 's research department for a year and a half , and then by the Magazine Research Group in 1975 .
Working with Random House editor Jason Epstein , the CTW hired Christopher Cerf to run Sesame Street 's book publishing program . In the division 's first year , Cerf earned $ 900 @,@ 000 for the CTW . He left to become more involved with writing and composing music for the show , and was eventually replaced by Bill Whaley . Ann Kearns , vice president of licensing for the CTW in 2009 , stated that Whaley was responsible for expanding the licensing to other products , and for creating a licensing model followed by other children 's shows . As of 2001 , there were over 600 books available in the Sesame Street library , and as researcher Renee Cherow @-@ O 'Leary stated , " the print materials produced by CTW have been an enduring part of the legacy of Sesame Street " . In one of these books , for example , the death of the Sesame Street character Mr. Hooper was dealt with in a book entitled I 'll Miss You , Mr. Hooper , published shortly after the show dealt with it in 1983 .
= = = Music = = =
According to director Jon Stone , the music of Sesame Street was unlike any other children 's program on television . For the first time , the show 's songs fulfilled a specific purpose and supported its curriculum . Cooney observed in her initial report that children had an " affinity for commercial jingles " , so many of the show 's songs were constructed like television ads .
To attract the best composers and lyricists , and to encourage them to compose more music for the show , the CTW allowed songwriters to retain the rights to the songs they wrote . For the first time in children 's television , the writers earned lucrative profits , which as Davis reported , " helped the show sustain the level of public interest in the show " . Scriptwriters often wrote their own lyrics to accompany their scripts . Songwriters of note were Joe Raposo , Jeff Moss , Christopher Cerf , Tony Geiss , and Norman Stiles . Many of the songs written for Sesame Street have become what writer David Borgenicht called " timeless classics " . These songs included the " Sesame Street Theme " ( also known as " Sunny Day " ) , " I Love Trash " , " Rubber Duckie " , " Bein ' Green " , and " Sing " . Many Sesame Street songs were recorded by well @-@ known artists such as Barbra Streisand , Lena Horne , Dizzy Gillespie , Paul Simon , and Jose Feliciano .
The show 's first album , Sesame Street Book & Record , recorded in 1970 , went gold and won a Grammy . Entertainment Weekly reported that by 1991 , Sesame Street had received eight Grammys . According to Gikow , Raposo won three Emmys and four Grammys for his work on the show .
= = = International co @-@ productions = = =
Shortly after Sesame Street debuted in the US , the CTW was approached independently by producers from several countries to produce versions of the show in their countries . Cooney remarked , " To be frank , I was really surprised , because we thought we were creating the quintessential American show . We thought the Muppets were quintessentially American , and it turns out they 're the most international characters ever created " . She hired former CBS executive Mike Dann , who left commercial television to become her assistant , as a CTW vice @-@ president . One of Dann 's tasks was to field offers to produce versions of Sesame Street in other countries . In response to Dann 's appointment , television critic Marvin Kitman said , " After [ Dann ] sells [ Sesame Street ] in Russia and Czechoslovakia , he might try Mississippi , where it is considered too controversial for educational TV " . This was a reference to the May 1970 Mississippi state commission decision to ban the show . By summer 1970 , Dann had made the first international agreements for what the CTW came to call " co @-@ productions " .
The earliest international versions were what CTW vice @-@ president Charlotte Cole and her colleagues called " fairly simple " , consisting of dubbed versions of the show with local language voice @-@ overs and instructional cutaways . Dubbed versions of the show continued to be produced if the country 's needs and resources warranted it . Eventually , a variant of the CTW model was used to create and produce independently produced preschool television shows in other countries . By 2006 , there were twenty co @-@ productions . In 2001 , there were over 120 million viewers of all international versions of Sesame Street , and by the show 's 40th anniversary in 2009 , they were seen in more than 140 countries . In 2005 , Doreen Carvajal of The New York Times reported that income from the co @-@ productions and international licensing accounted for $ 96 million . As Cole and her colleagues reported in 2001 , " Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) can be regarded as the single largest informal educator of young children in the world " .
= = = Interactive media = = =
Ten years after the premiere of Sesame Street , the CTW began experimenting with new technologies . In 1979 , it began to plan the development of a theme park , Sesame Place , which opened in 1980 in Langhorne , Pennsylvania . Three international parks , Parque Plaza Sesamo in Monterrey , Mexico since 1995 , Universal Studios Japan , and Vila Sesamo Kids ' Land in Brazil were later built . One of the park 's features was a computer gallery , which was developed by a small in @-@ house team and included 55 computer programs . The team evolved into the Children 's Computer Workshop ( CCW ) in 1982 , which was disbanded and became the Interactive Technologies division of the CTW in the late 1980s . As Sesame Street researcher Shalom M. Fisch pointed out , no television show could be as interactive as computer games , even " participatory " shows like Blue 's Clues or the Sesame Street segment " Elmo 's World " . The CTW has chosen to take advantage of the contingent feedback inherent in interactive computer games by developing and creating educational software based upon the television show 's content and curriculum .
In 2008 , a new " research @-@ driven " website was created ; it reached 18 million downloads in one month . Also in 2008 , the Sesame Workshop began to offer clips and full @-@ length episodes on Hulu , YouTube , and iTunes , where " Word on the Street " segments became the most popular webcast . In 2010 , the Workshop began offering eBooks through the show 's website , including a free rotating selection of five titles . Their selection of eBooks came in a variety of formats , some of which were interactive , and covered nineteen subject areas , including letters , numbers , counting , colors , and cultural appreciation .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
= Castlevania : Portrait of Ruin =
Castlevania : Portrait of Ruin , known in Japan as Akumajō Dracula : Gallery of Labyrinth ( 悪魔城ドラキュラ ギャラリー ・ オブ ・ ラビリンス , translated Devil 's Castle Dracula : Gallery of Labyrinth ) , is a platform @-@ adventure game developed and published by Konami . The game was released on November 16 , 2006 in Japan , and in the US on December 5 , 2006 for the Nintendo DS handheld game console . Portrait of Ruin is the first Castlevania to feature a cooperative multiplayer gameplay mode and the first handheld Castlevania to have English voice @-@ overs , outside of its original Japanese release .
Portrait of Ruin is set in 1944 Europe during World War II , and is a continuation of the story from Castlevania : Bloodlines . The game introduces new protagonists and antagonists to the Castlevania series as well as expand on the two character gameplay found in the previous Nintendo DS Castlevania title , Castlevania : Dawn of Sorrow . Portrait of Ruin has met with an overall positive critical response and has received high ratings from reviews , along with several awards .
= = Gameplay = =
Portrait of Ruin features a 2D side @-@ scrolling style of gameplay . One of the main features to the gameplay is that players can switch freely between two characters , Jonathan and Charlotte , similar to the " Julius mode " from Castlevania : Dawn of Sorrow . Jonathan and Charlotte can combine their powers to perform a powerful attack together known as " Dual Crush " , and their combined abilities are needed in certain parts of the castle for them to solve puzzles and progress through the story . For example , the player must have both characters board two " motorcycles " and alternate between them to dodge obstacles to have both motorcycles intact to crash through a wall .
Aside from Dracula 's castle , Jonathan and Charlotte explore other environments such as Egyptian @-@ like deserts and London @-@ like towns via paintings dispersed throughout the castle . During the adventure , the heroes encounter 155 different enemies , which are kept track in a bestiary . Many enemies from previous Castlevania titles make appearances either as standard monsters or bosses for the sections of the castle and paintings . As they progress , the duo learn new skills and acquire equipment and items which allow further exploration in the game .
Like previous Castlevania games , this game features alternate endings . Portrait of Ruin has two different endings . Both involve Jonathan and Charlotte preventing Dracula from being resurrected , but only one involves the defeat of Brauner , another vampire enemy , and the Actual defeat of Dracula . At one point in the game , the player 's actions determine which ending will be obtained . The first ending is normally referred to as the " bad " ending because the main objectives of the game 's story are not completed ; to indicate this , the game will display a " Game over " screen instead of the credits . The second ending completes those objectives and allows the player to explore more of Dracula 's castle and gain access to more paintings . This ending is considered the canonical ending to the game .
= = = Alternate modes = = =
Portrait of Ruin features alternate modes of gameplay ; four single player modes for the main story and a " Boss Rush " mode that can be played with either one or two players . Aside from Health and Magic Power enhancements , items cannot be obtained nor used in any of the extra modes of the main game . Initially , only one story mode is available and features the main protagonists , Jonathan and Charlotte . After obtaining the better of the two endings with Jonathan and Charlotte , the player will unlock a prologue to the main story , " Sisters Mode " , and additional stages in the Boss Rush Mode . Completing the game also gives the player the option to increase the difficulty , add level caps on new games , and start a game with all previously obtained items and skills . If the player meets certain requirements in the game , two other versions of the main story mode are made available ; " Richter Mode " and " Old Axe Armor Mode " .
In " Sisters Mode " , the player controls Loretta and Stella Lecarde . This mode serves as a prologue to the storyline in Jonathan 's Mode . They have different controls compared to the normal gameplay in that attacks are controlled completely with the stylus . Loretta is able to use an ice spell which is aimed with the player 's stylus , and Stella is able to damage enemies and objects that the player passes the stylus over . Instead of reaching Dracula , the game ends when Brauner is reached . Richiter mode allows the player to control Richter Belmont and Maria Renard , the latter in the first time as a playable character in an American or European release . There are
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-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m × 18 @.@ 3 m ) and had a capacity of 16 @,@ 000 pounds ( 7 @,@ 257 @.@ 5 kg ) . A 20 @-@ by @-@ 26 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 by 7 @.@ 9 m ) section of the flight deck adjoining the rear edge of the elevator could split down the centerline to lift aircraft otherwise too long . Carrying 12 @,@ 000 pounds ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) , it moved at a speed of 2 feet per second ( 0 @.@ 61 m / s ) . The aft elevator measured 30 @-@ by @-@ 36 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 by 11 @.@ 0 m ) and could only lift 6 @,@ 000 pounds ( 2 @,@ 721 @.@ 6 kg ) . Munitions were delivered from the magazines by two hydraulically powered bomb lifts and one torpedo lift . A folding crane with a capacity of 10 long tons ( 10 t ) was positioned on the flight deck forward of the gun turrets . Aviation gasoline was stored in eight compartments of the torpedo protection system and their capacity has been quoted as either 132 @,@ 264 US gallons ( 500 @,@ 670 l ; 110 @,@ 133 imp gal ) or 163 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 620 @,@ 000 l ; 136 @,@ 000 imp gal ) . A flywheel @-@ powered aircraft catapult , 155 feet ( 47 @.@ 2 m ) long , was fitted at the bow ; it could launch a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 4 @,@ 536 kg ) aircraft at a speed of 48 knots ( 89 km / h ; 55 mph ) . It was removed in 1934 as unnecessary .
The Lexington @-@ class ships were designed to carry 78 aircraft of various types , including 36 bombers , but these numbers increased once the Navy adopted the practice of tying up spare aircraft in the unused spaces at the top of the hangar . In 1936 , her air group consisted of 18 Grumman F2F @-@ 1 and 18 Boeing F4B @-@ 4 fighters , plus an additional nine F2Fs in reserve . Offensive punch was provided by 20 Vought SBU Corsair dive bombers with 10 spare aircraft and 18 Great Lakes BG torpedo bombers with nine spares . Miscellaneous aircraft included two Grumman JF Duck amphibians , plus one in reserve , and three active and one spare Vought O2U Corsair observation aircraft . This amounted to 79 aircraft , plus 30 spares .
In early December 1941 , Lexington was ferrying 18 U.S. Marine Corps Vought SB2U Vindicator dive bombers to Midway Atoll and at that time she embarked 65 of her own aircraft , including 17 Brewster F2A Buffalo fighters . During the Wake Island relief expedition later that month , Saratoga 's air group consisted of 13 Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters , 42 Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers , and 11 Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo bombers . The ship also carried 14 Marine Corps Buffalos for delivery at Wake . Before the Battle of the Eastern Solomons in mid @-@ 1942 , Saratoga 's air group consisted of 90 aircraft , comprising 37 Wildcats , 37 Dauntlesses and 16 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers . In early 1945 , the ship carried 53 Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters and 17 Avengers .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Turbo @-@ electric propulsion had been chosen for the battlecruisers because American companies struggled to produce the very large geared turbines necessary for such big ships and was retained when they were converted into aircraft carriers . One advantage of turbo @-@ electric drive was that the substitution of flexible electric cables for bulky steam @-@ lines allowed the motors to be mounted further to the stern of the ship ; this reduced vibration and weight by shortening the propeller shafts . Another was the ability to go astern at full power without needing a separate reverse turbine to do so , simply by reversing the electrical polarity of the motors . Other benefits were the ability to operate all four propellers if one of the turbo generators failed , and the possibility of operating only some of the generators at low speed with suitably higher loading and greater efficiency . " [ Turbo @-@ electric drive ] was efficient , rugged and always reliable . But it was also heavy , intricate , and not easy to maintain and keep tuned up . " The machinery also required special ventilation measures to dissipate heat and to keep out any salt air . Even with this and elaborate insulation measures , protection from moisture or from flooding due to battle damage or other causes remained problematic and it posed the danger of high voltage to the crew if damaged .
Each propeller was 14 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 50 m ) in diameter and each of the four propeller shafts was powered by two 22 @,@ 500 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 16 @,@ 800 kW ) electric motors acting in tandem . These motors were about five times the size of any earlier electric motor . Four General Electric turbo generators powered each propeller shaft and each was rated at 35 @,@ 200 kilowatts ( 47 @,@ 200 hp ) , 5000 volts and 4620 amps of direct current ( DC ) . Each of the four AC alternators produced 40 @,@ 000 kVA . Sixteen water @-@ tube boilers , each in their own individual compartment , provided steam for the generators at a working pressure of 295 psi ( 2 @,@ 034 kPa ; 21 kgf / cm2 ) and a temperature of 460 ° F ( 238 ° C ) . The turbo @-@ electric machinery of the Lexington @-@ class ships was designed to produce a total of 180 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 130 @,@ 000 kW ) and propel the ships at 33 @.@ 25 knots ( 61 @.@ 58 km / h ; 38 @.@ 26 mph ) , but each ship reached over 202 @,@ 000 shp ( 151 @,@ 000 kW ) and 34 @.@ 5 knots ( 63 @.@ 9 km / h ; 39 @.@ 7 mph ) in sea trials in 1928 . Six 750 @-@ kilowatt ( 1 @,@ 010 hp ) DC turbo generators were installed in the upper levels of the two main turbine compartments .
The ships carried a maximum of 6 @,@ 688 long tons ( 6 @,@ 795 t ) of fuel oil , but only 5 @,@ 400 long tons ( 5 @,@ 500 t ) of that was usable as the rest had to be retained as ballast in the port fuel tanks to offset the weight of the island and main guns . They demonstrated a range of 9 @,@ 910 nautical miles ( 18 @,@ 350 km ; 11 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 @.@ 7 knots ( 19 @.@ 8 km / h ; 12 @.@ 3 mph ) with 4 @,@ 540 long tons ( 4 @,@ 610 t ) of oil .
= = = Armament = = =
The Bureau of Construction and Repair was not then convinced that aircraft could be an effective and sufficient armament for a warship . Thus the design as carriers included a substantial gun battery of eight 8 " / 55 caliber guns in four twin gun turrets , two pairs of superfiring turrets fore and aft of the island . These turrets were mounted above the flight deck on the starboard side , two before the bridge , and two behind the funnel . The guns in theory could fire to both sides , but it is probable that if they were fired to port ( across the deck ) the blast would have damaged the flight deck . The guns could be depressed to − 5 ° and elevated to + 41 ° ; they were loaded at an angle of + 9 ° . They fired 260 @-@ pound ( 118 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ( 850 m / s ) ; this gave a maximum range of 31 @,@ 860 yards ( 29 @,@ 133 m ) .
The Lexington class ' anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) armament consisted of a dozen 5 " / 25 caliber guns , six on each side of the ship on single mounts . They had a maximum elevation of + 85 ° . They fired 53 @.@ 85 @-@ pound ( 24 @.@ 43 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 110 ft / s ( 640 m / s ) . Their maximum range against surface targets was 17 @,@ 700 yards ( 16 @,@ 200 m ) at + 30 ° elevation .
As built , the ship were not fitted with any light AA guns , but a few .50 @-@ inch ( 13 mm ) water @-@ cooled M2 Browning anti @-@ aircraft machine guns were fitted shortly after commissioning and the numbers gradually increased over the 1930s . Lexington had 24 of these guns aboard when she was sunk in early 1942 . Their 1 @.@ 6 @-@ ounce ( 45 g ) projectiles had a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 930 ft / s ( 890 m / s ) , but an effective range of only 1 @,@ 600 yards ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) . They had a rate of fire of 550 – 700 rounds per minute and were exceedingly reliable , however , their shells were too light and too short ranged so they were replaced by license @-@ built Oerlikon 20 mm autocannon beginning in 1942 . The Oerlikon fired a 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) , .272 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 123 kg ) high @-@ explosive shells at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 750 ft / s ( 840 m / s ) . Its maximum range was 4 @,@ 800 yards ( 4 @,@ 400 m ) although the effective range was under 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) . The cyclic rate of fire was 450 rounds per minute , but the practical rate was between 250 and 320 rounds per minute owing to the need to reload magazines . Saratoga mounted 52 of these guns in late 1942 .
The Navy had been developing a quadruple 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch light AA gun since the early 1930s , but it was delayed with teething problems , so five single 3 " / 50 caliber Mk 10 AA guns were installed in 1940 as temporary replacements . They fired 13 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 9 kg ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ( 820 m / s ) . At + 85 ° elevation they had an anti @-@ aircraft ceiling of 29 @,@ 800 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) .
The Navy made plans to remove the eight @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) gun turrets in 1940 and replace them with four twin 5 " / 38 caliber dual @-@ purpose gun turrets ( the standard mounting on U.S. battleships and cruisers ) . At the same time , the five @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) 25 @-@ caliber guns were to be replaced with more 5 " / 38 guns on a two for three basis to compensate for their greater weight . The guns fired 55 @-@ pound ( 25 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 790 m / s ) at a rate of fire up to 20 rounds per minute . Against surface targets they had a range of 18 @,@ 200 yards ( 16 @,@ 600 m ) .
Five quadruple 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch gun mounts were finally fitted aboard the Lexington @-@ class ships in late 1941 and early 1942 . The .9 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 41 kg ) projectiles had a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ( 820 m / s ) and an effective range of 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) . The maximum rate of fire was 150 rounds per minute although the frequent need to reload the eight @-@ round magazines reduced that . The gun was not successful in service and it was replaced by the license @-@ built Bofors 40 mm autocannon beginning in late 1942 . The 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) , 1 @.@ 98 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 90 kg ) high @-@ explosive shell was fired at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 890 ft / s ( 880 m / s ) . Its maximum range was 11 @,@ 000 yards ( 10 @,@ 000 m ) although the effective range was around 4 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 – 4 @,@ 600 m ) . The cyclic rate of fire was 160 rounds per minute . The guns were fitted in quadruple and twin gun mounts in increasing numbers over the war . Saratoga had 23 quadruple and two twin mounts in early 1944 .
Lexington 's eight @-@ inch gun turrets were removed in early 1942 , but they were replaced by seven additional quadruple 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch gun mounts as a temporary measure . The ship was sunk before her five @-@ inch guns could be replaced and the turrets installed . Saratoga 's armament was upgraded in early 1942 while she was under repair after she had been torpedoed .
= = = Fire control and electronics = = =
The two superfiring eight @-@ inch turrets had a Mk 30 rangefinder at the rear of the turret for local control , but the guns were normally controlled by two Mk 18 fire @-@ control directors , one each on the fore and aft spotting tops . A 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) rangefinder was fitted on top of the pilothouse to provide range information for the directors . Each group of three 5 @-@ inch guns was controlled by a Mk 19 director , two of which were mounted on each side of the spotting tops . Plans were made before the war to replace the obsolete Mk 19 directors with two heavier Mk 33 directors , one each on the fore and aft five @-@ inch spotting tops , but these plans were cancelled when the dual @-@ purpose guns replaced the main armament in early 1942 .
Saratoga received a RCA CXAM @-@ 1 early warning radar in February 1941 during a refit in Bremerton . The antenna was mounted on the forward lip of the funnel with its control room directly below the aerial , replacing the secondary conning station formerly mounted there . She also received two FC ( Mk 3 ) surface fire @-@ control radars in late 1941 , although these were both removed along with her main armament in January 1942 . The new dual @-@ purpose guns were controlled by two Mk 37 directors , each mounting an FD ( Mk 4 ) anti @-@ aircraft gunnery radar . When the 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch guns were replaced by 40 mm guns in 1942 , the directors for the smaller guns were replaced by five Mk 51 directors . Additional radars were added during 1942 and the ship 's electronics were modernized during her refit in January 1944 .
= = = Armor = = =
The waterline belt of the Lexington @-@ class ships tapered 7 – 5 inches ( 178 – 127 mm ) in thickness from top to bottom and angled 11 ° outwards at the top . This angle increased the armor 's relative thickness to horizontal , close @-@ range fire , albeit at the cost of reducing its relative height which increased the chance of plunging shellfire going over or under it . It covered the middle 530 feet ( 161 @.@ 5 m ) of the ships . Forward , the belt ended in a bulkhead that also tapered from seven to five inches in thickness . Aft , it terminated at a seven @-@ inch bulkhead . This belt had a height of 9 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) . The third deck over the ships ' machinery and magazine was armored with two layers of special treatment steel ( STS ) totaling 2 inches ( 51 mm ) in thickness . The steering gear , however , was protected by two layers of STS that totaled 3 inches ( 76 mm ) on the flat and 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) on the slope .
The gun turrets were protected only against splinters with .75 inches ( 19 mm ) of armor . The conning tower was 2 – 2 @.@ 25 inches ( 51 – 57 mm ) of STS , and it had a communications tube with two @-@ inch sides ran from the conning tower down to the lower conning position on the third deck . The torpedo defense system of the Lexington @-@ class ships consisted of three to six medium steel protective bulkheads that ranged from .375 to .75 inches ( 10 to 19 mm ) in thickness . The spaces between them could be left empty or used as fuel tanks to absorb the detonation of a torpedo 's warhead .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Lexington and Saratoga were used to develop and refine carrier tactics in a series of annual exercises before World War II . On more than one occasion these included successfully staged surprise attacks on Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . Lexington 's turbo @-@ electric propulsion system allowed her to supplement the electrical supply of Tacoma , Washington , in a drought from late 1929 to early 1930 . She also delivered medical personnel and relief supplies to Managua , Nicaragua , after an earthquake in 1931 .
Lexington was at sea when the Pacific War began on 7 December 1941 , ferrying fighter aircraft to Midway Island . Her mission was cancelled and she returned to Pearl Harbor a week later . After a few days , she was sent to create a diversion from the force en route to relieve the besieged Wake Island garrison by attacking Japanese installations in the Marshall Islands . The island was forced to surrender before the relief force got close enough , and the mission was cancelled . A planned attack on Wake Island in January 1942 had to be cancelled when a submarine sank the oiler required to supply the fuel for the return trip . Lexington was sent to the Coral Sea the following month to block any Japanese advances into the area . The ship was spotted by Japanese search aircraft while approaching Rabaul , New Britain , and her aircraft shot down most of the Japanese bombers that attacked her . Together with the carrier Yorktown , she successfully attacked Japanese shipping off the east coast of New Guinea in early March .
Lexington was briefly refitted in Pearl Harbor at the end of the month and rendezvoused with Yorktown in the Coral Sea in early May . A few days later the Japanese began Operation MO , the invasion of Port Moresby , Papua New Guinea , and the two American carriers attempted to stop the invasion forces . They sank the light aircraft carrier Shōhō on 7 May in the Battle of the Coral Sea , but did not encounter the main Japanese force of the carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku until the next day . Aircraft from Lexington and Yorktown succeeded in badly damaging Shōkaku , but the Japanese aircraft crippled Lexington . Vapors from leaking aviation gasoline tanks sparked a series of explosions and fires that could not be controlled , and the carrier had to be scuttled by an American destroyer on the evening of 8 May to prevent her capture .
Shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , Saratoga was the centerpiece of the unsuccessful American effort to relieve Wake Island and was torpedoed by a Japanese submarine a few weeks later . After lengthy repairs , the ship supported forces participating in the Guadalcanal Campaign and her aircraft sank the light carrier Ryūjō in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons in August 1942 . She was again torpedoed the following month and returned to the Solomon Islands area after repairs were completed .
In 1943 , Saratoga supported Allied forces involved in the New Georgia Campaign and invasion of Bougainville in the northern Solomon Islands and her aircraft twice attacked the Japanese base at Rabaul in November . Early in 1944 , her aircraft provided air support in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands Campaign before she was transferred to the Indian Ocean for several months to support the Royal Navy 's Eastern Fleet as it attacked targets in Java and Sumatra . After a brief refit in mid @-@ 1944 , the ship became a training ship for the rest of the year .
In early 1945 , Saratoga participated in the Battle of Iwo Jima as a dedicated night fighter carrier . Several days into the battle , she was badly damaged by kamikaze hits and was forced to return to the United States for repairs . While under repair , the ship , now increasingly obsolete , was permanently modified as a training carrier with some of her hangar deck converted into classrooms . Saratoga remained in this role for the rest of the war and was used to ferry troops back to the United States after the Japanese surrender in August . In July 1946 , she was used as a target for atomic bomb tests in Operation Crossroads , and sank at Bikini Atoll . Her wreck is easily accessible to scuba divers and organized dive tours are available .
= = See Also = =
List of ships of the Second World War
List of ship classes of the Second World War
= Crex =
Crex is a small genus of birds in the rail family . It contains two species , the corn crake , C. crex , which breeds across Europe and Asia and winters in southern Africa , and the African crake , C. egregia , which migrates within Africa . Both are short @-@ billed rails with blackish @-@ brown upperparts , mainly blue @-@ grey underparts , and barring on the flanks . The corn crake is significantly larger than its relative , and has a distinctive chestnut patch on its wings . Unusually for their family , these are birds of dry habitats rather than wetlands ; the Eurasian species mainly breeds in hay meadows , and the African crake in dry grassland . The African crake is sometimes given its own genus , Crecopsis , but is now more usually placed in Crex .
Both species have distinctive loud grating calls used for advertising and territorial purposes in the breeding season , although the corn crake is silent on its African wintering grounds . They are mainly active during the day ; they walk with a high @-@ stepping action , and when disturbed they can run swiftly through grass or fly a short distance to cover . Migration takes place at night , and the ability to undertake these journeys is innate , not learned from adults . The nest is a shallow cup of grass lined with finer vegetation and built in a well hidden depression . The precocial chicks leave the nest soon after hatching , and fledge after four to six weeks . These are ground @-@ feeding omnivores , but mainly eat invertebrates . They may be killed by a variety of mammals and large birds , and infected by parasites .
The two Crex species have huge breeding ranges and large populations and are classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List . The corn crake was formerly classified as near @-@ threatened because of serious declines in western Europe , but improved monitoring shows that numbers have remained stable further east in Russia and Kazakhstan . In much of the western half of the corn crake 's breeding range , there have been long @-@ term declines that are expected to continue . The main cause of the decline is the loss of nests and chicks from early mowing . Haymaking dates have moved forward in the past century due to faster crop growth , made possible by land drainage and the use of fertilisers , and the move from manual grass @-@ cutting using scythes to mechanical mowers . Loss of habitat is the other major threat to the corn crake . Drained and fertilised silage fields are less suitable for breeding than traditional hay meadows . In western Europe the conversion of grassland to arable land has been aided by subsidies , and further east the collapse of collective farming has led to the abandonment and lack of management of much land in this important breeding area .
= = Taxonomy = =
The rails are a bird family comprising nearly 150 species . Although the origins of the group are lost in antiquity , the largest number of species and the most primitive forms are found in the Old World , suggesting that this family originated there . The genus Crex was created by German naturalist and ornithologist Johann Matthäus Bechstein in 1803 . Originally it held only the corn crake , C. crex , which Bechstein moved from its original name , Rallus crex , given to it by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 .
The taxonomy of the small crakes is complicated , but the closest relative of the corn crake is the African crake , C. egregia . This was first described as Ortygometra egregria by Wilhelm Peters in 1854 from a specimen obtained in Mozambique , and has variously been placed in the genus Porzana or its own genus , Crecopsis , but is now more usually placed in Crex . The Porzana crakes are the closest relatives of the Crex genus , particularly the ash @-@ throated crake , Porzana albicollis , which has occasionally also been allocated to Crex .
The genus name is onomatopoeic , referring to the repetitive grating call of the corn crake . Although these species occur in fairly open habitats , they lack the pure white undertail used for signalling in open @-@ water or gregarious species like the coots and moorhens .
= = Description = =
Both Crex crakes are short @-@ billed birds with blackish @-@ brown upperparts and mainly blue @-@ grey underparts . The belly is white , and there is barring on the flanks and the underside of the short tail . The corn crake is significantly larger than its relative , at 27 – 30 cm ( 11 – 12 in ) long with a wingspan of 42 – 53 cm ( 17 – 21 in ) , compared to the African crake 's 20 – 23 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) length and a 40 – 42 cm ( 16 – 17 in ) wingspan . The corn crake is sympatric with the African crake on its wintering grounds , but can be distinguished by its larger size , paler upperparts , chestnut @-@ coloured patch on the upperwing and different underparts pattern . In flight , it has longer , less rounded wings , and shallower wingbeats than its African relative , and shows a white leading edge to the inner wing .
The sexes of each species are similar in appearance , although the females are slightly smaller and duller than the males , with a less contrasting head pattern . Juveniles of both species are duller than the adults , and browner underneath . Adults undergo a complete moult after breeding . No subspecies have been recognised of either Crex crake . Although corn crakes become paler and greyer towards the east of the range , the change is clinal , and there is great individual variation in colour within all populations .
The two Crex crakes are unlikely to be confused with other rails , since most sympatric short @-@ billed rails are smaller , with white markings on the upperparts , different underparts patterns and shorter bills . The European water rail and the African rail have long pointed bills .
= = = Voice = = =
Like other rails , the Crex species have a wide range of vocalisations . The males of both crakes have a loud territorial and advertising call consisting of a series of grating notes repeated two or three times a second for several minutes . The male stands upright with his neck extended when advertising , with its head and neck almost vertical and bill wide open . Calling is most frequent early in the breeding season , mainly at night for the corn crake , but in the day for its African cousin . The corn crake 's call may be repeated more than 20 @,@ 000 times a night , with a peak between midnight and 3 am .
The advertising calls of both crakes are readily distinguished from the quite dissimilar calls of potentially sympatric rails such as the spotted crake , striped crake , Baillon 's crake , or water rail . The calls of the two Crex species cannot be confused , since the corn crake is silent in Africa . Both sexes may give distinctive territorial or alarm calls , and females and chicks communicate with cheeps and wheezes . The African crake can be attracted to within 10 m ( 33 ft ) of a human by imitation of its kraaa threat call , and the male corn crake by mechanical imitations of their advertising call , including rubbing a piece of wood down a notched stick , or by flicking a credit card against a comb or zip @-@ fastener .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The corn crake is a long distance migrant , breeding across temperate Eurasia from the British Isles east to central Siberia and western China . It winters in Africa from Zaire and central Tanzania south to eastern South Africa , mainly KwaZulu @-@ Natal and the former Transvaal Province . Small numbers of birds may winter in the milder areas of western Europe , or halt their migration and stay in North Africa .
The African crake occurs throughout sub @-@ Saharan Africa from Senegal east to Kenya and south to KwaZulu @-@ Natal , except in arid areas of south and southwest Africa where the annual summer rainfall is less than 300 mm ( 12 in ) . It is widespread and locally common in most of its range , apart from the rainforests and the drier regions . Nearly all the South African population of about 8 @,@ 000 birds occur in KwaZulu @-@ Natal and the former Transvaal Province . This crake is only a vagrant to the drier zones on the southern edges of South Africa 's northern and eastern Cape Province and North West Province , and southern Botswana .
Both species are nocturnal migrants . Most corn crakes migrate through Egypt , with smaller numbers crossing at the western end of the Mediterranean . It has been recorded in most countries between its breeding and wintering ranges , including much of west Africa , and those parts of southern Asia that lie between the east of the breeding range and Africa . Further afield , it has been recorded as a vagrant to Sri Lanka , Vietnam and Australia , the Seychelles , Bermuda , Canada , the United States , Greenland , and the North Atlantic islands .
The African species is a partial migrant , but its movements are complex , seasonal and poorly studied . It is mainly a wet @-@ season breeder , and many birds move away from the equator as soon as the rains provide sufficient grass cover to allow them to breed elsewhere . Southward movement is mainly from November to April , the return north beginning when burning or drought reduces the grass cover again . This species is present throughout the year in some West African countries , and in equatorial regions , but even in those areas numbers vary seasonally due to local movements ; internal north – south migration has been noted within countries including Nigeria , Senegal , The Gambia , Côte d 'Ivoire and Cameroon . This crake has also wandered further afield . It is rare on Bioko Island ( Equatorial Guinea ) , and there have been two records each for São Tomé and Tenerife , the Canary Islands birds being the first records for the Western Palaeartic .
Most rails are wetland birds , but the two Crex species prefer drier habitats . The African crake is found mainly in grassland , ranging from wetland edges and seasonal floodlands to savanna , lightly wooded dry grassland , and grassy forest clearings . It also frequents maize , rice and cotton crops , derelict farmland and sugarcane plantations close to water . A wide range of grass species are used , with a preferred height of 0 @.@ 3 – 1 m ( 0 @.@ 98 – 3 @.@ 28 ft ) tall but vegetation is acceptable up to 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) tall . The corn crake is mainly a lowland species , but breeds up to 1 @,@ 400 m ( 4 @,@ 600 ft ) altitude in the Alps , 2 @,@ 700 m ( 8 @,@ 900 ft ) in China and 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) in Russia . When breeding in Eurasia , the corn crake 's habitats would originally have included river meadows with tall grass and meadow plants , but it is now mainly found in cool moist grassland used for the production of hay , particularly moist traditional farmland . It also utilises other treeless grasslands in mountains or taiga , on coasts , or where created by fire . Very wet habitats are avoided , as are open areas and those with vegetation more than 50 cm ( 20 in ) tall , or too dense for the birds to walk through .
While wintering in Africa , the corn crake occupies dry grassland and savanna habitats , occurring in vegetation 30 – 200 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 6 @.@ 56 ft ) tall , including seasonally burnt areas and occasionally sedges or reed beds . It is also found on fallow and abandoned fields , uncut grass on airfields , and the edges of crops . It occurs at up to at least 1 @,@ 750 m ( 5 @,@ 740 ft ) altitude in South Africa . Although it sometimes occurs with the African crake , that species normally prefers moister and shorter grassland habitats than does the corn crake . On migration , the corn crake may also occur in wheatfields and around golf courses .
= = Behaviour = =
Both Crex crakes are mainly active during the day , especially at dawn , dusk , during light rain , or after heavier rain . The African crake is less skulking and easier to flush from cover than other crakes , and is often seen at the edges of roads and tracks , but the corn crake is a much more difficult bird to see in its breeding sites , usually being hidden by vegetation and rarely emerging into the open . Both crakes are territorial on both the breeding and non @-@ breeding grounds ; the male threat displays involves the bird standing upright and spreading the feathers of the wings , flanks and belly like a fan . Fighting at territorial boundaries involves the male birds jumping at each other and pecking .
Both species walk with a high @-@ stepping action , and can run swiftly through grass with the body held horizontal and laterally flattened . When disturbed , they typically fly less than 50 m ( 160 ft ) , frequently landing behind a bush or thicket , and then go into a crouch . In short grass , they can escape from a dog using their speed and maneuverability , running with the body held almost horizontal . The typical flight is weak and fluttering , especially that of the African crake , but for longer flights , such as migration , the corn crake has a steadier , stronger action with its legs drawn up . Flocks of up to 40 corn crakes may form on migration , sometimes associating with common quails . Migration takes place at night , and flocks resting during the day may aggregate to hundreds of birds at favoured sites . The ability to migrate is innate , not learned from adults ; chicks raised from birds kept in captivity for ten generations were able to migrate to Africa and return with similar success to wild @-@ bred young .
= = = Breeding = = =
Both crakes were formerly believed to be monogamous , but the male corn crake may have a shifting home range , and mate with two or more females , moving on when laying is almost complete . The breeding display consists of a short chase of the female by the male . The nest is a shallow cup of grass leaves and lined with finer grasses , built in a depression and well hidden in the grass . The clutch size is from 3 to 11 pink eggs for the African species , and 6 – 14 – usually 8 – 12 – for the European breeder . The corn crake 's eggs are oval , slightly glossy , creamy or tinted with green , blue or grey , and blotched red @-@ brown . They average 37 mm × 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in × 1 @.@ 0 in ) and weigh about 13 – 16 g ( 0 @.@ 46 – 0 @.@ 56 oz ) , of which 7 % is shell .
The first egg is often laid when the nest is little more than a pad of grass , and a further egg is laid on each subsequent day . Both sexes incubate the eggs , which start hatching after about 14 days ; all hatch with 48 hours despite the extended laying period . The black , downy precocial chicks soon leave the nest but are fed and protected by the parents . Fledging occurs after four to six weeks , and the young can fly before they are fully grown . It is not known whether the African crake has a second brood , but the corn crake usually does . Where grass is not tall enough at the start of the season , the first nest may be constructed in herby or marsh vegetation , with the second brood in hay . The second nest may also be at a higher altitude that the first , to take advantage of the later @-@ developing grasses further up a hill .
Although survival in undisturbed sites is high , at 80 – 90 % , the corn crake suffers from modern farming practices , since mechanised mowing can kill 38 – 95 % of chicks in a given site . The influence of weather on corn crake chick survival is limited : although chick growth is faster in dry or warm weather , the effects are relatively small . Unlike many precocial species , chicks are fed by their mother for a few days until they become independent , and this may cushion them from adverse conditions . The number of live chicks hatched is more important than the weather , with lower survival in large broods .
= = = Feeding = = =
Both Crex crakes are omnivorous , but mainly feed on invertebrates , including earthworms , slugs and snails , spiders , beetles , dragonflies , grasshoppers and other insects . The corn crake may take pests such as Sitona weevils , leatherjackets and wireworms . In Africa , termites , cockroaches and dung beetles may be consumed . These opportunist hunters will take the occasional vertebrate such as a small frog , rodent or fish . Food is taken from the ground , low @-@ growing plants and from inside grass tussocks ; the crake may search leaf litter with its bill , and run in pursuit of active prey . In Africa , both species will occasionally feed on grassy tracks or dirt roads . Plant material is eaten , especially grass seeds , but also green shoots , leaves and other seeds . As with other rails , grit is swallowed to help break up food in the stomach . Indigestible material is regurgitated as pellets . Chicks are fed mainly on animal food . Crex crakes forage singly , in pairs or in family groups , sometimes in association with the other member of the genus or with other grassland birds such as great snipes , blue quails and common quails .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Predators of the corn crake on its European breeding grounds include feral and domestic cats , introduced American mink , feral ferrets , otters and red foxes , and birds including the common buzzard and hooded crow . In Lithuania , the introduced raccoon dog has also been recorded taking corn crakes . When chicks are exposed by rapid mowing , they may be taken by large birds including the white stork , harriers and other birds of prey , gulls and corvids . At undisturbed sites , nests and broods are rarely attacked , which is reflected in the high breeding success .
In Africa , Crex species may be hunted by the leopard , serval , cats , the black @-@ headed heron , dark chanting goshawk , African hawk @-@ eagle , Wahlberg 's eagle , and black sparrowhawk . In South Africa , newly hatched African crake chicks were taken by a boomslang .
Parasites recorded in this genus include the widespread fluke Prosthogonimus ovatus ( which lives in the oviducts of birds ) , the parasitic worm Plagiorchis elegans , the larvae of parasitic flies , the feather mite Metanalges elongatus , and hard ticks of the genera Haemaphysalis and Ixodes . During the reintroduction of corn crakes to England in the 2003 breeding season , enteritis and ill health in pre @-@ release birds was due to bacteria of a pathogenic Campylobacter species . Subsequently , microbiology tests were done to detect infected individuals and to find the source of the bacteria in their environment .
= = Status = =
Both Crex species have huge breeding ranges , estimated at 15 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 km2 ( 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 mi2 ) for the African crake and 12 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 km2 ( 4 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 mi2 ) for the corn crake . The population size of the African species is unknown , but it is common in most of its range , and its numbers appear to be stable . The European bird has an estimated 1 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 0 million breeding pairs in Europe , three @-@ quarters of which are in European Russia , and a further 515 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 240 @,@ 000 pairs in Asiatic Russia ; the total Eurasian population has been estimated at between 5 @.@ 45 and 9 @.@ 72 million individuals . Both species are classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List . The corn crake was formerly classified as near @-@ threatened because of serious declines in Europe , but improved monitoring in Russia indicates that anticipated losses there have not occurred and numbers have remained stable or possibly increased in Russia and Kazakhstan . Although most rails in the Old World are covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of African @-@ Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds ( AEWA ) , neither Crex species is listed , being too terrestrial to be classed as wetland species .
Overgrazing , agriculture and the loss of wetland and moist grassland have reduced the availability of suitable habitat for the African crake in many areas , such as some parts of the southern KwaZulu @-@ Natal coast which have been urbanised or planted with sugarcane . In other areas , grassland may have increased locally in recent years as woodland is cleared . This crake is considered to be good eating , and is killed for food in some regions . Despite these adverse factors , it appears to be under no real threat .
In much of the western half of the corn crake 's breeding range , there have been long @-@ term declines that are expected to continue , although conservation measures have enabled numbers to grow in several countries , including substantial increases in the small populations in Finland , the UK and the Netherlands . The breeding population had begun to decline in the 19th century , but the process gained pace after World War II . The main cause of the steep declines in much of Europe is the loss of nests and chicks from early mowing . Haymaking dates have moved forward in the past century due to faster crop growth , made possible by land drainage and the use of fertilisers , and the move from manual grass @-@ cutting using scythes to mechanical mowers , at first horse @-@ drawn and later pulled by tractors . Mechanisation also means that large areas can be cut quickly , leaving the crake with no alternative sites to raise either a first brood if suitable habitat has gone , or a replacement brood if the first nest is destroyed . The pattern of mowing , typically in a circular pattern from the outside of a field to its centre , gives little chance of escape for the chicks , which are also exposed to potential animal predators . Adults can often escape the mowers , although some incubating females sit tight on the nest , with fatal results .
Loss of habitat is the other major threat to the corn crake , since drained and fertilised silage fields are less suitable for breeding than traditional hay meadows . In western Europe the conversion of grassland to arable land has been aided by subsidies , and further east the collapse of collective farming has led to the abandonment and lack of management of much land in this important breeding area . More localised threats include floods in spring , and disturbance by roads or wind farms , and the loss of many birds – up to 14 @,@ 000 a year – in Egypt , where migrating birds are captured in nets set for the quail with which they often migrate . Although this may account for 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 7 % of the European population , the losses to this form of hunting are less than when the targeted species were more numerous and predictable .
Most European countries have taken steps to conserve the corn crake and produce national management policies ; there is also an overall European action plan . The focus of conservation effort is to monitor populations and ecology and to improve survival , principally through changing the timing and method of hay harvesting . Later cutting gives time for breeding to be completed , and leaving uncut strips at the edges of fields and cutting from the centre outwards reduces the casualties from mowing . Implementing these changes is predicted to stop the population decline if the measures are applied on a sufficiently large scale . Reduction of illegal hunting , and protection in countries where hunting is still allowed , are also conservation aims . Reintroduction of the corn crake is being attempted in England , and breeding sites are scheduled for protection in many other countries . Where breeding sites impinge on urban areas , there are cost implications , estimated in one German study at several million euros per corn crake . The corn crake does not appear to be seriously threatened on its wintering grounds and may benefit from deforestation , which creates more open habitats .
= Wheeling Tunnel =
Twin tunnels form the Wheeling Tunnel in Wheeling , Ohio County , West Virginia . The tunnels are 0 @.@ 27 miles ( 430 m ) long , cutting though Wheeling Hill , and each carries two lanes of Interstate 70 and U.S. Route 250 . The tunnels originally took three years to construct , costing $ 6 @.@ 9 million . Reconstruction of the tunnel , originally planned to take a total of 6 months , took over three years to complete between 2007 and 2010 , at a cost of $ 13 @.@ 7 million .
= = Overview = =
The Wheeling Tunnel sits between exits 1A and 1B on Interstate 70 and U.S. Route 250 , which run concurrent through the city of Wheeling . The tunnel cuts through Wheeling Hill , and has two travel lanes in each tube . Due to the closeness of exit 1A to the western end of the tunnels , the tunnels ' right lanes function as acceleration and deceleration lanes . Through traffic is restricted to the left lane in each tunnel and lane changes are prohibited .
A series of accidents involving semi @-@ trailer trucks prompted local political candidates to push for trucks to be banned from the tunnel , diverting them to the nearby I @-@ 470 .
= = Construction = =
The twin tunnels , which cost $ 6 @.@ 9 million ( equivalent to $ 53 million in 2016 ) to construct , are lined with a total of 13 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m2 ) of industrial tile . Then governor William Wallace Barron , and the state roads commissioner broke ground on the tunnel on August 22 , 1963 , which he stated was the largest single construction project in the state 's Interstate Highway program . The construction contract was awarded to C.J. Langenfelder & Son , Inc. located in Baltimore , Maryland . Several workers became ill after being exposed to high amounts of carbon monoxide fumes , which brought construction to a halt in 1964 until ventilation fans were installed . The tunnel officially opened to traffic on December 7 , 1966 .
= = Renovations = =
Plans for the reconstruction of the tunnel were formed in 2005 , with reconstruction work beginning in January 2007 . Reconstruction of the tunnel was planned to take 3 months , but reconstruction of the eastbound tunnel , which was not totally completed , took over eleven months . After the issues with the reconstruction work , local politicians suggested closing the tunnels altogether , and to just build the freeway over Wheeling Hill , however after opposition from the NAACP and other groups , the suggestions were dropped . Completion of the eastbound tunnel reconstruction begin in July 2008 , when the tiles were replaced for the first time with new tiles fabricated by a German tile manufacturer . The Division of Highways had to award the contract to the German company because no other company could complete the request within the time frame required . The original tiles were made by a now @-@ defunct company based in Cleveland . During the second round of eastbound tunnel reconstruction , the westbound tunnel was also closed overnight for construction work . The eastbound tunnel reconstruction was completed on October 31 , 2008 . The westbound tube was closed in February 2010 , and opened a month ahead of schedule in September 2010 . The total cost of the project was over double the original bid , totaling $ 13 @.@ 7 million , due to the delays .
= The Kite Runner =
The Kite Runner is the first novel by Afghan @-@ American author Khaled Hosseini . Published in 2003 by Riverhead Books , it tells the story of Amir , a young boy from the Wazir Akbar Khan district of Kabul , whose closest friend is Hassan , his father 's young Hazara servant . The story is set against a backdrop of tumultuous events , from the fall of Afghanistan 's monarchy through the Soviet military intervention , the exodus of refugees to Pakistan and the United States , and the rise of the Taliban regime .
Hosseini has commented that he considers The Kite Runner to be a father – son story , emphasizing the familial aspects of the narrative , an element that he continued to use in his later works . Themes of guilt and redemption feature prominently in the novel , with a pivotal scene depicting an act of violence against Hassan that Amir fails to prevent . The latter half of the book centers on Amir 's attempts to atone for this transgression by rescuing Hassan 's son over two decades later .
The Kite Runner became a bestseller after being printed in paperback and was popularized in book clubs . It was a number one New York Times bestseller for over two years , with over seven million copies sold in the United States . Reviews were generally positive , though parts of the plot drew significant controversy in Afghanistan . A number of adaptations were created following publication , including a 2007 film of the same name , several stage performances , and a graphic novel .
= = Composition and publication = =
Khaled Hosseini worked as a medical internist at Kaiser Hospital in Mountain View , California for several years before publishing The Kite Runner . In 1999 , Hosseini learned through a news report that the Taliban had banned kite flying in Afghanistan , a restriction he found particularly cruel . The news " struck a personal chord " for him , as he had grown up with the sport while living in Afghanistan . He was motivated to write a 25 @-@ page short story about two boys who fly kites in Kabul . Hosseini submitted copies to Esquire and The New Yorker , both of which rejected it . He rediscovered the manuscript in his garage in March 2001 and began to expand it to novel format at the suggestion of a friend . According to Hosseini , the narrative became " much darker " than he originally intended . His editor , Cindy Spiegel , " helped him rework the last third of his manuscript " , something she describes as relatively common for a first novel .
As with Hosseini 's subsequent novels , The Kite Runner covers a multigenerational period and focuses on the relationship between parents and their children . The latter was unintentional ; Hosseini developed an interest in the theme while in the process of writing . He later divulged that he frequently came up with pieces of the plot by drawing pictures of it . For example , he did not decide to make Amir and Hassan brothers until after he had " doodled it " .
Like Amir , the protagonist of the novel , Hosseini was born in Afghanistan and left the country as a youth , not returning until 2003 . Thus , he was frequently questioned about the extent of the autobiographical aspects of the book . In response , he said , " When I say some of it is me , then people look unsatisfied . The parallels are pretty obvious , but ... I left a few things ambiguous because I wanted to drive the book clubs crazy . " Having left the country around the time of the Soviet invasion , he felt a certain amount of survivor 's guilt : " Whenever I read stories about Afghanistan my reaction was always tinged with guilt . A lot of my childhood friends had a very hard time . Some of our cousins died . One died in a fuel truck trying to escape Afghanistan [ an incident that Hosseini fictionalises in The Kite Runner ] . Talk about guilt . He was one of the kids I grew up with flying kites . His father was shot . " Regardless , he maintains that the plot is fictional . Later , when writing his second novel , A Thousand Splendid Suns ( then titled Dreaming in Titanic City ) , Hosseini remarked that he was happy that the main characters were women as it " should put the end to the autobiographical question once and for all " .
Riverhead Books published The K
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ite Runner , ordering an initial printing of 50 @,@ 000 copies in hardback . It was released on May 29 , 2003 , and the paperback edition was released a year later . Hosseini took a year @-@ long absence from practicing medicine to promote the book , signing copies , speaking at various events , and raising funds for Afghan causes . Originally published in English , The Kite Runner was later translated into 42 languages for publication in 38 countries . In 2013 , Riverhead released the 10th anniversary edition with a new gold @-@ rimmed cover and a foreword by Hosseini . That same year , on May 21 , Khaled Hosseini published another book called And the Mountains Echoed .
Following The Kite Runner 's success , Hosseini continued to work as a physician for another year and a half before becoming a full @-@ time writer . " Medicine was an arranged marriage , writing is my mistress , " he explains , employing a quote from Chekhov .
= = Plot summary = =
= = = Part I = = =
Amir , a well @-@ to @-@ do Pashtun boy , and Hassan , a Hazara who is the son of Ali , Amir 's father 's servant , spend their days kite fighting in the hitherto peaceful city of Kabul . Hassan is a successful " kite runner " for Amir ; he knows where the kite will land without watching it . Amir 's father , a wealthy merchant Amir affectionately refers to as Baba , loves both boys , but is often critical of Amir , considering him weak and lacking in courage . Amir finds a kinder fatherly figure in Rahim Khan , Baba 's closest friend , who understands him and supports his interest in writing .
Assef , an older boy with a sadistic taste for violence , mocks Amir for socializing with a Hazara , which is , according to Assef , an inferior race whose members belong only in Hazarajat . One day , he prepares to attack Amir with brass knuckles , but Hassan defends Amir , threatening to shoot out Assef 's eye with his slingshot . Assef backs off but swears to get revenge .
One triumphant day , Amir wins the local kite fighting tournament and finally earns Baba 's praise . Hassan runs for the last cut kite , a great trophy , saying to Amir , " For you , a thousand times over . " However , after finding the kite , Hassan encounters Assef in an alleyway . Hassan refuses to give up the kite , and Assef beats him severely and rapes him . Amir witnesses the act but is too scared to intervene . He knows that if he fails to bring home the kite , Baba would be less proud of him . He feels incredibly guilty but knows his cowardice would destroy any hopes for Baba 's affections , so he keeps quiet about the incident . Afterwards , Amir keeps distant from Hassan ; his feelings of guilt prevent him from interacting with the boy .
Amir begins to believe that life would be easier if Hassan were not around , so he plants a watch and some money under Hassan 's mattress in hopes that Baba will make him leave ; Hassan falsely confesses when confronted by Baba . Although Baba believes " there is no act more wretched than stealing " , he forgives him . To Baba 's sorrow , Hassan and Ali leave anyway . Amir is freed of the daily reminder of his cowardice and betrayal , but he still lives in their shadow .
= = = Part II = = =
In 1979 , five years later , the Soviet Union militarily intervenes in Afghanistan . Amir and Baba escape to Peshawar , Pakistan , and then to Fremont , California , where they settle in a run @-@ down apartment . Baba begins work at a gas station . After graduating from high school , Amir takes classes at San Jose State University to develop his writing skills . Every Sunday , Baba and Amir make extra money selling used goods at a flea market in San Jose . There , Amir meets fellow refugee Soraya Taheri and her family . Baba is diagnosed with terminal cancer but is still capable of granting Amir one last favor : he asks Soraya 's father 's permission for Amir to marry her . He agrees and the two marry . Shortly thereafter Baba dies . Amir and Soraya settle down in a happy marriage , but to their sorrow they learn that they cannot have children .
Amir embarks on a successful career as a novelist . Fifteen years after his wedding , Amir receives a call from Rahim Khan , who is dying , asking him to come to Peshawar . He enigmatically tells Amir , " There is a way to be good again . " Amir goes .
= = = Part III = = =
From Rahim Khan , Amir learns that Ali was killed by a land mine and that Hassan and his wife were killed after Hassan refused to allow the Taliban to confiscate Baba and Amir 's house in Kabul . Rahim Khan further reveals that Ali , being sterile , was not Hassan 's biological father . Hassan was actually Baba 's son and Amir 's half @-@ brother . Finally , he tells Amir that the reason he called Amir to Pakistan was to rescue Sohrab , Hassan 's son , from an orphanage in Kabul .
Amir , accompanied by Farid , an Afghan taxi driver and veteran of the war with the Soviets , searches for Sohrab . They learn that a Taliban official comes to the orphanage often , brings cash , and usually takes a girl away with him . Occasionally he chooses a boy , recently Sohrab . The director tells Amir how to find the official , and Farid secures an appointment at his home by claiming to have " personal business " with him .
Amir meets the man , who reveals himself as Assef . Sohrab is being kept at Assef 's house . Assef agrees to relinquish him if Amir can beat him in a fight . Assef then badly beats Amir , breaking several bones , until Sohrab uses a slingshot to fire a brass ball into Assef 's left eye . Sohrab helps Amir out of the house , where he passes out and wakes up in a hospital .
Amir tells Sohrab of his plans to take him back to America and possibly adopt him . However , American authorities demand evidence of Sohrab 's orphan status . Amir tells Sohrab that he may have to temporarily break his promise until the paperwork is completed , and Sohrab attempts suicide . Amir eventually manages to take him back to the United States . After his adoption , Sohrab refuses to interact with Amir or Soraya until the former reminisces about Hassan and kites and shows off some of Hassan 's tricks . In the end , Sohrab only gives a lopsided smile , but Amir takes it with all his heart as he runs the kite for Sohrab , saying , " For you , a thousand times over . "
= = Characters = =
Amir is the narrator of the novel . Khaled Hosseini acknowledged that the character is " an unlikable coward who failed to come to the aid of his best friend " for much of the duration of the story ; consequently , Hosseini chose to create sympathy for Amir through circumstances rather than the personality he was given until the last third of the book . Born into a Pashtun family in 1963 , his mother died giving birth . As a child , he enjoys storytelling and is encouraged by Rahim Khan to become an author . At age 18 , he and his father flee to America following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan , where he pursues his dream of being a writer .
Hassan is Amir 's closest childhood friend . He is described as having a China doll face , green eyes , and a harelip . Hosseini regards him as a flat character in terms of development ; he is " a lovely guy and you root for him and you love him but he 's not complicated " . The reader eventually discovers that Hassan is actually the son of Baba and Sanaubar , although Hassan never discovers this during his lifetime . Moreover , it would make Hassan a Pashtun according to tribal law and not Hazara as he 's actually the son of Baba , and ironic for Assef to bully him as both Assef and Hassan are half Pashtuns . Hassan is later killed by the Taliban for refusal to abandon Amir 's property .
Assef is the son of a Pashtun father and a German mother , and believes that Pashtuns are superior to Hazaras , despite himself not being full Pashtun . As a teenager , he is a neighborhood bully and is described as a " sociopath " by Amir . He rapes Hassan as a means of getting revenge against Amir . As an adult , he joins the Taliban and sexually abuses Hassan 's son , Sohrab .
Baba is Amir 's father and a wealthy businessman who aids the community by creating businesses for others and building a new orphanage . He is the biological father of Hassan , a fact he hides from both of his children , and seems to favor him over Amir . Similar to Hosseini 's father , Baba does not endorse the religiosity demanded by the clerics in the religion classes attended by Amir in school . In his later years , after fleeing to America , he works at a gas station . He dies from cancer in 1987 , shortly after Amir and Soraya 's wedding .
Ali is Baba 's servant , a Hazara believed to be Hassan 's father . In his youth , Baba 's father adopted him after his parents were killed by a drunk driver . Before the events of the novel , Ali had been struck with polio , rendering his right leg useless . Because of this , Ali is constantly tormented by children in the town . He is later killed by a land mine in Hazarajat .
Rahim Khan is Baba 's loyal friend and business partner , as well as a mentor to Amir . Rahim persuades Amir to come to Pakistan to inform him that Hassan is his half brother and that he should rescue Sohrab .
Soraya is a young Afghan woman whom Amir meets and marries in America . Hosseini originally scripted the character as an American woman , but he later agreed to rewrite her as an Afghan immigrant after his editor did not find her background believable for her role in the story . The change contributed towards an extensive revision of Part III . In the final draft , Soraya lives with her parents , Afghan general Taheri and his wife , and wants to become an English teacher . Before meeting Amir , she ran away with an Afghan boyfriend in Virginia , which , according to Afghan tradition , made her unsuitable for marriage . Because Amir also had his own regrets , he loves and marries her anyway .
Sohrab is the son of Hassan . After his parents are killed and he is sent to an orphanage , Assef buys and abuses the child . Amir saves and later adopts him . After being brought to the United States , he slowly adapts to his new life . Sohrab greatly resembles a young version of his father Hassan .
Sanaubar is Ali 's wife and the mother of Hassan . Shortly after Hassan 's birth , she runs away from home and joins a group of traveling dancers . She later returns to Hassan in his adulthood . To make up for her neglect , she provides a grandmother figure for Sohrab , Hassan 's son .
Farid is a taxi driver who is initially abrasive toward Amir , but later befriends him . Two of Farid 's seven children were killed by a land mine , a disaster which mutilated three fingers on his left hand and also took some of his toes . After spending a night with Farid 's brother 's impoverished family , Amir hides a bundle of money under the mattress to help them .
= = Themes = =
Because its themes of friendship , betrayal , guilt , redemption and the uneasy love between fathers and sons are universal themes , and not specifically Afghan , the book has been able to reach across cultural , racial , religious and gender gaps to resonate with readers of varying backgrounds .
Khaled Hosseini identifies a number of themes that appear in The Kite Runner , but reviewers have focused on guilt and redemption . As a child , Amir fails to save Hassan in an act of cowardice and afterwards suffers from an all @-@ consuming guilt . Even after leaving the country , moving to America , marrying , and becoming a successful writer , he is unable to forget the incident . Hassan is " the all @-@ sacrificing Christ @-@ figure , the one who , even in death , calls Amir to redemption " . Following Hassan 's death at the hands of the Taliban , Amir begins to redeem himself through the rescue of Hassan 's son , Sohrab . Hosseini draws parallels during the search for Sohrab to create an impression of poetic justice ; for example , Amir sustains a split lip after being severely beaten , similar to Hassan 's harelip . Despite this , some critics questioned whether the protagonist had fully redeemed himself .
Amir 's motivation for the childhood betrayal is rooted in his insecurities regarding his relationship with his father . The relationship between parents and their children features prominently in the novel , and in an interview , Hosseini elaborated :
Both [ The Kite Runner and A Thousand Splendid Suns ] are multigenerational , and so the relationship between parent and child , with all of its manifest complexities and contradictions , is a prominent theme . I did not intend this , but I am keenly interested , it appears , in the way parents and children love , disappoint , and in the end honor each other . In one way , the two novels are corollaries : The Kite Runner was a father @-@ son story , and A Thousand Splendid Suns can be seen as a mother @-@ daughter story .
When adapting The Kite Runner for the theatre , Director Eric Rose stated that he was drawn into the narrative by the " themes of betraying your best friend for the love of your father " , which he compared to Shakespearean literature . Throughout the story , Amir craves his father 's affection ; his father , in turn , loves Amir but favors Hassan , going as far as to pay for plastic surgery to repair the latter 's cleft lip .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = General = = =
In the first two years following its publication , over 70 @,@ 000 hardback copies of The Kite Runner were sold along with 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 paperback copies . Though the book sold well in hardback , " Kite Runner 's popularity didn 't really begin to soar until [ 2004 ] when the paperback edition came out , which is when book clubs began picking it up . " It started appearing on best seller lists in September 2004 and became a number one New York Times best seller in March 2005 , maintaining its place on the list for two years . By the publication of Khaled Hosseini 's third novel in 2013 , over seven million copies had been sold in the United States . The book received the South African Boeke Prize in 2004 . It was voted the Reading Group Book of the Year for 2006 and 2007 and headed a list of 60 titles submitted by entrants to the Penguin / Orange Reading Group prize ( UK ) .
Critically , the book was well @-@ received , albeit controversial . Erika Milvy from Salon praised it as " beautifully written , startling and heart wrenching " . Tony Sims from Wired Magazine wrote that the book " reveals the beauty and agony of a tormented nation as it tells the story of an improbable friendship between two boys from opposite ends of society , and of the troubled but enduring relationship between a father and a son " . Amelia Hill of The Guardian opinionated , " The Kite Runner is the shattering first novel by Khaled Hosseini " that " is simultaneously devastating and inspiring . " A similarly favorable review was printed in Publishers Weekly . Marketing director Melissa Mytinger remarked , " It 's simply an excellent story . Much of it based in a world we don 't know , a world we 're barely beginning to know . Well @-@ written , published at the ' right time ' by an author who is both charming and thoughtful in his personal appearances for the book . " Indian @-@ American actor Aasif Mandvi agreed that the book was " amazing storytelling . ... It 's about human beings . It 's about redemption , and redemption is a powerful theme . " First Lady Laura Bush commended the story as " really great " . Said Tayeb Jawad , the 19th Afghan ambassador to the United States , publicly endorsed The Kite Runner , saying that the book would help the American public to better understand Afghan society and culture .
Edward Hower from The New York Times analyzed the portrayal of Afghanistan before and after the Taliban :
Hosseini 's depiction of pre @-@ revolutionary Afghanistan is rich in warmth and humor but also tense with the friction between the nation 's different ethnic groups . Amir 's father , or Baba , personifies all that is reckless , courageous and arrogant in his dominant Pashtun tribe ... The novel 's canvas turns dark when Hosseini describes the suffering of his country under the tyranny of the Taliban , whom Amir encounters when he finally returns home , hoping to help Hassan and his family . The final third of the book is full of haunting images : a man , desperate to feed his children , trying to sell his artificial leg in the market ; an adulterous couple stoned to death in a stadium during the halftime of a football match ; a rouged young boy forced into prostitution , dancing the sort of steps once performed by an organ grinder 's monkey .
Meghan O 'Rouke , Slate Magazine 's culture critic and advisory editor , ultimately found The Kite Runner mediocre , writing , " This is a novel simultaneously striving to deliver a large @-@ scale informative portrait and to stage a small @-@ scale redemptive drama , but its therapeutic allegory of recovery can only undermine its realist ambitions . People experience their lives against the backdrop of their culture , and while Hosseini wisely steers clear of merely exoticizing Afghanistan as a monolithically foreign place , he does so much work to make his novel emotionally accessible to the American reader that there is almost no room , in the end , for us to consider for long what might differentiate Afghans and Americans . " Sarah Smith from The Guardian thought the novel started out well but began to falter towards the end . She felt that Hosseini was too focused on fully redeeming the protagonist in Part III and in doing so created too many unrealistic coincidences that allowed Amir the opportunity to undo his past wrongs .
= = = Controversies = = =
The Kite Runner has been accused of ' hindering ' Western understanding of the Talibans by portraying its members as representatives of various social and doctrinal evils that the Talibans and their supporters do not consider typical and which they feel portray Talibans in an unfavourable light . Examples of this would be : Assef 's pedophilia , Nazism , drug abuse , and sadism , and the fact that he is an executioner . The American Library Association reported that The Kite Runner was one of its most @-@ challenged books of 2008 , with multiple attempts to remove it from libraries due to " offensive language , sexually explicit , and unsuited to age group . " Afghan American readers were particularly hostile towards the depiction of Pashtuns as oppressors and Hazaras as the oppressed . Hosseini responded in an interview , " They never say I am speaking about things that are untrue . Their beef is , ' Why do you have to talk about these things and embarrass us ? Don 't you love your country ? ' "
The film generated more controversy through the 30 @-@ second rape scene , with threats made against the child actors , who originated from Afghanistan . Zakria Ebrahimi , the 12 @-@ year @-@ old actor who portrayed Amir , had to be removed from school after his Hazara classmates threatened to kill him , and Paramount Pictures was eventually forced to relocate three of the children to the United Arab Emirates . Afghanistan 's Ministry of Culture banned the film from distribution in cinemas or DVD stores , citing the possibility that the movie 's ethnically charged rape scene could incite racial violence within Afghanistan .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Film = = =
Four years after its publication , The Kite Runner was adapted as a motion picture starring Khalid Abdalla as Amir , Homayoun Ershadi as Baba , and Ahmad Khan Mahmoodzada as Hassan . It was initially scheduled to premiere in November 2007 , but the release date was pushed back six weeks to evacuate the Afghan child stars from the country after they received death threats . Directed by Marc Forster and with a screenplay by David Benioff , the movie won numerous awards and was nominated for an Academy Award , the BAFTA Film Award , and the Critics Choice Award in 2008 . While reviews were generally positive , with Entertainment Weekly deeming the final product " pretty good " , the depiction of ethnic tensions and the controversial rape scene drew outrage in Afghanistan . Hangama Anwari , the child rights commissioner for the Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission , commented , " They should not play around with the lives and security of people . The Hazara people will take it as an insult . "
Hosseini was surprised by the extent of the controversy caused by the rape scene and vocalized that Afghan actors would not have been cast had studios known that their lives would be threatened . He believed that the scene was necessary to " maintain the integrity " of the story , as a physical assault by itself would not have affected the audience as much .
= = = Other = = =
The novel was first adapted to the stage in March 2007 by Bay Area playwright Matthew Spangler where it was performed at San Jose State University . Two years later , David Ira Goldstein , artistic director of Arizona Theater Company , organized for it to be performed at San Jose Repertory Theatre . The play was produced at Arizona Theatre Company in 2009 , Actor 's Theatre of Louisville and Cleveland Play House in 2010 , and The New Repertory Theatre of Watertown , Massachusetts in 2012 . The theatre adaption premiered in Canada as a co @-@ production between Theatre Calgary and the Citadel Theatre in January 2013 . In April 2013 , the play premiered in Europe at the Nottingham Playhouse , with Ben Turner acting in the lead role .
Hosseini was approached by Piemme , his Italian publisher , about converting The Kite Runner to a graphic novel in 2011 . Having been " a fan of comic books since childhood " , he was open to the idea , believing that The Kite Runner was a good candidate to be presented in a visual format . Fabio Celoni provided the illustrations for the project and regularly updated Hosseini on his progress before its release in September of that year . The latter was pleased with the final product and said , " I believe Fabio Celoni 's work vividly brings to life not only the mountains , the bazaars , the city of Kabul and its kite @-@ dotted skies , but also the many struggles , conflicts , and emotional highs and lows of Amir 's journey . "
= House of Plantagenet =
The House of Plantagenet ( / plænˈtædʒənət / ) was a royal house which originated from the lands of Anjou in France . The name Plantagenet is used by modern historians to identify four distinct royal houses – the Angevins who were also Counts of Anjou , the main body of the Plantagenets following the loss of Anjou , and the houses of Lancaster and York , the Plantagenets ' two cadet branches . The family held the English throne from 1154 , with the accession of Henry II , until 1485 , when Richard III died .
Under the Plantagenets , England was transformed , although this was only partly intentional . The Plantagenet kings were often forced to negotiate compromises such as Magna Carta . These constrained royal power in return for financial and military support . The king was no longer just the most powerful man in the nation , holding the prerogative of judgement , feudal tribute and warfare . He now had defined duties to the realm , underpinned by a sophisticated justice system . A distinct national identity was shaped by conflict with the French , Scots , Welsh and Irish , and the establishment of English as the primary language .
In the 15th century , the Plantagenets were defeated in the Hundred Years ' War and beset with social , political and economic problems . Popular revolts were commonplace , triggered by the denial of numerous freedoms . English nobles raised private armies , engaged in private feuds and openly defied Henry VI .
The rivalry between the House of Plantagenet 's two cadet branches of York and Lancaster brought about the Wars of the Roses , a decades @-@ long fight for the English succession , culminating in the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 , when the reign of the Plantagenets and the English Middle Ages both met their end with the death of King Richard III . Henry VII , a Lancastrian , became king of England ; two years later , he married Elizabeth of York , thus ending the Wars of the Roses , and giving rise to the Tudor dynasty . The Tudors worked to centralise English royal power , which allowed them to avoid some of the problems that had plagued the last Plantagenet rulers . The resulting stability allowed for the English Renaissance , and the advent of early modern Britain .
= = Terminology = =
= = = Plantagenet = = =
Richard of York , 3rd Duke of York , adopted Plantagenet as his family name in the 15th century . " Plantegenest " ( or " Plante Genest " ) had been a 12th @-@ century nickname for his ancestor Geoffrey , count of Anjou and duke of Normandy . One of many popular theories suggests the common broom , planta genista in medieval Latin , as the source of the nickname . It is uncertain why Richard chose this specific name , although during the Wars of the Roses it emphasised Richard 's status as Geoffrey 's patrilineal descendant . The retrospective usage of the name for all of Geoffrey 's male descendants was popular during the subsequent Tudor dynasty , perhaps encouraged by the further legitimacy it gave to Richard 's great @-@ grandson , Henry VIII . It was only in the late 17th century that it passed into common usage among historians .
= = = Angevins = = =
The three Angevin kings ( French for " from Anjou " ) were Henry II , Richard I and John ; " Angevin " can also refer to the period of history in which they reigned . Many historians identify the Angevins as a distinct English royal house . " Angevin " is also used in reference to any sovereign or government derived from Anjou . As a noun , it refers to any native of Anjou or an Angevin ruler , and specifically to : other counts and dukes of Anjou , including the ancestors of the three kings that formed the English royal house ; their cousins , who held the crown of Jerusalem ; and to unrelated members of the French royal family who were later granted the titles and formed different dynasties , such as the Capetian House of Anjou and the Valois House of Anjou . Consequently , there is disagreement between those who consider Henry III to be the first Plantagenet monarch and those who do not distinguish between Angevins and Plantagenets and therefore consider the first Plantagenet to be Henry II .
The term " Angevin Empire " was coined by Kate Norgate in 1887 . There was no known contemporary collective name for the territories to which circumlocutions such as " our kingdom and everything subject to our rule whatever it may be " or " the whole of the kingdom which had belonged to his father " may have referred . The " Empire " portion of " Angevin Empire " has been controversial . In 1986 a convention of historians concluded that there had not been an Angevin state , and therefore no " Angevin Empire " , but that the term " espace Plantagenet " , Plantagenet space in English , was acceptable . Nonetheless , historians have continued to use " Angevin Empire " .
= = Origin = =
The later counts of Anjou , including the Plantagenets , descended from Geoffrey II , Count of Gâtinais , and his wife Ermengarde of Anjou . In 1060 the couple inherited the title via cognatic kinship from an Angevin family that was descended from a noble named Ingelger , whose recorded history dates from 870 .
During the 10th and 11th centuries , power struggles occurred between rulers in northern and western France including those of Anjou , Normandy , Brittany , Poitou , Blois , Maine , and the kings of France . In the early 12th century Geoffrey of Anjou married Empress Matilda , King Henry I 's only surviving legitimate child and heir to the English throne . As a result of this marriage , Geoffrey 's son Henry II inherited the English throne as well as Norman and Angevin titles , thus marking the beginning of the Angevin and Plantagenet dynasties .
The marriage was the third attempt of Geoffrey 's father , Fulk V , Count of Anjou , to build a political alliance with Normandy . He first espoused his daughter , Alice , to William Adelin , Henry I 's heir . After William drowned in the wreck of the White Ship Fulk married another of his daughters , Sibylla , to William Clito , son of Henry I 's older brother , Robert Curthose . Henry I had the marriage annulled to avoid strengthening William 's rival claim to Normandy . Finally Fulk achieved his goal through the marriage of Geoffrey and Matilda . Fulk then passed his titles to Geoffrey and became king of Jerusalem .
= = Angevin kings = =
= = = Arrival in England = = =
When Henry II was born in 1133 , his grandfather , Henry I , was reportedly delighted , saying that the boy was " the heir to the kingdom " . The birth reduced the risk that the King 's realm would pass to his son @-@ in @-@ law 's family , which might have occurred if the marriage of Matilda and Count Geoffrey had proved childless . The birth of a second son , also named Geoffrey , increased the likelihood that , in accordance with French custom , Henry would receive the English maternal inheritance and Geoffrey the Angevin paternal inheritance . This would separate the realms of England and Anjou . In order to secure an orderly succession , Geoffrey and Matilda sought more power from Henry I , but quarrelled with him after the King refused to give them power that might be used against him . When he died in November 1135 , the couple were in Anjou , allowing Matilda 's cousin Stephen to seize the crown of England . Stephen 's contested accession initiated the widespread civil unrest later called the Anarchy .
Count Geoffrey had little interest in England . Instead he commenced a ten @-@ year war for the duchy of Normandy , but it became clear that to bring this conflict to a successful conclusion Stephen would need to be challenged in England so in 1139 Matilda and her half @-@ brother , Robert invaded England . From the age of nine , Henry was repeatedly sent to England to be the male figurehead of the campaigns , since it became apparent that he would become king if England was conquered . In 1141 Stephen was captured at the Battle of Lincoln and later exchanged for Robert who had also been captured . Geoffrey continued the conquest of Normandy and in 1150 transferred the duchy to Henry while retaining the primary role in the duchy 's government .
Three events allowed the Angevins ' successful termination of the conflict :
Count Geoffrey died in 1151 before finalizing the division of his realm between Henry and Henry 's younger brother Geoffrey , who would have inherited Anjou . According to William of Newburgh , who wrote in the 1190s , Count Geoffrey decided that Henry would receive England and Anjou for as long as he needed the resources for the conflict against Stephen . Count Geoffrey instructed that his body should not be buried until Henry swore an oath that the young Geoffrey would receive Anjou when England and Normandy were secured . W. L. Warren cast doubt on this account on the grounds that it was written later based on a single contemporary source , it would be questionable that either Geoffrey or Henry would consider such an oath binding and it would break the inheritance practice of the time . The young Geoffrey died in 1158 , before receiving Anjou , but he had become count of Nantes when the citizens of Nantes rebelled against their ruler . Henry had supported the rebellion .
Louis VII of France was granted an annulment of his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine on 18 March 1152 , and she married Henry ( who would become Henry II ) on 18 May 1152 . Consequently , the Angevins acquired the Duchy of Aquitaine .
Stephen 's wife and elder son , Eustace , died in 1153 leading to the Treaty of Wallingford . The treaty agreed the peace offer that Matilda had rejected in 1142 , recognised Henry as Stephen 's heir , guaranteed Stephen 's second son William his father 's estates and allowed Stephen to be king for life . Stephen died soon afterwards , and Henry acceded to the throne in late 1154 .
= = = Angevin zenith = = =
Of Henry 's siblings , William and Geoffrey died unmarried and childless , but the tempestuous marriage of Henry and Eleanor , who already had two daughters ( Marie and Alix ) through her first marriage to King Louis , produced eight children in thirteen years :
William , Count of Poitiers ( 1153 – 1156 )
Henry the Young King ( 1155 – 1183 )
Matilda , Duchess of Saxony ( 1156 – 1189 ) — married Henry the Lion , Duke of Bavaria . The eldest amongst the couple 's children , Richenza , is probably the daughter English chroniclers call Matilda , who was left in Normandy with her grandparents in 1185 and married firstly to Geoffrey , count of Perche , and secondly to Enguerrand de Coucy . The eldest son , Henry , became duke of Saxony and count palatine of the Rhine . His brother Otto was nominated by his uncle Richard I as earl of York and count of Poitiers before being elected emperor in opposition to the Hohenstaufen candidate . Otto was crowned in Rome but he was later excommunicated and declared deposed . Childless , Otto lost power following the defeat of the Welf and Angevin forces at the Battle of Bouvines . The youngest child , William of Winchester married Helena daughter of Valdemar I of Denmark . Their only son , also called Otto , was the sole male heir of his uncle Henry . The ducal house of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg and the British royal house of Windsor both descend from him .
King Richard the Lionheart ( 1157 – 1199 ) . He had no legitimate offspring , but is thought to have had two illegitimate sons , of whom little is known , called Fulk and Phillip , Lord of Cognac .
Geoffrey , Duke of Brittany ( 1158 – 1186 ) — married Constance daughter of Duke Conan of Brittany and became duke of Brittany by right of his wife . The couple 's son Arthur was a competitor to John for the Angevin succession .
Eleanor , Queen of Castile ( 1161 – 1214 ) — married King Alfonso VIII of Castile . The couple 's children included King Henry of Castile and four queen consorts , Berengaria of Leon , Urraca of Portugal , Blanche of France and Eleanor of Aragon .
Joan , Queen of Sicily ( 1165 – 1199 ) — married firstly King William II of Sicily and secondly Count Raymond VI of Toulouse . Her children included Raymond VII of Toulouse .
King John Lackland ( 1166 – 1216 )
Henry also had illegitimate children with several mistresses , possibly as many as twelve . These children included Geoffrey , William , Peter and four children who died young by Alice , the daughter of Louis VII , while she was betrothed to his son Richard . William ’ s many competencies and importance as a royal bastard led to a long and illustrious career .
Henry reasserted and extended previous suzerainties to secure possession of his inherited realm . In 1162 he attempted to re @-@ establish what he saw as his authority over the English Church by appointing his friend Thomas Becket as Archbishop of Canterbury upon the death of the incumbent archbishop , Theobald . Becket 's defiance as Archbishop alienated the king and his counsellors . Henry and Becket had repeated disputes over issues such as church tenures , the marriage of Henry 's brother , and taxation . Henry reacted by getting Becket and other English bishops to recognise sixteen ancient customs in writing for the first time in the Constitutions of Clarendon , governing relations between the king , his courts and the church . When Becket tried to leave the country without permission , Henry tried to ruin him by filing legal cases relating to Becket 's previous tenure as chancellor . Becket fled and remained in exile for five years . Relations later improved , and Becket returned , but they declined again when Henry 's son was crowned as coregent by the Archbishop of York , which Becket perceived as a challenge to his authority . Becket later excommunicated those who had offended him . When he received this news , Henry said : " What miserable drones and traitors have I nurtured and promoted in my household who let their lord be treated with such shameful contempt by a low @-@ born clerk . " Four of Henry 's knights killed Becket in Canterbury Cathedral after Becket resisted a failed arrest attempt . Henry was widely considered complicit in Becket 's death throughout Christian Europe . This made Henry a pariah ; in penance , he walked barefoot into Canterbury Cathedral , where he was severely whipped by monks .
From 1155 Henry claimed that Pope Adrian IV had given him authorisation to reform the Irish church by assuming control of Ireland , but Professor Anne Duggan 's research indicates that the Laudabiliter is a falsification of an existing letter and that was not in fact Adrian 's intention . It originally allowed Henry 's brother William some territory . Henry did not personally act on this until 1171 by which time William was already dead . He invaded Ireland to assert his authority over knights who had accrued autonomous power after they recruited soldiers in England and Wales and colonised Ireland with his permission . Henry later gave Ireland to his youngest son , John . In 1172 Henry gave John the castles of Chinon , Loudun and Mirebeau as a wedding gift . This angered Henry 's eighteen @-@ year @-@ old son , Henry the Young King , who believed these were his . A rebellion by Henry II 's wife and three eldest sons ensued . Louis VII of France supported the rebellion . William the Lion , king of the Scots , and others joined the revolt . After eighteen months , Henry subdued the rebels .
In Le Mans in 1182 , Henry II gathered his children to plan a partible inheritance : his eldest surviving son , Henry , would inherit England , Normandy and Anjou ; Richard ( his mother 's favourite ) would inherit the Duchy of Aquitaine ; Geoffrey would inherit Brittany ; and John would inherit Ireland . This resulted in further conflict . The younger Henry rebelled again , but died of dysentery . Geoffrey died in 1186 after an accident in a tournament . In 1189 , Richard and Philip II of France reasserted their various claims exploiting the aging Henry 's failing health . Henry was forced to accept humiliating peace terms , including naming Richard his sole heir . The old King died two days later , defeated and miserable . French and English contemporary moralists viewed this fate as retribution for the murder of Becket ; even his favourite legitimate son , John , had rebelled although the constantly loyal illegitimate son Geoffrey remained with Henry until the end .
Following Richard 's coronation he quickly put the kingdom 's affairs in order and departed on a Crusade for the Middle East . Opinion of Richard has fluctuated . Although he was respected for his military leadership and courtly manners , he had rejected and humiliated the sister of the king of France , deposed the king of Cyprus and later sold the island , he made enemies on the Third Crusade such as Leopold V , Duke of Austria by showing disrespect to his banners as well as refusing to share the spoils of war , and was rumoured to have arranged the assassination of Conrad of Montferrat . His ruthlessness was demonstrated by his massacre of 2 @,@ 600 prisoners in Acre . He obtained victories during the Third Crusade , but failed to capture Jerusalem . According to Steven Runciman Richard was " a bad son , a bad husband and a bad king " . Jonathan Riley @-@ Smith described him as " vain ... devious and self @-@ centred " . In an alternate view John Gillingham points out that for centuries Richard was considered a model king .
Returning from the crusade with a small band of followers , Richard was captured by Leopold and was passed to Emperor Henry VI . Henry held Richard captive for eighteen months ( 1192 – 1194 ) for a ransom valued at 100 @,@ 000 marks . In Richard 's absence , Philip II overran large portions of Normandy and John acquired control of Richard 's English lands . After returning to England , Richard forgave John and re @-@ established his authority in England . He left again in 1194 and battled Philip for five years , attempting to regain the lands seized during his captivity . When close to complete victory , he was injured by an arrow during a siege and died ten days later .
= = = Decline and the loss of Anjou = = =
Richard 's failure to provide an heir caused a succession crisis and conflict between supporters of the claim of his nephew , Arthur , and John . Guillaume des Roches led the magnates of Anjou , Maine , and Touraine declaring for Arthur . Once again Philip II of France attempted to disturb the Plantagenet territories on the European mainland by supporting his vassal Arthur 's claim to the English crown . John won a significant victory while preventing Arthur 's forces from capturing his mother , seizing the entire rebel leadership at the Battle of Mirebeau . Foolishly John disregarded his allies ' opinions on the fate of the prisoners , many of them their neighbours and kinsmen . Instead ' he kept his prisoners so vilely and in such evil distress that it seemed shameful and ugly to all those who were with him and who saw this cruelty ' according to the L 'Histoire de Guillaume le Marechal . As a result of John 's behaviour the powerful Thouars , Lusignan , and des Roches families rebelled and John lost control of Anjou , Maine , Touraine , and northern Poitou . His son , King Henry III , maintained the claim to the Angevin territories until December 1259 when he formally surrendered them and in return was granted Gascony as duke of Aquitaine and a vassal of the king of France . John ’ s reputation was further damaged by the rumour , described in the Margam annals , that while drunk he himself had murdered Arthur and if not true it is almost certain John ordered the killing . There are two contrasting schools of thought explaining the sudden collapse of John 's position . Sir James Holt suggests this was the inevitable result of superior French resources . John Gillingham identifies diplomatic and military mismanagement and points out that Richard managed to hold the Angevin territory with comparable finances . Nick Barratt has calculated that Angevin resources available for use in the war were 22 per cent less than those of Phillip , putting the Angevins at a disadvantage .
By 1214 John had re @-@ established his authority in England and planned what Gillingham has called a grand strategy to recapture Normandy and Anjou . The plan was that John would draw the French from Paris , while another army , under his nephew Otto IV , the Holy Roman Emperor , and his half @-@ brother William attacked from the north . The plan failed when John 's allies were defeated at the Battle of Bouvines . Otto retreated and was soon overthrown , William was captured by the French and John agreed to a five @-@ year truce . John 's defeat weakened his authority in England , and his barons forced him to agree to the Magna Carta , which limited royal power . Both sides failed to abide by the terms of the Magna Carta , leading to the First Barons ' War , in which rebellious barons invited Prince Louis , the husband of Blanche , Henry II 's granddaughter , to invade England . Louis did so but in October 1216 , before the conflict was conclusively ended , John died . The official website of the British Monarchy presents John 's death as the end of the Angevin dynasty and the beginning of the Plantagenet dynasty .
= = Main line = =
= = = Baronial conflict and the establishment of Parliament = = =
All subsequent English monarchs were descendants of the Angevin line via John , who had five legitimate children with Isabella :
Henry III – king of England for most of the 13th @-@ century
Richard – king of the Romans in the Holy Roman Empire
Joan – queen consort of Alexander II of Scotland
Isabella – wife of the Holy Roman Emperor , Frederick II
Eleanor – wife of William Marshal 's son ( also named William ) , and later the English rebel Simon de Montfort .
John also had illegitimate children with several mistresses . These children probably included nine sons called Richard , Oliver , Henry , Osbert Gifford , Geoffrey , John FitzJohn or Courcy , Odo or Eudes FitzRoy , Ivo , Henry , Richard the constable of Wallingford Castle and three daughters called Joan , Matilda the abbess of Barking and Isabella la Blanche . Joan was the best known of these , since she married Prince Llewelyn the Great of Wales .
William Marshal , 1st Earl of Pembroke , was appointed regent for the nine @-@ year @-@ old King Henry on King John 's death . Thereafter , support for Louis declined , and he renounced his claims in the Treaty of Lambeth after Marshal 's victories at the battles of Lincoln and Sandwich in 1217 . The Marshal regime issued an amended Magna Carta as a basis for future government . Despite the Treaty of Lambeth , hostilities continued and Henry was forced to compromise with the newly crowned Louis VIII of France and Henry 's stepfather , Hugh X of Lusignan . They both overran much of Henry 's remaining continental lands , further eroding the Angevins ' power on the continent . In his political struggles , Henry perceived many similarities between himself and England 's patron saint , Edward the Confessor . Consequently , he named his first son Edward and built the existing magnificent shrine for the Confessor .
In early 1225 a great council approved a tax of £ 40 @,@ 000 to dispatch an army , which quickly retook Gascony . During an assembly feudal prerogatives of the king were challenged by the barons , bishops and magnates who demanded that the King reissue the Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest in exchange for support . Henry declared that the charters were issued of his own " spontaneous and free will " and confirmed them with the royal seal , giving the new Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest of 1225 much more authority than any previous versions .
Henry III had nine children :
Edward ( 1239 – 1307 )
Margaret of England ( 1240 – 1275 ) . Her three children predeceased her husband , Alexander III of Scotland ; consequently , the crown of Scotland became vacant on the death of their only grandchild , Margaret , Maid of Norway in 1290 .
Beatrice , Countess of Richmond ( 1242 – 1275 ) . She initially married John de Montfort of Dreux , and later married John II , Duke of Brittany .
Edmund Crouchback ( 1245 – 1296 ) , who was granted the titles and estates of Simon de Montfort , 6th Earl of Leicester and the earldom of Leicester after Henry defeated Montfort in the Second Barons ' War . Henry later granted Edmund the earldoms of Lancaster and Ferrers . From 1276 , through his wife , Edmund was Count of Champagne and Brie . Later Lancastrians would attempt to use Henry IV 's maternal descent from Edmund to legitimise his claim to the throne , spuriously claiming that Edmund was the eldest son of Henry III but had not become king due to deformity . Through his second marriage to Blanche , the widow of Henry I of Navarre , Edmund was at the centre of European aristocracy . Blanche 's daughter , Joan , was queen regnant of Navarre and queen consort of France through her marriage to Philip IV . Edmund 's son Thomas became the most powerful nobleman in England , adding to his inheritance the earldoms of Lincoln and Salisbury through his marriage to the heiress of Henry de Lacy , 3rd Earl of Lincoln .
Four others who died as children : Richard ( 1247 – 1256 ) , John ( 1250 – 1256 ) , William ( c . 1251 / 1252 – 1256 ) , Katherine ( c . 1252 / 3 – 1257 ) and Henry ( no recorded dates ) .
Henry was bankrupted by his military expenditure and general extravagance . The pope offered Henry 's brother Richard the Kingdom of Sicily , but the military cost of displacing the incumbent Emperor Frederick was prohibitive . Matthew Paris wrote that Richard stated : " You might as well say , ' I make you a present of the moon — step up to the sky and take it down ' . " Instead , Henry purchased the kingdom for his son Edmund , which angered many powerful barons . The barons led by Henry 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Simon de Montfort forced him to agree to the Provisions of Oxford , under which his debts were paid in exchange for substantial reforms . In France , with the Treaty of Paris , Henry formally surrendered the territory of his Angevin ancestors to Louis IX of France , receiving in return the title duke of Aquitaine and the territory of Gascony as a vassal of the French king .
Disagreements between the barons and the king intensified . The barons , under Simon de Montfort , 6th Earl of Leicester , captured most of southeast England in the Second Barons ' War . At the Battle of Lewes in 1264 , Henry and Prince Edward were defeated and taken prisoner . De Montfort assembled the Great Parliament , recognized as the first Parliament because it was the first time the cities and boroughs had sent representatives . Edward escaped , raised an army and defeated and killed de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham in 1265 . Savage retribution was inflicted upon the rebels , and authority restored to Henry . With the realm now peaceful , Edward left England to join Louis IX on the Ninth Crusade ; he was one of the last crusaders . Louis died before Edward 's arrival , but Edward decided to continue . The result was disappointing ; Edward 's small force only enabled him to capture Acre and launch a handful of raids . After surviving an assassination attempt , Edward left for Sicily later in the year , never to participate in a crusade again . When Henry III
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these songs are to her . " Sarah Godfrey of Washington Post commented that the song " is about hackneyed metaphors and big notes — just the sort of combination that will appeal to fans of Aguilera 's signature song ' Beautiful ' " . Idolator critic Mike Wass complimented Aguilera 's ability to " tone it down " on the song , but he was surprised at the level of simplicity considering Furler 's " alternative leanings " . He did , however , describe it as the album 's most straightforward ballad and as a song which could have been written in 1972 , with its " with its yearning lyrics and sparse production " .
= = Live performance = =
Aguilera performed " Blank Page " for the first time live at the 39th People 's Choice Awards on January 9 , 2013 . She was surrounded by white candles , and she wore a white blaze with black leggings . According to reports published by Us Weekly , Aguilera was very emotional prior to her performance , and that the audience was in tears during her rehearsals of the song . Lauren Moraski of CBS News called it a " heart @-@ wrenching performance . " Amy Sciarretto for PopCrush wrote that it was a " simple and unfettered " performance that allowed her to " show off " her vocals . She continued to write that although she occasionally sounded strained , she sounded better than most singers on their good day . After her performance , she was presented with the People 's Voice Award , where she also gave an acceptance speech .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Vocals recorded at The Red Lips Room , Beverly Hills , CA ; Human Feel , Los Angeles , CA .
Personnel
Songwriting – Christina Aguilera , Chris Braide , Sia Furler
Production – Chris Braide
Vocal recording – Oscar Ramirez
Programming , string arrangement , piano and keyboards – Chris Braide
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Lotus , RCA Records .
= = Charts = =
Following the release of Lotus , " Blank Page " debuted on the South Korea International Singles Chart at number 53 during the week of November 11 to 17 , 2012 , with digital download sales of 4 @,@ 299 .
= Lynn de Silva =
Lynn Alton de Silva ( 16 June 1919 – 22 May 1982 ) was a Sri Lankan theologian and Methodist minister . He was the founder and editor of one of the first theological journals on Buddhist @-@ Christian encounter called Dialogue ( 1961 – 1981 ) , chief translator for the revision of the Old Testament of the Sinhalese Bible published as New Sinhala Bible ( 1973 – 1982 ) , and director of the Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue ( EISD ) in Sri Lanka ( 1962 – 1982 ) . Lynn de Silva is widely regarded as one of the foremost Christian practitioners of Buddhist @-@ Christian dialogue in Sri Lanka , and also as one of the pioneers in this dialogue .
Lynn de Silva 's book titled Buddhism : Beliefs and Practices in Sri Lanka ( de Silva 1974 ) was mentioned in two journals in the early 1980s as being unparalleled as an introduction to Buddhism in Sri Lanka . Possibly his most notable contribution to theology is the book titled The Problem of the Self in Buddhism and Christianity ( de Silva 1979 ) , in which he points out an age @-@ old misconception held by Buddhists and Christians that the notion of an immortal soul is a biblical teaching . This book is considered by Schmidt @-@ Leukel to be one of the classics in Buddhist @-@ Christian dialogue , and one which has become well known among those actively involved in this dialogue . The book was also included in John Hick 's Library of Philosophy and Religion series .
Lynn de Silva 's father and three of his brothers were Methodist ministers . According to Walter Small , Lynn de Silva and his brothers Fred and Denzil were among the most significant Methodist writers during the period 1931 – 1964 in Sri Lanka . After entering active service in the Methodist ministry in 1946 , de Silva pursued his tertiary education , obtaining qualifications including a Bachelor of Divinity degree , two Master 's degrees , and a Doctor of Theology degree . In addition to serving in the ministry , de Silva participated for twenty years in the dialogical and ecumenical activities of the World Council of Churches , and he was Executive President of the Presidium of the National Council for Religion and Peace in Sri Lanka ( 1979 – 1980 ) . He died shortly after this role while addressing an audience at a conference , having continued to work until the end . In 1999 , the Study Center building of the EISD was dedicated to the memory of Lynn de Silva and Rev. G. B. Jackson , the first director of the EISD .
= = Family , education and career = =
Lynn Anton de Silva was born to a Methodist family on 16 June 1919 , in the town of Kurana in Katunayake , Sri Lanka . His father , John Simon de Silva ( 1868 @-@ 1940 ) , was a Methodist minister , and his mother , Clara de Silva , was a housewife . Lynn de Silva was the second youngest out of one sister : Pearl ( ? -1999 ) , and five brothers : Frederick Stanley ( 1904 @-@ 1980 ) , Roy , George Denzil ( ? -1996 ) , Eric and Hugh . Little is known about de Silva 's childhood , except that he had a Christian upbringing , growing up under the influence of pious parents . Lynn de Silva and three of his brothers — Fred , Denzil , and Roy — grew up to become Methodist ministers . Hugh de Silva died whilst studying to be ordained .
= = = Education = = =
Before being accepted as a candidate for the ministry , de Silva was a teacher from 1938 to 1942 . In 1942 , he trained for the ministry at the United Theological College in Bangalore , and entered active service in the Methodist ministry in 1946 . He served as a minister in stations including Kollupitiya , Wellawatte , Kandy , Badulla , Galle , Kalahe , Mutwal and Seeduwa ; he served a total of two years at the first two stations , half a year at Kandy , two years at Kalahe , three years at Mutuwal , and three and half years at Seeduwa . In September 1950 , de Silva was ordained as a Methodist minister .
A few months after being ordained , Lynn de Silva married Lakshmi Mendis , on 3 February 1951 , at the Colpetty Methodist Church in Colombo . Toward the end of the year , on 16 November 1951 , Lynn and Lakshmi had their first son , Lahan Jayalath de Silva .
Starting from the 1950s , de Silva pursued his tertiary education . He obtained a Bachelor of Divinity ( B.D. ) degree from Serampore College in India ; a Master of Sacred Theology ( S.T.M. ) degree from the Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York ; a Diploma in Buddhism , with a specialisation in Theravada Buddhism , from the Vidyalankara University in Sri Lanka ; a Master of Arts ( M.A. ) degree from University of Birmingham in England ; and a Doctor of Theology ( Th.D. ) degree from Senate of Serampore College . He also took a study course in Mahayana Buddhism at the Vidyodaya University in Sri Lanka . During his studies , Lynn and Lakshmi had their second son , Lalith Chrishantha de Silva , on 16 September 1954 .
= = = Career and activities = = =
Lynn de Silva 's pioneering work in Buddhist @-@ Christian dialogue , and his work in Bible translation , began in the early 1960s after he had completed his service at Seeduwa . In 1962 , de Silva was appointed to serve the National Christian Council at the Study Centre for Religion and Society in Wellawatte , which later became the Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue — an important center for Buddhist studies . It was shortly before starting work at the Study Center that Lynn and Lakshmi had their third child , Shiromi Priyala de Silva ( later Rodrigo ) , on 3 September 1961 .
Whilst managing the Study Center , de Silva was appointed co @-@ translator of the Sinhala Bible Revision Committee in 1964 . The committee consisted of around forty scholars , including Protestant and Roman Catholic clergy , Buddhist monks , and academics . From 1964 to 1973 , the committee focused on translating the Greek version of the New Testament of the Bible into Sinhalese . In the same year in which de Silva started working with the translation committee , Lynn and Lakshmi had their last child and third son , Shantha Asiri de Silva , on 6 March 1964 .
Around the age of fifty , in the late 1960s , de Silva experienced a severe heart attack . During his recovery , Lakshmi managed the home , watched over his health , and moderated his appointments . Furthermore , she guided the work at the Study Center by handling most of the administrative duties , organisation of conferences , and publication related tasks . She continued to take these responsibilities even after de Silva 's recovery , so that he could focus on his research , writing and travel .
From 1970 to 1971 , de Silva lived in England with Lakshmi while he served the World Churches as William Paton Lecturer at Selly Oak Colleges in Birmingham . While in England , de Silva was also a Visiting Lecturer in Asian Religions at University of Bristol .
After his return to Sri Lanka , de Silva continued with Bible translation work , and he was appointed chief translator of the Old Testament into Sinhala in 1973 . Fr . Aloysius Peiris S.J. states the following in relation to de Silva 's new position as chief translator :
His proficiency in his own mother @-@ tongue coupled with his familiarity with Greek and Hebrew , as well as a thorough grounding in biblical theology , gave him an eminent position in the team that made the new Sinhala translation of the Bible . It was thanks to his ruthless criticism that many traditional Christian terms in Sinhala ... were eliminated from Biblical and liturgical use . He pointed out as nobody did before , such words when uttered in a Buddhist context , distort the Gospel message whilst doing violence also to the Sinhala language .
Lakshmi de Silva also played an important role in the Bible translation work . After three months of training , she was appointed secretary of the translation committee . Her role in the committee involved technical work such as proofreading , and clerical work such as typing and dealing with the press . She possessed sufficient knowledge in Greek and Hebrew to be able to check the accuracy and consistency of the Bible translation , which she continued at a full @-@ time capacity even after she had fallen ill toward the latter part of her life . With the experience she had gained , Lakshmi compiled valuable material for use in future bible translations . Although she possessed the skills necessary to become a scholar in her own right , she was content to take a back seat to support her husband 's work . She died in 1980 , just over a year before the Sinhala Bible translation was completed .
Lynn de Silva 's ecumenical responsibilities included membership in the Committees of the World Council of Churches ( WCC ) that focused on the Christian approach to other faiths . In particular , he was a WCC committee member ( Paris 1962 , Geneva 1967 and 1973 ) ; a member of the working group of the Division of World Mission and Evangelism ( Mexico 1963 , Zurich 1966 and Cantebury 1969 ) ; and member of the working group on Dialogue with Faiths and Ideologies ( DFI ) since 1969 . Some of his other significant ecumenical activities were visits to Buddhist study centres in Germany , England and the USA , and study tours of Buddhism in Burma , Thailand , Singapore , Hong Kong and Japan .
Lynn de Silva 's quest for unity stretched beyond his dialogue with Buddhists . He was among a group of people that led the movement for the " contextualisation and inculturation of the Gospel , " and also among those who " advocated and struggled for Church Union in Sri Lanka . " After interracial riots in 1977 between the Sinhalese and Tamils , de Silva became deeply involved in issues of unity and reconciliation between the two cultures . He led a team of Sinhalese leaders for dialogue with the Tamils in Jaffna , and wrote articles on the history of the conflict as well as his analysis of it , in an effort to promote interracial understanding . In 1979 , de Silva was appointed to the Presidium of the National Council for Religion and Peace in Sri Lanka , where he was Executive President for one year . Some of his other non @-@ ecumenical activities included serving as editor of the Methodist Witness and Suba Hasun Sinhalese journals .
Lynn de Silva 's interests included writing Sinhalese short stories ( e.g. , Premaoushadaya ( de Silva 1952a ) and Premaye Rahasa ( de Silva 1952b ) ) and painting . One of his paintings had appeared at an exhibit held at the Lionel Wendt Gallery in Colombo , Sri Lanka . In addition to his proficiency in English and Sinhalese , de Silva was familiar with Greek and Hebrew , and literate in Pali .
= = History of Buddhist @-@ Christian relations in Sri Lanka = =
Ever since the 16th century , during colonisations of Sri Lanka by the Portuguese , Dutch and English , Christian missionaries had attempted to convert the Buddhist population into Christianity , with the general belief during this period being that there was nothing worthy of study in non @-@ Christian religions . In the early 19th century , this view started to change , into the conviction that every evangelist should have sound knowledge in Buddhism . The most prominent Christian scholars supporting this conviction were Daniel John Gogerly , C. H. S. Ward , and Robert Spence Hardy .
Despite their belief that knowledge in Buddhism was essential , their attitude toward Buddhism was still negative . Through their polemical writings , they revealed their negative attitudes and beliefs that Buddhism was in error and that Christianity should replace Buddhism . This antagonised the Buddhists , and eventually led to a national Buddhist movement , starting from controversies held at Baddegama ( 1865 ) , Udanwita ( 1866 ) and Gampola ( 1871 ) . The last and most popular of these controversies was the historic debate Panadura Vadaya , held in Panadura ( 1873 ) , between Rev. David de Silva and Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera . One of the rules of the debate was that Christians should try to prove that Buddhism is false , and vice versa .
Gradually , this negative attitude between Buddhists and Christians started to change . The main influences responsible for the change included ( 1 ) more accurate knowledge of Buddhism than was available in the past ; ( 2 ) interest in and appreciation for Buddhism shown by Western scholars such as Arthur Schopenhauer , whose philosophy was similar to that of the Buddha ; ( 3 ) the book by Edwin Arnold titled The Light of Asia , which created a popular interest in Buddhism ; ( 4 ) the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of 1910 , which set the tone for a new Christian ecumenical movement ; ( 5 ) missionary activities of Buddhists such as Anagarika Dharmapala in the West ; and ( 6 ) the Tambaram Missionary Conference in 1938 , where one of the main themes for discussion was Christian message in a non @-@ Christian world .
Perhaps the first Methodist missionary to practice this more positive attitude toward Buddhism was Rev. Stanley Bishop , who made his attitude evident in a book titled Gautama or Jesus ( 1907 ) . In the introductory chapter , Bishop states :
The apparently wide differences between the teachings of Gautama Buddha and of Jesus Christ have led many to suppose that there is very little in common between the two systems . Some have even been entrapped into the statement that Buddhist doctrine is in direct opposition to Christianity , or vice versa , and that there is no common ground upon which the Buddhist and the Christian may meet for mutual help . It is hard for anyone who is at all conversant with Buddhism to maintain the position so often adopted – that the Christian has nothing to learn and all to teach . Neither statement is based on anything surer than ignorance .... These pages are written in an attempt to show that although the Christian may receive much light and stimulus from the teaching of the Buddha , the Buddhist may receive from Christ what Gautama was never in a position to give .
Another significant step toward dialogue between Christians and Buddhists was by Daniel T. Niles , in his book Eternal Life Now ( 1946 ) . The purpose of this book is twofold : ( 1 ) to convey the Christian message in the Buddhist context , by using terms such as anicca , dukkha , samsara , sarana , anatta , sila , samadhi , panna , and arahant ; and ( 2 ) to convey Buddhist truths within the context of Christianity .
With the resurgence of Buddhism after Sri Lankan independence , the conviction grew even stronger for the need to consider Christianity in the light of a culture and heritage that is predominantly Buddhist , which led to an increased need for dialogue between the two religions . Consequently , the Study Center for Religion and Society , which was later renamed to Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue ( EISD ) , was established in Colombo in 1951 . The center was initially managed by Rev. G. B. Jackson , and later directed by Lynn de Silva , whose focus was on Buddhist studies .
= = = Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue = = =
Lynn de Silva was the director of the Study Center for Religion and Society from 1962 . The center was organised into two divisions : Division of Buddhist Studies , and Division of Frontier Studies . The purpose of the former division was to promote study and research in Buddhism , while the purpose of the latter division was to explore the theological and social implications of the Christian faith in Sri Lanka . The center was involved in successfully organising a number of dialogues , meetings , and seminaries , and it became an internationally recognised center for dialogue with Buddhism and other ecumenical concerns . Furthermore , the center was recognised in the 1970s and 1980s as one of the most active of all similar study centres worldwide .
In 1977 , the center was renamed to Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue ( EISD ) , and set up as an autonomous body separate from the control of religious bodies and institutions . Although the primary focus was maintained on Buddhist @-@ Christian studies and dialogue , a third additional division called Division of Studies of other Faiths and Ideologies was established to initiate studies in other religions . In addition to publishing books and papers on dialogue between Christianity and other religions , the EISD published the Dialogue journal on a quarterly basis , which was founded and initially edited by Lynn de Silva .
= = = World Council of Churches assembly at Nairobi = = =
The assembly at Nairobi in 1975 of the World Council of Churches was an important milestone in the history of inter @-@ religious dialogue . For the first time , representatives from five different faiths were present at the gathering , and the discussions were centred around the topic of inter @-@ religious dialogue .
At a session that emphasised " seeking community " with people of other faiths , cultures and ideologies , the presentations were driven by , as the former director of the WCC sub @-@ unit Dialogue with People of Living Faiths and Ideologies ( DFI ) – S. J. Samartha – put it : " fear of losing the ' uniqueness ' of Christ , fear of weakening the sense of ' mission ' , and the persistent fear of ' syncretism ' . " Presentations at this session were marked by conflicting opinions between a group of European theologians and a group of Asian and African theologians , which resulted from the conflicting viewpoints between the theologies practised by the two groups . While the Europeans voiced their fear of inter @-@ religious dialogue , the African and Asian participants called for a more definite endorsement of dialogue .
According to Sperber and de Alwis , de Silva was , in this debate , one of the leading voices in the Asian viewpoint . S. J. Samartha notes de Silva 's contribution as " one of the most powerful interventions in the Assembly in support of dialogue , " and Carl Hallencreutz describes it as " the personal witness of an experienced theologian from Sri Lanka . "
In his speech to the general assembly at Nairobi , de Silva asserted that his concern was to alleviate the fear voiced by Europeans about dialogue which , he claimed , arises in people who have not lived among people of other faiths . He argued that the spirituality of others can be shared without diminishing one 's loyalty to one 's own faith . Further , he argued that dialogue is a safeguard against syncretism , not a temptation to syncretism , and that Asian Christians should overcome the obstacles that separate one religion from another , and seek to express the Christian faith in the thought @-@ forms and life @-@ forms of Asia .
In a publication titled Freedom from Teutonic Captivity ( Dialogue , New Series , Vol . 3 , No. 1 ) , de Silva shared his thoughts on the Nairobi debate , and he presented the significance of the debate as follows :
1 . It revealed the strength of the Afro @-@ Asian solidarity in their commitment to dialogue ; 2 @.@ it revealed more clearly than ever before that the Third World Churches will no longer tolerate being dictated to by the Western Churches ; 3 @.@ it revealed their determination to break away from teutonic captivity and discover the Christ who " Frees and Unites " in the living context of Asian and African religions .
= = The Asian theology of Lynn de Silva = =
Lynn de Silva gained an interest in Buddhism and its culture at an early stage in his ministry . He believed that the credibility of Christianity depended on its ability to relate to Buddhism , which was the faith of the majority of the Sri Lankan population . His objective was to develop a richer appreciation of the similarities between Buddhism and Christianity , in particular , to communicate the Christian message in a manner that the Sri Lankan culture understood , and to construct a theology that is focused towards the Buddhist cultural environment . To this end , he used Buddhist concepts to communicate Christian beliefs in a language understood from the Buddhist context , and he aimed at extending Christian theology with Buddhist concepts to gain a more thorough understanding of Christianity .
To obtain the necessary background in Sri Lankan Buddhist practices , de Silva consulted reputed Buddhist monks and scholars , visited Buddhist places of worship , and consulted written sources on Sri Lankan Buddhism . Although most of his studies were completed in English , he took a special effort to master Sinhalese and the Sri Lankan culture . Furthermore , he became proficient in Pali , the language of the Buddhist scriptures . His findings eventually led to the book titled Buddhism : Beliefs and Practices in Sri Lanka ( de Silva 1974 ) , which is widely cited in religious literature ( e.g. , ) . According to two journals , this book was unparalleled as an introduction to Buddhism in Sri Lanka in the early 1980s , and it was also the most complete , thorough and sensitive book on Buddhism in Sri Lanka , resulting in it generally being recommended by professors and monks as a standard book on Buddhist practices in Sri Lanka .
= = = Anattā @-@ Pneuma = = =
In 1979 de Silva released a book titled The Problem of the Self in Buddhism and Christianity ( de Silva 1979 ) , which has since been cited extensively ( e.g. , ) and attracted reviews from international journals ( e.g. , ) . This book was also considered by Aloysius Pieris to be de Silva 's most outstanding contribution to Theology , and by Perry Schmidt @-@ Leukel to be one of the classics in Buddhist @-@ Christian dialogue , and one that has become well known among those actively involved in this dialogue . Furthermore , this book was included in John Hick 's Library of Philosophy and Religion series . In this book , de Silva compares the biblical notion of " the soul " ( pneuma ) or " the self , " with the Buddhist doctrine of " no soul " ( anattā ) or " no self . " Contrary to popular belief , de Silva shows that modern Christian scholarship does not support the notion of a soul as an immortal entity separate from the body . He argues that such a misconception arose as a consequence of the translation of the Bible into Greek . Based on his observation , de Silva shows how the Buddhist doctrine of anattā is complementary to the Christian notion of personal identity – pneuma . He distinguishes that , while pneuma focuses on man as a relational entity , anattā focuses on man as an isolated entity . Furthermore , de Silva infers that if we do consider anattā to be real in Buddhism or Christianity , pneuma must also be real for Nibbāna or the Kingdom of God to be a positive ideal .
In his review of de Silva 's book , Joseph Kitagawa argues that de Silva is too narrow in his analysis of the anatta doctrine ; he claims that a better analysis would have been for de Silva to take into consideration the broader implication of the anattā doctrine , and to challenge the very basis of Greek philosophy which had influenced much of Christian theology . Furthermore , Kitagawa argues that de Silva could have entertained the possibility that Theravada Buddhism might look for Ultimate Reality more readily in the Mahayana Buddhist tradition , rather than turning towards Christianity . In Donald Mitchell 's analysis of the same book by de Silva , he states that a better framework for dialogue with Hindu traditions could be allowed if de Silva considered an expanded hermeneutical circle that includes a more positive notion of soul that is compatible with the biblical understanding of man . By doing so , Mitchell argues , de Silva would be able to " include inherently valuable insights from the Christian tradition on the nature of man . "
From the evangelical theologians , Tissa Weerasinghe believed that de Silva needs to put more emphasis on the " glaring disharmony " between Christianity and Buddhism that their differing views on the biblical notion of soul suggest . In relation to de Silva 's treatment of this notion , Dyrness states that insights into the biblical picture of human life apart from God cannot be found by a dialogue with Buddhism , but by Christian Asians carefully considering the Scriptures and their own Asian setting . A similar perspective is taken by Lim et al . , who insist that de Silva should communicate the Christian message to the Buddhists , instead of giving Buddhist meanings to Christian concepts and harmonising in a syncretistic way the concepts belonging to the two religions . In a publication that aims at an evangelical approach to religions and cultures , Yung interprets de Silva 's contribution as not so much an able exercise in dialogue , but , rather , a brilliant Christian apologetic , addressed to Theravada Buddhists .
= = = Salvation = = =
With an inclusivistic view on religion in the early stages of his career , Lynn de Silva believed that salvation does not only apply to Christians , but also to other religions . He maintained that while Christians can use Christ as their means for salvation , other religions can use their own means for salvation . Later in his life , de Silva developed more of a pluralistic view on religion , believing that neither of the two religions is superior to the other . Perry Schmidt @-@ Leukel notes how this change of view is evident in de Silva 's posthumous article Buddhism and Christianity Relativised , in volume 9 of the Dialogue journal .
In her PhD thesis containing a chapter on de Silva 's work , Damayanthi Niles claims that there is a problem with de Silva 's argument in relation to salvation , in that it " reconciles the exclusive Christ @-@ event and the inclusive vision of God 's salvific plan purely on Christian terms , " and that it does not take the " religious visions and commitments of other faiths seriously . " Furthermore , she argues that de Silva 's understanding of salvation , as found in his paper Non @-@ Christian Religions and God 's Plan of Salvation ( de Silva 1967b ) , borrows a religious idea from other religions and uses the idea to make Christianity more palatable to other religions and to Christians sensitive to pluralism .
= = = Thanatology = = =
In the last few years before his death , de Silva focused his study towards the study of human death , namely , the field of Thanatology . His quest was motivated mainly by the death of his wife Lakshmi in December 1980 , but also by his curiosity about the meaning of resurrection . With this frame of mind , de Silva studied the beliefs and practices of people with respect to death , such as the phenomenon of mediums , with help from Buddhist exponents of reincarnation . Although traces of his findings can be seen in his last writings , de Silva died before completing his study . His last findings were published posthumously by his friend and colleague , Fr . Aloysius Pieris S.J. , in the paper Buddhism and Christianity Relativised , which appeared in volume 9 of the Dialogue journal .
In this paper , de Silva talks about " Life Beyond Death , " and writes that theologians should not ignore data from Parapsychology . He urges that evidence about the paranormal is compelling , and that it is a field that merits careful study . Regarding Purgatory , de Silva states in this paper that the Hindu / Buddhist view , where Ultimate Reality is reached through a process of purification through liberation from self and elevation to stages of spiritual development , is more acceptable than the belief in a single life on earth and an everlasting hell or heaven after death . Furthermore , he insists that the Hindu / Buddhist view conforms to modern theological as well as psychical research . In agreement with the Hindu / Buddhist view , de Silva , in this paper , regards Purgatory to be a place of cleansing , which ultimately makes a person ready for eternal life in Heaven .
Tissa de Alwis , in his Th.D. thesis studying the works of Lynn de Silva , argues that " de Silva 's attempt to harmonise Rebirth , Purgatory , and an intermediate state , which is a kind of a continuum in which one passes from a near state of annihilation to the closest union with God , is inconsistent with the radical picture of Biblical anatta " ; furthermore , de Alwis states that de Silva " fails to define lostness in the final sense and slides into an unrestricted universalism . "
= = Death and legacy = =
On 22 May 1982 , while addressing the audience at a conference , Lynn de Silva succumbed to cardiac arrest . The conference was organised by the National Christian Council on the theme " Jesus Christ , Life of the World . " Being the third and final speaker , he completed his discourse on 2 Timothy 3 : 15 – 17 and he stood up again to answer a question from the audience , but he was barely able to formulate a reply and sat back in his chair . He died soon afterward , having continued to work until the end .
After Lynn de Silva 's death , the EISD was directed by Rev. Kenneth Fernando , and currently ( as of 2008 ) directed by Marshal Fernando . Fr . Aloysius Pieris S. J. , who had been collaborating with de Silva since 1968 , and who in partnership with de Silva had officially been responsible for editing the New Series of Dialogue , continued to work as editor of the journal after de Silva 's death . A sister @-@ in law of Lynn de Silva , Langanee Mendis , who was trained by de Silva as his secretary after the death of his wife Lakshmi , continues to work ( as of 2008 ) as the Administrative Secretary at the institute . Mrs. Mendis is credited as being the main person responsible for the uninterrupted functioning of the institute after Lynn de Silva 's death . Furthermore , she was considered by Pieris in 2003 to be " a tower of strength [ for the Ecumenical Institute ] for well over 20 years . "
In March 1999 , the Study Center building of the EISD was dedicated to the memory of Rev. G. B. Jackson and Lynn de Silva , by Rt. Rev. Andrew Oliver Kumarage ( Bishop of Kurunegala ) . This building is used by a number of institutions and church @-@ related organisations to provide accommodation for participants involved in study programs at the EISD . On 17 November 2009 , an article in the Daily News newspaper promoting World Philosophy Day featured a picture and short description of Lynn de Silva , alongside other Sri Lankan philosophers such as K. N. Jayatilleke and Ananda Coomaraswamy .
= = Publications = =
= = = Selected books and papers = = =
de Silva , Lynn A. ( 1950 ) , Purana Darshanaya ( Sinhalese ) , Colombo , Sri Lanka : M.D. Gunasena
de Silva , Lynn A. ( 1961 ) , Lukge Subaranchi Pradipaya ( Sinhalese ) , Colombo , Sri Lanka : Committee for Publication of Christian Literature
de Silva , Lynn A. ( 1964 ) , Creation , Redemption and Consummation in Buddhist and Christian Thought , Chiang Mai , Thailand : Thailand Theological Seminary
de Silva , Lynn A. ( 1968 ) , Reincarnation in Buddhist and Christian Thought , Colombo , Sri Lanka : Christian Literature Society , ASIN B0006C3NP6
de Silva , Lynn A. ( 1974 ) , Buddhism : Beliefs and Practices in Sri Lanka , Colombo , Sri Lanka : Wesley Press , ASIN B0000CQC8X
de Silva , Lynn A. ( 1979 ) , The Problem of the Self in Buddhism and Christianity ( Second Ed . ) [ First edition published by the Study Center for Religion and Society , Colombo , 1975 ] , London : Macmillan Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 333 @-@ 23660 @-@ 4
de Silva , Lynn A. ( 1980 ) , Lakdiva Pariharaika Buddhagama ( Sinhalese ) , Colombo , Sri Lanka : Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue
de Silva , Lynn A. ( 1952a ) , Premaoushadaya ( Sinhalese ) , Colombo , Sri Lanka : Liberty Press
de Silva , Lynn A. ( 1952b ) , Premaye Rahasa ( Sinhalese ) , Colombo , Sri Lanka : Salvation Army Press
de Silva , Lynn A. ( 1967b ) , Hayward , Victor E. W. , ed . , " Non @-@ Christian Religions and God 's Plan of Salvation " , Study Encounter , 2 ( WCC ) 3 : 61 – 67
= = = Lynn de Silva as subject = = =
de Alwis , Tissa Brian ( 1982 ) , " Christian @-@ Buddhist Dialogue in the Writings of Lynn A. de Silva " , Th.D. Thesis ( Andrews University , USA : University Microfilms International )
Dornberg , Ulrich ( 1992 ) , " Lynn A. de Silva " , Searching through the crisis : Christians , contextual theology and social change in Sri Lanka in the 1970s and 1980s ( Colombo : Center for Society and Religion ) : 137 – 140
Balasundaram , Franklyn J. ( 1994 ) . The prophetic voices of Asia . Colombo : Center for Society and Religion. pp. 107 – 115 .
Höhensteiger , Petrus ( 1998 ) . Mit Buddha und Christus auf dem Weg ( an anthology of six major writings of Lynn de Silva ) . Freiburg i.Br. : Herder .
Niles , Damayanthi Mercy Arulratnum ( 1998 ) , " Religion and the Christian Faith in South Asia : A Critical Enquiry into the Writings of Hendrik Kraemer , Lynn de Silva & M. M. Thomas with Regard to the use of Understandings of Religion in the Theological Task " , PhD Thesis ( University of Chicago , USA : University Microfilms International ) : 50
= Space opera in Scientology =
Church of Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard included space opera narratives in his writings , wherein thetans ( the name given to human souls ) were reincarnated periodically over quadrillions of years , retaining memories of prior lives , to which Hubbard attributed complex narratives about life throughout the universe . The most controversial of these myths is the story of Xenu , to whom Hubbard attributed responsibility for many of the world 's problems .
Some space opera doctrines of Scientology are only provided by the church to experienced members , who church leaders maintain are the only ones able to correctly understand them . Several former members of the church have exposed these secret documents , leading to lengthy court battles with the church , which failed to keep the secret . Critics of the church have noted that some of the narratives are scientifically impossible , and have thus assailed the church as untrustworthy for teaching them . The space opera teachings have also been satirized in popular culture . Scholars of religion have described the space opera narratives as a creation myth designed to encourage reverence of Hubbard as a supreme messenger . Several academics have drawn attention to the similarity of the space opera myths to themes of the 1950s Cold War culture in which they were constructed .
= = Origins = =
L. Ron Hubbard created a form of therapy known as Dianetics , which he promoted as a scientific , not religious , teaching . Until the early 1950s , he had a negative view of organized religions , but thereafter discussed spiritual topics . In these teachings , he identified subconscious memories of past events , which he called " engrams " , as causes of human dissatisfaction . By 1950 , he had begun to ponder past lives , believing that they could be recalled ; he attempted to use these recollections to develop a comprehensive narrative of the universe . He founded the Church of Scientology in 1953 , advancing his beliefs as religious doctrines . The church was distinct from Dianetics @-@ based groups but incorporated some of their views . Hubbard saw Dianetics as focused on the physical body but viewed Scientology as a way to address spiritual matters .
In Hubbard 's efforts to shift from a psychotherapeutic to a spiritual program , he introduced the concept of thetans : a set of godlike , non @-@ corporeal entities capable of creating and shaping universes , later trapped in the MEST and confined , by reincarnation , to physical bodies . Hugh Urban of Ohio State University states that these teachings bear similarities to Gnosticism , although he doubts that Hubbard was well versed in Gnostic thought .
In the 1950s , as Hubbard 's followers recalled their past lives , he recorded many details of these recollections . With this as his source , he constructed an intricate history of the universe , identified as " space opera " . Although Hubbard believed that he had developed a comprehensive history , Urban cites the isolated and incomplete record of the statements , wherein Hubbard identified a thetan universe , separate from the material universe , created by its inhabitants . The material universe , in Hubbard 's view , began when other universes created by thetans collided , from which they entered the material universe in six invasion groups roughly 60 trillion years ago . Hubbard also described a series of events , called the " incidents " , that divorced the thetans from their self @-@ knowledge , but maintained that thetans could regain their former divinity , and referred to thetans that freed themselves from the material world as " operating thetans " .
= = Narratives and civilizations = =
Hubbard located his first ' incident ' four quadrillion years ago , in which a thetan encountered ' loud cracks and brightness ' and then observed a cherub and chariot before experiencing total darkness . In Scientology , this is known as " Incident 1 " . Another important event in Scientology 's chronology of the universe , occurred on a space city known as Arslycus , the inhabitants of whom brought about an incident when capturing thetans .
The most controversial portion of Scientology 's space opera is the myth of Xenu , known as " Incident 2 " , in which Hubbard described a group of 76 planets , orbiting stars visible from Earth , organized in a Galactic Confederacy c . 75 million years ago , ruled by the dictator Xenu . The confederacy having become overpopulated , Xenu sent several billion of his citizens onto DC 8 planes to the planet Teegeeack ( Earth ) , ostensibly for tax audition . There , hydrogen bombs were detonated inside volcanoes , killing the exiles , whose thetans were brainwashed on Hawaii and the Canary Islands , introducing various myths , such as the myth of Jesus , to conceal the thetans ' origins . Eventually , officers of the Galactic Confederacy launched a rebellion against Xenu , which continued six years before capturing him and placing him in an electrified prison in the center of a mountain . Hubbard taught that the thetans brainwashed by Xenu 's forces remained on Earth , where the " body thetans " , attached to human psyches , contribute to human problems ; and that individuals could be freed from these brainwashed thetans and thus attain a type of salvation .
Hubbard also taught that , upon the deaths of humans , thetans continued to " implant stations " , including locations on planets near Earth , where their memories were erased and new memories emplaced . On grounds that some " implant stations " were better than others , Hubbard advised his followers to avoid the one on Venus . After passing an
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both Rosaline and Juliet . Since Rosaline is unattainable , she is a perfect subject for this style ; but Romeo 's attempt at it is forced and weak . By the time he meets Juliet his poetic ability has improved considerably .
Gender studies critics have argued that Rosaline 's name suggests that Romeo never really forgets her but rather replaces her with Juliet . Thus , when Juliet cries " What 's in a name ? A rose by any other name would smell as sweet , " she is ironically expressing Romeo 's own view of her as a substitute for Rosaline . That is to say , Rosaline , replaced in name only by Juliet , is just as sweet to Romeo . Gender critics also note that the arguments used to dissuade Romeo from pursuing Rosaline are similar to the themes of Shakespeare 's procreation sonnets . In these sonnets Shakespeare urges the man ( who can be equated with Romeo ) to find a woman with whom to procreate — a duty he owes to society . Rosaline , it seems , is distant and unavailable except in the mind , similarly bringing no hope of offspring . As Benvolio argues , she is best replaced by someone who will reciprocate . Rosaline reveals similarities to the subject of the sonnets when she refuses to break her vow of chastity . Her name may be referred to in the first sonnet when the young man is described as " beauties Rose . " This line ties the young man to both Rosaline and Romeo in Juliet 's " What 's in a name ? " soliloquy . When Juliet says " ... that which we call a rose / By any other name would smell as sweet " , she may be raising the question of whether there is any difference between the beauty of a man and the beauty of a woman .
Rosaline is used as a name for only one other Shakespearean character — the one of the main female figures in Love 's Labours Lost ( 1598 ) . Scholars have found similarities between them : both are described as beautiful , and both have a way of avoiding men 's romantic advances . Rosaline in Love 's Labours Lost constantly rebuffs her suitor 's advances and Romeo 's Rosaline remains distant and chaste in his brief descriptions of her . These similarities have led some to wonder whether they are based on a woman Shakespeare actually knew , possibly the Dark Lady described in his sonnets , but there is no strong evidence of this connection .
= = = Rosaline as plot device = = =
Analysts note that Rosaline acts as a plot device , by motivating Romeo to sneak into the Capulet party where he will meet Juliet . Without her , their meeting would be unlikely . Rosaline thus acts as the impetus to bring the " star @-@ cross 'd lovers " to their deaths — she is crucial in shaping their fate ( a common theme of the play ) . Ironically , she remains oblivious of her role .
= = = Rosaline and Juliet = = =
Literary critics often compare Romeo 's love for Rosaline with his feelings for Juliet . Some see Romeo 's love for Rosaline as childish as compared with his true love for Juliet . Others argue that the apparent difference in Romeo 's feelings shows Shakespeare 's improving skill . Since Shakespeare is thought to have written early drafts of the play in 1591 , and then picked them up again in 1597 to create the final copy , the change in Romeo 's language for Rosaline and Juliet may mirror Shakespeare 's increased skill as a playwright : the younger Shakespeare describing Rosaline , and the more experienced describing Juliet . In this view , a careful look at the play reveals that Romeo 's love for Rosaline is not as petty as usually imagined .
Critics also note the ways in which Romeo 's relationship with Rosaline prepares him for meeting Juliet . Before meeting Rosaline , Romeo despises all Capulets , but afterwards looks upon them more favorably . He experiences the dual feelings of hate and love in the one relationship . This prepares him for the more mature relationship with Juliet — one fraught by the feud between Montagues and Capulets . Romeo expresses the conflict of love and hate in Act 1 , Scene 1 , comparing his love for Rosaline with the feud between the two houses :
Here 's much to do with hate , but more with love .
Why , then , O brawling love ! O loving hate !
O any thing , of nothing first create !
O heavy lightness ! serious vanity !
Mis @-@ shapen chaos of well @-@ seeming forms !
Feather of lead , bright smoke , cold fire , sick health !
Still @-@ waking sleep , that is not what it is !
This love feel I , that feel no love in this .
Dost thou not laugh ?
Psychoanalytic critics see signs of repressed childhood trauma in Romeo 's love for Rosaline . She is of a rival house and is sworn to chastity . Thus he is in an impossible situation , one which will continue his trauma if he remains in it . Although he acknowledges its ridiculous nature , he refuses to stop loving her . Psychoanalysts view this as a re @-@ enactment of his failed relationship with his mother . Rosaline 's absence is symbolic of his mother 's absence and lack of affection for him . Romeo 's love for Juliet is similarly hopeless , for she is a Capulet and Romeo pursues his relationship with her ; the difference being that Juliet reciprocates . This does not seem likely seeing as his mother died of grief after his banishment , indicating that she probably loved him deeply .
= = Performances = =
Rosaline has been portrayed in various ways over the centuries . Theophilus Cibber 's 1748 version of Romeo and Juliet replaced references to Rosaline with references to Juliet . This , according to critics , took out the " love at first sight " moment at the Capulet feast . In the 1750s , actor and theatre director David Garrick also eliminated references to Rosaline from his performances , as many saw Romeo 's quick replacement of her as immoral . However , in Franco Zeffirelli 's 1968 film version of Romeo and Juliet , Romeo sees Rosaline ( played by Paola Tedesco ) first at the Capulet feast and then Juliet , of whom he becomes immediately enamored . This scene suggests that love is short and superficial . Rosaline also appears in Renato Castellani 's 1954 film version . In a brief non @-@ Shakespearean scene , Rosaline ( Dagmar Josipovitch ) gives Romeo a mask at Capulet 's celebration , and urges him to leave disguised before harm comes to him . Other filmmakers keep Rosaline off @-@ camera in stricter accordance with Shakespeare 's script . Robert Nathan 's 1966 romantic comedy , Juliet in Mantua , presents Rosaline as a fully developed character . In this sequel , in which Romeo and Juliet did not die , the pair live ten years later in exile in Mantua . When Rosaline shows up in Mantua with her husband County Paris , both couples must confront their disillusionment with their marriages . Another play , After Juliet , written by Scottish playwright Sharman Macdonald , tells the story of Rosaline after Romeo dies . A main character in this play , she struggles with her loss and turns away the advances of Benvolio , who has fallen in love with her . Macdonald 's daughter , Keira Knightley , played Rosaline in the play 's 1999 premiere . The 2012 young adult novel " When You Were Mine " by Rebecca Serle sets Rosaline 's story in a contemporary high school . Rosaline and Romeo ( renamed Rob ) have been best friends since childhood and are just beginning to fall in love when Rosaline 's cousin , Juliet , moves back into town and sets her sights on Rob . Rosaline also appears in the 2013 film adaptation of Romeo & Juliet .
= Nevermind =
Nevermind is the second studio album by the American rock band Nirvana , released on September 24 , 1991 . Produced by Butch Vig , Nevermind was the group 's first release on DGC Records . Lead singer Kurt Cobain sought to make music outside the restrictive confines of the Seattle grunge scene , drawing influence from groups such as the Pixies and their use of " loud / quiet " dynamics . It is their first album to feature drummer Dave Grohl .
Despite low commercial expectations by the band and its record label , Nevermind became a surprise success in late 1991 , largely due to the popularity of its first single , " Smells Like Teen Spirit " . By January 1992 , it had replaced Michael Jackson 's album Dangerous at number one on the Billboard 200 chart . The album also produced three other successful singles : " Come as You Are " , " Lithium " , and " In Bloom " . The Recording Industry Association of America has certified the album diamond ( at least 10 million copies shipped ) , and the album has sold at least 24 million copies worldwide . Nevermind was in part responsible for bringing both alternative rock and grunge to a large , mainstream audience , and has been ranked highly on lists of the greatest albums of all time by publications such as Rolling Stone and Time .
= = Background = =
Nirvana was a band from Olympia , Washington , formed by Kurt Cobain and Krist Novoselic , that had signed to Seattle independent record label Sub Pop . The group released its debut album Bleach in 1989 , with Chad Channing on drums . However , Channing left Nirvana in 1990 , and the band was in need of a permanent drummer . During a show by hardcore punk band Scream , the group 's drummer , Dave Grohl , impressed Novoselic and Cobain . When Scream unexpectedly disbanded , Grohl contacted Novoselic , made his way to Seattle , and was soon invited to join the band . Novoselic said in retrospect that when Grohl joined the band , everything " fell into place " .
Meanwhile , Cobain was writing a number of new songs . At the time Cobain was listening to bands like The Melvins , R.E.M. , The Smithereens , and the Pixies . Feeling disillusioned by the heavy detuned rock popular in the Seattle grunge scene upon which Sub Pop had built its image , Cobain — inspired by his contemporary listening habits — began writing songs that were more melodic . A key development was the single " Sliver " , released on Sub Pop in 1990 ( before Grohl joined the band ) , which Cobain said " was like a statement in a way . I had to write a pop song and release it on a single to prepare people for the next record . I wanted to write more songs like that . " Grohl said that the band at that point often made the analogy of likening their music to children 's music , in that the band tried to make its songs as simple as possible .
By the start of the 1990s , Sub Pop was experiencing financial difficulties . With rumors that Sub Pop would sign up as a subsidiary for a major label , the band decided to " cut out the middleman " and start to look for a major label . A number of labels courted the band , but Nirvana ultimately signed with Geffen Records imprint DGC Records based upon repeated recommendations from Kim Gordon of Sonic Youth ( an influential alternative rock band who Nirvana idolised ) and their management company Gold Mountain .
= = Recording and production = =
In early 1990 , Nirvana began planning its second album for Sub Pop , tentatively titled Sheep . For the album , Sub Pop head Bruce Pavitt suggested Butch Vig as a potential producer . Nirvana particularly liked Vig 's work with Killdozer and called Vig up to tell him , " We want to sound as heavy as that record . " In April 1990 , the band traveled out to Vig 's Smart Studios in Madison , Wisconsin to begin work on the album . Most of the basic song arrangements were completed by that time , but Cobain was still working on lyrics and the band was unsure of which songs to record . Ultimately , eight songs were recorded : " Immodium " ( later renamed " Breed " ) , " Dive " ( later released as the B @-@ side to " Sliver " ) , " In Bloom " , " Pay to Play " ( eventually renamed " Stay Away " and given a new set of lyrics ) , " Sappy " , " Lithium " , " Here She Comes Now " ( released on Velvet Underground Tribute Album : Heaven and Hell Volume 1 ) , and " Polly " . The band had planned to record more tracks , but Cobain severely strained his voice on " Lithium , " forcing Nirvana to shut down recording . Vig was told that the group would come back to record more songs , but the producer did not hear anything for a while . Instead , Nirvana used the sessions as a demo tape to shop for a new label . Within a few months , the tape was circulating amongst major labels , creating a buzz around the group .
After signing to DGC , a number of producers for the album were suggested , including Scott Litt , David Briggs , and Don Dixon , but Nirvana still wanted Butch Vig . Novoselic noted in 2001 that the band was already nervous about recording on a major label , and the producers suggested by DGC wanted percentage points for working on the album . Instead , the band held out for Vig , with whom they felt comfortable collaborating . Afforded a budget of $ 65 @,@ 000 , Nirvana recorded Nevermind at Sound City Studios in Van Nuys , California in May and June 1991 . Nirvana was originally set to record the album during March and April 1991 , but the date kept getting pushed back in spite of the band 's eagerness to begin the sessions . To earn gas money to get to Los Angeles , Nirvana played a show where they performed " Smells Like Teen Spirit " for the first time . The band sent Vig some rehearsal tapes prior to the sessions that featured songs recorded previously at Smart Studios , along with some new ones including " Smells Like Teen Spirit " and " Come as You Are " .
When the group arrived in California , Nirvana did a few days of pre @-@ production where the band and Vig tightened up some of the song arrangements . The only recording carried over from the Smart Studios sessions was the song " Polly " , which included cymbal crashes performed by Chad Channing . Once recording commenced , the band worked eight to ten hours a day . The band members tended to take two or three tries at instrumental takes ; if the takes were not satisfactory at that point , they would move on to something else . The group had rehearsed the songs so much before recording started that often only a few takes were needed . Cobain used a variety of guitars , from stratocasters to jaguars , and Novoselic used a black 1979 and natural 1976 Gibson Ripper . Novoselic and Grohl finished their bass and drum tracks in a matter of days , but Cobain had to work longer on guitar overdubs , singing , and particularly lyrics ( which sometimes were finished mere minutes before recording ) . Cobain 's phrasing was so consistent on various takes that Vig would mix the takes together to create overdubs . Vig says that he often had to trick Cobain into recording additional takes for overdubs since the singer was averse to performing multiple takes . In particular , Vig convinced Cobain to double @-@ track his vocals on the song " In Bloom " by telling him " John Lennon did it . " While the sessions went well generally , Vig said Cobain would become moody and difficult at times : " He 'd be great for an hour , and then he 'd sit in a corner and say nothing for an hour . "
After the recording sessions were completed , Vig and the band set out to mix the album . However , after a few days , both Vig and the band members realized that they were unhappy with how the mixes were turning out . As a result , they decided to call in someone else to oversee the mixing , with Geffen Records imprint DGC supplying a list of possible options . The list contained several familiar names , including Scott Litt ( known for his work with R.E.M. ) and Ed Stasium ( known for his work with The Ramones and The Smithereens ) . However , Cobain feared that bringing in known mixers would result in the album sounding like the work of those bands . Instead , Cobain chose Andy Wallace ( who had co @-@ produced Slayer 's 1990 album Seasons in the Abyss ) from the bottom of the list . Novoselic recalled , " We said , ' right on , ' because those Slayer records were so heavy . " Wallace ran the songs through various special effects boxes and tweaked the drum sounds , completing about one mix per day . Both Wallace and Vig noted years later that upon hearing Wallace 's work the band loved the mixes . After the album 's release , however , members of Nirvana expressed dissatisfaction with the polished sound the mixer had given Nevermind . Cobain said in Come as You Are , " Looking back on the production of Nevermind , I 'm embarrassed by it now . It 's closer to a Mötley Crüe record than it is a punk rock record . "
Nevermind was mastered on the afternoon of August 2 at The Mastering Lab in Hollywood , California . Howie Weinberg started working alone when no one else showed up at the appointed time in the studio ; by the time Nirvana , Andy Wallace , and Gary Gersh arrived , Weinberg had mastered most of the album . One of the songs mastered at the session , a hidden track called " Endless , Nameless " intended to appear at the end of " Something in the Way " , was accidentally left off initial pressings of the album . Weinberg recalled , " In the beginning , it was kind of a verbal thing to put that track at the end . Maybe I misconstrued their instructions , so you can call it my mistake if you want . Maybe I didn 't write it down when Nirvana or the record company said to do it . So , when they pressed the first twenty thousand or so CDs , albums , and cassettes , it wasn 't on there . " When the band discovered the song 's omission after listening to its copy of the album , Cobain called Weinberg and demanded he rectify the mistake . Weinberg complied and added about ten minutes of silence between the end of " Something in the Way " and the start of the hidden track on future pressings of the album .
= = Music = =
Cobain , Nirvana 's main songwriter , fashioned chord sequences using primarily power chords and wrote songs that combined pop hooks with dissonant guitar riffs . His aim for Nevermind 's material was to sound like " The Knack and the Bay City Rollers getting molested by Black Flag and Black Sabbath " . Many of the songs on Nevermind feature shifts in dynamics , where the band changes from quiet verses to loud choruses . Dave Grohl said this approach originated during a four @-@ month period prior to the recording of the album , where the band would experiment with extreme dynamics during regular jam sessions .
Guitar World wrote , " Kurt Cobain 's guitar sound on Nirvana 's Nevermind set the tone for Nineties rock music . " On Nevermind , Cobain played a 1960s Fender Mustang , a Fender Jaguar with DiMarzio pickups , and a few Fender Stratocasters with humbucker bridge pickups . The guitarist used distortion and chorus pedals as his main effects , the latter used to generate a " watery " sound on " Come as You Are " and the pre @-@ choruses of " Smells Like Teen Spirit " . Krist Novoselic tuned down his bass guitar one and a half steps to D flat " to get this fat @-@ ass sound . "
= = = Lyrics = = =
Grohl said that Cobain told him , " Music comes first and lyrics come second , " and Grohl believes that above all Cobain focused on the melodies of his songs . Cobain was still working on the album 's lyrics well into the recording of Nevermind . Additionally , Cobain 's phrasing on the album is often difficult to understand . Vig asserted that clarity of Cobain 's singing was not paramount . Vig said , " Even though you couldn 't quite tell what he was singing about , you knew it was intense as hell . " Cobain would later complain when rock journalists attempted to decipher his singing and extract meaning from his lyrics , writing " Why in the hell do journalists insist on coming up with a second @-@ rate Freudian evaluation of my lyrics , when 90 percent of the time they 've transcribed them incorrectly ? "
Charles R. Cross asserted in his 2001 biography of Kurt Cobain , Heavier Than Heaven , that many of the songs written for Nevermind were about Cobain 's dysfunctional relationship with Tobi Vail . After their relationship ended , Cobain began writing and painting violent scenes , many of which revealed hatred for himself and others . Songs written during this period were less violent , but still reflected anger absent from Cobain 's earlier songs . Cross wrote " In the four months following their break @-@ up , Kurt would write a half dozen of his most memorable songs , all of them about Tobi Vail . " " Drain You " begins with the line " One baby to another said ' I 'm lucky to have met you , ' " quoting what Vail had once told Cobain , and the line " It is now my duty to completely drain you " refers to the power Vail had over Kurt in their relationship . According to Novoselic , " ' Lounge Act ' is about Tobi , " and the song contains the line " I 'll arrest myself , I 'll wear a shield , " referring to Cobain having the K Records logo tattooed on his arm to impress Vail . Though " Lithium " had been written before Cobain knew Vail , the lyrics of the song were changed to reference her . Cobain also said in an interview with Musician that " some of my very personal experiences , like breaking up with girlfriends and having bad relationships , feeling that death void that the person in the song is feeling – very lonely , sick . "
= = Packaging = =
The album 's tentative title Sheep was something Cobain created as an inside joke directed towards the people he expected to buy the record . He wrote a fake advertisement for Sheep in his journal that read " Because you want to not ; because everyone else is . " Novoselic said the inspiration for the title was the band 's cynicism about the public 's reaction to Operation Desert Storm . As recording sessions for the album were completed , Cobain grew tired of the title and suggested to Novoselic that the new album be named Nevermind . Cobain liked the title because it was a metaphor for his attitude on life and because it was grammatically incorrect .
The Nevermind album cover shows a naked baby boy , alone underwater with a US dollar bill on a fishhook just out of his reach . According to Cobain , he conceived the idea while watching a television program on water births with Grohl . Cobain mentioned it to Geffen 's art director Robert Fisher . Fisher found some stock footage of underwater births but they were too graphic for the record company . Also , the stock house that controlled the photo of a swimming baby that they subsequently settled on wanted $ 7 @,@ 500 a year for its use , so instead Fisher sent a photographer to a pool for babies to take pictures . Five shots resulted and the band settled on the image of a four @-@ month @-@ old infant named Spencer Elden , the son of the photographer 's friend . However , there was some concern because Elden 's circumcised penis was visible in the image . Geffen prepared an alternate cover without the penis , as they were afraid that it would offend people , but relented when Cobain made it clear that the only compromise he would accept was a sticker covering the penis that would say , " If you 're offended by this , you must be a closet pedophile . "
The back cover of the album features a photograph of a rubber monkey in front of a collage created by Cobain . The collage features photos of raw beef from a supermarket advertisement , images from Dante 's Inferno , and pictures of diseased vaginas from Cobain 's collection of medical photos . Cobain noted , " If you look real close , there is a picture of Kiss in the back standing on a slab of beef . " The album 's liner notes contain no complete song lyrics ; instead , the liner contains random song lyrics and unused lyrical fragments that Cobain arranged into a poem . However , the single for " Lithium " contains lyrics for each song in Nevermind .
= = Release = =
Nevermind was released on September 24 , 1991 . American record stores received an initial shipment of 46 @,@ 251 copies , while 35 @,@ 000 copies were shipped in the United Kingdom , where Bleach had been successful . The lead single " Smells Like Teen Spirit " had been released on September 10 with the intention of being a base @-@ building cut among alternative rock fans , while the next single " Come as You Are " would be the song that would possibly garner more attention . The band set out on a short American tour four days before the release date to support the album . Geffen Records hoped that Nevermind would sell around 250 @,@ 000 copies , which was the same level the record company had achieved with Sonic Youth 's Geffen debut Goo . The best estimate was that if all involved worked hard , the record could possibly be certified Gold by September 1992 .
The album debuted on the Billboard 200 at number 144 . Geffen shipped about half of the initial US pressing to the American Northwest , where it sold out quickly and was unavailable for days . Geffen reputedly put production of all other albums on hold in order to fulfill demand in the region . Nevermind was already selling well but , over the next few months , the momentum increased significantly as " Smells Like Teen Spirit " unexpectedly became more and more popular . The song 's video had received a world premiere on MTV 's late night alternative show 120 Minutes but it soon proved so popular that the channel began playing it during the day . The record was soon certified gold , but the band was relatively uninterested in the achievement . Novoselic recalled , " Yeah I was happy about it . It was pretty cool . It was kind of neat . But I don 't give a shit about some kind of achievement like that . It 's cool — I guess . "
As the band set out for their European tour at the start of November 1991 , Nevermind entered the Billboard Top 40 for the first time at number 35 . By this point , " Smells Like Teen Spirit " had become a genuine hit and the album was selling so fast none of Geffen 's marketing strategies aimed at different sales levels could be enacted . Geffen president Ed Rosenblatt told The New York Times , " We didn 't do anything . It was just one of those ' Get out of the way and duck ' records . " Nirvana found as they toured Europe during the end of 1991 that the shows were dangerously oversold , television crews became a constant presence onstage , and " Smells Like Teen Spirit " was almost omnipresent on radio and music television .
Nevermind became Nirvana 's first number one album on January 11 , 1992 , replacing Michael Jackson at the top of the Billboard charts . By this time , Nevermind was selling approximately 300 @,@ 000 copies a week . " Come as You Are " was finally released as the second single in March 1992 , also becoming a hit ; it peaked at number nine on the UK Singles Chart and at number 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart . Two more singles , " Lithium " and " In Bloom " , were released from the album , which peaked at number 11 and 28 on the UK Singles Chart respectively .
Nevermind was certified gold and platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in November 1991 , and was certified Diamond in March 1999 . It was also certified Diamond in Canada ( 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units sold ) by the Canadian Recording Industry Association in March 2001 and four times Platinum in the United Kingdom . In 1996 , Mobile Fidelity Sound Labs released Nevermind on vinyl as part of its ANADISQ 200 series , and as a 24 @-@ carat gold Compact Disc . The CD pressings included " Endless , Nameless " . The LP version quickly sold out its limited pressing but the CD edition stayed in print for years . In 2009 Original Recordings Group released Nevermind on limited edition 180g blue vinyl and regular 180g black vinyl mastered and cut by Bernie Grundman from the original analogue tapes . It has been praised in reviews for sound quality .
= = = 2011 Deluxe and Super Deluxe Editions = = =
In September 2011 , in honor of the album 's 20th anniversary , Universal Music Enterprises released a 2 @-@ CD Deluxe Edition and a 4 @-@ CD / 1 @-@ DVD Super Deluxe Edition of Nevermind . The first disc on both editions feature the original album with studio and live b @-@ sides . The second disc on both editions features early recordings of sessions that featured songs that would later appear on the album , including the Smart Studio sessions and some band rehearsals recorded with a boombox . The second disc is rounded out by two BBC session recordings . The third disc , exclusive to the Super Deluxe Edition , features alternate mixes made by Butch Vig , dubbed the ' Devonshire Mixes ' , of all the songs on the album except " Polly " and " Endless , Nameless " . The fourth and fifth discs on the Super Deluxe Editions are CD and DVD versions of Live at the Paramount .
= = Critical reception = =
Geffen 's press promotion for Nevermind was lower than that typical of a major record label . The label 's publicist primarily targeted music publications with long lead times for publication as well as magazines in the Seattle area . The unexpectedly positive feedback from critics who had received the album convinced the label to consider increasing the album 's original print run .
At first , Nevermind did not receive many reviews , and many publications ignored the album . Months after its release and after " Smells Like Teen Spirit " garnered airplay , print media organizations were " scrambling " to cover the phenomenon the album had become . However , by that point much of the attention fell on Cobain rather than the album itself . The reviews that did initially appear were largely positive . Karen Schoemer of The New York Times wrote , " With ' Nevermind , ' Nirvana has certainly succeeded . There are enough intriguing textures , mood shifts , instrumental snippets and inventive word plays to provide for hours of entertainment . " Schoemer concluded , " ' Nevermind ' is more sophisticated and carefully produced than anything peer bands like Dinosaur Jr. and Mudhoney have yet offered . " Entertainment Weekly gave Nevermind an A – rating , and reviewer David Browne argued that on Nevermind , Nirvana " never entertain the notion " of wanting to sound " normal , " compared to other contemporary alternative bands . Concluding his very enthusiastic review for the British Melody Maker , Everett True wrote that " When Nirvana released Bleach all those years ago , the more sussed among us figured they had the potential to make an album that would blow every other contender away . My God have they proved us right . " Spin gave Nevermind a favorable review stating that " you 'll be humming all the songs for the rest of your life — or at least until your CD @-@ tape @-@ album wears out . " Select compared the band to Jane 's Addiction , Sonic Youth , and the Pixies , stating that the album " proves that Nirvana truly belong in such high company . "
Some of the reviews were not entirely positive . Rolling Stone originally gave the album three out of five stars . Reviewer Ira Robbins wrote , " If Nirvana isn 't onto anything altogether new , Nevermind does possess the songs , character and confident spirit to be much more than a reformulation of college radio 's high @-@ octane hits . " The Boston Globe was less enthusiastic about the album ; reviewer Steve Morse wrote , " Most of Nevermind is packed with generic punk @-@ pop that had been done by countless acts from Iggy Pop to the Red Hot Chili Peppers , " and added " the band has little or nothing to say , settling for moronic ramblings by singer @-@ lyricist Cobain . "
Nevermind was voted as the best album of the year in The Village Voice Pazz & Jop critics ' poll ; " Smells Like Teen Spirit " also topped the single of the year and video of the year polls . Nevermind topped the poll by a large majority , and Village Voice critic Robert Christgau wrote in his companion piece to the poll , " As a modest pop surprise they might have scored a modest victory , like De La Soul in 1990 . Instead , their multi @-@ platinum takeover constituted the first full @-@ scale public validation of the Amerindie values — the noise , the toons , the ' tude — the radder half of the [ Pazz & Jop poll ] electorate came up on . "
= = Legacy = =
Nevermind not only popularized the Seattle grunge movement , but also brought alternative rock as a whole into the mainstream , establishing its commercial and cultural viability . Nevermind 's success surprised Nirvana 's contemporaries , who felt dwarfed by its impact . Fugazi 's Guy Picciotto later commented : " It was like our record could have been a hobo pissing in the forest for the amount of impact it had . [ ... ] It felt like we were playing ukuleles all of a sudden because of the disparity of the impact of what they did " . Karen Schoemer of the New York Times added that , " What 's unusual about Nirvana 's " Nevermind " is that it caters to neither a mainstream audience nor the indie rock fans who supported the group 's debut album . " In 1992 , Jon Pareles of The New York Times described that in the aftermath of the album 's breakthrough , " Suddenly , all bets are off . No one has the inside track on which of dozens , perhaps hundreds , of ornery , obstreperous , unkempt bands might next appeal to the mall @-@ walking millions " . Record company executives offered large advances and record deals to bands , and previous strategies of building audiences for alternative rock bands had been replaced by the opportunity to achieve mainstream popularity quickly .
Michael Azerrad argued in his Nirvana biography Come as You Are : The Story of Nirvana ( 1993 ) that Nevermind marked an epochal generational shift in music similar to the rock @-@ and @-@ roll explosion in the 1950s and the end of the baby boomer generation 's dominance of the musical landscape . Azerrad wrote , " Nevermind came along at exactly the right time . This was music by , for , and about a whole new group of young people who had been overlooked , ignored , or condescended to . " In its citation placing it at number 17 in its 2003 list of the 500 greatest albums of all time , Rolling Stone said , " No album in recent history had such an overpowering impact on a generation — a nation of teens suddenly turned punk — and such a catastrophic effect on its main creator . " Gary Gersh , who signed Nirvana to Geffen Records , added that , " There is a pre @-@ Nirvana and post @-@ Nirvana record business ... ' Nevermind ' showed that this wasn 't some alternative thing happening off in a corner , and then back to reality . This is reality . "
Nevermind has continued to garner critical praise since its release . The album was listed at number 17 on Rolling Stone 's list " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " . Rolling Stone also rated Nevermind as the number one best album of the 1990s , calling it the " album that guaranteed the nineties would not suck . " Time placed Nevermind , which writer Josh Tyrangiel called " the finest album of the 90s " , on its 2006 list of " The All @-@ TIME 100 Albums " . Pitchfork named the album the sixth best of the decade , noting that " anyone who hates this record today is just trying to be cool , and needs to be trying harder . " In 2006 , readers of Guitar World ranked Nevermind 8th on a list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Recordings . Entertainment Weekly named it the 10th best album of all time on their 2013 list . In 2005 , the Library of Congress added Nevermind to the National Recording Registry , which collects " culturally , historically or aesthetically important " sound recordings from the 20th century .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
Later pressings include " Endless , Nameless , " which begins as a hidden track at the 3 : 46 mark , making track 12 's length 10 : 29 .
= = = 20th anniversary edition bonus tracks = = =
Disc one
" Even in His Youth " ( " Smells Like Teen Spirit " b @-@ side ) – 3 : 03
" Aneurysm " ( Cobain , Novoselic , Grohl ) ( " Smells Like Teen Spirit " b @-@ side ) – 4 : 46
" Curmudgeon " ( Cobain , Novoselic , Grohl ) ( " Lithium " b @-@ side ) – 2 : 59
" D @-@ 7 " ( Greg Sage ) ( " Lithium " b @-@ side ) – 3 : 45
" Been a Son " ( Live , " Lithium " b @-@ side ) – 2 : 31
" School " ( Live , " Come as You Are " b @-@ side ) – 2 : 33
" Drain You " ( Live , " Come as You Are " b @-@ side ) – 3 : 53
" Sliver " ( Live , " In Bloom " b @-@ side ) – 2 : 04
" Polly " ( Live , " In Bloom " b @-@ side ) – 2 : 47
Disc two – Smart Sessions , Boombox Rehearsals , BBC Sessions
" In Bloom " ( April 1990 , Smart Studios ) – 4 : 32
" Immodium ( Breed ) " ( April 1990 , Smart Studios ) – 3 : 15
" Lithium " ( April 1990 , Smart Studios ) – 4 : 31
" Polly " ( April 1990 , Smart Studios ) – 2 : 59
" Pay to Play " ( April 1990 , Smart Studios ) – 3 : 29 ( Originally released on the DGC Rarities Vol . 1 compilation album in 1994 , this song was recorded in 1990 and eventually evolved into " Stay Away " on Nevermind in 1991 with new lyrics ) .
" Here She Comes Now " ( John Cale , Lou Reed , Maureen Tucker , Sterling Morrison ) ( April 1990 , Smart Studios ) – 5 : 01 ( Originally released on the Heaven & Hell : A Tribute to The Velvet Underground compilation album in 1990 ) .
" Dive " ( April 1990 , Smart Studios ) – 3 : 54
" Sappy " ( April 1990 , Smart Studios ) – 3 : 57
" Smells Like Teen Spirit " ( March 1991 , Tacoma rehearsal space ) – 5 : 40
" Verse Chorus Verse " ( March 1991 , Tacoma rehearsal space ) – 3 : 14
" Territorial Pissings " ( March 1991 , Tacoma rehearsal space ) – 2 : 12
" Lounge Act " ( March 1991 , Tacoma rehearsal space ) – 2 : 38
" Come as You Are " ( March 1991 , Tacoma rehearsal space ) – 4 : 12
" Old Age " ( March 1991 , Tacoma rehearsal space ) – 4 : 32
" Something in the Way " ( March 1991 , Tacoma rehearsal space ) – 5 : 31
" On a Plain " ( March 1991 , Tacoma rehearsal space ) – 3 : 21
" Drain You " ( September 1991 , BBC Studios ) – 4 : 04
" Something in the Way " ( November 1991 , BBC Studios ) – 3 : 23
= = = Super Deluxe Edition bonuses = = =
Disc three – Nevermind : The Devonshire Mixes
" Smells Like Teen Spirit " – 5 : 02
" In Bloom " – 4 : 16
" Come as You Are " – 3 : 40
" Breed " – 3 : 04
" Lithium " – 4 : 18
" Territorial Pissings " – 2 : 14
" Drain You " – 3 : 41
" Lounge Act " – 2 : 37
" Stay Away " – 3 : 27
" On a Plain " – 3 : 28
" Something in the Way " – 3 : 55
Disc four and DVD – Live at the Paramount
" Jesus Don 't Want Me for a Sunbeam " ( Eugene Kelly , Frances McKee ) – 3 : 29
" Aneurysm " – 4 : 49
" Drain You " – 3 : 46
" School " – 2 : 51
" Floyd the Barber " – 2 : 27
" Smells Like Teen Spirit " – 4 : 45
" About a Girl " – 3 : 13
" Polly " – 3 : 03
" Breed " – 3 : 10
" Sliver " – 2 : 11
" Love Buzz " ( Robbie van Leeuwen ) – 3 : 34
" Lithium " – 4 : 38
" Been a Son " – 2 : 15
" Negative Creep " – 2 : 43
" On a Plain " – 3 : 04
" Blew " – 4 : 09
" Rape Me " – 2 : 59
" Territorial Pissings " – 2 : 55
" Endless , Nameless " – 6 : 25
DVD music videos
" Smells Like Teen Spirit " – 4 : 38
" Come as You Are " – 3 : 46
" Lithium " – 4 : 15
" In Bloom " – 4 : 59
NOTE : The first disc of the deluxe edition was issued individually as a Target exclusive . The deluxe edition was later issued as a special limited 4 @-@ LP set .
= = Personnel = =
Nirvana
Kurt Cobain ( credited for the " Monkey Photo " as Kurdt Kobain ) – lead and backing vocals , guitar , acoustic guitar on " Polly " and " Something in the Way " , photography
Krist Novoselic ( credited as Chris Novoselic ) – bass , voice on intro of " Territorial Pissings "
Dave Grohl – drums , backing vocals
Additional musicians
Chad Channing – cymbals on " Polly " ( uncredited ) , drums on the " Smart Studio Sessions " ( Deluxe Edition )
Kirk Canning – cello on " Something in the Way "
Technical staff and artwork
Craig Doubet – assistant engineering , mixing
Spencer Elden – infant in cover photo
Robert Fisher – artwork , art direction , design , cover design
Michael Lavine – photography
Bob Ludwig – mastering on 20th Anniversary Edition
Jeff Sheehan – assistant engineer
Butch Vig – co @-@ producer , engineer
Andy Wallace – mixing
Howie Weinberg – mastering
Kirk Weddle – cover photo
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Otaku =
Otaku ( おたく / オタク ) is a Japanese term for people with obsessive interests , commonly the anime and manga fandom . Its contemporary usage originated with Akio Nakamori 's 1983 essay in Manga Burikko . Otaku may be used as a pejorative ; its negativity stems from the stereotypical view of otaku and the media 's reporting on Tsutomu Miyazaki , " The Otaku Murderer " , in 1989 . According to studies published in 2013 , the term has become less negative , and an increasing number of people now self @-@ identify as otaku .
Otaku subculture is a central theme of various anime and manga works , documentaries and academic research . The subculture began in the 1980s as changing social mentalities and the nurturing of otaku traits by Japanese schools combined with the resignation of such individuals to become social outcasts . The subculture 's birth coincided with the anime boom , after the release of works like Mobile Suit Gundam before it branched into Comic Market . The definition of otaku subsequently became more complex , and numerous classifications of otaku emerged . In 2005 , the Nomura Research Institute divided otaku into twelve groups and estimated the size and market impact of each of these groups . Other institutions have split it further or focus on a single otaku interest . These publications classify distinct groups including anime , manga , camera , automobile , idol and electronics otaku . The economic impact of otaku has been estimated to be as high as ¥ 2 trillion ( $ 18 billion ) .
= = Etymology = =
Otaku is derived from a Japanese term for another person 's house or family ( お宅 , otaku ) . This word is often used metaphorically , as an honorific second @-@ person pronoun . In this usage , its literal translation is " you " . For example , in the anime Macross , first aired in 1982 , the character Lynn Minmay uses the term this way . The modern slang form , which is distinguished from the older usage by being written only in hiragana ( おたく ) , katakana ( オタク or , less frequently , ヲタク ) or rarely in rōmaji , first appeared in public discourse in the 1980s , through the work of humorist and essayist Akio Nakamori . His 1983 series An Investigation of " Otaku " ( 『 おたく 』 の研究 , " Otaku " no Kenkyū ) , printed in the lolicon magazine Manga Burikko , applied the term to unpleasant fans in caricature . Animators Haruhiko Mikimoto and Shōji Kawamori had used the term among themselves as an honorific second @-@ person pronoun since the late 1970s . Supposedly , some fans used it past the point in their relationships where others would have moved on to a less formal style . Because this misuse indicated social awkwardness , Nakamori chose the word itself to label the fans . Morikawa Kaichirō , an author and lecturer at Meiji University , identified this as the origin of its contemporary usage .
Another claim for the origin of the term comes from the works of science fiction author Motoko Arai , who used the word in her novels as a second @-@ person pronoun and the readers adopted the term for themselves . However , a different claim points to a 1981 Variety magazine essay .
In 1989 , the case of Tsutomu Miyazaki , " The Otaku Murderer " , brought the fandom , very negatively , to national attention . Miyazaki , who randomly chose and murdered four girls , had a collection of 5 @,@ 763 videotapes , some containing anime and slasher films that were found interspersed with videos and pictures of his victims . Later that year , the contemporary knowledge magazine Bessatsu Takarajima dedicated its 104th issue to the topic of otaku . It was called Otaku no Hon ( おたくの本 , lit . The Book of Otaku ) and delved into the subculture of otaku with 19 articles by otaku insiders , among them Akio Nakamori . This publication has been claimed by scholar Rudyard Pesimo to have popularized the term .
= = Usage = =
In modern Japanese slang , the term otaku is mostly equivalent to " geek " or " nerd " , but in a more derogatory manner than used in the West . However , it can relate to any fan of any particular theme , topic , hobby or form of entertainment . " When these people are referred to as otaku , they are judged for their behaviors - and people suddenly see an “ otaku ” as a person unable to relate to reality " . The word entered English as a loanword from the Japanese language . It is typically used to refer to a fan of anime / manga but can also refer to Japanese video games or Japanese culture in general . The American magazine Otaku USA popularizes and covers these aspects . The usage of the word is a source of contention among some fans , owing to its negative connotations and stereotyping of the fandom . Widespread English exposure to the term came in 1988 with the release of Gunbuster , which referred to anime fans as otaku . Gunbuster was released officially in English in March 1990 . The term 's usage spread throughout rec.arts.anime with discussions about Otaku no Video 's portrayal of otaku before its 1994 English release . Positive and negative aspects , including the pejorative usage , were intermixed . The term was also popularized by William Gibson 's 1996 novel Idoru , which references otaku .
= = Subculture = =
Morikawa Kaichirō identifies the subculture as distinctly Japanese , a product of the school system and society . Japanese schools have a class structure which functions as a caste system , but clubs are an exception to the social hierarchy . In these clubs , a student 's interests will be recognized and nurtured , catering to the interests of otaku . Secondly , the vertical structure of Japanese society identifies the value of individuals by their success . Until the late 1980s , unathletic and unattractive males focused on academics , hoping to secure a good job and marry to raise their social standing . Those unable to succeed socially focused instead on their interests , often into adulthood , with their lifestyle centering on those interests , furthering the creation of the otaku subculture .
Even prior to the coinage of the term , the stereotypical traits of the subculture were identified in a 1981 issue of Fan Rōdo ( Fan road ) about " culture clubs " . These individuals were drawn to anime , a counter @-@ culture , with the release of hard science fiction works like Mobile Suit Gundam . These works allowed a congregation and development of obsessive interests that turned anime into a medium for unpopular students , catering to obsessed fans . After these fans discovered Comic Market , the term was used as a self @-@ confirming and self @-@ mocking collective identity .
The 1989 " Otaku Murderer " case gave a negative connotation to the fandom from which it has not fully recovered . The usage of " ( interest ) otaku " , however , is used for teasing or self @-@ deprecation , but the unqualified term remains negative . The identification of otaku turned negative in late 2004 when Kaoru Kobayashi kidnapped , sexually assaulted , and murdered a seven @-@ year @-@ old first @-@ grade student . Japanese journalist Akihiro Ōtani suspected that Kobayashi 's crime was committed by a member of the figure moe zoku even before his arrest . Although Kobayashi was not an otaku , the degree of social hostility against otaku increased . Otaku were seen by law enforcement as possible suspects for sex crimes , and local governments called for stricter laws controlling the depiction of eroticism in otaku materials .
Not all attention has been negative . In his book , Otaku , Hiroki Azuma observed : " Between 2001 and 2007 , the otaku forms and markets quite rapidly won social recognition in Japan " , citing the fact that " [ i ] n 2003 , Hayao Miyazaki won the Academy Award for his Spirited Away ; around the same time Takashi Murakami achieved recognition for otaku @-@ like designs ; in 2004 , the Japanese pavilion in the 2004 International Architecture exhibition of the Venice Biennale ( Biennale Architecture ) featured “ otaku ” . In 2005 , the word moe - one of the keywords of the present volume - was chosen as one of the top ten “ buzzwords of the year . " The former Prime Minister of Japan Taro Aso has also claimed to be an otaku , using this subculture to promote Japan in foreign affairs . In 2013 , a Japanese study of 137 @,@ 734 people found that 42 @.@ 2 % self @-@ identify as a type of otaku . This study suggests that the stigma of the word has vanished , and the term has been embraced by many .
= = = Places = = =
The district of Akihabara in Tokyo , where there are maid cafes featuring waitresses who dress up and act like maids or anime characters , is a notable attraction center for otaku . Akihabara also has dozens of stores specializing in anime , manga , retro video games , figurines , card games and other collectibles . Another popular location is Otome Road in Ikebukuro , Tokyo . In Nagoya , students from Nagoya City University started a project on ways to help promote hidden tourist attractions related to the otaku culture to attract more otaku to the city .
= = = Subtypes = = =
There are specific terms for different types of otaku , including Fujoshi ( 腐女子 , lit . " rotten girl " ) , a self @-@ mockingly pejorative Japanese term for female fans of yaoi , which focuses on homosexual male relationships . Reki @-@ jo are female otaku who are interested in Japanese history . Some terms refer to a location , like Akiba @-@ kei , a slang term meaning " Akihabara @-@ style " which applies to those familiar with Akihabara 's culture . Another is Wotagei or otagei ( ヲタ芸 or オタ芸 ) , a type of cheering that is part of Akiba @-@ kei . Other terms , such as Itasha ( 痛車 ) , literally " painful car " , describe vehicles who are decorated with fictional characters , especially bishōjo game or eroge characters .
= = = Media = = =
Otaku often participate in self @-@ mocking through the production or interest in humor directed at their subculture . Anime and manga otaku are the subject of numerous self @-@ critical works , like Otaku no Video , which contains a live @-@ interview mockumentary that pokes fun at the otaku subculture and includes Gainax 's own staff as the interviewees . Other works depict otaku subculture less critically , like Genshiken and Comic Party . A well @-@ known novel @-@ cum @-@ manga @-@ cum @-@ anime is Welcome to the N.H.K. , which focuses on the subcultures popular with otaku and highlights other social outcasts like the hikikomori and NEETs . Works that focus on an otaku character include WataMote , the story of an unattractive and unsociable otome game otaku who exhibits delusions about her social status . Watamote is a self @-@ mocking insight that follows the heroine 's delusion and attempts to reform herself only by facing reality with comedic results on the path to popularity . An American documentary , Otaku Unite ! , focuses on the American side of the otaku culture .
= = Types and classification of Japanese otaku = =
The Nomura Research Institute ( NRI ) has made two major studies into otaku , the first in 2004 and a revised study with a more specific definition in 2005 . The 2005 study defines twelve major fields of otaku interests . Of these groups , manga ( Japanese comics ) was the largest , with 350 @,@ 000 individuals and ¥ 83 billion market scale . Idol otaku were the next largest group , with 280 @,@ 000 individuals and ¥ 61 billion . Travel otaku with 250 @,@ 000 individuals and ¥ 81 billion . PC otaku with 190 @,@ 000 individuals and ¥ 36 billion . Video game otaku with 160 @,@ 000 individuals and ¥ 21 billion . Automobile otaku with 140 @,@ 000 individuals and ¥ 54 billion . Animation ( anime ) otaku with 110 @,@ 000 individuals and ¥ 20 billion . The remaining five categories include Mobile IT equipment otaku , with 70 @,@ 000 individuals and ¥ 8 billion ; Audio @-@ visual equipment otaku , with 60 @,@ 000 individuals and ¥ 12 billion ; camera otaku , with 50 @,@ 000 individuals and ¥ 18 billion ; fashion otaku , with 40 @,@ 000 individuals and ¥ 13 billion ; and railway otaku , with 20 @,@ 000 individuals and ¥ 4 billion . These values were partially released with a much higher estimation in 2004 , but this definition focused on the consumerism and not the " unique psychological characteristics " of otaku used in the 2005 study .
NRI 's 2005 study also put forth five archetypes of otaku . The first is the family @-@ oriented otaku , who has broad interests and is more mature than other otaku ; their object of interest is secretive and they are " closet otaku " . The second is the serious " leaving my own mark on the world " otaku , with interests in mechanical or business personality fields . The third type is the " media @-@ sensitive multiple interest " otaku , whose diverse interests are shared with others . The fourth type is the " outgoing and assertive otaku " , who gain recognition by promoting their hobby . The last is the " fan magazine @-@ obsessed otaku " , which is predominately female with the a small group of males being the " moe type " ; the secret hobby is focused on the production or interest in fan works . The Hamagin Research Institute found that moe @-@ related content was worth ¥ 88 @.@ 8 billion ( $ 807 million ) in 2005 , and one analyst estimated the market could be as much as ¥ 2 trillion ( $ 18 billion ) . Japan based Tokyo Otaku Mode a place for news relating to Otaku has been liked on Facebook almost 10 million times .
Other classifications of otaku interests include vocaloid , cosplay , figures and professional wrestling as categorized by the Yano Research Institute . Yano Research reports and the tracks market growth and trends in sectors heavily influenced by otaku consumerism . In 2012 , it noted around 30 % growth in dating sim and online gaming otaku , while vocaloid , cosplay , idols and maid services grew by 10 % , confirming its 2011 predictions .
= Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics =
Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics is the science of the motion of bicycles and motorcycles and their components , due to the forces acting on them . Dynamics is a branch of classical mechanics , which in turn is a branch of physics . Bike motions of interest include balancing , steering , braking , accelerating , suspension activation , and vibration . The study of these motions began in the late 19th century and continues today .
Bicycles and motorcycles are both single @-@ track vehicles and so their motions have many fundamental attributes in common and are fundamentally different from and more difficult to study than other wheeled vehicles such as dicycles , tricycles , and quadracycles . As with unicycles , bikes lack lateral stability when stationary , and under most circumstances can only remain upright when moving forward . Experimentation and mathematical analysis have shown that a bike stays upright when it is steered to keep its center of mass over its wheels . This steering is usually supplied by a rider , or in certain circumstances , by the bike itself . Several factors , including geometry , mass distribution , and gyroscopic effect all contribute in varying degrees to this self @-@ stability , but long @-@ standing hypotheses and claims that any single effect , such as gyroscopic or trail , is solely responsible for the stabilizing force have been discredited .
While remaining upright may be the primary goal of beginning riders , a bike must lean in order to maintain balance in a turn : the higher the speed or smaller the turn radius , the more lean is required . This balances the roll torque about the wheel contact patches generated by centrifugal force due to the turn with that of the gravitational force . This lean is usually produced by a momentary steering in the opposite direction , called countersteering . Countersteering skill is usually acquired by motor learning and executed via procedural memory rather than by conscious thought . Unlike other wheeled vehicles , the primary control input on bikes is steering torque , not position .
Although longitudinally stable when stationary , bikes often have a high enough center of mass and a short enough wheelbase to lift a wheel off the ground under sufficient acceleration or deceleration . When braking , depending on the location of the combined center of mass of the bike and rider with respect to the point where the front wheel contacts the ground , bikes can either skid the front wheel or flip the bike and rider over the front wheel . A similar situation is possible while accelerating , but with respect to the rear wheel .
= = History = =
The history of the study of bike dynamics is nearly as old as the bicycle itself . It includes contributions from famous scientists such as Rankine , Appell , and Whipple . In the early 19th century Karl von Drais , credited with inventing the two @-@ wheeled vehicle variously called the laufmaschine , velocipede , draisine , and dandy horse , showed that a rider could balance his device by steering the front wheel . In 1869 , Rankine published an article in The Engineer repeating von Drais 's assertion that balance is maintained by steering in the direction of a lean .
In 1897 , the French Academy of Sciences made understanding bicycle dynamics the goal of its Prix Fourneyron competition . Thus , by the end of the 19th century , Carlo Bourlet , Emmanuel Carvallo , and Francis Whipple had showed with rigid @-@ body dynamics that some safety bicycles could actually balance themselves if moving at the right speed . Bourlet won the Prix Fourneyron , and Whipple won the Cambridge University Smith Prize . It is not clear to whom should go the credit for tilting the steering axis from the vertical which helps make this possible .
In 1970 , David E. H. Jones published an article in Physics Today showing that gyroscopic effects are not necessary to balance a bicycle . Since 1971 , when he identified and named the wobble , weave and capsize modes , Robin Sharp has written regularly about the behavior of motorcycles and bicycles . While at Imperial College , London , he worked with David Limebeer and Simos Evangelou .
In the early 1970s , Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory ( CAL , later Calspan Corporation in Buffalo , NY USA ) was sponsored by the Schwinn Bicycle Company and others to study and simulate bicycle and motorcycle dynamics . Portions of this work have now been released to the public and scans of over 30 detailed reports have been posted at this TU Delft Bicycle Dynamics site .
Since the 1990s , Cossalter , et al . , have been researching motorcycle dynamics at the University of Padova . Their research , both experimental and numerical , has covered weave , wobble , chatter , simulators , vehicle modelling , tire modelling , handling , and minimum lap time maneuvering .
In 2007 , Meijaard , et al . , published the canonical linearized equations of motion , in the Proceedings of the Royal Society A , along with verification by two different methods . These equations assumed the tires to roll without slip , that is to say , to go where they point , and the rider to be rigidly attached to the rear frame of the bicycle .
In 2011 , Kooijman , et al . , published an article in Science showing that neither gyroscopic effects nor so @-@ called caster effects due to trail are necessary for a bike to balance itself . They designed a two @-@ mass @-@ skate bicycle that the equations of motion predict is self @-@ stable even with negative trail , the front wheel contacts the ground in front of the steering axis , and with counter @-@ rotating wheels to cancel any gyroscopic effects . Then they constructed a physical model to validate that prediction . This may require some of the details provided below about steering geometry or stability to be re @-@ evaluated . Bicycle dynamics was named 26 of Discover 's 100 top stories of 2011 .
In 2013 , Eddy Merckx Cycles was awarded over € 150 @,@ 000 with Ghent University to examine bicycle stability .
= = Forces = =
If the bike and rider are considered to be a single system , the forces that act on that system and its components can be roughly divided into two groups : internal and external . The external forces are due to gravity , inertia , contact with the ground , and contact with the atmosphere . The internal forces are caused by the rider and by interaction between components .
= = = External forces = = =
As with all masses , gravity pulls the rider and all the bike components toward the earth . At each tire contact patch there are ground reaction forces with both horizontal and vertical components . The vertical components mostly counteract the force of gravity , but also vary with braking and accelerating . For details , see the section on longitudinal stability below . The horizontal components , due to friction between the wheels and the ground , including rolling resistance , are in response to propulsive forces , braking forces , and turning forces . Aerodynamic forces due to the atmosphere are mostly in the form of drag , but can also be from crosswinds . At normal bicycling speeds on level ground , aerodynamic drag is the largest force resisting forward motion . At faster speed , aerodynamic drag becomes overwhelmingly the largest force resisting forward motion .
Turning forces are generated during maneuvers for balancing in addition to just changing direction of travel . These may be interpreted as centrifugal forces in the accelerating reference frame of the bike and rider ; or simply as inertia in a stationary , inertial reference frame and not forces at all . Gyroscopic forces acting on rotating parts such as wheels , engine , transmission , etc . , are also due to the inertia of those rotating parts . They are discussed further in the section on gyroscopic effects below .
= = = Internal forces = = =
Internal forces , those between components of the bike and rider system , are mostly caused by the rider or by friction . In addition to pedaling , the rider can apply torques between the steering mechanism ( front fork , handlebars , front wheel , etc . ) and rear frame , and between the rider and the rear frame . Friction exists between any parts that move against each other : in the drive train , between the steering mechanism and the rear frame , etc . In addition to brakes , which create friction between rotating wheels and non @-@ rotating frame parts , many bikes have front and rear suspensions . Some motorcycles and bicycles have a steering damper to dissipate undesirable kinetic energy , and some bicycles have a spring connecting the front fork to the frame to provide a progressive torque that tends to steer the bicycle straight ahead . On bikes with
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of a regular episode of the program , which was the episode " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " – a Christmas special that aired on December 17 , 1989 . The newsgroup was created before there was a world wide web , which emerged in 1993 , so those earliest discussions were held on text @-@ only platforms . According to Chris Turner , a Canadian journalist and writer of the book Planet Simpson , the newsgroup was among the most trafficked newsgroups of the early 1990s . In that period it became a popular community on the Internet . According to Brian Reid , a computer scientist who has been tracking newsgroup traffic since 1985 , alt.tv.simpsons was the most popular television newsgroup in May 1994 , ahead of a discussion newsgroups about general television newsgroup ( rec.arts.tv ) , Monty Python ( alt.fan.monty @-@ python ) , the Late Show with David Letterman ( alt.fan.letterman ) and soap operas ( rec.arts.tv.soaps ) . Since there is no official method for measuring newsgroup traffic , the list is considered unofficial .
= = Discussions = =
From its inception , users would use the newsgroup to discuss the quality of the episode , as well as to talk about continuity errors and trivia . They would also discuss cultural references , usually related to pop culture . Another common topic is freeze frame gags , which are jokes that can only be seen when the viewer tapes the episode and freezes the image . All of these many discussions were compiled and submitted to The Simpsons Archive , which contains at least 330 episode guides as well as other guides . The newsgroup also provides The Simpsons Archive with information on the characters and the setting , as well as a compilation of articles about the show and interview with its cast and crew .
Among the most frequent topics of discussion are the real @-@ life location of Springfield , the sexuality of Waylon Smithers and " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? " , a two @-@ episode publicity stunt in which Mr. Burns was shot by an unknown character . The writers inserted many secret clues into the episode and implemented a contest in which whoever first discovered the shooter would be animated on an episode of the show . Although the alt.tv.simpsons community debated this mystery to an extreme degree , no one officially guessed the right answer , and therefore no one was ever animated on the show . Due to contest regulations , a winner had to be selected out of a random sample of entries . The sample did not contain any correct answers , so the winner who was chosen did not have the right answer and was paid a cash prize in lieu of being animated .
= = Relationship with the writers = =
The writers of the show are aware of the newsgroup and sometimes make jokes at its expense . Within the series , the character Comic Book Guy is often used to represent a stereotypical inhabitant of alt.tv.simpsons. The first such instance occurred in the seventh season episode " Radioactive Man , " in which Comic Book Guy is logging on to his favorite newsgroup alt.nerd.obsessive. Comic Book Guy 's oft @-@ repeated catchphrase , " Worst episode ever , " first appeared on alt.tv.simpsons in an episode review and David S. Cohen decided to use this fan response to lampoon the passion and the fickleness of the fans .
The eighth season episode " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show " is largely seen as a satire of the " hardcore fans " that make up the newsgroup , as well as a response to the viewer backlash and obsession with internal consistency those fans commonly express . When Comic Book Guy sees the Poochie episode , he immediately goes on the Internet and writes , “ Worst episode ever ” on a message board ; a commentary on how the active audience nitpicks the episode . The writers respond by using the voice of Bart Simpson :
Comic Book Guy : Last night 's Itchy & Scratchy was , without a doubt , the worst episode ever . Rest assured I was on the Internet within minutes registering my disgust throughout the world .
Bart : Hey , I know it wasn ’ t great , but what right do you have to complain ?
Comic Book Guy : As a loyal viewer , I feel they owe me .
Bart : What ? They ’ re giving you thousands of hours of entertainment for free . What could they possibly owe you ? If anything , you owe them .
Comic Book Guy : [ pause ] Worst episode ever .
The catchphrase further appears in the eleventh season episode " Saddlesore Galactica , " and as the title of the twelfth season episode " Worst Episode Ever . " The catchphrase can also be used for describing other things by saying , " Worst . ( Noun ) . Ever . "
The writers also use the newsgroup to test how observant the fans are . In the seventh season episode " Treehouse of Horror VI " , the writer of segment Homer3 , David S. Cohen , deliberately inserted a false equation into the background of one scene . The equation that appears is 178212 + 184112 = 192212 . Although a false statement , it appears to be true when evaluated on a typical calculator with 10 digits of precision . If it were true , it would disprove Fermat 's last theorem , which had just been proven when this episode first aired . Cohen generated this " Fermat near @-@ miss " with a computer program . After the episode aired , Cohen lurked on the newsgroup to see the response ; at first there was astonishment when users tested it , but later there was despair when they found out it was only accurate to eight decimal places when expressed in scientific notation .
= = Reception = =
The comments of alt.tv.simpsons have been quoted or cited in the writings of mass media commentators . This has led to situations in which relations between writers and viewers have become strained . In 1994 , Simpsons creator Matt Groening acknowledged he and the other show runners have been reading the newsgroup and in frustration said , " Sometimes I feel like knocking their electronic noggins together " . In another case , writer Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham made comments about the fans on the Internet in an interview with The Independent , calling them " beetle @-@ browed " and saying , " That 's why they 're on the Internet and we 're writing the show . " Writer Bill Oakley used to respond to select Simpsons fans through e @-@ mail in a friendly manner , but by 1996 claimed " [ t ] here are people who take it seriously to the point of absurdity " . In a 1994 Life in Hell cartoon Matt Groening implied that he read the newsgroup .
In the chapter " Who Wants Candy " in the book Leaving Springfield , Robert Sloane finds alt.tv.simpsons an example of an " active audience ... who struggle to make their own meaning out of the show " . He mentions that in this context , the fans nitpick the show to an extreme and allow no room for error , where the writers believe that nitpicking leads to an under appreciation of the show 's qualities . Chris Turner writes in the book Planet Simpson : How a Cartoon Masterpiece Documented an Era and Defined a Generation that The Simpsons appeared tailor @-@ made for a newsgroup in the early 1990s because it includes minor details that reward attentive viewing and can be easily scrutinized .
= WrestleMania III =
WrestleMania III was the third annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . The event was held on March 29 , 1987 , at the Pontiac Silverdome in Pontiac , Michigan . There were twelve matches , with the final event being WWF World Heavyweight Champion Hulk Hogan successfully defending his title against André the Giant .
WrestleMania III is particularly notable for the WWF 's claiming a record attendance of 93 @,@ 173 and the largest recorded attendance of a live indoor event in North America at the time . This record itself stood until February 14 , 2010 when it was surpassed by the 2010 NBA All @-@ Star Game , and the only WWF / E event with an official higher attendance was WrestleMania 32 . Both of the latter events were held at AT & T Stadium . The event is considered to be the pinnacle of the 1980s wrestling boom . The WWF generated $ 1 @.@ 6 million in ticket sales . Almost one million fans watched the event at 160 closed circuit locations in North America . The number of people watching via pay @-@ per @-@ view was estimated at several million , and pay @-@ per @-@ view revenues were estimated at $ 10 @.@ 3 million , setting a record for the time .
= = Background = =
Like all other WrestleMania events , WrestleMania III was promoted for several months in advance . The main feud stemmed from André the Giant 's turn and betrayal of his ally , the WWF Champion Hulk Hogan , which began when Hogan was presented a trophy for being the WWF Champion for three years , and André , his good friend , came out to congratulate him . Shortly afterwards , André was presented a slightly smaller trophy for being " undefeated in the WWF for 15 years " and Hogan came out to congratulate André , but ended up being the focal point of the interview . Annoyed by this , André walked out during Hogan 's congratulation speech and not long after that , on an edition of the interview segment Piper 's Pit , Bobby Heenan , a long @-@ time Hogan adversary , announced himself to be André 's new manager . André then challenged Hogan to a title match at WrestleMania III and attacked Hogan , ripping off Hogan 's T @-@ shirt and crucifix necklace .
Another main feud leading up to the event was between Ricky Steamboat and the Intercontinental Champion Randy Savage . The feud began during a title match between the two when Savage attacked Steamboat as he greeted fans at ringside . Savage then pushed Steamboat over the security rail and delivered an elbow shot that thrust Steamboat 's throat into the rail and dropped the ring bell onto his throat from the top rope , injuring his larynx and sending him to the hospital . This resulted in a long , bitter feud that lasted for six months , included several bloody match @-@ ups and finally culminated at WrestleMania . George " The Animal " Steele was in Steamboat 's corner , having developed a crush on Savage 's valet , Miss Elizabeth .
Billy Jack Haynes and Hercules Hernandez ' feud started when Bobby Heenan continuously taunted Haynes , telling him that Hercules was the real master of the full nelson ; which came to a boiling point when Hercules attacked Haynes on an edition of Superstars of Wrestling , which led to their match at WrestleMania . This battle was advertised as the " Full Nelson Challenge . "
Another heated feud leading up to this event was between Harley Race and the Junkyard Dog . When The WWF Wrestling Classic became the King of the Ring tournament , Harley Race went on to win the tournament and began referring to himself as " King " Harley Race , and coming to the ring in a royal crown and cape to the ceremonial accompaniment of the classical music piece " Great Gates of Kiev " by Modest Mussorgsky . After each of his victories , Race forced his defeated opponent to " bow and kneel " before him . Usually , Race 's manager , Bobby Heenan , forced the defeated opponent to " bow and kneel " by grabbing his hair . Junkyard Dog protested Race 's self @-@ proclaimed monarchy in the WWF and stated there would never be a complete ruler in the WWF , which led to a match on Saturday Night 's Main Event , in which the King and his manager both tried to make Junkyard Dog bow for them . This set the stage for the WrestleMania match , which included the stipulation that the loser had to bow to the winner .
On January 26 , 1987 , The British Bulldogs lost the WWF Tag Team Championship to The Hart Foundation in a match that saw the Dynamite Kid so debilitated with a back injury that he was virtually carried to the ring by Davey Boy Smith and did not see much physical action . Danny Davis was the referee and allowed The Hart Foundation to use illegal double @-@ team maneuvers . After being given some time off to recuperate , the Bulldogs continued their rivalry with The Hart Foundation when they teamed up with Tito Santana against the Foundation and the referee @-@ turned @-@ wrestler Danny Davis in a six @-@ man tag team match at WrestleMania III . The match was billed as a revenge match with Santana 's inclusion due to Davis being the referee in the Boston Garden in early 1986 when he had lost the Intercontinental title to the Macho Man who used a foreign object to get the win .
Rock singer and Detroit native Alice Cooper was in Jake Roberts ' corner during his match with The Honky Tonk Man . The Honky Tonk Man had attacked Roberts with a guitar on Roberts ' interview segment The Snake Pit , which legitimately injured Roberts ' neck . This event began Roberts ' turn into a babyface as well as the feud between the wrestlers , which culminated in their WrestleMania match .
The feud between Adrian Adonis and Roddy Piper began when , following a leave of absence from the WWF , Piper returned to find his Piper 's Pit segment replaced by The Flower Shop , a segment hosted by then @-@ effeminate wrestler Adrian Adonis . Piper , who returned as a face , spent weeks crashing Adonis ' show and trading insults , leading to a " showdown " between the two segments that ended with Piper being assaulted and humiliated by Adonis , Piper 's former bodyguard Bob Orton , and Don Muraco . The trio left Piper with his face covered in red lipstick , lying in the middle of the remnants of the destroyed Piper 's Pit set . In response , Piper stormed the set of Adonis ' show and destroyed it with a baseball bat . This led to their Hair vs. Hair match at WrestleMania III , which was billed as Piper 's retirement match from wrestling before becoming a full @-@ time actor .
= = Event = =
Vince McMahon claims that as he was about to announce " Welcome to WrestleMania III , " he felt the spirit of his father Vincent J. McMahon , who had died three years earlier . After McMahon welcomed the audience , he introduced Aretha Franklin , who opened the show singing a rendition of " America the Beautiful . "
The first match of the night was The Can @-@ Am Connection versus Bob Orton and The Magnificent Muraco ( with Mr. Fuji ) . This match ended when Rick Martel gave Don Muraco a high cross @-@ body with Zenk on his hands and knees giving Muraco what Gorilla Monsoon called " A little schoolboy trip from behind " allowing Martel to get the win for his team .
The next match that aired was Hercules ( with Bobby Heenan in his corner ) against Billy Jack Haynes in the " Full Nelson Challenge . " The match ended when Haynes locked Hercules in the full nelson outside the ring and both were counted out . After the match , Bobby Heenan assaulted Haynes by kneeing him in the back , and Haynes chased Heenan into the ring , where Hercules then blindsided Haynes with his chain , hitting him a number of times with it before locking him in a full nelson of his own .
The Mixed Tag Team Match between King Kong Bundy and his midget team of Lord Littlebrook and Little Tokyo against Hillbilly Jim and his own midget team of The Haiti Kid and Little Beaver was next . King Kong Bundy 's team was disqualified when Bundy attacked Little Beaver , because Bundy was not supposed to be in the ring with the midgets . Bundy attacked Little Beaver after Beaver had " attacked " him on occasion during the match and finally got caught .
The " Loser Must Bow " match between the Junkyard Dog and Harley Race ( with Bobby Heenan and The Fabulous Moolah ) followed . Prior to the match Gene Okerlund interviewed Heenan , Race , and Moolah backstage , where Moolah predicted that Junkyard Dog would have to bow to the King as he is supposed to do . Bobby gave Moolah the crown and told her to put it on the King 's head after the match , " As only the Queen of Wrestling can do " . Junkyard Dog came out to the ring to a big ovation in the Silverdome . During the match , the two battled back and forth , with Race even trying unsuccessfully to give the prone Dog a falling headbutt which naturally failed . Following this Race recovered enough to give the Junkyard Dog a belly to belly suplex when he was distracted by Bobby Heenan to get the win . Due to the pre @-@ match stipulation , he did a little bow and then hit Harley Race with a steel chair . After attacking Race , Junkyard Dog took the King 's royal robe and left the ring with it in hand to a standing ovation .
The next match was The Dream Team ( with Luscious Johnny V and Canadian strong man Dino Bravo ) against The Fabulous Rougeaus . Raymond Rougeau started off the match by locking up with Brutus Beefcake . The two men later tagged out , and Greg Valentine brawled with Jacques Rougeau as Bravo looked on from the outside of the ring . Raymond performed a sleeper hold on Valentine and was followed by Beefcake jumping off the ropes and accidentally hitting the Hammer with a double axe handle . The Rougeau Brothers gave Valentine a double team move , but the referee was arguing with Beefcake . The match ended when Dino Bravo jumped off the top rope and hit Raymond while he was pinning Valentine , then rolling Valentine on top of him for the win . The Dream Team argued for most of the match , which led to Greg Valentine and Dino Bravo departing together , without Beefcake .
Footage of an interview with Roddy Piper was aired as Piper made his way to the ring to face Adrian Adonis , who was accompanied by Jimmy Hart , in Piper 's retirement match . Piper and Adonis began the match by attacking each other with Piper 's belt . Adonis put a sleeper hold on Piper in the middle of the ring and released the hold thinking that he won the match . When Jimmy Hart got in the ring to celebrate with Adonis , Brutus Beefcake came to the ring to help Piper recover , and Piper attacked Adonis and performed a sleeper hold of his own . Piper got the victory , and after the match was over , Brutus got in the ring and cut Adrian Adonis ' hair as Piper held Jimmy Hart down . After being woken by Beefcake and seeing himself in the mirror he had brought to the ring that Piper was holding , Adonis hit the mirror and chased Piper around the ring before leaving the ring in embarrassment with Hart using his jacket to cover Adonis ' head .
Up next was a six @-@ man tag team match featuring former referee Danny Davis ( in his debut as a WWF wrestler ) and the WWF Tag Team Champions , The Hart Foundation , against The British Bulldogs and Tito Santana . As a referee Davis ' bias towards heel wrestlers had led to the Bulldogs losing the tag titles to the Harts and also led to Santana losing the WWE Intercontinental Championship to Randy Savage . The Bulldogs had many near @-@ falls , yet Jim Neidhart broke up most of them . After all three members of the Bulldogs / Santana team had got a measure of revenge on Davis , all six wrestlers ended up brawling in the ring . Danny Davis recovered and hit Davey Boy Smith with Jimmy Hart 's megaphone and pinned him for the win .
Butch Reed 's pay @-@ per @-@ view debut against Koko B. Ware , was the following match . Reed won the match with a rollup after a high cross @-@ body from Koko . After the contest , Reed 's manager Slick got in the ring and attacked Koko B. Ware with his cane , but Tito Santana quickly rushed to the ring and stopped Slick , ripped some of his clothes off . Slick retreated as Reed got back in the ring , only for Reed to get a double drop kick from Koko and Santana .
The next contest was a title match involving reigning WWF Intercontinental Champion Randy Savage ( with Miss Elizabeth ) and Ricky Steamboat ( with George Steele ) . The match itself lasted for nearly fifteen minutes At one point , Savage was about to use the ring bell as a weapon but was stopped by Steele who knocked him off of the top rope . When Savage attempted to give Steamboat a scoop slam , Steamboat reversed it into a small package to get the win and become the new WWF Intercontinental Champion , marking the first time in WrestleMania history that the Intercontinental Championship changed hands . This match is considered by many to be one of the greatest matches in WWE history .
The tenth match of the night was between The Honky Tonk Man ( with Jimmy Hart ) and Jake Roberts , who along with his pet Python " Damien " , had Detroit native Alice Cooper in his corner . When Jake went for the DDT , Honky Tonk Man 's manager Jimmy Hart pulled Roberts ' legs , and the Honky Tonk Man rolled up Roberts from behind , held on to the ropes , and pinned him for the win . After the match Roberts narrowly missed hitting Honky with his own guitar , smashing it against a ring post and causing Honky to run off down the isle , leaving Hart alone in the ring . Alice Cooper got in the ring and with Roberts ' holding Hart in a Full Nelson , attacked him with Roberts ' python Damien .
Howard Finkel then introduced Gene Okerlund to the crowd . Okerlund then announced the record indoor attendance of 93 @,@ 173 .
The Iron Sheik and Nikolai Volkoff ( with Slick ) were in action next , against The Killer Bees . Slick asked all of the fans to rise to respect Nikolai Volkoff 's singing of the Soviet National Anthem , and when Volkoff began singing , Jim Duggan came to the ring with his two @-@ by @-@ four , which had an American flag attached to it , got on the microphone and said that Volkoff was not going to sing because America is the land of the free and the home of the brave . While the match ensued , Duggan stayed at ringside . When The Iron Sheik locked a camel clutch on Jim Brunzell , Duggan , who was chasing Volkoff around the ring and finally into it , stopped and hit an unsuspecting Sheik across the back with his two by four in front of the referee , resulting in The Iron Sheik and Nikolai Volkoff winning the bout by disqualification .
In what was billed as the " biggest main event in sports entertainment , " the match pitted WWF Champion Hulk Hogan defending the title against André the Giant ( with Bobby Heenan ) . Howard Finkel introduced the guest ring announcer , Bob Uecker , who in turn introduced the guest time keeper , Entertainment Tonight host Mary Hart . The fans booed André heavily and pelted him and his manager Bobby Heenan with trash as they rode the cart to the ring . In contrast , Hogan , who walked to the ring , came out to a huge ovation . Approximately two minutes into the match , Hogan attempted to bodyslam André , but he was unable to lift The Giant and nearly lost the match when Andre fell on him and almost pinned him . After the match had battled back and forth , André gave Hogan an Irish whip to the far side of the ring and attempted a big boot on Hogan , but Hogan ducked it and came off the ropes to give André a clothesline to take him off his feet for the first time in the match . Hogan then " Hulked up " and scoop slammed the 520 @-@ pound Giant before hitting the ropes and executing his patented leg drop pin to get the win and retain the championship .
= = Aftermath = =
Roddy Piper went on to film Hell Comes to Frogtown and They Live and made sporadic appearances on television before finally returning to host a Piper 's Pit segment at WrestleMania V. Piper continued to be active in professional wrestling at various points for more than two decades . The first televised match between André and Hulk Hogan after WrestleMania III was on The Main Event on NBC on February 5 , 1988 , drawing a record 33 million viewers , making it the most watched match in North American professional wrestling history . The angle surrounding this match was that after winning the match , André ended Hogan 's four @-@ year reign as WWF champion with the help of a worked screwjob finish involving twin referees Earl and Dave Hebner . Their feud culminated in a rematch at WrestleMania IV as part of a tournament to crown a new champion ( both ended up being disqualified during the match for using a steel chair in front of referee Joey Marella ) . The Hogan / Andre match at WrestleMania IV was the first ever WrestleMania rematch .
Randy Savage continued to challenge Ricky Steamboat for the Intercontinental title in rematches at house shows across the country . Steamboat eventually lost the title to The Honky Tonk Man , and not long after , Savage became a babyface and feuded with Honky Tonk over the title .
Twenty years later , WrestleMania 23 celebrated WrestleMania III by returning to the Detroit metropolitan area , showing footage from WrestleMania III , having Aretha Franklin ( " Who 's Zoomin ' Who ? " by Franklin was the theme song to WrestleMania III ) sing " America the Beautiful , " and having Kane scoop slam The Great Khali . WrestleMania 23 had the highest buyrate of any WrestleMania in history , before getting beaten by WrestleMania XXVIII .
Also in 2007 , WrestleMania III was re @-@ released on DVD . The DVD included pre @-@ WrestleMania interviews and matches , including the battle royal from Saturday Night 's Main Event that Hercules won , and optional pop @-@ up trivia facts about the event .
WrestleMania III was re @-@ released on DVD on March 12 , 2013
= = Reception = =
The event has received positive reviews . In the years after WrestleMania III , the Savage vs. Steamboat match has been ranked by critics and other wrestlers as one of the greatest matches in professional wrestling . Pro Wrestling Illustrated and Wrestling Observer Newsletter named it 1987 's Match of the Year . IGN ranked it at number 6 in their Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History . Steamboat described the match as " the moment in time that defined me as a wrestler . " Thomas Golianopoulos of Complex Sports ranked it at number two in his list of the 50 Greatest Matches in WrestleMania History , citing that " Both guys worked lightning fast and everything from Steamboat 's aggressiveness to the involvement of George " The Animal " Steele played off their part . " Current WWE superstar David Otunga picked it as WWE.com 's Five @-@ Star Match of the Week in December 19 , 2012 .
Incidentally , the Hogan vs. Andre match received a negative four star rating from Dave Meltzer and the Wrestling Observer Newsletter named it the " Worst Worked Match of the Year . "
While the WWE and Silverdome management have always maintained that the 93 @,@ 173 figure is correct , Vince Russo continues debate among wrestling fans as to what the true attendance was on the day . Also , Russo claimed that the 1992 SummerSlam at Wembley did 79 @,@ 127 . The record would be decisively broken by WrestleMania 32 in 2016 . Bleacher Report commentator Jason Savage responded to allegations of the attendance dispute by noting that a pictorial analysis showed that there no covered bleachers or empty sections during the event and that the Silverdome , which had a seat capacity of 80 @,@ 311 for football games , was able to add approximately 13 @,@ 000 additional seats .
Officially Wrestlemania III ranks as the second highest attended event in WWE history , ahead of the 80 @,@ 676 who attended WrestleMania 29 at the MetLife Stadium in New Jersey in 2013 , the 80 @,@ 355 who attended SummerSlam 1992 at Wembley Stadium in London , England and the 80 @,@ 103 who attended WrestleMania 23 at Ford Field in Detroit , Michigan . But behind Wrestlemania 32 at the AT & T Stadium in Arlington , Texas in 2016 with an alleged over 101 @,@ 000 in attendance although Meltzer claims the actual number was between 93 @-@ 94 @,@ 000 .
= = Results = =
= Morchella rufobrunnea =
Morchella rufobrunnea , commonly known as the blushing morel , is a species of ascomycete fungus in the family Morchellaceae . A choice edible species , the fungus was originally described as new to science in 1998 by mycologists Gastón Guzmán and Fidel Tapia from collections made in Veracruz , Mexico . Its distribution was later revealed to be far more widespread after several DNA studies suggested that it is common in the West Coast of the United States , Israel , Australia , and Cyprus .
M. rufobrunnea grows in disturbed soil or in woodchips used in landscaping , suggesting a saprophytic mode of nutrition . Reports from the Mediterranean under olive trees ( Olea europaea ) , however , suggest the fungus may also be able to form facultative tree associations . Young fruit bodies have conical , grayish caps covered with pale ridges and dark pits ; mature specimens are yellowish to ochraceous @-@ buff . The surface of the fruit body often bruises brownish orange to pinkish where it has been touched , a characteristic for which the fungus is named . Mature fruit bodies grow to a height of 9 @.@ 0 – 15 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 1 in ) . M. rufobrunnea differs from other Morchella species by its urban or suburban habitat preferences , in the color and form of the fruit body , the lack of a sinus at the attachment of the cap with the stipe , the length of the pits on the surface , and the bruising reaction . A process to cultivate morels now known to be M. rufobrunnea was described and patented in the 1980s .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first scientifically described specimens of Morchella rufobrunnea were collected in June 1996 from the Ecological Institute of Xalapa and other regions in the southern Mexican municipality of Xalapa , which are characterized by a subtropical climate . The type locality is a mesophytic forest containing oak , sweetgum , Clethra and alder at an altitude of 1 @,@ 350 m ( 4 @,@ 430 ft ) . In a 2008 study , Michael Kuo determined that the " winter fruiting yellow morel " — erroneously referred to as Morchella deliciosa — found in landscaping sites in the western United States was the same species as M. rufobrunnea . According to Kuo , David Arora depicts this species in his popular 1986 work Mushrooms Demystified , describing it as a " coastal Californian form of Morchella deliciosa growing in gardens and other suburban habitats " . Kuo suggests that M. rufobrunnea is the correct name for the M. deliciosa used by western American authors . Other North American morels formerly classified as deliciosa have since been recategorized into two distinct species , Morchella diminutiva and M. sceptriformis ( = M. virginiana ) .
Molecular analysis of nucleic acid sequences from the internal transcribed spacer and elongation factor EF @-@ 1α regions suggests that the genus Morchella can be divided into three lineages . M. rufobrunnea belongs to a lineage that is basal to the esculenta clade ( " yellow morels " ) , and the elata clade ( " black morels " ) . This phylogenetic placement implies that it has existed in its current form since the Cretaceous era ( roughly 145 to 66 million years ago ) , and all known morel species evolved from a similar ancestor . M. rufobrunnea is genetically closer to the yellow morels than the black morels . M. anatolica , described from Turkey in 2012 , is a closely related sister species .
The specific epithet rufobrunnea derives from the Latin roots ruf- ( rufuous , reddish ) and brunne- ( brown ) . Vernacular names used for the fungus include " western white morel " , " blushing morel " , and — accounting for the existence of subtropical species in the " blushing clade " — " red @-@ brown blushing morel " .
= = Description = =
Fruit bodies of M. rufobrunnea can reach 6 @.@ 0 – 21 @.@ 0 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 8 @.@ 3 in ) tall , although most are typically found in a narrower range , 9 @.@ 0 – 15 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 1 in ) . The conical to roughly cylindrical hymenophore ( cap ) is typically 6 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 3 in ) high by 3 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 8 in ) wide . Its surface is covered with longitudinal anastomosed ridges and crosswise veins that form broad , angular , elongated pits . Young fruit bodies are typically dark grey with sharply contrasting beige or buff ridges , while mature specimens fade to ochraceous @-@ buff . The cylindrical stipe is often strongly wrinkled , enlarged at the base and measures 30 – 70 cm ( 12 – 28 in ) by 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick . It is typically covered with a dark brown to greyish pruinescence , often fading at maturity , a useful character to discriminate it from similar species , such as M. tridentina or M. sceptriformis . The stipe and hymenophore often exhibit ochraceous , orange or reddish stains , although this feature is neither constant nor exclusive to M. rufobrunnea and can be seen in a number of Morchella species , such as Morchella tridentina ( = Morchella frustrata ) , M. esculenta , M. guatemalensis , the recently described M. fluvialis ( Clowez et al . 2014 ) , and most likely M. anatolica .
In deposit , the spores are pale orange to yellowish orange . Ascospores are egg @-@ shaped , measuring 20 – 24 by 14 – 16 µm when mature , but smaller ( 14 @.@ 5 – 19 by 9 – 10 µm ) in immature fruit bodies . They are thin @-@ walled , hyaline ( translucent ) , and inamyloid . The cylindrical asci ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are 300 – 360 by 16 – 20 µm with walls up to 1 @.@ 5 µm thick . Paraphyses measure 90 – 184 by 10 – 18 @.@ 5 µm ( 6 – 9 µm thick if immature ) ; they are hyaline , have a septum at the base , and comprise either one or two cells . The flesh is made of thin @-@ walled , hyaline hyphae measuring 3 – 9 µm wide .
Morchella rubobrunnea is an edible fungus ; it has been described variously as " one of the tastiest members of the morel family " , and alternately as " bland in comparison to other morel species " . Individual specimens over 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) have been reported .
= = = Similar species = = =
Morchella tridentina ( = Morchella frustrata ) is also rufescent and very similar to M. rufobrunnea . It is found in mountainous forests and maquis and forms a marked sinus at the attachment of the cap with the stem , which is pure white . At maturity , it develops more or less parallel , ladderlike interconnecting ridges . Microscopically , it often has moniliform paraphyses with septa extending in the upper half and has more regularly cylindrical or clavate ' hairs ' on the stem , up to 100 μm long . M. guatemalensis , found in Central America , has a color ranging from yellow to yellowish @-@ orange , but never grey , and it has a more distinct reddish to wine red bruising reaction . Microscopically , it has smaller paraphyses , measuring 56 – 103 by 6 @.@ 5 – 13 µm . The New Guinean species M. rigidoides has smaller fruit bodies that are pale ochre to yellow , without any grey . Its pits are less elongated than those of M. rufobrunnea , and it has wider paraphyses , up to 30 µm .
Morchella americana ( = M. esculentoides ) , is widely distributed in North America , north of Mexico and has similar colours to mature fruit bodies of M. rufobrunnea , but lacks the bruising reaction . M. diminutiva , found in hardwood forests of eastern North America , has a smaller fruit body than M. rufobrunnea , up to 9 @.@ 4 cm ( 3 @.@ 7 in ) tall and up to 2 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 1 in ) wide at its widest point . Morchella sceptriformis ( = Morchella virginiana ) is found in riparian and upland ecosystems from Virginia to northern Mississippi , usually in association with the American tulip tree ( Liriodendron tulipifera ) .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
A predominantly saprophytic species , Morchella rufobrunnea fruit bodies grow singly or in clusters in disturbed soil or woodchips used in landscaping . Large numbers can appear the year after wood mulch has been spread on the ground . Typical disturbed habitats include fire pits , near compost piles , logging roads , and dirt basements . Fruiting usually occurs in the spring , although fruit bodies can be found in these habitats most of the year . Other preferred habitats include steep slopes and plateaus , and old @-@ growth conifer forests . In Cyprus , the fungus is frequently reported from coastal , urban and suburban areas under olive trees ( Olea europaea ) .
Morchella rufobrunnea ranges from Mexico through California and Oregon in the United States . It has also been introduced to central Michigan from California . It is one of seven Morchella species that have been recorded in Mexico . In 2009 , Israeli researchers used molecular genetics to confirm the identity of the species in northern Israel , where it was found growing in gravelly disturbed soil near a newly paved path at the edge of a grove . This was the first documented appearance of the fungus outside the American continent . Unlike North American populations that typically fruit for only a few weeks in spring , the Israeli populations have a long @-@ season ecotype , fruiting from early November to late May ( winter and spring ) . This period corresponds to the rainy season in Israel ( October to May ) , with low to moderate temperatures ranging from 15 – 28 ° C ( 59 – 82 ° F ) during the day and 5 – 15 ° C ( 41 – 59 ° F ) at night .
= = Cultivation = =
Morchella rufobrunnea is the morel that is cultivated commercially per US patents 4594809 and 4757640 . This process was developed in 1982 by Ronald Ower with what he thought was Morchella esculenta ; M. rufobrunnea had not yet been described . The cultivation protocol consists of preparing a spawn culture that is mixed with nutrient @-@ poor soil . This mixture is laid on nutrient @-@ rich soil and kept sufficiently moist until fruiting . In the nutrient @-@ poor substrate , the fungus forms sclerotia — hardened masses of mycelia that serve as food reserves . Under appropriate environmental conditions , these sclerotia grow into morels .
The fruit bodies of Morchella rufobrunnea have been cultivated under controlled conditions in laboratory @-@ scale experiments . Primordia , which are tiny nodules from which fruit bodies develop , appeared two to four weeks after the first watering of pre @-@ grown sclerotia incubated at a temperature of 16 to 22 ° C ( 61 to 72 ° F ) and 90 % humidity . Mature fruit bodies grew to 7 to 15 cm ( 3 to 6 in ) long .
The early stages of fruit body development can be divided into four discrete stages . In the first , disk @-@ shaped knots measuring 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 5 mm appear on the surface of the substrate . As the knot expands in size , a primordial stipe emerges from its center . The stipe lengthens , orients upward , and two types of hyphal elements develop : long , straight and smooth basal hairy hyphae and short stipe hyphae , some of which are inflated and project out of a cohesive layer of tightly packed hyphal elements . In the final stage , which occurs when the stipe is 2 – 3 mm long , immature caps appear that have ridges and pits with distinct paraphyses . Extracellular mucilage that covers the ridge layer imparts shape and rigidity to the tissue and probably protects it against dehydration .
= 1948 Ashes series =
The 1948 Ashes series was that year 's edition of the long @-@ standing cricket rivalry between England and Australia . Starting on 10 June 1948 , England and Australia played five Tests . Australia had not lost a Test since the Second World War and were strong favourites . Their captain Don Bradman had publicly expressed his ambition of going through the tour without defeat , and Australia won 10 of their 12 lead @-@ up matches , eight by an innings . The England team , however , had several notable players themselves , including Len Hutton , Denis Compton and Alec Bedser . Nevertheless , the final result was a 4 – 0 series win for Australia , with the Third Test being drawn . They thus retained The Ashes . The Australians remained undefeated for their entire tour of England , earning them the sobriquet of The Invincibles .
The First Test set the trend for the series as England 's batsmen struggled against the Australian pace attack and , despite attempting to stifle the Australian scoring with leg theory , fell to an eventual defeat . Failure to contain the Australian batsmen , particularly Bradman himself , plagued the English bowlers , while their batsmen were prone to struggling and collapsing on key occasions , with rain petering the Third Test into a draw . The series saw a number of notable cricketing feats , including a 301 @-@ run partnership between Bradman and Arthur Morris , aided by many dropped catches and missed stumpings , during the Fourth Test , and Australia 's heaviest win of the series in the Fifth Test , where England were bowled out for 52 in half a day . Australia then made 389 , with Bradman making a famous duck in his final innings . England were then bowled out for 188 to lose by an innings and 149 runs in less than three days ' playing time .
= = Test representatives = =
= = Match details = =
= = = First Test , 10 – 15 June = = =
Since the Second World War , Australia had played 11 Tests and had been unbeaten . In early 1946 , they defeated New Zealand in a one @-@ off Test by an innings . The following season , in 1946 – 47 , they won the five @-@ Test series against England 3 – 0 , and followed this with a 4 – 0 series win over India in the following season . Australia were regarded as an extremely strong team in the lead @-@ up to the tour of England , and Bradman publicly expressed his desire to achieve the unprecedented feat of going through the five @-@ month tour without defeat . Prior to the First Test , Australia had played 12 first @-@ class matches , winning ten and drawing two . Eight of the victories were by an innings , and another was by eight wickets . One of the drawn matches , against Lancashire was rain @-@ affected with the first day washed out entirely .
It was thought that Bradman would play Ring , but he changed his mind on the first morning of the First Test when rain was forecast . Johnston was played in the hope of exploiting a wet wicket . Yardley won the toss and elected to bat . England lost leg spinner Wright before the match due to lumbago . The first innings of the First Test set the pattern of the series as the England top @-@ order struggled against Australia 's pace attack . Only twenty minutes of play was possible before the lunch break on the first day due to inclement weather , but it was enough for Miller to bowl Hutton with a faster ball . During the interval , heavy rain fell , making the ball skid through upon resumption . Washbrook was out after the luncheon interval , caught on the run by Brown at fine leg after attempting to hook Lindwall . At 15 / 2 , Compton came to the crease , and together with Edrich , they took the score to 46 before left arm paceman Johnston bowled the latter . Two balls later , Johnston removed Hardstaff without scoring , caught by Miller in slips , an effort described by Wisden as " dazzling " . Two runs later , Compton was bowled attempting a leg sweep from the bowling of Miller and half the English team were out with only 48 runs on the board . Lindwall was forced to leave the field mid @-@ innings due to a groin injury and did not bowl again in the match . Johnston bowled Barnett for eight and when Evans and Yardley were both dismissed with the score on 74 , England was facing the prospect of setting a new record for the lowest Test innings score at Trent Bridge , the current record being 112 . Laker and Bedser , both from Surrey , scored more than half of England 's total , adding 89 runs in only 73 minutes . Laker 's innings was highlighted by hooking , while Bedser defended stoutly and drove in front of the wicket . Bedser was removed by Johnston and Miller had Laker caught behind two runs later , ending England 's innings at 165 . Laker top @-@ scored with 63 in 101 minutes , with six boundaries . Johnston ended with 5 / 36 , a display characterised with accuracy and variations in pace and swing . Miller took 3 / 38 and a catch .
Australia had less than 15 minutes of batting before the scheduled close of play . Barnes made an unsuccessful appeal against the light after the first ball of the innings , which was a wide by Edrich . Morris and Barnes successfully negotiated the new ball by Edrich and Bedser to reach stumps with 17 without loss . Ideal batting conditions and clear weather greeted the players on the second day . Barnes and Morris took the score to 73 before Morris was bowled by Laker 's off spin . Bradman came in and the score progressed to 121 when Barnes cut Laker onto the thigh of wicket @-@ keeper Evans . The ball bounced away and the gloveman turned around and took a one @-@ handed diving catch to dismiss Barnes for 62 . Miller came in and was dismissed for a duck without further addition to Australia 's total . He failed to pick Laker 's arm ball , which went straight on , clipped the outside edge and was taken at slip by Edrich .
Laker to this point had taken 3 / 22 from 12 @.@ 4 overs . All the while , Australia had been scoring slowly , as they would throughout the day . Yardley set a defensive field , employing leg theory to slow the scoring . Brown came in at No. 5 , but he had played most of his career as an opening batsman . Yardley took Laker out of the attack and took the second new ball . Bradman struck his first boundary in over 80 minutes but the run rate remained low . Australia passed England 's total before Yardley brought himself on to bowl , trapping Brown leg before wicket in his first over . Hassett came in at 185 / 4 and Australia batted to stumps on the second day without further loss , ending at 293 / 4 , a lead of 128 . Bradman reached his 28th Test century in over 210 minutes , with the last 29 runs taking 70 minutes . It was one of his slower innings as Yardley focused on stopping runs rather than taking wickets .
On the third morning , Bradman resumed on 130 , before progressing to 132 and becoming the first player to pass 1 @,@ 000 runs for the English season . His innings was soon terminated at 138 when he leg glanced an inswinger from Bedser to Hutton at short fine leg . Bradman had batted for 290 minutes and Johnson replaced him with Australia at 305 / 5 . Johnson made 21 before being bowled by Laker , and Tallon took 39 minutes to compile 10 before hitting a return catch to the left arm orthodox spin of Young . The scoring was slow during this passage of play — Young delivered 11 consecutive maiden overs and his 26 @-@ over spell conceded only 14 runs . Lindwall came out to bat at 365 / 7 without a runner and he added 107 runs with Hassett for the eighth wicket . Hassett reached his century and proceeded to 137 in almost six hours of batting , striking 20 fours and a six . The partnership was terminated when Bedser struck Hassett 's off stump . Lindwall was caught by Evans down the leg side four runs later , but Australia 's last @-@ wicket pair of Johnston and Toshack wagged a further 33 runs in only 18 minutes before Bedser trapped Toshack lbw to end the innings on 509 , leaving the tourists with a 344 @-@ run lead . Australia had batted for 216 @.@ 2 overs , the longest innings in terms of overs and the highest total in the series . Yardley placed the majority of the bowling load on his spinners , with Young ( 1 / 79 ) and Laker ( 4 / 138 ) bowling 60 and 55 overs respectively . Bedser bowled 44 @.@ 2 overs , taking 3 / 113 .
At the start of England 's second innings , Miller removed Washbrook for one from a top @-@ edged hook shot . Edrich was then caught behind attempting a cut from the off spin of Johnson , leaving England 39 / 2 . This brought together England 's leading batsmen , Hutton and Compton , who took the score to 121 without further loss by stumps on the third day . Miller battled with Hutton and Compton through the afternoon , delivering five bouncers in the last over of the day . One of these struck Hutton high on his left arm . The batsmen survived , but Miller received a hostile reaction from the crowd . Nevertheless , the English had the better of the late afternoon period , scoring 82 runs together in 70 minutes , including one 14 @-@ run over bowled by Miller where Hutton struck consecutive boundaries . The third day was followed by a rest day on Sunday and play resumed on the fourth morning , a Monday . The Nottinghamshire County Cricket Club secretary , H. A. Brown , broadcast an appeal to the gallery to refrain from their heckling of Miller on the third day .
Hutton resumed on 63 and he and Compton progressed before the light deteriorated . An unsuccessful appeal against the light was quickly followed by a thunderstorm , which stopped proceedings . Shortly after the resumption , Miller bowled Hutton with an off cutter in the dark conditions , ending a 111 @-@ run partnership at 150 / 3 . The innings was then interrupted by poor light and upon the resumption , poor visibility intervened for a second time with Compton on 97 . After 55 minutes of delay , the umpires called for the resumption . Wisden opined that " rarely can a Test Match have been played under such appalling conditions as on this day " . Hardstaff supported Compton in a partnership of 93 before being removed by Toshack , and Barnett was removed by Johnston for six with the score having progressed a further 17 runs to 264 / 5 . Compton brought up his third consecutive century at Trent Bridge , aided by a 57 @-@ run partnership with his captain before Johnston held a return catch to dismiss Yardley for 22 . England reached stumps at 345 / 6 , just one run ahead of Australia , with Compton on 154 and Evans on 10 .
Compton and Evans continued to resist the Australians on the final morning , which was briefly interrupted twice by rain . Miller bowled a fast bouncer at Compton , who moved into position to hook before changing his mind and attempting to evade the ball . He lost balance and fell onto his wicket . He was out hit wicket for 184 . He had batted for 413 minutes and hit 19 fours . Wisden opined that " No praise could be too high for the manner in which Compton carried the side 's responsibilities and defied a first @-@ class attack in such trying circumstances " . Compton 's fall at 405 / 7 exposed the bowlers and Australia quickly finished off the innings within half an hour . Miller bowled Laker , Evans reached 50 and was caught behind from Johnston , who then castled Young . England finished at 441 after 183 overs , leaving Australia a target of 98 . Lindwall 's absence meant that the remaining four frontline bowlers had to bowl more than 32 overs each — Johnston bowled 59 and ended with 4 / 147 while Miller took 4 / 125 from 44 overs . Australia progressed steadily to 38 before Bedser bowled Morris for nine and then dismissed Bradman for a duck , again caught by Hutton at short fine leg . This left Australia 48 / 2 . However , Hassett joined Barnes and they reached the target without further loss . Barnes ended on 64 with 11 boundaries , being prolific on the square cut . Barnes tied the scores with a boundary , but ran off the field with a souvenir stump believing that the match was over . He returned to the field when he noticed the crowd reaction and Hassett hit the winning run .
= = = Second Test , 24 – 29 June = = =
Australian retained the same XI from the First Test at Trent Bridge . On the other hand , England made three changes ; the leg spinner Wright had regained fitness and replaced the left arm orthodox of Young , all rounder Coxon made his Test debut in place of Barnett and Dollery replaced Hardstaff as the No. 5 @.@ batsman . Hardstaff had scored a duck and 43 in the First Test , while Barnett managed only eight and six . Following his injury in the previous Test , Lindwall was subjected to a thorough fitness test on the first morning . Bradman was not convinced of Lindwall 's fitness , but the bowler 's protestations was sufficient to convince his captain to gamble on his inclusion . Australia won the toss and elected to bat , allowing Lindwall further time to recover before bowling . Miller played , but was unfit to bowl .
The debutant Coxon opened the bowling with Bedser and removed Barnes for a duck in his second over , caught by Hutton at short fine leg from a short delivery , leaving Australia 3 / 1 . Morris and Bradman rebuilt the innings , taking the score to 87 before Bradman was caught for the third consecutive time by Hutton in the leg trap off Bedser . Hutton had dropped Bradman in the same position when the Australian captain was on 13 . In the meantime , Morris , after a slow start , made 105 runs out of a total of 166 scored while he was at the wicket , including 14 fours and one six . His innings was noted for powerful , well @-@ placed cover drives . He was out after hitting Coxon to Hutton in the gully , leaving Australia at 166 / 3 . Miller came in and Bedser bowled three consecutive outswingers to him . A fourth ball swung the other way , with Miller not offering a shot . He was given out leg before wicket for four . Brown came in at 173 / 4 and helped Hassett to rebuild the innings after the two quick wickets of Morris and Miller . Both scored slowly , taking more than three and half minutes on average for each run . Hassett was dropped three times before Yardley bowled him and then trapped Brown lbw in the space of nine runs to leave Australia 225 / 6 . Edrich had Johnson caught behind for four and England were well placed when Australia ended the day on 258 / 7 .
Australia 's lower order batted the tourists into control on the second morning . Despite the loss of Lindwall for 15 at 275 / 8 , Tallon kept on batting , supported by Johnston and Toshack , who scored their highest Test scores . Australia 's wicket @-@ keeper put on 45 with Johnston — who scored 29 — before becoming Bedser 's second victim for the morning . Toshack then joined Johnston and the last pair put on 30 more runs before Johnston was stumped from Wright 's leg spin . Yardley was later criticised for not bringing Wright into the attack at an earlier stage , as the Australian tail were dealing well with the English pacemen . Bedser was the most successful of the bowlers , ending with 4 / 100 from 43 overs , while debutant Coxon took 2 / 90 from 35 overs .
Lindwall took the new ball and felt pain in his groin again after delivering his first ball to Hutton . Despite this , Lindwall persevered through the pain . He had Washbrook caught behind for eight in his fourth over . Hutton then played outside a Johnson off break and was bowled for 20 to leave England at 32 / 2 . Lindwall then clean bowled Edrich before doing the same to Dollery for a duck two balls later . England were 46 / 4 and Australia were firmly in control . Compton was joined by his skipper Yardley and the pair rebuilt the innings , scoring 87 runs together in 100 minutes . After the tea break , Lindwall and Johnston returned with the new ball . Compton edged Johnston into the slips , where Miller took a low catch , dismissing him for 53 . One run later , Lindwall clipped Yardley 's off stump with the first ball of the over to leave England at 134 / 6 with their skipper dismissed for 44 . Johnson then removed Evans for nine , before Coxon and Laker put on a 41 @-@ run stand for the eight wicket . After 85 minutes of resistance , Coxon hit a catch back to Johnson and Laker was caught behind from the same bowler , having already been dropped twice . England 's last pair added ten runs to close at stumps on 9 / 207 .
On the third morning , Bedser inside @-@ edged a Lindwall bouncer onto his stumps , ending England 's innings at 215 , giving Australia a 135 first innings lead . Lindwall ended with 5 / 70 . In later years , Bradman told Lindwall that he pretended not to notice Lindwall 's pain . Lindwall was worried that Bradman had noticed his injury , but Bradman later claimed that he feigned ignorance to allow Lindwall to relax . The weather was fine as Australia started their second innings . Barnes survived a missed stumping opportunity when he was 18 and he took advantage to combine with Morris in an opening stand of 122 . Morris was then bowled for 62 , knocking a ball from Wright onto his stumps . Bradman joined Barnes at the crease and they amassed 174 runs for the second wicket . Barnes started slowly , but he accelerated after reaching his half @-@ century . Once he reached his century , Barnes became particularly aggressive . He dispatched one Laker over for 21 runs , included two successive blows over the boundary for six . He was finally removed for 141 , caught on the boundary from Yardley . He had struck 14 boundaries and two sixes in his innings . The speed of his batting had allowed Australia to be 296 / 2 after 277 minutes when he departed . Hassett was bowled first ball , so Miller came to the crease at 296 / 3 to face Yardley 's hat @-@ trick ball . Miller survived a loud leg before wicket appeal on the hat @-@ trick ball . Bradman was on 89 and heading towards a century in his last Test innings at Lord 's when he fell to Bedser again , this time because of a one @-@ handed diving effort from Edrich at slip . Brown joined Miller at 329 / 4 and Australia reached stumps at 343 , without further loss , with Miller having struck one six into the grandstand .
After the rest day , Australia resumed with a lead of 478 runs with six wickets in hand . The morning was punctuated by three rain stoppages . In 88 minutes of play , Australia added a further 117 runs . Brown was caught behind from Coxon for 32 after an 87 @-@ run partnership with Miller , bringing Lindwall to the crease . Miller 's innings was noted for its driving and when he was out for 74 , followed by Lindwall for 25 , Bradman declared with Australia at 460 / 7 , 595 runs ahead . It would take a world record chase from England to win the match . Yardley and Laker had been the only multiple wicket @-@ takers , with two each .
Further showers breathed extra life into the pitch , and Lindwall and Johnston extracted steep bounce with the new ball , troubling the English batsmen . Miller dropped Hutton from Lindwall 's bowling before he had scored and played and missed multiple times . Hutton and Washbrook took the score to 42 , England 's highest opening partnership of the series thus far , before Hutton edged Lindwall to Johnson and was out for 13 . Edrich and Washbrook were then subjected to repeated short balls , before Toshack removed both in quick succession to leave England at 65 / 3 . However , Compton and Dollery added 41 in the last 30 minutes to have England close at 106 / 3 .
The final day started poorly for England , with Compton edging Johnston to a diving Miller at second slip from the second ball of the day . England had lost a wicket without adding to their overnight total . Yardley and Dollery took the score to 133 before Toshack bowled the former . He then trapped Coxon lbw two balls later in the same over . Eight runs later , Dollery shaped to duck a Lindwall bouncer , but it skidded through low and bowled him . Lindwall bowled Laker for a duck later in the same over to leave England at 141 / 8 . Evans continued to resist stubbornly , remaining 24 not out as England were bowled out for 186 to cede a 409 @-@ run victory . Toshack ended the innings with 5 / 40 , while Lindwall and Johnston took three and two respectively . The gross attendance was 132 @,@ 000 and receipts were £ 43 @,@ 000 — a record for a Test in England .
= = = Third Test , 8 – 13 July = = =
When the teams reconvened at Old Trafford for the Third Test , Hutton had been dropped . The reason was said to be Hutton 's struggles with Lindwall 's short @-@ pitched bowling . The omission generated considerable controversy . The Australians were pleased , feeling that Hutton was England 's best batsman . Hutton 's opening position was taken by debutant Emmett . England made three further changes . Young and Pollard replaced Wright and Laker in the bowling department , thereby reverting from two spinners to one . Coxon , who made his debut in the previous match and opened the bowling , taking match figures of 3 / 172 and scoring 19 and a duck , was replaced by debutant batsman Crapp . Australia dropped Brown , who had scored 73 runs at 24 @.@ 33 in three innings , with the all rounder Loxton . Yardley won the toss and elected to bat .
The change in England 's opening pair did not result in an improvement on the scoreboard . A run out was narrowly avoided from the first ball , and Washbrook and Emmett appeared to be uncomfortable on a surface that offered early assistance to the bowlers . With 22 runs on the board , Johnston bowled Washbrook with a yorker , and six runs later , Emmett fended a rising ball from Lindwall to Barnes at short leg , leaving England 28 / 2 . Edrich eschewed attacking strokeplay as he and Compton attempted to establish themselves . Lindwall bowled a series of short balls . One hit Compton on the arm and the batsman attempted to hook another bouncer , but edged it into his face . This forced Compton to leave the field with a bloodied eyebrow with the score at 33 / 2 . Edrich and Crapp then engaged in grim defensive batting , resulting in one 25 @-@ minute period where only one run was added . They reached lunch at 57 / 2 . Upon the resumption , Crapp began to accelerate , hitting a six and three boundaries from Johnson . Australia took the new ball and Lindwall trapped Crapp lbw for 37 . Dollery took a single to get off the mark but then missed a yorker from Johnston and was bowled . England had lost two wickets for one run to be 97 / 4 . After 170 minutes of slow batting , Edrich gloved a rising Lindwall delivery and was caught behind . At 119 / 5 , Compton returned to the field , his wound having been stitched to stop the bleeding . Yardley fell to Toshack for 22 with the score at 141 / 6 , bringing Evans to the crease . Compton combined with the gloveman to add 75 runs for the seventh wicket in 70 minutes , before Lindwall removed Evans to leave England 216 / 7 .
England resumed on the second day at 231 / 7 and Australia was unable to break through with the new ball . Bedser stubbornly defied the Australians for 145 minutes , adding 37 and featuring in a 121 @-@ run partnership with Compton before he was run out . Soon after , Pollard pulled a ball from Johnson into the ribs of
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England won the toss and elected to bat on an ideal batting pitch . Hutton and Washbrook put on an opening partnership of 168 , the best by England in the series . Washbrook refrained from the hook shot , which had caused him to lose his wicket on earlier occasions in the series . The partnership was ended when Hutton was bowled by Lindwall . Washbrook reached his century with the score on 189 . Joined by Edrich , the pair batted until late in the first day , when Washbrook was dismissed by Johnston for 143 in the last over of the day . His innings had included 22 boundaries and ended a second wicket partnership that yielded exactly 100 runs . Bedser was sent in as the nightwatchman and survived the last four balls as England closed without further addition to score at 268 / 2 , with Edrich on 41 .
The next day , Bedser batted on in steady support of Edrich . The pair saw England to lunch without further loss , and 155 runs were added for the third wicket before Bedser was out in the second session after almost three hours of batting . Bedser had struck eight fours and two sixes in a Test career best 79 before returning a catch to the off spin of Johnson . Edrich fell to Johnson after three further runs were added with the score at 426 / 4 . He had batted for 314 minutes in compiling 111 , with 13 fours and a six . With two new batsmen at the crease , Australia quickly made further inroads . Toshack bowled Crapp for five and after Compton and Yardley added 26 for the sixth wicket , the former edged Lindwall and Saggers had his first Test catch to leave England at 473 / 6 . Playing in his first Test of the summer , Loxton then successively removed Cranston , Evans and Laker as England fell from 486 / 6 to 496 / 9 . Miller then bowled the English skipper Yardley to end England 's innings at 496 . The home side had batted for 192 @.@ 1 overs and lost their last eight wickets for the addition of 73 runs . Loxton took 3 / 55 while Lindwall and Johnson both took two . Australia lost the services of Toshack after he broke down with a knee injury . With Barnes injured , Hassett was moved from the middle order to open the innings with Morris . Bedser removed Morris for six with the new ball , to leave Australia at 13 / 1 , before Bradman and Hassett saw the tourists to stumps at 63 / 1 . Bradman did the majority of the scoring in the late afternoon , finishing unbeaten on 31 in a partnership of 40 .
On the third morning , England made the ideal start when Pollard removed both of the established batsmen in his opening over . He removed Hassett for 13 and two balls later bowled Bradman for 33 . This left Australia struggling at 68 / 3 . Harvey , playing his first Ashes Test , joined Miller at the crease . Australia were more than 400 behind and Harvey told his senior partner " Let 's get stuck into ' em " . If England were to remove the pair , they would expose Australia 's lower order and give themselves an opportunity to win by taking substantial lead . The pair launched a counterattack , with Miller taking the lead . He hoisted Laker 's first ball over square leg for six . Miller shielded Harvey from Laker , as he was struggling against the off breaks that were turning away from him . Miller struck consecutive sixes over long off and the sightscreen respectively . This allowed Australia to seize the initiative , with Harvey joining in and hitting consecutive boundaries against Laker . Miller then lifted another six over long off , hitting a spectator in the head , and another over long on from Yardley 's bowling . He was dismissed by Yardley for 58 attempting another six , when an edge bounced off Evans ' head and was caught by a diving Edrich at short fine leg .
The partnership had yielded 121 runs in 90 minutes , likened by Wisden to a " hurricane " . Harvey then shared another century stand with Loxton which yielded 105 in only 95 minutes . Harvey ended with a century on his Ashes debut , scoring 112 from 183 balls in an innings noted for powerful driving on both sides of the wicket . The innings and the high rate of scoring helped to swing the match back from England 's firm control . Loxton was particularly severe on Laker , lifting him into the crowd for five sixes in addition to nine fours . Harvey fell at 294 / 5 and Johnson scored 10 before falling with the score at 329 / 6 , both dismissed by Laker .
Australia was still some way behind when Lindwall replaced Johnson . Fifteen runs later , Yardley bowled Loxton for 93 , while Saggers only managed five in his first Test innings before being stumped after being lured out of his crease by Laker . This left Australia at 355 / 8 with only Johnston and Toshack remaining . Lindwall hit out , scoring 77 , an innings marked by powerful driving and pulling , dominating in stands of 48 and 55 with Johnston and Toshack respectively . Of the 103 added for the last two wickets , Johnston and Toshack managed only 25 between them . Lindwall was the last man out at 458 , leaving Australia 38 runs in arrears on the first innings . Australia added only one run to its overnight score of 457 / 9 , with Bedser taking the final wicket to end with 3 / 92 . Laker took 3 / 113 , while Pollard and Yardley ended with two wickets each .
England set about extending their first innings lead for the remainder of the fourth day . For the second time in the match , Washbrook and Hutton put on a century opening partnership . Johnston removed Washbrook for 65 before Johnson removed Hutton for 57 without further addition to the total , leaving England at 129 / 2 . Edrich and Compton continued where the openers had left off , adding 103 for the third wicket before Lindwall trapped Edrich for 54 . Crapp came in and added 18 before Lindwall bowled him at 260 / 4 and precipitated a mini @-@ collapse . Yardley made seven before Johnston removed him . Johnston then removed Cranston caught behind for a duck with only a further run added to leave England at 278 / 6 . When Johnston removed Compton for 66 , caught by Miller , England were 7 / 293 with no recognised batsmen remaining . They had lost 4 / 33 . Wicket @-@ keeper Evans was joined by Bedser , and the pair added 37 before Miller removed the latter . Laker then helped Evans to add a further 32 as England reached 362 / 8 at the close of the fourth day .
England batted on for five minutes on the final morning , adding three runs in two overs before Yardley declared at 365 / 8 , with Evans on 47 not out . Johnston had the pick of the bowling figures , with 4 / 95 . Batting into the final day allowed Yardley to ask the groundsman to use a heavy roller , which would help to break up the wicket and make the surface more likely to spin .
This left Australia a target of 404 runs for victory . At the time , this would have been the highest ever fourth innings score to result in a Test victory for the batting side . Australia had only 345 minutes to reach the target , and the local press wrote them off , predicting that they would be dismissed by lunchtime on a deteriorating wicket expected to favor the spin bowlers . Morris and Hassett started slowly , with only six runs in the first six overs on a pitch that offered spin and bounce . When Laker was introduced to exploit the spin , 13 runs were taken from his first over , but only 44 runs came in the first hour , leaving 360 runs needed in 285 minutes . Just 13 runs were added in the next 28 minutes before Hassett was dismissed by Compton 's left arm unorthodox spin for 17 with the score at 57 . Bradman joined Morris with 347 runs needed in 257 minutes . Bradman signalled his intentions on his first ball by driving Laker against the spin for a boundary . Morris promptly joined Bradman in the counter @-@ attack , hitting three consecutive fours off Len Hutton 's bowling as Australia reached lunch at 121 / 1 . In the half hour preceding the interval , Australia had added 64 runs . Australia had given chances , but England failed to seize them . Evans failed to stump Morris when he was on 32 , and Crapp dropped Bradman from Compton .
Upon resumption , Morris severely attacked Compton , who had been bowling in an attempt to exploit the spin , aided by a series of full tosses and long hops that were easily dispatched for runs . This prompted Yardley to take the new ball and replace Compton with pacemen . Australia reached 202 , halfway to the required total , with 165 minutes left . When Bradman suffered a fibrositis attack , Morris had to shield him from the strike until it subsided . Morris passed his century , and was then given another life on 126 when Laker dropped him while fielding at square leg . Bradman was given another life at 108 when Evans missed a stumping opportunity . Australia reached tea at 288 / 1 with Morris on 150 . The pair had added 167 during the session . Morris was eventually dismissed by Yardley for 182 , having partnered Bradman in a stand of 301 in 217 minutes . He struck 33 fours in 290 minutes of batting . This brought Miller to the crease with 46 runs still required . He struck two boundaries and helped take the score to 396 before falling to Cranston with eight runs still needed . Harvey came in and got off the mark with a boundary that brought up the winning runs . Australia had won by seven wickets , setting a new world record for the highest successful Test run @-@ chase , with Bradman unbeaten on 173 in only 255 minutes with 29 fours . The attendance of 158 @,@ 000 was the highest for any cricket match on English soil and the takings were 34 @,@ 000 pounds . The attendance remains a record for a Test in England .
= = = Fifth Test , England v Australia = = =
With the series already lost , England made four changes to their team . Dewes replaced Washbrook , who was suffering from a thumb injury , at the top of the order . Watkins replaced Cranston as the middle order batsman and bowler . Both Dewes and Watkins were making their Test debut . England played two spinners ; Young replaced fellow finger spinner Laker , while the leg spin of Hollies replaced Pollard . The selectors were widely condemned for their changes . Australia made three changes . Having taken only seven wickets in the first four Tests at an average of 61 @.@ 00 , off spinner Johnson was replaced by the leg spin of Ring . Australia 's second change was forced on them ; the injured Toshack was replaced by the recovered Barnes , meaning that Australia were playing with one extra batsman and one less frontline bowler . The final change was the return of wicket @-@ keeper Tallon from injury .
The match saw Lindwall at his best . English skipper Yardley won the toss and elected to bat on a rain @-@ affected pitch . Precipitation in the week leading up to the match meant that the Test could not start until midday had passed . The damp conditions meant that sawdust had to be added in large amounts to allow the players to keep their grip . The humid conditions , along with the rain , assisted the bowlers , with Lindwall in particular managing to make the ball bounce at variable heights .
Miller bowled Dewes for one with his second ball to leave England at 2 / 1 , before Johnston removed Edrich for three to leave England at 10 / 2 . Lindwall dismissed Compton after Morris had taken a diving catch , and Miller then removed Crapp without scoring after a 23 @-@ ball innings , leaving England at 23 / 4 .
After the lunch break , England had struggled to 35 / 4 , before Lindwall bowled Yardley with a swinging yorker . The debutant Watkins then batted for 16 balls without scoring before Johnston trapped him for a duck to leave England at 42 / 6 . For his troubles , Watkins also collected a bruise on the shoulder that inhibited his bowling later in the match . Lindwall then removed Evans , Bedser and Young , all yorked in the space of two runs . The innings ended at 52 when Hutton leg glanced and was caught by wicket @-@ keeper Tallon , who grasped the ball one @-@ handed at full stretch to his left . Lindwall described the catch as one of the best he had ever seen . In his post @-@ lunch spell , Lindwall bowled 8 @.@ 1 overs , taking five wickets for eight runs , finishing with 6 / 20 in 16 @.@ 1 overs . Bradman described the spell as " the most devastating and one of the fastest I ever saw in Test cricket " . Hutton was the only batsman to resist , scoring 30 in 124 minutes and surviving 147 deliveries . The next most resilient display was from Yardley , who scored seven runs in 31 minutes of resistance , facing 33 balls . Miller and Johnston took 2 / 5 and 2 / 20 respectively , and Australia 's pace trio removed all the batsmen without Bradman having to call on Ring for a bowl .
In contrast , Australia batted with apparent ease , and Morris and Barnes passed England 's first innings total by themselves . The score had reached 117 before Barnes was caught behind from Hollies for 61 . The opening stand had been compiled in only 126 minutes . This brought Bradman to the crease shortly before 6 pm late on the first day . As Bradman had announced that the tour was his last at international level , the innings would be his last at Test level if Australia batted only once . The crowd gave him a standing ovation as he walked out to bat . Yardley led the Englishmen in giving his Australian counterpart three cheers . With 6996 Test career runs , he only needed four runs to average 100 in Test cricket , but Hollies bowled him second ball for a duck with a googly that went between bat and pad . Hassett came in at 117 / 2 and together with Morris saw Australia to the close at 153 / 2 . Morris was unbeaten on 77 , having hit two hook shots from Hollies for four .
On the second morning , Hassett and Morris took the score to 226 before their 109 @-@ run stand was broken when Young trapped Hassett for 37 after 134 minutes of batting . The following batsmen were unable to establish themselves at the crease . Miller made five and Harvey 17 , both falling to Hollies as Australia progressed to 265 / 5 . Loxton accompanied Morris for 39 further runs before Edrich removed him for 15 . Young removed Lindwall for nine before Morris was finally removed for 196 , ending an innings noted for his hooking and off @-@ driving . It took a run out to remove Morris ; he had attempted a quick run after the ball was hit to third man but was not agile enough for the substitute fielder 's arm . Tallon , who scored 31 , put on another 30 runs with Ring , before both were out on 389 , ending Australia 's innings . Morris had scored more than half the runs as the rest of the team struggled against the leg spin of Hollies , who took 5 / 131 . England had relied heavily on spin ; Young took 2 / 118 and of the 158 @.@ 2 overs bowled , 107 were delivered by the two spinners .
England started their second innings 337 runs in arrears . Lindwall made the early breakthrough , bowling Crapp for 10 to leave England 20 / 1 . Edrich joined Hutton and the pair consolidated the innings to close at the end of the second day on 54 / 1 due to bad light .
Early on the third day , Lindwall bowled Edrich for 28 with the score at 64 , before Compton and Hutton consolidated the innings with a partnership of 61 in 110 minutes . On 39 , Compton aimed a hard cut shot from Johnston 's bowling , which flew into Lindwall 's left hand at second slip . Hutton managed to continue resisting the Australians before Miller struck Crapp in the head with a bouncer . Hutton then edged Miller to Tallon and was out for 64 , having top @-@ scored in both innings . He had batted for over four hours and left England at 153 / 4 . Thereafter , England collapsed . Crapp was bowled by Miller for nine , and two runs later , Ring dismissed debutant Watkins for two to take his only wicket . Lindwall returned and bowled Evans for eight . Evans appeared to not detect Lindwall 's yorker in the fading light , and the umpires called off play due to bad light . The ground was then hit by rain , resulting in a premature end to the day 's play . England had lost four wickets for 25 runs to end at 178 / 7 .
England resumed on the fourth morning with only three wickets in hand and still 159 runs in arrears . Johnston quickly removed the last three wickets to seal an Australian victory by an innings and 149 runs . Only ten runs were added , with Hollies being removed for a golden duck , skying a ball to Morris , immediately after Yardley was the ninth man to fall . Johnston ended with 4 / 40 from 27 @.@ 3 overs while Lindwall took 3 / 50 from 25 overs . This result sealed the series 4 – 0 in favour of Australia . The match was followed by a series of congratulatory speeches .
= = Records and statistical analysis = =
As Australia won the series convincingly 4 – 0 , it is not surprising that their players dominated the statistical rankings . Australian batsmen scored eight centuries to four by their English counterparts and scored their runs at a much higher average . Six of the nine highest averaging batsmen were Australian . On the bowling front , Australia 's pace attack had far more success and they were a large part of the success . Lindwall and Johnston both took 27 wickets , supported by Miller and Toshack , who took 13 and 11 respectively . For England , only Bedser with 18 was able to take 10 or more wickets , and at a substantially higher cost than the Australian pacemen . The bowling was dominated by pace bowling , with Laker being the only spinner on the list , with by far the worst average . This was in large part because England agreed to make a new ball available every 55 overs , more frequently than under normal conditions . As a new ball is more conducive to fast bowling , this favoured fast bowlers and therefore the team with the best pace attack , in this case Australia .
= = = Most runs = = =
= = = Best batting averages = = =
Minimum 100 runs and three innings
= = = = Most wickets = = = =
= = = = Best bowling averages = = = =
Minimum nine wickets
= M @-@ 110 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 110 was the designation of a former state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The highway was a 1 @.@ 715 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 760 km ) spur that provided access from US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) to Orchard Beach State Park . The highway was designated in 1927 and lasted until 2003 .
= = Route description = =
The southern terminus of M @-@ 110 was at a junction with US 31 near Parkdale on the northern boundary of the city of Manistee . From there , the trunkline traveled north along Lake Shore Road near Lake Michigan . Along the way , the highway passed through the unincorporated community of Parkdale . The landscape contains fields as the roadway approaches the forest at Orchard Beach State Park . M @-@ 110 continues past the park and terminated at an intersection with Kott Road .
= = History = =
A highway was first designated along Lakeshore Road in 1927 bearing the M @-@ 110 designation . In 2003 , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) transferred M @-@ 110 to the Manistee County Road Commission . In the last traffic surveys before the transfer , MDOT determined that an average of 2 @,@ 335 vehicles used M @-@ 110 on a daily basis in 2002 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Manistee Township , Manistee County .
= Belldandy =
Belldandy ( ベルダンディー , Berudandī ) is a character in the popular anime and manga series Oh My Goddess ! . She was created by Kōsuke Fujishima as one of three Goddesses who come to Earth to reside with Keiichi Morisato , and she serves as his love interest . She is depicted as a beautiful and powerful young woman , with strong nurturing tendencies , a trusting and innocent character , and an extremely kind heart . Belldandy is accidentally summoned from heaven by Keiichi in order to grant him a wish and stays when Keiichi wishes for " a goddess like you to be by my side forever " . The stories follow Belldandy as she builds a relationship with Keiichi , using her powers ( which include teleportation , telekinesis , telepathy , and levitation ) to help both Keiichi and his friends while keeping her true identity a secret .
Her first appearance was in Afternoon in August 1988 . Belldandy has also featured in a novel , two TV series , a movie , and three OVA series . The character has gained considerable respect throughout the various formats , as evidenced by her appearance as one of the most popular characters in the Newtype and Animage polls . The concept of Belldandy draws loosely from Norse mythology , with " Belldandy " being a transliteration of the Old Norse Verðandi , one of a trio of Norns . She is joined by characters representing the other two of the trio of Norns — her sisters Urd and Skuld .
Belldandy is regarded by commentators as an example of the magical girlfriend character , and comparisons have been drawn with the characters of Samantha from Bewitched and Jeannie from I Dream of Jeannie . The character 's very conservative nature , however , which almost completely subordinates her to her fictional boyfriend , Keiichi , has led to some concerns from critics and has polarized the audience .
= = Creation and conception = =
Belldandy was created by Kōsuke Fujishima and features as one of the two principal protagonists in the manga Ah ! My Goddess ! ( ああっ女神さまっ ) ( along with the character of Keiichi Morisato ) . Her first appearance was in the comic Afternoon on August 25 , 1988 , but she has also been depicted in a novel ( Ah ! My Goddess : First End ) , three anime series — Oh My Goddess ! ( OVA ) , Ah ! My Goddess and The Adventures of Mini @-@ Goddess — and in Ah ! My Goddess : The Movie .
Belldandy 's original concept was loosely based on a depiction of Miyuki Kobayakawa , one of the main characters of You 're Under Arrest , which was also created by Kosuke Fujishima . Miyuki was featured as a goddess in an advertisement for a You 're Under Arrest T @-@ shirt giveaway and appeared as a goddess character in a " four panel gag strip " in the You 're Under Arrest manga , leading to claims that Oh My Goddess is a spin @-@ off series . The character Ken Nakajima from You 're Under Arrest appears in the first episode of the original OVA . He is driving the car that Keiichi almost hits with his motorcycle .
= = = Norse origins = = =
Fujishima was particularly interested in the concept of a goddess " as a job " , and turned to Norse mythology as he felt that it was relatively unknown in Japan . Thus Belldandy is based on Verðandi ( or Verthandi ) , the Norse Goddess of the present , ( whose name is literally translated as " to become " or " becoming " ) , and she is one of the three Norns or " fates " from Norse mythology . Verdandi , when translated into Japanese , becomes ベルダンディー ( Berudandī ) . As the Japanese phonetic system does not distinguish between " b " and " v " or " r " and " l " ( although ヴ can describe " v " . ) , " Belldandy " can emerge as a product of consonant substitutions . Indeed , it was in the first chapter of the manga that her name was transliterated as Belldandy rather than Verdandi , and this romanization has stuck since . When the English translations were being prepared , Toren Smith considered returning the name to " Verthandi " , ( which Smith had determined to be the correct translation of the Old Norse ) , but chose to stick with Belldandy on the grounds that Fujishima was already " playing fast and loose with the mythos " and thus felt that no further harm was likely to come from employing Fujishima 's transliteration . ( Nevertheless , in the Swedish translation of the manga , released in 2007 , her name was returned to Verdandi ) .
= = Character outline = =
= = = Background = = =
Belldandy is depicted as being a Goddess working with the fictional " Goddess Relief Agency " . Although the series never specifically mentions her age , there are hints that she is between 18 and 28 when the series begins : in the original manga her birthdate is shown as 196X / 09 / 25 — the English translation offers no year , but simply says " September " — while in the anime the more specific 1985 / 01 / 01 is employed . This should not be seen as conclusive as Eileen Stevens , who provides the voice of Belldandy in the English @-@ language version of the TV series , states that while Belldandy is " young in appearance , late teens to early 20s , she 's ageless , perhaps thousands of years old . "
Fujishima provided the character with two sisters — Skuld and Urd — each with notably different personalities from her own . These two sisters represent the other two Norns from Norse mythology , with Urd ( the eldest of the three ) representing the past while Skuld ( the youngest ) represents the future . In recent volumes , Fujishima revealed the identity of Skuld and Belldandy 's mother , a goddess named Ansuz ( アンザス , Anzasu ) , who seems to have a rivalry with Hild , Urd 's mother .
When the series begins , Belldandy is working on the " Goddess Technical Helpline , also known as " Goddess Relief Office / Agency " " and is responsible for granting wishes to those who call . As such , her role is similar to the character Peorth 's work at the Earth Assistance Agency . In spite of working for Heaven , Belldandy , unlike her two sisters , does not appear to play a significant role in maintaining Yggdrasil .
= = = Personality = = =
The " magical girl " character , of which Belldandy is an example , typically combines powerful abilities with very feminine characteristics . For Western audiences , a comparison can be drawn with the characters of Samantha Stephens from Bewitched and Jeannie from I Dream of Jeannie . As such , Belldandy is depicted as being very sweet and exceptionally kind @-@ hearted , with very " old @-@ fashioned " sensibilities . Combined with domestic skills portrayed through the series and her loyalty to Keiichi , this makes her a classic example of the concept of Yamato Nadeshiko .
Belldandy is exceptionally kind @-@ hearted , even for a goddess . She can easily sense other people 's emotions and tries her best to be empathetic to all those around her , displaying a combination of " serene beauty and acceptance " . She rarely holds a grudge and is always willing to forgive anyone who does injury to her ... unless Keiichi is involved of course . Even though Belldandy tries her best to be as kind as possible , it is revealed that at times she can become very insecure and sad , especially when she is confronted with an implication that involves Keiichi in one way or another . This aspect of her character provides one of the biggest plot points in the Ah ! My Goddess movie : Belldandy 's possessiveness of Keiichi could make her an easy target for manipulation or even brainwashing , if the right buttons were pressed ; her jealousy of Morgan Le Fay was what allowed Celestin , her teacher , to lure Belldandy into his plans .
As noted by Perper and Cornog , Belldandy , as a depiction of what they term " kirei " , is comfortable " being loved and admired " and very much aware of her own beauty — yet this does not equate to vanity .
= = = Abilities = = =
Belldandy is unflinchingly kind , patient , and warm , not only to Keiichi but to everyone , without exception . This , however , does not mean that she is to be taken lightly ; Belldandy is licensed as a " goddess first @-@ class , unlimited " , and as such is depicted as being highly skilled . Her power is so great that she is required to wear a special earring on her left ear which constantly seals the full brunt of her magical strength . The only time at which she has ever revealed her true strength is during the " Lord of Terror " arc . At the end of this arc , Belldandy completely reconstructed their home from rubble , mentioning that doing so only took one ten @-@ millionth of her power .
Belldandy 's capacities and talents are diverse , whether magical or worldly . Not only can she change the appearance of her clothing and levitate ( and , by extension , fly ) , but she can also teleport through mirrors , speak to and understand animals , " see " people 's emotions as auras , heal minor wounds by speeding metabolism , and " speak " to machines . Furthermore , she is a superb cook , and her singing skills are held to be the best in the heavens . She is also incapable of becoming inebriated on alcoholic drinks , but instead becomes so with soda . ( One can is enough to send her in a drunken rampage — although given her personality , " rampage " takes an entirely different , but no less destructive , meaning ) . During the manga 's publication , more of Belldandy 's capabilities are discovered , but she probably has many more : Urd notes that Belldandy loves accumulating capabilities but usually doesn 't mention them herself . Among those seen in the manga , she has a Valkyrie diploma - as demonstrated when she neutralizes Thrym the Invincible in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat - and she 's a champion flying broom racer. the only thing she can 't do is hurt others - provided Keichi isn 't in harm 's way , otherwise she will " deal " with anything and anyone standing in her way ( see Thrym above for the most out of character example ) whatever the cost on herself .
= = = Holy Bell = = =
Each of the fully @-@ fledged goddesses in the series is teamed with an " angel " . Belldandy 's angel is called Holy Bell ( Blesséd Bell in some versions of the English manga ) ; her elemental attribute is wind . Like the other angels in the series , Holy Bell augments Belldandy 's magical powers when called upon , and like all angels , she also reflects her master 's current state . For example , when Belldandy falls unconscious after being infected with a virus , Holy Bell emerges comatose and covered with crystals that represent the virus .
= = Plot overview = =
Belldandy is introduced to the series when Keiichi Morisato , portrayed as a typical college student with a notable lack of experience with women , accidentally dials the " Goddess Relief Agency " when attempting to order take @-@ away noodles ( the reason is simply explained as fate in the manga and anime adaptations ) . Belldandy appears before Keiichi and offers to grant him a wish . Convinced that the whole incident is a prank played on him by his seniors ( Senpais ) , Keiichi half @-@ jokingly wishes her to stay with him forever . ( " I want a goddess like you to be by my side forever " ) . The wish , of course , is granted — thus providing one of the key premises of the series .
With Belldandy and Keiichi now portrayed as a couple , Fujishima introduces other factors : specifically the complications caused by family and friends . Forced to leave his dorm , as women are not permitted to stay on the premises , Keiichi and Belldandy end up living at the Tariki Hongan Temple in the city of Nekomi , Chiba Prefecture near Tokyo . Within both the manga and the anime , the temple was turned over to them by its former guardian , Koshian , a Buddhist monk who was overwhelmed by the purity of Belldandy 's spirit and her unparalleled skills in polishing the temple altar , in cooking , and in Zazen meditation . Koshian departs the series by leaving for a pilgrimage to find spiritual perfection , ( although he does briefly return later in the series ) , turning over the temple to Belldandy and Keiichi 's care without realizing Belldandy 's true nature as a Goddess . Later , Fujishima has Belldandy 's two sisters ( Urd and Skuld ) join Belldandy and Keiichi in the temple . The story then follows the numerous misadventures of the not @-@ so normal household , their growth over the course of the series and the budding romance between an ordinary young man and an angelic goddess .
= = = Relationship with Keiichi = = =
Although Belldandy was sent to grant Keiichi a wish and nothing more , Belldandy expresses many times that she has enjoyed her time with Keiichi and that her purpose is to make him happy . The contract really is an excuse for her to stay since her rival Marller , a first class demon , has stated that " she can cancel a contract with a human anytime " . Belldandy had then stated that she did not want to , because Keiichi was a special person in her heart . This was reinforced at the conclusion of chapter 39 : with the " System " down , Belldandy 's contract with Keiichi is effectively suspended , yet she chooses to stay because , as Fujishima has her explain in the manga , " ... I 'm here now because I love you ” .
There have been a couple of noticeable twitches in this however , when Belldandy shows doubt as to her future with Keiichi . When he takes up his job at Whirlwind towards the end of his time at Nekomi Tech , Belldandy reflects on how he ’ s beginning to follow his dream , before wondering just how far she can follow it with him . Then at the start of the current storyline in Volume 38 , in which the demon Hagall overthows Hild , Keiichi asks Belldandy if she will walk with him as his companion in life ; she hesitates , saying “ I ... Of course I will ” , without meeting his eyes .
In chapter 285 , " Kiss of Truth " , Hild reveals that Keiichi 's sexual desires for Belldandy have previously been sealed away in order to prevent humans and gods from mating , as would be the natural consequences of Keiichi 's wish for a goddess to be with him always . This explains why Keiichi has never been very forward in their relationship . Although Belldandy has never lied about this situation , she has also never told him . When the old contract was dissolved and a new one is formed , Belldandy and Keiichi are immediately confronted with an Interracial Romance Inquisitor ( Ansuz , mother of Belldandy and Skuld ) who immediately sets a trial to determine if they are really meant to be together , and should Keiichi fail , they shall be separated forever . Once passing the test , Belldandy and Keiichi are allowed by the heavens to live together as a proper couple , with their wedding ceremony being held in the final chapter .
= = Depictions = =
The character is depicted as being extremely beautiful , but not voluptuous in the same sense as her sister , Urd , nor does she possess the youthfulness of her younger sister , Skuld . As described by Perper and Cornog :
She is often depicted in " angelic " poses , with " impossibly long " hair , sparkling eyes , and a perfectly proportioned body .
= = = Manga = = =
When Fujishima first started drawing Oh My Goddess ! his style resembled that of his earlier series , You 're Under Arrest , and as such lacked the polish that became evident in his later work . However , as his style evolved it became more refined , as seen in works such as those collected in Childhood 's End . As part of this process the depictions of Belldandy within the manga have undergone change , with the later drawings displaying greater refinement than those in the earlier chapters . Nevertheless , it did not take long for Fujishima 's style to emerge : while still considered to be one of his earlier works , in the " Terrible Master Urd " story arc many of his trademarks are already apparent , including the " long flowing , well @-@ drawn hair " . In Chapter 293 of the manga , Belldandy 's original design was depicted in a flashback prior to coming to Earth using Fujishima 's current drawing style .
= = = Anime = = =
Kosuke Fujishima was involved in the design for the OVA , ( even working on some of the storyboards ) , and the design of Belldandy is consistent with that of the manga of the period . While Fujishima wasn 't as involved in Ah ! My Goddess : The Movie , so that the character designs were produced Hidenori Matsuhara , the finished result has since been described as " staying true to Kosuke Fujishima 's original designs " . The TV series saw slightly greater change , with the producers opting to update and redesign the characters in line with modern anime , especially when contrasted to the earlier manga . Nevertheless , while Belldandy has a more rounded face in the TV series than in the manga , the approach is still in keeping with Fujishima 's style . Adventures of Mini Goddess is quite different , being drawn in the super deformed style , and thus Belldandy 's appearance differs considerably from the manner in which she is depicted elsewhere .
In the OVA , TV series , movie and in The Adventures of Mini Goddess , the original voice of Belldandy was provided by voice actress Kikuko Inoue ; such was the success of Inoue that Fujishima was said to have been influenced by her when developing the manga character after the release of the first OVA . Akemi Okamura took on the role for the first 13 episodes of Adventures of a Mini Goddess due to Inoue 's pregnancy .
Three different voice actors have provided Belldandy 's voice in the English versions of the various anime series . For the English OVA , Belldandy 's voice was provided by Juliet Cesario , with her child voice being played by Juliet Cesario with the aid of helium . Bridget Hoffman , ( performing as Ruby Marlowe ) , provided the voice of Belldandy in both the movie and The Adventures of Mini Goddess , while Eileen Stevens voiced Belldandy for both seasons of the TV series .
= = Reception and critique = =
The character of Belldandy was generally well received and has a large number of fans , as evidenced when she was voted the second most popular female character in a 2001 poll in Newtype . In addition , Belldandy topped the Animage character polls for many months and was placed third on the all time Best Character list at the 17th Anime Grand Prix held in 1993 . Nevertheless , as reviewer Zac Bertschy described the situation : " People tend to go either way on the Belldandy character ; either she 's an obnoxious , archaic fantasy girl for men who prefer their women to act like indentured servants , or she 's the archetype of perfection , a flawless example of graceful femininity " .
The critique that Belldandy represents a negative stereotype of women , placing them in a subservient role to men , appears a number of times in the literature . Annalee Newitz states that the manner in which Belldandy is portrayed in the series would , in all likelihood , be impossible in the United States — especially , as she goes on to say , since " the advent of feminism and the women 's rights movement " . While Newitz sees this as reflective of Japanese culture , arguing that characters such as Belldandy are possible because feminist issues do not have the same recognition within Japan as they do in many Western countries , Susan J. Napier takes a very different line . She argues that characters such as Belldandy may be a reaction to the increasing assertiveness of women in Japan , thus presenting Belldandy as an attempt to reinforce traditional cultural values , rather than a reflection of them . To demonstrate this , Napier points to Belldandy 's role in " Moonlight and Cherry Blossoms " , the first of the OVA episodes . The episode begins with disorder , as Keiichi is evicted from his dorm after Belldandy 's chaotic appearance into his life , but ends with a return to " traditional values " , signified through the restoration of the old temple . Similarly , Napier notes that Belldandy 's cooking is often commended by the other characters , and as such is another way in which the character of Belldandy can be seen to reinforce more traditional female roles . Carlos Ross of THEM Anime Reviews considers Belldandy 's characterization in the film much better than in the OVA series , where he describes her as a " doormat " .
Either way , commentators still notice strengths in Belldandy 's character . While acknowledging the conservative portrayal , Napier describes Belldandy as " almost a perfect dream of feminine nurturance " and identifying that she has a " soothing and escapist function " , while reviewer Megan Lavey states that Belldandy is no pushover , and that she can hold her own , noting that she is making " the best of difficult circumstances . "
Another line of criticism of Belldandy relates to the sexual nature of the character , with Belldandy
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a delegation travel to Europe to garner support for a liberation of the region . In 1711 , Yesayi , accompanying Israel Ori , traveled to Russia to help build support for an army under Peter the Great . Ori , however , died on the way , and Yesayi soon took over as the lead figure of the movement . He continued negotiations with Peter , and in a letter sent to him in 1718 , promised the support of a 10 @-@ 12 @,@ 000 @-@ man Armenian army as well as support from neighboring Georgian forces . His entreaties continued until 1724 , when Peter concluded an agreement with the Ottoman Empire that , oddly , gave the Muslim @-@ populated regions in eastern Transcaucasia to Russia and Christian @-@ populated western regions to the Turks . Both had just finished conquering swaths of Safavid territory comprising large parts of the Caucasus and Eastern Anatolia , while the latter was disintegrating in a civil war . Russian interest in the Caucasus soon waned after Peter 's death in 1725 as its leaders pulled their forces back across the Terek River. and the gained territories in the North and South Caucasus were ceded back to Iran ( now led by Nader Shah ) per the treaties of Resht and Ganja of 1732 and 1735 , respeticely .
While the Ottomans thus temporarily therefore gained the Christian regions of the disintegrating Safavids , Yesai was blamed for this failure by some of the leaders of the Armenian army as they were forced to fend for themselves against the Turkish invasions .
In the course of the period from the 17th century to the early 19th century , the Jalalyan house also proliferated in the establishment of several other Armenian noble houses , including the Melik @-@ Atabekyan family , who became the last rulers of the principality of Jraberd . Allahverdi II Hasan @-@ Jalalyan , who was to die in 1813 , was the final melik of Khachen when the Russian Empire first entered the region in 1805 during the Russo @-@ Persian War of 1804 @-@ 1813 . In 1828 , following the end of the second Russo @-@ Persian War , when per the outcome as confirmed in the Treaty of Turkmenchay and Persia 's forced ceding of the last territories it was holding in the South Caucasus , the Russians finally dissolved the office of Catholicos .
= = Hasan @-@ Jalalyans today = =
At the time of the publication of Hewsen 's initial article in the journal Revue des Études Arméniennes , the author was unable to trace any survivors of the house but did note that the final two Catholicoi of Albania , Hovhannes XII ( 1763 – 1786 ) and Sargis II ( 1794 – 1815 ) , had a dozen brothers altogether , all who left a " numerous progeny by the middle of the nineteenth century . " He was also able to identify a woman named Eleanora Hasan @-@ Jalalyan who was living in Yerevan as an artist at the turn of 19th to 20th century . In later years , Soviet sources also listed the biography of Ruben Hasan @-@ Jalalyan ( 1840 – 1902 ) , an Armenian writer , poet and lawyer who lived in the Russian Empire .
Several artifacts of the Hasan @-@ Jalalyans survive until today , including Hasan @-@ Jalal 's personal dagger , complete with an Armenian inscription , which is currently on display at the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg .
= Seton Hall University =
Seton Hall University is a private Roman Catholic university in South Orange , New Jersey , United States . Founded in 1856 by Archbishop James Roosevelt Bayley and named after his aunt , Elizabeth Ann Seton , Seton Hall is the oldest diocesan university in the United States .
Seton Hall consists of 11 schools and colleges with an undergraduate enrollment of about 5 @,@ 800 students and a graduate enrollment of about 4 @,@ 400 . It was ranked tied for 123rd in Best National Universities by U.S. News & World Report in 2016 , with the School of Law ranked tied for 63rd . The Stillman School of Business was ranked 78th of 132 undergraduate business schools in the nation by Bloomberg Businessweek in 2014 .
Seton Hall University was also ranked one of the top five universities for undergraduate internships by the International Business Times in 2011 .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Like many Catholic universities in the United States , Seton Hall arose out of the Plenary Council of American Bishops , held in Baltimore , Maryland in 1844 , with the goal of bringing Catholicism to higher education in order to help propagate the faith . The Diocese of Newark had been established by Pope Pius IX in 1853 , just three years before the founding of the college , and it necessitated an institution for higher learning . Seton Hall College was formally founded on September 1 , 1856 by Archdiocese of Newark Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley , a cousin of President Theodore Roosevelt . Bishop Bayley named the institution after his aunt , Mother Elizabeth Ann Seton , who was later named the first American @-@ born Catholic saint .
The main campus of the college was originally in Madison , New Jersey . Reverend Bernard J. McQuaid served as the first college president ( 1856 – 1857 , 1859 – 1868 ) and directed a staff of four diocesan clergy including Reverend Alfred Young , vice @-@ president ; Reverend Daniel Fisher ( the second college president , 1857 – 1859 ) and five lay instructors . Initially , Seton Hall had only five students – Leo G. Thebaud , Louis and Alfred Boisaubin , Peter Meehan and John Moore . By the end of the first year , the student body had grown more than tenfold to 60 . The college moved to its current location in 1860 .
By the 1860s , Seton Hall College was continuing its rapid growth and began to enroll more and more students each year . However , among other difficulties , several fires on campus slowed down the growth process . The first of several strange fires in the University 's history occurred in 1867 which destroyed the college 's first building . Two decades later on March 9 , 1886 , another fire destroyed the university 's main building . In the 20th century , another campus fire burned down a classroom as well as several dormitory buildings in 1909 .
During the 19th century , despite setbacks , financially tight times and the American Civil War , the College continued to expand . Seton Hall opened a military science department ( forerunner to the ROTC program ) during the summer of 1893 , but this program was ultimately disbanded during the Spanish – American War . Perhaps one of the most pivotal events in the history of Seton Hall came in 1897 when Seton Hall 's preparatory ( high school ) and college ( undergraduate ) divisions were permanently separated . By 1937 , Seton Hall established a University College . This marked the first matriculation of women at Seton Hall . Seton Hall became fully coeducational in 1968 . In 1948 , Seton Hall was given a license by the FCC for WSOU @-@ FM .
The College was organized into a university in 1950 following an unprecedented growth in enrollment . The College of Arts and Sciences and the schools of business , nursing and education comprised the University ; the School of Law opened its doors in 1951 , with Miriam Rooney as the first woman dean of law in the United States .
= = = College of Medicine and Dentistry = = =
The Seton Hall College of Medicine and Dentistry was established in 1954 as the first medical school and dental school in New Jersey . It was located in Jersey City , adjacent to the Jersey City Medical Center , which was used for clinical education . Although the college , set up under the auspices of the Archdiocese of Newark , was a separate legal entity from the University , it had an interlocking Board of Trustees . The first class was enrolled in 1956 and graduated in 1960 . The dental school also awarded its first degrees in 1960 . From 1960 to 1964 , 348 individuals received an M.D. degree . The college was sold to the state of New Jersey in 1965 for $ 4 million after the Archdiocese could not support mounting school debt and renamed the New Jersey College of Medicine and Dentistry ( which became the New Jersey Medical School , part of the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey ) . That entity became part of the Rutgers University system in 2013 and now exists as the Rutgers New Jersey Medical School . Seton Hall established a new School of Medicine in partnership with Hackensack University Health Network in 2015 .
= = = Modernization period = = =
Beginning in the late 1960s and continuing in the next two decades , the university saw the construction and modernization of a large number of facilities and the construction of the library , science building , residence halls and the University center . Many new programs and majors were inaugurated , as were important social outreach efforts . New ties were established with the private and industrial sectors , and a growing partnership developed with federal and state governments in creating programs for the economically and educationally disadvantaged .
The 1970s and 1980s continued to be a time of growth and renewal . New business and nursing classroom buildings and an art center were opened . In 1984 , the Immaculate Conception Seminary returned to Seton Hall , its original home until 1926 , when it moved to Darlington ( a section of Mahwah centered on a grand mansion and estate ) . The Recreation Center was dedicated in 1987 . With the construction of four new residence halls between 1986 and 1988 , and the purchase of an off @-@ campus apartment building in 1990 , the University made significant changes to account for a larger number of student residents . Seton Hall is recognized as a residential campus , providing living space for about 2100 students .
The physical development of the campus continued in the 1990s . The $ 20 million Walsh Library opened in 1994 , and its first @-@ class study and research resources marked the beginning of a technological transformation of Seton Hall . The University dedicated its newest academic center in 1997 , originally named Kozlowski Hall for Dennis Kozlowski , former CEO of Tyco International . Renamed Jubilee Hall following Kozlowski 's criminal conviction in 2005 , the building is a clear example of Seton Hall 's commitment to expanding the role of information technology in higher education . All classrooms in this six @-@ story , 126 @,@ 000 square foot ( 12 @,@ 000 m2 ) building are wired for network and Internet connections , and many of the lecture halls are equipped with distance @-@ learning technology . Its recreation center was originally named after Robert Brennan , but he was found guilty of securities fraud in 1994 . It has since been renamed for long @-@ time athletic director Richie Regan .
A new School of Law building and parking garage were also constructed in the 1990s as part of the revitalization of downtown Newark . Seton Hall continues to be a leader in technology in education , as well as in distance learning , with its renowned Seton World Wide program . In 1998 , all incoming full @-@ time , first @-@ year students were issued laptop computers as part of the University 's innovative and nationally recognized mobile computing program .
= = = The Boland Hall fire = = =
On January 19 , 2000 , an arson fire killed three and injured 54 students in Boland Hall , a freshman residence hall on the campus in South Orange . The incident , one of the deadliest in recent US history , occurred at 4 : 30 am , when most students were asleep . After a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half year investigation , a 60 @-@ count indictment charged two freshmen students , Sean Ryan and Joseph LePore , with starting the fire and felony murder for the deaths that resulted . LePore and Ryan pleaded guilty to third @-@ degree arson and were sentenced to five years in a youth correctional facility with eligibility for parole 16 months after the start of their prison terms . Consequently , the student body dedicated an area in front of Boland Hall to those that suffered from the fire called " The Remember Seal " and stronger university fire safety precautions were executed .
= = = Sesquicentennial = = =
On the 150th anniversary ( 1856 – 2006 ) of the university ’ s founding , Seton Hall initiated the Ever Forward capital campaign to raise a total of $ 150 million . The campaign was the most prestigious building campaign in the University ’ s long history . The funds were directed to many areas throughout the university , however a majority went toward building and reconstructing campus facilities and historic sites .
In fall 2007 , the university opened the new $ 35 million Science and Technology Center , completing one of the major campaign priorities ahead of schedule . On December 17 , 2007 , the university announced that the campaign 's fund raising goals had been met and exceeded more than two weeks ahead of the campaign 's scheduled closing date .
= = = 2010 - present = = =
The university has completed a host of campus renovations and new construction while attracting more and better students . An initial round of improvements totaling nearly $ 100 million concluded in 2014 with the opening of a new fitness center , academic building , parking garage and expanded Aquinas Hall dormitory . A second round of construction is planned for 2016 and beyond .
Seton Hall announced the formation of two additional academic units in 2015 – the School of Medicine and the College of Communication and the Arts . The medical school , which is expected to open in 2017 in partnership with Hackensack University Health Network , will be one of six Catholic medical schools in the United States and should address a shortage of primary care physicians in New Jersey and the surrounding region . The College of Communication and the Arts was a department in the College of Arts and Sciences before being elevated in the summer of 2015 .
= = Governance = =
The university , legally incorporated as “ Seton Hall University , an educational corporation of New Jersey , ” is governed by a 16 @-@ member Board of Trustees . Eleven members of the board serve on it as a virtue of their positions within the University or Archdiocese of Newark . The Archbishop of Newark , who serves as the President of the Board , retains the power to appoint the remaining five members of the body . Appointed members of the board serve three @-@ year terms , until their respective successor is appointed . The Board of Trustees exclusively maintains the property rights of the university and provides selection of title , scope , and location of the schools and colleges of the university .
The governance of the university includes a Board of Regents , which is charged with the management of the university . The Board has a membership of between 25 and 39 members . Six of the members are ex @-@ officio ; the Board of Trustees maintains the right to elect up to thirty more . Regents maintain the exclusive hiring authority over the President of the university . Previous by @-@ laws of the university stipulated that the President must be a Roman Catholic priest .
In May 2009 , Monsignor Robert Sheeran announced his resignation effective June 2010 .
In January 2010 , a Presidential Search Committee named the Interim President and former Provost , Dr. Amado Gabriel Esteban , as the 20th President of Seton Hall . Esteban attended Harvard University ’ s Graduate School of Education and completed the Japan Management Program at the Japan @-@ America Institute for Management Science . His credentials include a Ph.D. from the Graduate School of Management at the University of California at Irvine , an M.S. in Japanese Business Studies from Chaminade University in Honolulu , and an M.B.A. and B.S. in mathematics from the University of the Philippines . He is the first lay president of Seton Hall in three decades and the first Filipino to become president of an American university .
= = Campus = =
= = = Main campus = = =
The main campus of Seton Hall University is situated on 58 acres ( 23 ha ) of suburban land on South Orange Avenue . It is home to nine of the 10 schools and colleges of the University . The South Orange Village center is just ½ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) west of the main campus . Directly across from the main campus to the northwest are scenic Montrose Park and the Montrose Park Historic District , which is listed in the National Register of Historic Places . The Eugene V. Kelly Carriage House , on the campus itself , is also NRHP @-@ listed . The village itself dates back to 1666 preceding the establishment of Seton Hall College . Also since the beginning of the College , the South Orange Rail Station has served as an integral means to campus commuters . The main campus combines architectural styles including Roman , neo @-@ gothic and modern . The South Orange campus became a gated community during the University ’ s Modernization Period .
= = = Buildings = = =
The original centerpieces of the campus were made up of three buildings built in the 19th century . Presidents , Stafford and Marshall Halls were built when the College moved from Madison , New Jersey to South Orange . Some of the more notable buildings on campus are :
Presidents Hall – One of the oldest buildings on campus and a flagship of the University , Presidents Hall was completed in 1867 . Located at the epicenter of the main campus , Presidents Hall is a neo @-@ gothic structure dressed in brownstone . It originally served as a seminary but now houses the University ’ s administration including the Office of the University President . The halls are lined with portraits of past University presidents and include a large stained glass depicting Saint Elizabeth Ann Seton , which was commissioned in 1866 by President Bayley .
Chapel of the Immaculate Conception – The handsome Gothic Revival brownstone building was designed by architect Jeremiah O 'Rourke , who later designed the Cathedral of Newark . The chapel was built in 1863 and dedicated in 1870 . Major renovations were completed in 1972 and most recently in 2008 . The 2008 renovation was a primary component of Seton Hall 's comprehensive Ever Forward fundraising campaign . In 2013 , the chapel landed at No. 24 on Buzzfeed 's survey of " 31 Insanely Beautiful Colleges You Can Get Married At " and was ranked at No. 28 the following year on Collegeranker 's list of " The 50 Most Beautiful College Campus Wedding Venues .
Stafford Hall – In 2014 , a new academic building rose on the site of the former Stafford Hall , an outdated structure that had been a campus fixture since the 19th century . Bearing the name of its predecessor , the new Stafford Hall features 12 classrooms of multiple sizes , nine of which can accommodate 35 students each , while the remaining rooms include two large classrooms that can hold 70 and 50 students apiece and one smaller room for 25 students .
Fitness Center – A new fitness center opened in January 2014 as part of the Richie Regan Recreation and Athletic Center . The center occupies three levels of the building and includes spa @-@ like locker rooms , various weight @-@ training stations , 75 cardio machines and two dance studios , where more than 30 fitness classes — Zumba , spinning , body combat , Pilates , aerobics and yoga — take place weekly . Each of the cardio stations features a personal HDTV monitor with internet access that can sync up with a mobile device , and a wide selection trail workouts set in locations around the world .
McQuaid Hall – Built around 1900 , it was named for Bishop Bernard J. McQuaid , Seton Hall ’ s first President from 1856 – 1857 and 1859 – 1867 . McQuaid Hall was both a boarding house for students and a convent for nuns before serving its present purpose as the home of the School of Diplomacy and International Relations as well as the Graduate School of Medical Education .
Jubilee Hall houses the W. Paul Stillman School of Business in addition to the largest auditorium at the University . There are several computer labs , state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art classrooms and a Stock Exchange research room . The building was originally named Kozlowski Hall after Dennis Kozlowski , Seton Hall Alumni and former CEO of Tyco International . Following Kozlowski 's conviction for securities fraud the building was renamed at his request to Jubilee Hall in honor of the Papal Jubilee . Built in 1997 , it is one of the newer additions to the main campus .
Walsh Gymnasium is a multi @-@ purpose arena for University Sports . The arena opened in 1939 and can seat 2 @,@ 600 people . It was home to the Seton Hall University Pirates men 's basketball team before they moved to Continental Airlines Arena and then the Prudential Center . Currently , the arena hosts the women 's basketball and volleyball teams , and is part of the Richie Regan Recreation and Athletic Center . The building , like the school 's main library , is named for Thomas J. Walsh , Fifth Bishop of Newark and former President of the Board of Trustees .
McNulty Hall – Named for Msgr. John L. McNulty , President of the University from 1949 – 1959 , McNulty Hall was built as the university ’ s technology and research center in 1954 . One of the most famous features of the building is the “ Atom Wall ” a relief artwork originally located on outer façade . Following renovations completed in the summer of 2007 , the Atom Wall , depicting the gift of scientific knowledge from God to man , can be seen in the glass atrium of the building . McNulty also houses a large amphitheater and observatory for the chemistry , physics and biology departments .
Fahy Hall – Built in 1968 , the building houses the classrooms and faculty offices of the College of Arts and Sciences . The building was named after Monsignor Thomas George Fahy who served as President of the University from 1970 – 1976 . Fahy Hall includes several student resources and facilities , including two television studios , two amphitheaters and laboratories for computing , language learning , and statistics .
Arts and Sciences Hall – Originally built to house the Stillman School of Business in 1973 , with the creation of Jubilee Hall in 1997 , the building is now home to the College of Arts and Sciences . The building is conjoined with the College of Nursing in the north wing . The College of Nursing has advanced teaching facilities including hospital beds , demonstration rooms and multi @-@ purpose practice areas .
= = = Sustainability = = =
Seton Hall 's extensive recycling program is one of the highlights in the college 's sustainability programming . Recycling is mandatory on campus as per New Jersey state laws . Additionally , Seton Hall celebrated Earth Day 2010 , marking the event with demonstrations about composting and rainwater collection , a group hike , and an outdoor screening of the environmental documentary " HOME . "
On the College Sustainability Report Card 2011 , Seton Hall earned a grade of " B- " . Lack of endowment transparency and green building initiatives hurt the grade , while the recycling programs were a plus .
= = = Newark Campus = = =
A satellite of the main campus , the Newark Campus is home to the University ’ s School of Law . Located at One Newark Center , the Law School and several academic centers of the University are housed in a modern 22 @-@ story skyscraper building . It is at the corner of Raymond Boulevard and McCarter Highway in the business and high @-@ tech heart of downtown Newark , New Jersey and was completed in 1991 . The Newark Campus building provides 210 @,@ 000 square feet ( 20 @,@ 000 m2 ) and an additional 65 @,@ 000 square feet ( 6 @,@ 000 m2 ) of library to the University .
The Seton Hall University School of Law was founded in 1951 . It is accredited by the American Bar Association ( ABA ) since 1951 and is also a member of the Association of American Law Schools ( AALS ) . Seton Hall is one of three law schools in the state of New Jersey . Seton Hall Law was founded by a woman , Miriam T. Rooney , who served as dean from 1951 to 1961 . She was not only Seton Hall ’ s first female dean , but was the first woman dean at an ABA @-@ accredited law school in the United States . Dean Kathleen M. Boozang , who assumed the role in July 2015 , is the third woman dean of Seton Hall Law .
= = Academics = =
Seton Hall University confers undergraduate , graduate , and postgraduate degrees in as many as 70 academic fields . The school 's academic programs are divided into 11 academic units :
= = = Rankings = = =
Seton Hall University was ranked by U.S. News & World Report in 2016 at tied for 123rd in the National Universities category , with the School of Law ranked 63rd best in the nation . The Stillman School of Business was ranked 78th of 132 undergraduate business schools in the nation by Bloomberg Businessweek in 2014 .
= = Student life = =
= = = Greek life = = =
Twenty @-@ four recognized fraternity and sorority chapters are chartered at Seton Hall . About 15 percent of the student body are members of a Greek @-@ letter organization .
Fraternities at Seton Hall include
Sororities include
In fall 2005 , a group of students purporting to be an unrecognized chapter of Tau Kappa Epsilon made headlines when it was discovered that a pledge had been kidnapped and beaten for alerting university administration of the group 's existence .
= = = A Cappella groups = = =
The Gentlemen of the Hall ( All Male )
Pretty S # arp ( All Female )
= = = Student media = = =
The school 's principal newspaper is The Setonian . The paper has school news , an entertainment section called " Pirate Life , " sports , editorials , and an opinion section . The staff consists of undergraduates and publishes weekly on Thursday . The Stillman Exchange is the Stillman Business school 's newspaper . Its stories cover ethical issues , business , and athletic stories . The Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations is a bi @-@ annually published journal composed of writings by international leaders in government , the private sector , academia , and nongovernmental organizations . The Liberty Bell , is the only political and independent newspaper on campus . Founded in 2007 , it is published monthly and features news and op @-@ ed articles about university , local , national , and international news with a focus on personal freedom . The Liberty Bell won the Collegiate Network 's 2008 – 2009 award for Best New Paper , an award given to student newspapers no older than three years .
WSOU is a non @-@ commercial , college radio station , broadcasting at 89 @.@ 5 MHz FM . The station broadcasts from the campus of Seton Hall University in South Orange , NJ . It is a student run station with General Manager Mark Maben at helm as a full @-@ time faculty member . WSOU currently broadcasts in HD @-@ RADIO . In 2007 , the Princeton Review rated WSOU as the eighth @-@ best college radio station in the nation . Industry magazine also ranked WSOU to be the top Metal format station in the nation in 2007 , and Rolling Stone Magazine ranked WSOU to be one of the top 5 rock stations in the nation in 2008 .
Seton Hall 's television station , Pirate @-@ TV , is located in the basement of Fahy Hall . Programming includes a daily news show and weekly sports talk and fashion / entertainment shows
= = = Traditions = = =
= = = = University seal = = = =
The University seal as it is today is symbolic of hundreds of years of history . The seal combines attributes from the Bayley Coat of Arms and the Seton family crest . The Seton crest dates back as early as 1216 and symbolizes Scottish nobility . Renowned crest @-@ maker , William F. J. Ryan designed the current form of the Seton Hall crest , which is notable for its three crescents and three torteau .
The motto on the seal Hazard Zet Forward ( Hazard Zit Forward on some versions ) is a combination of Norman French and archaic English meaning at whatever risk , yet go forward . Part custom and part superstition , students avoid stepping on an engraving of the seal in the middle of the university green . It is said that students who step on the seal will not graduate on time .
= = = = Alma Mater = = = =
The Seton Hall University Alma Mater was adopted as the official song of Seton Hall University . Charles A. Byrne of the class of 1937 wrote the original lyrics in 1936 and the university adopted the alma mater during the 1937 school year when the dean first read it to the student body . Some students participate in the tradition of saying " blue and white " more loudly than the rest of the alma mater .
= = = = Fight song = = = =
" Onward Setonia " is Seton Hall 's fight song and it is played by the University Pep Band at all home Men 's and Women 's basketball games , usually as the team comes onto the court and at the end of the first half and at the end of the game .
= = Dining = =
Seton Hall offers multiple dining options ranging from a traditional cafeteria to a food court . Some options include Build Your Own Burgers ( BYOB ) and Dunkin Donuts . In 2013 , University officials decided that meat would not be served in the cafeteria on Ash Wednesday and Fridays during the liturgical season of Lent in practice of the abstinence of meat during the Lenten season . In 2014 , the policy was implemented to all on @-@ campus eateries .
= = Athletics = =
The school 's sports teams are called the Pirates . They participate in the NCAA 's Division I and in the Big East Conference . The college established its first basketball squad in 1903 . Seton Hall canceled football ( which was played in Division III ) in 1982 .
Seton Hall athletics is best known for its men 's basketball program , which won the National Invitation Tournament ( NIT ) in 1953 , and lost in the finals of the 1989 NCAA Tournament to Michigan , 80 – 79 in overtime after a controversial call . Seton Hall currently participates at the Division I level in baseball , men 's and women 's basketball , men 's and women 's cross country running , men 's and women 's golf , men 's and women 's soccer , softball , men 's and women 's swimming & diving , women 's tennis , and women 's volleyball .
Seton Hall also has club sports in ice hockey , rugby union , lacrosse , and Men 's volleyball and soccer . All Seton Hall sports have their home field on the South Orange campus except for the men 's ice hockey team and the men 's basketball team , which currently plays at the Prudential Center in Newark , New Jersey after previously calling the Meadowlands home . Seton hall had a club football team from 1965 thru 1972 . In 1972 the football team won the National Club Football Championship , 96 teams nationwide competed in the National Club Football Championship . The next year , 1973 , it became a Varsity sport until the highly successful team was discontinued after the 1981 season . During this period the team was coached by Ed Manigan .
= = Notable faculty and alumni = =
= The Last Castle =
The Last Castle is a 2001 American action drama film directed by Rod Lurie , starring Robert Redford , James Gandolfini , Mark Ruffalo and Delroy Lindo .
The film portrays a struggle between inmates and the warden of a military prison , based on the United States Disciplinary Barracks at Fort Leavenworth . A highly decorated U.S. Army Lieutenant General , court martialed and sentenced for insubordination , challenges the prison commandant , a colonel , over his treatment of the prisoners . After mobilizing the inmates , the former general leads an uprising aiming to seize control of the prison .
The film was released in the United States on October 19 , 2001 , to mixed reviews and grossed $ 27 @.@ 6 million worldwide .
= = Plot = =
Lieutenant General Eugene Irwin ( Robert Redford ) is brought to a maximum security military prison to begin a ten @-@ year sentence for his decision ( in violation of a presidential order ) to send U.S. troops on a mission in Burundi , resulting in the deaths of eight soldiers . Colonel Winter ( James Gandolfini ) , the prison 's commandant , is a great admirer of the general but is offended by a comment he overhears : Irwin criticizes Winter 's much @-@ prized military artifacts collection , calling it something no actual battlefield veteran would ever have .
Winter , who has never seen combat , resents the remark . He then takes exception to what he perceives as Irwin 's attempt to change the attitudes of the prisoners , his admiration for Irwin fading fast . On one occasion , Irwin is punished harshly after stopping a guard from clubbing a prisoner , Corporal Ramon Aguilar ( Clifton Collins , Jr . ) , who had made the mistake of saluting Irwin in the prison yard .
Continuing to observe acts of cruelty , Irwin attempts to unify the prisoners by building a " castle wall " of stone and mortar at the facility , which in many ways resembles a medieval castle . Envying the respect Irwin is clearly receiving , Winter orders his guards to destroy the wall . Aguilar , directly involved in its construction , takes a stand before the bulldozer . Winter orders a sharpshooter with a coded hand gesture to fire a normally non @-@ lethal rubber bullet directly at Aguilar 's head , killing him .
After the wall is destroyed , Irwin and the inmates pay final respects to Aguilar in formation . Winter later tries to make amends with Irwin , who calls him a disgrace to the uniform and demands his resignation .
The prisoners begin to behave like soldiers around Irwin , using code words and gestures , infuriating the commandant . Winter reaches out to an anti @-@ social prisoner named Yates ( Mark Ruffalo ) , a former officer and Apache helicopter pilot convicted of running a drug @-@ smuggling ring . Yates is bribed to inform about Irwin 's plans in exchange for a reduced sentence .
Irwin organizes a plot to throw the prison into chaos . His intent is to show a friend , Brigadier General Wheeler ( Delroy Lindo ) , the commandant 's superior officer , that the commandant is unfit and should be removed from command under the Uniform Code of Military Justice . During a visit , Winter receives a letter threatening the kidnapping of General Wheeler by the prisoners . After ordering his men into action , Winter discovers that the scheme was a fake orchestrated by Irwin to detect how prison guards would react during an actual uprising .
Yates steals a U.S. flag from the warden 's office and seizes a helicopter used by guards .
Using improvised weapons the prisoners capture an armored vehicle and the helicopter . The prisoners place a call to Wheeler 's headquarters and inform him of the riot . Winter has little time to regain control before Wheeler will arrive to see the prison under siege , so orders the use of live ammunition against the prisoners .
Winter knows from Yates that Irwin 's ultimate goal is to raise the American flag upside down , a classic signal of distress . Irwin 's men create havoc but ultimately are confronted by overwhelming numbers of guards , armed with live ammunition . Irwin orders the prisoners to stand down and elects to personally hoist the flag . Winter shoots Irwin , fatally .
Peretz places the Colonel under arrest for the shooting of Irwin . The prisoners salute the flag and Winter now sees that Irwin has actually raised the flag in the correct manner . It flies above the prison 's walls as General Wheeler arrives . Colonel Winter is led away in handcuffs . The inmates build a new wall as memorial to their fallen comrades . Aguilar and Irwin 's names are among those carved onto the castle 's wall .
= = Cast = =
Robert Redford as Lieutenant General Eugene Irwin
James Gandolfini as Colonel Winter
Mark Ruffalo as Yates
Delroy Lindo as Brigadier General Wheeler
Steve Burton as Captain Peretz
Paul Calderón as Sergeant Major Dellwo
Clifton Collins , Jr. as Corporal Aguilar
Robin Wright ( uncredited ) as Rosalie Irwin , the general 's daughter
= = Production = =
The film was shot mainly at the 103 @-@ year @-@ old former Tennessee State Prison in Nashville , which had previously been used for filming in The Green Mile and Last Dance , and was chosen because of its Gothic and castle @-@ like appearance . The state of Tennessee offered to provide the location rent @-@ free , with exemption from the state 's 6 percent state sales tax . James Gandolfini earned $ 5 million for co @-@ starring in the film after finishing the third season of The Sopranos in March 2001 .
A crew of 150 worked on refurbishing existing buildings and constructing new buildings in a time limit of nine weeks . A wall 61 metres ( 200 ft ) long and 6 metres ( 20 ft ) high was built , serving as the prison 's entrance . A metal walkway and two towers were also built as vantage points for the guards . The film required an office with a large window through which the warden could watch the inmates ; this was constructed by the production crew . Director Rod Lurie insisted on having the prisoners ' cells face each other , but this is not the case at the Tennessee State Prison . To solve the problem , production designer Kirk Petruccelli created cells in a warehouse near the prison .
= = = Cinematography = = =
To show the balance of power , the film crew used multiple cinematography techniques involving different displays of color , lighting , camera and costumes . In the warden 's office intense color was used to reflect freedom or power , in contrast to the washed @-@ out colors from the less powerful yard . The contrasts shift as the story progresses , showing the increasing power of the prisoners . The American flag in the yard is described by Petruccelli as " the heart of The Castle " and is the only exemption to the washed @-@ out color palette .
Cinematographer Shelly Johnson , in collaboration with director Lurie and the design team , also used lighting and camerawork to signify the shifting of powers . For example , the yard is at first naturally lit and more influenced by daylight , in contrast to Winter 's office , which is artificially illuminated by lamps . As the film progresses , the office is more fully infiltrated by exterior light through a broken window . The shift of power is also emphasized through camera techniques . Hand @-@ held cameras were used when filming in the yard to make the audience feel as if they were " participants in the action " . However , a very precise , sterile camera composition was used in the warden 's office . The prisoners ' world gets more precise during the film , while the colonel 's world is filmed more loosely .
Costume designer Ha Nguyen also demonstrates this contrast in the clothing of the cast . The film starts with the prisoners having their clothing divided by ethnicity , with African Americans wearing different headwear , Latinos wearing vests and various arm accessories , and the White Americans in cut @-@ off t @-@ shirts . After the arrival of General Irwin , the prisoners start wearing more similar clothing in a " sharp military manner " . The uniforms of the prisoners change from the usual chocolate brown color to light grey , because of its muddled look on film and excessive darkness in some scenes . Ha Nguyen also contrasted the non @-@ battlefield ribbons found on Colonel Winter 's uniform with the battlefield medals found on General Irwin 's uniform ( seen only in the opening scene as Irwin is inducted into the prison ) .
The wall created by the prisoners in the middle of the yard also represents change and incarnation . What is at first a " discombobulated mess " representing the lack of unity among prisoners later becomes a perfect wall , a " powerful symbol of the results of [ Irwin 's ] leadership " .
= = = Effects = = =
Special effects supervisor Burt Dalton and stunt coordinator Mic Rodger created the battle weapons used in the final scenes . The trebuchet , used by prisoners to throw rocks , was capable of throwing a 68 kilograms ( 150 lb ) rock a distance of 60 metres ( 200 ft ) with an accuracy of ten feet around the target . The water cannon had the power to shoot 76 litres ( 20 US gal ) of water per second . Some of the cast did their own stunts , including Mark Ruffalo , who performed one scene hanging from a helicopter . Interiors of the helicopter were not created with blue screen effects ; instead , a special gimbal was used to hold a full @-@ sized Huey @-@ A type military helicopter . The gimbal was capable of rotating the helicopter 360 degrees and vertically moving it 20 feet . The gimbal was controlled by a computer , allowing Dalton to precisely set speed and movement ; this ensured precise repeatability for multiple takes .
= = Release = =
Prior to release , DreamWorks pulled the original poster from circulation , which depicted an American flag flying upside down ( a standard distress call ) , due to concerns about public sensitivity related to the September 11 attacks .
The film was released on October 19 , 2001 , in 2 @,@ 262 North American theaters , grossing $ 7 @,@ 088 @,@ 213 on its opening weekend with an average of $ 3 @,@ 133 per theater . The release spanned 63 days ( 9 weeks ) , closing on December 20 , 2001 , with a total domestic gross of $ 18 @,@ 244 @,@ 060 . The film grossed $ 9 @,@ 398 @,@ 647 overseas , with the lowest earning in Egypt ( $ 5 @,@ 954 ) and the highest ( $ 1 @,@ 410 @,@ 528 ) in Germany .
= = Reception = =
The Last Castle received mixed reviews from critics . On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 52 % , based on 113 reviews , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 6 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus , " The Last Castle is well acted and rousing for the most part , but the story cannot stand up to close scrutiny . " At Metacritic , a rating website which assigns a normalized rating , the film has a score of 42 out of 100 , based on 32 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
Mick LaSalle from the San Francisco Chronicle mentioned the cast , describing Redford as " no George C. Scott " and Gandolfini as an unusual choice to play an icy intellectual . LaSalle stated that " ' The Last Castle ' , on the surface , seems like a naive film about a great leader 's capacity to inspire " , but at closer look " seems to mean one thing but means another upon reflection " . In general , LaSalle is in favour of the movie .
Roger Ebert from the Chicago Sun @-@ Times saw it as " a dramatic , involving story " but criticized its " loopholes and lapses . " Ebert noted that Irwin is no less evil than Winter and that they both " delight in manipulating those they can control . " He pointed out that the film fails to portray how the prisoners manufacture the weapons and hide them under Winter 's observation .
It received 3 out of 5 stars on IGN ; the review noted that though a well paced and well acted film , it " suffers from this overall militaristic , streamlined approach . "
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said the film 's " pretensions lead to a slow , even stately pace , what should be crackling confrontations between Irwin and Winter end up playing more like a tea party than a Wagnerian battle of wills . "
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the movie a " C @-@ plus " grade , writing : " As staged by Lurie , the drama has all the subtlety and surprise of a showdown between the sissy @-@ bully son of Captain Queeg and a hero who 's like a fusion of Brubaker , Spartacus , and Norma Rae . "
Variety wrote : " Much of the potential dramatic juice has been drained out of The Last Castle , a disappointingly pedestrian prison meller that falls between stools artistically and politically . "
Claudia Puig of USA Today criticized the writing , citing " a losing battle with an implausible script . "
Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times wrote : " The movie is exuberant , strapping and obvious — a problem drama suffering from a steroid overdose . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The Last Castle won the Taurus World Stunt Award for best fire stunt and was nominated for best aerial work and best stunt coordination sequence . Clifton Collins , Jr. was nominated for an ALMA Award in the " Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture " category .
= Dyson sphere =
A Dyson sphere is a hypothetical megastructure that completely encompasses a star and captures most or all of its power output . The concept was first described by Olaf Stapledon in his science fiction novel , Star Maker ( 1937 ) , and later popularized by Freeman Dyson in his 1960 paper , " Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infrared Radiation " . Dyson speculated that such structures would be the logical consequence of the escalating energy needs of a technological civilization and would be a necessity for its long @-@ term survival . He proposed that searching for such structures could lead to the detection of advanced , intelligent extraterrestrial life . Different types of Dyson spheres and their energy @-@ harvesting ability would correspond to levels of technological advancement on the Kardashev scale .
Since then , other variant designs involving building an artificial structure or series of structures to encompass a star have been proposed in exploratory engineering or described in science fiction under the name " Dyson sphere " . These later proposals have not been limited to solar @-@ power stations , with many involving habitation or industrial elements . Most fictional depictions describe a solid shell of matter enclosing a star , which is considered the least plausible variant of the idea . In May 2013 , at the Starship Century Symposium in San Diego , Dyson repeated his comments that he wished the concept had not been named after him .
= = Origin of concept = =
The concept of the Dyson sphere was the result of a thought experiment by physicist and mathematician Freeman Dyson , when he theorized that all technological civilizations constantly increased their demand for energy . He reasoned that if human civilization expanded energy demands long enough , there would come a time when it demanded the total energy output of the Sun . He proposed a system of orbiting structures ( which he referred to initially as a shell ) designed to intercept and collect all energy produced by the Sun . Dyson 's proposal did not detail how such a system would be constructed , but focused only on issues of energy collection , on the basis that such a structure could be distinguished by its unusual emission spectrum in comparison to a star . His 1960 paper " Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra @-@ Red Radiation " , published in the journal Science , is credited with being the first to formalize the concept of the Dyson sphere .
However , Dyson was not the first to advance this idea . He was inspired by the mention of the concept in the 1937 science fiction novel Star Maker , by Olaf Stapledon , and possibly by the works of J. D. Bernal , Raymond Z. Gallun , and Edgar Rice Burroughs who seem to have explored similar concepts in their work .
= = Feasibility = =
Although such megastructures may be theoretically possible , all plans to build a fixed @-@ in @-@ place Dyson sphere are currently far beyond humanity 's engineering capacity . However , parts of the technology , like orbiting satellites and solar sails , have already been developed . Deployment of spacecraft and satellites using photovoltaics might be seen as the first small steps towards building a Dyson swarm . However , the number of craft required to obtain , transmit , and maintain a complete Dyson sphere far exceeds present @-@ day industrial capabilities . George Dvorsky has advocated use of self @-@ replicating robots to overcome this limitation in the relatively near term . Some have suggested that such habitats could be built around white dwarfs and even pulsars .
= = Variants = =
In fictional accounts , the Dyson @-@ sphere concept is often interpreted as an artificial hollow sphere of matter around a star . This perception is based on a literal interpretation of Dyson 's original short paper introducing the concept . In response to letters prompted by this paper , Dyson replied , " A solid shell or ring surrounding a star is mechanically impossible . The form of ' biosphere ' which I envisaged consists of a loose collection or swarm of objects traveling on independent orbits around the star . "
= = = Dyson swarm = = =
The variant closest to Dyson 's original conception is the " Dyson swarm " . It consists of a large number of independent constructs ( usually solar power satellites and space habitats ) orbiting in a dense formation around the star . This construction approach has advantages : components could be sized appropriately , and it can be constructed incrementally . Various forms of wireless energy transfer could be used to transfer energy between components and Earth .
Disadvantages resulting from the nature of orbital mechanics would make the arrangement of the orbits of the swarm extremely complex . The simplest such arrangement is the Dyson ring , in which all such structures share the same orbit . More @-@ complex patterns with more rings would intercept more of the star 's output , but would result in some constructs eclipsing others periodically when their orbits overlap . Another potential problem is the increasing loss of orbital stability when adding more elements increases the probability of orbital perturbations .
As noted below , such a cloud of collectors would alter the light emitted by the star system . However , the disruption compared to a star 's overall natural emitted spectrum would most likely be too small to be noticed on Earth .
= = = Dyson bubble = = =
A second type of Dyson sphere is the " Dyson bubble " . It would be similar to a Dyson swarm , composed of many independent constructs ( usually solar power satellites and space habitats ) and likewise could be constructed incrementally .
Unlike the Dyson swarm , the constructs making it up are not in orbit around the star , but would be statites — satellites suspended by use of enormous light sails using radiation pressure to counteract the star 's pull of gravity . Such constructs would not be in danger of collision or of eclipsing one another ; they would be totally stationary with regard to the star , and independent of one another . Because the ratio of radiation pressure and the force of gravity from a star is constant regardless of the distance ( provided the statite has an unobstructed line @-@ of @-@ sight to the surface of its star ) , such statites could also vary their distance from their central star .
The practicality of this approach is questionable with modern material science , but cannot yet be ruled out . A 100 % reflective statite deployed around the Sun would have an overall density of 0 @.@ 78 grams per square meter of sail . To illustrate the low mass of the required materials , consider that the total mass of a bubble of such material 1 AU in radius would be about 2 @.@ 17 × 1020 kg , which is about the same mass as the asteroid Pallas . Another illustration : Regular printing paper has a density of around 80 g / m2 .
Such a material has not yet been produced in the form of a working light sail . The lightest carbon @-@ fiber light @-@ sail material currently produced has a density — without payload — of 3 g / m2 , or about four times as heavy as would be needed to construct a solar statite .
A single sheet of graphene , the two @-@ dimensional form of carbon , has a density of only 0 @.@ 37 mg per square meter , making such a single sheet of graphene possibly effective as a solar sail . However , as of 2015 graphene has not been fabricated in large sheets , and it has a relatively high rate of radiation absorption , about 2 @.@ 3 % ( i.e. , it would only be 97 @.@ 7 % reflective ) . For frequencies in the upper GHz and lower THz range , the absorption rate is as high as 50 – 100 % due to voltage bias and / or doping .
Ultra @-@ light carbon nanotubes meshed through molecular manufacturing techniques have densities between 1 @.@ 3 g / m2 to 1 @.@ 4 g / m2 . By the time a civilization is ready to use this technology , the carbon nanotube 's manufacturing might be optimised enough for them to have a density lower than the necessary 0 @.@ 7 g / m2 , and the average sail density with rigging might be kept to 0 @.@ 3 g / m2 ( a " spin stabilized " light sail requires minimal additional mass in rigging ) . If such a sail could be constructed at this areal density , a space habitat the size of the L5 Society 's proposed O 'Neill cylinder — 500 km2 , with room for over 1 million inhabitants , massing 3 × 106 tons — could be supported by a circular light sail 3 @,@ 000 km in diameter , with a combined sail / habitat mass of 5 @.@ 4 × 109 kg . For comparison , this is just slightly smaller than the diameter of Jupiter 's moon Europa ( although the sail is a flat disc , not a sphere ) , or the distance between San Francisco and Kansas City . Such a structure would , however , have a mass quite a lot less than many asteroids . Although the construction of such a massive inhabitable statite would be a gigantic undertaking , and the required material science behind it is early stage , there are other engineering feats and required materials proposed in other Dyson sphere variants .
In theory , if enough statites were created and deployed around their star , they would compose a non @-@ rigid version of the Dyson shell mentioned below . Such a shell would not suffer from the drawbacks of massive compressive pressure , nor are the mass requirements of such a shell as high as the rigid form . Such a shell would , however , have the same optical and thermal properties as the rigid form , and would be detected by searchers in a similar fashion ( see below ) .
= = = Dyson shell = = =
The variant of the Dyson sphere most often depicted in fiction is the " Dyson shell " : a uniform solid shell of matter around the star . Such a structure would completely alter the emissions of the central star , and would intercept 100 % of the star 's energy output . Such a structure would also provide an immense surface that many envision would be used for habitation , if the surface could be made habitable .
A spherical shell Dyson sphere in the Solar System with a radius of one astronomical unit , so that the interior surface would receive the same amount of sunlight as Earth does per unit solid angle , would have a surface area of approximately 2 @.@ 8 × 1017 km2 ( 1 @.@ 1 × 1017 sq mi ) , or about 550 million times the surface area of Earth . This would intercept the full 384 @.@ 6 yottawatts ( 3 @.@ 846 × 1026 watts ) of the Sun 's output . Non @-@ shell designs would intercept less , but the shell variant represents the maximum possible energy captured for the Solar System at this point of the Sun 's evolution . This is approximately 33 trillion times the power consumption of humanity in 1998 , which was 12 terawatts .
There are several serious theoretical difficulties with the solid shell variant of the Dyson sphere :
Such a shell would have no net gravitational interaction with its englobed star ( see shell theorem ) , and could drift in relation to the central star . If such movements went uncorrected , they could eventually result in a collision between the sphere and the star — most likely with disastrous results . Such structures would need either some form of propulsion to counteract any drift , or some way to repel the surface of the sphere away from the star .
For the same reason , such a shell would have no net gravitational interaction with anything else inside it . The contents of any biosphere placed on the inner surface of a Dyson shell would not be attracted to the sphere 's surface and would simply fall into the star . It has been proposed that a biosphere could be contained between two concentric spheres , placed on the interior of a rotating sphere ( in which case , the force of artificial " gravity " is perpendicular to the axis of rotation , causing all matter placed on the interior of the sphere to pool around the equator , effectively rendering the sphere a Niven ring for purposes of habitation , but still fully effective as a radiant @-@ energy collector ) or placed on the outside of the sphere where it would be held in place by the star 's gravity . In such cases , some form of illumination would have to be devised , or the sphere made at least partly transparent , because the star 's light would otherwise be completely hidden .
If assuming a radius of one AU , then the compressive strength of the material forming the sphere would have to be immense to prevent implosion due to the star 's gravity . Any arbitrarily selected point on the surface of the sphere can be viewed as being under the pressure of the base of a dome 1 AU in height under the Sun 's gravity at that distance . Indeed , it can be viewed as being at the base of an infinite number of arbitrarily selected domes , but because much of the force from any one arbitrary dome is counteracted by those of another , the net force on that point is immense , but finite . No known or theorized material is strong enough to withstand this pressure , and form a rigid , static sphere around a star . It has been proposed by Paul Birch ( in relation to smaller " Supra @-@ Jupiter " constructions around a large planet rather than a star ) that it may be possible to support a Dyson shell by dynamic means similar to those used in a space fountain . Masses travelling in circular tracks on the inside of the sphere , at velocities significantly greater than orbital velocity , would press outwards on magnetic bearings due to centrifugal force . For a Dyson shell of 1 @-@ AU radius around a star with the same mass as the Sun , a mass travelling ten times the orbital velocity ( 297 @.@ 9 km / s ) would support 99 ( a = v2 / r ) times its own mass in additional shell structure .
Also if assuming a radius of one AU , then there may not be sufficient building material in the Solar System to construct a Dyson shell . Anders Sandberg estimates that there is 1 @.@ 82 × 1026 kg of easily usable building material in the Solar System , enough for a 1 @-@ AU shell with a mass of 600 kg / m2 — about 8 – 20 cm thick on average , depending on the density of the material . This includes the hard @-@ to @-@ access cores of the gas giants ; the inner planets alone provide only 11 @.@ 79 × 1024 kg , enough for a 1 @-@ AU shell with a mass of just 42 kg / m2 .
The shell would be vulnerable to impacts from interstellar bodies , such as comets , meteoroids , and material in interstellar space that is currently being deflected by the Sun 's bow shock . The heliosphere , and any protection it theoretically provides ,
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975 , the Federal Highway Administration officially approved withdrawal of plans to construct the road south of the Capital Beltway .
The concurrent US 240 designation was removed from I @-@ 70S in 1972 . On May 18 , 1975 , I @-@ 70S was designated I @-@ 270 . The western spur is now signed and publicly known simply as I @-@ 270 Spur . By the 1980s , traffic congestion had grown on I @-@ 270 in Montgomery County ; as a result , a $ 200 million project widened the road between I @-@ 495 and MD 118 to its current configuration , with some portions being widened to twelve lanes . This widening led to growth of residences and businesses along the I @-@ 270 corridor as far north as Germantown and increased traffic counts along the road . Much of I @-@ 270 in Montgomery County is now a hub for biotech firms . By 1999 , congestion on the road grew to then @-@ projected 2010 levels .
= = Future = =
The MDSHA is studying improvements for the I @-@ 270 corridor between Shady Grove Road and Frederick . Options for improvement include widening the highway to include more lanes with HOV and HOT lanes , as well as initiating rapid bus or light rail service along I @-@ 270 between Shady Grove and Clarksburg . In addition , two new interchanges are planned for I @-@ 270 in Frederick County . The first planned interchange is with MD 75 near the Montgomery County border , which would involve extending MD 75 from MD 355 to the interchange with I @-@ 270 at a projected cost of $ 57 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 . The other planned interchange is with Park Mills Road in Urbana , which has a projected cost of $ 48 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 . In Montgomery County , an interchange is being proposed with an extension of Watkins Mill Road in Gaithersburg . This proposed interchange , which is being pushed by Montgomery County , will see $ 125 million in construction spending . Funding for this interchange first disappeared in September 2008 after the state of Maryland announced it was cutting $ 1 @.@ 1 billion that was to go to transportation projects , later reinstated with the Transportation Infrastructure Investment Act of 2013 proposed to raise $ 4 @.@ 4 billion Statewide over 6 years .
= = Exit list = =
= = Interstate 270 Spur = =
Interstate 270 Spur ( referred to as I @-@ 270Y by the MDSHA ) is a 2 @.@ 10 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 38 km ) spur off I @-@ 270 that connects I @-@ 270 and the Capital Beltway . It carries traffic headed southbound on I @-@ 270 to southbound I @-@ 495 and from northbound I @-@ 495 to northbound I @-@ 270 , filling in the missing movements not available at the interchange between I @-@ 270 and I @-@ 495 . The road heads north from I @-@ 495 as a six @-@ lane freeway with a 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) speed limit . The left lane in each direction serves as a HOV lane in operation between 3 : 30 and 6 : 30 PM weekdays in the northbound direction and between 6 : 00 and 9 : 00 AM weekdays in the southbound direction . I @-@ 270 Spur continues north through wooded suburban areas to an interchange with Democracy Boulevard adjacent to the Westfield Montgomery shopping mall . A short distance later , the road has a southbound exit and northbound entrance for the HOV lanes onto Fernwood Road . Past here , I @-@ 270 Spur merges into northbound I @-@ 270 with separate ramps for the travel lanes and the HOV lanes . Before 1975 , when I @-@ 270 was called I @-@ 70S , this road was called I @-@ 270 , without the word " Spur " .
= = = Exit list = = =
The entire route is in Bethesda , Montgomery County .
= Chloe Sullivan =
Chloe Sullivan is a fictional character in the television series Smallville , which is based on the Superman and Superboy comics published by DC Comics . Portrayed by series regular Allison Mack , the character was created exclusively for Smallville by series developers Alfred Gough and Miles Millar . Other than main character Clark Kent , Chloe is the only main character to last the duration of the show , though Mack only signed on for five episodes in the tenth and final season . The character has also appeared in various literature based on Smallville , an internet series , and was then later adapted back into the original Superman comics which inspired Smallville .
In Smallville , Chloe is Clark Kent 's best friend , and the editor of the high school newspaper the Torch ; she notices that the meteor rocks ( kryptonite ) are mutating the citizens of Smallville . She generally teams up with Clark and Pete Ross in tracking and stopping meteor @-@ infected people from harming other citizens . In the first five seasons , Chloe harbors an unrequited love for Clark , but eventually accepts her place as his best friend and nothing more . In later seasons , Chloe discovers she has a meteor rock power of her own , until she apparently loses them during an encounter with the alien supervillain Brainiac . In terms of romantic storylines , after Superman supporting character Jimmy Olsen is introduced to the show , he becomes Chloe 's boyfriend and later husband , but the pair later divorce . In the show 's final seasons , Chloe finds romance with Oliver Queen , otherwise known as the costumed vigilante @-@ archer Green Arrow , whom she eventually marries and has a son with .
Chloe Sullivan has been characterized as independent , intelligent , curious and impulsive by both the writers and the actress that portrays her . The latter two characteristics often cause Chloe to get into trouble with both her friends and with local industrialists Lionel Luthor and his son Lex , two of the show 's primary antagonists . Mack has been recognized with multiple award nominations and wins for her portrayal of Chloe .
= = Role in Smallville = =
Introduced in the series pilot , Chloe spends much of season one helping her best friend Clark Kent ( Tom Welling ) stop the citizens of Smallville who have developed special abilities from genetic mutations , caused by the meteor rocks that fell to Smallville in 1989 , from committing crimes . It is established that Chloe is the editor of the school newspaper the Torch at the start of the first season . Her journalistic curiosity — always wanting to " expose falsehoods " and " know the truth " — causes tension with her friends , especially when she is digging into Clark 's past in the season two episode " Lineage " . In the early seasons , Chloe hides the fact that she is in love with Clark , although the feeling is not reciprocated ; she confesses her true feelings to Clark in season two 's " Fever " while he is sick , but he calls out Lana Lang 's name in his delirium . Her feelings for Clark get in the way of her better judgment as she betrays his trust in the season two finale , after witnessing him and Lana Lang ( Kristin Kreuk ) sharing a kiss in his barn , and agrees to uncover information on Clark for Lionel Luthor ( John Glover ) in exchange for a job at the Daily Planet .
Chloe and Clark patch their relationship in the season three episode " Whisper " , after Clark discovers that she has been helping Lionel . When Chloe stops her investigation , Lionel has her fired from the Daily Planet , and also fires her father from his job at LuthorCorp . In season three 's " Forsaken " , Chloe decides to assist Lex Luthor ( Michael Rosenbaum ) , Lionel 's son , with getting Lionel arrested for the murder of Lex ' grandparents ; Chloe 's hope is to get out from under Lionel 's control . In the season three finale , the F.B.I. place Chloe and her father in a safe @-@ house until Lionel 's trial ; unfortunately , the safe @-@ house explodes once Chloe and her father enter and they are presumed dead . Chloe 's cousin , Lois Lane ( Erica Durance ) , comes to Smallville to investigate Chloe 's death in the fourth season premiere . In season four 's " Gone " , Clark and Lois team @-@ up and discover that Lex 's security team found the explosives in the safe @-@ house , pulled Chloe and her father to safety before they detonated , and that he has been hiding her ever since . After Chloe 's testimony in the same episode , Lionel is convicted of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment . In the season four episode " Pariah " , Chloe discovers Clark 's secret when Alicia Baker ( Sarah Carter ) , Clark 's girlfriend , decides that it needs to be exposed to the world in order for him to feel more comfortable about who he really is . Alicia hopes that Chloe will write a story exposing Clark , but Chloe decides that Clark kept his secret for a reason and decides not to write the story .
Chloe finally reveals to Clark in the season five premiere that she has known his secret , but that she wanted him to be comfortable enough to tell her on his own . At the same time , Clark reveals that he was not infected by the meteor rocks in Smallville , as Chloe initially suspected , but that he is in fact an alien who was sent to Earth as a baby during the meteor shower of 1989 . In season five 's " Thirst " , Chloe earns her dream job at the Daily Planet , starting in the basement . In the season six episode " Justice " , Chloe begins assisting Green Arrow ( Justin Hartley ) and his team of superheroes under the codename " Watchtower " . In " Freak " , she discovers she herself is meteor @-@ infected , with an unknown ability , and begins to worry that she is a " time bomb " heading towards insanity . She later discovers in " Progeny " that her institutionalized mother , Moira Sullivan ( Lynda Carter ) , is meteor @-@ infected as well . In the season finale , Chloe learns that her special power lets her heal any wound and even reverse death , when it activates to save Lois . In season seven 's " Descent " , when Chloe attempts to keep information regarding " The Traveler " a secret from Lex , who is unaware that " The Traveler " is really Clark , he fires her from her job at the Daily Planet . When in " Sleeper " , Lana falls into a catatonic state having been attacked by the Kryptonian artificial intelligence known as Brainiac ( James Marsters ) , Chloe takes over Lana 's Isis Foundation , a free clinic for individuals who have been infected by the meteor rocks . In the seventh season finale , Chloe is attacked by Brainiac , but her healing powers prevent him from harming her . When she returns home , Jimmy Olsen ( Aaron Ashmore ) , her on @-@ again @-@ off @-@ again boyfriend since season six , proposes marriage . Before Chloe can answer the Department of Domestic Security ( DDS ) appears and arrests her for hacking into the government database .
At the start of season eight , it is revealed that Chloe was not arrested by DDS , but Lex 's security personnel impersonating DDS agents . While subjected to their tests , Chloe discovers that her altercation with Brainiac has apparently caused to her to lose her meteor @-@ related powers , but instilled two new abilities : vast super intelligence and technopathy . Returning to Smallville , Chloe reopens the Isis Foundation . Though she loves Jimmy , she finds herself attracted to paramedic Davis Bloome ( Samuel Witwer ) . In the episode " Abyss " , Brainiac 's infestation causes Chloe to lose her memories . Clark takes Chloe to his biological father Jor @-@ El , who restores her memories . After Chloe marries Jimmy in " Bride " , she is kidnapped by Doomsday , a genetically engineered killing machine bent on destroying Earth and becomes Brainiac 's vessel once again . Brainiac attempts to drain the world of all its human knowledge but is stopped and removed from Chloe 's body by the Legion , superheroes from the future , in " Legion " . In " Hex " , Chloe assumes the codename Watchtower full time because she feels her life needs more meaning . Chloe discovers that Davis is Doomsday in " Eternal " . She attempts to assist Davis ' suicide using kryptonite ; when this fails , she stays by his side in order to keep Doomsday under control . In the episode " Beast " , she and Davis leave town together ; Chloe reasons it will protect Clark . In the season eight finale , she uses black kryptonite to separate Davis from Doomsday ; Clark buries Doomsday beneath Metropolis . However , when Davis discovers that Chloe is still in love with Jimmy , he stabs Jimmy and attempts to kill Chloe ; Jimmy impales him on a metal rod , and they both die . Chloe vows to keep the Watchtower Jimmy gave her as a wedding gift open , in the hope that all lost heroes — namely Oliver and his team — will find their way home .
At the start of the ninth season , using Oliver 's money , Chloe transforms the Watchtower into an information fortress and superhero headquarters . In this capacity , she acquires a rival in Tess 's computer expert Stuart Campbell ( Ryan McDonell ) ; her status as superhero information broker also makes her a target for Checkmate bosses Amanda Waller ( Pam Grier ) and Maxwell Lord ( Gil Bellows ) . Over the course of the season , she grows romantically close to Oliver . In the season ten première , when Oliver is kidnapped by Suicide Squad leader Rick Flag ( Ted Whittall ) , Chloe risks her own sanity by putting on the helmet of Doctor Fate to learn his location . With the information acquired from Fate 's helmet , she organizes a switch for Oliver ; in Flag 's captivity , Chloe fakes suicide and goes off @-@ the @-@ grid . Chloe returns in " Collateral " , and reveals that she has been helping Clark , Oliver , and the rest of the heroes while in hiding , having blackmailed the Suicide Squad into helping her . Afterward , she resumes her relationships with the show 's protagonists . In the episode " Fortune " , Chloe decides to move to Star City to return to journalism following her marriage to Oliver Queen . In a flashforward in the series finale , Chloe is now the mother to a young boy , but remains in touch with Clark and Lois .
= = Portrayal = =
Chloe Sullivan was introduced by the show 's creators to be a " Lois Lane archetype " , as well as be Smallville 's " outsider " , which series developers Gough and Millar felt the show needed in order to have a character that notices the strange happenings in Smallville . She is the original creation of Al Gough and Miles Miller , having not been produced first in the DC Comics Universe , unlike the other main characters Clark Kent , Lana Lang , Lex Luthor , and Pete Ross . When they first began developing the series , Gough and Millar had intended for Chloe to have an " ethnic background " . After learning about Smallville from the show 's casting director , Dee Dee Bradley , Allison Mack toyed with the idea of auditioning for the role of Lana Lang , but chose instead to audition for the role of Chloe Sullivan . Gough and Millar felt she had a " rare ability to deliver large chunks of expositionary [ sic ] dialogue conversationally " , and decided to cast her against their initial intention to give the character an ethnic origin . According to Mack , the reason she got the role was because she went into her second audition with a " very flippant attitude " . Kristen Bell also auditioned for the role of Chloe Sullivan ; she would eventually go on to star in the television series Veronica Mars . Aside from Allison Mack , Roan Curtis portrayed Chloe as a child in the season six episode " Progeny " , with Victoria Duffield taking on the role in the eighth season episode " Abyss " . Mack enjoys the fact that her character was created specifically for the show , because she feels like she does not have to worry about being compared to someone else in the same role , which she likens to people comparing Michael Rosenbaum 's performance as Lex Luthor to Gene Hackman 's portrayal in the Superman film series of the 1970s – 1980s . Mack only signed on for five episodes of the tenth and final season .
= = Character development = =
= = = Storyline progression = = =
Allison Mack was disappointed that the character " lost some of her backbone " in the second season . The second season was about exploring Chloe 's heart , and the idea of her being this " lovelorn [ … ] angsty teenager " . As Mack describes her , " [ Chloe ] was a little spineless and a little bit too much of a pushover [ in season two ] . " Mack does believe that by the end of the season Chloe manages to get some of that integrity back . The actress likes to make sure that her character is kept " smart " and " ambitious " , but at the end of season two Chloe 's impulsiveness causes her to get stuck under Lionel 's control , when she " spitefully " agrees to uncover Clark 's secrets for Lionel Luthor after Clark is not honest with her about his newly established relationship with Lana .
For season three , Mack wanted the character to be given a major obstacle to overcome , something that would help the character mature . The obstacle in question became Lionel 's control over Chloe , after she made a deal to spy on Clark . Allison Mack believes that Chloe is in her own comfort zone while she is working at the Torch , as she is in complete control , but likens Chloe being under Lionel 's control to that of a " caged animal " . When she ruins the lives of a mother and her son in season three 's " Truth " , after exposing the mother as a fugitive from the law , Chloe is forced to look deeper into her own self . Mack believes that this event was a turning point for Chloe 's maturity ; it is the moment that she realizes that there needs to be a line she should never cross . After it is revealed to Clark in the season five premiere that Chloe knows his secret , the character becomes a larger part of the storyline for the show . Knowing Clark 's secret allowed Chloe to finally come to terms with her feelings for Clark , and recognize where their relationship will always be ; Chloe 's acceptance of her place in Clark 's life provides a means for the two to have a more meaningful friendship , without the concerns of Chloe 's unrequited love . According to Mack , Chloe has learned to evolve her love for Clark into something more " genuine " and " selfless " .
For the actress , having Chloe become part of the meteor infected community in season six allowed Mack 's character to continue to evolve . Mack views this transition as a means for her character to become more emotionally connected to those people — the meteor infected — she spent five seasons trying to expose to the public . Being infected by the meteors gives Chloe motivation to try to understand them and allows her to grow closer to Clark , as she can better understand what it feels like to live in a world where you have a special ability . Writer Holly Harold believes that , in addition to being infected by the meteor rocks , bringing Lois into the journalistic field also provides Chloe with a lot of ammunition for growth and development . Lois 's presence at the Daily Planet allows Chloe the chance to reflect upon herself , and discover what things are most important to her – her career or her family and friends . The competition that Lois provides is beneficial , as it gives Chloe a chance to bring out the best in herself .
= = = Characterization = = =
Allison Mack characterizes Chloe as being a " misfit " during the first season ; more of " a really smart girl with attitude " . She goes on to describe Chloe as intelligent and independent . Another of Chloe 's defining characteristics is her need to " expose falsehoods " and find the truth in every situation . The character is curious , and wants to be honest with people . She is always trying to make sense of the situation . Next to her curiosity , her impulsiveness is a key characteristic that eventually leaves her under the control of Lionel Luthor , when she offers to uncover information on Clark for Lionel . The reason for this betrayal is based on Chloe 's love for Clark . As Allison Mack explains , Chloe is so blinded by her love for Clark that she neglects to see all of the mistakes that he makes . It is this unrequited love for Clark that " drives [ Chloe ] to be as ambitious and as focused as she is " .
A leading theory among audiences was that Chloe would eventually change her name to Lois Lane , Clark 's wife in the comics , as she embodies various characteristics that Lois Lane has in the comic books . The creative team removed the notion that Chloe was going to turn into Clark 's future wife when they introduced Lois Lane in season four . Though the characters share similarities , according to Mack , Chloe and Lois are more " different shades of the same color [ … ] Chloe is a softer version of Lois " . Chloe 's upbringing allows her to be less jaded than Lois . Chloe also looks to the future , whereas Lois is more shortsighted .
The season six finale reveals that Chloe has the ability to heal others . Mack describes Chloe 's newfound meteor power as similar to " empathy " . The actress further defines the power as the ability to heal others by taking their pain and making it her own . Writer Todd Slavkin contends that giving Chloe the power to heal was the best choice for the character . According to Slavkin , Chloe has sacrificed so much in her life for the greater good that it only seemed natural that her meteor power would reflect that . For the writer , it did not make sense for her ability to be something " malicious and evil and destructive " . In season eight , Chloe discovers that she also has super @-@ intelligence – being able to solve complex algorithms faster than LuthorCorp 's most powerful supercomputer . She and Clark later deduce that her newfound intelligence was brought on during her encounter with Brainiac , who infected her with a part of himself during his attack .
= = = Relationships = = =
One of Chloe 's key relationships is with the series protagonist , Clark Kent . Although believers in the " Chlois " theory initially suspected that Chloe would eventually become Lois Lane , Clark 's future wife in the comics , Mack contends that Clark does not love Chloe in the way that she loves him . The actress does not believe that Clark 's feelings will ever change . Regardless of Clark 's feelings , Mack recognizes that Chloe is blinded by her love for Clark , which ultimately affects her judgment in not only seeing Clark 's faults , but making choices that place her character in danger . In season five , Clark finally discovers that Chloe knows his secret , and this revelation allows Chloe the opportunity to come to terms with her feelings for Clark ; this also provided a means for the two have a more meaningful friendship , without the concerns of Chloe 's unrequited love .
Speaking on the evolving relationship of Clark and Chloe , Mack believes that the season six introduction of Jimmy Olsen into Chloe 's life increased her value to Clark . Before , Chloe would drop anything for Clark , but now that Chloe has other priorities , it makes Clark realize how valuable she is to him . The introduction of Jimmy Olsen also provides Chloe with someone she can finally have a romantic relationship with . The relationship is strained when Chloe has to lie to cover up Clark 's secret , as well as keeping the fact that she is meteor @-@ infected hidden . Writer Holly Harold questions whether or not Jimmy has taken over the place in Chloe 's heart that Clark occupied for so long .
Chloe 's relationship with her mother is one tackled both off @-@ screen and behind the scenes . In a brainstorming session , Mack , Gough and Millar came up with the idea that Chloe 's mother had left her at a young age . Mack wanted to make the character a " latchkey kid " , in an effort to explain why she is out all hours of the night . Mack feels that Chloe has real abandonment issues , which play on the fact that she never feels like she is good enough for anyone . These abandonment issues were meant to provide a reason for why the character is devastated by the fact that Clark does not love her the same way that she loves him , as well as the reason for why Chloe does not have many female friends . One of Chloe 's story arcs in season five involved her finding her mother in a mental institution , and living with the fear that she will have a mental breakdown of her own and end up in a psychiatric facility . This fear also affects Clark , who worries that keeping his secret will have negative effects on Chloe , like it did Pete .
= = Reception = =
Allison Mack has been nominated for a number of awards for her role as Chloe Sullivan . She was nominated for a Saturn Award as best supporting actress in a television program in 2006 and 2007 . Mack has been nominated seven consecutive times — between 2002 and 2009 — for Teen Choice Award 's Choice Teen Sidekick ; she won the award in 2006 and 2007 .
= = Other media appearances = =
Apart from her appearances on television , Chloe has also appeared in her own online spin @-@ off , a series of young adult novels , a bi @-@ monthly Smallville comic book , and been given a 2010 introduction into the official DC comics universe .
= = = Chloe Chronicles = = =
Apart from the television series Smallville , the character of Chloe Sullivan appeared in her own web @-@ based spin @-@ off series , titled Smallville : Chloe Chronicles . Allison Mack continued her duties as the investigative , high school reporter , with the series originally airing exclusively on AOL.com. The first volume aired between April 29 , 2003 and May 20 , 2003 . The web series eventually made its way to Britain 's Channel 4 website . Smallville : Chloe Chronicles was created by Mark Warshaw , with the scripts written by Brice Tidwell ; Allison Mack was given final script approval . This final approval allowed Mack to review and make changes to the script as she saw fit . Warshaw also communicated regularly with Gough and Millar so that he could find more unique ways to expand Smallville stories over to Chloe 's Chronicles .
In the first volume , picking up some time after the events of season one 's " Jitters " , Chloe begins checking into the rumors of the " Level 3 " facility at the Smallville LuthorCorp plant . Here , she starts investigating the death of LuthorCorp employee Earl Jenkins , which takes her to a research company known as Nu @-@ Corp. Chloe interviews Nu @-@ Corp 's Dr. Arthur Walsh , who reveals that he knows what really happened to Earl Jenkins while he was working at LuthorCorp . Walsh disappears before Chloe can get the all of information .
In volume two , Chloe is contacted by an ex @-@ Navy SEAL , Bix , and former member of LuthorCorp 's " Deletion Group " who has information regarding Dr. Walsh 's disappearance . Walsh begins sending Chloe videos , which lead Chloe to discover that Walsh was working with Donovan Jameson , the head of Nu @-@ Corp , and Dr. Stephen Hamilton on experimentations involving the meteor rocks . Chloe and Pete Ross ( Sam Jones III ) , who accompanies Chloe as her cameraman , learn that Jameson is experimenting on meteor infected people in order to steal their abilities . Jameson , exhibiting the same jitters as Earl Jenkins , attempts to kill Chloe and Pete to hide what he has been doing , but his jitters become uncontrollable and he kills himself in his lab . As Chloe and Pete leave the lab they come across Lionel Luthor , leading Chloe to realize that Lionel was funding Jameson 's efforts .
The third volume of the Chloe Chronicles , titled Vengeance Chronicles , features Chloe teaming up with the " Angel of Vengeance " Andrea Rojas ( Denise Quiñones ) , from season five 's " Vengeance " , to stop Lex Luthor . Andrea informs Chloe that Lex turned Lionel 's " Level 3 " facility into his own " 33 @.@ 1 " research lab . Rojas , working with meteor infected individuals Yang and Molly Griggs , wants Chloe 's help to expose LuthorCorp 's experimentation on the meteor infected .
= = = Young @-@ adult novels = = =
Chloe 's first appearance in literature was in the Aspect published Smallville : Strange Visitors . Here , Chloe is conned into believing that Dr. Donald Jacobi , a " faith healer " is interested in her research on the meteor rocks . She quickly realizes , after attending one of Jacobi 's shows , that he is nothing more than a con artist , which causes her to devote her time to proving that so no one will fall victim to his schemes . In Smallville : Dragon , Chloe attempts to solve the murder of one of teachers , Mr. Tait , which she and Clark believe to be the work of recently released convict Ray Dansk . While attending a party put on by Lex , Chloe is injured during an attack on the crowd by Dansk , who has turned into a reptilian creature thanks to exposure to the meteor rocks .
= = = Comic books = = =
= = = = Smallville = = = =
In 2012 , the Smallville series was continued through the comic book medium with Smallville : Season 11 . Written by Bryan Q. Miller , who also wrote for the television series , the first issue reveals that Chloe and Oliver Queen are living in Star City . Chloe is working for the Star City Gazette , but remains a friend and ally to the heroes . She and Lois discover a spacecraft in Earth 's atmosphere , later revealing the pilot is Chloe 's counterpart from a parallel reality ( the same universe where Clark Luthor and alternate @-@ Lionel Luthor was from ) . She was sent by her cousin , Lois Queen ( the alternate version of Lois Lane and Clark 's ally of that world ) , to warn Clark of the coming " Crisis " , which destroyed her world . She dies after Oliver and Chloe take her to a hospital . After Chloe asks Lois to steal the components and plans of Lionel Luthor 's memory device , Project Intercept , with Oliver , Chloe had Emil Hamilton build it with upgrades so she can find information from the remnants of her deceased counterpart 's memories . Inside what is left of her counterpart 's mind , Chloe finds a universe coming to an end , caused by an attack led by a powerful gargantuan being ; she also witnesses Lois Queen 's death . She finds she now has some of the memories of her counterpart , and discovers her killer is one of the Multiverse 's guardians , the Monitors . After taking a leave of absence with Oliver , Chloe later return as Clark begins to gather everyone to make a stand against The Monitors . At this point , Chloe is now about nine months pregnant . After the Monitors ' defeat , Chloe gives birth to a baby boy , whom she and Oliver named " Jonathan , " after Clark 's late @-@ adoptive father Jonathan Kent .
= = = = Other versions = = = =
Although Chloe appeared alongside her television cohorts in the Smallville comic books , which featured tie @-@ ins to the Chloe Chronicles webisodes , the character did not appear in the mainstream DC Comics Universe until 2010 , though DC representatives and writers initially hoped to bring Chloe into DC continuity in 2007 . According to writer Kurt Busiek , the problem of bringing Chloe into the mainstream comic book universe , and keeping her television background , was that she would have filled two roles : " the Girl from Back Home and the Reporter " . Those roles were already filled by the adult comic book versions of Lana Lang and Lois Lane , so the plan was to give the character a new background . Busiek hoped to make Chloe the younger sister of someone Clark had gone to school with , who was a now interning at the Daily Planet . Busiek believed that this would make her different from Lana and Lois , but still familiar to readers who also watched the show . Another distinguishing feature would be that this version of Chloe would not know Clark 's secret , nor would she be meteor infected . These ideas never came to fruition .
Chloe first appeared in " Jimmy Olsen 's Big Week " , a serialized Jimmy Olsen story written by Nick Spencer , beginning in Action Comics # 893 ( November 2010 ) . Spencer stated that introducing Chloe has been his first " positive contribution " to the DC Universe . Because of the continuity differences between Smallville and the comic book Superman stories , Spencer chose to stay " as true to the character " as he could by honoring her romantic history with Jimmy Olsen from later Smallville seasons , as well as her journalistic background from its early seasons . Spencer decided to introduce Chloe after he began conceiving of a clever , dogged female reporter for Jimmy Olsen to interact with , and realized that he had been subconsciously writing about Chloe .
= Kempegowda International Airport =
Kempegowda International Airport ( IATA : BLR , ICAO : VOBL ) is an international airport serving Bangalore , the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka . Spread over 4 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 600 ha ) , it is located about 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) north of the city near the village of Devanahalli . It is owned and operated by Bangalore International Airport Limited ( BIAL ) , a public – private consortium . The airport opened in May 2008 as an alternative to increased congestion at HAL Airport , the original primary commercial airport serving the city . It is named after Kempe Gowda I , the founder of Bangalore .
As of 2015 , Kempegowda Airport is the third busiest airport by passenger traffic in the country , behind the airports in Delhi and Mumbai . It handled roughly 18 million passengers in 2015 with 400 aircraft movements per day . The airport also handled about 287 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 316 @,@ 000 short tons ) of cargo .
The airport consists of a single runway and passenger terminal , which handles both domestic and international operations . A second runway and terminal are in the early stages of planning and construction . In addition , there is a cargo village and three cargo terminals . The airport serves as a hub for AirAsia India , Air India Regional , Air Pegasus and Jet Airways . It is also a focus city for IndiGo .
= = History = =
= = = Planning ( 1991 – 2004 ) = = =
The original airport serving Bangalore was HAL Airport , located 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) from the city centre . However , as Bangalore grew into the Silicon Valley of India and passenger traffic to the city rose , the airport was unable to cope . There was no room for expansion and the apron could only park six aircraft . In March 1991 , former chairman of the National Airports Authority of India ( NAAI ) S. Ramanathan convened a panel to select the site for a new airport . The panel decided on Devanahalli , a village about 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) north of Bangalore . The State Government made a proposal to build the airport with private assistance , which the Union Government approved in 1994 .
In December 1995 , a consortium consisting of Tata Group , Raytheon and Singapore Changi Airport signed a memorandum of understanding with the State Government regarding participation in the project . In June 1998 , however , the consortium announced it was pulling out of the project due to delays in government approval . These included disputes over the location of the airport and the fate of HAL Airport .
In May 1999 , the Airports Authority of India ( AAI ) and the Karnataka State Industrial and Infrastructure Development Corporation ( KSIIDC ) of the State Government signed a memorandum of understanding regarding the nature of the project . It would be a public – private partnership , with AAI and KSIIDC having a 26 % share and private companies having the remaining 74 % . In January 2001 , the State Government created the company Bangalore International Airport Limited ( BIAL ) as a special purpose entity and began searching for partners . By November , the project had attracted Unique Zürich Airport , Siemens Project Ventures and Larsen & Toubro . Construction was expected to begin in October 2002 ; however , governmental delays persisted . The concession agreement between the State Government , the Union Government and BIAL was signed in July 2004 . In it , BIAL required the closure of HAL Airport .
= = = Construction and opening ( 2005 – 08 ) = = =
Construction finally commenced on 2 July 2005 . When a study predicted the airport would receive 6 @.@ 7 million passengers in 2008 , the airport was redesigned from its initial capacity of 4 @.@ 5 million passengers to 11 million , with the terminal size expanded and the number of aircraft stands increased . The cost of the airport rose to ₹ 1 @,@ 930 crore ( US $ 290 million ) . Construction was completed in 32 months , and BIAL set the launch date for 30 March 2008 . However , due to delays in establishing air traffic control services at the airport , the launch date was pushed to 11 May and finally 24 May 2008 .
As the opening date for the airport approached , public criticism arose , mainly directed toward the closure of HAL Airport . In March 2008 , AAI employees conducted a massive strike against the closure of HAL Airport along with Begumpet Airport in Hyderabad , fearing they would lose their jobs . The Bangalore City Connect Foundation , a group of citizens and businessmen , staged a rally in mid @-@ May , claiming the new airport was too small for the latest demand projections . On 23 May , a hearing was held at the Karnataka High Court over poor connectivity between the city and the airport . Ultimately , the State Government decided to go ahead with inaugurating the new airport and closing HAL Airport .
The first flight to the airport , Air India Flight 609 from Mumbai , was allowed to land the previous night as it would be continuing to Singapore shortly after midnight . The aircraft touched down at 10 : 40 pm on 23 May . The airport became the third greenfield airport under a public – private partnership to open in India , after Rajiv Gandhi International Airport in Hyderabad and Cochin International Airport .
= = = Renaming and expansion ( 2009 – present ) = = =
The original name of the airport was Bengaluru International Airport . In February 2009 , the State Government sent a proposal to the Union Government to rename the airport after the founder of Bangalore , Kempe Gowda I. When no action was taken , the State Government passed a resolution for the name change in December 2011 . The Union Government accepted the proposal in 2012 and formally approved it in July 2013 . The airport was officially renamed on 14 December 2013 amid the inauguration of the expanded terminal building .
Kingfisher Airlines once operated a hub and was one of the largest airlines at Kempegowda Airport . Following its collapse in October 2012 , other airlines stepped in to fill the gap in domestic connectivity by adding more flights . In addition , Air Pegasus and AirAsia India launched hub operations at the airport in 2014 .
The first phase of expansion was launched in June 2011 and finished in December 2013 . The ₹ 1 @,@ 500 crore ( US $ 220 million ) project doubled the size of the passenger terminal to 150 @,@ 556 square metres ( 1 @,@ 620 @,@ 570 sq ft ) , involving the construction of additional facilities for check @-@ in , immigration , security and baggage reclaim constructed . One domestic gate and three international gates were added as well . A large , sweeping roof connects the original building with the expanded areas . The expanded terminal , dubbed " Terminal 1A " , has raised the annual passenger capacity of the airport to 20 million .
= = Ownership = =
The airport is owned and operated by Bangalore International Airport Limited ( BIAL ) , a public limited company . The Government of India has granted BIAL the right to operate the airport for 30 years , with the option to continue for another 30 years . The company is a public – private venture . 26 % is held by government entities Karnataka State Industrial Investment and Development Corporation ( 13 % ) and Airports Authority of India ( 13 % ) , and 74 % is held by private companies Fairfax Financial ( 38 % ) , Siemens Project Ventures ( 26 % ) and GVK Group ( 10 % ) .
= = Airfield = =
Kempegowda Airport has one runway :
Runway 09 / 27 : 4 @,@ 000 by 45 metres ( 13 @,@ 123 ft × 148 ft ) , CAT I , ILS equipped .
Four years after it was laid , the runway was entirely resurfaced because of a serious decline in quality . From 11 March to 3 April 2012 , it was closed daily between 10 : 30 am and 5 : 30 pm . As a result , BIAL accused construction company Larsen & Toubro of building the runway poorly . South of runway 09 / 27 are a full @-@ length parallel taxiway and the apron , which extends from the Blue Dart / DHL terminal to the passenger terminal .
= = Terminal = =
The passenger terminal accommodates both domestic and international operations . It covers 150 @,@ 556 square metres ( 1 @,@ 620 @,@ 570 sq ft ) and can handle 20 million passengers annually . Check @-@ in and baggage reclaim are situated on the lower floor , while all departure gates are located on the upper floor . There is a total of twelve gates : six domestic gates ( gates 1 , 2 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 15 ) and six international gates ( 16 , 17 , 18 , 21 @-@ 22 , 23 @-@ 24 , 25 @-@ 26 ) . Gate 25 @-@ 26 is equipped to serve the world 's largest passenger aircraft , the Airbus A380 . Lounges are provided by Above Ground Level and Plaza Premium Lounge , which also operates a day hotel in the terminal . For VIPs there is a separate 930 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 10 @,@ 000 sq ft ) lounge .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
= = = Passenger = = =
= = = Cargo = = =
The following cargo airlines fly to the airport :
= = Statistics = =
= = Other facilities = =
= = = Aviation fuel services = = =
The airport has a fuel farm , spread over 11 acres ( 4 @.@ 5 ha ) west of the cargo village and passenger terminal . It was built by IndianOil SkyTanking Ltd ( IOSL ) but is shared by multiple oil companies . In October 2008 , Indian Oil commissioned a 36 @-@ kilometre ( 22 mi ) fuel pipeline between its storage terminal in Devanagonthi and Kempegowda Airport . Previously , jet fuel had to be transported to the airport by tank trucks , which created traffic and pollution problems .
= = = Cargo facilities = = =
Kempegowda Airport has three cargo terminals . One is operated by Menzies Aviation Bobba Pvt Ltd and has a capacity for 150 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 170 @,@ 000 short tons ) of cargo ; it includes a facility for storing pharmaceuticals . Air India SATS ( AISATS ) operates one terminal , which can handle 200 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 220 @,@ 000 short tons ) of cargo . AISATS is also constructing the AISATS Coolport , which will be able to hold 40 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 44 @,@ 000 short tons ) of perishable goods . Lastly , DHL and Blue Dart Aviation jointly operate a 20 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 221 @,@ 000 sq ft ) terminal .
BIAL inaugurated a separate cargo village in December 2008 . The village is spread over 11 acres ( 4 @.@ 5 ha ) and includes office space , conference rooms , a cafeteria for staff and parking space for nearly 80 trucks . It did not open for occupation until 2010 and initially suffered low occupancy , which some cargo agents attributed to the opening delay , high rent and limited infrastructure .
= = Connectivity = =
= = = Road = = =
Kempegowda Airport is connected to the city of Bangalore by National Highway 7 ( NH 7 ) . In January 2014 , a six @-@ lane flyover was completed over NH 7 between Hebbal and the airport , helping to reduce travel time to and from the city . The airport car park is located at ground level and can hold 2 @,@ 000 vehicles . The airport is served by several taxi and rental car companies . In addition , ride @-@ sharing companies Ola and Uber have their own pick @-@ up zones outside the terminal .
The Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation ( BMTC ) provides bus transportation to major parts of the city through the Vayu Vajra ( Kannada for " Diamond in the Air " ) service . It is operated using a fleet of Volvo B7RLE buses . In addition , the Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation ( KSRTC ) operates a nonstop bus service between Kempegowda Airport and Mysore , as well as a route to Manipal via Mangalore .
= = = Rail = = =
Under Phase 3 of the Namma Metro , a rail link will be constructed between the city and Kempegowda Airport , which will receive an underground station . RITES has conducted a feasibility study and selected five possible routes ; however , the Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation ( BMRC ) has yet to choose one . A high @-@ speed rail link was previously considered and went as far as obtaining approval from the Union Government . However , the project was eventually scrapped due to high costs and the lack of stops along the line .
= = Future plans = =
The second phase of expansion is underway , which encompasses the construction of a second runway and passenger terminal . When complete , Kempegowda Airport will be able to handle 55 million passengers per year . The estimated ₹ 4 @,@ 000 crore ( US $ 590 million ) project received clearance from the Ministry of Environment and Forests in September 2014 .
Ground work on the second runway began in February 2016 and will continue for another 12 months , after which the runway will be laid . Located south of the original terminal , it will be parallel to runway 09 / 27 and measure 4 @,@ 000 by 60 metres ( 13 @,@ 120 ft × 200 ft ) , wider than the original runway so it can accommodate
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ling Gibbons to the west of the portico , and of one George Washington , a replica of a work by Jean @-@ Antoine Houdon , to the east that was a gift from the Commonwealth of Virginia installed in 1921 .
Two statues erected in the 19th century have since been removed . One of Edward Jenner , pioneer of the smallpox vaccine , was set up in the south @-@ west corner of the square in 1858 , next to that of Napier . Sculpted by William Calder Marshall , it showed Jenner sitting in a chair in a relaxed pose , and was inaugurated at a ceremony presided over by Prince Albert . It was moved to Kensington Gardens in 1862 . The other , of General Charles George Gordon by Hamo Thornycroft , was erected on an 18 @-@ foot high pedestal between the fountains in 1888 . It was removed in 1943 and re @-@ sited on the Victoria Embankment ten years later .
= = Fountains = =
In 1841 , following suggestions from the local paving board , Barry agreed that two fountains should be installed to counteract the effects of reflected heat and glare from the asphalt surface . The First Commissioner of Woods and Forests welcomed the plan because the fountains reduced the open space available for public gatherings and reduced the risk of riotous assembly . The fountains were fed from two wells , one in front of the National Gallery and one behind it connected by a tunnel . Water was pumped to the fountains by a steam engine housed in a building behind the gallery .
In the late @-@ 1930s it was decided to replace the pump and the centrepieces of the fountains . The new centrepieces , designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens , were memorials to Lord Jellicoe and Lord Beatty , although busts of the admirals , initially intended to be placed in the fountain surrounds were placed against the northern retaining wall when the project was completed after the Second World War . The fountains cost almost £ 50 @,@ 000 . The old ones were presented to the Canadian government and are now located in Ottawa 's Confederation Park and Regina 's Wascana Centre .
A programme of restoration was completed by May 2009 . The pump system was replaced with one capable of sending an 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) jet of water into the air . A LED lighting system that can project different combinations of colours on to the fountains was installed to reduce the cost of lighting maintenance and to coincide with the 2012 Summer Olympics .
= = Pigeons = =
The square was once famous for feral pigeons and feeding them was a popular activity . Pigeons began flocking to the square before construction was completed and feed sellers became well known in the Victorian era . The desirability of the birds ' presence was contentious : their droppings disfigured the stonework and the flock , estimated at its peak to be 35 @,@ 000 , was considered a health hazard . A stall seller , Bernie Rayner , infamously sold bird seed to tourists at inflated prices .
In February 2001 , the sale of bird seed in the square was stopped and other measures were introduced to discourage the pigeons including the use of birds of prey . Supporters continued to feed the birds but in 2003 the mayor , Ken Livingstone , enacted bylaws to ban feeding them in the square . In September 2007 Westminster City Council passed further bylaws banning feeding birds on the pedestrianised North Terrace and other pavements in the area . Nelson 's column was repaired from years of damage from pigeon droppings at a cost of £ 140 @,@ 000 .
= = Events = =
= = = New Year = = =
For many years , revellers celebrating the New Year have gathered in the square despite a lack of celebrations being arranged . The lack of official events was partly because the authorities were concerned that encouraging more partygoers would cause overcrowding . Since 2003 , a firework display centred on the London Eye and South Bank of the Thames has been provided as an alternative . Since 2014 , New Year celebrations have been organised by the Greater London Authority in conjunction with the charity Unicef , who began ticketing the event to control crowd numbers .
= = = Christmas = = =
A Christmas ceremony has been held in the square every year since 1947 . A Norway spruce ( or sometimes a fir ) is presented by Norway 's capital city , Oslo as London 's Christmas tree , a token of gratitude for Britain 's support during World War II . ( Besides war @-@ time support , Norway 's Prince Olav and the country 's government lived in exile in London throughout the war . )
The Christmas tree is decorated with lights that are switched on at a seasonal ceremony . It is usually held twelve days before Christmas Day . The festivity is open to the public and attracts a large number of people . The switch @-@ on is usually followed by several nights of Christmas carol singing and other performances and events . On the twelfth night of Christmas , the tree is taken down for recycling . Westminster City Council threatened to abandon the event to save £ 5 @,@ 000 in 1980 but the decision was reversed .
The tree is selected by the Head Forester from Oslo 's municipal forest and shipped , across the North Sea to the Port of Felixstowe , then by road to Trafalgar Square . The first tree was 48 feet ( 15 m ) tall , but more recently has been around 75 feet ( 23 m ) . In 1987 , protesters chained themselves to the tree . In 1990 , a man sawed into the tree with a chainsaw a few hours before a New Year 's Eve party was scheduled to take place . He was arrested and the tree was repaired by tree surgeons who removed gouged sections from the trunk while the tree was suspended from a crane .
= = = Political demonstrations = = =
The square has become a social and political focus for visitors and Londoners , developing over its history from " an esplanade peopled with figures of national heroes , into the country 's foremost place politique " , as historian Rodney Mace has written . Since its construction , it has been a venue for political demonstrations . The great Chartist rally in 1848 , a campaign for social reform by the working class began in the square . A ban on political rallies remained in effect until the 1880s , when the emerging Labour movement , particularly the Social Democratic Federation , began holding protests . On 8 February 1886 ) ( also known as " Black Monday " ) , protesters rallied against unemployment leading to a riot in Pall Mall . A larger riot ( " Bloody Sunday " ) occurred in the square on 13 November 1887 .
The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament 's first Aldermaston March , protesting against the Atomic Weapons Establishment ( AWE ) , began in the square in 1958 . One of the first significant demonstrations of the modern era was held in the square on 19 September 1961 by the Committee of 100 , which included the philosopher Bertrand Russell . The protesters rallied for peace and against war and nuclear weapons . In March 1968 , a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 demonstrated against US involvement in the Vietnam War before marching to the American Embassy in Grosvenor Square .
Throughout the 1980s , a continuous anti @-@ apartheid protest was held outside South Africa House . In 1990 , the Poll Tax Riots began by a demonstration attended by 200 @,@ 000 people and ultimately caused rioting in the surrounding area . More recently , there have been anti @-@ war demonstrations opposing the Afghanistan War and the Iraq War . A large vigil was held shortly after the terrorist bombings in London on Thursday , 7 July 2005 .
In December 2009 , participants from the Camp for Climate Action occupied the square for the two weeks during which the UN Conference on Climate Change took place in Copenhagen . It was billed as a UK base for direct action on climate change and saw various actions and protests stem from the occupation .
In March 2011 , the square was occupied by a crowd protesting against the UK Budget and proposed budget cuts . During the night the situation turned violent as the escalation by riot police and protesters damaged portions of the square . In November 2015 a vigil against the terrorist attacks in Paris was held . Crowds sang the French national anthem , La Marseillaise , and held banners in support of the city and country .
Every year on the anniversary of the Battle of Trafalgar ( 21 October ) , the Sea Cadet Corps holds a parade in honour of Admiral Lord Nelson and the British victory over the combined fleets of Spain and France at Trafalgar . The Royal British Legion holds a Silence in the Square event on Armistice Day , 11 November , in remembrance of those who died in war . The event includes music and poetry readings , culminating in a bugler playing the Last Post and a two @-@ minute silence at 11 am .
= = = Sport = = =
In the 21st century , Trafalgar Square has been the location for several sporting events and victory parades . In June 2002 , 12 @,@ 000 people gathered to watch the England national football team 's World Cup quarter @-@ final against Brazil on giant video screens which had been erected for the occasion . The square was used by the England national rugby union team on 9 December 2003 to celebrate their victory in the 2003 Rugby World Cup , and on 13 September 2005 for the England national cricket team 's victory in the Ashes series .
On 6 July 2005 Trafalgar Square hosted the announcement of London 's bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympics . A countdown clock was erected in March 2011 , although engineering and weather @-@ related faults caused it to stop a day later . In 2007 , it hosted the opening ceremonies of the Tour de France and was part of the course for subsequent races .
= = = Other uses = = =
As an archetypal London location , Trafalgar Square featured in film and television productions during the Swinging London era of the late 1960s , including The Avengers , Casino Royale , Doctor Who , and The Ipcress File . It was used for filming several sketches and a cartoon backdrop in the BBC comedy series Monty Python 's Flying Circus . In May 2007 , the square was grassed over with 2 @,@ 000 square metres of turf for two days in a campaign by London authorities to promote " green spaces " in the city .
In July 2011 , due to building works in Leicester Square , the world premiere of the final film in the Harry Potter series , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 2 , was held in Trafalgar Square , with a 0 @.@ 75 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) red carpet linking the squares . Fans camped in Trafalgar Square for up to three days before the premiere , despite torrential rain . It was the first premiere ever to be held there .
= = Other Trafalgar Squares = =
A Trafalgar Square in Stepney is recorded in Lockie 's Topography of London , published in 1810 . Trafalgar Square in Scarborough , North Yorkshire gives its name to the Trafalgar Square End at the town 's North Marine Road cricket ground .
National Heroes Square in Bridgetown , Barbados , was named Trafalgar Square in 1813 , before its better @-@ known British namesake . It was renamed in 1999 to commemorate national heroes of Barbados . There is a life scale replica of the square in Bahria Town , Lahore , Pakistan where it is a tourist attraction and centre for local residents .
= HIAG =
HIAG ( German : Hilfsgemeinschaft auf Gegenseitigkeit der Angehörigen der ehemaligen Waffen @-@ SS , literally " Mutual aid association of former Waffen @-@ SS members " ) was a lobby group and a revisionist veteran 's organisation founded by former high @-@ ranking Waffen @-@ SS personnel in West Germany in 1951 . Its main objective was to achieve legal , economic and historical rehabilitation of the Waffen @-@ SS .
To achieve its aims , the organisation used contacts with political parties and employed multi @-@ prong historical revisionism and propaganda efforts , including periodicals , books and public speeches . A HIAG @-@ owned publishing house , Munin Verlag , served as a platform for its publicity aims . This extensive body of work — 57 book titles and more than 50 years of monthly periodicals — has been described by historians as revisionist apologia .
Always in touch with its Nazi past , HIAG was a subject of significant controversy , both in West Germany and abroad . The organisation drifted into right @-@ wing extremism in its later history ; it was disbanded in 1992 at the federal level , but local groups , along with the organisation 's monthly periodical , continued to exist into the 21st century .
While HIAG only partially achieved its goals of legal and economic rehabilitation of Waffen @-@ SS , its propaganda efforts led to the reshaping of the image of Waffen @-@ SS in popular culture . The results are still felt , with scholarly treatments being out @-@ weighed by a large amount of amateur historical studies , memoirs , picture books , websites and wargames .
= = Post @-@ World War II context = =
The Potsdam Conference held by the Soviet Union , United Kingdom and United States from 17 July to 2 August 1945 determined the occupation policies that the Allied @-@ occupied Germany was to face . These included demilitarisation , denazification , democratisation and decentralisation . The Allies ' attempts were often perceived by the population as " victors ' justice " and met with limited success . For those in the Western zones of occupation , the arrival of the Cold War undermined these policies further by reviving the ideas of the necessity to fight against Soviet communism , echoing those of Hitler .
Another important post @-@ war development was the decision to rearm West Germany . In 1950 , after the outbreak of the Korean War , it became clear to the Western Allies that a German army would have to be revived to help face off against the Soviet Union . Many former German officers were convinced , however , that no future German army would be possible without the moral rehabilitation of the Wehrmacht . To this end , in October 1950 , a group of former senior officers produced a document , which became known as the Himmerod memorandum , for West German chancellor Konrad Adenauer . It included these key demands :
All German soldiers convicted as war criminals would be released ;
The " defamation " of the German soldier , including those of the Waffen @-@ SS , would have to cease ;
The " measures to transform both domestic and foreign public opinion " with regards to the German military would need to be taken .
Adenauer accepted these propositions and in turn advised the representatives of the three Western powers that German armed forces would not be possible as long as German soldiers remained in custody . To accommodate the West German government , the Allies commuted a number of war crimes sentences . Public declaration from Supreme Allied Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower followed in January 1951 , which read in part :
I have come to know that there is a real difference between the regular German soldier and officer and Hitler and his criminal group . For my part , I do not believe that the German soldier as such has lost his honor . The fact that certain individuals committed in war dishonorable and despicable acts reflects on the individuals concerned and not on the great majority of German soldiers and officers .
In the same year ( 1951 ) , some former career officers of the Wehrmacht were granted war pensions under the Basic Law . Unlike the Wehrmacht , the SS had been deemed a criminal organisation at the Nuremberg trials and could thus act as an " alibi of a nation " ( as Gerald Reitlinger 's 1956 book of that title suggested ) . The SS was the entity onto which all crimes of the Nazi regime were conveniently shifted . Consequently , Waffen @-@ SS career soldiers were not covered under the 1951 law .
In 1949 , the political climate was changing and the ban on forming veterans ' associations had been lifted . Encouraged by the shifting tone of the World War II discourse and the courting of the Wehrmacht veterans by the West German government and political parties , former Waffen @-@ SS members came forward to campaign for their rights .
= = Formation = =
HIAG began in late 1950 as a loose association of local so @-@ called support groups . The majority of participants were officers , most often of junior grades . In the summer of 1951 , HIAG was formally established by Otto Kumm , a former SS @-@ Brigadeführer . By October 1951 , HIAG consisted of 376 local branches .
= = = Leadership = = =
In December 1951 , former high @-@ ranking Waffen @-@ SS general Paul Hausser became HIAG 's first spokesperson . Two well @-@ known former Waffen @-@ SS commanders — Felix Steiner and Herbert Otto Gille — became early leading figures . Sepp Dietrich and Kurt Meyer became active members upon their release from prison , in 1955 and 1954 respectively ; Meyer became HIAG 's most effective spokesman . After Meyer 's death in 1961 , Erich Eberhardt , formerly of SS Division Totenkopf , assumed that role . As of 1977 , Wilhelm Bittrich served as the chairman ; as of 1976 Hubert Meyer acted as the federal spokesperson .
Ostensibly , HIAG existed to provide aid to veterans , but it included many members who were convicted war criminals . These included Bittrich , Dietrich , Meyer and Gustav Lombard . Kumm managed to avoid extradition to Yugoslavia to stand trial for war crimes by fleeing over the wall of the Dachau internment camp .
= = = Organisational principles = = =
With the publication of its first periodical in late 1951 , HIAG was beginning to draw attention to itself and generate public controversy , including speculation that it was a neo @-@ Nazi organisation . In response , Hausser wrote an open letter to the Bundestag denying these accusations and describing the HIAG as an advocacy organisation for former Waffen @-@ SS troops . Hausser asserted that its members rejected all forms of radicalism and were " upstanding citizens " .
The HIAG bylaws of 1952 described the aims of the organisation as providing comradeship , legal assistance , support for those in Allied captivity , help for families , and aid in searches for those still missing . The HIAG campaigned for Waffen @-@ SS veterans to be awarded the legal status of " persons formerly in the public service " under article 131 of the Basic Law , so that they would qualify for the same rights and pensions as Wehrmacht 's career soldiers .
The historian David C. Large wrote that , like any public pronouncements , these bylaws did not tell the full story about HIAG 's real goals . By investigating how these statutes were applied in practice , he was able to tease out what the organisation stood for . For example , HIAG claimed to represent the entire Waffen @-@ SS membership , surviving and fallen , as well as their families : 500 @,@ 000 in total . In reality , the organisation 's rolls did not exceed 20 @,@ 000 . HIAG attained this number in the late 1950s , and held it until the early 1960s .
The organisation also asserted that the Waffen @-@ SS was merely " the fourth arm of the Wehrmacht " ; these claims were even " more dubious " , explains Large . As a Nazi organisation combining both military and police powers , the Waffen @-@ SS was a military arm of the SS : its members stood under SS jurisdiction separate from that of the Wehrmacht ; personnel transitioned smoothly between the frontline formations , punitive detachments and SS concentration camp organisation ; and the frontline units themselves were thoroughly implicated in war crimes during the campaigns in the West and in the East , and in the atrocities against civilian population in the Soviet Union and Poland .
On the other hand , as the war progressed and the Waffen @-@ SS grew to encompass conscripts ( from 1943 ) , Waffen @-@ SS personnel began to resemble that of the Wehrmacht , contributing to the postwar confusion as to the organisation 's status . It allowed the Waffen @-@ SS proponents to advance the idea of Waffen @-@ SS men being " soldiers like all other " — the phrase first put forth in HIAG 's materials , and later publicly used by Chancellor Adenauer . Large argues that the equivalence is meaningless , as , contrary to the myth of a clean Wehrmacht , it actively participated in the racial war of extermination in the Soviet Union .
= = = Ideology = = =
Although political affiliations were discouraged by HIAG 's leaders , any leanings were to be " in the spirit of European and patriotic sentiment " , as described in a 1951 issue of Wiking @-@ Ruf ( " Viking Call " ) , HIAG 's first publication . Internal disagreements began to emerge in the mid @-@ 1950s as to the stance of the organisation : Steiner , Gille and Meyer favored a more political , outspoken orientation . The rest of the leadership favored a moderate approach in order not to jeopardise HIAG 's goals of legal and economic rehabilitation , which , in their opinion , could only come from the establishment : the government and the Bundestag .
= = Waffen @-@ SS advocacy = =
The main stated aims of the organisation were to provide assistance to veterans and campaign for the rehabilitation of their legal status with respect to war pensions . During its early existence , HIAG also focused on " help @-@ find @-@ lost @-@ comrades " actions ( Kameraden @-@ Suchdienst ) .
= = = Tracing service meetings = = =
HIAG embraced the Suchdienst activities , not only because it was concerned for the fate of some 40 @,@ 000 members of the Waffen @-@ SS who were missing in action , but because this outwardly humanitarian and non @-@ political activity could help improve its perception by the West German government and the society at large . Such public relations activities ( " image polishing " , according to Large ) were important to HIAG as it faced on @-@ going scrutiny , and even calls for a ban on the organisation . The Suchdiensttreffen events ( literally : tracing service meetings ) later evolved into annual Kameradschaftstreffen ( " veterans ' reunions " ) , which were in fact large @-@ scale conventions , often accompanied by rallies .
= = = Inaugural convention = = =
In 1952 , the organisation held its first major meeting in Verden . It began respectably , with Otto Gille announcing that the veterans were ready to " do their duty for the Fatherland " and Steiner declaring support for " freedom , order and justice " . But the next speaker delivered a different message . Hermann @-@ Bernhard Ramcke , a former paratroop general and a convicted war criminal , invited to demonstrate so @-@ called solidarity with the Wehrmacht , condemned the Western Allies as the " real war criminals " and insisted that the blacklist on which all former SS members then stood would soon become " a list of honour " .
The outburst caused a furor within West Germany . Periodicals as far as the U.S. and Canada carried headlines Hitler 's Guard Cheers Ex @-@ chief and Rabble @-@ Rousing General Is Worrying the Allies , with the latter article reporting that Ramcke 's speech had been greeted with " roars of approval and cries of ' Eisenhower , Schweinehund ! ' ( ' Pig – Dog ' ) " . HIAG and its spokesperson Steiner hastily tried to distance the organisation from Ramcke and his remarks . Subsequent conventions , which were in effect used for political purposes , added to the controversy surrounding the organisation . ( See also " Controversies " section below . )
= = = Waffen @-@ SS war criminals as victims = = =
The notion that Waffen @-@ SS personnel had been " soldiers like all others " found its way into the discourse of war captivity . HIAG claimed that its members were victims of victor 's justice and complained of harsh internment conditions . HIAG equated the status of prisoners of war with that of war criminals , obfuscating the differences between the Wehrmacht and the Waffen @-@ SS .
Along with other veterans ' organisations , HIAG campaigned for the immediate amnesty and early release of war criminals still in Allied captivity . This issue was significant , as most of these organisations made their cooperation in the area of rearmament contingent on the satisfactory resolution in this area . It was partly for this reason that the West German government was sympathetic to the fate of these individuals and made every effort to secure their early release . Chancellor Adenauer even met with Kurt Meyer in Werl Prison when he went there on an inspection tour .
In its periodical Wiking @-@ Ruf , HIAG made use of the same drawings of emaciated German POWs behind barbed wire used by the publications of another post @-@ war organisation — the West German Association of Returnees and Families of POWs and MIAs ( VdH ) . War captivity was depicted as the last stage of the so @-@ called ordinary military career in the Waffen @-@ SS in books and publications of the HIAG . In its turn , VdH saw its role as a peace @-@ seeking counterbalance to militaristic veterans ' organisations such as HIAG and explicitly distanced itself from them in the early 1950s .
= = = Relationship with political parties = = =
Behind the scenes , HIAG cultivated close relationships with the ruling Christian Democratic Union ( CDU ) and the main opposition Social Democratic Party ( SPD ) , garnering attention by inflating its membership numbers and influence . In meetings with politicians in the early 1950s , HIAG claimed to represent 2 million potential voters , a vast exaggeration as only 250 @,@ 000 Waffen @-@ SS veterans were living in West Germany at that time .
HIAG was successful in stoking politicians ' fears that millions of disaffected former soldiers would be a threat to the nascent West German democracy . That is perhaps why SPD leader Kurt Schumacher , who himself had been persecuted by the Nazis , decided to establish contact with HIAG . When he first met with its leaders in 1951 , Schumacher believed that 150 @,@ 000 people were already members of HIAG , as evidenced by internal party correspondence ; he considered that number to be " politically significant " . In the same letter , Schumacher referred to the Waffen @-@ SS as a " branch of the Wehrmacht " .
Later , the SPD defence policy expert Fritz Erler ( politician ) and Helmut Schmidt , a member of SPD parliamentary delegation and a future Chancellor of West Germany , handled the relationship with HIAG . They maintained close contact , attending private and public meetings and keeping regular correspondence . They often admonished HIAG leadership for the membership 's " undemocratic " ways , but these efforts at reforming the veterans were futile . Such dealing with the " unteachables " ( Unbelehrbaren ) only succeeded in causing concerns within SPD , as evidenced by internal party correspondence , where HIAG 's members were thus described ( " unteachable " ) .
HIAG found its best champion in the centre @-@ right Free Democratic Party ( FDP ) , whose platform was most closely aligned to its goals . The FDP voted against the de @-@ nazification process in 1950 ; demanded the release of all " so @-@ called war criminals " in 1951 ( as the war criminals were largely termed in West Germany at that time ) ; and welcomed the establishment of veterans ' organisation of former Wehrmacht and Waffen @-@ SS members . However , as only a coalition partner to the larger CDU and SPD , it could not deliver on what HIAG wanted ; hence , the main thrust of HIAG 's lobbying was directed at CDU and SPD , especially during the election years .
= = = Controversies = = =
HIAG took on the cause of those imprisoned or executed for war crimes and openly celebrated its Nazi past . Below is a partial list of ensuing controversies in the first 12 years of HIAG 's existence :
In 1953 , HIAG conventioneers staged a torchlit procession for a " solstice celebration " ( the manner in which Christmas was celebrated in Nazi Germany ) . They marched up to Staufeneck Castle in Bavaria , chanting Nazi songs , including This Is the Guard that Adolf Hitler Loves .
In 1954 , plans for a HIAG convention in Göttingen faced strong opposition from the local Social Democratic Party ( SPD ) , the Jewish Council , the Students ' Association and the University hierarchy . Federal government officials intervened , and the event was first postponed and then scaled down to a much smaller meeting lacking the qualities of a political event .
Following the reburial of executed war criminals in Hamelin in 1954 , the cemetery became the focal point for veterans ' reunions , with distinct Nazi overtones . In 1959 , the HIAG convention in Hamelin attracted a crowd of 15 @,@ 000 and concluded with " comrades gathering around the tomb " of Bernhard Siebken , a convicted war criminal who had been executed in 1949 .
Also in 1959 , the Interior Minister of Hesse prohibited the holding of a HIAG Suchdiensttreffen citing the German Red Cross 's decision not to lend its support due to these meetings being " superfluous " .
In 1961 , HIAG attempted to place a glorifying obituary of Max Simon , a former Gruppenführer in the SS , in the German newspaper Frankfurter Allgemeine . Simon had been convicted as a war criminal and sentenced to life imprisonment by the Allied courts for his role in the Marzabotto massacre , but was pardoned in 1954 . He was subsequently tried twice in the Federal courts for the killings in Brettheim and other crimes , but , " to the horror of the West German public " , as Frankfurter Allgemeine wrote in 2010 , was found not guilty . To HIAG 's indignation , Frankfurter Allgemeine refused to run the obituary .
In 1963 , a HIAG convention planned for the city of Hamelin had to be cancelled at short notice , due to public pressure .
Large , who studied HIAG extensively , stated in 1987 that HIAG 's anti @-@ democratic and anti @-@ Semitic public statements were " the essence of what HIAG was all about " , concluding that the HIAG 's leaders remained true to their Nazi ideology . Similarly , the historian Karsten Wilke , who worked with the HIAG archives in the 2000s , discovered that the HIAG members ' positions were " consistently racist , anti @-@ Semitic and anti @-@ democratic " , as the German news magazine Der Spiegel described in its 2011 investigative article " The Brown Bluff : How Waffen SS Veterans Exploited Postwar Politics " . Referencing Wilke 's work , Der Spiegel quoted a HIAG member 's letter to the leadership conveying the dismay at " Jews " who became " powerful once again " and could thus stand in the way of political support for the Waffen @-@ SS rehabilitation . Spiegel also reported Wilke 's findings that the HIAG leadership maintained close contacts with far @-@ right groups .
= = = Results = = =
Lobbying by HIAG and other revisionists produced some early successes . In 1953 , Chancellor Adenauer announced in a public speech in Hannover that members of the combat formations of the Waffen @-@ SS had been " soldiers just like the rest " who had been " simply drafted " . ( Large describes this declaration as " irresponsible and unhistorical " , while the military historian S.P. MacKenzie refers to it , when used in reference to the Western Front , as " the least credible " of the several claims put forth by Waffen @-@ SS apologists . He points out that , in the East , the Wehrmacht equaled the Waffen @-@ SS in its brutality , so the attempted equivalence was " rather ironic " . )
In the following months , a number of war criminals from the ranks of the Waffen @-@ SS were released . Many of them were made eligible for prisoner @-@ of @-@ war compensation from local governments . In 1956 the Federal Ministry of Defence announced that former members of the Waffen @-@ SS , up to the grade of lieutenant colonel , would be accepted to the Bundeswehr at their old rank .
Former Waffen @-@ SS men who wished to join the Bundeswehr still faced heightened scrutiny . All Waffen @-@ SS applicants went through the rigorous vetting process reserved only for those with the higher ranks in the Wehrmacht . HIAG protested to the government and its military planners , but to no avail . As a result , by September 1956 , only 33 of 1310 applications by ex @-@ Waffen @-@ SS officers had been accepted ( making them 0 @.@ 4 % of the Bundeswehr 's officer corps ) , as compared to 195 of 462 applications by enlisted men .
At its height in the early 1960s around 8 % of the approximately 250 @,@ 000 former Waffen @-@ SS members living in West Germany were members of HIAG . This was the timeframe when HIAG achieved its last success in the economic rehabilitation : in 1961 , the West German government partially restored pension rights to Waffen @-@ SS personnel under the 131 legislation . Included were those former Waffen @-@ SS members who had served for a minimum of 10 years strictly in the military capacity , thus amounting to a tiny number of eligible personnel . HIAG greeted this development as a partial victory , which they hoped would lead to a complete rehabilitation .
But this wider aim proved impossible to achieve : the government was circumspect as rehabilitating the Waffen @-@ SS would have opened the door to claims by personnel of other SS and Nazi organisations , including SA , SD , Hitler Youth , and others — a prospect the federal government would rather not have raised either domestically or internationally . The public image of the organisation was not helping either , because some of the more outspoken HIAG members sounded " alarmingly Nazi in their pronouncements " , according to Large .
= = Waffen @-@ SS historical revisionism = =
During the Nuremberg Trials , Waffen @-@ SS personnel , such as Hausser in his testimony as a defence witness , contended that it was a purely military organisation no different from the Wehrmacht . The prosecution at Nuremberg rejected that claim and successfully argued that the Waffen @-@ SS was an integral part of the SS apparatus . The Tribunal found that " the units of the Waffen @-@ SS were directly involved in the killings of the prisoners of war and the atrocities in the occupied countries " and judged the entire SS to be a criminal organisation .
HIAG aimed to reverse that judgement through significant propaganda efforts in the service of its historical revisionism . HIAG 's rewriting of history encompassed multi @-@ prong publicity campaigns , including tendentious periodicals , books and public speeches , alongside with a publishing house dedicated to presenting the Waffen @-@ SS in a positive light . Restoring the " tarnished shield " was viewed by the leadership as a key component of the desired legal and economic rehabilitation , and thus no effort was spared .
= = = Periodicals and illustrated books = = =
HIAG 's first periodical was Wiking @-@ Ruf . It was launched by Gille in 1951 and was initially aimed at the veterans of the SS Division Wiking . Within its first year of existence , it became the official publication of HIAG . In 1955 , it was renamed Der Freiwillige ( " The Volunteer " ) . The 1952 editorial by Kumm highlighted key themes that were used throughout HIAG 's subsequent history :
Even during the war , and especially after the war , infamous and lying propagandists have been able to make use of all the unfortunate events connected to the Third Reich and also with the SS to destroy and drag through the mud all of what was and is sacred to us . ( ... ) Let us be clear about it : the [ Allied ] battle was directed not only the authoritarian regime of the Third Reich , but , above all , against the resurgence of the strength of the German people .
Erich Kern , a far @-@ right Austrian journalist and a former Nazi war correspondent , became the organisation 's key employee responsible for its publishing arm . He first became active within HIAG in 1955 , and then joined as a full @-@ time employee in 1959 . ( Until his death in 1991 , Kern remained an " unrepentant and unreconstructed Nazi " , according to the historian Jonathan Petropoulos . )
The theme of foreign volunteers was featured prominently , with Steiner lending his voice in this area . In an 1958 editorial , he praised the foreign volunteers who , like their German comrades , saw the " diabolical " threat of Bolshevism and " fought like lions " against it as part of the Waffen @-@ SS . The picture books echoed the same themes ; one of them proclaimed : " From all European lands came volunteers as genuine comrades @-@ in @-@ arms . They fought for their Fatherland against Bolshevism . "
Glossy books such as Waffen @-@ SS in Pictures ( 1957 ) featured , as described by MacKenzie , " tales of valour and heroism " and " propaganda photographs of Aryan @-@ ideal volunteers from all over the Continent " . In 1973 , HIAG produced a five @-@ hundred page SS picture tome under the nostalgic title When All Our Brothers Are Silent ; the project was spearheaded by Hausser , with Jochen Peiper , a controversial Waffen @-@ SS figure , as a contributor . Other similar books included Scattered are the Traces ( 1979 ) , Cavalry Divisions of the Waffen @-@ SS ( 1982 ) , Panzer Grenadiers of the ' Viking ' Division in Pictures ( 1984 ) and many others . ( One of the cavalry units in question , SS Cavalry Brigade , was responsible for the murder of an estimated 23 @,@ 700 Jews and others in July – August 1941 alone during the Pripyat swamps punitive operation . Its regimental commander Lombard reported eliminating close to 11 @,@ 000 " plunderers " in the first two weeks the same operation . )
= = = Public speeches = = =
HIAG leadership denied that there was any connection between the Waffen @-@ SS and Nazi atrocities . In 1957 , Paul Hausser wrote an open letter in Der Freiweligge to West Germany 's minister of defence , stating that the concentration camp guard units ( SS @-
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@ Totenkopfverbände ) served on external detail only , " without the possibility of interfering with the internal procedure " . He did not mention that the guards accompanied prisoners to labour sites and that the commanders of concentration camps generally came from the Waffen @-@ SS . This apologist position also ignored the fact that the organisational structure of the SS tied Waffen @-@ SS to the Nazi annihilation machine through transfer of personnel between various SS units and the shifting responsibilities of the units themselves , as they may perform frontline duties at one time and then be reassigned to " pacification actions " , the Nazi term for punitive operations in the rear .
Kurt Meyer embodied the voice of Waffen @-@ SS apologists . Speaking before some 8000 SS men at the HIAG convention in Karlsberg , Bavaria , in 1957 , he stated that " SS troops committed no crimes , except the massacre at Oradour , and that was the action of a single man " , who , moreover had died a " hero 's death " before he could be court @-@ martialed . Meyer also insisted that the Waffen @-@ SS was a regular army outfit , just like any in the Wehrmacht . On another occasion , Meyer publicly denounced the " regime " [ West Germany ] that could " honour traitors " but would vilify its soldiers . He condemned the notion of " collective guilt " and equated Jews and Jesuits to the Nazis and the Waffen @-@ SS as all being victims of history and prejudice . In the first instance , Meyer was most likely referencing Adolf Diekmann who was the senior officer present during the Oradour massacre . Meyer himself had served a lengthy prison term for his role in the Ardenne Abbey massacre . In the second instance , he was apparently referring to the members of the 20 July plot .
The rhetoric of victimhood and pan @-@ European unity continued well into the later history of HIAG . At Peiper 's memorial in 1976 , Hubert Meyer referenced Peiper 's open letter from Landsberg Prison , which had been previously quoted in Hausser 's 1953 books :
For a broad public in Germany and even more throughout the rest of the world , [ Peiper ] has become the embodiment of that which all of us were clearly , intentionally and wrongly burdened in Nuremberg .... We have not forgotten what Jochen Peiper wrote to us from Landsberg Prison in 1952 : " Don 't forget that the first Europeans killed in action were in the units of the Waffen @-@ SS , that the one beaten to death during the post war period mostly were men from our ranks . They had become fair game because of their belief in the indivisibility of Western Europe . Remember these martyrs " .
= = = Memoirs = = =
The memoirs by HIAG 's leading members portrayed Waffen @-@ SS men as " misunderstood idealists who fought honourably and well " and included testimonials by former Wehrmacht generals endorsing the fighting skills of the Waffen @-@ SS . Steiner 's , Meyer 's and Hausser 's books have been characterised by historian Charles Sydnor as the " most important works of [ Waffen @-@ SS ] apologist literature " . They demanded rehabilitation of the military branch of the Nazi Party and presented Waffen @-@ SS members as both victims and misunderstood heroes . Nothing was said on the Nazi indoctrination of the troops or the atrocities committed by them .
Paul Hausser 's 1953 book Waffen @-@ SS in Action ( Waffen @-@ SS im Einsatz ) was the first major work by one of the HIAG leaders . It had an unmistakable connection to the Nazi origins of the Waffen @-@ SS : the SS runes on the cover art and the SS motto ( " My honour is called loyalty " ) embossed on the cloth cover . Former Wehrmacht general Hans Guderian endorsed Waffen @-@ SS troops in a foreword and referred to them as " the first realisation of the European idea " . Hausser went on to describe the growth of Waffen @-@ SS into a so @-@ called multinational force where foreign volunteers fought heroically as a " militant example of the great European idea " . Waffen @-@ SS in Action was included in the index of objectionable war books maintained by West Germany 's Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons . The index was created in 1960 to limit the sale of such works to minors due to their chauvinism and glorification of violence .
Kurt Meyer 's memoirs , Grenadiers ( German : Grenadiere ) , published in 1957 , detailed his exploits at the front and served as an element of the rehabilitation campaign . He condemned the " inhuman suffering " that the Waffen @-@ SS personnel had been subjected to " for crimes which they neither committed , nor were able to prevent " . Sydnor referred to Grenadiere as " perhaps the boldest and most truculent of the apologist works " .
Felix Steiner published The Volunteers of Waffen @-@ SS : Idea and sacrifice ( German : Die Freiwilligen der Waffen @-@ SS : Idee und Opfergang ) in 1958 . It presented the sacrifice messages echoing those of Der Freiwillige and stressed the theme of the purely military Waffen @-@ SS .
Both Hausser and Steiner followed up their 1950s books with works published in the 1960s . Published in 1963 , Steiner 's book was called The Army of Outlaws ( " Die Armee der Geächteten " ) . Hausser 's work appeared in 1966 under the title Soldiers Like Any Other ( " Soldaten wie andere auch " ) . According to MacKenzie , the books ' titles were symbolic of the Waffen @-@ SS image that HIAG 's leaders wanted to portray , while Sydnor describes this later generation of books as " equally tendentious " .
Prior to the establishment of HIAG 's own publishing house Munin Verlag ( below ) , HIAG @-@ affiliated books were predominantly published by Plesse Verlag in Göttingen , owned by an extreme right @-@ wing politician and publisher Waldemar Schütz .
= = = Munin Verlag imprint = = =
HIAG established its own publishing house — Munin Verlag — in 1958 . The name comes from Norse mythology , popular with the right @-@ wing movements . Muninn is one of the two ravens that are the companions of the war god Odin on the battlefield ; muninn is Old Norse for " memory " .
The aim of the publishing house was to publish the works of former Waffen @-@ SS members , in cooperation with HIAG . The authors of the publishing house were former Waffen @-@ SS unit commanders or staff officers , who were members of HIAG . The Munin Verlag titles did not go through the rigorous fact @-@ checking processes common in the traditional historical literature ; they were revisionist accounts unedited by professional historians and presented the former Waffen @-@ SS members ' version of events .
Until HIAG 's dissolution in 1992 , Munin @-@ Verlag published 57 titles . The authors included Patrick Agte ; Willi Fey , Albert Frey ; Paul Hausser ; Otto Kumm ; Rudolf Lehmann ; Hubert Meyer ; Eberhard Wolfgang Möller ; Richard Schulze @-@ Kossens ; Franz Schreiber ; Hans Stöber ; Peter Strassner ; Ralf Tiemann ( Wilhelm Mohnke 's adjutant ) ; Wilhelm Tieke ; Karl Ullrich ; Otto Weidinger , among others .
= = = Unit histories and biographies = = =
Waffen @-@ SS unit histories were produced with the assistance from HIAG from the 1950s . Walter Harzer took on the role of the official historian of HIAG , in charge of coordinating the writing of the histories of Waffen @-@ SS divisions . HIAG worked with the German Federal Military Archive in Freiburg to screen materials donated to it for any information that may have implicated units and personnel in questionable activity . To legitimise its image , HIAG underwrote the publication of works by right @-@ wing academics sympathetic to the Waffen @-@ SS .
The unit narratives were extensive ( often in several volumes ) and strived for a so @-@ called official representation of their history , backed by maps and operational orders . MacKenzie points out that " the older or the more famous the unit , the larger the work — to the point where no less than five volumes and well over 2 @,@ 000 pages were devoted to the doings of the 2nd Panzer Division Das Reich " , authored by its former officer Otto Weidinger .
The French author Jean @-@ Paul Picaper , who studied the Oradour massacre that was perpetrated by the men of the Das Reich , notes the tendentious nature of Weidinger 's narrative : it provided a sanitized version of history without any references to massacres . He argues that the unit histories , like other HIAG publications , focused on the positive , " heroic " side of National Socialism . The researcher Danny S. Parker notes similar efforts undertaken to rewrite the history of the Leibstandarte division . HIAG worked with Rudolf Lehmann , chief of staff of 1st SS Panzer Corps , to produce what Parker calls an " exculpating multi @-@ volume chronicle " of the division , even including the Malmedy massacre . HIAG involved a legal consultant to make sure the account would be within the framework of the strict German laws prohibiting glorification of the Nazi past . The project also included the former chief of staff of the unit , Dietrich Ziemssen , who in 1952 produced a revisionist version of the massacre in his pamphlet Der Malmedy Prozess .
In the mid- to late 1970s , HIAG attempted to commission a favorable biography of Peiper , to stop " the bad rumors " , according to a HIAG official . " We must steadfastly remain behind the wheel and direct this book ourselves , otherwise [ Erich Kern ] will do it " , Harzer wrote to a fellow member in 1976 . HIAG contemplated approaching ( or approached ) Herbert Reinecker , a prolific screenwriter who had served in a propaganda company ( Propagandakompanie ) of the Waffen @-@ SS , but nothing came out of it .
= = = Successes and outcomes = = =
By the mid @-@ 1950s , HIAG established an image that separated the Waffen @-@ SS from other SS formations and shifted responsibility for crimes that could not be denied to the Allgemeine @-@ SS ( security and police ) , the SS @-@ Totenkopfverbände and the Einsatzgruppen . The Waffen @-@ SS was thus successfully integrated into the myth of the clean Wehrmacht .
The positive image of the Waffen @-@ SS as an organisation indeed took root , and not only in Germany itself . In the era of the Cold War , senior Waffen @-@ SS personnel were " not shy about the fact that they had once organised a NATO @-@ like army , and an elite one at that " , notes MacKenzie ( emphasis in the original ) . John M. Steiner , in his 1975 work , points out that SS apologists , especially strongly represented in HIAG , stressed that they were the first to fight for Europe and Western civilisation against " Asiatic Communist hordes " .
Quoting German political journalist Karl Otto Paetel in his 1966 book , the historian George Stein writes that the works produced by HIAG 's circle were " trying to prove only what no tolerably informed person has ever attempted to deny , viz . , that the soldiers of the Waffen @-@ SS were brave fighters , suffered big losses and , as far as they served in the front line , did not run exterminations camps " . Stein notes that the apologists define the Waffen @-@ SS " in the narrowest of terms " and are silent on the matter of war crimes . He notes that only a minority of men were implicated in known atrocities and that the most historically significant role of the Waffen @-@ SS was in the battles for " Hitler 's Europe " . But " to recognise this is not to agree with the apologists who picture the overwhelming majority of the men of the Waffen @-@ SS as idealistic , clean @-@ living , decent and honourable soldiers " , Stein writes .
Wilke argues that , by the 1970s , HIAG attained a monopoly on the historical representation of the Waffen @-@ SS . Its recipe was simple and contained just four ingredients :
The Waffen @-@ SS was apolitical
It was elite
It was innocent of all war crimes or Nazi atrocities
It was a European army par excellence , the Army of Europe .
Historians dismiss , and even ridicule , this characterisation . Picaper labels it as a " self @-@ panegyric " , while Large uses the words " extravagant fantasies about [ Waffen @-@ SS 's ] past and future " . MacKenzie refers to HIAG 's body of work as a " chorus of self @-@ justification " and Stein as " apologetics " . The historian James M. Diehl describes HIAG 's claims of the Waffen @-@ SS being the so @-@ called fourth branch of the Wehrmacht as " false " , and HIAG 's insistence that the force was a precursor to NATO as " even more outrageous " .
= = Transition into right @-@ wing extremism = =
In the 1960s , it became clear that the legal rehabilitation of the Waffen @-@ SS was out of HIAG 's reach . At the same time , attitudes were beginning to change as the country emerged from a " decade of suppression of Germany 's Nazi past " . Waffen @-@ SS veterans ' activities were increasingly greeted by suspicion from the community , while the government and military planners came to the realisation that they could meet their goals of rearmament without them . HIAG was thus increasingly marginalised and ignored by the political parties , while any pretences of moderation no longer served a purpose as no further benefits were forthcoming from the government .
HIAG then began its drift into the far right , further retreating into its Nazi past . For a time , HIAG published a calendar that marked Nazi commemoration dates . Many of the organisation 's founding members did not evolve with the times . For example , at least through the 1970s , Kumm remained " the ever unreformed Nazi enthusiast " , according to Parker , who was given access to the previously closed HIAG archives .
As the West German public 's awareness of the SS atrocities grew in the 1970s and 1980s , the attitudes towards Waffen @-@ SS veterans shifted dramatically . The federal organisation and the local groups were ostracised , with their meetings and commemorations greeted with protests . At the same time , neo @-@ Nazi and nationalist movements found in the Waffen @-@ SS an icon to project their understanding of World War II .
During the 1980s , the HIAG celebrations grew so large and bold that they created enormous problems for the organisation 's image , such as when a 1985 meeting turned into a public relations disaster . The press reported on singing of forbidden Nazi songs , clashes with demonstrators and Waffen @-@ SS reenactors ( SS reenacting was illegal in West Germany ) . In an even more damaging development , Stern investigative reporter Gerhard Kromschröder infiltrated the meeting posing as a war buff . He later published a damning article called " Nazi Family Reunion " containing statements from Waffen @-@ SS veterans that ranged from Holocaust denial to virulently anti @-@ semitic comments and references to happy concentration camp inmates " singing like birds " .
In its later history , HIAG was monitored by the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution as a far @-@ right organisation . It briefly went off the list of neo @-@ Nazi and extremist groups in 1984 , causing another controversy .
= = Dissolution = =
Perceived by the West German government to be a Nazi organisation , HIAG was disbanded at the federal level in 1992 . HIAG 's last chairman was Hubert Meyer , who provided access to the previously closed HIAG archives to several researchers , including Parker . Parker used the HIAG materials in his 2014 study of Jochen Peiper .
Der Freiwillige was still being published in the 2000s . At some point , Der Freiwillige and the Munin Verlag publishing business had been taken over by Patrick Agte , a right @-@ wing author and publisher . Regional HIAG chapters continued to exist through the 2000s , at least one into the 2010s . These groups worked to maintain momentum through the recruitment of younger generations and through outreach to foreign veterans of the Waffen @-@ SS , aided by the continued publication of Der Freiwillige . " [ Its ] acclaimed aim , today [ 2014 ] , is to link older and younger generations in a common cause , " note the historians Steffen Werther and Madeleine Hurd . The publication 's predominant theme continued to be " Europe against Bolshevism " , with several editorials devoted to the idea that the Waffen @-@ SS laid the foundation for the unification of Europe , expansion of NATO and " freedom of Fatherlands " , as stated in one of the issues .
HIAG 's informal successor was the international War Grave Memorial Foundation " When All Brothers Are Silent " ( Kriegsgräberstiftung ' Wenn alle Brüder schweigen ' ) , formed with a stated goal of maintaining war graves . In the 1990s and 2000s , after the fall of the Berlin Wall , it worked on arranging new commemorative sites for the Waffen @-@ SS dead in the former Soviet Union , including one in the Ukraine .
= = Assessment and legacy = =
HIAG never grew to the size of other West German veterans ' organisations , the most successful of which , VdH , had membership approaching 500 @,@ 000 . Diehl , who studied postwar veterans ' movements in West Germany , writes that Der Freiwillige 's " fire @-@ eating editorials " were ignored by the overwhelming majority of Waffen @-@ SS veterans , who were more interested in rebuilding their civilian lives or getting too old to consider returning to military service . HIAG 's membership began to fall sharply in the 1960s , while the organisation itself was never a significant threat to democracy . " HIAG 's main goal was pensions , not a restoration of the Third Reich , " he notes .
= = = Performance as lobby group = = =
HIAG 's performance as a lobbying organisation was mixed . Large sees a " combination of resentment , myopia and inflated self @-@ importance " in HIAG 's efforts and attitudes . " [ The campaign ] to regain their ' honour ' and exercise political influence ( ... ) was only partially successful " , he writes . He credits West Germany 's government , major political parties and military planners with keeping sufficient distance from HIAG and other veterans ' organisations to limit their role in the new republic and its armed forces . " In that respect , ( ... ) Bonn was not Weimar , " he concludes .
On the other hand , as a " crucible of historical revisionism " ( in Picaper 's definition ) , HIAG achieved remarkable success in its rewriting of history . The results are felt to this day in public 's perceptions and popular culture , with many works translated into English . The historians Ronald Smelser and Edward J. Davies write : " Unfortunately , the scholarly writings remained confined to a small audience , whereas the readership of the German authors ( and their English @-@ language spin @-@ offs ) was considerably larger " . The authors note that " with a forty @-@ year head start " , the predominance of the German view , and the related fascination by Waffen @-@ SS romancers , " hardly remains a mystery " .
= = = Revisionist tradition outside of HIAG = = =
HIAG was instrumental in creating the perception in popular culture of the Waffen @-@ SS being " comrades @-@ in @-@ arms engaged in a noble crusade " ( according to MacKenzie ) . These notions were questioned by West German researches , but German society overall , wanting to forget the past , embraced the image . MacKenzie highlights the long @-@ term effects of HIAG 's revisionism :
As older generation of Waffen @-@ SS scribes has died off , a new , post @-@ war cadre of writers has done much to perpetuate the image of the force as a revolutionary European army . The degree of admiration and acceptance varies , but the overall tendency to accentuate the positive lives on , or has indeed grown stronger .
The revisionist tradition continues to the present time , through popular history books , web sites and wargames . New titles appear every year , propagating the myths first put forth by HIAG 's propaganda efforts . Some of the books are amateur historical studies that focus solely on the military aspects of the Waffen @-@ SS . Others are reprints of apologetic accounts by former Waffen @-@ SS personnel . Adding to the volume of material are groups of international admirers who consider Waffen @-@ SS to have been incorrectly judged by history .
= = = = Popular history = = = =
Smelser and Davies contend that some of the better known or prolific authors in the Waffen @-@ SS revisionist tradition include Agte , who wrote hagiographic accounts on Jochen Peiper , Michael Wittmann and other Waffen @-@ SS men , and Franz Kurowski , who provided numerous non @-@ peer reviewed wartime chronicles of Waffen @-@ SS units and highly decorated men . Critics have been dismissive of his works , describing them as Landser @-@ pulp ( " soldier @-@ pulp " ) literature and " laudatory texts " , that focus on hero @-@ making at the expense of the historical truth . Another popular author , Mark Yerger , published 11 books up to 2008 , mostly through Schiffer Publishing .
According to MacKenzie , authors in the revisionist tradition range from " extreme admirers [ on ] the fringes of the far @-@ right " , such as Richard Landwehr and Jean Mabire , to partisan authors ( Gordon Williamson and Edmund L. Blandford ) , and popular historians who generally present the Waffen @-@ SS in a positive light . These include John Keegan , James S. Lucas and Bruce Quarrie . The historian Henning Pieper notes non @-@ scholarly works by Christopher Ailsby , Herbert Walther ( writer ) , and Tim Ripley as part of " militaria literature " genre ( in his definition ) , while the military historian Robert Citino includes books by Willi Fey and Michael Reynolds among uncritical works aimed at " military history buffs " .
= = = = Websites , wargames and reenactment = = = =
Smelser and Davies argue that the revisionist @-@ inspired messages and visuals found their way into wargames , Internet chatrooms and forums and the popular culture of Waffen @-@ SS " romancers " , that is those who romanticise the German war effort . They contend that the Achtung Panzer and Feldgrau websites are especially attractive to this group .
Popular culture of the romancers also includes Waffen @-@ SS reenactment . Although banned in Germany and Austria , SS reenacting groups thrive elsewhere , including in Europe and North America . In U.S. alone , by the end of the 1990s there were 20 Waffen @-@ SS reenactment groups , out of approximately 40 groups dedicated to German World War II units . In contrast , during that time there were 21 groups dedicated to the American units of the same era .
= 2015 Tour de Suisse =
The 2015 Tour de Suisse was the 79th edition of the Tour de Suisse stage race . It took place from 13 to 21 June and was the seventeenth race of the 2015 UCI World Tour . It started in Risch @-@ Rotkreuz and finished in Bern . The race was composed of nine stages including two time trials , a short one on the first day and a long one on the last day . The event covered 1 @,@ 258 km ( 782 mi ) and visited Liechtenstein and Austria on its fifth stage . There was only one mountaintop finish , on the aforementioned stage five .
The winner of the general classification was Slovenian Simon Špilak of Team Katusha , who won the race by a margin of only five seconds from Great Britain 's Geraint Thomas ( Team Sky ) . The ultimate selection was made on the last day 's individual time trial . Tom Dumoulin of the Giant – Alpecin squad rounded up the podium . The latter won the two individual time trials , on the first and last stage .
The mountains classification was awarded to Austria 's Stefan Denifl ( IAM Cycling ) , who featured in many breakaways to amass his points . The sprints classification was won by Slovakian Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) who also was the victor of two stages . Team Sky finished at the head of the team classification with a margin of 11 minutes and 49 seconds .
Other riders who won a stage were Croatian Kristijan Đurasek of Lampre – Merida , Australian Michael Matthews ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) , Norwegian Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) and Kazakh Alexey Lutsenko of Astana . Frenchman Thibaut Pinot grabbed the queen stage to the Rettenbach glacier and held the leader 's jersey for four stages , but had to surrender it on the last day of competition to Špilak .
= = Teams = =
As a UCI World Tour event , the organisation was in an obligation to invite all seventeen UCI WorldTeams , and likewise , all seventeen teams were obligated to send a squad . To complete the field , two UCI Professional Continental teams were invited to join the race . The number of riders allowed per team was eight , so the starting field contained 152 cyclists .
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
Rui Costa ( Movistar Team ) won the last three editions of the race , however he was not present at the 2015 event , as he raced in the Critérium du Dauphiné instead . More contenders for the overall classification of the Tour de France opted for the latter race since it was more mountainous . There were two former winners of the Tour de Suisse at the starting line , Trek Factory Racing teammates : Swiss Fabian Cancellara and Luxembourger Fränk Schleck .
Contenders for the general classification were Simon Špilak ( Team Katusha ) , Thibaut Pinot ( FDJ ) , Rafal Majka ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , Sergio Henao ( Team Sky ) , Tom Dumoulin ( Giant @-@ Alpecin ) , Michał Kwiatkowski ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Geraint Thomas ( Team Sky ) . Other hopefuls were Jurgen Van den Broeck ( Lotto – Soudal ) and Sébastien Reichenbach ( IAM Cycling ) . It was AG2R La Mondiale 's Domenico Pozzovivo 's first race after his disastrous crash in the Giro d 'Italia , so his form was predicted as uncertain , but the Italian climber could certainly be a factor if he was in shape .
Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff @-@ Saxo ) was a contender for stage wins . His directeur sportif ( team manager ) said he was the leader of the team and would target the opening prologue . Mark Cavendish of Etixx @-@ Quick Step , who proved his form with twelve stage victories so far in the season , was a favorite for the sprint stages . Other riders contending stage glory were Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) and John Degenkolb ( Giant – Alpecin ) . Cancellara , the 2009 winner , was recovering from a crash suffered at the E3 Harelbeke one @-@ day race ; his primary focus was on his recovery .
= = Route = =
An important race in its own right , the 2015 Tour de Suisse was used by some Tour de France riders to perfect their physical conditions , as the well @-@ known French race started on 4 July . The route for the race was announced on 9 March 2015 .
The race did not follow any particular pattern in terms of geographical displacement around the country , but did visit Liechtenstein and Austria on the fifth stage . It was also the longest of the race and may be qualified as the queen stage . It finished near Sölden situated in Austrian territory and featured a mountaintop finish . After that , the race came back in Swiss territory for the remainder of the event . The stages which were likely to be the most important for the general classification were the aforementioned stage five and the individual time trial on the final stage . The race featured a total elevation gain of 15 @,@ 606 m ( 51 @,@ 200 @.@ 8 ft ) .
On 4 June 2015 , it was announced that the town of Brunnen was desisting itself from being the start of stage three because of road damage caused by a rocky landslide , and that the town of Quinto would instead be the starting town . This shortened the stage by 57 @.@ 2 km ( 35 @.@ 5 mi ) .
= = Stages = =
= = = Stage 1 = = =
13 June 2015 — Risch @-@ Rotkreuz to Risch @-@ Rotkreuz 5 @.@ 1 km ( 3 @.@ 2 mi )
The very short prologue contained three sharp corners . The first two kilometers were slightly uphill , the third one was slightly downhill and the rest was flat .
The best times coming from the first tier of riders have been Matthias Brändle ( IAM Cycling ) with 5 ' 45 " , Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) a second slower and Cameron Meyer ( Orica @-@ GreenEDGE ) another second in arrears . Thibaut Pinot ( FDJ ) came in with a deficit of twelve seconds on Brändle . Michael Matthews ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) also realized a good time , four seconds down on the provisional leader . Domenico Pozzovivo ( Ag2r @-@ La Mondiale ) came to the finish with a fifteen @-@ second deficit . Daniele Bennati ( Tinkoff @-@ Saxo ) had the best intermediate time all day , which was calculated with 2 @.@ 1 km ( 1 @.@ 3 mi ) remaining as the riders went through the checkpoint .
Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) , beat Brändle with a time of 5 ' 43 " . Time trial specialist Adriano Malori ( Movistar Team ) started soon after Cancellara crossed the finish line , but came in at 5 ' 47 " , four seconds slower . Giant @-@ Alpecin rider Tom Dumoulin clocked 5 ' 41 " , 2 seconds better than Cancellara , and would ultimately be the winner of the stage .
BMC Racing Team 's Silvan Dillier crashed as he was on a straight stretch of road . He managed to remount and finish the stage ; his final position was last place , 1 ' 22 " down . Team Sky 's leader Geraint Thomas put in a fast ride , only seven seconds down on the winner . Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) came in five seconds in arrears of Dumoulin , missing out on his objective of being the first leader of the race . Robert Gesink ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) clocked a time 22 seconds slower than Dumoulin , and so did Sergio Henao of Team Sky . Poles Rafał Majka ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) and Michał Kwiatkowski ( Etixx @-@ Quick Step ) were 20 and 21 seconds down respectively .
After the event , Dumoulin said that he prepared at altitude for the race and that he produced a hard physical effort on the uphill section and went less intensely on the flatter parts .
= = = Stage 2 = = =
14 June 2015 — Risch @-@ Rotkreuz to Risch @-@ Rotkreuz 161 @.@ 1 km ( 100 @.@ 1 mi )
The stage started right away with a Category 2 climb named Dorfstrasse which was 5 @.@ 4 km ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) long . The riders then rode a loop to tackle the latter climb once more about midway through the stage . Afterward another loop around Risch @-@ Rotkreuz was effectuated to reach a Category 1 affair named Michaelskreuz , 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) long . The course came back down and effectuated another circuit to tackle the climb a second and last time . This last King of the Mountains ( KOM ) checkpoint was situated at 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from the finish . The riders negotiated the descent and ended up once again in Risch @-@ Rotkreuz for the finale .
After 38 km ( 23 @.@ 6 mi ) of racing , Luka Pibernik ( Lampre @-@ Merida ) , Cameron Meyer ( Orica @-@ GreenEDGE ) , Jurgen Roelandts ( Lotto – Soudal ) and Valerio Agnoli of Astana had an advantage of 1 ' 08 " over chasers Ben King ( Cannondale – Garmin ) and Simone Antonini of Pro Continental team Wanty – Groupe Gobert . They also enjoyed a lead of 2 ' 55 " on the peloton . The two chasers soon fell back into the main field . The maximum gap the peloton allowed the escapees to have was 3 ' 20 " . As the main group attacked the climb of Michaelskreuz for the first time , Arnaud Demare ( FDJ ) crashed because of the fight for position .
With 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) to go , the riders attacked the climb of Michaelskreuz for the second and last time and caught the remnants of the breakaway on the way up . Astana 's Jakob Fuglsang accelerated close to the summit , with only Geraint Thomas ( Team Sky ) and Simon Špilak ( Team Katusha ) initially able to follow , while Michał Kwiatkowski ( Etixx @-@ Quick Step ) lost contact . Geraint Thomas then attacked on the descent and was followed by Fuglsang and Špilak ( Team Katusha ) . Tom Dumoulin ( Giant @-@ Alpecin ) chased them as he wanted to protect his leader 's jersey . A small group of nine riders formed on the descent .
Close to the final kilometer , Kristijan Đurasek of Lampre – Merida placed an acceleration and continued to a solo victory on the flat run @-@ in . The group came in four seconds in arrears , with Daniel Moreno ( Team Katusha ) winning the sprint for second place before Arredondo . Overall contenders Thibaut Pinot ( FDJ ) and Simon Špilak ) were also part of that clique , coming in fourth and sixth respectively . Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff @-@ Saxo ) won the sprint of the following group , coming in tenth at fourteen seconds . Dumoulin kept his leader 's jersey . Pibernik amassed enough mountain points ( 18 ) to earn the mountains classification jersey .
= = = Stage 3 = = =
15 June 2015 — Quinto to Olivone 117 @.@ 3 km ( 72 @.@ 9 mi )
This was the new version of the stage as the original route was closed due to a landslide . The stage immediately started the 1 @,@ 087 m ( 3 @,@ 566 @.@ 3 ft ) -high ascent of the Hors Category Gotthard Pass , which summit was 18 @.@ 8 km ( 11 @.@ 7 mi ) in . Then came a long false flat until a Category 2 climb , the 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) -long Zona Cumiasca . It was immediately followed by a Category 3 named ascent Via Cantonale , which summited 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from the finish . The climb was 3 @.@ 2 km ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) .
The race got on its way under cloudy but dry conditions . The Tour de Suisse was featuring the Gotthard Pass for the 34th time in its history , and a break formed along its early slopes , which featured cobbles . The two attackers were Stefan Denifl ( IAM Cycling ) and Marco Marcato ( Wanty @-@ Groupe Gobert ) . The pair had a lead of 2 ' 30 " on the main field as Branislau Samoilau ( CCC @-@ Sprandi @-@ Polkowice ) was chasing them . Denifl got to the top of the climb first to rake in twenty points . By the top of the pass , snow was covering the sides of the road and the field was 3 ' 20 " back . The riders put gilets on before the descent , which lasted almost 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) . Samoileau succeeded in joining the escape during the downhill .
The competitors replenished their food stock at the feed zone situated shortly after the downhill section . The main field started accelerating , with the team of the leader Tom Dumoulin Giant @-@ Alpecin doing most of the work at the front . Realizing this breakaway was gaining ground , Tinkoff @-@ Saxo came to the fore to help , resulting in the gap going down gradually . There was 30 km ( 18 @.@ 6 mi ) to cover as the gap was hovering around 4 ' 30 " .
At the foot of the Zona Cumiasca climb , with 19 km ( 11 @.@ 8 mi ) remaining , the gap had shrunk significantly . The peloton formed sprint trains to better position their leaders for the ascent . Marcato was soon dropped from the breakaway and Denifl won the mountain points . At that point , Denifl and Samoileau had only a thirty seconds gap over the depleting field . The catch was effectuated with 8 @.@ 7 km ( 5 @.@ 4 mi ) to race . Michael Albasini ( Orica @-@ GreenEDGE ) attacked , soon followed by Jan Bakelants ( Ag2r @-@ La Mondiale ) . With the two escapees enjoying only a ten @-@ second advantage , Sergio Henao ( Team Sky ) accelerated and passed them . The trio was ultimately reeled in . Rafał Majka ( Tinkoff @-@ Saxo ) was working at the front of the small leading group to bring back the attackers to give his team leader Peter Sagan a chance at victory . In the last few kilometers , Sagan took over from Majka himself . He followed Daniel Moreno ( Team Katusha ) , who had chased down Esteban Chaves ( Orica @-@ GreenEDGE ) , passing him to take victory .
= = = Stage 4 = = =
16 June 2015 — Flims to Schwarzenbach 193 @.@ 2 km ( 120 @.@ 0 mi )
The first 60 km ( 37 @.@ 3 mi ) were flat until the peloton reached Wildhaus Pass , a Category 2 test of 8 @.@ 9 km ( 5 @.@ 5 mi ) . Then there were three Category 3 climbs on offer , which were the 1 @.@ 8 km ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) -long Kirchberg climb repeated three times as the riders accomplished a loop . There were however a number of uncategorized rises , especially one with about 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) to cover , that could play a role in the outcome . The finishing 900 m ( 2 @,@ 952 @.@ 8 ft ) were straight with a consistent incline .
Davide Malacarne ( Astana ) and Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) attacked early in the stage . They were joined by a trio of Stijn Devolder ( Trek Factory Racing ) , Alex Howes ( Cannondale – Garmin ) and Frederik Backaert ( Wanty @-@ Groupe Gobert ) . De Gendt crested the Wildhaus Pass first to take eight points in the KOM competition . At the summit , after 66 km ( 41 @.@ 0 mi ) of racing , the gap between the peloton and the breakers was two minutes and fifty seconds .
De Gendt took maximum points atop the Kirchberg climb on the riders ' first passage . The main field got through the KOM line 2 ' 05 " in arrears . The descent was fast and the riders crossed the finish line for the first time of three with about 60 km ( 37 @.@ 3 mi ) to race . The breakaway was caught less than 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) later . Orica @-@ GreenEDGE marshaled the field as De Gendt attacked again to no avail as he was swiftly swept back . Sprint specialists Arnaud Demare ( FDJ ) , Mark Cavendish ( Etixx @-@ Quick Step ) and Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) struggled with the high pace at the front set by Orica – GreenEDGE . As the peloton crossed the line for the last time with 29 @.@ 2 km ( 18 @.@ 1 mi ) to race , there were no escapees .
The last KOM of the day atop the Kirchberg climb was won by Daryl Impey ; it was uncontested and he won because he was riding at the front . Alexey Lutsenko ( Astana ) placed an attack with 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) to go . With 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to race he had opened up an advantage of 20 seconds . With 6 @.@ 7 km ( 4 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining , Lutsenko was caught . An attack formed immediately including the riders Marco Marcato ( Wanty @-@ Groupe Gobert ) , Jan Bakelants ( Ag2r @-@ La Mondiale ) and Sergio Henao ( Team Sky ) ; it failed and they were brought back as ( Wanty @-@ Groupe Gobert and ( Orica @-@ GreenEDGE teams worked together to set up a sprint finish . With 300 m ( 984 @.@ 3 ft ) to go , Sagan initiated his sprint first and was followed by Michael Matthews of Orica – GreenEDGE . Matthews then passed him to claim his first victory at the Tour de Suisse . Sagan took second place and the points classification jersey .
= = = Stage 5 = = =
17 June 2015 — Unterterzen to Sölden ( Austria ) 237 @.@ 3 km ( 147 @.@ 5 mi )
This was the queen stage of the 2015 Tour de Suisse and was also the longest stage the race featured in the last twenty years . The first difficulty of the day was the 34 @.@ 4 km ( 21 @.@ 4 mi ) long Hors Category Bielerhöhe Pass which summits at 2 @,@ 071 m ( 6 @,@ 794 @.@ 6 ft ) of altitude and at that point , the riders were already in Austria after a brief visit to Liechtenstein . Following that difficulty , the run @-@ in to Sölden offered a respite until the cyclists reached the town and tackled the stage 's second Hors Category climb to the Rettenbach glacier , which took them to an altitude of 2 @,@ 669 m ( 8 @,@ 756 @.@ 6 ft ) . The competitors rode the Ötztal Glacier Road from Sölden to get to the finish line .
The overall race leader Tom Dumoulin ( Giant @-@ Alpecin ) said before the stage that if he lost less than one minute and a half to the pure climbers , he could still win the Tour by taking that time back on the final stage 's time trial . The previous stage 's victor Michael Matthews ( Orica @-@ GreenEDGE ) was a non @-@ starter , saying he had gotten what he wanted from the race : a stage win . A breakaway formed in the opening 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) of the race . They were Gregory Rast ( Trek Factory Racing ) , KOM jersey wearer Stefan Denifl and his teammate Matthias Brändle ( IAM Cycling ) , Ben King ( Cannondale – Garmin ) , Przemysław Niemiec ( Lampre @-@ Merida ) , Stefan Schumacher ( CCC @-@ Sprandi @-@ Polkowice ) , Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) and Mirko Selvaggi ( Wanty @-@ Groupe Gobert ) . The best @-@ placed cyclist in the break on the general classification was Selvaggi in 59th place , 18 ' 38 " down on Dumoulin . Denifl amassed maximum points atop the Bielerhöhe Pass , comforting his lead in the mountains classification . Jon Izagirre of the Movistar Team abandoned after the pass .
With 90 km ( 55 @.@ 9 mi ) to go the gap was miscalculated by the race organizers as there were unrealistic fluctuations in the official timing throughout the long stretch of flat road before the final climb . With 82 km ( 51 @.@ 0 mi ) to cover , Astana took control of the peloton for their leader Jakob Fuglsang . FDJ and Team Katusha started helping the chase at the front , since those teams had riders aiming for victory ( Thibaut Pinot and the Daniel Moreno @-@ Simon Špilak duo , respectively ) . With 30 km ( 18 @.@ 6 mi ) to the start of the big final climb , the gap was around six and a half minutes . The break fractured , just as the peloton did later when they hit the Rettenbach ascent . Dumoulin was dropped almost at the beginning of it but resisted , climbing at his own pace . Špilak attacked with 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) remaining and dangled in front of a select group .
Early breaker Denifl was alone in front and had about two minutes of an advantage with 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) to go . Behind , Domenico Pozzovivo placed an acceleration that put the lead group in difficulty , but he was brought back . The time gap rapidly decreased , due to dubious time monitoring again . Pinot launched an attack from the group , but Špilak had the resources to keep up with him for a while but was ultimately dropped . Pinot passed the passive Denifl before the arch signaling the last kilometer ( flamme rouge ) and took a solo victory . Pozzovivo finished second while Špilak settled for third . However , it became soon apparent that Dumoulin would not lose much more than the minute and a half that was his objective . He passed the line 1 ' 37 " down on Pinot . " I 'm very happy , it was important for me and the team . We came here to win a stage , and I had good legs today . I 've got a lot of confidence now , that ’ s important for the Tour de France . And it 's true , racing in Switzerland seems to suit me , " said Pinot . " The objective is to win overall here , but the rouleurs like [ Geraint ] Thomas and [ Tom ] Dumoulin aren 't far back , " he added . " It 'll be a long and difficult time trial [ on stage nine ] . We 'll see what happens on the day . "
= = = Stage 6 = = =
18 June 2015 — Wil to Biel 193 @.@ 1 km ( 120 @.@ 0 mi )
This stage contained only one categorized ascent midway through it and was a Category 3 affair named Auensteinstrasse . However , there were numerous uncategorized rises on the course to Biel and the total elevation gain for the stage was 1 @,@ 167 m ( 3 @,@ 828 @.@ 7 ft ) . Two intermediate sprints came before the run into town in the final 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) .
As the stage started , there were 145 riders remaining in the race , as only seven entrants had abandoned since the start of the race . The day 's breakers were Axel Domont ( Ag2r @-@ La Mondiale ) , Marek Rutkiewicz ( CCC @-@ Sprandi @-@ Polkowice ) , Matej Mohoric ( Cannondale – Garmin ) and Jérôme Baugnies ( Wanty @-@ Groupe Gobert ) . The riders soon tackled the Eschenmosen , one of the many uncategorized ascents of the day . With 136 km ( 84 @.@ 5 mi ) left , the breakaway 's advantage stood at 4 ' 30 " . The breakers took the points on offer on the only climb of the day , Auensteinstrasse , so Stefan Denifl of IAM Cycling needed not worry about someone taking his mountains classification jersey , as he had 63 points with 30 points of an advantage over his nearest competitor Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) . Rutkiewicz won the KOM and amassed the five points that came with it . About midway through , it was calculated that the stage 's average speed was slower than the slowest prediction by the organizers , most likely due to the severity of the previous stage .
With 65 km ( 40 @.@ 4 mi ) to cover , rain began to fall ; the main field was led by FDJ , Etixx @-@ Quick Step , Giant @-@ Alpecin and Team Katusha . Baugnies rode first across an uncontested intermediate sprint with 42 @.@ 7 km ( 26 @.@ 5 mi ) to go . 25 km ( 15 @.@ 5 mi ) from the finish , Adriano Malori and Francisco Ventoso of Movistar Team surprised the peloton by attacking . At the 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining arch , the break of four still held a lead of forty seconds with the two Movistar Team riders placed between the groups . Etixx – Quick @-@ Step took matters in their own hands and began forming their sprint train for Mark Cavendish . Tinkoff @-@ Saxo moved to the front in support of their sprint hopeful , Peter Sagan . With 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) to cover , the escape had 30 seconds of an advantage . At that point , two Etixx – Quick @-@ Step riders ( Julien Vermote and Zdenek Stybar ) crashed on the water @-@ logged tarmac before a bend , but the mishap had no consequences on the peloton . The breakers were brought back just before the flamme rouge .
Shortly thereafter , Cavendish lost the wheel of his lead @-@ out man Mark Renshaw after struggling to come back after the crash which hindered his lead @-@ out train . There were two technical turns before the finish line . Peter Sagan was sitting in third wheel of his team 's train ; he negotiated the final 90 degree corner with 200 m to go and profited from an unintentional lead @-@ out by Jurgen Roelandts ( Lotto – Soudal ) , who had opened his sprint before Sagan outpowered him in the last hundred meters to win the day . It was Sagan 's eleventh victory in Tour de Suisse history , equaling the records of Hugo Koblet and Ferdi Kubler . Because of a split in the peloton , Pinot lost five seconds to general classification rival Geraint Thomas of Team Sky .
= = = Stage 7 = = =
19 June 2015 — Biel to Düdingen 160 km ( 99 @.@ 4 mi )
Stage 7 was a flat stage except for three Category 3 climbs in the second half of the stage . The opening 60 km ( 37 @.@ 3 mi ) were totally flat . After 91 km ( 56 @.@ 5 mi ) , the riders tackled the finishing circuit twice . During that circuit , the first climb was the 1 @.@ 1 km ( 0 @.@ 7 mi ) -long Freiburgstrasse . There was a descent , then the Hauptstrasse climb was covered . During the second circuit , the Freiburgstrasse was attacked again . This last difficulty was situated 19 km ( 11 @.@ 8 mi ) from the finish line . The final 800 m ( 2 @,@ 624 @.@ 7 ft ) were steep .
World road race champion Michał Kwiatkowski of the Etixx @-@ Quick Step squad made attempts at escaping before the peloton finally let him go 20 km ( 12 @.@ 4 mi ) in to the race . He was joined by Silvan Dillier ( BMC Racing Team ) , Daryl Impey ( Orica @-@ GreenEDGE ) and Axel Domont ( Ag2r @-@ La Mondiale ) . After the break was resolved , the peloton was content in letting the gap increase to 3 ' 15 " with 129 km ( 80 @.@ 2 mi ) of racing remaining . The best placed rider in this quartet was Impey , 29 ' 18 " down on race leader Thibaut Pinot ( FDJ ) . The average speed of the first hour was 47 @.@ 7 km / h ( 29 @.@ 6 mph ) . Tinkoff @-@ Saxo and Giant @-@ Alpecin dictated the pace , pulling back thirty seconds . With 88 km ( 54 @.@ 7 mi ) to go , the race passed through the village of Misery @-@ Courtion , at which point the gap stood at 2 ' 50 " . A crash occurred in the outskirts of Misery @-@ Courtion , involving Ben Hermans and Manuel Senni ( both with BMC Racing Team ) . They were able to remount their bikes and rejoined the main field .
Wanty @-@ Groupe Gobert 's Enrico Gasparotto abandoned two hours into the stage , which were contested at the speed of 44 km / h ( 27 @.@ 3 mph ) . With 55 km ( 34 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining , the escape had a minute lead . Domont took the maximum points atop the first KOM of the day . As they crossed the line for the last time with 37 km ( 23 @.@ 0 mi ) to go , the breakers were resisting as the time difference was still around a minute . On the second lap of the finishing circuit , Domont was dropped from the breakaway and adsorbed in to the peloton . The now three @-@ rider break had a thirty @-@ second advantage with 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining . Team Katusha controlled the front of the field in the final kilometers . With 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) to go , the peloton almost pulled back the all unyielding breakers , Kwiatkowski decided to go alone . He was caught in sight of the finish line . The uphill sprint was won by Alexander Kristoff of Team Katusha , with Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff @-@ Saxo ) being a close second . Sagan got out of Kristoff 's slipstream to try to out @-@ sprint him in the final meters , but to no avail . This was Kristoff 's eighteenth victory of the season . Through bad positioning , Pinot lost a further five seconds to Geraint Thomas ( Team Sky ) in the overall classification . " It was a hard day , I haven 't felt super in this Tour de Suisse but I did a good sprint today , " said the winner . " I got ahead of Sagan and I was able to go again at the end to hold off his run . "
= = = Stage 8 = = =
20 June 2015 — Bern to Bern 152 @.@ 5 km ( 94 @.@ 8 mi )
The stage was ridden in and around Bern , the first time the Tour de Suisse came to the national capital since 2009 . This was another stage which featured a lot of uncategorized rises . It however contained four Category 3 ascents . The event featured four circuits of 38 @.@ 7 km ( 24 @.@ 0 mi ) around town , on the same course that will be used in the stage nine 's time trial . The two climbs present in the loops gave KOM points on the last two laps only . The riders first took on the 800 m ( 2 @,@ 624 @.@ 7 ft ) -long Category 3 Liebewill . It was the 400 m ( 1 @,@ 312 @.@ 3 ft ) -long Aargauerstalden climb . The stage finished on the flat , a plateau after the latter ascent , which a number of technical turns .
A breakaway of twelve formed at the very start , but was deemed too dangerous and quickly reabsorbed . Citing back problems , Trek Factory Racing rider Jasper Stuyven abandoned the race . The attackers continued to try to form a break and Michał Kwiatkowski 's ( Etixx @-@ Quick Step ) move finally made it . A break of nineteen riders emerged , containing among others Warren Barguil ( Giant @-@ Alpecin ) , the best placed rider of the move on general classification at 4 ' 52 " . Team Sky , Cannondale – Garmin and FDJ led the chase . Despite the main field 's effort , the gap grew to two minutes with 87 km ( 54 @.@ 1 mi ) to cover .
With 75 km ( 46 @.@ 6 mi ) to go in the stage , the gap stood at 2 ' 12 " . However , Team Sky , Cannondale – Garmin and FDJ were still working to keep the escapees in range . The time difference to the escape was remaining stationary with around two minutes at the 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) to go marker . As the peloton passed through the finish line to undertake the last lap of the circuit , Jakob Fuglsang of Astana abandoned the race . He confirmed later he quit the race due to stomach problems . The peloton was forming a long single line as the pace was high . Maxime Monfort ( Lotto – Soudal ) crashed and abandoned , bruising on his shoulder and back .
With 20 km ( 12 @.@ 4 mi ) remaining , Astana 's Alexey Lutsenko attacked the escapees , followed by Jan Bakelants ( Ag2r @-@ La Mondiale ) ; they opened a gap , holding off their former breakaway companions . Bakelandts lead for the last few kilometers except under the flamme rouge and Lutsenko outsprinted him to claim the victory . He described the win as the biggest of his career . The main field arrived in small groups , with the first one containing Team Sky 's Geraint Thomas and Tom Dumoulin of Giant – Alpecin , who made a marginal time gain
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combativity award was also attributed for the rider who had ridden the most aggressively in the eyes of the judges at the end of every stage . It could have been a rider who featured in breakaways or a cyclist who attacked often .
= = Classification standings = =
= Japanese aircraft carrier Ryūjō =
Ryūjō ( Japanese : 龍驤 " Prancing Dragon " ) was a light aircraft carrier built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during the early 1930s . Small and lightly built in an attempt to exploit a loophole in the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 , she proved to be top @-@ heavy and only marginally stable and was back in the shipyard for modifications to address those issues within a year of completion . With her stability improved , Ryūjō returned to service and was employed in operations during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . During World War II , she provided air support for operations in the Philippines , Malaya , and the Dutch East Indies , where her aircraft participated in the Second Battle of the Java Sea . During the Indian Ocean raid in April 1942 , the carrier attacked British merchant shipping with both her guns and her aircraft . Ryūjō next participated in the Battle of the Aleutian Islands in June . She was sunk by American carrier aircraft at the Battle of the Eastern Solomons on 24 August 1942 .
= = Design = =
Ryūjō was planned as a light carrier of around 8 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 900 long tons ) standard displacement to exploit a loophole in the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 that carriers under 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) standard displacement were not regarded as " aircraft carriers " . While Ryūjō was under construction , Article Three of the London Naval Treaty of 1930 closed the above @-@ mentioned loophole ; consequently , Ryūjō was the only light aircraft carrier of her type to be completed by Japan .
Ryūjō had a length of 179 @.@ 9 meters ( 590 ft 3 in ) overall . She had a beam of 20 @.@ 32 meters ( 66 ft 8 in ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 56 meters ( 18 ft 3 in ) . She displaced 8 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 900 long tons ) at standard load and 10 @,@ 150 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 990 long tons ) at normal load . Her crew consisted of 600 officers and enlisted men .
To keep Ryūjō 's weight to 8 @,@ 000 metric tons , her hull was lightly built and no armor could be provided , although some protective plating was added abreast the machinery spaces and magazines . She was also designed with only a single hangar , which would have left her with an extremely low profile ( there being just 4 @.@ 6 meters ( 15 ft 1 in ) of freeboard amidships and 3 @.@ 0 meters ( 9 ft 10 in ) aft ) . Between the time the carrier was laid down in 1929 and launched in 1931 , however , the Navy doubled her aircraft stowage requirement to 48 in order to give her a more capable air group . This necessitated the addition of a second hangar atop the first , raising freeboard to 14 @.@ 9 meters ( 48 ft 11 in ) . Coupled with the ship 's narrow beam , the consequent top @-@ heaviness made her minimally stable in rough seas , despite the fitting of Sperry active stabilizers . This was a common flaw amongst many treaty @-@ circumventing Japanese warships of her generation .
The Tomozuru Incident of 12 March 1934 , in which a top @-@ heavy torpedo boat capsized in heavy weather , caused the IJN to investigate the stability of all their ships , resulting in a number of design changes to improve stability and increase hull strength . Ryūjō , already known to be only marginally stable , was promptly docked at the Kure Naval Arsenal for modifications that strengthened her keel and added ballast and shallow torpedo bulges to improve her stability . Her funnels were moved higher up the side of her hull and curved downward to keep the deck clear of smoke .
Shortly afterward , Ryūjō was one of many Japanese warships caught in a typhoon on 25 September 1935 while on maneuvers during the " Fourth Fleet Incident . " The ship 's bridge , flight deck and superstructure were damaged and her hangar was flooded . Her forecastle was raised one deck and her bow was remodeled with more flare to make her less wet forward . After these modifications , her beam and draft increased to 20 @.@ 78 meters ( 68 ft 2 in ) and 7 @.@ 08 meters ( 23 ft 3 in ) respectively . Her displacement also increased to 10 @,@ 600 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 400 long tons ) at standard load and 12 @,@ 732 metric tons ( 12 @,@ 531 long tons ) at normal load . Her crew also grew to 924 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Machinery = = =
The ship was fitted with two geared steam turbine sets with a total of 65 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 48 @,@ 000 kW ) , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by six Kampon water @-@ tube boilers . Ryūjō had a designed speed of 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) , but reached 29 @.@ 5 knots ( 54 @.@ 6 km / h ; 33 @.@ 9 mph ) during her sea trials from 65 @,@ 270 shp ( 48 @,@ 670 kW ) . The ship carried 2 @,@ 490 long tons ( 2 @,@ 530 t ) of fuel oil , which gave her a range of 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . The boiler uptakes were trunked to the ship 's starboard side amidships and exhausted horizontally below flight deck level through two small funnels .
= = = Flight deck and hangars = = =
Ryūjō was a flush @-@ decked carrier without an island superstructure ; her navigating and control bridge was located just under the forward lip of the flight deck in a long glassed @-@ in " greenhouse " . Her superstructure was set back 23 @.@ 5 meters ( 77 ft 1 in ) from the ship 's stem , giving Ryūjō a distinctive open bow . Her 156 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 513 ft 5 in ) flight deck was 23 meters ( 75 ft 6 in ) wide and extended well beyond the aft end of her superstructure , supported by a pair of pillars . Six transverse arrestor wires were installed on the flight deck and were later modernized in 1936 to stop a 6 @,@ 000 kg ( 13 @,@ 000 lb ) aircraft . The ship 's hangars were both 102 @.@ 4 meters ( 335 ft 11 in ) long and 18 @.@ 9 meters ( 62 ft 0 in ) wide , and had an approximate area of 3 @,@ 871 square metres ( 41 @,@ 667 sq ft ) . Between them , they gave the ship the capacity to store 48 aircraft , although only 37 could be operated at one time . After the Fourth Fleet Incident , Ryūjō 's bridge and the leading edge of the flight deck were rounded off to make them more streamlined . This reduced the length of the flight deck by 2 meters ( 6 ft 7 in ) .
Aircraft were transported between the hangars and the flight deck by two elevators ; the forward platform measured 15 @.@ 7 by 11 @.@ 1 meters ( 51 @.@ 5 ft × 36 @.@ 4 ft ) and the rear 10 @.@ 8 by 8 @.@ 0 meters ( 35 @.@ 4 ft × 26 @.@ 2 ft ) . The small rear elevator became a problem as the IJN progressively fielded larger and more modern carrier aircraft . Of all the aircraft in front @-@ line service in 1941 , only the Nakajima B5N " Kate " torpedo bomber would fit , when positioned at an angle with its wings folded . This effectively made Ryūjō a single @-@ elevator carrier and considerably hindered transfer of aircraft in and out of the hangars for rearming and refueling during combat operations .
= = = Armament = = =
As completed , Ryūjō 's primary anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) armament comprised six twin @-@ gun mounts equipped with 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter Type 89 dual @-@ purpose guns mounted on projecting sponsons , three on either side of the carrier 's hull . When firing at surface targets , the guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 meters ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) ; they had a maximum ceiling of 9 @,@ 440 meters ( 30 @,@ 970 ft ) at their maximum elevation of + 90 degrees . Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute , but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute . Twenty @-@ four anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) Type 93 13 @.@ 2 mm Hotchkiss machine guns were also fitted , in twin and quadruple mounts . Their effective range against aircraft was 700 – 1 @,@ 500 meters ( 770 – 1 @,@ 640 yd ) . The cyclic rate was adjustable between 425 and 475 rounds per minute , but the need to change 30 @-@ round magazines reduced the effective rate to 250 rounds per minute .
During the carrier 's 1934 – 36 refit , two of the 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) mountings were exchanged for two twin @-@ gun mounts for license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns , resulting in a savings of approximately 60 long tons ( 61 t ) of top @-@ weight that improved the ship 's overall stability . This was the standard Japanese light AA gun during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it a largely ineffective weapon . According to historian Mark Stille , the weapon had many faults including an inability to " handle high @-@ speed targets because it could not be trained or elevated fast enough by either hand or power , its sights were inadequate for high @-@ speed targets , [ and ] it possessed excessive vibration and muzzle blast " . These 25 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) guns had an effective range of 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 300 yd ) , and an effective ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 meters ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) at an elevation of + 85 degrees . The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the fifteen @-@ round magazines . The machine @-@ guns were replaced during a brief refit in April – May 1942 with six triple @-@ mount 25 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) AA guns .
= = Construction and service = =
Following the Japanese ship @-@ naming conventions for aircraft carriers , Ryūjō was named " Dragon Horse " . The ship was laid down at the Mitsubishi 's Yokohama shipyard on 26 November 1929 . She was launched on 2 April 1931 , towed to Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 25 April for fitting out , and commissioned on 9 May 1933 with Captain Toshio Matsunaga in command . While training in mid @-@ 1933 , her initial air group consisted of nine Mitsubishi B1M2 ( Type 13 ) torpedo bombers , plus three spares , and three A1N1 ( Type 3 ) fighters , plus two spares . Matsunaga was relieved by Captain Torao Kuwabara on 20 October . After the Tomozuru Incident , the ship was reconstructed from 26 May to 20 August 1934 .
Captain Ichiro Ono assumed command on 15 November 1934 and Ryūjō became the flagship of Rear Admiral Hideho Wada 's First Carrier Division . The following month the ship was chosen to evaluate dive @-@ bombing tactics using six Nakajima E4N2 @-@ C Type 90 reconnaissance aircraft , six Yokosuka B3Y1 Type 92 torpedo bombers , and a dozen A2N1 Type 90 fighters . The reconnaissance aircraft proved to be unsuitable after several months ' testing . Ryūjō participated in the Combined Fleet Maneuvers of 1935 where she was attached to the IJN Fourth Fleet . The fleet was caught in a typhoon on 25 September and the ship was moderately damaged . Ryūjō arrived at Kure on 11 October 1935 for repairs , modifications , and a refit that lasted until 31 May 1936 . On 31 October Ono was relieved by Captain Shun 'ichi Kira .
In mid @-@ 1936 , the ship was used to evaluate a dozen Aichi D1A dive bombers and dive @-@ bombing tactics . She also embarked at that time 24 A4N1 fighters , plus four and eight spare aircraft respectively . In September , Ryūjō resumed her role as flagship of First Carrier Division , now commanded by Rear Admiral Saburō Satō . Her air group now consisted of a mixture of B3Y1 torpedo bombers , D1A1 dive bombers and A2N fighters , but her torpedo bombers were transferred after fleet maneuvers in October demonstrated effective dive bombing tactics . Captain Katsuo Abe assumed command of the ship on 16 November .
The First Carrier Division arrived off Shanghai on 13 August 1937 to support operations of the Japanese Army in China . Her aircraft complement consisted of 12 A4N fighters ( plus four spares ) and 15 D1A dive bombers . The dive bombers attacked targets in and near Shanghai . The Japanese fighters had their first aerial engagement on 22 August when four A4Ns surprised 18 Nationalist Curtiss Hawk III fighters and claimed to have shot down six without loss . The following day , four A4Ns claimed to have shot down nine Chinese fighters without loss to themselves . The carriers returned to Sasebo at the beginning of September to resupply before arriving off the South China coast on 21 September to attack Chinese forces near Canton . Nine fighters from Ryūjō escorted a raid on the city and claimed six of the defending fighters . While escorting another raid later that same day , the Japanese pilots claimed five aircraft shot down and one probably shot down . The dive bombers attacked targets near Canton until the ship sailed to the Shanghai area on 3 October . Her air group was flown ashore on 6 October to support Japanese forces near Shanghai and Nanking . Ryūjō returned home in November and briefly became a training ship before she was assigned to Rear Admiral Tomoshige Samejima 's Second Carrier Division .
In February 1938 the ship replaced her A4N biplanes with nine Mitsubishi A5M " Claude " monoplane fighters . The division supported Japanese operations in Southern China in March – April and again in October . Captain Kiichi Hasegawa assumed command on 15 November 1939 . Ryūjō was given a refit that lasted from December 1939 through January 1940 and became a training ship until November when she became the flagship of Rear Admiral Kakuji Kakuta 's Third Carrier Division . Hasegawa was relieved by Captain Ushie Sugimoto on 21 June . The ship 's air group then consisted of 18 Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers and 16 A5M4 fighters . When the First Air Fleet was formed on 10 April 1941 , Ryūjō became flagship of Fourth Carrier Division .
= = = World War II = = =
The ship 's assignment at the beginning of the Pacific War was to support the invasion of the Philippines , initially by attacking the American naval base at Davao , Mindanao on the morning of 8 December . Her air group had not changed , but four of each type of aircraft were spares . Ryūjō 's initial airstrike consisted of 13 B5Ns escorted by nine A5Ms with a smaller , follow @-@ on airstrike later in the day by two B5Ns and three A5Ms . They accomplished little , destroying two Consolidated PBY seaplanes on the ground for the loss of one B5N and A5M . The ship covered the landing at Davao on 20 December and her B5Ns attacked a British oil tanker south of Davao . In January 1942 her aircraft supported Japanese operations in the Malay Peninsula .
In mid @-@ February 1942 , Ryūjō 's aircraft attacked ships evacuating from Singapore , claiming eight ships damaged , three burnt , and four sunk . They also covered convoys carrying troops to Sumatra . The ship was unsuccessfully attacked by several Bristol Blenheim light bombers of No. 84 Squadron RAF on 14 February . The following day two waves of B5Ns , totaling 13 aircraft , attacked the British heavy cruiser Exeter , but only managed to damage the ship 's Supermarine Walrus seaplane . Follow @-@ on attacks later that day were also unsuccessful . Two days later , B5Ns destroyed HNLMS Van Ghent , a Dutch destroyer that had run aground in the Gaspar Strait and been abandoned on 14 February . The carrier sailed to Saigon , French Indochina the next day and arrived on 20 February . A week later she was assigned to cover the convoy taking troops to Jakarta , Java . Her aircraft participated in the Second Battle of the Java Sea on 1 March and six B5Ns sank the American destroyer Pope after it had been abandoned by its crew . Six other B5Ns bombed the port of Semarang , possibly setting one merchantman on fire .
Ryūjō arrived in Singapore on 5 March and the ship supported operations in Sumatra and escorted convoys to Burma and the Andaman Islands for the rest of the month . On 1 April , while the 1st Air Fleet was starting its raid in the Indian Ocean , Malay Force , consisting of Ryūjō , six cruisers , and four destroyers , left Burma on a mission to destroy merchant shipping in the Bay of Bengal . B5Ns damaged one freighter on 5 April before the force split into three groups . Ryūjō 's aircraft bombed the small ports of Cocanada and Vizagapatam on the southeastern coast of India the next day , doing little damage , in addition to claiming two ships sunk and six more damaged during the day . The carrier and her escorts , the light cruiser Yura and the destroyer Yugiri claimed to have sunk three more ships by gunfire . All together , Malay Force sank 19 ships totaling almost 100 @,@ 000 gross register tons ( GRT ) , before reuniting on 7 April and arriving at Singapore on 11 April . A week later , her B5Ns were detached for torpedo training and the ship arrived at Kure on 23 April for a brief refit .
The newly commissioned carrier Jun 'yō joined Carrier Division 4 , under the command of Kakuta , with Ryūjō on 3 May 1942 . They formed the core of the 2nd Carrier Strike Force , part of the Northern Force , tasked to attack the Aleutian Islands , an operation planned to seize several of the islands to provide advance warning in case of an American attack from the Aleutians down the Kurile Islands while the main body of the American fleet was occupied defending Midway . Ryūjō 's air group now consisted of 12 A6M2 Zeros and 18 B5Ns , plus two spares of each type . The ship transferred to Mutsu Bay on 25 May and then to Paramushiro on 1 June before departing the same day for the Aleutians .
At dawn on 3 June , she launched nine B5Ns , escorted by six Zeros , to attack Dutch Harbor on Unalaska Island . One B5N crashed on takeoff and only six of the B5Ns and all of the Zeros were able to make it through the bad weather , destroying two PBYs and inflicting significant damage on the oil storage tanks and barracks . A second airstrike was launched later in the day to attack a group of destroyers discovered by aircraft from the first attack , but they failed to find the targets . One Zero from Ryūjō from the second strike was damaged by a Curtiss P @-@ 40 and crash landed on the island of Akutan . The aircraft , later dubbed the Akutan Zero , remained largely intact and was later salvaged and test @-@ flown . Another airstrike was launched on the following day by the two carriers that consisted of 15 Zeros , 11 D3As , and 6 B5Ns and successfully bombed Dutch Harbor . Shortly after the aircraft were launched , the Americans attacked the carriers , but failed to inflict any damage . A Martin B @-@ 26 Marauder bomber and a PBY were shot down by Zeros , and a Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bomber was shot down by flak during the attack .
Ryūjō arrived back at Mutsu Bay on 24 June , but departed for the Aleutians four days later to cover the second reinforcement convoy to Attu and Kiska Islands and remained in the area until 7 July in case of an American counterattack . She arrived at Kure on 13 July for a refit and was transferred to Carrier Division 2 a day later .
= = = = Battle of the Eastern Solomons = = = =
The American landings on Guadalcanal and Tulagi on 7 August caught the Japanese by surprise . The next day , Ryūjō was transferred to Carrier Division 1 and departed for Truk on 16 August together with the other two carriers of the division , Shōkaku and Zuikaku . Her air group consisted of 24 Zeros and nine B5N2s . Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Combined Fleet , ordered Truk to be bypassed and the fleet refueled at sea after an American carrier was spotted near the Solomon Islands on 21 August . At 01 : 45 on 24 August , Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo , commander of the Mobile Force , ordered Ryūjō and the heavy cruiser Tone , escorted by two destroyers , detached to move in advance of the troop convoy bound for Guadalcanal and to attack the Allied air base at Henderson Field if no carriers were spotted . This Detached Force was commanded by Rear Admiral Chūichi Hara in Tone .
Ryūjō launched two small airstrikes , totaling 6 B5Ns and 15 Zeros , beginning at 12 : 20 once the Diversionary Force was 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) north of Lunga Point . Four Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters from Marine Fighter Squadron VMF @-@ 223 on combat air patrol ( CAP ) near Henderson Field spotted the incoming Japanese aircraft around 14 : 20 and alerted the defenders . Ten more Wildcats from VMF @-@ 223 and VMF @-@ 212 scrambled , as well as 2 United States Army Air Corps Bell P @-@ 400s from the 67th Fighter Squadron in response . Nine of the Zeros strafed the airfield while the B5Ns bombed it with 60 @-@ kilogram ( 130 lb ) bombs to little effect . The Americans claimed to have shot down 19 aircraft , but only three Zeros and three B5Ns were lost , although another B5N was forced to crash @-@ land . Only three Wildcats were shot down in turn .
Around 14 : 40 , the Detached Force was spotted again by several search aircraft from the carrier USS Enterprise , although the Japanese ships did not immediately spot the Americans . They launched three Zeros as CAP at 14 : 55 , shortly before two of the searching Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers near @-@ missed Ryūjō 150 meters ( 490 ft ) astern with four 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bombs three minutes later . Two more Zeros reinforced the CAP shortly after 15 : 00 , just in time to intercept two more searching Avengers , shooting down one . In the meantime , the carrier USS Saratoga had launched an airstrike against the Detached Force in the early afternoon that consisted of 31 Douglas SBD Dauntlesses and eight Avengers ; the long range precluded fighter escort . They sighted the carrier shortly afterward and attacked . They hit Ryūjō three times with 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 450 kg ) bombs and one torpedo ; the torpedo hit flooded the starboard engine and boiler rooms . No aircraft from either Ryūjō or Saratoga were shot down in the attack .
The bomb hits set the carrier on fire and she took on a list from the flooding caused by the torpedo hit . Ryūjō turned north at 14 : 08 , but her list continued to increase although the fires were put out . The progressive flooding disabled her machinery and caused her to stop at 14 : 20 . The order to abandon ship was given at 15 : 15 and the destroyer Amatsukaze moved alongside to rescue the crew . The ships were bombed several times by multiple B @-@ 17s without effect before Ryūjō capsized about 17 : 55 at coordinates 06 ° 10 ′ S 160 ° 50 ′ E with the loss of 7 officers and 113 crewmen .
Fourteen aircraft that she had dispatched on raids returned shortly after Ryūjō sank and circled over the force until they were forced to ditch . Seven pilots were rescued .
= Seychellum =
Seychellum alluaudi is a species of freshwater crab endemic to the Seychelles , and the only true freshwater crab in that country . It lives in rainforest streams on the archipelago 's granitic high islands . Although it may be abundant , little is known about its biology . If its habitat were to decline in quality , S. alluaudi might become endangered , but it is currently listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
S. alluaudi was described as a species of Deckenia in 1893 and 1894 , and later split off into the monotypic segregate genus Seychellum . Its closest relatives are the two species currently in Deckenia , both of which are found in East Africa . Several hypotheses have been published to explain how Seychellum reached its isolated location , including submerged " land bridges " and ancient vicariance , although some means of transport across the open ocean is considered the most likely explanation .
Adults are dark yellow to brown in colour , and have a quadrangular carapace with a width of around 50 mm ( 2 in ) . The claws are unequal in size . Seychellum differs from Deckenia in a number of characters , including the lengths of the legs and antennae , and the fact that Deckenia species have flattened legs , compared to those of Seychellum .
= = Description = =
Seychellum alluaudi is the only truly freshwater crab in the Seychelles ; all the other true crabs in the islands have marine larvae . It is common for freshwater crabs to have large eggs , and this is also seen in Seychellum ; its eggs are around 3 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 14 in ) in diameter , which Rathbun described as " very large " .
Adult specimens reach a carapace width of 30 – 52 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) , and a carapace length about 80 % of the width . The carapace is almost quadrangular and quite flat , in constract to the more rounded outline in its closest relative , Deckenia . Its surface is rough , with scattered tubercles , and is divided into distinct regions by a series of grooves . A raised ridge runs sinuously along the front of the carapace , interrupted by a groove in the centre and by grooves towards each side of the carapace . The colour of Seychellum is described as " jaune noirâtre , qui devient franchement marron dans la moitié antérieure de la carapace " ( " dark yellow , which becomes quite brown in the anterior part of the carapace " ) .
The antennae are minute ( smaller than those of Deckenia ) , and the chelae ( claws ) are unequal in size . Whereas Deckenia has distinctly flattened walking legs , those of Seychellum are normal . Overall , Rathbun concluded that Seychellum alluaudi " differs from Deckenia [ ... ] in so many other respects that the species are not likely to be confounded " .
= = Taxonomic history = =
Seychellum alluaudi was first described in 1893 by Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards and Eugène Louis Bouvier , as a species in the genus Deckenia , D. alluaudi ; the specific epithet commemorates Charles A. Alluaud , who had collected the specimens they used . Unaware of that description , Mary J. Rathbun described " Deckenia cristata " in 1894 , in a paper published in the Proceedings of the United States National Museum ; her description was based on specimens donated to the United States National Museum by William Louis Abbott , who had travelled to the Seychelles in 1890 . At the time , the only other species in the genus was D. imitatrix from the coast of East Africa , and a second species ( D. mitis ) , also from East Africa , was added in 1898 . Rathbun synonymised D. cristata and D. alluaudi herself in 1906 . The three species of Deckenia at that time were considered to be sufficiently distinct from other crabs to warrant placement in a separate subfamily ( Deckeniinae ) or family ( Deckeniidae ) .
In 1995 , Peter K. L. Ng , Zdravko Števčić and Gerhard Pretzmann revised the family Deckeniidae , as then circumscribed , and concluded that " D. alluaudi " could not be accommodated with the other species of Deckenia in the same genus , or even in the same family . They described a new genus , Seychellum , and the species took on its current name . They placed Seychellum in the family Gecarcinucidae , leaving Deckenia as the only genus in the family Deckeniidae , and restricting its distribution to the African mainland . Following a number of phylogenetic studies , Cumberlidge et al. reduced that taxon to a subfamily of the larger family Potamonautidae , and Seychellum is again considered a part of it .
= = Distribution and biogeography = =
Seychellum alluaudi is endemic to the granitic high islands in the inner group of the Seychelles , in the western Indian Ocean . It is found on the four largest granitic islands – Mahé , La Digue , Silhouette and Praslin – and lives in mountain streams that flow through rainforest .
The closest relatives of Seychellum are the two species of Deckenia from the African mainland . The two @-@ lobed shape of the last segment of the mandibular palp , which had been used to argue for a close relationship between Seychellum and Indian crabs of the family Gecarcinucidae , does not appear to be a reliable phylogenetic character .
The presence of a strictly freshwater species on the Seychelles is hard to explain , biogeographically . Several possible explanations have been proposed .
In 1902 , prior to the development of plate tectonics , Arnold Edward Ortmann proposed that land bridges formerly connected the Seychelles to other land masses .
It has also been suggested that the ancestors of Deckenia and Seychellum lived on a landmass comprising Seychelles and the African mainland , which then separated by continental drift ; Gondwana is believed to have split up 160 million years ago , with the Seychelles separating from the Indian Plate around 68 to 65 million years ago . An ancient origin would be supported by the absence of freshwater crabs from oceanic islands in the same area , such as Mauritius and Réunion .
Finally , the ancestor of Seychellum may have travelled across the western Indian Ocean by rafting , perhaps at a time when the Seychelles Bank was larger due to lower sea levels . The greater extent of the Seychelles Bank may also explain how the species is now found on four separate islands in the Seychelles archipelago . The time of divergence between Seychellum and Deckenia has been estimated independently at 27 to 8 million years ago and 12 to 5 @.@ 5 million years ago . Seychellum is reported to be more tolerant of salt water than other families of freshwater crabs , which may have allowed it to survive rafting between the African continent and the Seychelles Bank .
The most recent research favours trans @-@ oceanic dispersal , but some uncertainty remains .
= = Conservation status = =
Of the five criteria assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature for its IUCN Red List , four cannot be assessed in Seychellum alluaudi because of a lack of information . Under the remaining criterion , which measures the species ' geographic range , the species would qualify as Endangered if there were was a " decline in habitat quality " . It is , however , abundant in places , and is present within a protected area , and is therefore listed as Least Concern .
= M @-@ 138 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 138 is a 20 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 32 km ) state trunkline highway in The Thumb region of the US state of Michigan . The highway runs from a junction with M @-@ 15 west of the unincorporated community of Munger in Bay County to the intersection with M @-@ 24 east of Akron in Tuscola County . The trunkline runs through rural agricultural areas outside of the villages and communities it serves . It was designated in the 1930s and extended in the 1940s . M @-@ 138 was truncated in the 1990s as well .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 138 begins at a junction with M @-@ 15 ( Tuscola Road ) just west of Munger in Merritt Township . Known as Munger Road , the highway then heads due east through agricultural fields . On the east side of Munger , the roadway crosses a branch line of the Huron and Eastern Railway . M @-@ 138 continues east through farm fields and across the Bay – Tuscola county line at Reese Road . The road name changes in Tuscola County to Fairgrove Road , and the trunkline remains on an easterly track to the community of Fairgrove . In the village , M @-@ 138 follows Center Street over another crossing of the Huron and Eastern Railway to a junction with Main Street . The highway turns north on Main and crosses the rail line a second time as they both exit town . North of Fairgrove , Main Street becomes Thomas Road , and M @-@ 138 runs northward along it through farm fields . After a three @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) course , M @-@ 138 turns eastward again along Akron Road . The highway passes through the village of Akron on Beach Street , crossing the rail line a final time . West of town the Akron Road name resumes , and M @-@ 138 terminates at the intersection with M @-@ 24 ( Unionville Road ) .
M @-@ 138 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 138 were the 2 @,@ 342 vehicles daily near Munger ; the lowest count was 499 vehicles per day just west of Akron . No section of M @-@ 138 has not been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 138 became a part of the state highway system in 1931 between then M @-@ 24 ( current M @-@ 15 ) in Bay County and then M @-@ 83 in Tuscola County . In early 1940 , the highway was extended east and northeasterly through Akron to end at M @-@ 25 in Unionville ; by the end of the year , all of M @-@ 138 was paved . When M @-@ 24 was extended northward from Caro in 1997 , it supplanted the M @-@ 138 designation from the Akron area north to Unionville ; the latter highway was truncated to its current form as a result .
= = Major intersections = =
= Radioactive Man ( The Simpsons episode ) =
" Radioactive Man " is the second episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 24 , 1995 . The episode sees the film version of the comic book series Radioactive Man set up production in Springfield . Much to Bart 's disappointment , the part of the hero 's sidekick , Fallout Boy , goes not to him , but to Milhouse . Milhouse , however , hates acting , so he quits the role and leaves the set , forcing the producers of the film to shut down production and go back to Hollywood .
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder , and directed by Susie Dietter . Mickey Rooney guest starred as himself in the episode . " Radioactive Man " was the first episode of The Simpsons to be digitally colored . The episode features cultural references to the Batman television series , the 1995 film Waterworld , and the song " Lean on Me " by Bill Withers . Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from fans and television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 5 , and was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
= = Plot = =
Bart and Milhouse are thrilled to hear that a film version of their favorite comic book series , Radioactive Man , is in production . Rainier Wolfcastle , the star of the McBain films , is chosen to play Radioactive Man , and even more excitingly for the Springfield Elementary School children , the production moves to their town . A search is launched for a young actor to play Radioactive Man 's sidekick Fallout Boy , and Bart auditions . Bart does well , but is rejected because he is an inch too short . Milhouse gets the part , albeit reluctantly , under pressure from his greedy parents .
A despondent Bart is told by Lisa that he is still needed as Milhouse 's friend and confidant , and Bart eagerly accepts this new role . However , Milhouse finds his own job intolerable and disappears , right during the filming of the most expensive scene in the movie . The film is suspended while the townspeople search for Milhouse . Eventually Bart finds him in the tree house , and despite encouragement from former child star Mickey Rooney , Milhouse gives up on his acting career . Mickey Rooney tried to take over as Fallout Boy ; however , all production on the film is aborted , with the project bankrupt , thanks to price gouging and other unscrupulous conduct by the people of Springfield . Despite Rooney 's stern lecture about their greed , Mayor Quimby insists the townspeople can not give any of the directors ' money back to them , so with their film cancelled , the directors return to Hollywood — " where people treat each other right " .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder , and directed by Susie Dietter . When Dietter read through his first script , she did not find it very funny because of all the visual gags . Once the animatic was finished , her opinion changed , and she thought to herself : " Hey , this is really funny ! " .
This is the first episode of The Simpsons to be digitally colored . The duties of that task went to USAnimation , who would later work on " The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " . Digital coloring would not be attempted again until season 12 's " Tennis the Menace " , and again in season 14 's " Treehouse of Horror XIII " . The show permanently switched to digital coloring later in that same season , beginning with " The Great Louse Detective " .
Mickey Rooney guest starred as himself in the episode . Nancy Cartwright recalls in her autobiography My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy that Rooney recorded his lines with the other actors . Although he was late for the session , she comments that he was " so full of pep " and very enthusiastic about the role .
= = Cultural references = =
The Radioactive Man character is based on Batman , and several scenes in the episode reference the Batman television series from the 1960s . The antagonist of the Radioactive Man films , The Scoutmaster , is based on actor / comedian , Paul Lynde . The scene in the new Radioactive Man film where Radioactive Man and Fallout Boy are captured in Aquaworld is a reference to the 1995 film Waterworld . The director of the Radioactive Man film says : " That Milhouse is going to be big , Gabby Hayes big ! " , in reference to the American actor Gabby Hayes . Moe Szyslak , the bartender of Moe 's Tavern , says that he , as a kid , played the part of Smelly on The Little Rascals , until he killed Alfalfa for stealing his joke . Bill Withers 's song " Lean on Me " from 1972 is played at the end of the episode .
In one scene , Comic Book Guy sends a message to other Internet nerds about who will star in the new Radioactive Man film , two of whom are the nerds Homer met in " Homer Goes to College " , and one is Prince dressed in a purple suit . The last nerd is Curtis Armstrong with an appearance resembling his Revenge of the Nerds character Booger . The usenet newsgroup which he posts the message to ( alt.nerd.obsessive ) is a reference to the alt.tv.simpsons newsgroup .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Radioactive Man " finished 51st in the ratings for the week of September 18 to September 24 , 1995 . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 5 . The episode was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Beverly Hills , 90210 and Melrose Place . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called the episode a " wonderful pastiche " on the Tim Burton Batman films , and added that Milhouse is an obvious candidate for Fallout Boy . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson enjoyed the episode , but he does not consider it a " classic " . He said that it offers " more than a few amusing bits " , and added that " spoofing the movie business isn 't anything new , but the show does it well in this solid program . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be when Krusty tries to prove the " range " of different characters he can do to the casting director . The website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of A- .
Nancy Basile of About.com named it one of her twenty favorite episodes of the show , and said that she thinks the friendship between Bart and Milhouse in the episode is " endearing " and " touching " . She added that she thinks the episode " pokes fun at Hollywood very effectively " , and that " To top it off , funny favorite characters Rainier Wolfcastle [ ... ] and Lionel Hutz are also in the episode . " Graham Beckwith of The Lantern singled out Rainier Wolfcastle 's line " My eyes ! The goggles do nothing ! " from the episode as one of The Simpsons " greatest one liners " . Total Film 's Nathan Ditum ranked Rooney 's performance as the eighth @-@ best guest appearance in the show 's history , commenting that he is " desperately funny and self @-@ effacing as a parody of his fallen child @-@ star self . "
= Battle of Hampton Roads =
The Battle of Hampton Roads , often referred to as either the Battle of the Monitor and Merrimack ( or Virginia ) or the Battle of Ironclads , was the most noted and arguably most important naval battle of the American Civil War from the standpoint of the development of navies . It was fought over two days , March 8 – 9 , 1862 , in Hampton Roads , a roadstead in Virginia where the Elizabeth and Nansemond rivers meet the James River just before it enters Chesapeake Bay adjacent to the city of Norfolk . The battle was a part of the effort of the Confederacy to break the Union blockade , which had cut off Virginia 's largest cities , Norfolk and Richmond , from international trade .
The major significance of the battle is that it was the first meeting in combat of ironclad warships , i.e. , the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia . The Confederate fleet consisted of the ironclad ram Virginia ( built from the remnants of the USS Merrimack ) and several supporting vessels . On the first day of battle , they were opposed by several conventional , wooden @-@ hulled ships of the Union Navy . On that day , Virginia was able to destroy two ships of the Federal flotilla , USS Congress and USS Cumberland , and was about to attack a third , USS Minnesota , which had run aground . However , the action was halted by darkness and falling tide , so Virginia retired to take care of her few wounded — which included her captain , Flag Officer Franklin Buchanan — and repair her minimal battle damage .
Determined to complete the destruction of the Minnesota , Catesby ap Roger Jones , acting as captain in Buchanan 's absence , returned the ship to the fray the next morning , March 9 . During the night , however , the ironclad Monitor had arrived and had taken a position to defend Minnesota . When Virginia approached , Monitor intercepted her . The two ironclads fought for about three hours , with neither being able to inflict significant damage on the other . The duel ended indecisively , Virginia returning to her home at the Gosport Navy Yard for repairs and strengthening , and Monitor to her station defending Minnesota . The ships did not fight again , and the blockade remained in place .
The battle received worldwide attention , and it had immediate effects on navies around the world . The preeminent naval powers , Great Britain and France , halted further construction of wooden @-@ hulled ships , and others followed suit . A new type of warship was produced , the monitor , based on the principle of the original . The use of a small number of very heavy guns , mounted so that they could fire in all directions was first demonstrated by Monitor but soon became standard in warships of all types . Shipbuilders also incorporated rams into the designs of warship hulls for the rest of the century .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
= = = The blockade at Norfolk = = =
On April 19 , 1861 , shortly after the outbreak of hostilities at Charleston Harbor , US President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed a blockade of ports in the seceded states . On April 27 , after Virginia and North Carolina had also passed ordinances of secession , the blockade was extended to include their ports also . Even before the extension , local troops seized the Norfolk area and threatened the Gosport Navy Yard in Portsmouth . The commandant there , Captain Charles S. McCauley , though loyal to the Union , was immobilized by advice he received from his subordinate officers , most of whom were in favor of secession . Although he had orders from ( Union ) Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles to move his ships to Northern ports , he refused to act until April 20 , when he gave orders to scuttle the ships in the yard and destroy its facilities . Nine ships were burned , among them the screw frigate USS Merrimack . One ( the old frigate Cumberland ) was towed away successfully . Merrimack burned only to the waterline , however , and her engines were more or less intact . The destruction of the navy yard was mostly ineffective ; in particular , the large drydock there was relatively undamaged and soon could be restored . Without firing a shot , the advocates of secession had gained for the South its largest navy yard , as well as the hull and engines of what would be in time its most famous warship . They had also seized more than a thousand heavy guns , plus gun carriages and large quantities of gunpowder .
With Norfolk and its navy yard in Portsmouth , the Confederacy controlled the southern side of Hampton Roads . To prevent Union warships from attacking the yard , the Confederates set up batteries at Sewell 's Point and Craney Island , at the juncture of the Elizabeth River with the James . ( See map . ) The Union retained possession of Fort Monroe , at Old Point Comfort on the Virginia Peninsula . They also held a small man @-@ made island known as the Rip Raps , on the far side of the channel opposite Fort Monroe , and on this island they completed another fort , named Fort Wool . With Fort Monroe went control of the lower Peninsula as far as Newport News .
Forts Monroe and Wool gave the Union forces control of the entrance to Hampton Roads . The blockade , initiated on April 30 , 1861 , cut off Norfolk and Richmond from the sea almost completely . To further the blockade , the Union Navy stationed some of its most powerful warships in the roadstead . There , they were under the shelter of the shore @-@ based guns of Fort Monroe and the batteries at Hampton and Newport News and out of the range of the guns at Sewell 's Point and Craney Island . For most of the first year of the war , the Confederacy could do little to oppose or dislodge them .
= = = Birth of the ironclads = = =
When steam propulsion began to be applied to warships , naval constructors renewed their interest in armor for their vessels . Experiments had been tried with armor during the Crimean War , just prior to the American Civil War , and the British and French navies had each built armored ships and were planning to build others . In 1860 , the French Navy commissioned La Gloire , the world 's first ocean @-@ going ironclad warship . Great Britain followed a year later with HMS Warrior . The use of armor remained controversial , however , and the United States Navy was generally reluctant to embrace the new technology .
= = = = CSS Virginia = = = =
When the Civil War broke out , Confederate Secretary of the Navy Stephen R. Mallory was an early enthusiast for the advantages of armor . As he looked upon it , the Confederacy could not match the industrial North in numbers of ships at sea , so they would have to compete by building vessels that would be individually superior to those of the Union . The edge would be provided by armor . Mallory gathered about himself a group of men who were able to put his vision into practice , among them John M. Brooke , John L. Porter , and William P. Williamson .
When Mallory 's men searched the South for factories that could build engines to drive the heavy ships that he wanted , they found no place to do it immediately . At the best facility , the Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond , building engines from scratch would take at least a year . Upon learning this , Williamson suggested taking the engines from the hulk of Merrimack , recently raised from the bed of the Elizabeth River . His colleagues promptly accepted his suggestion and expanded it , proposing that the design of their projected ironclad be adapted to the hull . Porter produced the revised plans , which were submitted to Mallory for approval . On July 11 , 1861 , the new design was accepted , and work began almost immediately . The burned @-@ out hull was towed into the graving dock that the Union Navy had failed to destroy . During the subsequent conversion process , the plans were further modified to incorporate an iron ram fitted to the prow . Her offense in addition to the ram consisted of 10 guns : six 9 in ( 230 mm ) smooth @-@ bore Dahlgrens , two 6 @.@ 4 in ( 160 mm ) and two 7 in ( 180 mm ) Brooke rifles . Trials showed that these rifles firing solid shot would pierce up to eight inches of armor plating . The Tredegar Iron works could produce both solid shot and shell , and since it was believed that Virginia would face only wooden ships , she was given only the shell . Had solid shot been used against the Monitor , the result of the battle might have been different . The armor plating , originally meant to be 1 in ( 25 mm ) thick , was replaced by double plates , each 2 in ( 51 mm ) thick , backed by 24 in ( 61 cm ) of iron and pine . The armor was pierced for 14 gunports : four on each broadside , three forward , and three aft . The revisions , together with the usual problems associated with the transportation system of the South , resulted in delays that pushed out the launch date until February 3 , 1862 , and she was not commissioned until February 17 , bearing the name CSS Virginia .
= = = = USS Monitor = = = =
Intelligence that the Confederates were working to develop an ironclad caused consternation for the Union , but Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles waited for Congress to meet to request permission to consider building armored vessels ; Congress gave this permission on August 3 , 1861 . Welles appointed a commission , which came to be known as the Ironclad Board , of three senior naval officers to choose among the designs that were submitted for consideration . The three men were Captains Joseph Smith and Hiram Paulding , and Commander Charles Henry Davis . The board considered seventeen designs , and chose to support three . First of the three to be completed , even though she was by far the most radical in design , was Swedish engineer and inventor John Ericsson 's USS Monitor .
Ericsson 's Monitor , which was built at Ericsson 's yard on the East River in Greenpoint , Brooklyn , incorporated new and striking design features , the most significant of which were her armor and armament . Instead of the large numbers of guns of rather small bore that had characterized warships in the past , Ericsson opted for only two guns of large caliber ; he wanted to use 15 in ( 380 mm ) guns , but had to settle for 11 in ( 280 mm ) Dahlgren guns when the larger size were unavailable . These were mounted in a cylindrical turret , 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) in diameter , 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) high , covered with iron 8 in ( 200 mm ) thick . The whole rotated on a central spindle , and was moved by a steam engine that could be controlled by one man . Ericsson was afraid that using the full 30 pounds of black powder to fire the huge cannon would raise the risk of an explosion in the turret . He demanded that a charge of 15 pounds be used to lessen this possibility . As with Virginia , it was found that the full charge would pierce armor plate , a finding that would have affected the outcome of the battle . A serious flaw in the design was the pilot house from which the ship would be conned , a small structure forward of the turret on the main deck . Its presence meant that the guns could not fire directly forward , and it was isolated from other activities on the ship . Despite the late start and the novelty of construction , Monitor was actually completed a few days before her counterpart Virginia , but Virginia was activated first .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Union = = =
= = = Confederate = = =
= = Battle = =
= = = Command = = =
The Confederate chain of command was anomalous . Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones had directed much of the conversion of Merrimack to Virginia , and he was disappointed when he was not named her captain . Jones was retained aboard Virginia , but only as her executive officer . Ordinarily , the ship would have been led by a captain of the Confederate States Navy , to be determined by the rigid seniority system that was in place . Secretary Mallory wanted the aggressive Franklin Buchanan , but at least two other captains had greater seniority and had applied for the post . Mallory evaded the issue by appointing Buchanan , head of the Office of Orders and Detail , flag officer in charge of the defenses of Norfolk and the James River . As such , he could control the movements of Virginia . Technically , therefore , the ship went into the battle without a captain .
On the Union side , command of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron was held by Flag Officer Louis M. Goldsborough . He had devised a plan for his frigates to engage Virginia , hoping to trap her in their crossfire . In the event , his plan broke down completely when four of the ships ran aground ( one of them intentionally ) in the confined waters of the roadstead . On the day of battle , Goldsborough was absent with the ships cooperating with the Burnside Expedition in North Carolina . In his absence , leadership fell to his second in command , Captain John Marston of USS Roanoke . As Roanoke was one of the ships that ran aground , Marston was unable to materially influence the battle , and his participation is often disregarded . Most accounts emphasize the contribution of the captain of Monitor , John L. Worden , to the neglect of others .
= = = March 8 : Virginia wreaks havoc on wooden Union warships = = =
The battle began when the large and unwieldy CSS Virginia steamed into Hampton Roads on the morning of March 8 , 1862 . Captain Buchanan intended to attack as soon as possible . Virginia was accompanied from her moorings on the Elizabeth River by Raleigh and Beaufort , and was joined at Hampton Roads by the James River Squadron , Patrick Henry , Jamestown , and Teaser . When they were passing the Union batteries at Newport News , Patrick Henry was temporarily disabled by a shot in her boiler that killed four of her crew . After repairs , she returned and rejoined the others .
At this time , the Union Navy had five warships in the roadstead , in addition to several support vessels . The sloop @-@ of @-@ war USS Cumberland and frigate Congress were anchored in the channel near Newport News . Frigate St. Lawrence and the steam frigates Roanoke and Minnesota were near Fort Monroe , along with the storeship USS Brandywine ( 1825 ) . The latter three got under way as soon as they saw Virginia approaching , but all soon ran aground . St. Lawrence and Roanoke took no further important part in the battle .
Virginia headed directly for the Union squadron . The battle opened when Union tug Zouave fired on the advancing enemy , and Beaufort replied . This preliminary skirmishing had no effect . Virginia did not open fire until she was within easy range of Cumberland . Return fire from Cumberland and Congress bounced off the iron plates without penetrating , although later some of Cumberland 's payload lightly damaged Virginia .
Virginia rammed Cumberland below the waterline and she sank rapidly , " gallantly fighting her guns as long as they were above water , " according to Buchanan . She took 121 seamen down with her ; those wounded brought the casualty total to nearly 150 .
Ramming Cumberland nearly resulted in the sinking of Virginia as well . Virginia 's bow ram got stuck in the enemy ship 's hull , and as Cumberland listed and began to go down , she almost pulled Virginia under with her . At the time the vessels were locked , one of Cumberland 's anchors was hanging directly above the foredeck of Virginia . Had it come loose , the two ships might have gone down together . Virginia broke free , however , her ram breaking off as she backed away .
Buchanan next turned Virginia on Congress . Seeing what had happened to Cumberland , Lieutenant Joseph B. Smith , captain of Congress , ordered his ship grounded in shallow water . By this time , the James River Squadron , commanded by John Randolph Tucker , had arrived and joined Virginia in the attack on Congress . After an hour of unequal combat , the badly damaged Congress surrendered . While the surviving crewmen of Congress were being ferried off the ship , a Union battery on the north shore opened fire on Virginia . In retaliation , Buchanan ordered Congress fired upon with hot shot , cannonballs heated red @-@ hot . Congress caught fire and burned throughout the rest of the day . Near midnight , the flames reached her magazine and she exploded and sank , stern first . Personnel losses included 110 killed or missing and presumed drowned . Another 26 were wounded , of whom ten died within days .
Although she had not suffered anything like the damage she had inflicted , Virginia was not completely unscathed . Shots from Cumberland , Congress , and Union troops ashore had riddled her smokestack , reducing her already low speed . Two of her guns were disabled and several armor plates had been loosened . Two of her crew were killed , and more were wounded . One of the wounded was Captain Buchanan , whose left thigh was pierced by a rifle shot .
Meanwhile , the James River Squadron had turned its attention to Minnesota , which had left Fort Monroe to join in the battle and had run aground . After Virginia had dealt with the surrender of Congress , she joined the James River Squadron despite her damage . Because of her deep draft and the falling tide , however , Virginia was unable to get close enough to be effective , and darkness prevented the rest of the squadron from aiming their guns to any effect . The attack was therefore suspended . Virginia left with the expectation of returning the next day and completing the task . She retreated into the safety of Confederate @-@ controlled waters off Sewell 's Point for the night , but had killed 400 enemy sailors and had lost two . The Union had lost two ships and three were aground .
The United States Navy 's greatest defeat until World War II caused panic in Washington . As Lincoln 's Cabinet met to discuss the disaster , the frightened Secretary of War Edwin Stanton told the others that the Virginia might attack East coast cities , and even shell the White House before the meeting ended . Welles assured his colleagues that they were safe as the ship could not traverse the Potomac River . He added that the Union also had an ironclad , and that it was heading to meet the Virginia .
= = = March 9 : Monitor engages Virginia = = =
Both sides used the respite to prepare for the next day . Virginia put her wounded ashore and underwent temporary repairs . Captain Buchanan was among the wounded , so command on the second day fell to his executive officer , Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones . Jones proved to be no less aggressive than the man he replaced . While Virginia was being prepared for renewal of the battle , and while Congress was still ablaze , Monitor , commanded by Lieutenant John L. Worden , arrived in Hampton Roads . The Union
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is as a base in water . The structure of polydopamine is unknown .
Polydopamine coatings can form on objects ranging in size from nanoparticles to large surfaces . Polydopamine layers have chemical properties that have the potential to be extremely useful , and numerous studies have examined their possible applications . At the simplest level , they can be used for protection against damage by light , or to form capsules for drug delivery . At a more sophisticated level , their adhesive properties may make them useful as substrates for biosensors or other biologically active macromolecules .
= California State Route 139 =
State Route 139 ( SR 139 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California . Running from SR 36 in Susanville north to Oregon Route 39 , it forms part of the shortest route between Reno , Nevada , and Klamath Falls , Oregon . SR 139 cuts through much Modoc National Forest and passes near Antelope Mountain and Tule Lake . The entire route is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System , but is a two @-@ lane road . North of the SR 299 overlap , SR 139 is an eligible State Scenic Highway , but has not been designated as such ; the short piece north of Tulelake is however part of the federal Volcanic Legacy Scenic Byway . The portion north of SR 299 is also in the Interregional Road System as a High Emphasis Route and in the National Highway System . North of SR 299 , the highway was built by the federal government and turned over to the state in about 1940 ; the remainder was built by a joint highway district of Lassen and Modoc Counties , completed in 1956 , and given to the state in 1959 .
= = Route description = =
State Route 139 begins at SR 36 in Susanville , and heads northeast up Antelope Mountain along the eastern edge of Susanville Ranch Park before turning north and descending into the Eagle Lake Basin , passing along the eastern edge of Eagle Lake and later the Said Valley Reservoir . The highway continues north and northwest through valleys and over hills and through a part of the Modoc National Forest , through the community of Avila Place , and then enters the east end of the Big Valley , where it begins to overlap SR 299 through Adin . The combined routes continue northerly through another part of the forest and over Adin Pass into the Warm Springs Valley , where SR 139 splits to the northwest near Canby .
SR 139 runs northwest and north over mostly flat terrain through the center of the national forest and the communities of Ambrose and Perez before turning northwest . The route continues through Copic , Newell , Stronghold , Homestead , and Tuber before cutting across the intermittent Tule Lake as the Lava Beds Highway through the city of Tulelake to the Oregon state line at Hatfield . At an intersection right on the state line , SR 161 begins to the west , and Oregon Route 39 continues northwest towards Klamath Falls .
= = History = =
In 1925 , a state @-@ created " California Highway Advisory Committee " recommended a number of additions to the state highway system ; among these was a route from Susanville to the Oregon state line towards Klamath Falls , via Bieber . This would be part of a road connecting Reno , Nevada and Klamath Falls east of the Sierra Nevada , which would attract heavy traffic and improve access to Crater Lake and Lassen Volcanic National Parks . A local county road already followed this path , but it was unpaved , mostly dirt and gravel but with sections of rock and bad sand . This was close to the present SR 139 , with notable deviations around the areas of Hayden Hill , Bieber and Lookout , and Malin , Oregon ( as Tule Lake covered SR 139 's current location ) .
By the mid @-@ 1920s , the main road southeast from Klamath Falls , still unimproved in California , headed southeast to State Highway Route 28 ( now SR 299 ) at Canby rather than south to Bieber . There travelers could head east on Route 28 to Alturas and south on the present US 395 ( not a state highway north of Susanville until 1933 ) towards Reno . The California state legislature passed a law in 1939 , providing for state takeover of the Canby @-@ Oregon road if the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Public Roads were to construct and pave it . The road was in fact mostly paved by mid @-@ 1939 , and under construction or completed by mid @-@ 1940 , when Oregon Route 58 opened , continuing the corridor northwest from Klamath Falls . In 1943 the legislature gave it the Route 210 designation ; Oregon had added the short connecting Hatfield Highway to its state highway system in 1937 .
Lassen and Modoc Counties organized Joint Highway District No. 14 on December 21 , 1929 to construct and maintain a road from Susanville via Adin to Oregon . However , since the state took over the part north of Adin , the district 's scope was narrowed to Susanville @-@ Adin . It finally completed work in 1956 , and held a ceremony on August 26 , in which it placed a monument at a point near Eagle Lake . The legislature added the road to the state highway system as Route 216 in 1959 . The portion south of Horse Lake Road became an extension of Route 20 instead ; this route from Susanville to Ravendale ( later Termo ) was never constructed by the state , and was deleted from SR 36 in 1998 . Also in 1959 , a spur of Route 210 west to Dorris was added ; this became SR 161 in 1964 .
By 1946 , the Canby @-@ Oregon portion had been marked as Sign Route 139 , connecting with Oregon Route 39 ; it was extended south over US 299 to Adin and Routes 216 and 20 to Susanville by 1960 . The number was legislatively adopted , replacing Routes 210 and 216 , in the 1964 renumbering . It has remained a two @-@ lane road , despite being added to the California Freeway and Expressway System in 1959 ( Canby to Oregon ) and 1965 ( Susanville to Adin ) .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
= Actor Rebellion of 1733 =
The Actor Rebellion of 1733 was an event that took place at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane in London , England when the actors who worked there , disapproving of the changes in the management , attempted to seize control . Before the rebellion , the theatre was controlled by the managers Theophilus Cibber , John Ellys , and John Highmore . When Theophilus lost his share and was denied a bid to run the theatre , he , along with other actors , attempted to take over the theatre by controlling the lease . When the shareholders found out , they refused to admit the actors to the building and the theatre was closed for several months . The fight spilled over to the contemporary newspapers , which generally sided with the managers .
The Theatre Royal reopened on 24 September 1733 with a new company of actors , though they were less experienced and talented than the old crew . The majority of old actors moved to the Little Theatre , Haymarket , though a few remained loyal . Henry Fielding sided with the managers and produced several plays to aid the Theatre Royal , though this caused a backlash when the rebelling actors finally won the dispute . By the end of 1733 , the rebellious actors managed to seize legal control of the theatre 's property and Highmore , the sole manager of the Theatre Royal at the time , lost all legal abilities to stop them . By February 1734 , he sold his shares to Charles Fleetwood who then made an agreement with the actors that secured their return .
= = Background = =
The Theatre Royal , Drury Lane was run by the holders of one of the two official licenses , or letters patent , established by Charles II in 1660 . It was operated by Christopher Rich from 1693 until 1714 . He was replaced after his death by three actors , Colley Cibber , Thomas Doggett , and Robert Wilks . After Doggett died , Barton Booth took over his share . In 1730 , a notice in the Daily Journal stated that a patent would be issued to Booth , Cibber , and Wilks authorising the official government license to run the Theatre Royal . After bureaucratic delays , the official patent was given to the three managers only in 1732 that was to last for 21 years . On 13 July 1732 , Booth , in poor health , decided to sell half of his share to Highmore , a fellow actor and a socialite . On 27 September , Wilks died and his share was inherited by his widow , who then authorised Ellys , a painter , to serve in her place . In reaction to the changing partners , Colley Cibber rented his share to his son Theophilus , an actor .
The new management group had two members , Highmore and Ellys , who were incompetent and Theophilus Cibber was known to be both arrogant and volatile . By the end of 1732 , there were problems with the management of the theatre , which resulted in the failure of Charles Johnson 's Caelia : or , The Perjured Lover on 4 December . The 8 March 1733 Grub @-@ Street Journal seized on the event and used the failure to criticise the theatre 's management : " how insufficient the present managers of Drury @-@ lane playhouse are to discharge their trust , as directors of our public entertainments . " The newspaper was not the only group concerned and many plays were soon cancelled .
Matters were complicated by mass illnesses spreading across London ; the epidemic , probably flu , reduced the number of actors able to work and many plays were cancelled . Even Henry Fielding 's play The Miser , which was to open early January , was postponed because of the poor health of its cast members , including Theophilus . The Miser was eventually staged in mid February and was successful , but another of his plays , Deborah : or , a Wife for You All , lasted only one night on 6 April 1733 . Regardless of the problems plaguing the season , it was positive for Fielding while it lasted , with six of his plays being produced on stage along with Thomas Arne 's The Opera of Operas , Fielding 's Tom Thumb set to music .
= = Management changes = =
Highmore and Ellys , both gentlemen and not actors , insisted on actively participating in every day @-@ to @-@ day decisions regarding scheduling , choice of plays , expenses , actors ' behaviour . Their management style clashed with Theophilus , when he recovered and returned in February . They denied his play The Harlot 's Progress instead putting a play by Ellys . The fighting between the managers coincided with poor attendance from both the epidemic in London and other theatres attracting audiences with popular operatic performances . Theophilus 's play The Mock @-@ Officer failed , which caused Highmore and Ellys to turn further against him . However , his 31 March 1733 The Harlot 's Progress , based on William Hogarth 's painting of the same name , proved to be very successful and embarrassed the two other managers .
While Theophilus Cibber was disputing with Highmore and Ellys , Aaron Hill became interested in partnering at the Theatre Royal . Hill was earlier a partner at the theatre until he was removed during a previous actor riot that took place in June 1710 . On 22 March 1733 , Hill , in a letter to Benjamin Victor , a dramatist who had arranged the sale of Booth 's shares to Highmore , criticised the fact that he was kept from buying into the theatre 's management and attacked Theophilus . He offered 900 pounds for three years for Booth 's shares and 1800 pounds for Mary Wilks 's shares . Negotiations continued until May when they were dropped . Hester Booth , widow of Barton Booth , sold her remaining shares to Henry Giffard , the manager of Goodman 's Fields Theatre , just few days after her husband died on 10 May .
By this time , many of the partners , including Wilks , Ellys , and Colley Cibber , no longer wanted to be a part of the theatre and sought to sell their shares . When Colley sought to rent out his share to his son for 300 pounds a year , Highmore approached Colley in order to buy . News of Colley 's selling of the shares to Highmore first appeared in the Daily Post of 27 March 1733 . The sale price was around 3000 guineas and 3500 pounds . Theophilus was upset that his father sold the share to Highmore instead of continuing to rent it out to himself . The share , as Theophilus believed , was his " Birthright " .
= = Rebellion = =
Theophilus first tried to work with Highmore and asked to run the operations of the theatre . However , he was turned down , which provoked him to stir the actors into a rebellion . Many of the actors were upset about the management changes and theatre 's operations . Highmore did not have experience in theatre , refused to listen to actors ' ideas , and cut their salaries in half . Theophilus was known as a successful manager and a good actor . The rebellious actors ' plan was to take over the lease and then deny the use of the building to the shareholders , who did not own the complex that they set their stage in . The actors would then use their control over the building to negotiate renting of the patent so they could control how the theatre was run .
When the actors tried to rent the building , the remaining shareholders found out about it . They responded by refusing admittance to the actors . The building was shut down and no plays were performed . According to the Daily Post of 29 May 1733 :
the Occasion we are inform 'd was , that at Midnight on Saturday last several Persons arm 'd took Possession of the same , by Direction from some of the Patentees , and lock 'd up and barricado 'd all the Doors and Entrances thereunto , against the whole Company of his Majesty 's Comedians , as also against Mr. Cibber , jun. notwithstanding he had paid to one of the Patentees several Hundred Pounds for one third Part of the Patent , Cloaths , Scenes , & c. and all Rights and Privileges thereunto annexed , for a certain Term not yet expired .
The actors petitioned Charles FitzRoy , 2nd Duke of Grafton , the Lord Chamberlain , and requested that he settle the dispute , but he refused to involve himself in the matter . By early June , the actors had control of the theatre through the lease , but the management refused to leave . The actors tried to file for the management to be legally removed from the property , but the court system was slow to respond .
The management continued to cause problems for various actors , including Benjamin Griffin . Griffin was fired from the theatre on 4 June 1733 . He responded in the Daily Post on 11 June 1733 with a history of the events since he first started in 1721 until his removal . He accused the management of bad treatment and wrote :
I could give the Publick a great many Instances of the Gentlemen 's Mismanagement and of Injuries done to the Company this Season in their Direction . But when I affirm that they have no Experience , no Knowledge , no Capacity , For Gathering together , Forming , Entertaining , Governing , Privileging , and Keeping a Company of Comedians ... more than the being able to purchase the Patent [ ... ] it is a Truth that if any one does not now believe , I am positive that they will in a very little Time be thoroughly convinced of .
= = Contemporary response = =
Many of the local newspapers were quick to respond to the rebellion . An article in The Craftsman dated 2 June 1733 described the actors as " malecontent Players " who were busy in mutiny . On 7 June , the Grub @-@ Street Journal stated , in an article by Musaeus , that Theophilus was selfish . Another article in the Grub @-@ Street Journal , by Philo Dramaticus , attacked the management for not understanding how theatres are supposed to work . The managers were the first to state their defence and argued that everything they did was correct and that the actors had no reason to complain , especially over the treatment that they received .
The actors responded later in June with A Letter from Theophilus Cibber , Commedian , To John Highmore , Esq . Within the response , Theophilus Cibber emphasised the inability of the management to effectively run the theatre , claimed that they were acting like tyrants , and alleged that they unjustly refused the offer by the actors to rent out the patent . This did not calm the dispute ; instead , the Grub @-@ Street Journal of 14 June 1733 printed parts of John Vanbrugh 's Aesop , a play that criticised the actor rebellion that took place in 1695 . On 26 June , the Grub @-@ Street Journal in an article by Musaeus claimed that many of the problems that the actors complained about were caused by previous managers , who were also actors , and not by the current management that was composed of outsiders . Additionally , Musaeus claimed that actors in general were unfit to run the theatre .
A pamphlet titled An Impartial State of the Present Dispute Between the Patent and Players was published during the late summer that attacked the actors . It claimed that " all Men of Sense and Integrity seem to be entirely convinced that the Patentees of the Theatre @-@ Royal in Drury @-@ Lane , have had great Injustice done them by the late Attempt of Part of their own Company to defraud them of their Property " . The actors responded in an article published in the Daily Journal of 26 September . Also during the summer , Edward Phillips produced The Stage @-@ Mutineers , a play that started on 27 July and ran for twelve nights . The play made fun of actors , writers , and the management as a whole . Even though it was attacked in the Grub @-@ Street Journal of 9 August , theatre historian Robert Hume described the play as " harmless stuff " . Regardless , Fielding was personally mocked as Crambo , one of the characters within the play , and was offended by the portrayal .
= = Reopening = =
The Theatre Royal reopened on 24 September 1733 with a new company of actors . The majority of the rebellious actors joined the Little Theatre in Haymarket and started producing plays on 26 September . Although the Theatre Royal had replacement actors of a lesser talent and a few loyal experienced members , Henry Fielding joined the management 's side of the dispute . Of the 15 loyal actors that stayed with the Theatre Royal , only a few , including Kitty Clive , Christiana Horton , William Mullart , and Charles Stoppelaer , were of note . Reportedly , Highmore was losing 50 – 60 pounds a week . Victor , in his account of the time , wrote :
In this maimed Condition the Business of Course went lamely on ; for a very middling Company of Players could be expected to bring but thin losing Audiences , especially while Party prevailed , and those very Plays were acted much better in the Haymarket . The unavoidable and melancholy Consequence of this Proceeding was , that there was a Ballance every Saturday Morning in the Office against the Manager , of Fifty or Sixty Pounds ; and his Pride , as well as his Honour , were too nearly concerned not to prudence the Deficiency every Week with the utmost Exactness .
In such conditions , Giffard sold his shares and turned over full control of the theatre to Highmore . Hill was brought in to work with the actors at Drury Lane by Autumn 1733 , but the theatre was still declining by the end of the year .
In order to aid the theatre , Fielding revised his The Author 's Farce and The Intriguing Chambermaid . Fielding 's The Miser was also put on 27 October 1733 with the King , the Queen , and many noble families in attendance . After this , Fielding produced The Universal Gallant : or , The Different Husbands , which didn 't run until February 1735 . 20th @-@ century theatre scholar Charles Woods believed that Fielding joined with the management of the Theatre Royal because they were " people whose legitimate investments were being jeopardized " . Fielding later attacked Theophilus in a revised version of his The Author 's Farce which ran on 15 January 1734 . This caused a backlash upon him after the rebelling actors finally won in the dispute , and it was harder for him to stage plays .
Theophilus , through his father , applied to the Lord Chamberlain during the summer asking to have a new license issued , but he was refused . Following this , he applied to Charles Lee , the Master of the Revels , and received a license to perform theatrical shows in return for payment even though the license had no legal authority . This brought about criticism against Lee in the Daily Post dated 29 September 1733 over issuing the licence and called it just a ploy by the actors . On 30 October , the management of the Theatre Royal sent a letter to veteran actor John Mills and other rebels threatening further legal action regarding their unlicensed theatre . After Theophilus responded with a claim that he was acting within the law , the management and John Rich , manager of the Theatre Royal , Covent Garden , demanded the courts to shut down the unlicensed theatres . A 5 November hearing set a date for a trial , but the case fell apart before it was ever heard over the technical wording of a law that conflicted with the original request by the licensed theatre managers .
A trial , in which the rebellious actors sued the management at the King 's Bench over the management 's occupation of the building that the actors controlled the lease , was held on 12 November . The judgment under Chief Justice Philip Yorke was in favour of the actors , and they were to be granted control of the theatre building in March 1734 . Highmore , in response , asked for a charge against John Harper , one of the rebellious actors , for being a vagrant , and Harper was sent to Bridewell Palace prison . This provoked a negative reaction by the public , and the action was attacked in the Daily Post of 16 November . Eventually , a writ of habeas corpus was issued on 20 November and he was released without a case tried against him . Having no other recourse , Highmore began to negotiate the sale of the theatre license . Charles Fleetwood purchased both Highmore and Wilks 's portions of the license on 24 January 1734 . On 2 February , the Daily Courant announced that Fleetwood asked for the rebellious actors to return . An agreement was reached for higher wages and promotion of Theophilus to a deputy manager of the theatre . The actors took control of the Theatre Royal on 8 March 1734 , marking the end of the rebellion .
= Kidney stone =
A kidney stone , also known as a renal calculus or nephrolith , is a solid piece of material which is formed in the kidneys from minerals in urine . Kidney stones typically leave the body in the urine stream , and a small stone may pass without causing symptoms . If stones grow to sufficient size ( usually at least 3 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 1 in ) ) they can cause blockage of the ureter . This leads to pain , most commonly beginning in the flank or lower back and often radiating to the groin . This pain is often known as renal colic and typically comes in waves lasting 20 to 60 minutes . Other associated symptoms include : nausea , vomiting , fever , blood in the urine , pus in the urine , and painful urination . Blockage of the ureter can cause decreased kidney function and dilation of the kidney .
Most stones form due to a combination of genetics and environmental factors . Risk factors include being overweight , certain foods , some medications , and not drinking enough fluids . The diagnosis is usually based on symptoms , urine testing , and medical imaging . Blood tests may also be useful . Urinary stones are typically classified by their location in the kidney ( nephrolithiasis ) , ureter ( ureterolithiasis ) , or bladder ( cystolithiasis ) , or by their chemical composition ( calcium @-@ containing , struvite , uric acid , or other compounds ) .
In those who have previously had stones , prevention is recommended by drinking fluids such that more than two liters of urine is produced per day . If this is not effective enough , thiazide diuretic , citrate or allopurinol may be taken . It is recommended that soft drinks containing phosphoric acid ( typically colas ) be avoided . When a stone causes no symptoms , no treatment is needed . For stones which are causing symptoms , pain control is usually the first measure , using medications such as nonsteroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drugs or opioids . More severe cases may require procedures . For example , some stones can be shattered into smaller fragments using extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy . Others require cystoscopic procedures .
In 2013 , 49 million cases of kidney stones occurred , resulting in about 15 @,@ 000 deaths globally . In the United States , about 9 % of the population has had a kidney stone . Generally , slightly more men are affected than women .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The hallmark of a stone that obstructs the ureter or renal pelvis is excruciating , intermittent pain that radiates from the flank to the groin or to the inner thigh . This pain , known as renal colic , is often described as one of the strongest pain sensations known . Renal colic caused by kidney stones is commonly accompanied by urinary urgency , restlessness , hematuria , sweating , nausea , and vomiting . It typically comes in waves lasting 20 to 60 minutes caused by peristaltic contractions of the ureter as it attempts to expel the stone . The embryological link between the urinary tract , the genital system , and the gastrointestinal tract is the basis of the radiation of pain to the gonads , as well as the nausea and vomiting that are also common in urolithiasis . Postrenal azotemia and hydronephrosis can be observed following the obstruction of urine flow through one or both ureters . Pain in the lower left quadrant can sometimes be confused with diverticulitis because the sigmoid colon overlaps the ureter and the exact location of the pain may be difficult to isolate due to the close proximity of these two structures .
= = Risk factors = =
Dehydration from low fluid intake is a major factor in stone formation .
High dietary intake of animal protein , sodium , refined sugars , fructose and high fructose corn syrup , oxalate , grapefruit juice , and apple juice may increase the risk of kidney stone formation .
Kidney stones can result from an underlying metabolic condition , such as distal renal tubular acidosis , Dent 's disease , hyperparathyroidism , primary hyperoxaluria , or medullary sponge kidney . 3 – 20 % of people who form kidney stones have medullary sponge kidney .
Kidney stones are more common in people with Crohn 's disease ; Crohn 's disease is associated with hyperoxaluria and malabsorption of magnesium .
A person with recurrent kidney stones may be screened for such disorders . This is typically done with a 24 @-@ hour urine collection . The urine is analyzed for features that promote stone formation .
= = = Calcite = = =
Calcium is one component of the most common type of human kidney stones , calcium oxalate . Some studies suggest people who take calcium or vitamin D as a dietary supplement have a higher risk of developing kidney stones . In the United States , kidney stone formation was used as an indicator of excess calcium intake by the Reference Daily Intake committee for calcium in adults .
In the early 1990s , a study conducted for the Women 's Health Initiative in the US found that postmenopausal women who consumed 1000 mg of supplemental calcium and 400 international units of vitamin D per day for seven years had a 17 % higher risk of developing kidney stones than subjects taking a placebo . The Nurses ' Health Study also showed an association between supplemental calcium intake and kidney stone formation .
Unlike supplemental calcium , high intakes of dietary calcium do not appear to cause kidney stones and may actually protect against their development . This is perhaps related to the role of calcium in binding ingested oxalate in the gastrointestinal tract . As the amount of calcium intake decreases , the amount of oxalate available for absorption into the bloodstream increases ; this oxalate is then excreted in greater amounts into the urine by the kidneys . In the urine , oxalate is a very strong promoter of calcium oxalate precipitation — about 15 times stronger than calcium . A 2004 study found that diets low in calcium are associated with a higher overall risk for kidney stone formation . For most individuals , other risk factors for kidney stones , such as high intakes of dietary oxalates and low fluid intake , play a greater role than calcium intake .
= = = Other electrolytes = = =
Calcium is not the only electrolyte that influences the formation of kidney stones . For example , by increasing urinary calcium excretion , high dietary sodium may increase the risk of stone formation .
Drinking fluoridated tap water may increase the risk of kidney stone formation by a similar mechanism , though further epidemiologic studies are warranted to determine whether fluoride in drinking water is associated with an increased incidence of kidney stones . High dietary intake of potassium appears to reduce the risk of stone formation because potassium promotes the urinary excretion of citrate , an inhibitor of calcium crystal formation .
Kidney stones are more likely to develop , and to grow larger , if a person has low dietary magnesium . Magnesium inhibits stone formation .
= = = Animal protein = = =
Diets in Western nations typically contain a large proportion of animal protein . Consumption of animal protein creates an acid load that increases urinary excretion of calcium and uric acid and reduced citrate . Urinary excretion of excess sulfurous amino acids ( e.g. , cysteine and methionine ) , uric acid , and other acidic metabolites from animal protein acidifies the urine , which promotes the formation of kidney stones . Low urinary citrate excretion is also commonly found in those with a high dietary intake of animal protein , whereas vegetarians tend to have higher levels of citrate excretion . Low urinary citrate , too , promotes stone formation .
= = = Vitamins = = =
The evidence linking vitamin C supplements with an increased rate of kidney stones is inconclusive . The excess dietary intake of vitamin C might increase the risk of calcium oxalate stone formation , in practice this is rarely encountered . The link between vitamin D intake and kidney stones is also tenuous . Excessive vitamin D supplementation may increase the risk of stone formation by increasing the intestinal absorption of calcium ; correction of a deficiency does not .
= = = Other = = =
There are no conclusive data demonstrating a cause @-@ and @-@ effect relationship between alcoholic beverage consumption and kidney stones . However , some have theorized that certain behaviors associated with frequent and binge drinking can lead to dehydration , which can in turn lead to the development of kidney stones .
The American Urological Association has projected that global warming will lead to an increased incidence of kidney stones in the United States by expanding the " kidney stone belt " of the southern United States .
People with lymphoproliferative / myeloproliferative disorders who were treated with chemotherapy developed symptomatic kidney stones 1 @.@ 8 % of the time in one study .
= = Pathophysiology = =
= = = Hypocitraturia = = =
Hypocitraturia or low urinary citrate excretion ( defined as lower than 320 mg / day ) can cause kidney stones in up to 2 / 3 of cases . The protective role of citrate is linked to several mechanisms ; in fact citrate reduces urinary supersaturation of calcium salts by forming soluble complexes with calcium ions and by inhibiting crystal growth and aggregation . The therapy with potassium citrate , or magnesium potassium citrate , is commonly prescribed in clinical practice in order to increase urinary citrate and to reduce stone formation rates .
= = = Supersaturation of urine = = =
When the urine becomes supersaturated ( when the urine solvent contains more solutes than it can hold in solution ) with one or more calculogenic ( crystal @-@ forming ) substances , a seed crystal may form through the process of nucleation . Heterogeneous nucleation ( where there is a solid surface present on which a crystal can grow ) proceeds more rapidly than homogeneous nucleation ( where a crystal must grow in a liquid medium with no such surface ) , because it requires less energy . Adhering to cells on the surface of a renal papilla , a seed crystal can grow and aggregate into an organized mass . Depending on the chemical composition of the crystal , the stone @-@ forming process may proceed more rapidly when the urine pH is unusually high or low .
Supersaturation of the urine with respect to a calculogenic compound is pH @-@ dependent . For example , at a pH of 7 @.@ 0 , the solubility of uric acid in urine is 158 mg / 100 ml . Reducing the pH to 5 @.@ 0 decreases the solubility of uric acid to less than 8 mg / 100 ml . The formation of uric acid stones requires a combination of hyperuricosuria ( high urine uric acid levels ) and low urine pH ; hyperuricosuria alone is not associated with uric acid stone formation if the urine pH is alkaline . Supersaturation of the urine is a necessary , but not a sufficient , condition for the development of any urinary calculus . Supersaturation is likely the underlying cause of uric acid and cystine stones , but calcium @-@ based stones ( especially calcium oxalate stones ) may have a more complex etiology .
= = = Inhibitors of stone formation = = =
Normal urine contains chelating agents , such as citrate , that inhibit the nucleation , growth , and aggregation of calcium @-@ containing crystals . Other endogenous inhibitors include calgranulin ( an S @-@ 100 calcium binding protein ) , Tamm – Horsfall protein , glycosaminoglycans , uropontin ( a form of osteopontin ) , nephrocalcin ( an acidic glycoprotein ) , prothrombin F1 peptide , and bikunin ( uronic acid @-@ rich protein ) . The biochemical mechanisms of action of these substances have not yet been thoroughly elucidated . However , when these substances fall below their normal proportions , stones can form from an aggregation of crystals .
Sufficient dietary intake of magnesium and citrate inhibits the formation of calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate stones ; in addition , magnesium and citrate operate synergistically to inhibit kidney stones . Magnesium 's efficacy in subduing stone formation and growth is dose @-@ dependent .
= = Diagnosis = =
Diagnosis of kidney stones is made on the basis of information obtained from the history , physical examination , urinalysis , and radiographic studies . Clinical diagnosis is usually made on the basis of the location and severity of the pain , which is typically colicky in nature ( comes and goes in spasmodic waves ) . Pain in the back occurs when calculi produce an obstruction in the kidney . Physical examination may reveal fever and tenderness at the costovertebral angle on the affected side .
= = = Imaging studies = = =
In people with a history of stones , those who are less than 50 years of age and are presenting with the symptoms of stones without any concerning signs do not require helical CT scan imaging .
Otherwise a noncontrast helical CT scan with 5 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) sections is the diagnostic modality of choice in the radiographic evaluation of suspected nephrolithiasis . All stones are detectable on CT scans except very rare stones composed of certain drug residues in the urine , such as from indinavir . Calcium @-@ containing stones are relatively radiodense , and they can often be detected by a traditional radiograph of the abdomen that includes the kidneys , ureters , and bladder ( KUB film ) . Some 60 % of all renal stones are radiopaque . In general , calcium phosphate stones have the greatest density , followed by calcium oxalate and magnesium ammonium phosphate stones . Cystine calculi are only faintly radiodense , while uric acid stones are usually entirely radiolucent .
Where a CT scan is unavailable , an intravenous pyelogram may be performed to help confirm the diagnosis of urolithiasis . This involves intravenous injection of a contrast agent followed by a KUB film . Uroliths present in the kidneys , ureters or bladder may be better defined by the use of this contrast agent . Stones can also be detected by a retrograde pyelogram , where a similar contrast agent is injected directly into the distal ostium of the ureter ( where the ureter terminates as it enters the bladder ) .
Ultrasound imaging of the kidneys can sometimes be useful , as it gives details about the presence of hydronephrosis , suggesting the stone is blocking the outflow of urine . Radiolucent stones , which do not appear on KUB , may show up on ultrasound imaging studies . Other advantages of renal ultrasonography include its low cost and absence of radiation exposure . Ultrasound imaging is useful for detecting stones in situations where X @-@ rays or CT scans are discouraged , such as in children or pregnant women . Despite these advantages , renal ultrasonography in 2009 was not considered a substitute for noncontrast helical CT scan in the initial diagnostic evaluation of urolithiasis . The main reason for this is that compared with CT , renal ultrasonography more often fails to detect small stones ( especially ureteral stones ) , as well as other serious disorders that could be causing the symptoms . A 2014 study confirmed that ultrasonography rather than CT as an initial diagnostic test results in less radiation exposure and did not find any significant complications .
= = = Laboratory examination = = =
Laboratory investigations typically carried out include :
microscopic examination of the urine , which may show red blood cells , bacteria , leukocytes , urinary casts and crystals ;
urine culture to identify any infecting organisms present in the urinary tract and sensitivity to determine the susceptibility of these organisms to specific antibiotics ;
complete blood count , looking for neutrophilia ( increased neutrophil granulocyte count ) suggestive of bacterial infection , as seen in the setting of struvite stones ;
renal function tests to look for abnormally high blood calcium blood levels ( hypercalcemia ) ;
24 hour urine collection to measure total daily urinary volume , magnesium , sodium , uric acid , calcium , citrate , oxalate and phosphate ;
collection of stones ( by urinating through a StoneScreen kidney stone collection cup or a simple tea strainer ) is useful . Chemical analysis of collected stones can establish their composition , which in turn can help to guide future preventive and therapeutic management .
= = = Classification = = =
Kidney stones are typically classified by their location and chemical composition .
= = = = Chemical composition = = = =
= = = = = Calcium @-@ containing stones = = = = =
By far , the most common type of kidney stones worldwide contains calcium . For example , calcium @-@ containing stones represent about 80 % of all cases in the United States ; these typically contain calcium oxalate either alone or in combination with calcium phosphate in the form of apatite or brushite . Factors that promote the precipitation of oxalate crystals in the urine , such as primary hyperoxaluria , are associated with the development of calcium oxalate stones . The formation of calcium phosphate stones is associated with conditions such as hyperparathyroidism and renal tubular acidosis .
Oxaluria is increased in patients with certain gastrointestinal disorders including inflammatory bowel disease such as Crohn disease or patients who have undergone resection of the small bowel or small bowel bypass procedures . Oxaluria is also increased in patients who consume increased amounts of oxalate ( found in vegetables and nuts ) . Primary hyperoxaluria is a rare autosomal recessive condition which usually presents in childhood .
Calcium oxalate crystals in urine appear as ' envelopes ' microscopically . They may also form ' dumbbells.'
= = = = = Struvite stones = = = = =
About 10 – 15 % of urinary calculi are composed of struvite ( ammonium magnesium phosphate , NH4MgPO4 · 6H2O ) . Struvite stones ( also known as " infection stones " , urease or triple @-@ phosphate stones ) , form most often in the presence of infection by urea @-@ splitting bacteria . Using the enzyme urease , these organisms metabolize urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide . This alkalinizes the urine , resulting in favorable conditions for the formation of struvite stones . Proteus mirabilis , Proteus vulgaris , and Morganella morganii are the most common organisms isolated ; less common organisms include Ureaplasma urealyticum , and some species of Providencia , Klebsiella , Serratia , and Enterobacter . These infection stones are commonly observed in people who have factors that predispose them to urinary tract infections , such as those with spinal cord injury and other forms of neurogenic bladder , ileal conduit urinary diversion , vesicoureteral reflux , and obstructive uropathies . They are also commonly seen in people with underlying metabolic disorders , such as idiopathic hypercalciuria , hyperparathyroidism , and gout . Infection stones can grow rapidly , forming large calyceal staghorn ( antler @-@ shaped ) calculi requiring invasive surgery such as percutaneous nephrolithotomy for definitive treatment .
Struvite stones ( triple phosphate / magnesium ammonium phosphate ) have a ' coffin lid ' morphology by microscopy .
= = = = = Uric acid stones = = = = =
About 5 – 10 % of all stones are formed from uric acid . People with certain metabolic abnormalities , including obesity , may produce uric acid stones . They also may form in association with conditions that cause hyperuricosuria ( an excessive amount of uric acid in the urine ) with or without hyperuricemia ( an excessive amount of uric acid in the serum ) . They may also form in association with disorders of acid / base metabolism where the urine is excessively acidic ( low pH ) , resulting in precipitation of uric acid crystals . A diagnosis of uric acid urolithiasis is supported by the presence of a radiolucent stone in the face of persistent urine acidity , in conjunction with the finding of uric acid crystals in fresh urine samples .
As noted above ( section on calcium oxalate stones ) , patients with inflammatory bowel disease ( Crohn 's disease , ulcerative colitis ) tend to have hyperoxaluria and form oxalate stones . These patients also have a tendency to form urate stones . Urate stones are especially common after colon resection .
Uric acid stones appear as pleomorphic crystals , usually diamond @-@ shaped . They may also look like squares or rods which are polarizable .
Patients with hyperuricosuria can be treated with allopurinol which will reduce urate formation . Urine alkalinization may also be helpful in this setting .
= = = = = Other types = = = = =
People with certain rare inborn errors of metabolism have a propensity to accumulate crystal @-@ forming substances in their urine . For example , those with cystinuria , cystinosis , and Fanconi syndrome may form stones composed of cystine . Cystine stone formation can be treated with urine alkalinization and dietary protein restriction . People afflicted with xanthinuria often produce stones composed of xanthine . People afflicted with adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency may produce 2 @,@ 8 @-@ dihydroxyadenine stones , alkaptonurics produce homogentisic acid stones , and iminoglycinurics produce stones of glycine , proline and hydroxyproline . Urolithiasis has also been noted to occur in the setting of therapeutic drug use , with crystals of drug forming within the renal tract in some people currently being treated with agents such as indinavir , sulfadiazine and triamterene .
= = = = Location = = = =
Urolithiasis refers to stones originating anywhere in the urinary system , including the kidneys and bladder . Nephrolithiasis ( from the Ancient Greek : νεφρός nephros , " kidney " ; and λίθoς , lithos , " stone " ) refers to the presence of such calculi in the kidneys . Calyceal calculi refers to aggregations in either the minor or major calyx , parts of the kidney that pass urine into the ureter ( the tube connecting the kidneys to the urinary bladder ) . The condition is called ureterolithiasis when a calculus is located in the ureter . Stones may also form or pass into the bladder , a condition referred to as cystolithiasis .
= = Prevention = =
Preventative measures depend on the type of stones . In those with calcium stones , drinking lots of fluids , thiazide diuretics and citrate are effective as is allopurinol in those with high uric acid levels in the blood or urine .
= = = Dietary measures = = =
Specific therapy should be tailored to the type of stones involved . Diet can have a profound influence on the development of kidney stones . Preventive strategies include some combination of dietary modifications and medications with the goal of reducing the excretory load of calculogenic compounds on the kidneys . Current dietary recommendations to minimize the formation of kidney stones include :
Increasing total fluid intake to more than two liters per day of urine output .
Increasing citric acid intake ; lemon / lime juice is the richest natural source .
Moderate calcium intake
Limiting sodium intake
Avoidance of large doses of supplemental vitamin C
Limiting animal protein intake to no more than two meals daily ( an association between animal protein consumption and recurrence of kidney stones has been shown in men ) .
Limiting consumption of cola soft drinks , which contain phosphoric acid , to less than one liter of soft drink per week .
Maintenance of dilute urine by means of vigorous fluid therapy is beneficial in all forms of nephrolithiasis , so increasing urine volume is a key principle for the prevention of kidney stones . Fluid intake should be sufficient to maintain a urine output of at least 2 litres ( 68 US fl oz ) per day . A high fluid intake has been associated with a 40 % reduction in recurrence risk . The quality of the evidence for this , however , is not very good .
Calcium binds with available oxalate in the gastrointestinal tract , thereby preventing its absorption into the bloodstream , and reducing oxalate absorption decreases kidney stone risk in susceptible people . Because of this , some nephrologists and urologists recommend chewing calcium tablets during meals containing oxalate foods . Calcium citrate supplements can be taken with meals if dietary calcium cannot be increased by other means . The preferred calcium supplement for people at risk of stone formation is calcium citrate because it helps to increase urinary citrate excretion .
Aside from vigorous oral hydration and consumption of more dietary calcium , other prevention strategies include avoidance of large doses of supplemental vitamin C and restriction of oxalate @-@ rich foods such as leaf vegetables , rhubarb , soy products and chocolate . However , no randomized , controlled trial of oxalate restriction has yet been performed to test the hypothesis that oxalate restriction reduces the incidence of stone formation . Some evidence indicates magnesium intake decreases the risk of symptomatic nephrolithiasis .
= = = Urine alkalinization = = =
The mainstay for medical management of uric acid stones is alkalinization ( increasing the pH ) of the urine . Uric acid stones are among the few types amenable to dissolution therapy , referred to as chemolysis . Chemolysis is usually achieved through the use of oral medications , although in some cases , intravenous agents or even instillation of certain irrigating agents directly onto the stone can be performed , using antegrade nephrostomy or retrograde ureteral catheters . Acetazolamide ( Diamox ) is a medication that alkalinizes the urine . In addition to acetazolamide or as an alternative , certain dietary supplements are available that produce a similar alkalinization of the urine . These include sodium bicarbonate , potassium citrate , magnesium citrate , and Bicitra ( a combination of citric acid monohydrate and sodium citrate dihydrate ) . Aside from alkalinization of the urine , these supplements have the added advantage of increasing the urinary citrate level , which helps to reduce the aggregation of calcium oxalate stones .
Increasing the urine pH to around 6 @.@ 5 provides optimal conditions for dissolution of uric acid stones . Increasing the urine pH to a value higher than 7 @.@ 0 increases the risk of calcium phosphate stone formation . Testing the urine periodically with nitrazine paper can help to ensure the urine pH remains in this optimal range . Using this approach , stone dissolution rate can be expected to be around 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) of stone radius per month .
= = = Diuretics = = =
One of the recognized medical therapies for prevention of stones is the thiazide and thiazide @-@ like diuretics , such as chlorthalidone or indapamide . These drugs inhibit the formation of calcium @-@ containing stones by reducing urinary calcium excretion . Sodium restriction is necessary for clinical effect of thiazides , as sodium excess promotes calcium excretion . Thiazides work best for renal leak hypercalciuria ( high urine calcium levels ) , a condition in which high urinary calcium levels are caused by a primary kidney defect . Thiazides are useful for treating absorptive hypercalciuria , a condition in which high urinary calcium is a result of excess absorption from the gastrointestinal tract .
= = = Allopurinol = = =
For people with hyperuricosuria and calcium stones , allopurinol is one of the few treatments that have been shown to reduce kidney stone recurrences . Allopurinol interferes with the production of uric acid in the liver . The drug is also used in people with gout or hyperuricemia ( high serum uric acid levels ) . Dosage is adjusted to maintain a reduced urinary excretion of uric acid . Serum uric acid level at or below 6 mg / 100 ml ) is often a therapeutic goal . Hyperuricemia is not necessary for the formation of uric acid stones ; hyperuricosuria can occur in the presence of normal or even low serum uric acid . Some practitioners advocate adding allopurinol only in people in whom hyperuricosuria and hyperuricemia persist , despite the use of a urine @-@ alkalinizing agent such as sodium bicarbonate or potassium citrate .
= = Management = =
Stone size influences the rate of spontaneous stone passage . For example , up to 98 % of small stones ( less than 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter ) may pass spontaneously through urination within four weeks of the onset of symptoms , but for larger stones ( 5 to 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter ) , the rate of spontaneous passage decreases to less than 53 % . Initial stone location also influences the likelihood of spontaneous stone passage . Rates increase from 48 % for stones located in the proximal ureter to 79 % for stones located at the vesicoureteric junction , regardless of stone size . Assuming no high @-@ grade obstruction or associated infection is found in the urinary tract , and symptoms are relatively mild , various nonsurgical measures can be used to encourage the passage of a stone . Repeat stone formers benefit from more intense management , including proper fluid intake and use of certain medications . In addition , careful surveillance is clearly required to maximize the clinical course for people who are stone formers .
= = = Pain management = = =
Management of pain often requires intravenous administration of NSAIDs or opioids . Orally administered medications are often effective for less severe discomfort . The use of antispasmodics do not have further benefit .
= = = Expulsion therapy = = =
The use of medications to speed the spontaneous passage of ureteral calculi is referred to as medical expulsive therapy . Several agents , including alpha adrenergic blockers ( such as tamsulosin ) and calcium channel blockers ( such as nifedipine ) , have been found to be effective . Alpha blockers appear to lead to both higher and faster stone clearance rates . A combination of tamsulosin and a corticosteroid may be better than tamsulosin alone . These treatments also appear to be a useful adjunct to lithotripsy .
= = = Lithotripsy = = =
Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy ( ESWL ) is a noninvasive technique for the removal of kidney stones . Most ESWL is carried out when the stone is present near the renal pelvis . ESWL involves the use of a lithotriptor machine to deliver externally applied , focused , high @-@ intensity pulses of ultrasonic energy to cause fragmentation of a stone over a period of around 30 – 60 minutes . Following its introduction in the United States in February 1984 , ESWL was rapidly and widely accepted as a treatment alternative for renal and ureteral stones . It is currently used in the treatment of uncomplicated stones located in the kidney and upper ureter , provided the aggregate stone burden ( stone size and number ) is less than 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) and the anatomy of the involved kidney is normal . For a stone greater than 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) , ESWL may not help break the stone in one treatment ; instead , two or three treatments may be needed . Some 80 to 85 % of simple renal calculi can be effectively treated with ESWL . A number of factors can influence its efficacy , including chemical composition of the stone , presence of anomalous renal anatomy and the specific location of the stone within the kidney , presence of hydronephrosis , body mass index , and distance of the stone from the surface of the skin . Common adverse effects of ESWL include acute trauma , such as bruising at the site of shock administration , and damage to blood vessels of the kidney . In fact , the vast majority of people who are treated with a typical dose of shock waves using currently accepted treatment settings are likely to experience some degree of acute kidney injury . ESWL @-@ induced acute kidney injury is dose @-@ dependent ( increases with the total number of shock waves administered and with the power setting of the lithotriptor ) and can be severe , including internal bleeding and subcapsular hematomas . On rare occasions , such cases may require blood transfusion and even lead to acute renal failure . Hematoma rates may be related to the type of lithotriptor used ; hematoma rates of less than 1 % and up to 13 % have been reported for different lithotriptor machines . Recent studies show reduced acute tissue injury when the treatment protocol includes a brief pause following the initiation of treatment , and both improved stone breakage and a reduction in injury when ESWL is carried out at slow shock wave rate .
In addition to the aforementioned potential for acute kidney injury , animal studies suggest these acute injuries may progress to scar formation , resulting in loss of functional renal volume . Recent prospective studies also indicate elderly people are at increased risk of developing new @-@ onset hypertension following ESWL . In addition , a retrospective case @-@ control study published by researchers from the Mayo Clinic in 2006 has found an increased risk of developing diabetes mellitus and hypertension in people who had undergone ESWL , compared with age and gender @-@ matched people who had undergone nonsurgical treatment . Whether or not acute trauma progresses to long @-@ term effects probably depends on multiple factors that include the shock wave dose ( i.e. , the number of shock waves delivered , rate of delivery , power setting , acoustic characteristics of the particular lithotriptor , and frequency of retreatment ) , as well as certain intrinsic predisposing pathophysiologic risk factors .
To address these concerns , the American Urological Association established the Shock Wave Lithotripsy Task Force to provide an expert opinion on the safety and risk @-@ benefit ratio of ESWL . The task force published a white paper outlining their conclusions in 2009 . They concluded the risk @-@ benefit ratio remains favorable for many people . The advantages of ESWL include its noninvasive nature , the fact that it is technically easy to treat most upper urinary tract calculi , and that , at least acutely , it is a well @-@ tolerated , low @-@ morbidity treatment for the vast majority of people . However , they recommended slowing the shock wave firing rate from 120 pulses per minute to 60 pulses per minute to reduce the risk of renal injury and increase the degree of stone fragmentation .
= = = Surgery = = =
Most stones under 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) pass spontaneously . Prompt surgery may , nonetheless , be required in persons with only one working kidney , bilateral obstructing stones , a urinary tract infection and thus , it is presumed , an infected kidney , or intractable pain . Beginning in the mid @-@ 1980s , less invasive treatments such as extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy , ureteroscopy , and percutaneous nephrolithotomy began to replace open surgery as the modalities of choice for the surgical management of urolithiasis . More recently , flexible ureteroscopy has been adapted to facilitate retrograde nephrostomy creation for percutaneous nephrolithotomy . This approach is still under investigation , though early results are favorable . Percutaneous nephrolithotomy or , rarely , anatrophic nephrolithotomy , is the treatment of choice for large or complicated stones ( such as calyceal staghorn calculi ) or stones that cannot be extracted using less invasive procedures .
= = = = Ureteroscopic surgery = = = =
Ureteroscopy has become increasingly popular as flexible and rigid fiberoptic ureteroscopes have become smaller . One ureteroscopic technique involves the placement of a ureteral stent ( a small tube extending from the bladder , up the ureter and into the kidney ) to provide immediate relief of an obstructed kidney . Stent placement can be useful for saving a kidney at risk for postrenal acute renal failure due to the increased hydrostatic pressure , swelling and infection ( pyelonephritis and pyonephrosis ) caused by an obstructing stone . Ureteral stents vary in length from 24 to 30 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 to 11 @.@ 8 in ) and most have a shape commonly referred to as a " double @-@ J " or " double pigtail " , because of the curl at both ends . They are designed to allow urine to flow past an obstruction in the ureter . They may be retained in the ureter for days to weeks as infections resolve and as stones are dissolved or fragmented by ESWL or by some other treatment . The stents dilate the ureters , which can facilitate instrumentation , and they also provide a clear landmark to aid in the visualization of the ureters and any associated stones on radiographic examinations . The presence of indwelling ureteral stents may cause minimal to moderate discomfort , frequency or urgency incontinence , and infection , which in general resolves on removal . Most ureteral stents can be removed cystoscopically during an office visit under topical anesthesia after resolution of the urolithiasis .
More definitive ureteroscopic techniques for stone extraction ( rather than simply bypassing the obstruction ) include basket extraction and ultrasound ureterolithotripsy . Laser lithotripsy is another technique , which involves the use of a holmium : yttrium aluminium garnet ( Ho : YAG ) laser to fragment stones in the bladder , ureters , and kidneys .
Ureteroscopic techniques are generally more effective than ESWL for treating stones located in the lower ureter , with success rates of 93 – 100 % using Ho : YAG laser lithotripsy . Although ESWL has been traditionally preferred by many practitioners for treating stones located in the upper ureter , more recent experience suggests ureteroscopic techniques offer distinct advantages in the treatment of upper ureteral stones . Specifically , the overall success rate is higher , fewer repeat interventions and postoperative visits are needed , and treatment costs are lower after ureteroscopic treatment when compared with ESWL . These advantages are especially apparent with stones greater than 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter . However , because ureteroscopy of the upper ureter is much more challenging than ESWL , many urologists still prefer to use ESWL as a first @-@ line treatment for stones of less than 10 mm , and ureteroscopy for those greater than 10 mm in diameter . Ureteroscopy is the preferred treatment in pregnant and morbidly obese people , as well as those with bleeding disorders .
= = Epidemiology = =
Kidney stones affect all geographical , cultural , and racial groups . The lifetime risk is about 10 to 15 % in the developed world , but can be as high as 20 to 25 % in the Middle East . The increased risk of dehydration in hot climates , coupled with a diet 50 % lower in calcium and 250 % higher in oxalates compared to Western diets , accounts for the higher net risk in the Middle East . In the Middle East , uric acid stones are more common than calcium @-@ containing stones . The number of deaths due to kidney stones is estimated at 19 @,@ 000 per year being fairly consistent between 1990 and 2010 .
In North America and Europe , the annual number of new cases per year of kidney stones is roughly 0 @.@ 5 % . In the United States , the frequency in the population of urolithiasis has increased from 3 @.@ 2 % to 5 @.@ 2 % from the mid @-@ 1970s to the mid @-@ 1990s . The total cost for treating urolithiasis was US $ 2 billion in 2003 . About 65 – 80 % of those with kidney stones are men ; most stones in women are due to either metabolic defects ( such as cystinuria ) or infection . ( p . 1057 ) Men most commonly experience their first episode between 30 and 40 years of age , whereas for women , the age at first presentation is somewhat later . The age of onset shows a bimodal distribution in women , with episodes peaking at 35 and 55 years . Recurrence rates are estimated at 50 % over a 10 @-@ year and 75 % over 20 @-@ year period , with some people experiencing ten or more episodes over the course of a lifetime .
A 2010 review concluded that rates of disease are increasing .
= = History = =
The existence of kidney stones was first recorded thousands of years ago , and lithotomy for the removal of stones is one of the earliest known surgical procedures . In 1901 , a stone discovered in the pelvis of an ancient Egyptian mummy was dated to 4 @,@ 800 BC . Medical texts from ancient Mesopotamia , India , China , Persia , Greece , and Rome all mentioned calculous disease . Part of the Hippocratic Oath suggests there were practicing surgeons in ancient Greece to whom physicians were to defer for lithotomies . The Roman medical treatise De Medicina by Aulus Cornelius Celsus contained a description of lithotomy , and this work served as the basis for this procedure until the 18th century .
Famous people who were kidney stone formers include Napoleon I , Epicurus , Napoleon III , Peter the Great , Louis XIV , George IV , Oliver Cromwell , Lyndon B. Johnson , Benjamin Franklin , Michel de Montaigne , Francis Bacon , Isaac Newton , Samuel Pepys , William Harvey , Herman Boerhaave , and Antonio Scarpa .
New techniques in lithotomy began to emerge starting in 1520 , but the operation remained risky . After Henry Jacob Bigelow popularized the technique of litholapaxy in 1878 , the mortality rate dropped from about 24 % to 2 @.@ 4 % . However , other treatment techniques continued to produce a high level of mortality , especially among inexperienced urologists . In 1980 , Dornier MedTech introduced extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for breaking up stones via acoustical pulses , and this technique has since come into widespread use .
= = = Etymology = = =
Renal calculus is from the Latin rēnēs , " kidneys , " and calculus , " pebble " ) . Lithiasis ( stone formation ) in the kidneys is called nephrolithiasis ( / ˌnɛfroʊlɪˈθaɪəsᵻs / ) , from nephro- ( kidney ) + -lith ( stone ) + -iasis ( disorder ) .
= = Research directions = =
Crystallization of calcium oxalate appears to be inhibited by certain substances in the urine that retard the formation , growth , aggregation , and adherence of crystals to renal cells . By purifying urine using salt precipitation , isoelectric focusing , and size @-@ exclusion chromatography , some researchers have found that calgranulin , a protein formed in the kidney , is a potent inhibitor of the in vivo formation of calcium oxalate crystals . Considering its extremely high levels of inhibition of growth and aggregation of calcium oxalate crystals , calgranulin might be an important intrinsic factor in the prevention of nephrolithiasis .
= = Children = =
Although kidney stones do not often occur in children , the incidence is increasing . These stones are in the kidney in two thirds of reported cases , and in the ureter in the remaining cases . Older children are at greater risk independent of age and sex .
As with adults , most pediatric kidney stones are predominantly composed of calcium oxalate ; struvite and calcium phosphate stones are less common . Calcium oxalate stones in children are associated with high amounts of calcium , oxalate , and magnesium in acidic urine .
= Maryland Route 150 =
Maryland Route 150 ( MD 150 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known for most of its length as either Eastern Avenue or Eastern Boulevard , the highway runs 13 @.@ 01 miles ( 20 @.@ 94 km ) from U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 ) in Baltimore east to Graces Quarters Road in Chase in eastern Baltimore County . MD 150 connects Baltimore with its southeastern suburbs of Dundalk , Essex , and Middle River . The state highway also links those communities with Interstate 95 , I @-@ 695 , I @-@ 895 , and Martin State Airport . MD 150 was constructed from Baltimore to Middle River and in Chase in the mid @-@ 1920s . The road was completed through Middle River in the early 1930s . Between 1942 and 1944 , MD 150 was reconstructed as a four @-@ lane divided highway with interchanges to improve access between Baltimore and the Glenn L. Martin Company aircraft manufacturing plant in Middle River . The highway has followed several routes since it was extended west into the city of Baltimore in the mid @-@ 1940s ; the present route in East Baltimore was established shortly after 2000 .
= = Route description = =
MD 150 is known as Eastern Avenue from just west of I @-@ 895 in Baltimore to the Back River between Dundalk and Essex . The highway is also named Eastern Avenue from Carroll Island Road in Middle River to the highway 's eastern terminus in Chase . Between the two sections of Eastern Avenue , MD 150 follows Eastern Boulevard through Essex and Middle River . The state highway is maintained by the Baltimore City Department of Transportation in the city of Baltimore and by the Maryland State Highway Administration in Baltimore County . MD 150 is a part of the National Highway System as a rail @-@ to @-@ truck intermodal freight transport connection from its western terminus at US 40 to I @-@ 95 within Baltimore . The highway is also a National Highway System principal arterial from I @-@ 95 to Carroll Island Road in Middle River .
= = = Baltimore to Dundalk = = =
MD 150 begins at an intersection with US 40 ( Pulaski Highway ) in East Baltimore . The route heads south as Haven Street , a four @-@ lane undivided street that passes through
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) of armour , except for the turret roofs which used 2 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 64 to 83 mm ) . The thickness of the nickel steel deck ranged from 1 to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 25 to 64 mm ) . Nickel @-@ steel torpedo bulkheads 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick were fitted abreast of the magazines and shell rooms . The sides of the conning tower were 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick . After the Battle of Jutland revealed a vulnerability to plunging shellfire , 1 inch of additional armour , weighing approximately 100 long tons ( 102 t ) , was added to the magazine crowns and turret roofs .
= = Service = =
= = = Pre @-@ war career = = =
Princess Royal was laid down at the Vickers Shipyard in Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness on 2 May 1910 . She was launched on 29 April 1911 by Princess Louise , The Princess Royal , and commissioned into the Royal Navy on 14 November 1912 . She cost £ 1 @,@ 955 @,@ 922 plus an additional £ 120 @,@ 300 for her armament . Upon commissioning , Princess Royal joined the 1st Cruiser Squadron , which was renamed the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron ( BCS ) in January 1913 . Rear @-@ Admiral Beatty assumed command of the 1st BCS on 1 March 1913 . The squadron , including Princess Royal , visited Brest in February 1914 and ports in Russia during June .
= = = World War I = = =
= = = = Battle of Heligoland Bight = = = =
Princess Royal first saw combat during the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August 1914 . She was part of Admiral Beatty 's battlecruiser force , which was originally to provide distant support to the British cruisers and destroyers closer to the German coast if the German High Seas Fleet sortied in response . The battlecruisers headed south at full speed at 11 : 35 a.m. when the British light forces failed to disengage on schedule , as the rising tide meant that German capital ships would be able to clear the bar at the mouth of the Jade Estuary . The British light cruiser Arethusa had been crippled earlier in the battle and was under fire from the German light cruisers Strassburg and Cöln when Beatty 's battlecruisers appeared out of the mist at 12 : 37 p.m. Strassburg was able to duck into the mists and evade fire , but Cöln was quickly crippled by the squadron 's guns . Before Cöln could be sunk , Beatty was distracted by the sudden appearance of the German light cruiser Ariadne directly to his front , and ordered pursuit . Ariadne was reduced to a burning hulk after only three salvos at less than 6 @,@ 000 yards ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) .
Princess Royal sailed from Cromarty on 28 September to rendezvous with a Canadian troop convoy bound for the United Kingdom . She rejoined the 1st BCS on 26 October , but was detached again a few days later to reinforce the North Atlantic and Caribbean Squadrons in the search for Admiral Graf Spee 's German East Asia Squadron after it destroyed the West Indies Squadron on 1 November 1914 . Princess Royal arrived at Halifax on 21 November , then spent several days off New York City before she steamed down to the Caribbean to guard against the possibility that Graf Spee would use the Panama Canal . The East Asia Squadron was sunk off the Falkland Islands on 7 December , and Princess Royal left Kingston , Jamaica to sail to the UK on 19 December .
= = = = Battle of Dogger Bank = = = =
On 23 January 1915 a force of German battlecruisers under the command of Admiral Franz von Hipper sortied to clear the Dogger Bank of any British vessels that might be collecting intelligence on German movements . The British were reading the German coded messages , and a large battlecruiser force under Admiral Beatty , aboard Lion , sailed to intercept . Contact was initiated at 7 : 20 a.m. on the 24th , when the British light cruiser Arethusa spotted the German light cruiser Kolberg . By 7 : 35 , the Germans had seen Beatty 's force ; Hipper , aboard Seydlitz , ordered his ships south at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , thinking that he could outpace any British battleships , and could increase to Blücher 's maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) if the pursuing ships were battlecruisers .
Beatty ordered his battlecruisers to catch the Germans before they could escape . The leading ships , Lion , Princess Royal and Tiger , pursued at 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) , and Lion opened fire at 8 : 52 at a range of 20 @,@ 000 yards ( 18 @,@ 000 m ) . The other ships followed a few minutes later but the extreme range and decreasing visibility meant they did not start scoring hits until 9 : 09 . The German battlecruisers opened fire two minutes later at a range of 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) and concentrated their fire on Lion , hitting her once . At 9 : 35 , Beatty signalled to " engage the corresponding ships in the enemy 's line " , but Tiger 's captain , believing that Indomitable was already engaging Blücher , fired at Seydlitz , as did Lion , which left Moltke unengaged and able to fire on Lion without risk . Moltke and Derfflinger combined their fire to badly damage Lion over the next hour , even with Princess Royal attacking Derfflinger .
Meanwhile , Blücher had been heavily damaged ; her speed had dropped to 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) , and her steering gear was jammed . Beatty ordered Indomitable to attack her at 10 : 48 a.m. Six minutes later , he spotted what he thought was a submarine periscope on the starboard bow and ordered an immediate 90 ° turn to port to avoid the submarine , although the submarine warning flag was not raised because most of Lion 's signal halyards had been shot away . Soon afterwards Lion lost her remaining dynamo to the rising water , which knocked out all remaining light and power . At 11 : 02 , Beatty had flags hoisted signalling " course north @-@ east " , to bring his ships back to their pursuit of Hipper , and " attack the rear of the enemy " . Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Gordon Moore , temporarily commanding the squadron from New Zealand , thought that the signals meant to attack Blücher , which was about 8 @,@ 000 yards ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) to the north @-@ east , and ordered the four other battlecruisers away from the pursuit of Hipper 's main force to engage . Beatty tried to correct the mistake , but he was so far behind the leading battlecruisers that his signals could not be read in the smoke and haze .
Beatty transferred to the destroyer Attack at 11 : 50 and set off in pursuit of his battlecruisers , reaching them shortly before Blücher sank . He boarded Princess Royal at 12 : 20 p.m. and ordered the ships to pursue the main German force . This order was rescinded when it became clear that the time wasted in sinking Blücher meant the rest of Hipper 's battlecruisers would reach friendly waters before they could be caught . Beatty 's battlecruisers turned for home , catching up to Lion , which was limping along at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Princess Royal hit Derfflinger once , but only damaged two armour plates and caused a coal bunker to flood . She hit Blücher at least twice , including the shot that crippled her , out of a total of 271 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 343 mm ) shells fired during the battle , a hit rate of only 0 @.@ 7 % . By way of contrast , her sister Lion made four hits out of 243 shells fired , a rate of 1 @.@ 6 % . She also fired two 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shrapnel shells at the German airship L5 as its crew attempted to bomb the sinking Blücher , mistaking it for a British ship , despite the fact that the maximum elevation of those guns was only 20 ° . Princess Royal was not damaged during the battle .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
On 31 May 1916 , Princess Royal was the flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral Osmond Brock and the 1st BCS under Beatty 's overall command ; they had put to sea with the rest of the Battlecruiser Fleet to intercept a sortie by the High Seas Fleet into the North Sea . The British had decoded the German radio messages , and left their bases before the Germans put to sea . Hipper 's battlecruisers spotted the Battlecruiser Fleet to their west at 3 : 20 p.m. , but Beatty 's ships did not see the Germans to their east until 3 : 30 . Two minutes later , Beatty ordered a course change to east south @-@ east , positioning the British ships to cut off the Germans ' line of retreat , and signalled action stations . Hipper ordered his ships to turn to starboard , away from the British , to assume a south @-@ easterly course , and reduced speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) to allow three light cruisers of the 2nd Scouting Group to catch up . With this turn , Hipper was falling back on the High Seas Fleet , 60 miles ( 97 km ) behind him . Beatty altered course to the east , as he was still too far north to cut Hipper off .
This began what was to be called the " Run to the South " as Beatty changed course to steer east south @-@ east at 3 : 45 , now paralleling Hipper 's course less than 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) away . The Germans opened fire first at 3 : 48 , followed by the British . The British ships were still in the process of making their turn as only the two leading ships , Lion and Princess Royal , had steadied on their course when the Germans opened fire . The two battlecruisers engaged Lützow , the leading German ship , while Derfflinger targeted Princess Royal . The German fire was accurate from the start , with two hits on Princess Royal within the first three minutes . British gunnery was less effective ; the range was incorrectly estimated as the German ships blended into the haze . Princess Royal 's ' A ' turret stopped working effectively early in the battle : the left gun was rendered inoperable when the breech pinion gear sheared , and the right gun misfired frequently . By 3 : 54 , the range was down to 12 @,@ 900 yards ( 11 @,@ 800 m ) ; Beatty ordered a course change two points to starboard to open up the range at 3 : 57 .
At 4 : 11 p.m. a torpedo fired by Moltke passed under Princess Royal . Those aboard the British ship saw the torpedo 's track , but incorrectly concluded that a U @-@ boat was positioned on the opposite side of the British line ( away from the German battlecruisers ) and was firing towards both groups of ships . This false impression was compounded by reports of a periscope sighting by the destroyer HMS Landrail . By this time , the distance between the British and German ships was too great for accurate fire , so Beatty altered course four points to port between 4 : 12 and 4 : 15 , closing the range . This manoeuvre exposed Lion to the fire of the German battlecruisers , and the smoke from multiple successful hits caused Derfflinger to lose sight of Princess Royal and switch targets to Queen Mary at 4 : 16 . By 4 : 25 , the range was down to 14 @,@ 400 yards ( 13 @,@ 200 m ) and Beatty turned two points to starboard to open the range again . Around this time , Queen Mary was hit multiple times in quick succession and her forward magazines exploded . At 4 : 30 , the light cruiser Southampton , scouting in front of Beatty 's ships , spotted the lead elements of the High Seas Fleet charging north at top speed . Three minutes later , they sighted the topmasts of Vice @-@ Admiral Reinhard Scheer 's battleships , but did not report this to the fleet for another five minutes . Beatty continued south for another two minutes to confirm the sighting before ordering his force to turn north .
The German battlecruisers made their own turn north in pursuit , but Beatty 's ships maintained full speed , and gradually moved out of range . The British battlecruisers turned north , then north @-@ east , to try to rendezvous with the main body of the Grand Fleet , and at 5 : 40 p.m. opened fire again on their German counterparts . Facing the setting sun , the Germans could not make out the British ships and turned away to the north @-@ east at 5 : 47 . Beatty gradually turned towards the east so his ships could cover the Grand Fleet as it deployed into battle formation , but he mistimed his manoeuvre and forced the leading British division to manoeuvre away from the Germans . About 6 : 22 , Princess Royal was hit by two 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) shells fired by the battleship Markgraf ; one of these disabled ' X ' turret and the other penetrated the ship 's side armour . By 6 : 35 , Beatty was following the 3rd BCS as they were leading the Grand Fleet east @-@ southeast , and continuing to engage Hipper 's battlecruisers to their south @-@ west . A few minutes earlier , Scheer had ordered a simultaneous 180 ° starboard turn , and Beatty lost sight of them in the haze . At 6 : 44 , Beatty turned his ships south @-@ east , then south @-@ southeast four minutes later , to find Hipper 's force . He then ordered the two surviving ships of the 3rd BCS to take position astern of New Zealand , while slowing to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) and altering course to the south . Beatty then ordered his ships to make a complete circle to stay within visual range of the Grand Fleet . At 6 : 55 , Scheer ordered another 180 ° turn , which put the German ships on a converging course again with the Grand Fleet . However , the British had altered course to the south , allowing the Grand Fleet to cross Scheer 's " T " and inflict damage on the leading German ships . Scheer ordered yet another 180 ° turn at 7 : 13 , and successfully extricated the High Seas Fleet from the danger precipitated by his previous turn . About this time Princess Royal fired at the leading German battlecruiser for three minutes without result .
The British lost sight of the Germans until HMS Castor spotted smoke to the west @-@ northwest at 8 : 05 p.m. , then identified and engaged several German torpedo boats . Hearing the sound of gunfire , Beatty ordered his ships west , and spotted the German battlecruisers only 8 @,@ 500 yards ( 7 @,@ 800 m ) away . Inflexible opened fire at 8 : 20 , followed almost immediately by the rest of the battlecruisers . Shortly after 8 : 30 , the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of Rear @-@ Admiral Mauve 's II Battle Squadron were spotted . The British battlecruisers and German pre @-@ dreadnoughts exchanged fire ; the Germans only fired a few times before turning away to the west because of poor visibility and the more accurate British gunnery , and disappeared into the mist around 8 : 40 . Beatty 's battlecruisers sailed south @-@ southeast , ahead of both the Grand Fleet and the High Seas Fleet , until the order to reverse course for home was given at 2 : 55 a.m.
Along with the rest of the battlecruisers , Princess Royal reached Rosyth Dockyard in Scotland on the morning of 2 June , and she immediately received temporary repairs over the next eight days . She then sailed for Plymouth , where permanent repairs were completed on 15 July , and returned to Rosyth by 21 July . Princess Royal was hit nine times during the battle — six times by Derfflinger during the " Run to the South " , twice by Markgraf during the " Run to the North " , and once by Posen just after II Battle Squadron appeared — with 22 killed and 81 injured . The battlecruiser fired only 230 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shells during the battle , as her visibility was often impaired by the funnel smoke and fires aboard Lion . She was credited with three hits on Lützow and two on Seydlitz . A torpedo fired at the German pre @-@ dreadnoughts failed to hit .
= = = = Post @-@ Jutland career = = = =
As the German High Seas Fleet was forbidden from taking any unnecessary risks , the majority of Princess Royal 's post @-@ Jutland activities consisted of uneventful patrols of the North Sea . On the evening of 18 August , the Grand Fleet put to sea in response to a deciphered message that the High Seas Fleet , minus the II Squadron , would be leaving harbour that night . The Germans planned to bombard the port of Sunderland on the 19th , with extensive reconnaissance provided by airships and submarines . The Grand Fleet sailed with 29 dreadnought battleships and 6 battlecruisers to their anticipated rendezvous in the North Sea ; for fear that they had entered a minefield after HMS Nottingham was torpedoed , they turned north before turning south again . Scheer steered south @-@ eastward pursuing a lone British battle squadron reported by an airship , which was in fact the Harwich Force under Commodore Tyrwhitt . Realising their mistake , the Germans then set course for home . The only contact came in the evening when Tyrwhitt sighted the High Seas Fleet but was unable to achieve an advantageous attack position before dark , and broke off . Both the British and German fleets returned home ; two British light cruisers , HMS Nottingham and Falmouth had been sunk by submarines , and the German dreadnought Westfalen had been damaged by a torpedo .
Princess Royal provided support for British light forces involved in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight on 17 November 1917 , but never came within range of any German ships . She sailed with the 1st BCS on 12 December after German destroyers sank a Norway @-@ bound convoy earlier that day , but the British were unable to intercept and returned to base the following day . Princess Royal , along with the rest of the Grand Fleet , sortied on the afternoon of 23 April 1918 after radio transmissions revealed that the High Seas Fleet was at sea after a failed attempt to intercept the regular British convoy to Norway . However , the Germans were too far ahead of the British , and no shots were fired . Starting in July 1918 , the Grand Fleet was affected by the 1918 flu pandemic ; at one point , Princess Royal lacked sufficient healthy crewmen to sail .
Following the surrender of the High Seas Fleet at the end of the war , Princess Royal and the 1st BCS made up part of the guard force in Scapa Flow . Princess Royal was reassigned to the Atlantic Fleet in April 1919 . The battlecruiser was placed in reserve in 1920 , and an attempt to sell her to Chile later that year was unsuccessful . She became the flagship of the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Scottish Coast on 22 February 1922 . She was sold for scrap in December 1922 to meet the tonnage limitations set on the Royal Navy by the Washington Naval Treaty , and arrived at the breakers on 13 August 1923 .
= The Other Hand =
The Other Hand , also known as Little Bee , is a 2008 novel by British author Chris Cleave . It is a dual narrative story about a Nigerian asylum @-@ seeker and a British magazine editor , who meet during the oil conflict in the Niger Delta , and are re @-@ united in England several years later . Cleave , inspired as a university student by his temporary employment in an asylum detention centre , wrote the book in an attempt to humanise the plight of asylum @-@ seekers in Britain . The novel examines the treatment of refugees by the asylum system , as well as issues of British colonialism , globalization , political violence and personal accountability .
The novel was published by Sceptre , an imprint of Hodder & Stoughton . Sales were initially slow , but increased as a result of " word @-@ of @-@ mouth " publicity , with the book eventually ranking 13th on the 2009 Sunday Times bestseller list . It has also been ranked # 1 the " New York Times " bestseller list . The novel has received mixed reviews from critics . It has been praised for its focus on underlying human decency ; however , some reviewers felt its events were contrived . The two protagonists have been juxtaposed , with less sympathy evoked by Surrey @-@ born Sarah than Nigerian @-@ refugee Little Bee . The novel was nominated for the 2008 Costa Book Awards and a 2009 Commonwealth Writers ' Prize . A film adaptation is being developed , and will be produced by and star Nicole Kidman .
= = Background = =
Cleave spent his early childhood in West Africa , which he credits for having partially inspired The Other Hand . Further inspiration came from Cleaves 's temporary employment while studying experimental psychology at the University of Oxford . During the summer , Cleave painted underpasses , gardened and picked up litter , and hoped to use this experience to write a book . His final job was at Campsfield House in Oxfordshire , an immigration detention centre . Cleave spent three days serving food to residents from war zones including Somalia , Eritrea and the Balkans . He explained : " I got talking with some of them and said why are you here ? Why are you in prison ? It 's not illegal and yet we concentrate them in these places . It 's a text @-@ book definition of a concentration camp . The conditions are appalling . I was shocked enough for that to be the end of my light comedy book of my amusing summers working as a labourer . " Cleave believes he would not have written the novel were he not a parent , as he does not wish for his children " to grow up into a world that is callous and stupid . "
In 2005 , an incident inspired Cleave to write The Other Hand . Four years previously , in 2001 , an Angolan asylum @-@ seeker named Manuel Bravo had arrived in England with his 9 @-@ year @-@ old son . After being detained in an immigration centre for four years , officials decided to forcibly deport Bravo and his son back to Angola the next morning . During the night , Bravo committed suicide , aware that his son , who was still a minor , could not be deported unaccompanied . Cleave felt compelled to write about the " dirty secret " that is the British immigration system , and to do so in such a way as to showcase the " unexpected humour " of the refugees wherever possible , in order to make the book " an enjoyable and compelling read " for his audience . Cleave explained :
= = Plot = =
Using alternating first @-@ person perspectives , the novel tells the stories of Little Bee , a Nigerian refugee , and Sarah O 'Rourke ( née Summers ) , a magazine editor from Surrey . After spending two years detained in a British immigration detention centre , Little Bee is illegally released after a fellow refugee performs sexual favours for a detention officer . She travels to the home of Sarah and her husband Andrew , whom she met two years previously on a beach in the Niger Delta . Sarah is initially unaware of Little Bee 's presence , until Andrew , haunted by guilt of their shared past , commits suicide . Little Bee reveals herself to Sarah on the day of Andrew 's funeral , and helps her to care for her four @-@ year @-@ old son Charlie .
Through a mutual reflection on their past , it is revealed that Sarah and Andrew were on holiday at the time of their meeting with Little Bee . The trip was an attempt to salvage their marriage after Andrew discovered Sarah had been unfaithful to him , embarking on an affair with Home Office employee Lawrence Osborn . While walking on the beach one morning , they were approached by a then 14 @-@ year @-@ old Little Bee , and her older sister Nkiruka . The girls were being pursued by soldiers who had burned down their village and intended for there to be no witnesses left alive . The soldiers arrived and murdered a guard from the O 'Rourkes ' hotel , but offered to spare the lives of the girls if Andrew would amputate his own middle finger with a machete . Afraid , and believing the soldiers would murder the girls anyway , Andrew refused , but Sarah complied in his place . The soldiers took both girls away , leaving the couple in doubt as to whether the soldiers would leave one girl alive in response , as they promised .
Little Bee explains that although Nkiruka was gang raped , murdered , and cannibalised by the soldiers , she was allowed to escape , and stowed away in the cargo hold of a ship bound for England . Sarah allows Little Bee to stay with her , intent on helping her become a legal British citizen . Lawrence , who is still involved with Sarah , disapproves of her actions and contemplates turning Little Bee in to the police . When he informs Little Bee that he is considering this , she responds that allowing her to stay would be what is best for Sarah , so if Lawrence turns her in , Little Bee will get revenge by telling his wife Linda about his affair . The two reach an uneasy truce . After spending several days together , Sarah , Lawrence , Little Bee and Charlie take a trip to the park . Charlie goes missing , and Little Bee calls the police while Sarah searches for him . Although he is quickly found , the police become suspicious of Little Bee , and discover that she is in the country illegally .
Little Bee is detained and quickly deported back to Nigeria , where she believes she will be killed . Lawrence uses his Home Office connections to track Little Bee 's deportation details , and Sarah and Charlie are able to accompany her back home . Sarah believes that Little Bee will be safe as long as she is present , and together they begin collecting stories for a book Andrew had begun , and which Sarah intends to finish on his behalf , about the atrocities committed in the Nigerian oil conflict . During a trip to the same beach where they first encountered one another , soldiers arrive to take Little Bee away . Despite being captured , Little Bee is not dispirited , and instead is ultimately hopeful at the sight of Charlie playing happily with a group of Nigerian children .
= = Characters = =
The primary characters in The Other Hand are Little Bee , a Nigerian refugee , and Sarah , a middle @-@ class Englishwoman . Critics have focused on the contrast between the two , with Caroline Elkins of The New York Times commenting that Sarah might initially appear " insipid " to readers , and that when juxtaposed with Little Bee , she seems " unsympathetic , even tiresome " . Tim Teeman of The Times deemed Sarah " batty , bizarre and inconsistent , and despite the tragedy she has suffered , unsympathetic " , while writing that in contrast : " Goodness peppers every atom of [ Little Bee 's ] being . " Other reviewers took an opposite stance . Margot Kaminski of the San Francisco Chronicle found Little Bee 's characterisation problematic , writing : " Sometimes she 's not convincing , and sometimes she tries too hard to convince . It 's too often apparent that Little Bee is not real . This doesn 't do justice to her story , and puts the burden back on the author to show that he 's representing her , rather than exploiting her . " Ed Lake of The Daily Telegraph felt that " Bee 's arch reasonableness and implausibly picturesque speech mean she often comes off as a too @-@ cute cipher " , and ultimately found Sarah the more convincing character .
The Guardian 's Lawrence Norfolk commented that Sarah is a " far from perfect heroine : a semi @-@ neglectful mother and unfaithful wife " , but noted that " Cleave does not mock Sarah ( and life in Kingston upon Thames ) any more than he does Little Bee and her experiences in Nigeria . " Norfolk felt that : " For all the characters ' faults , none of them is presented as inauthentic or standing for something that we are intended to disbelieve . On the disparity in sympathy for Sarah and Little Bee , Cleave assessed : " Sarah inevitably suffers by proximity to Little Bee , who is much easier to like . If Sarah is more twisted , I think it 's because her path through life has necessarily been more convoluted . Little Bee 's life is extremely harrowing but it is also very simple – she is swimming very hard against the current , struggling to survive and not to be swept away . Sarah doesn ’ t have the luxury of knowing in which direction she should swim . "
Steve Giergerich of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch felt that Sarah and Little Bee are both " so richly drawn that the supporting characters suffer by comparison . " These supporting characters are Andrew , Sarah 's husband , Lawrence , her lover , Clarissa her colleague and Charlie , her four @-@ year @-@ old son , who for much of the novel answers only to " Batman " and dresses only in his Batman costume . Sarah Liss of CBC News deemed Andrew and Lawrence the two least @-@ likeable characters in the novel , describing Andrew as " an ordinary guy with self @-@ righteous beliefs who comes up slightly short when he 's tested by real life " and Lawrence as a " cowardly yes @-@ man " . Cleave agreed that for Lawrence , " career and propriety are more important than basic morality . He 's gone so far down that road that he can 't come back , and he 's made more villainous for all the things he could do but doesn 't . " Charlie is based on Cleave 's oldest son , who similarly spent six months aged four answering only to " Batman " . He forms the emotional centre of the novel , holding the adult characters together , and is a study in the early formation of identity . Cleave explained : " Little Bee is a novel about where our individuality lies – which layers of identity are us , and which are mere camouflage . So it 's a deliberate choice to use the metaphor of a child who is engaging in his first experiments with identity – in Charlie 's case by taking on the persona of a superhero . "
= = Themes = =
The Other Hand presents a critique of the British asylum system and attitude towards asylum @-@ seekers . Cleave feels there exists a " general lethargy " about the way asylum @-@ seekers are treated in Britain , and though he believes he is not a political writer , the book begins with an extract from a 2005 UK Home Office publication entitled " United Kingdom : A Journey to Citizenship " . The extract reads : " Britain is proud of its tradition of providing a safe haven for people fleeting ( sic ) persecution and conflict . " Cleave questioned : " If a government can 't even successfully proof @-@ read such a fundamental document , how seriously can we take its asylum procedure ? " In writing The Other Hand , Cleave hoped to " humanise " the issue for readers . Despite discussions of political violence and British Colonialism within the novel , Sarah L. Courteau , editor of the Wilson Quarterly commented : " You 're almost entirely unaware of its politics because the book doesn 't deal in abstractions but in human beings . " For this reason , she deemed The Other Hand " the best kind of political novel " . Emma Philip of The Courier @-@ Mail has opined that while The Other Hand does make political points , readers should not confuse it with a political book , as the " overwhelming beauty " of the relationship between Sarah , Little Bee and Charlie " far outweighs the political message . "
The novel also deals with the issue of globalisation . Courteau observed that although Little Bee learns English from newspapers she acquires at the English detention centre , her reference points are still Nigerian , and thus through her narrative voice Cleave " illustrates the forcible dislocations of a globalized world . " Cleave chose to explore the issue in The Other Hand as he believes that , although globalisation is frequently discussed , people rarely consider its meaning . He explained : " money can move freely across national borders , but people can 't . They 're actively prevented from going where the money is . Capital is global , but labour isn 't . I believe that 's the cause of two major crises that we 're involved in as a species – one is a financial crisis and one is a refugee crisis . Imagine a world where money can 't move , where capital is stuck in its country of origin , but people can freely move where the work is ! That 's an alternate interpretation of globalization that would solve a lot of problems . " Although Cleave did not intend for the novel to be heavily political , he felt it was important to raise the issue , given the refugee subject matter of The Other Hand .
Marital infidelity features throughout the sections of the novel narrated by Sarah . Cleave discussed : " When you are choosing a lover , you 're choosing a philosophy ; it 's not about sex , it 's not about marriage . With Sarah , her unfaithfulness is just one of the symptoms of the fact that she 's torn and is going to have to make this strong moral choice . " Sarah 's storyline also explores her moral culpability following Andrew 's suicide . Personal accountability is a central theme of the novel , with Elkins of The New York Times opining that by not focusing on " postcolonial guilt or African angst " , Cleave is able to use the novel to challenge readers ' conceptions of civility and ethical choice . Margot Kaminski of the San Francisco Chronicle similarly feels that the book delivered a message of anti @-@ complacency , however believes that is does so by " bemoaning the normality of the First World in the face of the horrors of the Third . " She deemed The Other Hand essentially a novel about " the borders we draw , and the real damage they inflict " .
= = Style = =
Having spent almost two years working on the novel , Cleave decided upon using the dual narrative , as : " This is a story of two worlds : the developed and the developing , and of the mutual incomprehension that sometimes dooms them to antagonism . " He found it technically challenging to write from a female perspective , but felt that it prevented him from unwittingly using his own voice to animate the characters , explaining : " It forces me to listen , to think , and to write more precisely . " Kaminski accused Cleave of cultural appropriation , asking rhetorically : " When a white male author writes as a young Nigerian girl , is it an act of empathy , or identity theft ? " Cleave has responded by stating that he sympathises with those who feel he has no right to write from the perspective of a Nigerian girl , but feels that he does it well . He believes that the best mechanism for telling a story about crossing borderlines is to depict both sides . He conducted interviews with actual asylum seekers and illegal immigrants , a psychiatrist specialising in the trauma of child refugees , and members of London 's Nigerian community , researching speech patterns to shape the " quirks and cadences " of Little Bee 's narrative voice .
A central stylistic feature of the novel is the lack of detail Cleave gives regarding elements of Little Bee 's past . " Little Bee " is an assumed name , described as a " mechanism for survival " by Courteau , as the character is forced to discard her true name when pursued by soldiers , through fear it may reveal her tribe and religion . Her real name , Udo , is not revealed until the end of the novel . Courteau also highlights the fact that Little Bee 's Nigerian enemies and their motivations are never explicitly described , as the novel is told through the first @-@ person narrative , and Little Bee herself is limited in her understanding of them . Cleave intended for the story as a whole never to be fully explicit , relying instead on readers ' interpretation of the characters ' dialogue .
Throughout the novel , Little Bee considers how she would explain England to " the girls back home " in Nigeria . Cleave uses the girls as a Greek chorus , providing a foil to allow the cultural dissonance experienced by Little Bee to be made explicit . He feels the device is more natural than having Little Bee narrate her alarm first hand , allowing the reader to appreciate the cultural gulf , and Little Bee to seem knowing as opposed to tragic . Through Little Bee 's narration , Cleave examines human culture from the opposite perspective as science fiction does , having an extraordinary protagonist explore an ordinary world . This contemporary realism gives a significance to mundane events experienced by Little Bee , while bringing into focus " sad and ignoble " aspects of English culture such as the detention system . Cleave commented : " We have become accustomed to viewing our own actions in soft focus , but the alien narrator has not yet acquired this cultural immunity . She sees us as we can no longer see ourselves . "
Courteau compared The Other Hand to Ian McEwan 's Enduring Love observing that both novels are formed around " a single horrific encounter " , and praised Cleave for his " restrained , diamond @-@ hard prose " . Philip drew a different comparison , opining that Cleave 's writing style — using plain language to describe atrocities — was reminiscent of John Boyne 's The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas .
= = Publication history = =
The novel was first published on 7 August 2008 , released in hardback by Sceptre in the UK . The hardback edition sold just 3 @,@ 000 copies in 2008 , however the publication of a paperback copy , released on 5 February 2009 , saw increased sales , with 100 @,@ 000 paperback copies sold in Britain in March and April 2009 , despite no advertising and little marketing for the novel . As of November 2009 , 300 @,@ 000 copies of the novel had been sold . Richard Brooks of The Times attributed its success to recommendations from readers to family and friends , with Cleave calling it " an example of word @-@ of @-@ mouth success . " The novel was published in America and Canada by Simon & Schuster under the alternative title Little Bee . It was released in hardback and eBook format in February 2009 , and in paperback in February 2010 . Cleave likes both titles , believing that The Other Hand " speaks to the dichotomous nature of the novel , with its two narrators and two worlds " , also referencing Sarah 's injury , while Little Bee is appropriate as the novel is really the telling of Little Bee 's story , and sounds " bright and approachable " , in line with his aim to write " an accessible story about a serious subject . "
= = = Blurb = = =
Mirroring the deliberately vague detail within the novel , the blurb on the book is unusually written , in that it does not name the characters or reveal the plot . It was written by a team at Sceptre led by marketing consultant Damian Horner , and has the approval of Cleave , who described it as " genius " . Cleave explained : " I think readers are quite smart and don 't really need the whole thing spelt out for them in a plot summary . It 's nice to let them discover the book at their own speed . And the technique of the book is to release these dirty secrets gradually . " The content of the blurb varies between UK and American editions of the novel , but both begin : " We don 't want to tell you too much about this book . It is a truly special story and we don 't want to spoil it . " and end : " Once you have read it , you 'll want to tell everyone about it . When you do , please don 't tell them what happens either . The magic is in how it unfolds . " James Spackman , Sales and Marketing Director for Sceptre , was initially sceptical of the blurb , particularly disliking the use of " we " for the publisher to address the reader directly . Once the book became a best @-@ seller , however , he revised his stance , and now believes that the reason the blurb works is because it makes a virtue of denying the reader information , with an unusual format and " arrestingly direct " tone . The blurb won Sceptre the " Best Blurb " award at the 2010 Book Marketing Society Awards .
= = Reception = =
The Other Hand reached number 13 on the 2009 Sunday Times bestseller list , and was the only literary title on the list without a Richard and Judy Book Club recommendation , a literary award or a film adaptation . It also topped The New York Times Best Seller list for paperback trade fiction in 2010 . The novel was nominated at the 2008 Costa Book Awards , though lost to The Secret Scripture by Sebastian Barry . It was nominated for the 2009 Commonwealth Writers ' Prize as the best book originating from Europe and South Asia , but lost to Unaccustomed Earth by Jhumpa Lahiri . In 2010 , The Other Hand was longlisted for the International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award , nominated by Cleveland Public Library , Seattle Public Library and Dunedin Public Libraries , New Zealand .
The book has received mixed reviews . Some critics have praised the novel for its focus on underlying human decency . The New York Times 's Caroline Elkins felt that the pretext of the novel " initially feels contrived " , but assessed that " in a world full of turpitude and injustice , it is [ Sarah and Little Bee 's ] bold , impulsive choices that challenge the inevitability of despair , transforming a political novel into an affecting story of human triumph . " James Urquhart of The Independent called the book " a powerful piece of art " , writing : " Besides sharp , witty dialogue , an emotionally charged plot and the vivid characters ' ethical struggles , The Other Hand delivers a timely challenge to reinvigorate our notions of civilised decency " . Equally , Andrew Rosenheim of Publishers Weekly found the book noteworthy for Cleave 's " ability to find a redemptive grace in the midst of almost inconceivable horror . " while Jeremy Jehu of The Daily Telegraph deemed it an " elegant parable " and a " challenge to every cosy , knee @-@ jerk liberal inclined to spout off about our shared humanity and global obligations . "
A separate Daily Telegraph review , this by critic Ed Lake , took a dissimilar stance , opining that that book is " pervaded by a vaguely distasteful glossiness " , and that " if Cleave is writing from great depths of feeling , he hides it well . " Lake deemed the book " faultlessly relevant , but ultimately cloying . " Another Publishers Weekly review was also less positive , calling the book " beautifully staged " but " haphazardly plotted " , and noting : " Cleave has a sharp cinematic eye , but the plot is undermined by weak motivations and coincidences . " Teeman of The Times felt that the book was overwritten , and wished " twistedly " that it had a less positive conclusion , commenting : " With every motive and action explicitly drawn , fleshed out and explained , there is no room for mystery , ambiguity or even tension . "
= = Film adaptation = =
Following the novel 's paperback release , six offers were made from companies interested in producing a film adaptation . BBC Films acquired the rights , and are potentially set to begin filming in late @-@ 2010 or early @-@ 2011 , once a director has been contracted . The film will star Nicole Kidman , and will be produced by Kidman , Gail Mutrux and Per Saari through Mutrux 's production company Pretty Picture , and Kidman 's , Blossom Films . Shawn Slovo will write the script , and Christine Langan will be the executive producer . Kidman had already read the novel before Mutrux contacted her about producing the film , on a flight between Los Angeles and Australia . The Times reported that she was " so eager " to play Sarah that she personally competed with several film studios in order to secure the rights to the book .
= Divine command theory =
Divine command theory ( also known as theological voluntarism ) is a meta @-@ ethical theory which proposes that an action 's status as morally good is equivalent to whether it is commanded by God . The theory asserts that what is moral is determined by what God commands , and that for a person to be moral is to follow his commands . Followers of both monotheistic and polytheistic religions in ancient and modern times have often accepted the importance of God 's commands in establishing morality . Numerous variants of the theory have been presented : historically , figures including Saint Augustine , Duns Scotus , and Thomas Aquinas have presented various versions of divine command theory ; more recently , Robert Merrihew Adams has proposed a " modified divine command theory " based on the omnibenevolence of God in which morality is linked to human conceptions of right and wrong . Paul Copan has argued in favour of the theory from a Christian viewpoint , and Linda Zagzebski 's divine motivation theory proposes that God 's motivations , rather than commands , are the source of morality .
Semantic challenges to divine command theory have been proposed ; the philosopher William Wainwright argued that to be commanded by God and to be morally obligatory do not have an identical meaning , which he believed would make defining obligation difficult . He also contended that , as knowledge of God is required for morality by divine command theory , atheists and agnostics could not be moral ; he saw this as a weakness of the theory . Others have challenged the theory on modal grounds by arguing that , even if God 's command and morality correlate in this world , they may not do so in other possible worlds . In addition , the Euthyphro dilemma , first proposed by Plato , presented a dilemma which threatened either to leave morality subject to the whims of God , or challenge his omnipotence . Divine command theory has also been criticised for its apparent incompatibility with the omnibenevolence of God , moral autonomy and religious pluralism , although some scholars have attempted to defend the theory from these challenges .
= = General form = =
Various forms of divine command theory have been presented in the past by philosophers including William of Ockham , St Augustine , Duns Scotus , and John Calvin . The theory generally teaches that moral truth does not exist independently of God and that morality is determined by divine commands . Stronger versions of the theory assert that God 's command is the only reason that a good action is moral , while weaker variations cast divine command as a vital component within a greater reason . The theory asserts that good actions are morally good as a result of their being commanded by God , and many religious believers subscribe to some form of divine command theory . Because of these premises , adherents believe that moral obligation is obedience to God 's commands ; what is morally right is what God desires .
= = = Augustine = = =
Saint Augustine offered a version of divine command theory that began by casting ethics as the pursuit of the supreme good , which delivers human happiness . He argued that to achieve this happiness , humans must love objects that are worthy of human love in the correct manner ; this requires humans to love God , which then allows them to correctly love everything else . Augustine 's ethics proposed that the act of loving God enables humans to properly orient their loves , leading to human happiness and fulfilment . Augustine supported Plato 's view that a well @-@ ordered soul is a desirable consequence of morality ; unlike Plato , he believed that achieving a well @-@ ordered soul had a higher purpose : living in accordance with God 's commands . His view of morality was thus heteronomous , as he believed in deference to a higher authority ( God ) , rather than acting autonomously .
= = = Scholasticism = = =
Scholastic philosopher John Duns Scotus argued that the only moral obligations that God could not take away from humans are to love one another and love God . He proposed that some commandments are moral because God commands them , and some are moral irrespective of his command . Duns Scotus argued that the natural law contains only what is self @-@ evidently analytically true and that God could not make these statements false . This means that the commands of natural law do not depend on God 's will ; these commands were those found on the first tablet of the Ten Commandments – the first three , which consist of obligations to God . He suggested that the rest of the Ten Commandments , and any other commandments God makes , are morally obligatory because God commands them .
Kelly James Clark and Anne Poortenga have presented a defence of divine command theory based on Aquinas ' moral theory . Aquinas proposed a theory of natural law which asserted that something is moral if it works towards the purpose of human existence , and so human nature can determine what is moral . Clark and Poortenga argued that God created human nature and thus commanded a certain morality ; hence he cannot arbitrarily change what is right or wrong for humans .
= = = Immanuel Kant = = =
The deontological ethics of Immanuel Kant has been cast as rejecting divine command theory by several figures , among whom is ethicist R. M. Hare . Kant 's view that morality should be determined by the categorical imperative – duty to the moral law , rather than acting for a specific end – has been viewed as incompatible with divine command theory . Philosopher and theologian John E. Hare has noted that some philosophers see divine command theory as an example of Kant 's heteronomous will – motives besides the moral law , which Kant regarded as non @-@ moral . American philosopher Lewis White Beck takes Kant 's argument to be a refutation of the theory that morality depends of divine authority . John E. Hare challenges this view , arguing that Kantian ethics should be seen as compatible with divine command theory .
= = = Robert Adams = = =
American philosopher Robert Merrihew Adams proposes what he calls a " modified divine command theory " . Adams presents the basic form of his theory by asserting that two statements are equivalent :
It is wrong to do X.
It is contrary to God 's commands to do X.
He proposes that God 's commands precurse moral truths and must be explained in terms of moral truths , not the other way around . Adams writes that his theory is an attempt to define what being ethically ' wrong ' consists of and accepts that it is only useful to those within a Judeo @-@ Christian context . In dealing with the criticism that a seemingly immoral act would be obligatory if God commanded it , he proposes that God does not command cruelty for its own sake . Adams does not propose that it would be logically impossible for God to command cruelty , rather that it would be unthinkable for him to do so because of his nature . Adams emphasises the importance of faith in God , specifically faith in God 's goodness , as well as his existence .
Adams proposes that an action is morally wrong if and only if it defies the commands of a loving God . If cruelty was commanded , he would not be loving ; Adams argued that , in this instance , God 's commands would not have to be obeyed and also that his theory of ethical wrongness would break down . He proposed that divine command morality assumes that human concepts of right and wrong are met by God 's commands and that the theory can only be applied if this is the case . Adams ' theory attempts to counter the challenge that morality might be arbitrary , as moral commands are not based solely on the commands of God , but are founded on his omnibenevolence . It attempts to challenge the claim that an external standard of morality prevents God from being sovereign by making him the source of morality and his character the moral law .
Adams proposes that in many Judeo @-@ Christian contexts , the term ' wrong ' is used to mean being contrary to God 's commands . In ethical contexts , he believes that ' wrong ' entails an emotional attitude against an action and that these two uses of wrongness usually correlate . Adams suggests that a believer 's concept of morality is founded in their religious belief and that right and wrong are tied to their belief in God ; this works because God always commands what believers accept to be right . If God commanded what a believer perceived as wrong , the believer would not say it is right or wrong to disobey him ; rather their concept of morality would break down .
Michael Austin writes that an implication of this modified divine command theory is that God cannot command cruelty for its own sake ; this could be argued to be inconsistent with God 's omnipotence . Thomas Aquinas argued that God 's omnipotence should be understood as the ability to do all things that are possible : he attempted to refute the idea that God 's inability to perform illogical actions challenges his omnipotence . Austin contends that commanding cruelty for its own sake is not illogical , so is not covered by Aquinas ' defence , although Aquinas had argued that sin is the falling short of a perfect action and thus not compatible with omnipotence .
= = = Alternative theories = = =
Paul Copan argues from a Christian viewpoint that man , made in God 's image , conforms to God 's sense of morality . The description of actions as right or wrong are therefore relevant to God ; a person 's sense of what is right or wrong corresponds to God 's .
We would not know goodness without God 's endowing us with a moral constitution . We have rights , dignity , freedom , and responsibility because God has designed us this way . In this , we reflect God 's moral goodness as His image @-@ bearers .
As an alternative to divine command theory , Linda Zagzebski has proposed divine motivation theory , which stills fits into a monotheistic framework . According to this theory , goodness is determined by God 's motives , rather than by what he commands . Divine motivation theory is similar to virtue ethics because it considers the character of an agent , and whether they are in accordance with God 's , as the standard for moral value . Zagzebski argues that things in the world have objective moral properties , such as being lovable , which are given to them through God 's perception of them . God 's attitude towards something is cast as a morally good attitude . The theory casts God as a good example for morality , and humans should imitate his virtues as much as is possible for finite , imperfect beings .
= = Objections = =
= = = Semantic objections = = =
Philosopher William Wainwright considered a challenge to the theory on semantic grounds , arguing that " being commanded by God " and " being obligatory " do not mean the same thing , contrary to what the theory suggests . He used the example of water not having an identical meaning to H2O to propose that " being commanded by God " does not have an identical meaning to " being obligatory " . This was not an objection to the truth of divine command theory , but Wainwright believed it demonstrated that the theory should not be used to formulate assertions about the meaning of obligation . Wainwright also noted that divine command theory might imply that one can only have moral knowledge if one has knowledge of God ; Edward Wierenga argued that , if this is the case , the theory seems to deny atheists and agnostics moral knowledge . Hugh Storer Chandler has challenged the theory based on modal ideas of what might exist in different worlds . He suggested that , even if one accepts that being commanded by God and being morally right are the same , they may not be synonyms because they might be different in other possible worlds .
= = = Moral motivation = = =
Michael Austin has noted that divine command theory could be criticised for prompting people to be moral with impure motivations . He writes of the objection that a moral life should be sought because morality is valued , rather than to avoid punishment or receive a reward . This punishment and reward system of motivation could be seen as inadequate .
= = = Euthyphro dilemma = = =
The Euthyphro dilemma was proposed in Plato 's dialogue between Socrates and Euthyphro . In the scene , Socrates and Euthyphro are discussing the nature of piety when Socrates presents the dilemma , which can be presented as the question ' Is X good because God commands it , or does God command X because it is good ? '
Is the pious loved by the gods because it is pious , or is it pious because it is loved by the gods ?
The Euthyphro dilemma can elicit the response that an action is good because God commands the action , or that God commands an action because it is good . If the first is chosen , it would imply that whatever God commands must be good : even if he commanded someone to inflict suffering , then inflicting suffering must be moral . If the latter is chosen , then morality is no longer dependent on God , defeating the divine command theory . Additionally , if God is subject to an external law , he is not sovereign or omnipotent , which would challenge the orthodox conception of God . Proponents of the Euthyphro dilemma might claim that divine command theory is obviously wrong because either answer challenges the ability of God to give moral laws .
William of Ockham responded to the Euthyphro Dilemma by ' biting the bullet ' . He argued that , if God did command people to be cruel , then that would be morally obligatory , proposing that the only limitation to what God can make obligatory is the principle of non @-@ contradiction . Robert Adams defended Ockham 's view , noting that it is only a logical possibility that God would command what we consider to be immoral , not an actuality . Even if God could logically command these actions , he would not because that is not his character . Eleonore Stump and Norman Kretzmann have responded to the Euthyphro dilemma by appealing to the doctrine of divine simplicity , a concept associated with Aquinas and Aristotle which suggests that the substance and attributes of God are identical . They propose that God and goodness are identical and that this is what makes his commands good .
American philosopher William Alston responded to the Euthyphro dilemma by considering what it means for God to be morally good . If divine command theory is accepted , it implies that God is good because he obeys his own commands ; Alston argued that this is not the case and that God 's goodness is distinct from abiding by moral obligations . He suggested that a moral obligation implies that there is some possibility that the agent may not honour their obligation ; Alston argued that this possibility does not exist for God , so his morality must be distinct from simply obeying his own commands . Alston contended that God is the supreme standard of morality and acts according to his character , which is necessarily good . There is no more arbitrariness in this view than accepting another moral standard .
= = = Omnibenevolence = = =
Leibniz , and some more recent philosophers , challenged the theory because it seems to entail that God 's goodness consists of his following his own commands . It is argued that , if divine command theory is accepted , God 's obligations would be what he commanded himself to do ; the concept of God commanding himself is seen as incoherent . Neither could God hold any virtues , as a virtue would be the disposition to follow his own commands – if he cannot logically command himself , then he cannot logically have any virtues . Edward Wierenga counters this by claiming that whatever God chooses to do is good , but that his nature means that his actions would always be praiseworthy . William Wainwright argues that , although God does not act because of his commands , it is still logical to say that God has reasons for his actions . He proposes that God is motivated by what is morally good and , when he commands what is morally good , it becomes morally obligatory .
= = = Autonomy = = =
Michael Austin draws attention to an objection from autonomy , which argues that morality requires an agent to freely choose which principles they live by . This challenges the view of divine command theory that God 's will determines what is good because humans are no longer autonomous , but followers of an imposed moral law , making autonomy incompatible with divine command theory . Robert Adams challenges this criticism , arguing that humans must still choose to accept or reject God 's commands and rely on their independent judgement about whether or not to follow them .
= = = Pluralism = = =
Austin considers the view that , in a world of religious pluralism , it is impossible to know which god 's or religion 's commands should be followed , especially because some religions contradict others , leaving it impossible to accept all of them . Within religions there are also various interpretations of what is commanded . Austin notes that some of the responses to the autonomy objection may be relevant , as an agent must choose whichever religion and morality they judge to be correct . He argues that divine command theory is also consistent with the view that moral truths can be found in all religions and that moral revelation can be found apart from religion . Heimir Geirsson and Margaret Holmgren argue against the view that different religions can lead to the same God because some religions are incompatible with each other ( monotheistic and polytheistic religions have contrasting views of divinity , for example , and some Greek or Nordic gods magnified human weaknesses ) . They argue that determining which god should be listened to remains a problem and that , even within a religion , contrasting views of God exist – the commands of God in the Old and New Testaments could seem to contradict each other .
= = Divine command theory in religion = =
Divine command theory features in the ethics of many modern religions , including Judaism , Islam , the Bahá 'í Faith , and Christianity , as well as being a part of numerous older polytheistic religions . In ancient Athens , it was commonly held that moral truth was tied directly to divine commands , and religious piety was almost equivalent to morality . Although Christianity does not entail divine command theory , it is commonly associated with it . It can be a plausible theory to Christians because the traditional conception of God as the creator of the universe supports the idea that he created moral truths . The theory is supported by the Christian view that God is all @-@ powerful because this implies that God creates moral truths , rather than moral truths existing independently of him , which seems inconsistent with his omnipotence .
= Sunbeam Tiger =
The Sunbeam Tiger is a high @-@ performance V8 version of the British Rootes Group 's Sunbeam Alpine roadster , designed in part by American car designer and racing driver Carroll Shelby and produced from 1964 until 1967 . Shelby had carried out a similar V8 conversion on the AC Cobra , and hoped to be offered the contract to produce the Tiger at his facility in America . Rootes decided instead to contract the assembly work to Jensen at West Bromwich in England , and pay Shelby a royalty on every car produced .
Two major versions of the Tiger were built : the Mark I ( 1964 – 67 ) was fitted with the 260 cu in ( 4 @.@ 3 L ) Ford V8 ; the Mark II , of which only 633 were built in the final year of Tiger production , was fitted with the larger Ford 289 cu in ( 4 @.@ 7 L ) engine . Two prototype and extensively modified versions of the Mark I competed in the 1964 24 Hours of Le Mans , but neither completed the race . Rootes also entered the Tiger in European rallies with some success , and for two years it was the American Hot Rod Association 's national record holder over a quarter @-@ mile drag strip .
Production ended in 1967 soon after the Rootes Group was taken over by Chrysler , which did not have a suitable engine to replace the Ford V8 . Owing to the ease and affordability of modifying the Tiger , there are few surviving cars in standard form .
= = Background = =
The Sunbeam Tiger was a development of the Sunbeam Alpine series I , introduced by the British manufacturer Rootes in 1959 . Rootes realised that the Alpine needed more power if it was to compete successfully in world markets , but lacked a suitable engine and the resources to develop one . The company therefore approached Ferrari to redesign the standard inline
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@-@ four cylinder engine , recognising the sales cachet that " powered by Ferrari " would be likely to bring . Negotiations initially seemed to go well , but ultimately broke down .
In 1962 racing driver and Formula 1 champion Jack Brabham proposed to Rootes competition manager Norman Garrad the idea of fitting the Alpine with a Ford V8 engine , which Garrad relayed to his son Ian , then the West Coast Sales Manager of Rootes American Motors Inc . Ian Garrad lived close to where Carroll Shelby had his Shelby American operation , which had done a similar V8 conversion for the British AC Cobra .
= = Initial prototypes = =
According to journalist William Carroll , after measuring the Alpine 's engine bay with " a ' precision ' instrument of questionable antecedents " – a wooden yardstick – Ian Garrad despatched his service manager Walter McKenzie to visit the local new car dealerships , looking for a V8 engine that might fit . McKenzie returned with the news that the Ford 260 V8 engine appeared to be suitable , which apart from its size advantage was relatively light at 440 lb ( 200 kg ) . Ian Garrad asked Shelby for an idea of the timescale and cost to build a prototype , which Shelby estimated to be eight weeks and $ 10 @,@ 000 . He then approached Brian Rootes , head of sales for the Rootes Group , for funding and authorisation to build a prototype , to which Brian Rootes agreed .
Ian Garrad , impatient to establish whether the conversion was feasible , commissioned racing driver and fabricator Ken Miles to build another prototype as quickly as he could . Miles was provided with a budget of $ 800 , a Series II Alpine , a Ford V8 engine and a 2 @-@ speed automatic transmission , and in about a week he had a running V8 conversion , thus proving the concept .
Shelby began work on his prototype , the white car as it came to be known , in April 1963 , and by the end of the month it was ready for trial runs around Los Angeles . Ian Garrad and John Panks , director of Rootes Motors Inc. of North America , tested an early version of the car and were so impressed that Panks wrote a glowing report to Brian Rootes : " we have a tremendously exciting sports car which handles extremely well and has a performance equivalent to an XX @-@ K Jaguar ... it is quite apparent that we have a most successful experiment that can now be developed into a production car . "
Provisionally known as the Thunderbolt , the Shelby prototype was more polished than the Miles version , and used a Ford 4 @-@ speed manual transmission . The Ford V8 was only 3 @.@ 5 inches longer than the Alpine 's 4 @-@ cylinder engine it replaced , so the primary concern was the engine 's width . Like Miles , Shelby found that the Ford V8 would only just fit into the Alpine engine bay : " I think that if the figure of speech about the shoehorn ever applied to anything , it surely did to the tight squeak in getting that 260 Ford mill into the Sunbeam engine compartment . There was a place for everything and a space for everything , but positively not an inch to spare . "
= = Development = =
All Rootes products had to be approved by Lord Rootes , who was reportedly " very grumpy " when he learned of the work that had gone into the Tiger project without his knowledge . But he agreed to have the Shelby prototype shipped over from America in July 1963 for him and his team to assess . He insisted on driving the car himself , and was so impressed that shortly after returning from his test drive he contacted Henry Ford II directly to negotiate a deal for the supply of Ford V8 engines . Rootes placed an initial order for 3000 , the number of Tigers it expected to sell in the first year , the largest single order Ford had ever received for its engines from an automobile manufacturer . Not only did Lord Rootes agree that the car would go into production , but he decided that it should be launched at the 1964 New York Motor Show , only eight months away , despite the company 's normal development cycle from " good idea " to delivery of the final product being three to four years .
Installing such a large engine in a relatively small vehicle required some modifications , although the exterior sheet metal remained essentially the same as the Alpine 's . Necessary chassis modifications included moving from the Burman recirculating ball steering mechanism to a more modern rack and pinion system .
Although twice as powerful as the Alpine , the Tiger is only about twenty per cent heavier , but the extra weight of the larger engine required some minor suspension modifications . Nevertheless , the Tiger 's front @-@ to @-@ back weight ratio is substantially similar to the Alpine 's , at 51 @.@ 7 / 48 @.@ 3 front / rear .
Shortly before its public unveiling at the New York Motor Show in April 1964 the car was renamed from Thunderbolt to Tiger , inspired by Sunbeam 's 1925 land @-@ speed @-@ record holder .
= = Production = =
Shelby had hoped to be given the contract to produce the Tiger in America , but Rootes was somewhat uneasy about the closeness of his relationship with Ford , so it was decided to build the car in England . The Rootes factory at Ryton did not have the capacity to build the Tiger , so the company contracted the job to Jensen in West Bromwich . Any disappointment Shelby may have felt was tempered by an offer from Rootes to pay him an undisclosed royalty on every Tiger built .
Jensen was able to take on production of the Tiger because its assembly contract for the Volvo P1800 had recently been cancelled . An additional factor in the decision was that Jensen 's chief engineer Kevin Beattie and his assistant Mike Jones had previously worked for Rootes , and understood how the company operated . The first of 14 Jensen @-@ built prototypes were based on the Series IV body shell , which became available at the end of 1963 .
The Tiger went into production in June 1964 , little more than a year after the completion of the Shelby prototype . Painted and trimmed bodies were supplied by Pressed Steel in Oxfordshire , and the engines and gearboxes directly from Ford in America . Installing the engine required some unusual manufacturing methods , including using a sledgehammer to bash in part of the already primed and painted bulkhead to allow the engine to be slid into place . Jensen was soon able to assemble up to 300 Tigers a month , which were initially offered for sale only in North America . The first few Tigers assembled had to be fitted with a Borg @-@ Warner 4 @-@ speed all @-@ synchromesh manual gearbox , until Ford resolved its supply problems and was able to provide an equivalent unit as used in the Ford Mustang .
Several performance modifications were available from dealers . The original 260 CID engine was considered only mildly tuned at 164 hp ( 122 kW ) , and some dealers offered modified versions with up to 245 hp ( 183 kW ) for an additional $ 250 . These modifications were particularly noticeable to the driver above 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , although they proved problematic for the standard suspension and tyres , which were perfectly tuned for the stock engine . A 1965 report in the British magazine Motor Sport concluded that " No combination of an American V8 and a British chassis could be happier . "
= = Versions = =
Production reached 7128 cars over three distinct series . The factory only ever designated two , the Mark I and Mark II , but as the official Mark I production spanned the change in body style from the Series IV Alpine panels to the Series V panels , the later Mark I cars are generally designated Mark IA by Sunbeam Tiger enthusiasts . The Mark II Tiger , fitted with the larger Ford 289 cu in ( 4 @.@ 7 L ) , was intended exclusively for export to America and was never marketed in the UK , although six right @-@ hand drive models were sold to the Metropolitan Police for use in traffic patrols and high @-@ speed pursuits ; four more went to the owners of important Rootes dealerships .
All Tigers were fitted with a single Ford twin @-@ choke carburettor . The compression ratio of the larger Mark II engine was increased from the 8 @.@ 8 : 1 of the smaller block to 9 @.@ 3 : 1 . Other differences between the versions included upgraded valve springs ( the 260 had developed a reputation for self @-@ destructing if pushed beyond 5000 rpm ) , an engine @-@ oil cooler , an alternator instead of a dynamo , a larger single dry plate hydraulically operated clutch , wider ratio transmission , and some rear @-@ axle modifications . There were also cosmetic changes : speed stripes instead of chrome strips down the side of the car , a modified radiator grille , and removal of the headlamp cowls . All Tigers were fitted with the same 4 @.@ 5 in ( 110 mm ) wide steel disc bolt @-@ on wheels as the Alpine IV , and Dunlop RS5 4 @.@ 90 in × 13 in ( 124 mm × 330 mm ) cross @-@ ply tyres . The lack of space in the Tiger 's engine bay causes a few maintenance problems ; the left bank of spark plugs is only accessible through a hole in the bulkhead for instance , normally sealed with a rubber bung , and the oil filter had to be relocated from the lower left on the block to a higher position on the right @-@ hand side , behind the generator .
= = = Mark I = = =
The Ford V8 as fitted to the Tiger produced 164 bhp ( 122 kW ) @ 4400 rpm , sufficient to give the car a 0 – 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) time of 8 @.@ 6 seconds and a top speed of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) .
The Girling @-@ manufactured brakes used 9 @.@ 85 in ( 250 mm ) discs at the front and 9 in ( 229 mm ) drums at the rear . The suspension was independent at the front , using coil springs , and at the rear had a live axle and semi @-@ elliptic springs . Apart from the addition of a Panhard rod to better locate the rear axle , and stiffer front springs to cope with the weight of the V8 engine , the Tiger 's suspension and braking systems are identical to that of the standard Alpine . The fitting points for the Panhard rod interfered with the upright spare wheel in the boot , which was repositioned to lie horizontally beneath a false floor ; the battery was moved from beneath the rear seat to the boot at the same time . The kerb weight of the car increased from the 2 @,@ 220 lb ( 1 @,@ 010 kg ) of the standard Alpine to 2 @,@ 653 lb ( 1 @,@ 203 kg ) .
In 1964 , its first year of production , all but 56 of the 1649 Mark I Tigers assembled were shipped to North America , where it was priced at $ 3499 . In an effort to increase its marketability to American buyers the car was fitted with " Powered by Ford 260 " badges on each front wing beneath the Tiger logo . The Mark I was unavailable in the UK until March 1965 , when it was priced at £ 1446 . It was also sold in South Africa for R3350 , badged as the Sunbeam Alpine 260 .
= = = Mark II = = =
Priced at $ 3842 , the Mark II Tiger was little more than a re @-@ engined Mark IA ; by comparison , a contemporary V8 Ford Mustang sold for $ 2898 . The larger 289 cu in ( 4 @.@ 7 L ) Ford engine improved the Tiger 's 0 – 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) time to 7 @.@ 5 seconds , and increased the top speed to 122 mph ( 196 km / h ) . Officially the Mark II Tiger was only available in the US , where it was called the Tiger II . By the time the Mark II car went into production Chrysler was firmly in charge of Rootes , and the " Powered by Ford " shields were replaced by " Sunbeam V @-@ 8 " badges .
= = Demise = =
Rootes had always been insufficiently capitalised , and losses resulting from a damaging thirteen @-@ week strike at one of its subsidiaries , British & Light Steel Pressings , coupled with the expense of launching the Hillman Imp , meant that by 1964 the company was in serious financial difficulties . At the same time , Chrysler was looking to boost its presence in Europe , and so a deal was struck in June 1964 in which Chrysler paid £ 12 @.@ 3 million ( $ 34 @.@ 44 million ) for a large stake in Rootes , although not a controlling one . As part of the agreement Chrysler committed not to acquire a majority of Rootes voting shares without the approval of the UK government , which was keen not to see any further American ownership of the UK motor industry . In 1967 Minister of Technology Anthony Wedgewood Benn approached BMH and Leyland to see if they would buy out Chrysler and Rootes and keep the company British , but neither had the resources to do so . Later that year Chrysler was allowed to acquire a controlling interest in Rootes for a further investment of £ 20 million .
Manufacturing a car powered by a competitor 's engine was unacceptable to the new owner , but Chrysler 's own 273 small @-@ block V @-@ 8 was too large to fit under the Tiger 's bonnet without major modifications . Compounding the problem , the company 's small @-@ block V8 engines had the distributor positioned at the rear , unlike the front @-@ mounted distributor of the Ford V8 . Chrysler 's big @-@ block V8 had a front @-@ mounted distributor but was significantly larger . Shortly after the takeover Chrysler ordered that production of the Tiger was to end when Rootes ' stock of Ford V8 engines was exhausted ; Jensen assembled the last Tiger on 27 June 1967 . Chrysler added its pentastar logo to the car 's badging , and in its marketing literature de @-@ emphasised the Ford connection , simply describing the Tiger as having " an American V @-@ 8 power train " .
Rootes ' design director Roy Axe commented later that " The Alpine and Tiger were always oddballs in the [ Rootes ] range . I think they [ Chrysler ] didn 't understand it , or have the same interest in it as the family cars – I think it was as simple as that . "
The Tiger name was resurrected in 1972 when Chrysler introduced the Avenger Tiger , a limited @-@ edition modified Hillman Avenger intended primarily for rallying .
= = Competition history = =
Three racing Tigers were constructed for the 1964 24 Hours of Le Mans , a prototype and two that were entered in the race . Costing $ 45 @,@ 000 each , they were highly modified versions of the production cars , fitted with fastback coupe bodies produced by Lister . But they were still steel monocoques , and made the Le Mans Tigers 66 lb ( 30 kg ) heavier than a road @-@ going Tiger at 2 @,@ 615 lb ( 1 @,@ 186 kg ) , almost 600 lb ( 270 kg ) more than the winning Ferrari . The standard Ford four @-@ speed manual transmission was replaced with a BorgWarner T10 close @-@ ratio racing transmission , which allowed for a top speed of 140 miles per hour ( 230 km / h ) .
Both Tigers suffered early mechanical failures , and neither finished the race . The engines had been prepared by Shelby but had not been properly developed , and as a result overheated ; Shelby eventually refunded the development cost to Rootes . All three of the Le Mans Tigers have survived .
Once Rootes had made the decision to put the Tiger into production an Alpine IV minus engine and transmission was shipped to Shelby , who was asked to transform the car into a racing Tiger . Shelby 's competition Tiger made an early appearance in the B Production Class of Pacific Coast Division SCCA races , which resulted in some " highly successful " publicity for the new car . But Shelby was becoming increasingly preoccupied with development work for Ford , and so the racing project was transferred to the Hollywood Sports Car dealership , whose driver Jim Adams achieved a third @-@ place finish in the Pacific Coast Division in 1965 . A Tiger driven by Peter Boulton and Jim Latta finished twelfth overall and first in the small GT class at the 1965 Dayton Continental . The Tiger was also raced on quarter @-@ mile drag strips , and for two years was the American Hot Rod Association 's national record holder in its class , reaching a speed of 108 mph ( 174 km / h ) in 12 @.@ 95 seconds .
Rootes entered the Tiger in European rallies , taking first , second and third places in the 1964 Geneva Rally . Two Tigers took part in the 1965 Monte Carlo Rally , one finishing fourth overall , the highest placing by a front @-@ engined rear @-@ wheel drive car , and the other eleventh . After finally having sorted out the engine overheating problem by fitting a forward @-@ facing air scoop to the bonnet , Rootes entered three Tigers in the 1965 Alpine Rally , one of which crossed the finishing line as outright winner . Scrutineers later disqualified the car however , because it had been fitted with undersized cylinder head valves . By the end of the 1966 Acropolis Rally though , it had become clear that low @-@ slung sports cars such as the Tiger were unsuited to the increasingly rough @-@ terrain rally stages , and the car was withdrawn from competition soon after . In the words of Ian Hall , who drove the Tiger in the Acropolis Rally , " I felt that the Tiger had just had it – it was an out of date leviathan " .
= = In popular media = =
The 1965 Tiger Mark I gained some exposure on American television as the car of choice for Maxwell Smart in the spoof spy series Get Smart . The Tiger was used for the first two seasons in the opening credits , in which Smart screeched to a halt outside his headquarters , and was used through the remainder of the series in several episodes . Some of the scenes featured unusual modifications such as a retractable James Bond @-@ style machine gun that could not have fitted under the Tiger 's bonnet , so rebadged Alpine models were used instead .
Don Adams , who played the protagonist Maxwell Smart , gained possession of the Tiger after the series ended and later gave it to his daughters ; it is reportedly on display at the Playboy Mansion in Los Angeles . During its early years Rootes advertised the car extensively in Playboy magazine and lent a pink Tiger with matching interior to 1965 Playmate of the Year Jo Collins for a year .
The Tiger also featured in the 2008 film adaptation of the Get Smart TV series . A replica Tiger had to be constructed using a stock Sunbeam Alpine and re @-@ created Tiger badging as no available Tiger could be found in Canada , where the film was produced . The production team recorded the sound of an authentic Tiger owned by a collector in Los Angeles and edited it into the film .
= I 'll Remember =
" I 'll Remember " is a song by American singer Madonna . It was released on March 8 , 1994 , by Warner Bros. Records as the soundtrack single of the film With Honors . It was a radical change in image and style for Madonna , who had received some negative critical and commercial feedback over the prior two years due to the release of her book Sex , the studio album Erotica and the film Body of Evidence . Warner Bros. had Madonna sing the song after noting most of her previous soundtrack singles had achieved commercial success . It utilizes a synthesized keyboard arrangement to bring about a continuously reverberating heartbeat sound . Madonna 's voice is supported by backing vocals .
Contemporary critics praised the song , hailing it as one of her best works . It was nominated for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or for Television at the 37th Grammy Awards and Best Original Song at the 52nd Golden Globe Awards . " I 'll Remember " was also a commercial success , peaking at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 and becoming her fourth number @-@ one hit on the Adult Contemporary chart . It also topped the singles charts in Canada and Italy . The accompanying music video portrayed Madonna singing the song in a stylized recording studio . Her look and style was compared to the imagery of the music video of previous single " Rain " . The androgynous portrayal of Madonna smoking in the last shot , was appreciated critically for breaking gender barriers .
= = Background = =
The year 1992 saw the release of the book Sex by Madonna . However , the book , which contained explicit sexual imagery and pictures of voyeuristic fantasies , was negatively accepted by the critics as well as some her fans . Madonna 's fifth studio album Erotica and the film Body of Evidence were released at the same time ; both failed to garner critical and commercial acclaim . Hence she decided to re @-@ invent her image , to connect with her fans and repair the damage that her provocative image had caused to her career . " I 'll Remember " was one of the songs that was developed for this purpose . The ballad was initially composed by musician Richard Page before being reworked by Madonna and Patrick Leonard . According to Page , " Madonna was brought in ... she changed all my lyrics for the better . She really did a great job . " Regarding her feelings for the song , Madonna commented ,
" I think most of the time when my records come out , people are so much distracted by so much fanfare and controversy that nobody pays attention to the music . [ ... ] I can 't tell you how painful the idea of singing ' Like a Virgin ' or ' Material Girl ' ( 1984 ) is to me now . I didn 't write either of those songs , and wasn 't digging very deep then . I also feel more connected emotionally to the music I 'm writing now , so it 's more of a pleasure to do it . "
" I 'll Remember " was used as the theme song of the film With Honors , directed by Alek Keshishian . Madonna 's own label , Maverick , was charged with the task of putting together the soundtrack album . They decided to include " I 'll Remember " , after noticing that all of her soundtrack releases have been commercially successful . " I 'll Remember " did not appear on any Madonna album , but was later included in the ballads collection Something to Remember ( 1995 ) .
= = Composition = =
According to author Rikky Rooksby , the song is written in the style of Album @-@ oriented rock ( AOR ) by bands like Boston or Foreigner . It is slowed down from the tempo of rock songs and utilizes a steadily reverberating synth keyboard to bring on the effect of a heartbeat . " I 'll Remember " has characteristics of late Seventies song apart from the arrangement and the low bass . Madonna sings in a low @-@ key voice which is almost overshadowed by the synth arrangement . Lyrically the song talks about Madonna looking back on a good love affair . According to Alex Balk from The Awl , the lyrics were inspirational , especially the line " I learned to let go of the illusion that we can possess " , which is answered by Madonna herself that " [ She ] remember , happiness " .
The song starts with a C major chord sequence and is used on the flattened seventh key of the sequence . But the actual key of the song is D major . It is set in a time signature of common time with a moderate tempo of 120 beats per minute . Madonna 's voice spans from F ♯ 3 to G4 . A much stronger arrangement of drums are used in the second verse . The chorus uses the chord sequence of D – G – Bm – A while the first two lines of each verse uses the chord progression of C – D – C – D7 – C – D – Bm – A. During the intermediate line " I learned to let go of the illusion that we can possess " , the structure changes to D / F ♯ – Bm – G – D – A – G – A. Backing vocals are used on the later choruses for support with the strings , cascading down to a minor arrangement before the third one . The song ends with fading out and devoid of any musical climax .
A number of remixes were issued alongside the regular version . The maxi @-@ single had four different versions , three being those of " I 'll Remember " and the fourth being a live version of the Erotica track , " Why It 's So Hard " , performed on The Girlie Show World Tour . According to Jose F. Promis from AllMusic , " the mixes of [ the song ] were conjured by William Orbit , giving each version an ethereal , spacey , and very mellow feel " . The " Guerilla Beach " mix was different from the original version , making it more adult contemporary oriented , while the " Orbit Remix " remained similar to the actual version .
= = Critical response = =
Author Christopher Feldman in his book , Billboard Book of Number 2 Singles , described the song as a " tender ballad . " Billboard music editor Timothy White called the song as lilting and one of Madonna 's classics in his book Music to My Ears : The Billboard Essays : Portraits of Popular Music in the ' 90s . He also complimented the song for talking about a dead relationship . Author Rikky Rooksby called the song as one of Madonna 's biggest ever singles and a stronger cut . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine called the song as a " soundtrack gem " . Author J. Randy Taraborrelli in his biography of Madonna called the song a beautiful one . According to him , " it sounds like a flick theme too , equipped with smart chords and big emotion . It is reminiscent of another movie theme of Madonna 's , ' Live to Tell ' ( 1986 ) . " Music critique Peter Buckley noted that the song was atmospheric and one of Madonna 's best works , showing her ability to stay in touch with and adapt to musical developments .
" I 'll Remember " earned nominations for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or for Television at the 37th Grammy Awards and Best Original Song at the 52nd Golden Globe Awards . Robbie Daw from Idolator listed it as one of " Madonna ’ s 10 Best Songs That Radio Forgot " , saying that " Madge has lost many friends and lovers over the years , but here she turns lemons into lemonade by cherishing the good times and learning from ' the way that you changed me ' . " Journalist Matthew Rettenmund listed the " Guerilla Beach " remix of the song at number nine on his list of " The 25 Best Madonna Remixes " , describing it as " spacey " and believing it to be " markedly superior to the lovely but unassuming original " . In 2014 , Graham Greymore from Queerty listed " I 'll Remember " as one of the " 12 Most Underrated Madonna Songs Of All Time " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , the song debuted at number 35 on the Hot 100 chart for the Billboard issue dated April 2 , 1994 . After seven weeks , the song reached a peak of number two on the chart . It stayed there for four weeks , being blocked from the top spot by All @-@ 4 @-@ One 's " I Swear " . The song became the fifth single by Madonna to peak at the number two position and tied her with Elvis Presley for the most number two songs on the Hot 100 . However , this record was broken by Madonna in 1998 , when her single " Frozen " peaked at two . The song also topped the Adult Contemporary chart for four consecutive weeks , becoming Madonna 's fourth number @-@ one for this chart following " Live to Tell " , " La Isla Bonita " , and " Cherish " . The single spent a total of 26 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on June 14 , 1994 . It was one of the best @-@ selling singles of 1994 , having sold 500 @,@ 000 copies within that year .
In Canada , the song debuted at 52 on the Canadian RPM Singles Chart . After seven weeks it reached the top of the chart for the RPM issue dated May 16 , 1994 . The song was present on the chart for 24 weeks , and was ranked at number two on the Year @-@ end RPM chart for 1994 . In the United Kingdom it debuted at ten on the chart and reached seven the next week . It was present for a total of eight weeks on the chart . According to the Official Charts Company , " I 'll Remember " has sold 100 @,@ 090 copies in the United Kingdom , as of August 2008 . Across Europe , the song became a top 40 hit in Belgium , France , Netherlands and Switzerland . The song reached the top @-@ ten in Australia , Ireland and Sweden and peaked the chart in Italy . It peaked just outside the top 40 in Germany .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Alek Keshishian , who had previously directed the live performance versions of " Like a Virgin " ( 1984 ) and " Holiday " ( 1983 ) from the Truth or Dare documentary and also the music video of her single " This Used to Be My Playground " ( 1992 ) . The video featured production credits by Diane Greenwalt , editing by Patrick Sheffield and photography by Stephen Ramsey . According to Jerry Ryan from creative production team Steele ,
" I 'll Remember " had multiple projection screen fills and classic theatre atmospherics ( like smoke haze and the flickering light beams from a projection booth ) added . The theatre walls and ceiling had digital enhancements . A sound booth was completely created from scratch to accompany a crane shot down to Madonna . All the movie inserts were treated to appear to be within the theater and all Madonna 's close ups and medium shots were individually treated for facial beauty enhancements .
The video features Madonna in a stylized recording studio singing the song with back up singers . The video was compared to the music video of Madonna 's single " Rain " ( 1993 ) . Her look in the video , consists of blue @-@ black icy hair , bright blue eyes and a long dark dress with a beaded necklace around her neck . Madonna 's face was mainly shot above her head , with her face looking up just ahead of the camera focus . Sometimes she looks to a video screen behind her which plays the scenes from the film , as if to take inspiration for her singing . Other times she is accompanied by her back @-@ up singers , mainly during the chorus , and sometimes she sings alone . In front of the studio , the producers are shown deciding which part of the song should be put in lower bass .
The music video ends with a shot of Madonna watching herself recording the song . In this last scene she is dressed in a long black coat and holds a cigarette in her hand . Scholars noted that this last shot clearly illustrates the gender paradox of Madonna , because as she watches her female form singing the song , she herself is dressed in an androgynous way , holding a cigarette , which is associated as one of the symbolic forms of male supremacy . Feminist writer Martha Leslie Allen lauded the video , as well as Madonna , " for breaking free of the conventional portrayal of women yet again , and displaying their duality . "
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – writer , vocals
Patrick Leonard – co @-@ writer , drums , keyboard , production
Richard Page – co @-@ writer
Dean Parks – acoustic guitar
Suzie Katayama – cello
Credits adapted from " I 'll Remember " 7 " vinyl single liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Labyrinth ( film ) =
Labyrinth is a 1986 British @-@ American adventure musical fantasy film directed by Jim Henson , executive produced by George Lucas , and based upon conceptual designs by Brian Froud . The film revolves around 16 @-@ year @-@ old Sarah 's ( Jennifer Connelly ) quest to reach the center of an enormous otherworldly maze to rescue her infant brother Toby , who has been kidnapped by Jareth , the Goblin King ( David Bowie ) . With the exception of Bowie and Connelly , most of the significant characters in the film are played by puppets produced by Jim Henson 's Creature Shop .
The film started as a collaboration between Henson and Froud , with ideas for the film first being discussed between them following a screening of their previous collaboration , The Dark Crystal . Terry Jones of Monty Python wrote the first draft of the film 's script early in 1984 , drawing on Froud 's sketches for inspiration . Various other script @-@ writers , including Laura Phillips ( who had previously written several episodes of Fraggle Rock ) , Lucas , Dennis Lee , and Elaine May , subsequently re @-@ wrote and made additions to the screenplay , although Jones received the film 's sole screen @-@ writing credit . Labyrinth was shot on location in Upper Nyack , Piermont and Haverstraw in New York , and at Elstree Studios and West Wycombe Park in the United Kingdom .
The New York Times reported that Labyrinth had a budget of $ 25 million . The film was a box office disappointment and only grossed $ 12 @.@ 7 million during its U.S. theatrical run . The commercial failure of the film demoralized Henson to the extent that his son Brian remembered the time of the film 's release as one of the most difficult periods of his father 's career . It would be the last feature film directed by Henson before his death in 1990 .
Although it was met with a mixed critical response upon its original release , Labyrinth has since gained a large cult following . A four @-@ volume manga sequel to the film , Return to Labyrinth , was published by Tokyopop between 2006 @-@ 10 . In 2012 , Archaia Studios Press announced they were developing a graphic novel prequel to the film . In January 2016 , it was announced that a reboot was in development , which was later denied by screenwriter Nicole Perlman .
= = Plot = =
Sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Sarah Williams rehearses a play in the park with her dog Merlin and becomes distracted by a line she is unable to remember while being watched by a barn owl . Realizing she is late to babysit her baby brother Toby , she rushes home and is confronted by her stepmother Irene before she and her father Robert leave for dinner . Sarah realizes that Toby is in possession of her treasured teddy bear Lancelot . Frustrated by this and his constant crying , Sarah rashly wishes Toby be taken away by the Goblin King Jareth , a character in the play she is rehearsing . She is shocked when Toby disappears and the Goblin King confronts her and transports her to his kingdom . He refuses to return the baby , but gives Sarah thirteen hours to solve his Labyrinth and find him before Toby is turned into a goblin . Sarah meets the dwarvish Hoggle , who aids her in entering the Labyrinth , but a talking worm inadvertently sends her in the wrong direction .
Sarah ends up in an oubliette where she reunites with Hoggle . After they confront Jareth and escape one of his traps , the two encounter a large beast named Ludo . Hoggle flees while Sarah befriends Ludo . After another riddle , she loses him in a forest . Hoggle encounters Jareth , who gives him a peach and instructs him to give it to Sarah , calling his loyalty into question as he was supposed to lead her out of the maze . Sarah is assaulted by a group of creatures with detachable body parts who try to remove her head , but Hoggle comes to her aid . She kisses him , and Jareth magically sends them to the Bog of Eternal Stench as punishment , where they reunite with Ludo . Sarah , Hoggle , and Ludo meet the guard of a bridge out of the swamp named Sir Didymus , an anthropomorphic fox and his Old English Sheepdog steed named Ambrosius ( who bears a resemblance to Merlin ) . After Ludo saves Sarah from falling into the swamp , Didymus joins the group . After the group gets hungry , Hoggle gives Sarah the peach and runs away as it begins to erase her memories . She has a dream where Jareth comes to her at a masquerade ball , proclaiming his love for her , but she resists and escapes , falling into a junkyard . After an old hag named Junk Lady fails to brainwash her and her memory is jogged , she is rescued by the others , and they are right outside Goblin City near Jareth 's castle . Confronted by the gate guard , Hoggle comes to the rescue . Despite his feeling unworthy of forgiveness , Sarah and the others welcome him back , and they enter the city together .
Jareth is alerted to their presence and sends his goblin army to stop them , but Ludo 's powers to summon rocks helps to turn the tide of the comical battle , and they enter the castle . Sarah insists she must face Jareth alone and promises to call the others if needed . In a room modeled after an Escher staircase , she confronts Jareth while trying to retrieve Toby . She tries to recite the line from her play , that has told her adventure to that point , but cannot remember the last line . As Jareth begs her to obey him and he will love her , she remembers the line , " You have no power over me ! " Defeated at the last second , Jareth returns Sarah and Toby to the real world safely .
Realizing how important Toby is to her , she gives him Lancelot and returns to her room . While there , she sees her friends in the mirror and realizes even though she is growing up , she still needs them in her life every now and again . In an instant , all of the major characters from the Labyrinth appear in her room for a raucous celebration , while Jareth in his owl form watches from outside and then flies away into the night .
= = Cast = =
Jennifer Connelly as Sarah Williams , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old girl who journeys through the Labyrinth to find her baby brother .
David Bowie as Jareth the Goblin King , the ruler of the Goblins . He brings Toby to his Labyrinth on Sarah 's wish , falls in love with her , and offers to make her his consort .
Toby Froud as Toby Williams . Sarah 's baby brother .
Christopher Malcolm as Robert , Sarah and Toby 's father .
Shelley Thompson as Karen , Toby 's mother and Sarah 's stepmother .
Natalie Finland as the Labyrinth Fairies , a bunch of deceitful barefoot fairies that reside in the Labyrinth .
= = = Voices = = =
Brian Henson as the voice of Hoggle , a dwarf in Jareth 's employ who befriends Sarah .
Artist Ron Mueck as the voice of Ludo , a kind @-@ hearted beast .
David Shaughnessy as the voice of Sir Didymus , a brave fox knight .
David Shaughnessy also voices The Wiseman 's Bird Hat , a bird @-@ headed hat worn by the Wiseman .
Percy Edwards as the voice of Ambrosius , an Old English Sheepdog .
Timothy Bateson as the voice of The Worm
Michael Hordern as the voice of The Wiseman , an aged human @-@ like individual .
Denise Bryer as the voice of The Junk Lady , a hag inhabitant of Junk City
David Healy as the voice of the Right Door Knocker , a component of the door that is between the hedgemaze and the forest .
Robert Beatty as the voice of the Left Door Knocker , a component of the door that is between the hedgemaze and the forest .
Kevin Clash as the voice of Firey # 1 , the apparent leader of the Fireys .
Charles Augins as the voice of Firey # 2 , the first of the Fireys to have their head removed .
Danny John @-@ Jules as the voice of Firey # 3 , the only Firey with a moustache .
Danny John @-@ Jules also voices Firey # 4
Richard Bodkin as the voice of Firey # 5 , the first Firey to make his head jump up and down .
Four Guards voiced by Anthony Jackson , Douglas Blackwell , David Shaughnessy , and Timothy Bateson
Goblins voiced by Michael Attwell , Sean Barrett , Timothy Bateson , Douglas Blackwell , John Bluthal , Brian Henson , Anthony Jackson , Peter Marinker , Ron Mueck , Kerry Shale , and David Shaughnessy .
= = = Puppeteers = = =
Shari Weiser as Hoggle ( in @-@ suit performer )
Brian Henson as Hoggle ( face performance )
Ron Mueck and Rob Mills as Ludo
Dave Goelz and David Barclay as Sir Didymus
Steve Whitmire and Kevin Clash as Ambrosius
Karen Prell as The Worm
Frank Oz as The Wiseman
Dave Goelz as The Wiseman 's Bird Hat
Karen Prell as The Junk Lady
Steve Whitmire , Kevin Clash , Anthony Asbury , and Dave Goelz as The Four Guards
Kevin Clash , David Barclay , and Toby Philpott as Firey # 1
Karen Prell , Ron Mueck , and Ian Thom as Firey # 2
Dave Goelz , Rob Mills , and Sherry Ammott as Firey # 3
Steve Whitmire , Cheryl Henson , and Kevin Bradshaw as Firey 4
Anthony Asbury , Alistair Fullarton , and Rollie Krewson as Firey 5
Anthony Asbury as Right Door Knocker
Dave Goelz as Left Door Knocker
Juggler Michael Moschen performed Jareth 's elaborate crystal @-@ ball contact juggling manipulations .
Goblin Corps performed by Marc Antona , Kenny Baker , Michael Henbury Ballan , Danny Blackner , Peter Burroughs , Toby Clark , Tessa Crockett , Warwick Davis , Malcolm Dixon , Anthony Georghiou , Paul Grant , Andrew Herd , Richard Jones , John Key , Mark Lisle , Peter Mandell , Jack Purvis , Katie Purvis , Nicholas Read , Linda Spriggs , Penny Stead , and Albert Wilkinson .
Goblins performed by Don Austen , Michael Bayliss , Martin Bridle , Fiona Beynor Brown , Simon Buckley , David Bulbeck , Sue Dacre , Geoff Felix , Trevor Freeborn , Christine Glanville , David Greenaway , Brian Henson , Jim Henson , Brian James , Jan King , Ronnie Le Drew , Terry Lee , Christopher Leith , Kathryn Mullen , Angie Passmore , Michael Petersen , Nigel Plaskitt , Judy Preece , Michael Quinn , Gillie Robic , David Rudman , David Showler , Robin Stevens , Ian Tregonning , Mary Turner , Robert Tygner , Mak Wilson , and Francis Wright .
= = Influences = =
Richard Corliss noted that the film appeared to have been influenced by The Wizard of Oz and the works of Maurice Sendak , writing that " Labyrinth lures a modern Dorothy Gale out of the drab Kansas of real life into a land where the wild things are . " Nina Darnton wrote that the plot of Labyrinth " is very similar to Outside Over There by Mr. Sendak , in which 9 @-@ year @-@ old Ida 's baby sister is stolen by the goblins . " Copies of Outside Over There and Where the Wild Things Are are shown briefly in Sarah 's room at the start of the film , along with copies of Alice in Wonderland , The Wizard of Oz , a book by Hans Christian Andersen , Grimms ' Fairy Tales and Walt Disney 's Snow White . The film also features an end credit stating that " Jim Henson acknowledges his debt to the works of Maurice Sendak " .
The film 's concept designer Brian Froud has stated that the character of Jareth was influenced by a diverse range of literary sources . In his afterword to The Goblins of Labyrinth , Froud wrote that Jareth references " the romantic figures of Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights and a brooding Rochester from Jane Eyre " and the Scarlet Pimpernel . Bowie 's costumes were intentionally eclectic , drawing on the image of Marlon Brando 's leather jacket from The Wild One as well as that of a knight " with the worms of death eating through his armour " from the fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm .
The dialogue starting with phrase , " you remind me of the babe " that occurs between Jareth and the goblins , in the Magic Dance sequence in the film , is a direct reference to an exchange between Cary Grant and Shirley Temple in the 1947 film The Bachelor and the Bobby @-@ Soxer .
= = Production = =
= = = Origins and script = = =
According to the film 's conceptual designer Brian Froud , Labyrinth was first discussed between himself and director Jim Henson . Both agreed to work on another project together , and Froud suggested that the film should feature goblins . On the same journey , Froud " pictured a baby surrounded by goblins " and this strong visual image – along with Froud 's insight that goblins traditionally steal babies – provided the basis for the film 's plot .
Discussing the film 's origins , Henson explained that he and Froud " wanted to do a lighter weight picture , with more of a sense of comedy since Dark Crystal got kind of heavy – heavier than we had intended . Now I wanted to do a film with the characters having more personality , and interacting more . "
Labyrinth was being seriously discussed as early as March 1983 , when Henson held a meeting with Froud and children 's author Dennis Lee . Lee was tasked with writing a novella on which a script could be based , submitting it at the end of 1983 . Henson approached Terry Jones to write the film 's script as " his daughter Lisa had just read Erik the Viking and suggested that he try me as screen @-@ writer . " Jones was given Dennis Lee 's novella to use as a basis for his script , but later told Empire that Lee had produced an unfinished " poetic novella " that he " didn 't really get on with . " In light of this , Jones " discarded it and sat down with Brian [ Froud ] ' s drawings and sifted through them and found the ones that I really liked , and started creating the story from them . "
While Jones is credited with writing the screenplay , the shooting script was actually a collaborative effort that featured contributions from Henson , George Lucas , Laura Phillips , and Elaine May . Jones himself has said that the finished film differs greatly from his original vision . According to Jones , " I didn 't feel that it was very much mine . I always felt it fell between two stories , Jim wanted it to be one thing and I wanted it to be about something else . " Jones has said his version of the script was " about the world , and about people who are more interested in manipulating the world than actually baring themselves at all . " In Jones ' original script , Jareth merely seems " all powerful to begin with " and is actually using the Labyrinth to " keep people from getting to his heart . "
Jones has said that Bowie 's involvement in the project had a significant impact on the direction taken with the film . Jones had originally intended for the audience not to see the center of the Labyrinth prior to Sarah 's reaching it , as he felt that doing so robbed the film of a significant ' hook . ' With the thought of Bowie starring in the film in mind , Henson decided he wanted Jareth to sing and appear throughout the film , something Jones considered to be the " wrong " decision . Despite his misgivings , Jones re @-@ wrote the script to allow for songs to be performed throughout the film . This draft of the script " went away for about a year , " during which time it was re @-@ drafted first by Laura Phillips and subsequently by George Lucas .
An early draft of the script attributed to Jones and Phillips is markedly different from the finished film . The early script has Jareth enter Sarah 's house in the guise of Robin Zakar , the author of a play she is due to perform in . Sarah does not wish for her brother to be taken away by the goblins , and Jareth snatches him away against her will . Jareth is overtly villainous in this draft of the script , and during his final confrontation with Sarah he tells her he would " much rather have a Queen " than " a little goblin prince . " The early script ends with Sarah kicking Jareth in disgust , her blows causing him to transform into a powerless , sniveling goblin . In the extensive junkyard scene , Jareth operates the Junk Lady as a puppet , whereas in the film she is autonomous . There is actually a pub or bar in the Labyrinth where the Man with Hat and Hoggle gather , and the river Lethe in Greek myth is mentioned . As well , the ballroom scene features extensive dialogue between Jareth and Sarah , whereas in the film there is none ( although there is in the novelization by A.C.H Smith ) , and the goings @-@ on with the dancers in the ballroom are more overtly sexualized .
The re @-@ drafted script was sent to Bowie , who found that it lacked humor and considered withdrawing his involvement
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in the project as a result . To ensure Bowie 's involvement , Henson asked Jones to " do a bit more " to the script in order to make it more humorous . Elaine May met with Henson several months prior to the start of filming in April 1985 , and was asked to polish the script . May 's changes " humanized the characters " and pleased Henson to the extent that they were incorporated into the film 's shooting script .
At least twenty @-@ five treatments and scripts were drafted for Labyrinth between 1983 – 85 , and the film 's shooting script was only ready shortly before filming began .
= = = Casting = = =
The protagonist of the film was , at different stages of its development , going to be a King whose baby had been put under an enchantment , a princess from a fantasy world and a young girl from Victorian England . In order to make the film more commercial , it was ultimately decided that the film 's lead would be a teenage girl from contemporary America . Henson noted that he wished to " make the idea of taking responsibility for one 's life – which is one of the neat realizations a teenager experiences – a central thought of the film . "
Auditions for the lead role of Sarah began in England in April 1984 . Helena Bonham Carter auditioned for the role , but it was ultimately decided it would be better to cast an American actress . Monthly auditions were held in the U.S. until January 1985 , and Jane Krakowski , Yasmine Bleeth , Sarah Jessica Parker , Marisa Tomei , Laura Dern , Ally Sheedy , Maddie Corman , and Mia Sara all auditioned for the role . Of these , Krakowski , Sheedy and Corman were considered to be the top candidates . 14 @-@ year @-@ old actress Jennifer Connelly was ultimately chosen to play Sarah after her audition on January 29 , 1985 , " won Jim [ Henson ] over " and led him to cast her within a week . According to Henson , Connelly was chosen as she " could act that kind of dawn @-@ twilight time between childhood and womanhood . " Connelly moved to England in February 1985 in advance of the film 's rehearsals , which began in March . Discussing her understanding of her role with Elle , Connelly said that the film is about " a young girl growing out of her childhood , who is just now becoming aware of the responsibilities that come with growing up . "
The character of Jareth also underwent some significant developments during the early stages of pre @-@ production . According to Henson he was originally meant to be another puppet creature in the same vein as his goblin subjects . Henson eventually decided he wanted a big , charismatic star to play the Goblin King , and decided to pursue a musician for the role . Sting , Prince , Mick Jagger , and Michael Jackson were considered for the part ; however , it was ultimately decided that David Bowie would be the most suitable choice .
" I wanted to put two characters of flesh and bone in the middle of all these artificial creatures , " Henson explained , " and David Bowie embodies a certain maturity , with his sexuality , his disturbing aspect , all sorts of things that characterize the adult world . " Henson met David Bowie in the summer of 1983 to seek his involvement , as Bowie was in the U.S. for his Serious Moonlight Tour at the time . Henson continued to pursue Bowie for the role of Jareth , and sent him each revised draft of the film 's script for his comments . During a meeting that took place on June 18 , 1984 , Henson showed Bowie The Dark Crystal and a selection of Brian Froud 's concept drawings to pique his interest in the project . Bowie formally agreed to take part on February 15 , 1985 , several months before filming began . Discussing why he chose to be involved in the film , Bowie explained that " I 'd always wanted to be involved in the music @-@ writing aspect of a movie that would appeal to children of all ages , as well as everyone else , and I must say that Jim gave me a completely free hand with it . The script itself was terribly amusing without being vicious or spiteful or bloody , and it had a lot more heart in it than many other special effects movies . So I was pretty hooked from the beginning . "
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on April 15 , 1985 , at Elstree Studios .
The team that worked on Labyrinth was largely assembled from talent who had been involved in various other projects with the Jim Henson Company . Veteran performers Frank Oz and Dave Goelz operated various puppets in the film , as did Karen Prell , Ron Mueck and Rob Mills who had all worked with Henson on Fraggle Rock . Kevin Clash , a crew member on Sesame Street best known for voicing the character Elmo , worked on the film . Members of Henson 's family also worked on the production , including son Brian and daughter Cheryl . Newcomers working on the production included puppeteer Anthony Asbury , who had previously worked on the satirical puppet show Spitting Image .
Labyrinth took five months to film , and was a complicated shoot due to the myriad of puppets and animatronic creatures involved . In the making @-@ of documentary Inside the Labyrinth , Henson stated that although Jim Henson 's Creature Shop had been building the puppets and characters required for around a year and a half prior to shooting , " everything came together in the last couple weeks . " Henson noted that " even if you have the characters together , the puppeteers start working with them , they find problems or they try to figure out what they 're going to do with these characters . "
Although each of the film 's key puppets required a small team of puppeteers to operate it , the most complex puppet of the production was Hoggle . Shari Weiser was inside the costume , while Hoggle 's face was radio @-@ controlled by Brian Henson and three other operators . Speaking in the Inside the Labyrinth documentary , Brian Henson explained that Weiser " does all the body movement and her head is inside the head . However , the jaw is not connected to her jaw . Nothing that the face is doing has any connection with what she 's doing with her face . The other four members of the crew are all radio crew , myself included . " Speaking of the challenges involved with performing Hoggle , Brian Henson said that " five performers trying to get one character out of one puppet was a very tough thing . Basically what it takes is a lot of rehearsing and getting to know each other . "
At the early stages of filming , stars Connelly and Bowie found it difficult to interact naturally with the puppets they shared most of their scenes with . Bowie told Movieline " I had some initial problems working with Hoggle and the rest because , for one thing , what they say doesn 't come from their mouths , but from the side of the set , or from behind you . " Connelly remarked that " it was a bit strange [ working almost exclusively with puppets in the film ] , but I think both Dave [ Bowie ] and I got over that and just took it as a challenge to work with these puppets . And by the end of the film , it wasn 't a challenge anymore . They were there , and they were their characters . "
The film required large and ambitious sets to be constructed , from the Shaft of Hands to the rambling , distorted Goblin City where the film 's climactic battle takes place . The Shaft of Hands sequence was filmed on a rig that was roughly forty feet high , and required nearly a hundred performers to operate the grey , scaly hands integral to the scene . Connelly was strapped into a harness when shooting the scene , and would spend time between takes suspended mid @-@ way up the shaft .
The set of the Goblin City was built on Stage 6 at Thorn EMI Elstree Studios in London , and required the largest panoramic back @-@ cloth ever made . According to Production Designer Elliot Scott , the biggest challenge he faced was building the forest Sarah and her party pass through on their way to Jareth 's Castle . The film 's production notes state that " the entire forest required 120 truckloads of tree branches , 1 @,@ 200 turfs of grass , 850 pounds of dried leaves , 133 bags of lichen , and 35 bundles of mossy old man 's beard . "
While most filming was conducted at Elstree Studios , a small amount of location shooting was carried out in England and the U.S. The park seen at the start of the film is West Wycombe Park in Buckinghamshire , England . The scenes of Sarah running back home were filmed in various towns in New York , namely Upper Nyack , Piermont and Haverstraw .
Shooting wrapped on September 8 , 1985 .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Most of the visual effects on Labyrinth were achieved in @-@ camera , with several notable exceptions . The most prominent of these post @-@ production effects was the computer @-@ generated owl that appears at the opening of the film . The sequence was created by animators Larry Yaeger and Bill Kroyer , and marked the first use of a realistic CGI animal in a film .
The scene where Sarah encounters the Fire Gang had to be altered in post @-@ production as it had been filmed against black velvet cloth , and a new forest background was added . Jim Henson was unhappy with the compositing of the finished scene , although he considered the puppetry featured in it worthy of inclusion .
Henson received help editing the film from executive producer George Lucas . According to Henson , " When we hit the editing , I did the first cut , and then George was heavily involved on bringing it to the final cut . After that , I took it over again and did the next few months of post @-@ production and audio . " Henson went on to explain that " When you edit a film with somebody else you have to compromise . I always want to go one way , and George goes another way , but we each took turns trading off , giving and taking . George tends to be very action @-@ oriented and he cuts dialogue quite tight ; I tend to cut looser , and go for more lyrical pauses , which can slow the story . So , I loosen up his tightness , and he tightens my looseness . "
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack album features Trevor Jones ' score , which is split into six tracks for the soundtrack : " Into the Labyrinth " , " Sarah " , " Hallucination " , " The Goblin Battle " , " Thirteen O 'Clock " and " Home at Last " .
Bowie recorded five songs for the film : " Underground " , " Magic Dance " , " Chilly Down " , " As the World Falls Down " and " Within You " . " Underground " features on the soundtrack twice , first in an edited version that was played over the film 's opening sequence and secondly in full . " Underground " was released in various territories as a single , and in certain markets was also released in an instrumental version and an extended dance mix . " Magic Dance " was released as a 12 " single in the U.S. " As the World Falls Down " was initially slated for release as a follow @-@ up single to " Underground " at Christmas in 1986 , but this plan did not materialize . The only song Bowie did not perform lead vocal on is " Chilly Down " , which was performed by Charles Augins , Richard Bodkin , Kevin Clash , and Danny John @-@ Jules , the actors who voiced the ' Firey ' creatures in the film .
Steve Barron produced promotional music videos for " Underground " and " As the World Falls Down " . The music video for " Underground " features Bowie as a nightclub singer who stumbles upon the world of the Labyrinth , encountering many of the creatures seen in the film . The clip for " As the World Falls Down " integrates clips from the film , using them alongside black @-@ and @-@ white shots of Bowie performing the song in an elegant room .
= = Release = =
= = = Promotion = = =
The production of Labyrinth was covered in multiple high @-@ profile magazines and newspapers , in anticipation of its release , with articles appearing in The New York Times , Time and Starlog magazine . An article that appeared in The New York Times shortly after filming wrapped in September 1985 focused heavily on the film 's large scale , emphasizing the size of the production and selling Labyrinth as a more " accessible " film than The Dark Crystal due to the casting of live actors in its key roles . An hour @-@ long making @-@ of documentary that covered the filming of Labyrinth and included interviews with the key figures involved in its production was broadcast on television as Inside the Labyrinth .
Labyrinth was featured in music trade papers such as Billboard due to David Bowie 's soundtrack for the film . Bowie was not heavily involved in promoting the film , but Jim Henson was nonetheless grateful that he produced a music video to accompany the song " Underground " from the soundtrack , saying , " I think it 's the best thing he could have done for the film . " Ted Coconis produced a one @-@ sheet poster for the film 's North American release .
A range of merchandise was produced to accompany the film 's release , including plush toys of Sir Didymus and Ludo , a board game , computer game and multiple jigsaw puzzles . An exhibition of the film 's characters and sets toured across shopping malls in various cities in the U.S , including New York , Dallas and Chicago . Labyrinth was featured in an exhibition titled ' Jim Henson 's Magic World ' that was shown at the Seibu Department Store in Tokyo in August 1986 .
= = = Theatrical release = = =
Labyrinth opened in America / Germany theaters on June 27 , 1986 . The film received a royal premiere on December 1 , 1986 in London , with the Prince and Princess of Wales in attendance . Jim Henson , Brian Henson , Brian Froud , Jennifer Connelly , and the animatronic creature Ludo were all present to support the film . The royal premiere brought the film a significant level of media coverage in the United Kingdom and an article that appeared in The Sun quoted the Princess of Wales as remarking , " Isn 't he wonderful ! " upon being introduced to Ludo .
The film was rolled out in other European countries largely between December 1986 and February 1987 , and premiered in France as Labyrinthe on December 2 and in West Germany as Die Reise ins Labyrinth ( The Journey into the Labyrinth ) on December 13 . The film was released in Denmark as Labyrinten til troldkongens slot ( The Labyrinth to the Troll King 's Castle ) on February 20 , 1987 , and saw its last theatrical release in Hungary under the tile Fantasztikus labirintus ( Fantastic Labyrinth ) when it premiered there on July 7 , 1988 .
The movie was released in Brazil on December 25 , 1986 where it was named " Labirinto - A Magia do Tempo " ( Labyrinth - The Magic of Time ) .
In 2012 , the film was digitally remastered and re @-@ released at The Astor Theatre in Melbourne , Australia .
= = = Home media = = =
Labyrinth was first released on home video in 1987 by Embassy Home Entertainment in the US and by Channel 5 Video Distribution in the UK . Sony re @-@ issued the film on video in 1999 in the US under the name of its subsidiary company , Columbia @-@ TriStar . Labyrinth was re @-@ issued on VHS in the UK the same year , with Inside the Labyrinth included as a special feature .
This film was released on VHS and DVD by Image Entertainment on April 10 , 2002 .
The film made its DVD premiere in 1999 in the US , and has since been re @-@ released on DVD in 2003 and 2007 . All DVD releases of the film feature the Inside the Labyrinth documentary as an extra . The 2003 re @-@ release was described as a collector 's edition , and featured a set of exclusive collectors cards that featured concept art by Brian Froud . The 2007 release was promoted an Anniversary Edition , and featured a commentary by Brian Froud and two newly produced making @-@ of documentaries : " Journey Through the Labyrinth : Kingdom of Characters " and " Journey Through the Labyrinth : The Quest for Goblin City " which featured interviews with producer George Lucas , choreographer Gates McFadden ( listed as Cheryl McFadden ) and Brian Henson .
The film was released on Blu @-@ ray in 2009 , in a package that replicated the extras featured on the 2007 Anniversary Edition DVD . The Blu @-@ ray release featured one new special feature , a picture @-@ in @-@ picture track that lasts the length of the film and features interviews with the crew and several minor cast members including Warwick Davis .
= = Reaction = =
= = = Box office = = =
Labyrinth opened at number eight in the U.S. box office charts with $ 3 @,@ 549 @,@ 243 from 1 @,@ 141 theaters , which placed it behind The Karate Kid Part II , Back to School , Legal Eagles , Ruthless People , Running Scared , Top Gun , and Ferris Bueller 's Day Off . In its next weekend at the box office , the film dropped to number 13 in the charts , only earning $ 1 @,@ 836 @,@ 177 . By the end of its run in U.S cinemas the film had grossed $ 12 @,@ 729 @,@ 917 , just over half of its $ 25 million budget .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film averages a 66 % positive rating ; the general consensus states : " While it 's arguably more interesting on a visual level , Labyrinth provides further proof of director Jim Henson 's boundless imagination . " On Metacritic , which uses a " weighted average " of all the critics ' scores , Labyrinth scores 50 out of 100 .
While acknowledging that Labyrinth was made with " infinite care and pains , " Roger Ebert gave the film two stars out of four as he felt that the film " never really comes alive . " Ebert said that as the film was set in an " arbitrary world " none of the events in it had any consequences , robbing the film of any dramatic tension . Gene Siskel 's review of Labyrinth for the Chicago Tribune was highly negative , and he referred to it as an " awful " film with a " pathetic story , " " much too complicated plot " and a " visually ugly style . " Siskel objected to the film 's " violent " plot , writing that " the sight of a baby in peril is one of sleaziest gimmicks a film can employ to gain our attention , but Henson does it . "
Other critics were more positive . Kathryn Buxton found that it had " excitement and thrills enough for audiences of all ages as well as a fun and sometimes slightly naughty sense of humor . " Bruce Bailey admired the film 's script , stating that " Terry Jones has drawn on his dry wit and bizarre imagination and come up with a script that transforms these essentially familiar elements and plot structures into something that fairly throbs with new life . " Bailey was also impressed by the film 's depth , writing that " adults will have the additional advantage of appreciating the story as a coming @-@ of @-@ age parable . "
Several critics noted the film 's subtext , and found it successful to varying degrees . Saw Tek Meng acknowledged that " Sarah 's experiences in the labyrinth are symbolic of her transition from child to woman " but ultimately found the film " too linear " for its latent themes to come through . Nina Darnton compared the film 's tone to the writings of E.T.A. Hoffman , stating that Hoffman 's The Nutcracker " is also about the voyage to womanhood , including the hint of sexual awakening , which Sarah experiences too in the presence of a goblin king . " Darton enjoyed the film and considered it to be more successful than Henson 's previous collaboration with Brian Froud , The Dark Crystal .
Connelly 's portrayal of Sarah polarized critics and received strong criticism from some reviewers . Critic Kirk Honeycutt referred to Connelly as " a bland and minimally talented young actress " Writing for The Miami News , Jon Marlowe stated that " Connelly is simply the wrong person for the right job . She has a squeaky voice that begins to grate on you ; when she cries , you can see the onions in her eyes . " Contrary to these negative views , an anonymous review in St. Petersburg Times praised her acting saying that " Connelly makes the entire experience seem real . She acts so naturally around the puppets that you begin to believe in their life @-@ like qualities . "
Bowie 's performance was variously lauded and derided . In his largely positive review of the film , Corliss praised him as " charismatic " referring to his character as a " Kabuki sorcerer who offers his ravishing young antagonist the gilded perks of adult servitude . " Bruce Bailey enjoyed Bowie 's performance , writing that " the casting of Bowie can 't be faulted on any count . He has just the right look for a creature who 's the object of both loathing and secret desire . " In a largely critical review , the St. Petersburg Times found that " Bowie forgoes acting , preferring to prance around his lair while staring solemnly into the camera . He 's not exactly wooden . Plastic might be a more accurate description . "
The film 's mixed reviews and poor box office takings demoralized Henson to the extent that his son Brian remembered the time of the film 's release as being " the closest I 've seen him to turning in on himself and getting quite depressed . " It was the last feature film directed by Henson before his death in 1990 .
Since Henson 's death , Labyrinth has been re @-@ evaluated by several notable critics . A review from 2000 in Empire magazine called the film " a fabulous fantasy " and wrote that " David Bowie cuts a spooky enough figure in that fright wig to fit right in with this extraordinary menagerie of Goth Muppets . And Jennifer Connelly , still in the flush of youth , makes for an appealingly together kind of heroine . " Writing for the Chicago Tribune in 2007 , Michael Wilmington described Labyrinth as " dazzling , " writing that it is " a real masterpiece of puppetry and special effects , an absolutely gorgeous children 's fantasy movie . " In 2010 Total Film ran a feature called ' Why We Love Labyrinth ' which described Labyrinth as a " hyper @-@ real , vibrant daydream , Labyrinth 's main strength lies in its fairytale roots , which give the fantastical story a platform from which to launch into some deliriously outlandish scenarios . " In their February 2012 issue , Empire featured a four @-@ page spread on Labyrinth as part of their Muppet Special .
= = = Legacy = = =
Despite its poor performance at the American box office , Labyrinth was a success on home video and later on DVD . David Bowie told an interviewer in 1992 that " every Christmas a new flock of children comes up to me and says , ' Oh ! you 're the one who 's in Labyrinth ! ' " In 1997 , Jennifer Connelly said " I still get recognized for Labyrinth by little girls in the weirdest places . I can 't believe they still recognize me from that movie . It 's on TV all the time and I guess I pretty much look the same . "
Labyrinth has become a cult film . Brian Henson remembered his father Jim Henson as being aware that Labyrinth and The Dark Crystal both had cult followings by the time of his death in 1990 , saying that " he was able to see all that and know that it was appreciated . " Academic Andrea Wright wrote that Labyrinth has managed to maintain audience popularity long after its initial release to a greater extent than The Dark Crystal . Since 1997 , an annual two @-@ day masquerade ball called the " The Labyrinth of Jareth " where revelers come dressed in costumes inspired by the film has been held in Hollywood . Labyrinth has a significant Internet fan following , and as of September 1 , 2015 , Fanfiction.net hosts over 8 @,@ 900 stories in its Labyrinth section .
The strong DVD sales of Labyrinth prompted rights @-@ holders the Jim Henson Company and Sony Pictures to look into making a sequel , and Curse of the Goblin King was briefly used as a place @-@ holder title . However , the decision was ultimately taken to avoid making a direct sequel , and instead produce a fantasy film with a similar atmosphere . Fantasy author Neil Gaiman and artist Dave McKean were called in to write and direct a film similar in spirit to Labyrinth , and MirrorMask was ultimately released in selected theaters in 2005 after premiering at the Sundance Film Festival . On January 22 , 2016 , Sony Pictures announced that a reboot is in development with Lisa Henson as producer and Nicole Perlman attached as the screenwriter . However , on January 25 , Perlman confirmed on Twitter that while she is working on a Labyrinth project with the Jim Henson Company , it is not a remake or reboot . Perlman also discussed the timing of the rumors in conjunction with David Bowie 's death and said , " Henson Co & I started talking in late 2014 , so the timing of these rumors is so upsetting . I would never seek to profit from Bowie 's death . " Although fandom has produced its own fan fiction sequels , some fans of the original film voiced opposition to a remake or sequel .
= = In other media = =
Since initial release , Labyrinth has been translated to other forms of media . The film was novelized by A. C. H. Smith as Labyrinth : A Novel Based On The Jim Henson Film , which is currently out of print . Along with The Dark Crystal , Archaia Publishing reprinted Labyrinth with illustrations in 2014 . A three @-@ issue comic book adaptation , which was first released in a single volume as Marvel Super Special # 40 , was published by Marvel Comics . Tokyopop , in partnership with The Jim Henson Company , published a manga @-@ style four @-@ volume comic called Return to Labyrinth , written by Jake T. Forbes and illustrated by Chris Lie , with cover art by Kouyu Shurei . Return to Labyrinth follows the adventures of Toby as a teenager , when he is tricked into returning to the Labyrinth by Jareth . The first volume was released August 8 , 2006 , with a second following on October 9 , 2007 and a third on May 1 , 2009 . In an afterword to the second volume , editor Tim Beedle announced that the series , originally planned as a trilogy , was being extended to include a fourth volume . The fourth and final volume of Return to Labyrinth was released on August 3 , 2010 .
The Cartoon Network series Secret Mountain Fort Awesome paid an episode @-@ long homage to the film , also entitled " Labyrinth " , with Tom Kenny in the role of the Goblin King .
Gravity Falls creator Alex Hirsch mentioned doing an episode , based on Labyrinth , but it was scrapped . However , he still added a reference to the Goblin King in an episode of " Mabel 's Guide . "
Archaia Entertainment , in collaboration with The Jim Henson Company , is developing a prequel comic book about the story of how Jareth became the Goblin King . Project editor Stephen Christy has stated the graphic novel will be a " tragic story . " While it is still in the early stages of development , there are plans for the novel to integrate music into the plot in some way . Prior to his death in early 2016 , David Bowie was approached by Archaia Comics in order to seek permission to use his likeness , and ascertain if he wished to have any involvement in the project . Brian Froud is serving as a creative consultant on the project . Froud will be producing covers for the series , as well as character designs . Archaia released a Labyrinth short story titled Hoggle and the Worm for Free Comic Book Day on May 5 , 2012 and another titled Sir Didymus ' Grand Day on May 4 , 2013 .
In addition to these print media tie @-@ ins , a Muppet Babies episode with a similar plot , " Nice to Have Gnome You " , incorporates clips from the film and features Miss Piggy going on a quest to recover her copy of Alice 's Adventures In Wonderland . The film was also adapted for the Commodore 64 and Apple II home computers in 1986 as " Labyrinth : The Computer Game " . Different versions were also released in Japan the following year for the Family Computer console and MSX computer , under the title Labyrinth : Maō no Meikyū .
= Red rail =
The red rail ( Aphanapteryx bonasia ) is an extinct species of flightless rail . It was endemic to the Mascarene island of Mauritius , east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean . It had a close relative on Rodrigues island , the likewise extinct Rodrigues rail ( Erythromachus leguati ) , with which it is sometimes considered congeneric . Its relationship with other rails is unclear . Rails often evolve flightlessness when adapting to isolated islands , free of mammalian predators .
The red rail was a little larger than a chicken and had reddish , hairlike plumage , with dark legs and a long , curved beak . The wings were small , and its legs were slender for a bird of its size . It was similar to the Rodrigues rail , but was larger , and had proportionally shorter wings . It has been compared to a kiwi or a limpkin in appearance and behaviour . It is believed to have fed on invertebrates , and snail shells have been found with damage matching an attack by its beak . Human hunters took advantage of an attraction red rails had to red objects by using coloured cloth to lure the birds so that they could be beaten with sticks .
Until subfossil remains were discovered in the 1860s , scientists only knew the red rail from 17th century descriptions and illustrations . These were thought to represent several different species , which resulted in a large number of invalid junior synonyms . It has been suggested that all late 17th @-@ century accounts of the dodo actually referred to the red rail , after the former had become extinct . The last mention of a red rail sighting is from 1693 , and it is thought to have gone extinct around 1700 , due to predation by humans and introduced species .
= = Taxonomy = =
The red rail was long known only from a few contemporary descriptions referring to red " hens " and names otherwise used for grouse or partridges in Europe , as well as the sketches of the travellers Pieter van den Broecke and Sir Thomas Herbert from 1617 and 1634 . These were thought to depict separate species of birds by some authors , but were regarded as one by Hugh Edwin Strickland in 1848 . Hermann Schlegel thought Broecke 's sketch depicted a smaller dodo species from Mauritius , and that the Herbert sketch showed a dodo from Rodrigues , and named them Didus broecki and Didus herberti in 1854 . Jacob Hoefnagel 's 1610 painting , the 1601 sketch from the Gelderland ship 's journal , and Peter Mundy 's 1638 description and sketch later surfaced , but there was still uncertainty about the identity of the birds depicted .
In the 1860s , subfossil foot bones and a lower jaw were found along with remains of other Mauritian animals in the Mare aux Songes swamp , and were identified as belonging to a rail by Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards in 1866 . He also determined they belonged to the birds in the 17th century descriptions and illustrations . In 1869 , Milne @-@ Edwards combined the genus name of Aphanapteryx imperialis , which had been coined the previous year by Georg Ritter von Frauenfeld for the Hoefnagel painting , with the older specific name broecki . Due to nomenclatural priority , the genus name was later combined with the oldest species name bonasia , which was coined by Edmond de Sélys Longchamps in 1848 . Sélys Longchamps had originally named the genus Apterornis , wherein he also included the Réunion solitaire and the Réunion swamphen , but the name was preoccupied by Aptornis , a bird described by Richard Owen in 1844 . Aphanapteryx means " invisible @-@ wing " , but the meaning of bonasia is unclear . Some early accounts refer to red rails by the vernacular names for the hazel grouse , Tetrastes bonasia , so the name evidently originates there . The name itself perhaps refers to bonasus , meaning " bull " in Latin , or bonum and assum , meaning " good roast " . It has also been suggested to be a Latin form of the French word bonasse , meaning simple @-@ minded or good @-@ natured .
More fossils were later found by Theodore Sauzier , who had been commissioned to explore the " historical souvenirs " of Mauritius in 1889 . Around the end of the 19th century , a complete specimen was found by the barber Louis Etienne Thirioux , who also found important dodo remains .
= = = Evolution = = =
Apart from being a close relative of the Rodrigues rail , the relationships of the red rail are uncertain . The two are commonly kept as separate genera , Aphanapteryx and Erythromachus , but have also been united as species of Aphanapteryx at times . They were first generically synonymised by Edward Newton and Albert Günther in 1879 , due to skeletal similarities . Based on geographic location and the morphology of the nasal bones , it has been suggested that they were related to the genera Gallirallus , Dryolimnas , Atlantisia , and Rallus . Rails have reached many oceanic archipelagos , which has frequently led to speciation and evolution of flightlessness . The fact that the red rail lost much of its feather structure indicates it was isolated for a long time . These rails may be of Asian origin , like many other Mascarene birds .
= = Description = =
From the subfossil bones , illustrations and descriptions , it is known that the red rail was a flightless bird , somewhat larger than a chicken . Subfossil specimens range in size , which may indicate sexual dimorphism , as is common among rails . Its exact length is unknown , but the pelvis was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) in length , the femur was 69 – 71 mm ( 2 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) , the tibia was 98 – 115 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 5 in ) , the tarsometatarsus was 79 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) , and the humerus was 60 – 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 6 in ) . Its plumage was reddish brown all over , and the feathers were fluffy and hairlike ; the tail was not visible in the living bird and the short wings likewise also nearly disappeared in the plumage . It had a long , slightly curved , brown bill , and some illustrations suggest it had a nape crest . It perhaps resembled a lightly built kiwi , and it has also been likened to a limpkin , both in appearance and behaviour .
The sternum and humerus were small , indicating that it had lost the power of flight . Its legs were long and slender for such a large bird , but the pelvis was compact and stout . It differed from the Rodrigues rail , its closest relative , in having a proportionately shorter humerus , a narrower and longer skull , and having shorter and higher nostrils . They differed considerably in plumage , based on early descriptions . The red rail was also larger , with somewhat smaller wings , but their leg proportions were similar . The pelvis and sacrum was also similar .
= = = Contemporary descriptions = = =
The English traveller Peter Mundy visited Mauritius in 1638 and described the red rail as follows :
A Mauritius henne , a Fowle as bigge as our English hennes , of a yellowish Wheaten Colour , of which we only got one . It hath a long , Crooked sharpe pointed bill . Feathered all over , butte on their wings they are soe Few and smalle that they cannot with them raise themselves From the ground . There is a pretty way of taking them with a red cap , but this of ours was taken with a stick . They bee very good Meat , and are also Cloven footed , soe that they can Neyther Fly nor Swymme .
The yellowish colouration instead of the red mentioned by other accounts has been used as argument for this referring to a distinct species , Kuina mundyi , but it has also been suggested it was due to the observed bird being a juvenile . Another English traveller , John Marshall , described the bird as follows in 1668 :
Here are also great plenty of Dodos or red hens which are larger a little than our English henns , have long beakes and no , or very little Tayles . Their fethers are like down , and their wings so little that it is not able to support their bodies ; but they have long leggs and will runn very fast , and that a man shall not catch them , they will turn so about in the trees . They are good meate when roasted , tasting something like a pig , and their skin like pig skin when roosted , being hard .
= = = Contemporary depictions = = =
Much information about the bird 's appearance comes from a painting attributed to Jacob Hoefnagel , based on a bird in the menagerie of Emperor Rudolph II around 1610 . It is the only coloured depiction of the species , showing the plumage as reddish brown , but it is unknown whether it was based on a stuffed or living specimen . The bird had most likely been brought alive to Europe , as it is unlikely that taxidermists were on board the visiting ships , and spirits were not yet used to preserve biological specimens . Most tropical specimens were preserved as dried heads and feet . It had probably lived in the emperor 's zoo for a while together with the other animals painted for the same series . The painting was discovered in the emperor 's collection and published in 1868 by Georg von Frauenfeld , along with a painting of a dodo from the same collection and artist . This specimen is thought to have been the only red rail that ever reached Europe .
The travel journal of the Dutch East India Company ship Gelderland ( 1601 – 1603 ) , rediscovered in the 1860s , contains good sketches of several now @-@ extinct Mauritian birds attributed to the artist Joris Laerle , including an unlabelled red rail . The bird appears to have been stunned or killed , and the sketch is the earliest record of the species , but was only rediscovered in the 1860s . The image was sketched with pencil and finished in ink , but details such as a deeper beak and the shoulder of the wing are only seen in the underlying sketch . In addition , there are three rather crude black @-@ and @-@ white sketches , but differences in them were enough for some authors to suggest that each image depicted a distinct species , leading to the creation of several scientific names which are now synonymous with Aphanapteryx bonasia .
There are also depictions of what appears to be a red rail in three of Roelant Savery 's paintings . In his famous Edwards ' Dodo painting from 1626 , a rail @-@ like bird is seen swallowing a frog behind the dodo , but this identification has been doubted , and it may instead show a bittern . A bird resembling a red rail is also figured in Jacopo Bassano 's painting Arca di Noè ( " Noah 's Ark " ) from c . 1570 . It has been pointed out that it is doubtful that a Mauritian bird could have reached Italy this early , but the attribution may be inaccurate , as Bassano had four artist sons who used the same name . A similar bird is also seen in Jan Brueghel the Elder 's Noah 's Ark painting .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Contemporary accounts are repetitive and do not shed much light on the bird 's life history . The shape of the beak indicates it could have captured reptiles and invertebrates . There were many endemic land snails on Mauritius , including the extinct Tropidophora carinata , and subfossil shells have been found with damage matching attacks from the beak of the red rail . No contemporary accounts were known to mention the red rail 's diet , until the 1660s report of Johannes Pretorius about his stay on Mauritius was published in 2015 , where he mentioned that the bird " scratches in the earth with its sharp claws like a fowl to find food such as worms under the fallen leaves . "
An anonymous Dutchman gave some description of behavioural traits in 1631 :
The soldiers [ red rails ] were very small in stature and slow of foot , so they could be caught easily by hand , their armour or gun was their mouth , which was sharp and pointed , and which they used instead of a dagger , were very naked and [ unrecognisable word ] , not hewing about like soldiers , run about in great disorder , now here , now there , not being true to each other at all .
While it was swift and could escape when chased , it was easily lured by waving a red cloth , which they approached to attack ; a similar behaviour was noted in its relative , the Rodrigues rail . The birds could then be picked up , and their cries when held would draw more individuals to the scene , as the birds , which had evolved in the absence of mammalian predators , were curious and not afraid of humans .
The English traveller Sir Thomas Herbert described its behaviour towards red cloth in 1634 :
The hens in eating taste like parched pigs , if you see a flocke of twelve or twenties , shew them a red cloth , and with their utmost silly fury they will altogether flie upon it , and if you strike downe one , the rest are as good as caught , not budging an iot till they be all destroyed .
Many other endemic species of Mauritius became extinct after the arrival of man heavily damaged the ecosystem , making it hard to reconstruct . Before humans arrived , Mauritius was entirely covered in forests , but very little remains today due to deforestation . The surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened . The red rail lived alongside other recently extinct Mauritian birds such as the dodo , the broad @-@ billed parrot , the Mascarene grey parakeet , the Mauritius blue pigeon , the Mauritius owl , the Mascarene coot , the Mauritian shelduck , the Mauritian duck , and the Mauritius night heron . Extinct Mauritian reptiles include the saddle @-@ backed Mauritius giant tortoise , the domed Mauritius giant tortoise , the Mauritian giant skink , and the Round Island burrowing boa . The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Mauritius and Réunion , but became extinct in both islands . Some plants , such as Casearia tinifolia and the palm orchid , have also become extinct .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Though Mauritius had previously been visited by Arab vessels in the Middle Ages and Portuguese ships between 1507 and 1513 , they did not settle on the island . The Dutch Empire acquired the island in 1598 , renaming it after Maurice of Nassau , and it was used from then on for the provisioning of trade vessels of the Dutch East India Company . To the sailors who visited Mauritius from 1598 and onwards , the fauna was mainly interesting from a culinary standpoint . The dodo was sometimes considered rather unpalatable , but the red rail was a very popular gamebird for the Dutch and French settlers . The reports dwell upon the varying ease with which the bird could be caught according to the hunting method and the fact that when roasted it was considered similar to pork .
Johann Christian Hoffmann , who was on Mauritius in the early 1670s , described a red rail hunt as follows :
... [ there is also ] a particular sort of bird known as toddaerschen which is the size of an ordinary hen . [ To catch them ] you take a small stick in the right hand and wrap the left hand in a red rag , showing this to the birds , which are generally in big flocks ; these stupid animals precipitate themselves almost without hesitation on the rag . I cannot truly say whether it is through hate or love of this colour . Once they are close enough , you can hit them with the stick , and then have only to pick them up . Once you have taken one and are holding it in your hand , all the others come running up as it [ sic ] to its aid and can be offered the same fate .
Hoffman 's account refers to the red rail by the German version of the Dutch name originally applied to the dodo , " dod @-@ aers " , and John Marshall used " red hen " interchangeably with " dodo " in 1668 . The ecologist Anthony Cheke has suggested that the name " dodo " was transferred to the red rail after the former had gone extinct , so that all post 1662 references to " dodos " refer to the rail instead . A 1681 account of a " dodo " , previously thought to have been the last , mentioned that the meat was " hard " , similar to the description of red hen meat . Errol Fuller has also cast the 1662 " dodo " sighting in doubt , as the reaction to distress cries of the birds mentioned matches what was described for the red rail . Milne @-@ Edwards suggested that early travellers may have confused young dodos with red rails .
230 years before Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution , the appearance of the red rail and the dodo led Peter Mundy to speculate :
Of these 2 sorts off fowl afforementionede , For oughtt wee yett know , Not any to bee Found out of this Iland , which lyeth aboutt 100 leagues From St. Lawrence . A question may bee demaunded how they should bee here and Not elcewhere , beeing soe Farer From other land and can Neither fly or swymme ; whither by Mixture off kindes producing straunge and Monstrous formes , or the Nature of the Climate , ayer and earth in alltring the First shapes in long tyme , or how .
= = = Extinction = = =
In addition to hunting pressure by humans , the fact that the red rail nested on the ground made it vulnerable to pigs and other introduced animals , which ate their eggs and young , probably contributing to its extinction . Feral cats , which are effective predators of ground @-@ inhabiting birds , increased in numbers around the 1680s . When François Leguat , who had become familiar with the Rodrigues rail in the preceding years , arrived on Mauritius in 1693 , he remarked that the red rail had already become rare . He was the last source to mention the bird , so it is assumed that it became extinct around 1700 .
= Samantha Smith =
Samantha Reed Smith ( June 29 , 1972 – August 25 , 1985 ) was an American schoolgirl , peace activist and child actress from Manchester , Maine , who became famous in the Cold War era United States and Soviet Union . In 1982 , Smith wrote a letter to the newly appointed CPSU General Secretary Yuri Andropov , and received a personal reply which included a personal invitation to visit the Soviet Union , which she accepted .
Smith attracted extensive media attention in both countries as a " Goodwill Ambassador " , and became known as " America 's Youngest Ambassador " participating in peacemaking activities in Japan . She wrote a book about her visit to the Soviet Union and co @-@ starred in the television series Lime Street , before her death at the age of 13 in the Bar Harbor Airlines Flight 1808 plane crash .
= = Historical context = =
When Yuri Andropov succeeded Leonid Brezhnev as leader of the Soviet Union in November 1982 , the mainstream Western newspapers and magazines ran numerous front @-@ page photographs and articles about him . Most coverage was negative and tended to give a perception of a new threat to the stability of the Western world . Andropov had been the Soviet Ambassador to Hungary during the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and the Chairman of the KGB from 1967 to 1982 ; during his tenure , he was known in the West for crushing the Prague Spring and the brutal suppression of dissidents , such as Andrei Sakharov and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn . He began his tenure as Soviet leader by strengthening the powers of the KGB , and by suppressing dissidents . Andropov declared , " the struggle for human rights was a part of a wide @-@ ranging imperialist plot to undermine the foundation of the Soviet state . " Much international tension surrounded both Soviet and American efforts to develop weapons capable of being launched from satellites in orbit . Both governments had extensive research and development programs to develop such technology . However , both nations were coming under increasing pressure to disband the project . In America , president Ronald Reagan came under pressure from a lobby of U.S. scientists and arms experts , while in Russia the government issued a statement that read , " To prevent the militarization of space is one of the most urgent tasks facing mankind " .
During this period , large anti @-@ nuclear protests were taking place across Europe and North America , while the November 20 , 1983 , screening of ABC 's post @-@ nuclear war dramatization The Day After became one of the most anticipated media events of the decade .
The two superpowers had by this point abandoned their strategy of détente and in response to the Soviet deployment of SS @-@ 20s , Reagan moved to deploy cruise and Pershing II missiles to Europe . The Soviet Union 's involvement in a war in Afghanistan was in its third year , a matter which was also contributing to international tension . In this atmosphere , on November 22 , 1982 , Time magazine published an issue with Andropov on the cover . When Smith viewed the edition , she asked her mother , " If people are so afraid of him , why doesn 't someone write a letter asking whether he wants to have a war or not ? " . Her mother replied , " Why don 't you ? "
= = Life = =
Smith was born on June 29 , 1972 , in the small town of Houlton , Maine , on the Canada – United States border , to Jane Reed and Arthur Smith . At the age of five , she wrote a letter to Queen Elizabeth II in order to express her admiration to the monarch . When Smith had finished second grade in the spring of 1980 , the family settled in Manchester , Maine , where she attended Manchester Elementary School . Her father served as an instructor at Ricker College in Houlton before teaching literature and writing at the University of Maine at Augusta while her mother worked as a social worker with the Maine Department of Human Services .
In November 1982 , when Smith was 10 years old , she wrote to Soviet leader Yuri Andropov , seeking to understand why the relations between the Soviet Union and the United States were so tense :
Dear Mr. Andropov ,
My name is Samantha Smith . I am ten years old . Congratulations on your new job . I have been worrying about Russia and the United States getting into a nuclear war . Are you going to vote to have a war or not ? If you aren 't please tell me how you are going to help to not have a war . This question you do not have to answer , but I would like to know why you want to conquer the world or at least our country . God made the world for us to live together in peace and not to fight .
Sincerely ,
Samantha Smith
Her letter was published in the Soviet newspaper Pravda . Samantha was happy to discover that her letter had been published ; however , she had not received a reply . She then sent a letter to the Soviet Union 's Ambassador to the United States asking if Mr. Andropov intended to respond . On April 26 , 1983 , she received a response from Andropov :
Dear Samantha ,
I received your letter , which is like many others that have reached me recently from your country and from other countries around the world .
It seems to me – I can tell by your letter – that you are a courageous and honest girl , resembling Becky , the friend of Tom Sawyer in the famous book of your compatriot Mark Twain . This book is well known and loved in our country by all boys and girls .
You write that you are anxious about whether there will be a nuclear war between our two countries . And you ask are we doing anything so that war will not break out .
Your question is the most important of those that every thinking man can pose . I will reply to you seriously and honestly .
Yes , Samantha , we in the Soviet Union are trying to do everything so that there will not be war on Earth . This is what every Soviet man wants . This is what the great founder of our state , Vladimir Lenin , taught us .
Soviet people well know what a terrible thing war is . Forty @-@ two years ago , Nazi Germany , which strove for supremacy over the whole world , attacked our country , burned and destroyed many thousands of our towns and villages , killed millions of Soviet men , women and children .
In that war , which ended with our victory , we were in alliance with the United States : together we fought for the liberation of many people from the Nazi invaders . I hope that you know about this from your history lessons in school . And today we want very much to live in peace , to trade and cooperate with all our neighbors on this earth — with those far away and those near by . And certainly with such a great country as the United States of America .
In America and in our country there are nuclear weapons — terrible weapons that can kill millions of people in an instant . But we do not want them to be ever used . That 's precisely why the Soviet Union solemnly declared throughout the entire world that never — never — will it use nuclear weapons first against any country . In general we propose to discontinue further production of them and to proceed to the abolition of all the stockpiles on Earth .
It seems to me that this is a sufficient answer to your second question : ' Why do you want to wage war against the whole world or at least the United States ? ' We want nothing of the kind . No one in our country – neither workers , peasants , writers nor doctors , neither grown @-@ ups nor children , nor members of the government – want either a big or ' little ' war .
We want peace — there is something that we are occupied with : growing wheat , building and inventing , writing books and flying into space . We want peace for ourselves and for all peoples of the planet . For our children and for you , Samantha .
I invite you , if your parents will let you , to come to our country , the best time being this summer . You will find out about our country , meet with your contemporaries , visit an international children 's camp – Artek – on the sea . And see for yourself : in the Soviet Union , everyone is for peace and friendship among peoples .
Thank you for your letter . I wish you all the best in your young life .
Y. Andropov
A media circus ensued , with Smith being interviewed by Ted Koppel and Johnny Carson , among others , and with nightly reports by the major American networks . On July 7 , 1983 , she flew to Moscow with her parents , and spent two weeks as Andropov 's guest . During the trip she visited Moscow and Leningrad and spent time in Artek , the main Soviet pioneer camp , in the town of Gurzuf on the Crimean Peninsula . Smith wrote in her book that in Leningrad she and her parents were amazed by the friendliness of the people and by the presents many people made for them . Speaking at a Moscow press conference , she declared that the Russians were " just like us " . In Artek , Smith chose to stay with the Soviet children rather than accept the privileged accommodations offered to her . For ease of communication , teachers and children who spoke fluent English were chosen to stay in the building where she was lodged . Smith shared a dormitory with nine other girls , and spent her time there swimming , talking and learning Russian songs and dances . While there , she made many friends , including Natasha Kashirina from Leningrad , a fluent English speaker .
Andropov , however , was unable to meet with her during her visit , although they did speak by telephone . It was later discovered that Andropov had become seriously ill and had withdrawn from the public eye during this time . Smith also received a phone call from Russian cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova , the first woman to orbit the Earth . However , not realizing with whom she was speaking , Samantha mistakenly hung up after only a brief conversation . Media followed her every step — photographs and articles about her were published by the main Soviet newspapers and magazines throughout her trip and after it . Smith became widely known to Soviet citizens and was well regarded by many of them . In the United States , the event drew suspicion and some regarded it as an " American @-@ style public relations stunt " .
Smith 's return to the U.S. on July 22 , 1983 , was celebrated by the people of Maine with roses , a red carpet , and a limousine and her popularity continued to grow in her native country . Some critics at the time remained skeptical , believing Smith was unwittingly serving as an instrument of Soviet propaganda . In December 1983 , continuing in her role as " America 's Youngest Ambassador " , she was invited to Japan , where she met with the Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone and attended the Children 's International Symposium in Kobe . In her speech at the symposium , she suggested that Soviet and American leaders exchange granddaughters for two weeks every year , arguing that a president " wouldn 't want to send a bomb to a country his granddaughter would be visiting " . Her trip inspired other exchanges of child goodwill ambassadors , including a visit by the eleven @-@ year @-@ old Soviet child Katya Lycheva to the United States . Later , Smith wrote a book called Journey to the Soviet Union whose cover shows her at Artek , her favorite part of the Soviet trip .
Smith pursued her role as a media celebrity when in 1984 , she hosted a children 's special for the Disney Channel entitled Samantha Smith Goes To Washington ... Campaign ' 84 . The show covered politics , where Smith interviewed several candidates for the 1984 presidential election , including George McGovern and Jesse Jackson . That same year she guest starred in Charles in Charge as Kim , alongside another celebrity guest star , Julianne McNamara . Her fame resulted in Smith becoming the subject of stalker Robert John Bardo , the man who would later go on to stalk and ultimately murder My Sister Sam actress Rebecca Schaeffer . Bardo traveled to Maine in an attempt to meet Smith , but was stopped by police and returned home .
In 1985 she co @-@ starred with Robert Wagner in a television series called Lime Street .
= = Death = =
On August 25 , 1985 , Smith and her father were returning home aboard Bar Harbor Airlines Flight 1808 after filming a segment for Lime Street . While attempting to land at Lewiston @-@ Auburn Regional Airport in Auburn , Maine , the Beechcraft 99 commuter plane struck some trees 4 @,@ 007 feet ( 1 @,@ 221 m ) short of the runway and crashed , killing all six passengers and two crew on board . Much speculation regarding the cause of the accident circulated afterwards . Accusations of foul play circulated widely in the Soviet Union . An investigation was undertaken in the United States and the official report — which did not show evidence of foul play — was made public . As stated in the report , the accident occurred at about 22 : 05 EDT , the ground impact point located one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south @-@ west of the airport , at 44 ° 02 ′ 22 ″ N 70 ° 17 ′ 30 ″ W. The report goes on to say , " The relatively steep flight path angle and the attitude ( the orientation of the aircraft relative to the horizon , direction of motion etc . ) and speed of the airplane at ground impact precluded the occupants from surviving the accident . " The main point of the report was that it was a rainy night , the pilots were inexperienced , and an accidental , but not uncommon and not usually critical , ground radar failure occurred .
Samantha Smith was mourned by about 1 @,@ 000 people at her funeral in Augusta , Maine , and was eulogized in Moscow as a champion of peace . Attendees included Robert Wagner and Vladimir Kulagin of the Soviet Embassy in Washington , who read a personal message of condolence from Mikhail Gorbachev .
" Everyone in the Soviet Union who has known Samantha Smith will forever remember the image of the American girl who , like millions of Soviet young men and women , dreamt about peace , and about friendship between the peoples of the United States and the Soviet Union " .
President Ronald Reagan sent his condolences to Smith 's mother , in writing ,
" Perhaps you can take some measure of comfort in the knowledge that millions of Americans , indeed millions of people , share the burdens of your grief . They also will cherish and remember Samantha , her smile , her idealism and unaffected sweetness of spirit . "
The remains of Smith and her father were cremated , and buried side by side in Estabrook Cemetery , Aroostook County , near Houlton where Smith was born .
= = Legacy = =
Smith 's contributions have been honored with a number of tributes by Russians and by the people of her home state of Maine . A monument to her was built in Moscow ; " Samantha Smith Alley " in the Artek Young Pioneer camp was named after her in 1986 . The monument built to Smith was stolen by metal thieves in 2003 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 . In 2003 , Voronezh retiree Valentin Vaulin built a monument to her without any support from the government . The Soviet Union issued a commemorative stamp with her likeness . In 1986 , when Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh discovered asteroid 3147 , she named it 3147 Samantha . The Danish composer Per Nørgård wrote his 1985 viola concerto " Remembering Child " in memory of Smith . A diamond found in Siberia , a mountain in the former Soviet Union , a cultivar of tulips and of dahlias , and an ocean vessel have been named in Smith 's honor . In Maine , the first Monday in June of each year is officially designated as Samantha Smith Day by state law . There is a bronze statue of Smith near the Maine State Museum in Augusta , which portrays Smith releasing a dove with a bear cub resting at her feet . The bear cub represents both Maine and Russia . Elementary schools in Sammamish , Washington , and in Jamaica , Queens , New York City , have been named after Samantha . In October 1985 , Smith 's mother founded The Samantha Smith Foundation , which fostered student exchanges between the United States and the Soviet Union ( and , after December 1991 , the ex @-@ Soviet successor states ) until it became dormant in the mid @-@ 1990s . The Foundation was formally dissolved in 2014 after two decades of dormancy .
A 1987 episode of the U.S. sitcom The Golden Girls entitled " Letter to Gorbachev " draws inspiration from Smith 's story . In addition , the 1987 film Superman IV : The Quest for Peace included a scene where a boy writes Superman a letter to control the nuclear arms race ; according to Christopher Reeve , this scene was also inspired by Smith 's story .
In the mid @-@ 1980s , after Smith 's death , a script was written for a television movie titled The Samantha Smith Story with Robert Wagner as producer . Columbia Pictures Television and R.J. Wagner Productions were reported to have agreed to produce the film for NBC , with Soviet company Sovin Film interested in co @-@ producing it . Ultimately , Columbia Pictures Television decided not to film it due to lack of interest from any network .
In 2008 , Smith posthumously received the Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience Award for " helping to bring about better understanding between the peoples of the [ USA and the USSR ] , and as a result , reduce the tension between the superpowers that were poised to engage in nuclear war " . The Peace Abbey has also proposed The Peace Literature Project in Honor of Samantha Smith " to educate students about peace and promote peace literature for school @-@ age children in 50 selected pilot schools across the United States "
Elliott Holt 's 2013 novel You Are One of Them , uses the story of Samantha Smith as inspiration for a fictional character , Jennifer Jones . The book , characterized as literary fiction , was well received by critics for both literary style and page @-@ turning intrigue .
On the 30th anniversary of the plane crash in 2015 , the Maine State Museum opened a new exhibit of materials related to Samantha , including photographs of her time at the Artek camp , traditional Russian clothing she was given , and an issue of Soviet Life magazine with her on the cover .
= Michael Larson =
Paul Michael Larson ( May 10 , 1949 – February 16 , 1999 ) was a contestant on the American television game show Press Your Luck in 1984 . Larson is notable for winning $ 110 @,@ 237 ( equivalent to $ 251 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) in cash and prizes , at the time the largest one @-@ day total ever won on a game show . He was able to win by memorizing the patterns used on the Press Your Luck game board .
Originally from southwestern Ohio , Larson used his cash winnings for taxes and real estate investments . However , he also had problems with the law and was involved in illegal schemes . As a result , Larson lost all of his winnings within two years of the show 's taping and moved to Florida , where he later died of throat cancer at the age of 49 . Since his death in 1999 , Larson 's game has re @-@ aired on TV at various times and inspired the 2003 Game Show Network documentary Big Bucks : The Press Your Luck Scandal .
= = Preparations = =
Larson began recording episodes of Press Your Luck shortly after its premiere on CBS in September 1983 . Through a careful study of the light indicator used for its eighteen @-@ square " Big Board " , Larson discovered that it always moved in one of five looping patterns . By memorizing these patterns , or at least parts of them , he would be able to predict which squares the indicator would move to next .
He also discovered that the fourth and eighth squares ( when numbered beginning at # 1 in the top left hand corner and then moving clockwise along the board ) always contained cash , never had a Whammy in them , and , most importantly , both of those squares also rewarded contestants with an extra spin of the board when hit . Square # 4 contained $ 3 @,@ 000 , $ 4 @,@ 000 , and $ 5 @,@ 000 , while square # 8 contained $ 500 , $ 750 , and $ 1 @,@ 000 , all of those amounts came with an additional spin . The extra spins meant that Larson , at least in the second round , could play on for as long as he dared and never have to stop at a Whammy if he managed to follow the patterns he discovered .
Carrying this knowledge and using nearly all of his saved money to make the trip to Los Angeles , Larson traveled to CBS Television City to audition for Press Your Luck . The program 's executive producer Bill Carruthers and contestant supervisor Bobby Edwards discussed whether to have him on the show after his tryout interview ; Edwards was suspicious of Larson and his reasons for trying out , but Carruthers was not . The final decision was to let him on , so he was booked for the show and later chosen for the fourth taping of that day , May 19 , 1984 , intended as a Friday episode . For the rest of his life , Carruthers would say that he regretted not listening to Edwards .
While waiting in the green room , Larson met Ed Long , a Baptist minister booked for the third taping , and they struck up a conversation . Long recalled that at one point , Larson , who had watched Press Your Luck a lot , asked him how many times he had seen the show . When Long replied that he had only seen it once , Larson responded by looking at him as though he " were from another planet . " Soon , Long was called up to go on the show and as he left , Larson said to him , " I really hope we don 't have to play each other . " As it turned out , Larson would in fact have to face Long ( who won $ 11 @,@ 516 in his first game and returned for a second game ) and a dental assistant named Janie Litras .
= = The game = =
= = = First round = = =
As always , the game began with the first of two question rounds in which contestants answered questions to earn spins for the Big Board ; a correct buzz @-@ in answer earned three spins , while a correct multiple @-@ choice answer earned one spin . Larson 's memorization of the patterns could not help him here , and he struggled early . On the second question , host Peter Tomarken asked , " You 've probably got President Franklin D. Roosevelt in your pocket or purse right now , because his likeness is on the head side " . Larson buzzed in at this point and answered , " $ 50 bill " , after which Tomarken finished the question " of what American coin ? " with the answer being " a dime " ; the other choice was " a nickel " . He did not buzz in again , answering the last two questions multiple choice and finishing with three spins , behind Long 's four and Litras 's ten . With the fewest spins , Larson went first . On his first spin , he hit a Whammy ; however , on his next two , he hit square # 4 for $ 1 @,@ 250 and finished the round with $ 2 @,@ 500 . Long and Litras finished the round without a Whammy and won $ 4 @,@ 080 and $ 4 @,@ 608 , respectively , putting Larson in last place .
= = = Second round = = =
After the first two questions in the second round , Long had not earned any spins while Larson and Litras had each received one . Larson successfully buzzed in on the final two questions to earn six more spins , for a total of seven , while Long finished with two and Litras with three . Because Larson was in last place in the first Big Board round , he got to use his spins first in the second round . He went to his pattern play , aiming for squares # 4 and # 8 .
Larson quickly bumped his total to over $ 10 @,@ 000 . Early on , his pattern play was irregular , as he stopped four times on squares that did not follow his pattern : a trip to Kauai worth $ 1 @,@ 636 in square # 7 , $ 700 and one spin in square # 17 ; " Pick a Corner " in square # 6 ( where he was
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given the choice of $ 2 @,@ 250 in square # 1 , $ 2 @,@ 000 in square # 10 , or $ 1 @,@ 500 and one spin in square # 15 — he chose $ 2 @,@ 250 ) ; and a sailboat worth $ 1 @,@ 015 in square # 7 .
After the sailboat , Larson 's pattern play became more accurate , as he hit his target squares each time he spun . Tomarken was increasingly astounded that Larson was still spinning despite not having seen a Whammy for so long . At the point where he exceeded $ 36 @,@ 000 , the episode was post @-@ edited for Tomarken to announce that they had run out of time and that the game would resume the following Monday . As part two of the episode began , Tomarken explained to viewers who missed the Friday show what was going on , and the game resumed .
Larson continued to press on , exceeding $ 60 @,@ 000 without losing any of his four remaining spins . Tomarken virtually begged Larson to stop more than once , fearing he would hit a Whammy . Finally , Larson surpassed the six @-@ figure mark at $ 102 @,@ 851 . He then passed his remaining four spins to Litras ( who had the second highest total at $ 4 @,@ 608 ) raised his arms in triumph , and received a standing ovation from the audience . Long , who took the next spin , immediately hit a Whammy and lost the $ 4 @,@ 080 he racked up in the first round , leading Tomarken to wonder aloud if Larson " knew that the Whammy was coming . " He then hit $ 5 @,@ 000 + ONE SPIN twice before pressing on and hitting another Whammy , costing him $ 10 @,@ 000 and effectively ending his participation in the game .
Litras hit a Whammy on her first spin as well , which was one of the spins passed to her by Larson , and lost the $ 4 @,@ 608 she won in the first round . The remaining three passed spins were moved to the earned column after hitting the Whammy , giving her six spins . In five successful spins , she accumulated $ 9 @,@ 385 . Litras then decided that she would pass her remaining spins , which totalled three . Since the rules dictated that any passed spins go to the leader , this gave Larson another turn at the board that he had not been expecting .
Since Larson did not earn the spins , he was forced to take them one at a time . He picked right back up where he had left off for the first two spins , hitting targets and earning spins with which he could do whatever he wanted , but deviated from his pattern by stopping the board early . Larson won a trip to The Bahamas worth $ 2 @,@ 636 but landed on a square with a Whammy that had just turned .
With his score now at $ 110 @,@ 237 and now in possession of a pair of earned spins , Larson returned the favor and passed both spins back to Litras . Though Litras took both spins safely , she earned no additional spins with them . Her final spin ended with her landing on a Mexican cruise in square # 15 , and lost the game by a huge margin . Larson won the game with $ 110 @,@ 237 ; of this , $ 104 @,@ 950 was in cash .
At the end of the episode , Tomarken asked Larson why he decided not to pass his remaining spins before he did , considering the lead he rapidly gained over Litras and Long . Side @-@ stepping revealing how he had won the game , Larson responded with , " Two things : one , it felt right , and second , I still had seven spins and if I passed them , somebody could 've done what I did . "
= = Accusations of cheating = =
While Larson was running up the score , the show 's producers contacted Michael Brockman , then head of CBS ' daytime programming department . In a 1994 TV Guide interview commemorating the Larson Sweep , conducted at the time the movie Quiz Show was released , he recalled " Something was very wrong . Here was this guy from nowhere , and he was hitting the bonus box every time . It was bedlam , I can tell you . And we couldn 't stop this guy . He kept going around the board and hitting that box . "
The program 's producers and Brockman met to review the videotape . They noticed that Larson would immediately celebrate after many of his spins instead of waiting the fraction of a second it would take for a contestant to see and respond to the space he or she had stopped on , effectively showing he knew he was going to get something good . It was also noticed that Larson had an unusual reaction to his early prize of a Kauai trip , which was out of his pattern – he initially looked puzzled and upset , but then recovered and celebrated after a pause .
At first , CBS refused to pay Larson , considering him a cheater . However , Brockman and the producers could not find a clause in the game 's rules with which to disqualify him ( largely because the board had been constructed with these patterns from the beginning of the series ) , and the network complied . Because he had surpassed the CBS winnings cap ( at the time ) of $ 25 @,@ 000 , Larson was not allowed to return for the next show .
The five light patterns on the Big Board were immediately erased and replaced with five new ones for about a month . Then , to make sure no one was memorizing those , they were again replaced with five new patterns for another month . Finally in August , new software was installed which gave the Big Board a total of 32 patterns , effectively ensuring that no one would ever duplicate Larson 's trick .
= = Episode broadcasts = =
Due to its exceptional running time , Larson 's appearance was split into two episodes , which aired on June 8 and 11 , 1984 . CBS then suppressed them for 19 years , as both the network and Carruthers at that time considered the incident to be one of their biggest embarrassments . When USA Network ( and later , GSN ) bought the rights to rerun Press Your Luck , CBS and Carruthers insisted that the Larson episodes must not be aired .
On March 16 , 2003 , GSN was allowed to air the episodes , including a few previously edited @-@ out portions , as part of a two @-@ hour documentary called Big Bucks : The Press Your Luck Scandal , hosted and narrated by Tomarken . The documentary was produced by and aired on GSN ( in association with Lionsgate and FremantleMedia , the latter of which now owns the rights to Press Your Luck ) , and broke all previous viewership records for the network . The original telecast was dedicated to the memory of Bill Carruthers , producer / creator of Press Your Luck , who had died before the airing .
As part of the commemoration , Larson 's opponents from 1984 were invited back to be contestants on Whammy ! The All @-@ New Press Your Luck playing against Larson 's brother , James , with Tomarken returning to host the Question Round . Despite the fact that the board was now more random ( host Todd Newton calling it " Larson @-@ proof " ) , and there was no way the same trick could have been performed , Long and Litras ( who had remarried and took the surname Litras @-@ Dakan ) still lost . When Larson hit the Big Bank space on his first spin of the first round , Long proceeded to joke with host Todd Newton that he had " seen this before " . At one point , Litras @-@ Dakan advanced to first place before hitting a Double Whammy shortly afterward , effectively giving Larson the win . Larson won a digital grand piano worth $ 6 @,@ 695 , while Newton closed the game by announcing , " The legacy continues " .
The two Larson episodes finally aired in their entirety on GSN in late 2003 and were shown in regular rotation and on special occasions until the network ceased showing Press Your Luck in March 2009 . However , the Big Bucks documentary included additional footage , directly from the original master tapes , that had been edited out of the episodes for their initial broadcast . Larson 's performance on Press Your Luck was also featured in a July 2010 broadcast of This American Life .
= = Later life and legacy = =
After Press Your Luck , Larson became an assistant manager at local Walmart stores in Dayton , Lebanon , Xenia and Bellbrook , Ohio . He also ran a promotions and marketing company , Group Dynamics Downline , out of his Lebanon home .
In November 1984 , Larson learned about a local radio show promotion promising a $ 30 @,@ 000 prize for matching a $ 1 bill 's serial number with a random number read out on the air . Over several days , he withdrew his remaining winnings in $ 1 bills , examined each dollar , and ( upon discovering that he did not have the winning number ) re @-@ deposited roughly half of the money . Larson left around $ 50 @,@ 000 in his house , which was stolen in a burglary while he was attending a Christmas party . The case still remains open today .
Larson gave an interview with TV Guide in 1994 , in which he revealed to have called the producers of Press Your Luck after losing most of his remaining money , challenging them to hold a tournament of champions to see if he could break the bank again . The producers declined .
In 1994 , the film Quiz Show was released and , as part of the renewed discussion on game show scandals , Larson appeared on ABC 's Good Morning America . By this time , he had been diagnosed with throat cancer , and his voice was noticeably weakened .
Shortly thereafter , Larson got involved with an illegal scheme to sell part of a foreign lottery . As a result , he went on the run , leaving Ohio . His family was contacted by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission , the Internal Revenue Service , and the Federal Bureau of Investigation , but no one knew his whereabouts until his death from throat cancer on February 16 , 1999 , in Apopka , Florida .
In 2000 , a biopic was planned , with Bill Murray set to portray Larson ; however , those plans fell through .
= 1960 Winter Olympics =
The 1960 Winter Olympics was a winter multi @-@ sport event held between February 18 – 28 , 1960 in Squaw Valley , California , United States . Squaw Valley was chosen to host the Games at the 1956 meeting of the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) . It was an undeveloped resort in 1955 , so from 1956 to 1960 the infrastructure and all of the venues were built at a cost of US $ 80 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . It was designed to be intimate , allowing spectators and competitors to walk to nearly all the venues . Squaw Valley hosted athletes from thirty nations who competed in four sports and twenty @-@ seven events . Women 's speed skating and biathlon made their Olympic debuts . The organizers decided the bobsled events did not warrant the cost to build a venue , so for the first and only time bobsled was not on the Winter Olympic program . The Soviet Union dominated the medal count winning twenty @-@ one medals , seven of which were gold . Soviet speed skaters Yevgeny Grishin and Lidiya Skoblikova won two gold medals each . Swedish cross @-@ country skier Sixten Jernberg added a gold and silver to the four medals he won at the 1956 Winter Games .
Cold War politics forced the IOC to debate the participation of China , Taiwan , North Korea and East Germany . In 1957 the United States government threatened to deny visas to athletes from Communist countries . The IOC responded with a threat to revoke Squaw Valley 's right to host the 1960 Games . The United States conceded and allowed entry to athletes from Communist countries .
= = Host city selection = =
Squaw Valley was a struggling ski resort with minimal facilities , which made its selection to host the 1960 Winter Olympics a surprise . Wayne Poulsen and Alexander Cushing , who were inspired to an Olympic bid by a newspaper article mentioning that Reno , Nevada and Anchorage , Alaska had expressed interest in the Games . Poulsen , president of the Squaw Valley Development Company , petitioned California Governor Goodwin Knight to support a bid to host the Olympic Games . Knight 's administration agreed and recommended that the California Legislature appropriate $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to the effort . Based on the financial support received from the State of California , the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) approved the bid on January 7 , 1955 . Cushing and the USOC received a resolution passed by the United States Congress and signed by President Dwight Eisenhower , calling on the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) to consider Squaw Valley 's bid for the 1960 Games . Preliminary reports were drafted and submitted to the IOC , which was considering bids from Innsbruck , Austria , St. Moritz , Switzerland and Chamonix , France . Squaw Valley was provisionally awarded the right to host the Games , but IOC president Avery Brundage warned the Organizing Committee that unless more funds were secured by April 1956 , the bid would be awarded to Innsbruck . Another $ 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 were committed by the State Legislature , which met Brundage 's requirements . On April 4 , 1956 the right to host the 1960 Winter Olympics was officially awarded to Squaw Valley . Competitors and officials from European nations were angered by the selection ; they felt that the alpine ski courses were not up to specifications and that the altitude would prove too stressful on the athletes .
= = Organization = =
Squaw Valley in 1956 consisted of one chair lift , two rope tows , and a fifty @-@ room lodge . Cushing presented the site as a blank canvas of unspoiled environment , where a world @-@ class ski resort could be constructed . The obscurity of the location was underscored at the closing ceremonies of the 1956 Winter Olympics . Traditionally the mayor of the current host city passes a flag to the mayor of the next host city signalling the transfer of the Games . Since Squaw Valley was an unincorporated village it had no city government . John Garland , an IOC member from California , was asked to stand in and received the flag from the mayor of Cortina d 'Ampezzo .
After winning the right to host the Games , the California Olympic Commission was formed . They were given four years to build venues , an Olympic Village , and expand infrastructure . With the expansion of roads , bridges , water and electrical capacity the resort of Squaw Valley became the city of Squaw Valley . Hotels , restaurants , administration buildings , a Sheriff 's office and a sewage pumping and treatment plant were all constructed to support the influx of visitors for the Games . Organizers wanted the Olympics to be intimate with the venues close to one another . The Blyth Memorial Ice Arena was built along with three outdoor skating rinks , a 400 @-@ meter speed skating oval and four dormitories to house athletes . One venue deemed impractical to build was the bobsled run . Organizers felt the lack of possible entrants and the high cost of building the run were sufficient deterrents to leave the bobsled events off the 1960 Olympic program .
Several design innovations and new technologies were used for the 1960 Games . The speed skating , figure skating and ice hockey events were held on artificial ice for the first time in Olympic history . A refrigeration plant capable of heating 4 @,@ 800 homes had to be built to generate and maintain the ice . The heat generated from the refrigeration plant was used to warm spectators , provide hot water , and melt the snow off of roofs . New timing equipment provided by Longines was installed that used a quartz clock to measure to the hundredths of a second . IBM provided a computer that was capable of tabulating results and printing them in English and French . Blyth Arena , site of the opening and closing ceremonies as well as the figure skating and ice hockey competitions , was built with a 22 in ( 56 cm ) gap in the roof , which would slide closed as the cables supporting the roof contracted during cold weather .
Funding for Cushing 's initial bid to the IOC came from the California Legislature and investors in the " Squaw Valley Development Company " , who were owners of the existing resort . To fund the construction , organizers turned to the federal government , which provided about a quarter of the $ 80 million required to host the Games . The monies were used to build sports arenas and provide military support during the Games . Further funding was secured from private sponsorships and from the State of California . Governor Knight and his successor Edmund " Pat " Brown remained behind the project , seeing it as a means to showcase the state of California to the world .
= = = Television = = =
Television was not new to the Olympic Winter Games ; broadcasts of events to European audiences had begun in 1956 . What was unprecedented was the sale of exclusive United States television rights to broadcast the Games . The Organizing Committee decided to sell the television broadcast rights to CBS for $ 50 @,@ 000 . Unknown at the time was how lucrative the sale of broadcast rights would become . For example , CBS purchased the rights to broadcast the 1960 Summer Olympics for $ 550 @,@ 000 . During the Games , CBS broadcast 15 and a quarter hours of television focusing on ice hockey , speed skating , figure skating , alpine skiing and ski jumping . The impact of television was felt during the Games ; in the men 's slalom event , officials who were unsure if a skier had missed a gate asked CBS if they could review tape of the event . This request gave CBS the idea for what is now known as instant replay .
= = Politics = =
Athletic competition between the Soviet Union and United States had grown intense during the 1950s . Their opposing ideologies and interests in nations such as East and West Germany , China and North and South Korea created a delicate situation as the 1960 Winter Games approached . Of particular interest was the question of whether China would be allowed to participate . Chinese athletes last competed at the 1952 Summer Games but had since withdrawn from the IOC due to a dispute over Taiwan 's participation as a separate country . The United States supported Taiwan while the Soviet Union stood behind China . Given the fact that the 1960 Games were to be held in America , there was concern among IOC members that the United States would not allow China or any other Communist country to participate . In 1957 IOC president Avery Brundage , himself an American , announced that if the United States refused entry to any country recognized by the IOC , then they would revoke Squaw Valley 's invitation to host the Games and he would resign the presidency . Bowing to international pressure , the United States allowed athletes from Communist countries to participate . China continued to demand that Taiwan be expelled from the IOC , demands that were refused until China broke off relations ending any hope that they would participate in 1960 .
Problems similar to the issue with China broke out over North Korea and East Germany . Prior to the Korean War the IOC had recognized the Olympic committee of Korea , which was headquartered in Seoul . North Korea was not recognized as a separate country by the IOC who maintained the existence of one Olympic committee . A unified team compromise was proposed but rejected , which meant only athletes from South Korea participated due to their prior recognition . Pressure for full recognition of East Germany continued despite the fact that both East and West Germany had participated as a unified team in 1956 . One of the conditions for a unified German team was that the athletes be represented by a neutral flag . Initially West German officials refused to agree to this stipulation citing the fact that the West German flag had been used at both the 1956 Winter and Summer Games . Eventually the neutral flag was adopted and a unified German team participated .
= = Events = =
The Games were held from February 18 to 28 . Medals were awarded in 27 events contested in 4 sports ( 8 disciplines ) . The sport of biathlon was added to the program as were speed skating events for women . After a poll was taken indicating that only nine countries would send a bobsled team , the organizers determined that bobsled would be removed from the Olympic program . Despite petitions from the International Bobsleigh and Tobogganing Federation to reconsider , the organizers felt they could not justify the costs of constructing a bobsled run for nine competing nations . It would be the only time in Winter Olympic history that the bobsled events were not held .
Biathlon ( 1 ) ( )
Ice hockey ( 1 ) ( )
Skating
Figure skating ( 3 ) ( )
Speed skating ( 8 ) ( )
Skiing
Alpine skiing ( 6 ) ( )
Nordic skiing ( )
Cross @-@ country skiing ( 6 ) ( )
Nordic combined ( 1 ) ( )
Ski jumping ( 1 ) ( )
= = = Opening ceremonies = = =
The chairman of the Pageantry Committee was Walt Disney , who was responsible for producing both the opening and closing ceremonies . He organized an opening that included 5 @,@ 000 entertainers , the release of 2 @,@ 000 pigeons , and a military gun salute of eight shots , one for each of the previous Winter Olympic Games . The opening ceremonies were held on February 18 , 1960 at Blyth Arena in the midst of a blizzard . The heavy snow fall caused traffic problems that delayed the ceremony by an hour . The festivities began with a sustained drum roll as the flags of each participating nation were raised on specially designed flag poles . Vice President Richard Nixon represented the United States government and declared the Games open . The Olympic cauldron was lit by Kenneth Henry , Olympic champion of the 500 meter speed skating race at the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo . The Olympic oath was taken by Carol Heiss on behalf of all the athletes . As the national delegations left the stadium fireworks concluded the ceremonies .
= = = Ice hockey = = =
The ice hockey tournament took place at Blyth Arena and the Squaw Valley Olympic Skating Rink . Controversy over the amateur status of some of the players overshadowed the event . Canadian Olympic officials objected to the use of " professional amateurs " by Eastern Bloc countries , and especially the Soviet Union . They alleged that the Soviets were giving their elite hockey players phantom jobs in the military that allowed them to play hockey full @-@ time , which gave Soviet teams an advantage that they used to dominate Olympic hockey tournaments for nearly 30 years . This issue started coming to light during the 1960 Games and would culminate in a Canadian boycott of the Olympic hockey tournament at the 1972 Winter Olympics . The team from the United States won an improbable gold medal , defeating the favored Canadian and Soviet teams , who took silver and bronze respectively . This was the first Olympic gold medal in ice hockey for the United States and it would mark the last time a Soviet team did not win the Olympic tournament until the United States victory at the 1980 Winter Olympics .
= = = Cross @-@ country skiing = = =
There were six cross @-@ country skiing races at the 1960 Olympics , four for men and two for women , all held at the McKinney Creek Cross @-@ Country Complex . Soviet women swept the 10 kilometer race , which was the first medal sweep for the Soviets at the Winter Olympics . They were however upset by Sweden in the 3 × 5 kilometer relay . Nordic countries dominated the men 's competition . Swedish lumberjack Sixten Jernberg added a gold and silver to the four medals he won in 1956 . He would add two golds and a bronze in 1964 to finish his Olympic career with nine medals , which made him the most decorated Winter Olympian . Finnish skier Veikko Hakulinen added a gold , silver and bronze to the two golds and two silvers he had won in 1952 and 1956 .
= = = Biathlon = = =
Biathlon made its Olympic debut in 1960 . The precursor to biathlon , military patrol , was on the Olympic program for the first Olympic Games in 1924 . It was a demonstration sport at the 1928 , 1936 , and 1948 Winter Olympics , though the competition was only open to members of the armed forces . Military patrol fell out of favor in 1948 due to anti @-@ military sentiments in the post World War II era . Biathlon took its place and was instated as a full Olympic sport in 1960 . It encompassed a 20 kilometer cross @-@ country race with four shooting stations at ranges from 100 to 250 m ( 330 to 820 ft ) . Klas Lestander from Sweden became the first Olympic champion , Antti Tyrväinen from Finland and Soviet Aleksandr Privalov placed second and third respectively .
= = = Nordic combined = = =
The Nordic combined competition was held on February 21 at the Squaw Valley normal hill and the McKinney Creek Cross @-@ Country Complex . The athletes had three jumps on February 21 followed by a 15 kilometer cross @-@ country race . German skier Georg Thoma became the first non @-@ Nordic athlete to win the event . He would win bronze medal in the Nordic combined in 1964 . Tormod Knutsen of Norway and Nikolay Gusakov of the Soviet Union placed second and third , respectively . Gusakov 's wife , Maria Gusakova , competed in the cross @-@ country events , winning a gold and silver .
= = = Ski jumping = = =
There was one ski jumping event at the 1960 Games , the men 's normal hill , which was held on February 28 . In 1964 the competition would be expanded to include a men 's large hill event . Helmut Recknagel became the first German to win the event . In 1994 he would be joined by Jens Weißflog as the only German ski jumping Olympic champions . Niilo Halonen from Finland and Austrian Otto Leodolter earned the silver and bronze medals .
= = = Figure skating = = =
Held at Blyth Memorial Arena , the figure skating competition took place between February 19 and 26 . Though this was not the first time figure skating had been held indoors , it would never be contested outdoors again . There were three events : men 's and women 's singles and the pairs competition . In the men 's event , David Jenkins , brother of 1956 Winter Olympic figure skating champion Hayes Jenkins , won the gold medal . It was his second Olympic medal , having won the bronze in 1956 . Czechoslovakian Karol Divín took the silver medal , and Canadian Donald Jackson won the bronze . Carol Heiss , winner of the silver medal in 1956 , became the Olympic champion in 1960 . A year later she married Hayes Jenkins and starred in Snow White and the Three Stooges . Dutch skater Sjoukje Dijkstra took the silver medal ; she would finish her amateur career with an Olympic gold medal in 1964 . Barbara Ann Roles gave the United States its third figure skating medal of the competition when she took the bronze . The Soviet Union made its Olympic figure skating debut by sending two couples to compete in the pairs competition ; the result belied the fact that Soviet skaters would soon come to dominate this event . The competition was won by the Canadian pair of Barbara Wagner and Bob Paul who had won the last three world championships . The German pair Marika Kilius and Hans @-@ Jürgen Bäumler followed their recent European championship victory with the Olympic silver medal , and the American husband @-@ and @-@ wife team of Ron and Nancy Ludington took the bronze .
= = = Speed skating = = =
Women were allowed to compete in the Olympic speed skating competition for the first time in 1960 . The Soviet Union had requested the inclusion of women 's speed skating events in the program for the 1956 Games , but the request was rejected by the IOC . The issue was revisited for the 1960 Games , and since women had been competing internationally since 1936 and there was a World Championship for women 's speed skating , the IOC agreed to four events ; 500 , 1 @,@ 000 , 1 @,@ 500 , and 3 @,@ 000 meters . Most of the events were held on the Squaw Valley Olympic Skating Rink , which was an outdoor skating oval , and featured artificial ice , a first for the Olympic speed skating competition . Given the altitude and the artificial ice , the rink was the fastest in the world , as evidenced by Norwegian Knut Johannesen ’ s world record in the 10 @,@ 000 meter event . At 15 : 46 @.@ 6 he was the first skater ever to break the 16 @-@ minute barrier , and eclipsed the previous world record by 46 seconds . Despite Johannesen 's victory , the Soviets dominated the speed skating events , winning all but two of the races . Yevgeny Grishin won both the 500 and 1 @,@ 500 meter races , though he shared the 1 @,@ 500 meter gold medal with Norwegian Roald Aas . Lidiya Skoblikova from the Soviet Union was the other double gold medalist , when she won the 1 @,@ 500 and 3 @,@ 000 meter events . Polish skaters Helena Pilejczyk and Elwira Seroczyńska placed second and third in the 1 @,@ 500 meter event , which were Poland 's only medals of the Games . They were just the second and third Poles ever to win Winter Olympic medals .
= = = Alpine skiing = = =
Despite the lack of facilities at Squaw Valley , the resort did have steep mountain slopes in close proximity , resulting in some of the most difficult alpine skiing courses in Olympic history . Both men and women competed in the downhill , giant slalom and slalom with all 6 events held between February 20 and 26 . The men 's downhill was won by Frenchman Jean Vuarnet who changed the sport by becoming the first Olympic champion to use metal skis . Swiss skier Roger Staub won the giant slalom and Ernst Hinterseer from Austria was the slalom champion . German Heidi Biebl won the women 's downhill , Yvonne Rüegg of Switzerland won the giant slalom and Anne Heggtveit from Canada won the slalom . Penny Pitou of the United States was the only multiple medal winner with two silvers in the downhill and giant slalom .
= = = Closing ceremonies = = =
The Games were brought to a close on February 28 in Blyth Memorial Arena in front of 20 @,@ 000 people . Flags of the participating nations were followed by the athletes who marched as a group with no national distinctions . The flag bearers made a semi @-@ circle around the rostrum and the national anthems of Greece ( even though the nation didn 't compete ) , United States , and Austria were played as their respective flags were raised . IOC president Avery Brundage declared the Games closed , at which point the Olympic flame was extinguished . The Games concluded with the release of several thousand balloons .
= = Calendar = =
All dates are in Pacific Standard Time ( UTC @-@ 8 )
The opening ceremony was held on February 18 , along with the first games of the hockey tournament . From February 19 to 28 , at least one event final was held each day .
† The numeral indicates the number of event finals for each sport held that day .
= = Venues = =
The lack of facilities prior to the Olympics gave organizers freedom to tailor the layout of the venues to fit the needs of the athletes . Their vision was for an intimate Games in which athletes and spectators could walk between venues . This was accomplished with the exception of the cross @-@ country events , which were held at McKinney Creek , a 12 mi ( 19 km ) drive from Squaw Valley . In prior Winter Olympics the athletes were housed in hotels or billeted with local families . Since no such facilities existed in Squaw Valley , the organizers decided to build the first Olympic Village at the Winter Games . Competitors slept in one of four dormitories and ate together in a dining room . The complex was located centrally , with access to all the sporting facilities .
The peaks surrounding Squaw Valley were used for the alpine skiing events . The ladies ' downhill and men 's slalom and giant slalom were on KT @-@ 22 mountain , while the ladies ' slalom and giant slalom were contested on Little Papoose Peak . Squaw Peak was the site of the men 's downhill competition . Prior to the Games , concerns persisted that the courses would not meet international standards . To address these concerns , a test event was held in 1959 and the attending delegates from the International Ski Federation ( FIS ) left assured that the events would comply with FIS rules and specifications . Bleachers were constructed for officials , coaches and spectators , along with broadcast booths for radio and television . Papoose Peak Jumps was located on Little Papoose Peak directly opposite Blyth Memorial Arena . Designed by Heini Klopfer , the hill was innovative in that it had 40- , 60- , and 80 – meter jumps . Tall trees on both sides protected athletes from the wind , and it was situated so that the sun would be at the jumper 's back during the competition .
McKinney Creek Stadium was built to host all of the cross @-@ country races , which included the biathlon and a portion of the Nordic combined competition . It consisted of a timing building , two Quonset huts for competitors and course workers , a scoreboard , and bleachers to accommodate 1 @,@ 200 people . Shooting ranges were interspersed throughout the biathlon course , and were supervised by non @-@ commissioned officers of the United States military .
Blyth Memorial Arena was the centerpiece of the Games . It hosted the opening and closing ceremonies jointly with Squaw Valley Olympic Skating Rink , and also hosted the figure skating competition , a few of the speed skating events , as well as most of the games in the hockey tournament . All three of the sports were held indoors on artificial ice for the first time in Olympic history . At full capacity , the arena accommodated 11 @,@ 000 people , 8 @,@ 500 of whom were seated . One end of the stadium could be opened and closed , depending on the event . During the ceremonies it was open to allow for the entrance of the athletes ; during the competitions it was closed to accommodate more spectators . A special machine was created to resurface the ice for all three competitions . It could lay a new ice surface on the 400 @-@ meter speed skating track in 45 minutes . In addition to resurfacing the ice , the machine created the snow dividers that delineated the racing lanes . The roof was designed on a suspension principle , using cables rather than vertical supports ; this removed any visual impediments for the audience , but it weakened the strength of the roof . Given the amount of annual snowfall designers planned on using heat generated by the refrigeration plant to melt the snow . There were flaws in the design and miscalculations in the load the roof could bear , and during a particularly heavy snowfall in 1983 , a portion of the roof collapsed and the building was subsequently demolished .
= = Participating nations = =
Athletes from 30 nations competed at the 1960 Games . South Africa competed at the Winter Games for the first time ; it would be the last for many years , as apartheid policies prevented South African participation until 1994 . Athletes from West Germany ( FRG ) and East Germany ( GDR ) competed together as the United Team of Germany from 1956 to 1964 . The number at the end of each country denotes the number of athletes each country sent .
= = Medal count = =
Below is a list of nations that won medals at the Games :
The host nation is highlighted in blue .
‡ Since there was a tie in the men 's 1 @,@ 500 meter speed skating race ( like in 1956 ) , two gold medals and no silver medals were awarded .
= Italian ironclad Principe Amedeo =
Principe Amedeo was an ironclad warship built by the Italian Regia Marina in the 1860s and 1870s . She was the lead ship of the Principe Amedeo class , alongside her sister ship Palestro . Principe Amedeo was laid down in 1865 , launched in 1872 , and completed in late 1874 . She was armed with a battery of six 10 in ( 254 mm ) guns and one 11 in ( 279 mm ) gun . The last sail @-@ rigged ironclad of the Italian fleet , she had a single steam engine that was capable of propelling the ship at a speed of slightly over 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
Principe Amedeo 's lengthy construction time rendered her obsolescent by the time she entered service . As a result , she primarily served as a station ship in Italy 's overseas empire . In November 1881 , she collided with the ironclad Roma in a storm in Naples . Principe Amadeo was withdrawn from service in 1888 and converted into a headquarters ship for the vessels defending Taranto . She was stricken from the naval register in 1895 and thereafter used as a depot ship until she was broken up for scrap in 1910 .
= = Design = =
Principe Amedeo was 79 @.@ 73 meters ( 261 @.@ 6 ft ) long between perpendiculars ; she had a beam of 17 @.@ 4 m ( 57 ft ) and an average draft of 7 @.@ 9 m ( 26 ft ) . She displaced 5 @,@ 761 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 670 long tons ; 6 @,@ 350 short tons ) normally and up to 6 @,@ 020 t ( 5 @,@ 920 long tons ; 6 @,@ 640 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by six coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . Her engine produced a top speed of 12 @.@ 2 knots ( 22 @.@ 6 km / h ; 14 @.@ 0 mph ) at 6 @,@ 117 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 561 kW ) . She could steam for 1 @,@ 780 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 050 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship was barque @-@ rigged to supplement the steam engine ; Principe Amedeo and her sister were the last rigged ironclads to be built by Italy . She had a crew of 548 officers and men .
Principe Amedeo was armed with a main battery of six 10 in ( 254 mm ) guns , mounted in a single armored casemates placed amidships , with three guns on each broadside . A 11 in ( 279 mm ) gun was mounted forward as a bow chaser . Principe Amedeo was protected by iron belt armor that was 8 @.@ 7 in ( 221 mm ) thick and extended for the entire length of the hull . The casemates were protected with 5 @.@ 5 in ( 140 mm ) of iron plating , and the small conning tower had 2 @.@ 4 in ( 61 mm ) thick iron plates .
= = Service history = =
Principe Amedeo was laid down at the Arsenale di La Spezia in August 1865 , and her completed hull was launched on 15 January 1872 . Fitting @-@ out work proceeded very slowly , and the ship was finally completed on 15 December 1874 . Obsolescent by the time she was completed , Principe Amedeo primarily served in the Italian colonial empire , which Italy had begun acquiring in the 1880s . She occasionally took part in training maneuvers with the main Italian fleet throughout her career .
Principe Amedeo took part in the launching ceremony for the ironclad Italia on 29 September 1880 ; also present were the Italian ironclad Regina Maria Pia and King Umberto I aboard his yacht , and the British ironclads HMS Monarch and Thunderer with Vice Admiral George Tryon , both members of the Mediterranean Fleet . At the time , Principe Amedeo flew the flag of Vice Admiral Martini . In early November 1881 , Principe Amedeo was moored in Naples when a severe storm tore the ironclad Roma free from her anchors and knocked her into Principe Amedeo . Neither ship was damaged in the collision .
For the annual fleet maneuvers held in 1885 , Principe Amedeo served as the flagship of the " Eastern Squadron " , with Rear Admiral Civita commanding . She was joined by the ironclad Castelfidardo , the corvette Amerigo Vespucci , a sloop , and four torpedo boats . The " Eastern Squadron " defended against an attacking " Western Squadron " , simulating a Franco @-@ Italian conflict , with operations conducted off Sardinia . During the exercises , Principe Amedeo was forced to " surrender " by the ironclad Caio Duilio .
From 1888 to 1889 , Principe Amedeo was employed as the headquarters ship for the forces defending Taranto . By this time , she had been equipped with six 2 @.@ 9 in ( 74 mm ) guns for close @-@ range defense , six machine guns , and two torpedo tubes . The ship was stricken from the naval register on 28 March 1895 and thereafter used as an ammunition depot ship in Taranto . She was eventually broken up for scrap in 1910 .
= Pyramids ( song ) =
" Pyramids " is a song by American recording artist Frank Ocean , released as the second single from his debut studio album Channel Orange ( 2012 ) . The song was written by Ocean and produced by Malay and Om 'Mas Keith . The track features an uncredited guitar solo from recording artist John Mayer . On June 7 , 2012 , Ocean posted a small teaser video featuring a snippet of the song onto his tumblr account , and released the full , nearly 10 @-@ minute song later that day onto his official SoundCloud account . The song explores a narrative of a pimp falling in love with one of his clients . The track lyrically contains several extended metaphors referencing Cleopatra , pyramids , and strip clubs . The song received highly positive reviews and was called epic in nature by several publications , who praised the ambition and scope of the track 's length , along with the lyrical merit .
The song was featured in a teaser for Ocean 's then @-@ upcoming album and was released with a cover that featured The Simpsons style characters . The music video was directed by Nabil Elderkin and featured an orange car with an atmospheric background . The song has since debuted on the UK R & B Chart at number 31 . The track has been featured during television promos for Channel Orange . Ocean performed " Pyramids " during his Channel Orange tour through North America .
= = Background = =
On June 8 , 2012 , Ocean posted onto his tumblr a cryptic , nearly two @-@ minute video , promoting an unknown project which was titled Channel Orange . The clip mostly featured an expensive @-@ looking car , and it also contained new music . Later that day Ocean posted the full song used in the video , titled " Pyramids " onto his Soundcloud account . Popdust noted that " trailers won ’ t tell you everything . For example , the brief snippet of Frank Ocean ’ s new track “ Pyramids ” heard in an ambiguous trailer a few days ago left out one key detail of the track : the damn thing is 10 minutes long . " The cover artwork for the single features sexual Simpsons characters .
The song was Ocean 's first new single in over a year , which was described as him coming " back into the spotlight in a huge way . " The track was labeled indicating that it was to be the ninth track on the album . It was later announced that the Channel Orange project was actually his debut album and that he would launch a corresponding tour . The release of the album 's tracklist confirmed both the track placement of the track and the appearance of it on the album . " Pyramids " serves as the second single from the project following " Thinkin Bout You " . The following day Ocean posted that , " playing ‘ Pyramids ’ on the road is gonna be my favourite part " on his Twitter account , speaking about his promotional tour .
= = Composition = =
" Pyramids " is a nine @-@ minute @-@ and @-@ 54 @-@ second R & B song . It has been described as a " nearly 10 @-@ minute epic that touches on everything from club music to good old @-@ fashioned slow jam R & B " and is " an ambitious song with multiple movements . " The song features groaning club beats , psychedelic guitar noodling , crunchy synth leads , a funked @-@ up beat , and " Ocean 's distinctive croon and lots of vague new @-@ R & B angst " . The opening segment sports the " beautiful , warped R & B that Ocean has become known for " , but from there the song transitions into a smattering of electro @-@ house synths , Michael Jackson @-@ influenced pop melodies , spaced out electronic segues , UK bass breaks , saxophone , and guitar solo courtesy of John Mayer . " The track is an " R & B odyssey " slinking from ancient Egypt , where wild cheetahs are on the loose and Cleopatra meets a " snakey doom " , to the present day where " Frank is living that sleazy motel room life . " It serves as " another case where the production far outstrips the vocal work " , with " clanging and chiming and choirs for the intro , " a dance break toward the middle that sounds like it was " recorded in 2018 " , and a slow jam for the second half that closes the song .
The chorus boasts about a woman “ working at the pyramid tonight ” . The track lyrically features intricate imagery that depicts a fantasy @-@ like scenario , and the length gives the song the ability to change pace with " patience , with suave , like a furthering of the foreplay " . The first half details an account of ancient history , " even your junior high school social studies teacher would blush over " , with the second half containing a narrative where Ocean serves as Cleopatra ’ s pimp but through years of working together , he eventually falls in love with her . Through the " unwritten bylaws of their profession " , however , his love is no match for the " rules of the game which were established long before he or she rose to power . " The narrative of " Pyramids " draws inspiration from real events in Ocean 's life . When the singer lived in Los Angeles , he lived alongside actual pimps , and in an interview the singer mused that " it was fantasy built off that dynamic … but you can only write what you know to a point . " The storytelling scope of the song has been compared favorably to Bob Dylan 's " The Hurricane " , and has been described as an anthem " for the Drake generation . "
It was reported that Ocean was really stretching the limits of the term “ song ” on " Pyramids " , and that there are " more ideas on this track than on most albums " . The single runs the gamut of Ocean ’ s various influences , pulling from European electronic dance music and Prince 's early 80s discography , notably Purple Rain . The moody tune finds Ocean moaning over ethereal swirls and pulses while cooing about " working at the pyramid " and finding " my Black queen Cleopatra . " It encompasses a multitude of " suites and a kaleidoscope of moods and tones " from " vainglorious to melancholic " and has been called the " Paranoid Android " of R & B. Although Ocean is oftentimes labeled as an R & B artist , he has " entirely steered clear of confining himself to one genre " with the song .
= = Reception = =
" Pyramids " received universal acclaim from music critics . Complex Magazine named the track " song of the week " upon release . Complex later named the song the fourth best song of 2012 . Siân Rowe of NME compared the track to Prince ’ s " Purple Rain " and reported that that the song " is the kind of track you ’ ll lose hours and hours of your life to . This week alone , NME has spent at least two days having our minds freaked on by its space funk swirl . " Pitchfork Media 's Evan Minsker labeled it a " Best New Track " and wrote that " the song 's a 10 @-@ minute R & B event , traveling from club banger ancient Egypt ( ' send the cheetahs to the tomb ' ) to the slow jam strip club ( ' she 's workin ' at the Pyramid tonight ' ) . It 's a journey well @-@ suited to Ocean 's smooth croon . " The publication 's Ryan Dombal commented that it " essentially reincarnates one of the most storied female rulers in history as a six @-@ inch @-@ heeled woman of the night . But still , the song doesn 't read as an indictment of the last 2 @,@ 000 years as much as yet another attempt to cleverly level the playing field . " The Telegraph 's Neil McCormick stated that the track was the " real miracle of the album " , noting that while Ocean " can embark on something as flamboyant as Pyramids - a 10 @-@ minute , tempo @-@ shifting , minor @-@ chord narrative of Egyptian queens and Las Vegas strippers , marrying Tangerine Dream sequencers and a jazzy John Mayer guitar solo to a rapturous slow jam – and make it all seem to make sense . "
Melissa Locker of Time called it a " tour de force " and " a ten @-@ minute history of R & B , arcing from club thumping beats to a sultry drawn out jam with Ocean ’ s voice veering from a velvety croon to an endearingly creaky falsetto . " Spin 's Marc Hogan declared " this much is clear : Ocean continues to deliver songs that combine the narrative punch of a great singer @-@ songwriter with the stylish flair of contemporary hip @-@ hop . " John Hall of The Independent described the song as more new material from the " hardest @-@ working man in hip hop " and that the " 10 @-@ minute single works its way through every genre of contemporary pop , from club banger to slow jam . " Nathan S. of the DJBooth described the song as a sprawling affair , noting that it contains " hazy and ambient cut that manages to weave in soaring guitars and ‘ 90s funk synths . " Alexis Petridis of The Guardian mused that the track seemed ambitious to the point of sounding slightly daft , and that the track was " certainly unlike anything else in current R & B. " PopMatters 's Brice Ezell stated that all it takes is one listen to ' Pyramids ' , the shape @-@ shifting opus of channel ORANGE to cement Ocean ’ s status as one of contemporary R & B ’ s vital songwriters .
John Calvert of The Quietus called " Pyramids " a little " structurally ramshackle though never erratic , it 's the type of massive album centrepiece that was inconceivable before The @-@ Dream 's stadium @-@ R & B reinvented the genre as a mythological epic . " Paley Martin of Most Blunted stated that the track " is so much more than a song ; it is an audible baptism , a narrative delicacy , a self @-@ indulgent experience ! And you best believe once you press play , this ride will take you to the destination of your choice . " Jason Lipshutz of Billboard felt that the real triumph was Ocean 's song structure : " verses and hooks collapse onto each other , rhymes pop up out of nowhere , and the singer acts like minutely balancing a 10 @-@ minute concept piece is no big deal . " Chris Richards of The Washington Post Company described the track as a " righteous funk opus that spans nearly 10 minutes " , commented that it " is loaded with metaphorical riddles , drawing parallels between Cleopatra and a 21st @-@ century prostitute . Puzzle over it . Dance to it . All of the above . "
Ocean 's Odd Future cohort Tyler , The Creator called it his favorite Ocean song on his Twitter account . The song has over one million plays on Ocean 's official SoundCloud account , where the song was originally released .
The song is ranked as the most acclaimed song of 2012 , the 4th most acclaimed song of 2010s and the 172nd most acclaimed song of all time , according to Acclaimed Music . The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop annual critics ' poll ranked " Pyramids " at number 10 to find the best music of 2012 ; Ocean 's previous single , " Thinkin Bout You " charted at number four on the same poll .
= = Promotion = =
When " Pyramids " was first released , it debuted within a promotional video less than two minutes long . The clip consists of an extended shot of a car , which flickers slightly with " otherworldly effects " while a " slinky soul tune plays in the background . " The video was directed by Nabil Elderkin , who also helmed the music videos for past Ocean singles such as " Swim Good " and " Novacane " . A portion of the song was used during television commercials advertising Channel Orange , which began airing following the 2012 BET Awards . Siân Rowe of NME mused that the song will definitely get an outing on his upcoming US tour ; " Imagine lots of dry ice , a velvet @-@ covered rotating stage and the entire front row sighing , ' I love you , Frank ' , what a beautiful sight . " Ocean performed the track during his 14 show Channel Orange tour through North America .
An extended , eight @-@ minute video for " Pyramids " , also directed by Elderkin , was later released on September 8 , 2012 . The video follows a loose narrative , with stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness scenes , and utilizes several songs from Ocean 's album channel ORANGE . It begins with Ocean drinking four shots of absinthe at a bar , before opening fire upon the bar itself ; a segment of " Pink Matter " plays during this portion . A title card appears as Ocean boards his motorcycle ( the song " Start " appears . ) As he rides off into the desert , a snippet of the first half of " Pyramids " plays before transition directly into the second half . Shots of Ocean singing on his motorbike are interspersed with slow @-@ motion scenes of Ocean walking through a strip club in a hallucinogenic haze , occasionally bursting into laughter ; the club employs vampy women . Ocean is then seen in front of a large neon triangle with the Kabbalahian Tree of Life in neon upon it , from which John Mayer emerges and performs an entirely new guitar solo exclusive to the video . James Montgomery of MTV News characterizes the scene as an inadvertent " vision quest " . Ocean falls down backwards , instantly re @-@ appearing in the desert as a plane flies overhead . The song " End " appears as Ocean walks back to his motorcycle , picks up his helmet and walks down the highway towards a pyramid in the distance .
= = Charts = =
= = Remixes and cover versions = =
On September 4 , 2012 , producer Chi Duly released " Pyramids ( Chi Duly Remix ) " , an uptempo nu @-@ disco version .
= Renault Samsung Motors =
Renault Samsung Motors ( Korean : 르노삼성자동차 , IPA : [ ɾɯnoː sʰamsʰʌŋ dʑadoŋtɕʰa ] ) , also known by the acronym RSM , is a South Korean car manufacturer headquartered in Busan where its single assembly site is also located , with additional facilities at Seoul ( administration ) and Giheung ( research and development ) . It was first established as Samsung Motors in 1994 by the chaebol Samsung , with technical assistance from Nissan . The company started selling cars in 1998 , just before South Korea was hit by the Asian financial crisis . In September 2000 , it became a subsidiary of Renault and adopted its present name , although Samsung maintained a minority ownership . RSM markets a range of cars , including electric models and crossovers .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings : Samsung Group era ( 1994 – 2000 ) = = =
In the early 1990s , Samsung 's Chairman Kun Hee Lee recognised the automotive industry as the culmination of several others . For the Samsung Group , this would allow to leverage resources and technologies from the entire group including Samsung Electrics and Samsung Electronics . He initially tried to take control of Kia , but competition from other bidders and legal restrictions made him to drop the idea . Kia was eventually purchased by Hyundai .
Lee decided to create a new carmaker , Samsung Motors ( also known as SMI ) and a truck manufacturer , Samsung Commercial Vehicles Co . , Ltd . ( Hangul : 삼성상용차 주식회사 ; RR : Samseong Sangyongcha Jusikoesa ) , the latter through Samsung Heavy Industries with Nissan Diesel 's support . SMI was established in 1994 ( incorporated in 1995 ) and Daegu @-@ based Samsung Commercial Vehicles in 1996 . Shortly after SMI started its operations , the Asian financial crisis hit . Samsung divested itself of SMI as well as other non @-@ core subsidiaries . SMI was put up for sale , with Daewoo Motors being one of the first interested companies , but , as the crisis deepened , Daewoo Motors itself was bought by GM . Hyundai Motors was also considered as a possible buyer , but corporate politics and strife between the Samsung Group and the Hyundai Group made this impossible . Negotiations with Renault started in December 1998 , and in September 2000 the French automaker bought a 70 % stake for $ 560 million . Samsung Commercial Vehicles was kept by Samsung , but finally it filed for bankruptcy at the end of 2000 .
Coupled with his interest on cars , Lee 's project of building SMI as a global automotive company started out with technical assistance from Nissan , a company which at the time of SMI 's early stages was in dire financial straits . SMI 's affiliation with Nissan could have been one of the reasons for Renault buying a major share of the company , as Renault had become a major shareholder of Nissan by then . One of the very early planners for SMI has stated that technical affiliations for SMI were initially considered with Volkswagen , BMW or Honda . From 1998 , Renault Samsung Motors sold cars in Chile with the introduction of the SQ5 ( the current SM5 ) .
= = = Later developments : Renault era ( 2000 – present ) = = =
= = = = Product and market expansion ( 2000 – 2010 ) = = = =
After the 2000 acquisition , Renault renamed Samsung Motors as Renault Samsung Motors ( RSM ) . That year , the company 's sales began to improve . Journalists attribute this to the success of the first car manufactured at Busan in taxi fleets ( the SM5 ) , which led to increased confidence of the model within the rest of their customer base . During the following years , the company introduced a new vehicle range , including the SM3 in 2002 , the SM7 in 2004 and the crossover QM5 in 2007 . Over time , RSM changed its products from a Nissan @-@ based architecture to a Renault @-@ based one . As part of the Renault group , Renault Samsung basically became an export @-@ oriented manufacturer . Despite not being exported under their own brand , Renault Samsung @-@ manufactured vehicles have over the time been rebadged as Renault or Nissan , and sold in markets such as Europe ( QM5 and SM5 ) , Russia , Ukraine , Mexico , Egypt , Central and South America , the Middle East ( SM3 and SM5 ) , China ( SM7 ) , Australia ( QM5 ) , or the United States and Canada ( the Rogue ) .
In 2005 , Renault increased its stake by acquiring an additional 10 % share from the company 's creditors . On 26 June 2009 , Renault and Samsung agreed to renew the right of the former to use the " Samsung " trade mark on its products until 2020 .
= = = = Decline in sales , electric vehicles and recovery attempts ( 2010 – present ) = = = =
The pressure from both Hyundai and Kia , dominant automakers in the South Korean market , increased during the 2010s , pushing RSM sales down by 27 % in 2011 . In the first half of 2012 , they fell 41 % . In August 2012 , a personnel reduction of about 80 % of employees was presented by management . Finally , Renault reduced its Busan personnel by 15 % ( about 800 employees ) . With the aim of reviving the company , it invested ( together with Nissan ) US $ 160 million to make Nissan Rogues for export in order to improve the production output and also presented revised versions of the SM3 and SM5 . During 2013 , the company started to market a new compact crossover , the QM3 , based on the Captur . By late 2015 , its cumulative sales since 2000 in the South Korean market reached 1 @.@ 5 million units . In 2016 , Renault Samsung introduced the SM6 , a new mid @-@ size model which is a Talisman with some minor changes for the South Korean market .
In 2012 , RSM introduced an electric version of its SM3 car known as the SM3 Z.E. , imported from Turkey . In October 2013 the car started to be assembled at the Busan plant and in the same year it became the leading electric vehicle by sales in South Korea with a 58 % market share . In 2016 , RSM also announced its intention to market the Twizy . In May 2016 , the company announced a project to develop and produce a 1 @-@ tonne electric light commercial vehicle with a 250 @-@ kilometre range on a single charge in partnership with local companies .
As of 2013 , Chile was the only country outside South Korea that RSM has sold its cars under the Renault Samsung Motors marque and not as rebadged Renaults . In 2015 , Renault Samsung badging was replaced entirely by Renault in Chile , with the vehicles themselves now being known under their global Renault names ( e.g. the Renault Samsung SM5 is now the Renault Latitude ) .
= = Facilities = =
= = = Manufacturing = = =
The car manufacturing plant is located at Busan in the Sinho Regional Industrial Site and began production in 1998 . It covers 1 @,@ 650 @,@ 000 m2 and has the capacity to manufacture 300 @,@ 000 cars per year . It can produce various models simultaneously in a single production line . The plant is divided into seven production shops ( stamping , body , painting , bumper , assembly , al @-@ casting and engine ) .
= = = Research and development = = =
The Renault Samsung Technical Centre ( Hangul : 르노삼성 중앙연구소 ; RR : Reuno Samseong Jungang Yeonguso ) located at Giheung near Seoul , is one of the largest research and development facilities of Renault after Guyancourt 's Technocentre . It was established in 1997 as the Samsung Motors Technical Centre , being expanded in 2000 and adopting its current name . At first it was only involved in car engineering , but at the end of 2002 the RSM Design Centre ( Hangul : 르노삼성자 디자인센터 ; RR : Reuno Samseongja Dijain Senteo ) was created within the facility to locally design various cars manufactured by the company . In early 2013 the design branch was renamed Renault Design Asia ( Hangul : 르노 디자인 아시아 ; RR : Reuno Dijain Asia ) and was put in charge of supervising the Renault 's Asian design operations .
= = = Administration = = =
The RSM 's head offices are located at Gasan @-@ dong , Seoul , with additional administrative offices in Busan .
= = Branding = =
= = = Logos = = =
Renault Samsung Motors has two logos : the corporate logo and the marque logo . The first is for corporate communications and is an adaptation of the Samsung Group 's logo . The second is the " storm 's eye " logo which is used as marque 's badge and in advertising .
= = = Slogan = = =
The advertising slogan of Renault Samsung Motors is Discover the Difference ( Hangul : 디스커버 더 디퍼런스 ; RR : Diseukeobeo Deo Dipeoreonseu ) and was introduced in 2009 . According to the company , it refers to the distinct quality of its products .
= = = Vehicle nomenclature = = =
The company includes in its vehicles ' designations numbers related to their sizes . Those numbers are 3 , meaning compact or small vehicle , 5 and 6 , mid @-@ size vehicle , and 7 , large vehicle . The designations also include the letters S and M , which stands for Samsung Motors and Samsung Motor Sedan . However , the sport utility vehicles replace the SM combination by QM ( Quest Motoring ) .
= = Solar energy project = =
In March 2013 , Renault Samsung Motors completed the installation of solar panels in the parking lots , rooftops and surrounding land of its Busan facility to create a 20 @-@ MW solar plant , one of the largest in the world . The project was carried out through a joint venture , Busan Shinho Solar Power SPC ( Hangul : 부산신호태양광 특수목적법인 ; RR : Busan Sinho Taeyang @-@ gwang Teugsumogjeogbeob @-@ in ) , formed by RSM , Korea East @-@ West Power and KC Cottrell , which also manages the plant . It provides energy to the RSM operations and nearby houses .
= = Shareholders = =
Renault Samsung Motors is majority owned by Renault with an 80 @.@ 1 % share . Samsung Card has a 19 @.@ 9 % share of the company .
= = Model lineup = =
As of March 2016 the model lineup consists of the following vehicles :
SM3 ( compact four @-@ door car based on the Renault Fluence )
SM5 ( mid @-@ size four @-@ door car also marketed as the Renault Latitude and Renault Safrane , based on the Renault Laguna III )
SM6 ( large four @-@ door car based on the Renault Talisman )
SM7 ( large four @-@ door car sold as Renault Talisman in China )
QM3 ( a mini @-@ crossover based on the Renault Captur , it is the first car of RSM that is not assembled in South Korea )
QM5 ( the first crossover from Renault Samsung based on the Nissan X @-@ Trail , also marketed as the Renault Koleos )
= = Gallery = =
= Cyclone Alby =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Alby was regarded as the most devastating tropical cyclone to impact southwestern Western Australia on record . Forming out of an area of low pressure on 27 March 1978 , Alby steadily developed as it tracked southwestward , parallel to Western Australia . Between 1 and 2 April , the storm quickly intensified and attained its peak intensity as a Category 5 cyclone on the Australian cyclone intensity scale . After turning to the southeast , the storm underwent an extratropical transition as it neared Cape Leeuwin . The storm brushed the cape on 4 April , bringing hurricane @-@ force winds , before rapidly losing its identity the following day .
In Western Australia , the combination of Alby 's fast movement and hurricane @-@ force winds caused widespread damage . Along the coast , large swells flooded low @-@ lying areas and numerous homes lost their roofs from high winds . Further inland , bushfires were worsened by the storm as it brought little rain , generally less than 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) along the coast . These fires burned roughly 114 @,@ 000 hectares ( 281 @,@ 700 acres ) and destroyed two towns . Five fatalities are directly attributed to Alby while two more resulted from the fires .
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The resulting damage was extensive , with monetary losses reaching A $ 50 million ( $ 45 million USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Alby was first identified on 27 March 1978 as a disorganized area of low pressure situated roughly 800 km ( 500 mi ) north @-@ northwest of Karratha . At this time , the system was characterised as a large cluster of convection converging around the low . Notable development took place over the following three days as the system drifted towards the southwest . Convection began wrapping around the storm , forming banding features . Early on March 29 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , classified the system as a tropical storm . Shortly thereafter , the Bureau of Meteorology in Perth classified it as a tropical cyclone , assigning it with the name Alby . Gale force winds were later confirmed on 30 March by the Martha Bakke , located 385 km ( 239 mi ) west @-@ northwest of the storm 's centre . By then , a large ragged eye developed and Alby steadily intensified through 2 April . At the end of this strengthening , Cyclone Alby attained its peak intensity as a Category 5 on the Australian cyclone intensity scale ; a barometric pressure of 930 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) was measured at the time and peak winds were estimated to be 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) based on the Dvorak technique . Additionally , the JTWC assessed the storm to have attained winds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) , a low @-@ range Category 4 on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale .
Shortly after reaching this intensity , Alby slowed as it began turning towards the southeast . By 3 April , the storm rapidly accelerated and attained a forward speed of 50 km / h ( 31 mph ) . This rapid acceleration was due to the cyclone 's interaction with a cold front to its south . Gradually weakening , Alby also underwent an extratropical transition as the storm 's structure became asymmetrical . Around 1300 UTC , the storm passed within 100 km ( 65 mi ) of Cape Leeuwin as an extratropical storm . Due to the rapid movement of Alby , the system maintained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) as it reached this point , making it one of the most intense storms to strike the region . By 5 April , the cyclone rapidly lost its identity as it became caught up in a northwesterly flow before merging with the cold front over the Great Australian Bight .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Retaining winds in excess of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , Cyclone Alby brought damaging winds to much of the region in and around Cape Leeuwin . The highest winds reached 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) in Albany . In Perth , a peak gust of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) was measured , the third @-@ highest in the city 's history . The intense winds , considered unprecedented for many in the region , were attributed to the fast movement of the storm and its location in relation to land . Moving at speeds up to 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) , winds along the northeastern edge of the storm were increased by that amount due to Alby 's clockwise rotation . It also allowed for winds to cover a large area northeast of the centre , impacting many areas far from the storm . In general , rainfall was limited and generally less than 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) ; this was due to the fast movement , as well as the asymmetrical structure with most of the thunderstorms south of the center .
These winds resulted in widespread agricultural , environmental and structural damage . Hundreds of structures sustained severe damage , mostly consisting of roofs blowing off . The most severe losses took place in Albany where most homes had partial or complete roof failure . Air @-@ borne debris also damaged buildings during the storm . Nearly 80 % of the apple crop was lost in the Donnybrook @-@ Manjimup area . A total of 154 @,@ 400 m3 ( 5 @.@ 4 million ft3 ) of timber was lost as well as a potential 200 @,@ 000 m3 ( 7 million ft3 ) of future growth on established trees . Widespread dust storms also ruined crops and removed topsoil from many areas . Near the coast , the combined effects of strong , onshore winds and little rain led to significant inland sea spray . Numerous power lines and stations failed during the storm due to winds as well as dust and salt accretion . Large portions of the South @-@ West Land Division were without electricity due to Cyclone Alby ; Perth nearly sustained a complete breakdown of power services . This led to secondary losses attributable to the storm such as production failure .
The large expanse of gale @-@ force winds without precipitation exacerbated 92 ongoing brush fires in the region . These fires erupted into full @-@ fledged wildfires , expanding at a rate of 5 to 10 km / h ( 3 @.@ 1 to 6 @.@ 2 mph ) . A total of 114 @,@ 000 hectares ( 281 @,@ 700 acres ) of land was burned throughout Western Australia as a result of the fires . Within this area , more than 10 @,@ 000 sheep and 500 cattle and horses were killed . Over 100 structures , 1 @,@ 300 km ( 810 mi ) of fencing and tens of thousands of hay bales were destroyed . According to newspaper reports , two towns were leveled by the wildfires . At least 50 individual fires were fanned by the storm across the region , prompting more than 1 @,@ 000 firefighters to assist in putting them out . Two fatalities were attributed to these fires .
Along the coast , large swells produced by the storm resulted in two fatalities in Albany Harbour as well as significant coastal damage . Tides across the region were expected to increase . Unexpectedly , all forecast values were exceeded by at least 0 @.@ 3 m ( 0 @.@ 98 ft ) . The highest storm tide was in Busselton at 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) , leading to a storm surge of 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) . Here , the surge penetrated roughly 200 m ( 660 ft ) inland , forcing several evacuations . This led to significant coastal flooding that damaged dozens of structures , including Busselton Jetty . In Bunbury , water breached the sea wall , inundating 100 homes and prompting the evacuation of 130 residents . Throughout Western Australia , Cyclone Alby was responsible for seven fatalities and A $ 50 million ( A $ 213 million 2011 ; $ 284 million 2011 USD ) in damage . There was also severe beach erosion associated with the storm , with some areas losing 30 m ( 98 ft ) of land . Due to the extensive damage , the name Alby was retired from the list of Western Australian cyclone names following its usage .
In the wake of Cyclone Alby , an appeal for relief in the affected region was made by The Lord Mayor 's Distress Relief Fund . The unprecedented scale of damage prompted meteorologists to vastly improve forecasting in the region to be better prepared for a similar storm in the future . At the time , little to no warning was given to residents in the South @-@ West Land Division ; this was the result of Alby 's abrupt acceleration along a cold front , a complex forecasting situation . It was also regarded as a " wake up call " for the region , reminding residents that they are not immune to the effects of tropical cyclones . Cyclone Alby has been used as a benchmark to compare future storms in the region to , such as Severe Tropical Cyclone Bianca in 2011 .
= Bruce Bowen =
Bruce Eric Bowen Jr . ( born June 14 , 1971 ) is an American former professional basketball player . Bowen played small forward and graduated from Edison High School and Cal State Fullerton . He went on to play for the National Basketball Association 's Miami Heat , Boston Celtics , Philadelphia 76ers , San Antonio Spurs and the Continental Basketball Association 's Rockford Lightning , and also played abroad in France .
One of the most feared perimeter " lockdown " defenders in NBA history , Bowen was elected to the NBA All @-@ Defensive First and Second Teams eight times , and was a member of the Spurs teams that won the NBA championships in 2003 , 2005 and 2007 . Off the court , Bowen became an informal ambassador for child obesity awareness . He currently works as an analyst for ESPN .
= = Early years = =
Bruce Bowen Jr. was born in Merced , California as son of Bruce Bowen Sr. and Dietra Campbell . Bowen had a problematic childhood growing up in Merced , because , he claims , his mother took drugs and even sold the family TV to feed her habit . Bruce Jr. spent his days playing basketball and eventually became a star in the local West Fresno Edison High School squad . He then played four seasons at Cal State Fullerton , appearing in 101 games , and averaged 11 @.@ 4 points and 5 @.@ 8 rebounds per game . After averaging 16 @.@ 3 points , 6 @.@ 5 rebounds and 2 @.@ 3 assists in 36 @.@ 6 minutes in 27 games as a senior in 1992 – 93 , he was named to the All @-@ Big West Conference First Team . Bowen ranks 12th on the Titans ' all @-@ time list in career points ( 1 @,@ 155 ) and is seventh all @-@ time in rebounds ( 559 ) .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Early struggles ( 1993 – 1997 ) = = =
After finishing his four @-@ year college eligibility , Bowen was eligible for the 1993 NBA draft , but went undrafted . Instead , he seemed to be destined to become a journeyman athlete . Between 1993 and 1997 , Bowen played for five different teams , starting his professional career for the French teams of Le Havre in 1993 – 94 and Évreux the following season . In 1995 – 96 he played in the CBA with Rockford Lightning ; he spent the next season back in France with Besançon , before returning to the Lightning in February 1997 . Bowen made his NBA debut when he was signed to a ten @-@ day contract by the Miami Heat the following month . His output consisted of 1 game , 1 minute and 1 block .
= = = Getting settled ( 1997 – 2001 ) = = =
In the 1997 – 98 NBA season , Bowen reappeared in the NBA , having been signed by the Boston Celtics . With the Celtics , Bowen slowly established himself in the NBA . In his first full year as an NBA player , he appeared in 61 games ( nine of them as starter ) with the Celtics , averaging 5 @.@ 6 points , 2 @.@ 9 rebounds and 1 @.@ 43 steals in 21 @.@ 4 minutes per game , shooting .409 from the field , .339 from three @-@ point land and .623 from the free throw line . The next year was a disappointment for him , as Bowen appeared in only 30 Celtics games , averaging 2 @.@ 3 points and 1 @.@ 7 rebounds in 16 @.@ 5 minutes per game .
In the 1999 – 2000 NBA season , Bowen signed with the Philadelphia 76ers , and was later traded to the Chicago Bulls and immediately waived , then picked up off waivers by the Miami Heat . In that season , he wore jersey # 12 instead of # 30 and appeared in 69 games , averaging 2 @.@ 8 points and 1 @.@ 4 rebounds in 12 @.@ 7 minutes per game , and scored in double @-@ figures six times . In the following year , Bowen was retained by the Heat . In that year , he had his breakout season . For the first time in his career , he played in all 82 regular season games , averaged 7 @.@ 6 points , 3 @.@ 0 rebounds , 1 @.@ 6 assists and 1 @.@ 01 steals in 32 @.@ 7 minutes per game and set new single season career @-@ highs in games , points , rebounds , assists , blocks , minutes , field goals made and attempted , three @-@ point goals made and attempted and free throws made and attempted . Bowen logged more minutes ( 2 @,@ 685 vs. 2 @,@ 678 ) , scored more points ( 623 vs. 606 ) and hit more threes ( 103 vs. 54 ) than he had in his first four seasons combined . Especially , Bowen earned himself a reputation as a defensive stopper . For his strong perimeter defense , he was voted into the All @-@ Defensive Second Team .
= = = San Antonio Spurs ( 2001 – 2009 ) = = =
In the 2001 – 02 NBA season , Bowen was signed by the San Antonio Spurs . He joined a championship @-@ caliber team , led by veteran Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame center David Robinson and young power forward Tim Duncan , complemented by talented role players like Steve Smith , Malik Rose , Antonio Daniels and point guards Terry Porter and Tony Parker . Bowen established himself as a starter , beginning in each of his 59 regular @-@ season games . In that season , Bowen received his first of several fines : he had to pay $ 7 @,@ 500 for kicking Wally Szczerbiak in the face during a March 1 , 2002 game . In the 2002 NBA Playoffs , Bowen started in all 10 Spurs playoffs games , where the team eventually succumbed to the Los Angeles Lakers . For his feats , Bowen earned himself his second All @-@ Defensive Second Team nomination , although some peers and sports analysts accused him of being a " dirty " defender .
In the next season , Bowen started in all 82 regular season games for the second time in his career and averaged 7 @.@ 1 points , 2 @.@ 9 rebounds and 1 @.@ 4 assists in 31 @.@ 3 minutes per game . Again , he was voted into the All @-@ Defensive Second Team and was a member of the Spurs team which won the 2003 NBA Finals . At age 31 , the one @-@ time journeyman Bowen had won his first championship ring as a starter . In the following three seasons , Bowen established a reputation as one of the best perimeter defenders in the NBA , earning three straight All @-@ Defensive First Team elections and ending as runner @-@ up in the NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award votings twice , losing to post defender Ben Wallace .
Having established himself as the premier defensive backcourt player , Bowen 's effective , but hard nosed style of play came under discussion . In particular , rival guards Vince Carter and Steve Francis accused him of encroaching into their landing space during their jumpshot . Inside Hoops columnist M.J. Darnell commented : " They 're whining because Bruce Bowen has frustrated , upset , hurt or angered them in some way .... He just plays tough , physical defense , does not play with any intent to injure , but isn 't afraid to get in someone 's grill " . Bowen 's defensive style failed to help this Spurs squad repeat in the 2004 NBA Playoffs , as the team was eventually defeated 4 – 2 by the Los Angeles Lakers in the Western Conference Semi @-@ Finals .
Bowen and the Spurs bounced back and won the NBA title in 2005 , defeating the Detroit Pistons . The Spurs could not win back @-@ to @-@ back titles , however , and bowed out 4 – 3 in a seven @-@ game series against the Dallas Mavericks in the 2006 NBA Playoffs . As a testament to his controversial style of play , Bowen picked up a $ 10 @,@ 000 NBA fine for kicking Ray Allen in the back during a March 2006 game .
In the 2007 NBA Playoffs , the Spurs played against the Phoenix Suns , and Bowen became the center of controversy . His knee contacted Phoenix Suns guard Steve Nash 's groin , knocking Nash to the floor . Also in that series , forward – center Amar 'e Stoudemire accused Bowen of kicking him during a game , but the NBA reviewed and dismissed the claim . ESPN columnist Bill Simmons commented that Bowen was " a cheap player who 's going to seriously hurt someone someday " , but Simmons also acknowledged that Bowen " ultimately makes his team better . " The Spurs went on to beat the Suns , and Bowen 's defense contributed to the Spurs winning their fourth championship in the 2007 NBA Finals .
In the 2007 – 08 NBA season , the now 36 @-@ year @-@ old veteran Bowen played and started in 81 of 82 regular season games , earning his fifth straight nomination in the NBA All @-@ Defensive First Team . Ever controversial , Bowen was fined $ 7 @,@ 000 and suspended for one game for kicking Chris Paul after Paul had fallen to the floor during a March 12 , 2008 game . Bowen finished as the runner @-@ up behind Marcus Camby for the league 's defensive player of the year award . In the 2008 NBA Playoffs , Bowen was unable to stop Los Angeles Lakers guard Kobe Bryant , who averaged 28 @.@ 3 points and helped L.A. beat the Spurs in five games . Bowen started in every Spurs regular season and playoff game from 2001 to 2008 .
The 2008 – 09 NBA season was to be Bowen 's last with the Spurs . Although he played in 80 regular season games , he was no longer a starter as was the case in the previous seven San Antonio campaigns . His minutes were also greatly reduced ( from 30 + to 18 @.@ 9 per game ) , although his shooting numbers remained consistent . The Spurs went into the 2009 NBA Playoffs with a 54 – 28 record and as the third seed . With influential shooting guard Manu Ginóbili out injured , the Spurs got off to a bad start to the series and eventually lost 4 – 1 against the Dallas Mavericks , bowing out of the playoffs in the first round for the first time since 2000 .
On June 23 , 2009 , Bowen was traded along with Kurt Thomas and Fabricio Oberto to the Milwaukee Bucks for Richard Jefferson . He was released on July 31 , 2009 and retired on September 3 , 2009 .
On March 21 , 2012 , the Spurs retired Bowen 's # 12 jersey . Bowen 's jersey is the seventh retired by the Spurs . With Bowen 's blessing , the Spurs unretired the number 12 for incoming free agent LaMarcus Aldridge in 2015 .
= = International career = =
In 2006 U.S. coach Mike Krzyzewski invited Bowen to join the United States men 's national basketball team , which participated in the 2006 FIBA World Championships in Japan . At 35 , he was the oldest player to participate ; Krzyzewski said that the team needed a defensive player like Bowen . However , Bowen received little playing time , despite the injuries of fellow swingmen and guards Antawn Jamison , Carmelo Anthony and Dwyane Wade . Although he participated in several training sessions and training camps , Bowen was eventually cut from the team . He expressed disappointment and said he hoped to make the 2008 Olympics squad , but was not named to the team in the end .
= = Player profile = =
The 6 ft 7 in ( 2 @.@ 01 m ) , 200 lb ( 91 kg ) Bowen played the small forward , and occasionally the shooting guard , position . He had a reputation for being one of the best perimeter defenders in the NBA , earning himself eight consecutive nominations for the NBA All @-@ Defensive First and Second Teams from 2001 to 2008 . From 2005 to 2007 , he was second in voting for the NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award , beaten only by centers Ben Wallace ( 2005 and 2006 ) and Marcus Camby ( 2007 ) who are both post defenders .
Bowen was not known for his offensive production . He was seldom sought on offense , having never attempted more than 600 field goals in an entire 82 @-@ game regular season , and his career averages of 6 @.@ 4 points , 2 @.@ 8 rebounds and 1 @.@ 3 assists per game , and .566 foul shooting were considered mediocre , never earning him nominations for NBA All @-@ Star or All @-@ NBA First or Second Teams . His foul shooting , in fact , was poor enough that he was at times been made the target of the Hack @-@ a @-@ Shaq defense . However , opposing teams could not leave Bowen wide open on offense , because he was also an accurate three @-@ point shooter ( .393 career average on 2 @,@ 082 attempts ) , particularly from the corner . In addition , despite his age Bowen played 500 consecutive games between February 28 , 2002 and March 12 , 2008 , leading Sports Illustrated to name him in 2007 the " Iron Man " of the NBA .
Responding to fan e @-@ mail in 2005 , Bowen stated that defense is " a little bit of talent and a lot of work ; being able to take on the challenge of going up against the top guys , even when you didn 't win that battle . Being able to come back the next day and try again — I think that 's the most important thing . " He also stressed that the key to being a good basketball player was to " work hard and make sure you have fun with the game more than anything else . " Bowen mentioned that he considered small forward Carmelo Anthony and shooting guard Ray Allen to be among the most difficult players to guard .
= = Personal life = =
Bowen is the son of Bruce Bowen Sr. and Dietra Campbell . He told a reporter of having a problematic childhood , plagued by his mother 's drug addiction and his father 's alcohol problems . Today , Bowen is estranged from his parents and several relatives , instead looking up to his childhood friend Quinn Crozier and to Robert and Sandra Thrash , a Los Angeles couple whom he regards as his adoptive parents . Bowen is married to Yardley Barbon , a Miami native of Cuban descent , and the couple have two sons , Ojani ( born September 7 , 2005 ) and Ozmel ( born June 9 , 2007 ) . He often speaks out against child obesity and runs his own " Get fit with Bruce and Buddy " program for children 's healthy nutrition and daily sports activities . He is a fan of the Dallas Cowboys and the University of Texas at Austin Longhorns football team . He runs the Bruce Bowen Foundation , an organization set up to provide scholarships and bursaries . In 2006 , he received a college degree in communications from Cal State Fullerton ; he had also taken classes at the University of Texas at San Antonio . He has stated that he wants to become a teacher .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= Octavia Hill =
Octavia Hill ( 3 December 1838 – 13 August 1912 ) was an English social reformer , whose main concern was the welfare of the inhabitants of cities , especially London , in the second half of the nineteenth century . Born into a family with a strong commitment to alleviating poverty , she herself grew up in straitened circumstances owing to the financial failure of her father . With no formal schooling , she worked from the age of 14 for the welfare of working people .
Hill was a moving force behind the development of social housing , and her early friendship with John Ruskin enabled her to put her theories into practice with the aid of his initial investment . She believed in self @-@ reliance , and made it a key part of her housing system that she and her assistants knew their tenants personally and encouraged them to better themselves . She was opposed to municipal provision of housing , believing it to be bureaucratic and impersonal .
Another of Hill 's concerns was the availability of open spaces for poor people . She campaigned against development on existing suburban woodlands , and helped to save London 's Hampstead Heath and Parliament Hill Fields from being built on . She was one of the three founders of the National Trust , set up to preserve places of historic interest or natural beauty for the enjoyment of the British public . She was a founder member of the Charity Organisation Society ( now the charity Family Action ) which organised charitable grants and pioneered a home @-@ visiting service that formed the basis for modern social work . She was a member of the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws in 1905 .
Hill 's legacy includes the large holdings of the modern National Trust , several housing projects still run on her lines , a tradition of training for housing managers , and the museum established by the Octavia Hill Society at her birthplace .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Octavia Hill was the daughter of James Hill , corn merchant , follower of Owenismand banker , and his third wife , Caroline Southwood Smith . He had been widowed twice , and had six children ( five daughters and a son ) from his previous marriages . He had been impressed by the writings on education of Caroline Southwood Smith , the daughter of Dr Thomas Southwood Smith , a pioneer of sanitary reform . He had engaged Caroline as a governess for his children in 1832 , and they were married in 1835 , three years before Octavia was born in Wisbech , Cambridgeshire , her father 's eighth daughter and ninth child . The family 's comfortably prosperous life was disrupted by James Hill 's financial problems and his mental collapse . In 1840 he was declared bankrupt . Caroline Hill 's father gave the family financial support , and took on some of Hill 's paternal role . Southwood Smith was a health and welfare reformer concerned with a range of social issues including child labour in mines and the housing of the urban poor . Caroline Hill held similar views on social reform , and her interest in progressive education , influenced by Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi , and Southwood Smith 's daily experience in his work at the London Hospital in the East End inspired Octavia Hill 's concern for the poorest in early Victorian London . She received no formal schooling : her mother educated the family at home .
The family settled in a small cottage in Finchley , now a north London suburb , but then a village . Octavia Hill was impressed and moved by Henry Mayhew 's London Labour and the London Poor , a book that portrayed the daily lives of slum dwellers . She was also strongly influenced by the theologian , Anglican priest and social reformer F. D. Maurice , who was a family friend . She began her work on behalf of London 's poor by helping to make toys for Ragged school children , and serving as secretary of the women 's classes at the Working Men 's College in Bloomsbury in central London .
A co @-@ operative guild providing employment for " distressed gentlewomen " accepted Hill for training in glass @-@ painting when she was 13 . When the work of the guild was expanded to provide work in toy @-@ making for Ragged school children , she was invited , at the age of 14 , to take charge of the workroom . The following year she began working in her spare time from the guild as a copyist for John Ruskin in Dulwich Art Gallery and the National Gallery . She was deeply aware of the dreadful living conditions of the children in her charge at the guild . Her views on encouraging self @-@ reliance led to her association with the Charity Organisation Society ( COS ) , described by Hill 's biographer Gillian Darley as " a contentious body which deplored dependence fostered by kindly but unrigorous philanthropy … support to the poor had to be carefully targeted and efficiently supervised . Later in life , however , she began to think the COS line … was over @-@ harsh . "
Hill was short , like all her family , and indifferent to fashion . Her friend Henrietta Barnett wrote : " She was small in stature with long body and short legs . She did not dress , she only wore clothes , which were often unnecessarily unbecoming ; she had soft and abundant hair and regular features , but the beauty of her face lay in brown and very luminous eyes , which quite unconsciously she lifted upwards as she spoke on any matter for which she cared . Her mouth was large and mobile , but not improved by laughter . Indeed , Miss Octavia was nicest when she was made passionate by her earnestness . " Barnett also spoke of Hill 's streak of ruthlessness . Gertrude Bell called Hill despotic . Later in Hill 's life , the Bishop of London , Frederick Temple , encountered her at a meeting of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners , and wrote , " She spoke for half an hour … I never had such a beating in all my life . "
= = = Housing for the poor = = =
Parliament and many concerned reformers had been attempting to improve the housing of the working classes since the early 1830s . When Hill began her work , the model dwelling movement had been in existence for twenty years , royal and select committees had sat to examine the problems of urban well @-@ being , and the first of many tranches of legislation aimed at improving working class housing had been passed . From Hill 's point of view these had all failed the poorest members of the working class , the unskilled labourers . She found that their landlords routinely ignored their obligations towards their tenants , and that the tenants were too ignorant and oppressed to better themselves . She tried to find new homes for her charges , but there was a severe shortage of available property , and Hill decided that her only solution was to become a landlord herself . John Ruskin , who was interested in the co @-@ operative guild , knew Hill from her work as his copyist and was impressed by her . As an aesthete and a humanitarian he was affronted by the brutal ugliness of the slums . In 1865 , having inherited a substantial sum of money from his father , he acquired for £ 750 the leases of three cottages of six rooms each in Paradise Place , Marylebone .
Ruskin placed these houses , which were " in a dreadful state of dirt and neglect " , under Hill 's management . He told her that investors might be attracted to such schemes if a five per cent annual return could be secured . In 1866 Ruskin acquired the freehold of five more houses for Hill to manage in Freshwater Place , Marylebone . The Times recorded , " The houses faced a bit of desolate ground occupied by dilapidated cowsheds and manure heaps . The needful repairs and cleaning were carried out , the waste land was turned into a playground where Mr. Ruskin had some trees planted . "
After being improved the properties were let to those on intermittent and low incomes . A return of five per cent on capital was obtained as promised to Ruskin ; any excess over the five per cent was reinvested within the properties for the benefit of the tenants . Rent arrears were not tolerated , and bad debts were minimal . As Hill said , " Extreme punctuality , and diligence in collecting rents , and a strict determination that they shall be paid regularly , have accomplished this . " In consequence of her prudent management , Hill was able to attract new backers , and by 1874 she had 15 housing schemes with around 3 @,@ 000 tenants .
Hill 's system was based on closely managing not only the buildings but the tenants ; she insisted , " you cannot deal with the people and their houses separately . " She maintained close personal contact with all her tenants , and was strongly opposed to impersonal bureaucratic organisations and to governmental intervention in housing . In her view , " municipal socialism and subsidized housing " led to indiscriminate demolition , re @-@ housing schemes , and the destruction of communities .
= = = Housing management = = =
At the heart of the Octavia Hill system was the weekly visit to collect rent . From the outset , Hill conceived this as a job for women only . She and her assistants , including Emma Cons combined the weekly rent collection with checking every detail of the premises and getting to know the tenants personally , acting as early social workers . At first Hill believed , " Voluntary workers are a necessity . They are better than paid workers , and can be had in sufficient numbers . " Later , she found it expedient to maintain a paid workforce . Her system required a large staff . Rent was collected on Monday , Tuesday and Wednesday mornings . Rent accounts were balanced in the afternoons and arrangements were made with contractors for repairs . On Thursdays and Fridays arrears were pursued , contractors ' invoices paid , new tenancy lettings and tenants ' moves organised .
If any of Hill 's assistants had spare time , whether during normal working hours or in frequent voluntary after @-@ hours working , it was used to promote tenants ' associations and after @-@ work and children 's after @-@ school clubs and societies . In 1859 , Hill created the Southwark detachment of the Army Cadet Force , its first independent unit , which gave training along military lines for local boys . Hill considered that such an organisation would be more like the " real thing " than such existing outfits as the Church Lads ' Brigade and therefore more attractive to young men " who had passed the age of make @-@ believe " . She invited a serving officer of the Derbyshire Regiment to set up the company , and such was its popularity that its numbers had to be capped at 160 cadets .
Hill 's principles were summed up in an article of 1869 : " Where a man persistently refuses to exert himself , external help is worse than useless . " She was an outspoken critic of the principles of " outdoor relief " or the Speenhamland system of poor relief as operated by various Poor Law Boards . Because these systems did not encourage recipients to work , she regarded them as " a profligate use of public funds . " Under her methods , personal responsibility was encouraged . She insisted on dealing with arrears promptly ; she appointed reliable caretakers ; she took up of references on prospective tenants , and visited them in their homes ; she paid careful attention to allocations and the placing of tenants , with regard to size of families and the size and location of the accommodation to be offered ; and she made no rules that could not be properly enforced .
An American admirer described her as " ruling over a little kingdom of three thousand loving subjects with an iron scepter twined with roses . " Although Hill drove her associates hard , she drove herself harder . In 1877 , she collapsed and had to take a break of several months from her work . Darley ascribes a number of contributory causes : " chronic overwork , a lack of delegation , the death of her close friend Jane Senior , the failure of a brief engagement " , as well as an attack on her by John Ruskin . The Hill family found a companion for her , Harriot Yorke ( 1843 – 1930 ) . Yorke took on a great amount of the everyday work that had caused Hill 's collapse . She remained her companion until Hill 's death . A further palliative was the building of a cottage , at Crockham Hill near Sevenoaks in Kent , where they could take breaks from their work in London .
= = = Open spaces = = =
Among Hill 's concerns was that her tenants , and all urban workers , should have access to open spaces . She believed in " the life @-@ enhancing virtues of pure earth , clean air and blue sky . " In 1883 , she wrote :
There is perhaps no need of the poor of London which more prominently forces itself on the notice of anyone working among them than that of space . ... How can it best be given ? And what is it precisely which should be given ? I think we want four things . Places to sit in , places to play in , places to stroll in , and places to spend a day in . The preservation of Wimbledon and Epping shows that the need is increasingly recognised . But a visit to Wimbledon , Epping , or Windsor means for the workman not only the cost of the journey but the loss of a whole day ’ s wages ; we want , besides , places where the long summer evenings or the Saturday afternoon may be enjoyed without effort or expense .
She campaigned hard against building on existing suburban woodlands , and helped to save Hampstead Heath and Parliament Hill Fields from development . She was the first to use the term " Green Belt " for the protected rural areas surrounding London . Three hills in Kent ( Mariners Hill , Toys Hill and Ide Hill ) which she helped to protect from development form part of the belt .
In 1876 Hill became the treasurer of the Kyrle Society , founded in that year by her eldest sister , Miranda , as a " Society for the Diffusion of Beauty " . Under the slogan " Bring Beauty Home to the Poor " it aimed to bring art , books , music and open spaces into the lives of the urban poor . For a short period it flourished and expanded , and although it declined after a few years , it was a template for the National Trust , 20 years later .
Before that , however , Hill was engaged in a campaign in 1883 to stop the construction of railways from the quarries in the fells overlooking Buttermere , in the English Lake District , with damaging effect on the unspoilt scenery . The campaign was led by Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley , who secured the support of Ruskin , Hill , and Sir Robert Hunter , solicitor to the Commons Preservation Society . From 1875 onwards , Hunter had been Hill 's legal adviser on the protection of open spaces in London . Both he and Rawnsley , building on an idea put forward by Ruskin , conceived of a trust that could buy and preserve places of natural beauty and historic interest for the nation .
On 16 November 1893 , Hill , Hunter and Rawnsley met in the offices of the Commons Preservation Society and agreed to launch such a trust . Hill suggested that it should be called " The Commons and Gardens Trust " , but the three agreed to adopt Hunter 's suggested title , the " National Trust " . Under its full formal title , the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty was inaugurated the following year . The trust was concerned primarily with protecting open spaces and endangered buildings of historic interest ; its first property was Alfriston Clergy House and its first nature reserve was Wicken Fen .
= = = Later years = = =
The number of homes managed by Hill continued to grow . Although Ruskin had turned against her in a bout of mental instability , she found a new supporter , the Ecclesiastical Commissioners , who handed over to her the management of their housing estates in several poor areas of south London . By the end of the nineteenth century , Hill 's women workers were no longer unpaid volunteers but trained professionals . Hill 's influence spread beyond the properties under her own control . Her ideas were taken up and copied , with her enthusiastic support , in continental Europe and the United States of America . Beatrice Webb said that she " first became aware of the meaning of the poverty of the poor , " while staying with her sister , who was a rent collector for Octavia Hill in the East End . Queen Victoria 's daughter , Princess Alice of Hesse @-@ Darmstadt , was taken incognito on a tour of some of Hill 's properties , and she translated Hill 's Homes of the London Poor into German . Among those whom Hill trained was her assistant and secretary , Maud Jeffery , who was later engaged by the Commissioners of Crown Lands to run new housing estates in London on Octavia Hill 's lines . Even some local authorities , despite Hill 's distrust , followed her model : some of the earliest examples of municipal council housing , at Kensington and Camberwell , were run on her lines , with the acquisition of working class houses , and their gradual improvement , without evictions or demolitions .
Despite her opposition to interference by national or local government in the provision of housing , Hill had to cope with the newly created London County Council and the involvement of the council and other local authorities in providing housing for the poor . In 1884 a royal commission on the housing of the working classes was set up , but the prime minister , W.E. Gladstone , and his ministerial colleagues vetoed a proposal to include Hill among the members of the commission . The municipal authorities quickly surpassed her in the number of properties under their management . A.S. Wohl notes that in the 1880s Hill had about £ 70 @,@ 000 worth of property under her management , and at the end of her career she was managing the dwellings of " perhaps three or four thousand people at the most . " The London County Council , by contrast , had a budget of £ 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 for its programme of rehousing London 's poor in 1901 – 02 .
Hill was opposed to other reforms that came about in the early part of the twentieth century . She was against female suffrage on the grounds that " men and women help one another because they are different , have different gifts and different spheres " . She also believed that provision of social services and old @-@ age pensions by the government did more harm than good , sapping people 's self @-@ reliance .
Hill died from cancer on 13 August 1912 at her home in Marylebone , at the age of 73 .
= = Legacy and memorials = =
When John Singer Sargent 's portrait of her was presented by her fellow @-@ workers in 1898 , Hill made a speech in which she said , " When I am gone , I hope my friends will not try to carry out any special system , or to follow blindly in the track which I have trodden . New circumstances require various efforts , and it is the spirit , not the dead form , that should be perpetuated . ... We shall leave them a few houses , purified and improved , a few new and better ones built , a certain amount of thoughtful and loving management , a few open spaces ... " But , she said , more important would be " the quick eye to see , the true soul to measure , the large hope to grasp the mighty issues of the new and better days to come – greater ideals , greater hope , and patience to realize both . "
The Horace Street Trust , founded by Hill , became a model for many subsequent housing associations and developed into the present trust that bears her name , Octavia Housing . Today it owns several of the homes , including Gable Cottages , designed by Elijah Hoole , who worked with Hill for many years . Hill 's determination to provide community space can still be seen in the shape of the Red Cross site in Southwark ( 1888 ) , among others . The Octavia Hill Society website states that with a community hall , and soundly maintained attractive houses , Hill here anticipated the fundamental ingredients of town planning by some 15 years .
The Settlement Movement ( creating integrated mixed communities of rich and poor ) grew directly out of Hill 's work . Her colleagues Samuel and Henrietta Barnett , founded Toynbee Hall , the first university @-@ sponsored settlement , which together with the Women 's University Settlement ( later called the Blackfriars Settlement ) continues to serve local communities . Overseas , Hill 's name is perpetuated in the Octavia Hill Association in Philadelphia , a small property company , founded to provide affordable housing to low and middle @-@ income city residents .
Women who had trained under Hill formed the Association of Women Housing Workers in 1916 . This later changed its name to the Society of Housing Managers in 1948 . After merging with the Institute of Housing Managers in 1965 , the society became the present day Chartered Institute of Housing in 1994 . The CIH is a professional body for those working in the housing profession in the UK and overseas . The training that Hill gave to Charity Organisation Society volunteers contributed to the development of modern social work , and COS continued to be instrumental in developing social work as a profession during the twentieth century . COS is still in operation today as the charity Family Action .
In 1907 , Parliament passed the first National Trust Act , enshrining the trust 's permanent purpose and giving it powers to protect property for the benefit of the nation . The trust now looks after a wide range of coast , countryside and historic buildings . According to the trust 's website , " Staff , volunteers and tenants are engaged daily in providing access to open spaces for people ’ s enjoyment , providing habitats for wildlife and in improving our environment – ' for ever , for everyone ' . "
Commemorations of Hill herself include a monument to her at a Surrey beauty spot , on the summit of a hill called Hydon Ball ( now owned by the National Trust ) . Shortly after her death , the family erected a stone seat there , from which walkers can enjoy views over the Surrey countryside . The Octavia Hill Society was set up in 1992 " to promote awareness of the ideas and ideals of Octavia Hill , her family , fellow workers and their relevance in today 's society nationally and internationally " . Under the society 's auspices her birthplace at Wisbech has been turned into the Octavia Hill Birthplace Museum . In 1995 , to mark the centenary of the National Trust , a new variety of rose , " Octavia Hill " , was named in her honour .
= Dream On ( Glee ) =
" Dream On " is the nineteenth episode of the American television series Glee . The episode premiered on the Fox network on May 18 , 2010 . It was directed by Joss Whedon and written by series creator Brad Falchuk . Neil Patrick Harris guest @-@ stars as former glee club star Bryan Ryan . Working as a school board auditor , he threatens to cut the glee club out of the budget , bitter at never having attained his own show @-@ business dreams . Rachel ( Lea Michele ) attempts to find her birth mother , and Artie ( Kevin McHale ) struggles with his desire to walk . The episode title is a reference to Aerosmith 's song " Dream On " , also performed during the episode .
The episode features cover versions of seven songs , four of which were released as singles , available for digital download , and three of which are included on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 3 Showstoppers . " Dream On " was watched by 11 @.@ 59 million American viewers and received generally positive reviews from critics . Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune , Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle , Gerrick . D Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times and Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club all deemed it one of the best episodes of the season , while Aly Semigran of MTV , Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack and Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal praised the musical performances . Blair Baldwin of Zap2it in contrast felt that the songs were inconsistent , and while Harris ' appearance was generally well received , Eric Goldman of IGN felt that his storyline was lacking in impact .
= = Plot = =
Bryan Ryan ( Neil Patrick Harris ) , a former McKinley High glee club member , arrives as an auditor from the school board . He speaks to the glee club , asking everyone to write their biggest dream on a piece of paper . He then takes Artie 's ( Kevin McHale ) paper and tosses it into the trash , making a point that their dreams will never come true . Having failed to realize his own dreams , he intends to cut the glee club . Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) convinces him that it is not too late to pursue his dreams and sings " Piano Man " with him . They both audition for the role of Jean Valjean in the local production of Les Misérables , singing " Dream On " as a duet . Bryan decides not to cut the glee club , and even presents them with new costumes and sheet music , but changes his mind when cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) announces that Will landed the lead role . Will gives up his role in Les Misérables to Bryan in order to save the glee club .
Rachel ( Lea Michele ) confides in Jesse ( Jonathan Groff ) of her lifelong dream to discover the identity of her mother . While they are searching through boxes of records from her basement , Jesse takes a cassette tape from his jacket and pretends that it came from the box . The tape is labeled as a message from mother to daughter . Rachel refuses to listen to the tape , stating that she is not ready . Jesse later meets with Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) , the coach of Vocal Adrenaline , who reveals that she is Rachel 's biological mother , but a contractual agreement with Rachel 's two fathers prevents her from meeting with Rachel until Rachel is 18 . Jesse reveals that though he had " befriended " Rachel just to get more acting practice , he had actually started liking her . She implores Jesse to convince Rachel to listen to the tape . Back at Rachel 's house , Jesse starts the tape playing as Rachel enters her bedroom , then leaves her to listen to it . On the tape , Shelby sings " I Dreamed a Dream " , leading to a duet with Rachel in a dream sequence , ending with Rachel back in her room in tears .
After Bryan 's discouraging speech , Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) retrieves Artie 's paper from the trash and learns that his biggest dream is to become a dancer . Tina would like to dance with Artie , but he falls off his crutches when he tries to stand up from his wheelchair . Tina comforts Artie by showing him some of the latest research in spinal cord injury treatments . While waiting for Tina to buy pretzels at the mall , Artie fantasizes about being able to stand up from his wheelchair and dances to " The Safety Dance " in a flash mob dream sequence . He later asks guidance counsellor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) for advice on how to cope with the possibility of walking again in light of the new research , but is disappointed when Emma tells him that such treatments may not become available for a long time . Tina continues to offer to dance with him but he declines , insisting that she choose another partner but agreeing to sing during the dance . Tina chooses Mike ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) as her dance partner as Artie leads the glee club into " Dream a Little Dream of Me " .
= = Production = =
" Dream On " was filmed in March 2010 . In October 2009 , Michael Ausiello of Entertainment Weekly reported that 20th Century Fox , the studio behind Glee , had approached Joss Whedon about directing an episode during the show 's first season . Series creator Ryan Murphy is a fan of Whedon 's work , and praised the musical episode of his series Buffy the Vampire Slayer , commenting : " Joss directed one of the great musical episodes in the history of television on Buffy , so this is a great , if unexpected , fit . I 'm thrilled he 'll be loaning us his fantastic groundbreaking talent . " Whedon deemed Glee his favorite television show , but downplayed his influence over the episode . Asked by Ileane Rudolph of TV Guide whether the episode would feature songs from Buffy , or his 2008 musical Dr. Horrible 's Sing @-@ Along Blog , Whedon replied : " I would have to say a resonant ' no way . ' The episode isn 't about me . It 's the next episode of Glee . Hopefully my hands will be invisible on the show . " Whedon felt that his job was to be anonymous : " to find the most compelling way to present a story without calling attention to himself . " He acknowledged his proclivity for killing off fans ' favorite characters , jesting that he planned to murder Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) .
Whedon feels the episode 's title is pertinent to the storylines , explaining that the aim was to examine the desires at the core of the central characters , including Will 's desire to perform , Rachel 's desire to find her biological mother and Artie 's desire to walk again . He stated : " I was really lucky because there 's a real phonetic coherence of the episode that brought them all together on an emotional level . For me , it was just a question that they dovetailed and didn 't feel random and you understood why these three stories were all in the same show . "
Kristin Dos Santos of E ! Online commented on Whedon 's tendency to work repeatedly with the same actors , and hoped that Dr. Horrible star Neil Patrick Harris might appear in the episode . Four months later , in February 2010 , Dos Santos reported that Harris had signed a contract to appear on Glee . Murphy created a role especially for the actor , who received clearance from CBS to appear on Fox for the episode . Ausiello reported that Harris would play Bryan Ryan , a former high school rival of glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) , now a member of the Lima school board , intent on revenge for never having fulfilled his own potential by cutting the school arts program . Morrison stated that Harris ' character is two years older than Will , and " got all the girls and the good songs " during their high school days .
Recurring characters who appear in " Dream On " are glee club members Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) , Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) , Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) , Matt Rutherford ( Dijon Talton ) and Jesse St. James ( Jonathan Groff ) , astronomy teacher Brenda Castle ( Molly Shannon , appearing alongside her Kath & Kim co @-@ star , John Michael Higgins ) , and Vocal Adrenaline coach Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) . The episode features cover versions of seven songs . Will and Bryan duet on " Dream On " by Aerosmith , and " Piano Man " by Billy Joel . Bryan also sings " Daydream Believer " by The Monkees , and a Les Misérables auditionee played by Wendy Worthington sings " Big Spender " from Sweet Charity . Artie performs " The Safety Dance " by Men Without Hats and " Dream a Little Dream of Me " by The Mamas & the Papas , and Shelby and Rachel sing " I Dreamed a Dream " from Les Misérables . Each of the songs except " Piano Man " , " Big Spender " and " Daydream Believer " were released as singles , available for digital download , and " Dream On " , " The Safety Dance " and " I Dreamed a Dream " are also included on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 3 – Showstoppers . " I Dreamed a Dream " charted at number 36 on the Irish Singles Chart .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " Dream On " was watched by 11 @.@ 59 million American viewers and attained a 4 @.@ 8 / 12 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . In the United Kingdom , the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 54 million viewers and was the most @-@ watched show of the week on the non @-@ terrestrial channels . In Canada , it was watched by 1 @.@ 86 million viewers , making Glee the tenth most @-@ viewed show of the week . In Australia , Glee drew its highest @-@ ever overnight audience with 1 @.@ 30 million viewers , and won its timeslot in all key demographics . Its consolidated ratings were adjusted up to 1 @.@ 56 million , making " Dream On " the eleventh most @-@ viewed program of the week .
= = = Critical response = = =
The episode received generally positive reviews from critics . Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune deemed " Dream On " a " highly enjoyable " , " emotionally satisfying " episode , and possibly her favorite since the pilot . Ryan praised Whedon 's directing , writing that it is clear " Whedon really gets what this show is good at when it 's working " . Lee Ferguson of CBC also called " Dream On " one of his favorite episodes of the season , commenting that : " NPH easily outperformed some of the other recent celebs ( including Molly Shannon and Olivia Newton @-@ John ) who 've stopped by the show " , and hoped that his character would return in the future .
CNN 's Lisa Respers France praised both the Artie and Rachel storylines , and wrote that : " Harris ' Bryan Ryan character had it all : timing , great singing and a crazy chemistry with Jane Lynch 's character , Sue Sylvester . " James Poniewozik of Time deemed the episode " exceptional in ways that went beyond guest appearances " , noting : " it was not just good compared with recent episodes , but entertaining , arresting and moving in an unqualified sense . " Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle called " Dream On " : " one of the best episodes in one of the greatest freshman seasons in recent history " , while Gerrick D. Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times similarly deemed the episode one of the best of " an already stellar freshman season " , and Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club graded the episode " A " and called it " one of the two or three best Glee episodes ever . Hell , it might be THE best . "
Aly Semigran of MTV reviewed the episode 's musical performances positively , calling " Piano Man " the series ' " most realistic musical number " and writing that " nothing even came close to the amount of awesome " that was the " Dream On " duet . Semigran noted that McHale 's songs " proved he was a force to be reckoned with " , and called the " I Dreamed a Dream " duet " goosebump @-@ inducing " , observing : " Pretty sure that 's what musical theater lovers ' dreams are made of . " Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal called Michele and Menzel 's number " one of the most touching duets in the show so far " , stating : " the vulnerability they both convey is stunning in its simplicity and perfection . " Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack wrote that the " Piano Man " duet was so good he wished it had been released for download . He rated the songs performed " B + " through to " A " and called " Safety Dance " one of his favorite moments of the episode , deeming it a " joyous , huge performance — definitely one of the most elaborate numbers the show has done before . "
Blair Baldwin of Zap2it wrote that while the " Dream On " performance began perfectly , Harris " killed the song " with an " ear @-@ wrenching " lead @-@ in to the chorus . Baldwin also highlighted synchronization problems with the " Safety Dance " choreography , and wrote that Shum 's dancing to " Dream a Little Dream " was "
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terrible " and " sloppy " . Baldwin did enjoy the " I Dreamed a Dream " performance , and hoped for greater consistency in the future . Eric Goldman of IGN rated the episode 7 @.@ 7 / 10 , writing that while he had expected the episode to be " freaking awesome " , instead it was merely " okay " . He felt that the musical numbers " failed to really resonate " , and called Harris ' character " amusing in theory " but ultimately " one @-@ note " and lacking in impact , with a storyline that " fizzled out " . In December 2012 , TV Guide named the " Safety Dance " rendition one of Glee 's best performances .
In August 2010 , the 62nd Primetime Creative Emmys awarded Harris an Emmy ( out of two total ) in the ' Best Guest Actor in a Comedy Series ' category for his " Dream On " appearance and performance .
= Scandinavian Airlines System Flight 347 =
Scandinavian Airlines System Flight 347 was a scheduled domestic flight which , on 3 November 1994 , was hijacked shortly after take @-@ off . The flight , from Bardufoss Airport via Bodø Airport to Oslo Airport , Fornebu in Norway , was operated by a McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 82 belonging to Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) . The hijacker was Haris Keč , a Bosnian living in Norway , who made demands that Norwegian authorities help to stop the humanitarian suffering in his home country caused by the Bosnian War . No one was injured in the incident .
Keč hijacked the aircraft with 122 passengers and a crew of six in mid @-@ air after leaving Bardufoss . The aircraft landed as scheduled at Bodø , where all women , children and seniors were let off , along with two of the cabin crew . The aircraft then departed Bodø with 77 passengers and a crew of four . It was diverted to Gardermoen , where Keč made his demands . He surrendered at about 21 : 00 , seven hours after take @-@ off from Bardufoss , after some of his demands had been met . He was sentenced to four years prison for the incident .
= = Hijacking = =
SAS Flight 347 was a scheduled , domestic flight from Bardufoss Airport via Bodø Airport to Oslo Airport , Fornebu . Check @-@ in and boarding ran as normal , without any security check . At Bardufoss , 122 people boarded the aircraft , including a large group of soldiers who were on leave of absence and on their way home to Southern Norway . Representatives from the ground handlers stated that none of the passengers acted suspiciously .
During the first leg of the flight , at about 15 : 00 , Keč , wearing a winter coat , got up from his seat and walked to the front of the aircraft . A flight attendant stopped him . After talking for a short while , and another flight attendant came by , he was let into the cockpit . No information about the hijacking was given to the passengers until arrival at Bodø . Bodø Airport was evacuated and the aircraft parked at Bodø Main Air Station , the military section . After landing , by order of the hijacker , the passengers were informed that all women , children under 18 and people over 60 were to leave the aircraft . After this had happened , there were 77 passengers and four crew members left . The aircraft departed Bodø at about 16 : 00 and headed for Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , which was closed for all other traffic .
After the aircraft had landed at Gardermoen at 17 : 20 , contact was established between Keč and the police negotiator Morten , who also had been the prime negotiator during Aeroflot Flight 137 , a hijacking that also had taken place at the airport . Keč predominantly spoke English and insisted that he simply be referred to as " the Bosnian " . He immediately informed that he had not hurt any of the crew or passengers , and that he was not affiliated with anyone . His immediate demands were that official representatives were to tell the world what needed to be done to solve the conflict in Bosnia . He then gave a presentation of the situation and that his only intentions were to help his countrymen . For several minutes , the conversion was about the lack of help Keč felt was being given to his home country .
Eventually Morten requested that a helicopter with medical supplies be moved next to the aircraft , for which Keč granted permission . Contact between the pair was lost and Morten had to call Keč six times before getting a response . After 15 minutes , Keč again resumed communication . He demanded that he talk to someone from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs , and said he wanted media coverage of the incident . " I do not need publicity myself , " he said . " I only need to arrange a press conference for the whole world community and the media , and that someone from the Norwegian government promises me and the world community that they will ensure that the United Nations ( UN ) in New York attempts to open all corridors in Bosnia to feed people in Bosnia so they can survive the winter . " Keč indicated that if this did not lead to anything , he would go to the UN himself and that his friends would support him . He gave the authorities one hour to meet his demands before he would fly to another destination .
At 19 : 02 , Keč demanded 10 tonnes ( 9 @.@ 8 long tons ; 11 short tons ) of aviation fuel and food for two to three days for 80 people . Three minutes later , Morten informed Keč that the chief of police had held a press conference where Keč 's demands and goals had been presented and that it had been followed by all major Norwegian newspapers and television channels . Keč responded that he did not need the chief of police , but someone from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , such as Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland , Minister of Foreign Affairs Bjørn Tore Godal or the Norwegian Ambassador to the United Nations . Morten stated that it was not possible to get the prime minister to the airport in just five minutes . Keč responded that if this did not happen within reasonable time , he would fly to another country .
At 20 : 04 stated that he did not believe in Thorvald Stoltenberg , the minister of foreign affairs , the prime minister or any UN ambassador . Six minutes later , he demanded 25 tonnes ( 25 long tons ; 28 short tons ) of medicines for Bosnia . After a positive response from Morten , Keč stated that he needed to make Bosnia 's situation known in the media . He then demanded that Godal make a speech from the European Parliament . Later it was confirmed that requested medicines would be sent by air to Bosnia the following day .
Morten then stated that they did not feel that Keč was doing things the right way . If he chose to fly to a new airport , negotiations would have to start again , perhaps in a different language . Morten urged Keč to calm down and that they wanted to solve the situation just as much as him . Keč responded by pleading for help for Bosnia . At 20 : 50 , Keč stated " I wish to release everyone and myself . Both Bosnians and Norwegians will understand this " . After confirming his surrender would occur at 21 : 00 , Keč stated that he was " cold and calm " and that he intended to surrender without any trouble . Directed by the negotiation , Keč went to the door , opened it and was arrested .
According to the police , the passengers behaved very calmly , given the circumstances . Keč allowed several of the passengers to use their mobile telephones , allowing one of them to communicate with the police and keep Sheriff Jan Bergen updated on the situation . Anti @-@ terror police had been called to the scene , and there were plans to storm the aircraft if the situation escalated . After the incident , the police refused to say if they would have stormed the aircraft if Keč followed through his threats to depart to another airport . During the last stages of the incident , another aircraft was parked beside the MD @-@ 82 , which the police confirmed played a role towards the end of the hijacking . All communication towards the central government was made to the Norwegian Ministry of Justice , and neither the prime minister of the minister of foreign affairs was ever contacted . No weapons were found on either the aircraft nor on the hijacker .
= = Aftermath = =
Haris Keč was at the time of the incident 25 years old . Born in Sarajevo , then in Yugoslavia and now in Bosnia and Herzegovina , he was a student and journalist while living in his home country . He moved to Norway on 11 July 1993 , after having been granted a residential permit . After having lived in a refuge reception center in Alstahaug , he moved into his own home . He was a volunteer journalist for Landsforeningen Bosnia Hercegovina and had written several articles . Until the incident he had a clean criminal record . People who knew him described him as " sympathetic " and " resourceful " , and doubted that he intended to harm anyone . A municipal immigrant consultant stated that he was " a person with initiative " who sought to get to know Norwegians and find work .
Keč was charged with three criminal offenses : the hijacking itself , and fraud and forgery related to attempting to take out 50 @,@ 000 Norwegian krone from a friend 's bank account . He had confessed the crime and several witnesses could confirm he had committed the crime . The incident was the second court case in Norway regarding hijacking , after Braathens SAFE Flight 139 had been hijacked by a drunk in 1985 . The law permitted a sentence from 2 to 21 years prison . On 16 June 1995 , Keč was sentenced to four years prison by Eidsivating Court of Appeal . After receiving the sentence , he stated to the press : " I regret hijacking the aircraft . I have apologized to the victims . Hijacking an aircraft was a completely wrong way to create attention for the situation in Bosnia . "
= Isidor Isaac Rabi =
Isidor Isaac Rabi ( / ˈrɑːbi / ; born Israel Isaac Rabi , 29 July 1898 – 11 January 1988 ) was an American physicist and Nobel laureate , recognized in 1944 for his discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance , which is used in magnetic resonance imaging . He was also one of the first scientists in the US to work on the cavity magnetron , which is used in microwave radar and microwave ovens .
Born into a traditional Jewish family in Rymanów , Galicia , in what was then part of Austria @-@ Hungary , Rabi came to the United States as a baby and was raised in New York 's Lower East Side . He entered Cornell University as an electrical engineering student in 1916 , but soon switched to chemistry . Later , he became interested in physics . He continued his studies at Columbia University , where he was awarded his doctorate for a thesis on the magnetic susceptibility of certain crystals . In 1927 , he headed for Europe , where he met and worked with many of the finest physicists of the time .
In 1929 Rabi returned to the United States , where Columbia offered him a faculty position . In collaboration with Gregory Breit , he developed the Breit @-@ Rabi equation and predicted that the Stern – Gerlach experiment could be modified to confirm the properties of the atomic nucleus . His techniques for using nuclear magnetic resonance to discern the magnetic moment and nuclear spin of atoms earned him a Nobel Prize for Physics in 1944 . Nuclear magnetic resonance became an important tool for nuclear physics and chemistry . The subsequent development of magnetic resonance imaging from it has made it important to medicine as well .
During World War II he worked on radar at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Radiation Laboratory ( RadLab ) and on the Manhattan Project . After the war , he served on the General Advisory Committee ( GAC ) of the Atomic Energy Commission , and was chairman from 1952 to 1956 . He also served on the Science Advisory Committees ( SACs ) of the Office of Defense Mobilization and the Army 's Ballistic Research Laboratory , and was Science Advisor to President Dwight D. Eisenhower . He was involved with the establishment of the Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1946 , and later , as United States delegate to UNESCO , with the creation of CERN in 1952 . When Columbia created the rank of University Professor in 1964 , Rabi was the first to receive such a chair . A special chair was named after him in 1985 . He retired from teaching in 1967 but remained active in the department and held the title of University Professor Emeritus and Special Lecturer until his death .
= = Early years = =
Israel Isaac Rabi was born on 29 July 1898 into a Polish @-@ Jewish Orthodox family in Rymanów , Galicia , in what was then part of Austria @-@ Hungary but is now Poland . Soon after he was born , his father , David Rabi , emigrated to the United States . The younger Rabi and his mother , Sheindel , joined David there a few months later , and the family moved into a two @-@ room apartment on the Lower East Side of Manhattan . At home the family spoke Yiddish . When Rabi was enrolled in school , Sheindel said his name was Izzy , and a school official , thinking it was short for Isidor , put that down as his name . Henceforth , that became his official name . Later , in response to anti @-@ Semitism , he started writing his name as Isidor Isaac Rabi , and was known professionally as I.I. Rabi . To most of his friends and family , including his sister Gertrude , who was born in 1903 , he was known simply as " Rabi " , which was pronounced " Robby " . In 1907 , the family moved to Brownsville , Brooklyn , where they ran a grocery store .
As a boy , Rabi was interested in science . He read science books borrowed from the public library and built his own radio set . His first scientific paper , on the design of a radio condenser , was published in Modern Electrics when he was in elementary school . After reading about Copernican heliocentrism , he became an atheist . " It 's all very simple " , he told his parents , " who needs God ? " As a compromise with his parents , for his Bar Mitzvah , which was held at home , he gave a speech in Yiddish about how an electric light works . He attended the Manual Training High School in Brooklyn , from which he graduated in 1916 . Later that year , he entered Cornell University as an electrical engineering student , but soon switched to chemistry . After the American entry into World War I in 1917 , he joined the Students Army Training Corps at Cornell . For his senior thesis , he investigated the oxidation states of manganese . He was awarded his Bachelor of Science degree in June 1919 , but since at the time Jews were largely excluded from employment in the chemical industry and academia , he did not receive any job offers . He worked briefly at the Lederle Laboratories , and then as a bookkeeper .
= = Education = =
In 1922 Rabi returned to Cornell as a graduate chemistry student , and began studying physics . In 1923 he met , and began courting , Helen Newmark , a summer @-@ semester student at Hunter College . In order to be near her when she returned home , Rabi continued his studies at Columbia University , where his supervisor was Albert Wills . In June 1924 Rabi landed a job as a part @-@ time tutor at the City College of New York . Wills , whose specialty was magnetism , suggested that Rabi write his doctoral thesis on the magnetic susceptibility of sodium vapor . The topic did not appeal to Rabi , but after William Lawrence Bragg gave a seminar at Columbia about the electric susceptibility of certain crystals called Tutton 's salts , Rabi decided to research their magnetic susceptibility , and Wills agreed to be his supervisor .
Measuring the magnetic resonance of crystals first involved growing the crystals , a simple procedure often done by elementary school students . The crystals then had to be prepared by skillfully cutting them into sections with facets that had an orientation different from the internal structure of the crystal , and the response to a magnetic field had to be painstakingly measured . While his crystals were growing , Rabi read James Clerk Maxwell 's 1873 A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism , which inspired an easier method . He lowered a crystal on a glass fiber attached to a torsion balance into a solution whose magnetic susceptibility could be varied between two magnetic poles . When it matched that of the crystal , the magnet could be turned on and off without disturbing the crystal . The new method was not only much less work , it also produced a more accurate result . Rabi sent his thesis , entitled On the Principal Magnetic Susceptibilities of Crystals , to Physical Review on 16 July 1926 . He married Helen the next day . The paper attracted little fanfare in academic circles , although it was read by Kariamanickam Srinivasa Krishnan , who used the method in his own investigations of crystals . Rabi concluded that he needed to promote his work as well as publish it .
Like many other young physicists , Rabi was closely following momentous events in Europe . He was astounded by the Stern – Gerlach experiment , which convinced him of the validity of quantum mechanics . With Ralph Kronig , Francis Bitter , Mark Zemansky and others , he set out to extend the Schrödinger equation to symmetric top molecules and find the energy states of such a mechanical system . The problem was that none of them could solve the resulting equation , a second @-@ order partial differential equation . Rabi found the answer in a book by the 19th century mathematician Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi . The equation had the form of a hypergeometric equation to which Jacobi had found a solution . Kronig and Rabi wrote up their result and sent it to Physical Review , which published it in 1927 .
= = Europe = =
In May 1927 , Rabi was appointed a Barnard Fellow . This came with a stipend of $ 1 @,@ 500 ( $ 20 @,@ 434 in 2016 dollars ) for the period from September 1927 to June 1928 . He immediately applied for a year 's leave of absence from the City College of New York so he could study in Europe . When this was refused , he resigned . On reaching Zürich , where he hoped to work for Erwin Schrödinger , he met two fellow Americans , Julius Adams Stratton and Linus Pauling . They found that Schrödinger was leaving , as he had been appointed head of the Theoretical Institute at Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin . Rabi therefore decided to seek a position with Arnold Sommerfeld at the University of Munich instead . In Munich , he found two more Americans , Howard Percy Robertson and Edward Condon . Sommerfeld accepted Rabi as a postdoctoral student . German physicists Rudolf Peierls and Hans Bethe were also working with Sommerfeld at the time , but the three Americans became especially close .
On Willis ' advice , Rabi traveled to Leeds for the 97th annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science , where he heard Werner Heisenberg present a paper on quantum mechanics . Afterwards , Rabi moved to Copenhagen , where he volunteered to work for Niels Bohr . Bohr was on vacation , but Rabi went straight to work on calculating the magnetic susceptibility of molecular hydrogen . After Bohr returned in October , he arranged for Rabi and Yoshio Nishina to continue their work with Wolfgang Pauli at the University of Hamburg .
Although he came to Hamburg to work with Pauli , Rabi found Otto Stern working there with two English @-@ speaking postdoctoral fellows , Ronald Fraser and John Bradshaw Taylor . Rabi soon made friends with them , and became interested in their molecular beam experiments , for which Stern would receive the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1943 . Their research involved non @-@ uniform magnetic fields , which were difficult to manipulate and hard to measure accurately . Rabi came up with the idea of using a uniform field instead , with the molecular beam at a glancing angle , so the atoms would be deflected like light through a prism . This would be easier to use , and produce more accurate results . Encouraged by Stern , and greatly assisted by Taylor , Rabi managed to get his idea to work . On Stern 's advice , Rabi wrote a letter about his results to Nature , which published it in February 1929 , followed by a paper entitled Zur Methode der Ablenkung von Molekularstrahlen ( " On the method of deflection of molecular beams " ) to Zeitschrift für Physik , where it was published in April .
By this time the Barnard Fellowship had expired and Rabi and Helen were living off a $ 182 per month stipend from the Rockefeller Foundation . They left Hamburg for Leipzig , where he hoped to work with Heisenberg . In Leipzig , he found Robert Oppenheimer , a fellow New Yorker . It would be the start of a long friendship . However , Heisenberg departed for a tour of the United States in March 1929 , so Rabi and Oppenheimer decided to go to the ETH Zurich , where Pauli was now the professor of Physics . Rabi 's education in physics was enriched by the leaders in the field he met there , which included Paul Dirac , Walter Heitler , Fritz London , Francis Wheeler Loomis , John von Neumann , John Slater , Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner .
= = Molecular Beam Laboratory = =
On 26 March 1929 , Rabi received an offer of a lectureship from Columbia , with a good annual salary of $ 3 @,@ 000 . The Dean of Columbia 's Physics Department , George B. Pegram , was looking for a theoretical physicist to teach statistical mechanics and an advanced course in the new subject of quantum mechanics , and Heisenberg had recommended Rabi . Helen was now pregnant , so Rabi needed a regular job , and this job was in New York . He accepted , and returned to the United States in August on the SS President Roosevelt . Rabi became the only Jewish faculty member at Columbia at the time .
As a teacher , Rabi was underwhelming . Leon Lederman recalled that after a lecture , students would head to the library to try and figure out what Rabi had been talking about . Irving Kaplan rated Rabi and Harold Urey as " the worst teachers I ever had " . Norman Ramsey considered Rabi 's lectures " pretty dreadful " , while William Nierenberg felt that he was " simply an awful lecturer " . Despite his shortcomings as a lecturer , his influence was great . He inspired many of his students to pursue careers in physics , and some became famous .
Rabi 's first daughter , Helen Elizabeth , was born in September 1929 . A second girl , Margaret Joella , followed in 1934 . Between his teaching duties and his family , he had little time for research , and published no papers in his first year at Columbia , but was nonetheless promoted to assistant professor at its conclusion . He subsequently became a professor in 1937 .
In 1931 Rabi returned to particle beam experiments . In collaboration with Gregory Breit , he developed the Breit @-@ Rabi equation , and predicted that the Stern – Gerlach experiment could be modified to confirm the properties of the atomic nucleus . The next step was to do so . With the help of Victor W. Cohen , Rabi built a molecular beam apparatus at Columbia . Their idea was to employ a weak magnetic field instead of a strong one , with which they hoped to detect the nuclear spin of sodium . When the experiment was conducted , four beamlets were found , from which they deduced a nuclear spin of 3 ⁄ 2 .
Rabi 's Molecular Beam Laboratory began to attract others , including Sidney Millman , a graduate student who studied lithium for his doctorate . Another was Jerrold Zacharias , who , believing that the sodium nucleus would be too difficult to understand , proposed studying the simplest of the elements , hydrogen . Its deuterium isotope had only recently been discovered at Columbia in 1931 by Urey , who received the 1934 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work . Urey was able to supply them with both heavy water and gaseous deuterium for their experiments . Despite its simplicity , Stern 's group in Hamburg had observed that hydrogen did not behave as predicted . Urey also helped in another way ; he gave Rabi half his prize money to fund the Molecular Beam Laboratory . Other scientists whose careers began at the Molecular Beam Laboratory included Norman Ramsey , Julian Schwinger , Jerome Kellogg and Polykarp Kusch . All were men ; Rabi did not believe that women could be physicists . He never had a woman as a doctoral or postdoctoral student , and generally opposed women as candidates for faculty positions .
At the suggestion of C. J. Gorter , the team attempted to use an oscillating field . This became the basis for the nuclear magnetic resonance method . In 1937 , Rabi , Kusch , Millman and Zacharias used it to measure the magnetic moment of several lithium compounds with molecular beams , including lithium chloride , lithium fluoride and dilithium . Applying the method to hydrogen , they found that the moment of a proton was 2 @.@ 785 ± 0 @.@ 02 nuclear magnetons , and not 1 as predicted by the then @-@ current theory , while that of a deuteron was 0 @.@ 855 ± 0 @.@ 006 nuclear magnetons . This provided more accurate measurements of what Stern 's team had found , and Rabi 's team had confirmed , in 1934 . Since a deuteron is composed of a proton and a neutron with aligned spins , the neutron 's magnetic moment could be inferred by subtracting the deuteron and proton magnetic moments . The resulting value was not zero , and had sign opposite to that of the proton . Based on curious artifacts of these more accurate measurements , Rabi suggested that the deuteron had an electric quadrupole moment . This discovery meant that the physical shape of the deuteron was not symmetric , which provided valuable insight into the nature of the nuclear force binding nucleons . For the creation of the molecular @-@ beam magnetic @-@ resonance detection method , Rabi was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1944 .
= = World War II = =
In September 1940 , Rabi became a member of the Scientific Advisory Committee of the U.S. Army 's Ballistic Research Laboratory . That month , the British Tizard Mission brought a number of new technologies to the United States , including a cavity magnetron , a high @-@ powered device that generates microwaves using the interaction of a stream of electrons with a magnetic field . This device , which promised to revolutionize radar , demolished any thoughts the Americans had entertained about their technological leadership . Alfred Lee Loomis of the National Defense Research Committee decided to establish a new laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to develop this radar technology . The name Radiation Laboratory was chosen as both unremarkable and a tribute to the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory . Loomis recruited Lee DuBridge to run it .
Loomis and DuBridge recruited physicists for the new laboratory at an Applied Nuclear Physics conference at MIT in October 1940 . Among those who volunteered was Rabi . His assignment was to study the magnetron , which was so secret that it had to be kept in a safe . The Radiation Laboratory scientists set their sights on producing a microwave radar set by 6 January 1941 , and having a prototype installed in a Douglas A @-@ 20 Havoc by March . This was done ; the technological obstacles were gradually overcome , and a working microwave radar set was produced . The magnetron was developed to permit a reduction in wavelength from 150 cm to 10 cm , and then to 3 cm . The laboratory went on to develop air @-@ to @-@ surface radar to detect submarines , the SCR @-@ 584 radar for fire control , and LORAN , a long @-@ range radio navigation system . At Rabi 's instigation , a branch of the Radiation Laboratory was located at Columbia , with Rabi in charge .
In 1942 Oppenheimer attempted to recruit Rabi and Robert Bacher to work at the Los Alamos Laboratory on a new secret project . They convinced Oppenheimer that his plan for a military laboratory would not work , since a scientific effort would need to be a civilian affair . The plan was modified , and the new laboratory would be a civilian one , run by the University of California under contract from the War Department . In the end , Rabi still did not go west , but did agree to serve as a consultant to the Manhattan Project . Rabi attended the Trinity test in July 1945 . The scientists working on Trinity set up a betting pool on the yield of the test , with predictions ranging from total dud to 45 kilotons of TNT equivalent ( kt ) . Rabi arrived late and found the only entry left was for 18 kilotons , which he purchased . Wearing welding goggles , he waited for the result with Ramsey and Enrico Fermi . The blast was rated at 18 @.@ 6 kilotons , and Rabi won the pool .
= = Later life = =
In 1945 , Rabi delivered the Richtmyer Memorial Lecture , held by the American Association of Physics Teachers in honor of Floyd K. Richtmyer , wherein he proposed that the magnetic resonance of atoms might be used as the basis of a clock . William L. Laurence wrote it up for the New York Times , under the headline " ' Cosmic pendulum ' for clock planned " . Before long Zacharias and Ramsey had built such atomic clocks . Rabi actively pursued his research into magnetic resonance until about 1960 , but he continued to make appearances at conferences and seminars until his death .
Rabi chaired Columbia 's physics department from 1945 to 1949 , during which time it was home to two Nobel laureates ( Rabi and Enrico Fermi ) and eleven future laureates , including seven faculty ( Polykarp Kusch , Willis Lamb , Maria Goeppert @-@ Mayer , James Rainwater , Norman Ramsey , Charles Townes and Hideki Yukawa ) , a research scientist ( Aage Bohr ) , a visiting professor ( Hans Bethe ) , a doctoral student ( Leon Lederman ) and an undergraduate ( Leon Cooper ) . Martin L. Perl , a doctoral student of Rabi 's , won the Nobel Prize in 1995 . When Columbia created the rank of University Professor in 1964 , Rabi was the first to receive such a chair . This meant that he was free to research or teach whatever he chose . He retired from teaching in 1967 but remained active in the department and held the title of University Professor Emeritus until his death . A special chair was named after him in 1985 .
A legacy of the Manhattan Project was the network of national laboratories , but none was located on the East Coast . Rabi and Ramsey assembled a group of universities in the New York area to lobby for their own national laboratory . When Zacharias , who was now at MIT , heard about it , he set up a rival group at MIT and Harvard . Rabi had discussions with Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , the director of the Manhattan Project , who was willing to go along with a new national laboratory , but only one . Moreover , while the Manhattan Project still had funds , the wartime organization was expected to be phased out when a new authority came into existence . After some bargaining and lobbying by Rabi and others , the two groups came together in January 1946 . Eventually nine universities ( Columbia , Cornell , Harvard , Johns Hopkins , MIT , Princeton , Pennsylvania , Rochester and Yale ) came together , and on 31 January 1947 , a contract was signed with the Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) , which had replaced the Manhattan Project , that established the Brookhaven National Laboratory .
Rabi suggested to Edoardo Amaldi that Brookhaven might be a model that Europeans could emulate . Rabi saw science as a way of inspiring and uniting a Europe that was still recovering from the war . An opportunity came in 1950 when he was named the United States Delegate to the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) . At a UNESCO meeting at the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence in June 1950 , he called for the establishment of regional laboratories . These efforts bore fruit ; in 1952 , representatives of eleven countries came together to create the Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire ( CERN ) . Rabi received a letter from Bohr , Heisenberg , Amaldi and others congratulating him on the success of his efforts . He had the letter framed and hung it on the wall of his home office .
The Atomic Energy Act of 1946 that created the Atomic Energy Commission provided for a nine @-@ man General Advisory Committee ( GAC ) to advise the Commission on scientific and technical matters . Rabi was one of those appointed in December 1946 . The GAC was enormously influential throughout the late 1940s , but in 1950 , the GAC unanimously opposed the development of the hydrogen bomb . Rabi went further than most of the other members , and joined Fermi in opposing the hydrogen bomb on moral as well as technical grounds . However , President Harry S. Truman overrode the GAC 's advice , and ordered development to proceed . Rabi later said :
I never forgave Truman for buckling under the pressure . He simply did not understand what it was about . As a matter of fact , after he stopped being President he still didn 't believe that the Russians had a bomb in 1949 . He said so . So for him to have alerted the world that we were going to make a hydrogen bomb at a time when we didn 't even know how to make one was one of the worst things he could have done . It shows the dangers of this sort of thing .
Oppenheimer was not reappointed to the GAC when his term expired in 1952 , and Rabi succeeded him as chairman , serving until 1956 . Rabi later testified on Oppenheimer 's behalf at the Atomic Energy Commission 's controversial security hearing in 1954 that led to Oppenheimer being stripped of his security clearance . Many witnesses supported Oppenheimer , but none more forcefully than Rabi :
So it didn 't seem to me the sort of thing that called for this kind of proceeding ... against a man who has accomplished what Dr. Oppenheimer has accomplished . There is a real positive record ... We have an A @-@ bomb and a whole series of it , and we have a whole series of super bombs , and what more do you want , mermaids ?
Rabi was appointed a member of the Science Advisory Committee ( SAC ) of the Office of Defense Mobilization in 1952 , serving as its chairman from 1956 to 1957 . This coincided with the Sputnik crisis . President Dwight Eisenhower met with the SAC on 15 October 1957 , to seek advice on possible US responses to the Russians ' satellite success . Rabi , who knew Eisenhower from the latter 's time as president of Columbia University , was the first to speak , and put forward a series of proposals , one of which was to strengthen the committee so it could provide the President with timely advice . This was done , and the SAC became the President 's Science Advisory Committee a few weeks later . He also became Eisenhower 's Science Advisor . In 1956 Rabi attended the Project Nobska anti @-@ submarine warfare conference , where discussion ranged from oceanography to nuclear weapons . He served as the US Representative to the NATO Science Committee at the time that the term " software engineering " was coined . While serving in that capacity , he bemoaned the fact that many large software projects were delayed . This prompted discussions that led to the formation of a study group that organized the first conference on software engineering .
In the course of his life , Rabi received many honors in addition to the Nobel Prize . These included the Elliott Cresson Medal from the Franklin Institute in 1942 , the Medal for Merit and the King 's Medal for Service in the Cause of Freedom from Great Britain in 1948 , the officer in the French Legion of Honor in 1956 , Columbia University 's Barnard Medal for Meritorious Service to Science in 1960 , the Niels Bohr International Gold Medal and the Atoms for Peace Award in 1967 , the Oersted Medal from the American Association of Physics Teachers in 1982 , the Four Freedoms Award from the Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute and the Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences 1985 , and the Vannevar Bush Award from the National Science Foundation in 1986 , He was a Fellow of the American Physical Society , serving as its President in 1950 , and a member of the National Academy of Sciences , the American Philosophical Society , and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . He was internationally recognized with membership in the Japan Academy and the Brazilian Academy of Sciences , and in 1959 was appointed a member of the Board of Governors of the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel .
Rabi died at his home on Riverside Drive , Manhattan , from cancer on 11 January 1988 . He was survived by his wife , Helen , who died at the age of 102 on 18 June 2005 . In his last days , he was reminded of his greatest achievement when his physicians examined him using magnetic resonance imaging , a technology that had been developed from his ground @-@ breaking research on magnetic resonance . The machine happened to have a reflective inner surface , and he remarked : " I saw myself in that machine ... I never thought my work would come to this . "
= = Books = =
Rabi , Isidor Isaac ( 1960 ) . My Life and Times as a Physicist . Claremont , California : Claremont College . OCLC 1071412 .
Rabi , Isidor Isaac ( 1970 ) . Science : The Center of Culture . New York : World Publishing Co . OCLC 74630 .
Rabi , Isidor Isaac ; Serber , Robert ; Weisskopf , Victor F. ; Pais , Abraham ; Seaborg , Glenn T. ( 1969 ) . Oppenheimer : The Story of One of the Most Remarkable Personalities of the 20th Century . Scribner 's . OCLC 223176672 .
= Æthelwold of East Anglia =
Æthelwold , also known as Æthelwald or Æþelwald ( Old English : Æþelwald " noble ruler " ; reigned c . 654 – 664 ) , was a 7th @-@ century king of East Anglia , the long @-@ lived Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom which today includes the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk . He was a member of the Wuffingas dynasty , which ruled East Anglia from their regio ( centre of royal authority ) at Rendlesham . The two Anglo @-@ Saxon cemeteries at Sutton Hoo , the monastery at Iken , the East Anglian see at Dommoc and the emerging port of Ipswich were all in the vicinity of Rendlesham .
Æthelwold lived during a time of political and religious upheaval in East Anglia , whose Christian kings in the decades prior to his succession all died violent deaths , having proved unworthy of the task of defending the newly converted kingdom against attacks from its neighbouring kingdom , Mercia , led by its pagan king , Penda . Æthelwold was the last of the nephews of Rædwald to rule East Anglia . He died in 664 and was succeeded by Ealdwulf , the son of his brother Æthelric .
Few records relating to East Anglia have survived and almost nothing is known of Æthelwold 's life or reign . He succeeded his elder brother Æthelhere , after Æthelhere was killed with Penda of Mercia at the Battle of the Winwæd in about 655 . During his rule he witnessed a setback in the aspirations of Mercia to dominate its neighbours , following the Battle of the Winwæd and the murder of Penda 's son , Peada .
He was king during the last decade of the co @-@ existence in England of the Christian Roman rite , centred at Canterbury , and the Celtic rite based in Northumbria . At the Synod of Whitby , in 664 , the Roman cause prevailed and the division of ecclesiastical authorities ceased . In 662 , Swithelm of Essex was persuaded to adopt Christianity and was baptised at Rendlesham , with Æthelwold present as his sponsor . East Anglia became more closely allied to Northumbria , Kent and lands in the Fens by means of royal marriages such as that between the Northumbrian Hereswitha and the East Anglian Æthilric .
= = Historical context = =
= = = The emergence of the Kingdom of the East Angles = = =
The history of East Anglia and its kings is known from the The Ecclesiastical History of the English People , compiled by the Northumbrian monk Bede in 731 , and a genealogical list from the Anglian collection , dating from the 790s , in which the ancestry of Ælfwald of East Anglia was traced back through fourteen generations to Wōden .
East Anglia was a long @-@ lived Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom in which a duality of a northern and a southern part existed , corresponding with the modern English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk . It was formed during the 5th century , following the ending of Roman power in Britain in 410 . The east of Britain became settled at an early date by Saxons and Angles from the continent . During the 5th century , groups of settlers of mixed stock migrated into the Fens and up the major rivers inland . From Bede it is known that the people who settled in what became East Anglia were Angles , originally from what is now part of Denmark . By the 6th century , new settlements had also appeared along the river systems of the east coast of East Anglia , including the Deben , the Alde and the Orwell . The settlers were unaffected by Roman urban civilisation and had their own religion and language . As more of the region fell under their control , new kingdoms were formed , replacing the function of the Roman territoria . Surrounded by sea , fenland , large defensive earthworks such as the Devil 's Dyke and wide rivers , all of which acted to disconnect it from the rest of Britain , the land of the East Angles eventually became united by a single ruling dynasty , the Wuffingas .
= = = Rædwald and his successors = = =
The first king of the East Angles of whom more than a name is known was Rædwald , described by Bede as ' the son of Tytil , whose father was Wuffa ' , who reigned from about 599 until approximately 624 . According to Bede , he was converted to Christianity at the court of his overlord Æthelberht of Kent in about 604 . Later in his reign he was powerful enough to hold imperium over several Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms . In 616 , he defeated Æthelfrith of Northumbria and installed the exiled Edwin as the new king . He is thought to have been given a ship burial and interred amongst a magnificent array of personal treasures and symbols of regal power that were discovered under Mound 1 at Sutton Hoo , in Suffolk . His son Eorpwald succeeded him and reigned briefly before he was killed soon after his baptism , by a heathen named Ricberht , after which the East Angles reverted to paganism . Ricberht was replaced by Sigeberht , whose Christian education ensured that Christianity was reestablished . During Sigeberht 's joint reign with Ecgric , the East Anglian see at Dommoc was established .
During 632 or 633 , Edwin of Northumbria was overthrown and slain and his kingdom was ravaged by Cadwallon ap Cadfan , supported by Penda of Mercia . The Mercians then turned on the East Angles and their king , Ecgric . In 640 or 641 , they routed the East Anglian army in a battle in which Ecgric and his predecessor Sigeberht both perished .
Ecgric 's successor , Æthelwold 's brother Anna , who was renowned for his devout Christianity and the saintliness of his children , proved ineffective in preventing East Anglia from being invaded by the Mercians . Following a Mercian attack in 651 on the monastery at Cnobheresburg , Anna was exiled by Penda , possibly to the kingdom of the Magonsæte . After his return , East Anglia was attacked again by Penda , Anna 's forces were defeated and he was killed . During the reign of his successor , Æthelhere ( another brother of Æthelwold ) , East Anglia was eclipsed by Mercia . In 655 , after the Battle of the Winwæd , near Leeds , in which Æthelhere was slain fighting beside Penda , a new political situation arose . Penda 's son Peada , who had ruled the Mercian province of the Middle Angles as a Christian king from 653 , now succeeded Penda as king of Mercia , but he was murdered a year later . Peada 's death dealt a severe blow to Mercian aspirations of dominion over the other kingdoms of England .
= = = The sphere of Rendlesham = = =
The royal seat of Rendlesham , specified by Bede , seals the evident importance of the Deben estuary headwaters as a centre of royal power , demonstrated for an earlier period by the royal cemetery of Sutton Hoo . Rendlesham , a short distance from Iken , the site of Botolph 's monastery , stands at a strategic point between the rivers Deben and Alde at the headwaters of the Butley estuary , which intersects the peninsula between the two major rivers . The dedication of Rendlesham 's church to St Gregory suggests its early , perhaps primary connection with the royal dwelling mentioned by Bede . If the Dommoc bishopric was at Walton , as Rochester claimed in the thirteenth century , then this was also immediately within the sphere of Rendlesham . Archaeologists have revealed that the quay of Gipeswic ( now modern Ipswich ) , at a ford of the River Orwell estuary , was then growing in importance as a centre of seaborne trade to the continent , under direct royal patronage .
= = Descent , family and accession = =
Æthelwold , ( Old English ' noble ruler ' ) was a member of the Wuffingas dynasty , the youngest son of Eni and a nephew of Rædwald of East Anglia . Two of his brothers , Anna and Æthelhere , ruled in succession before him .
His accession is mentioned by the 12th @-@ century historian William of Malmesbury , in Gesta Regum Anglorum :
" To Anna succeeded his brother Ethelhere , who was justly slain by Oswy king of the Northumbrians , together with Penda , because he was an auxiliary to him , and was actually supporting his brother and his kinsman . His brother Ethelwald , in due succession , left the kingdom to Adulf and Elwold , the sons of Ethelhere . "
Dynastic alliances bound Æthelwold 's kingdom strongly to the Christian kingdom of Kent , where Seaxburh , the eldest daughter of Æthelwold 's elder brother Anna , was Eorcenberht of Kent 's queen . East Anglia 's western stronghold in the Fens was held by Seaxburh 's sister Æthelthryth and , like Kent , it was devoutly attached to the Roman Church . There was also an important Northumbrian connection : in 657 , Hilda established the monastery of Streoneshalh ( identified with Whitby ) , which later became the burial @-@ place of Edwin and other Northumbrian kings . Hilda 's sister Hereswitha married Æthelwold 's youngest brother Æthelric in around 627 – 629 .
= = Reign = =
= = = Christianity in East Anglia under Æthelwold = = =
The influence of the Celtic rite in East Anglia had been strong whilst the monastery of Saint Fursey and Saint Foillan at Cnobheresburg had existed . The authority of East Anglian Christianity still resided in the East Anglian see at Dommoc , obedient to Canterbury . Saint Botolph began to build his monastery at Iken , on a tidal island site in the River Alde , Suffolk , in about 653 , the year that Anna of East Anglia was killed at the Battle of Bulcamp .
Oswiu successfully persuaded Sigeberht II of the East Saxons to receive baptism and Cedd , a Northumbrian disciple of Aidan 's , was diverted from the Northumbrian mission to the Middle Angles under Peada to become Bishop of the East Saxons and re @-@ convert the people . Cedd built monasteries at Tilbury in the south and at Ythancæster , where there was an old Roman fort , at what is now Bradwell @-@ on @-@ Sea , in north @-@ east Essex . Sigebert was assassinated by his own thegns and was succeeded by the pagan Swithelm of Essex . Cedd persuaded him to accept the faith and , according to Bede , his baptism by Cedd took place at Rendlesham , in the presence of King Æthelwold :
" Sigebert was succeeded in the kingdom by Suidhelm , the son of Sexbald , who was baptized by the same Cedd , in the province of the East Angles , at the king 's countryseat , called Rendelsham , that is , Rendil 's Mansion ; and Ethelwald , king of the East Angles , brother to Anna , king of the same people , was his godfather . "
= = = East Anglian marriage alliances = = =
In the early 660s , two important marriages took place . Ecgfrith of Northumbria , the fifteen @-@ year @-@ old son of Oswiu , married Æthelthryth of Ely , the daughter of Anna of East Anglia , ( who was about fourteen years older than him ) , and moved to live with him at his Northumbrian court . She had remained a virgin for Christ during her first marriage : she continued in this resolve as Ecgfrityh 's bride , with the result that he could not expect to father an heir . Æthelthryth retained Ely as her own possession during this marriage .
Meanwhile , Wulfhere of Mercia , a brother of Peada , emerged from safe retreat and was proclaimed king . He was not Christian , but was soon converted and subsequently married Eormenhilda , daughter of Eorcenberht of Kent and Seaxburh . Soon afterwards he founded the monastery of Medeshamstede , which later became known as Peterborough , under abbot Seaxwulf .
= = Synod of Whitby = =
Following the death of Finan , bishop of Lindisfarne , Alhfrith of Deira , in collusion with Wilfred of York , Agilbert of Wessex and others , were determined to persuade Oswiu to rule in favour of the Roman rite of Christianity within the kingdoms over which he had imperium . The case was debated in Oswiu 's presence at the Synod of Whitby in 664 , with Colmán , Hild and Cedd defending the Celtic rite and the tradition inherited from Aidan , and Wilifred speaking for the Roman position . The Roman cause prevailed and the former division of ecclesiastical authorities was set aside . Those who could not accept it , including Colmán , departed elsewhere .
At that time plague swept through Europe and Anglo @-@ Saxon England . Amongst its victims was Bishop Cedd , Archbishop Deusdedit of Canterbury , and Eorconbehrt of Kent . Æthelwold also died in 664 .
= = Quotations = =
= No. 77 Squadron RAAF =
No. 77 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) squadron headquartered at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales . It is controlled by No. 81 Wing , and equipped with McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet multi @-@ role fighters . The squadron was formed at RAAF Station Pearce , Western Australia , in March 1942 and saw action in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II , operating Curtis P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks . After the war , it re @-@ equipped with North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs and deployed to Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force . The squadron was about to return to Australia when the Korean War broke out in June 1950 , after which it joined United Nations forces supporting South Korea . It converted from Mustangs to Gloster Meteor jets between April and July 1951 and remained in Korea until October 1954 , claiming five MiG @-@ 15s and over five thousand buildings and vehicles destroyed during the war for the loss of almost sixty aircraft , mainly to ground fire .
The squadron re @-@ equipped with CAC Sabres at Williamtown in November 1956 . Two years later it transferred to RAAF Butterworth in Malaya to join the air campaign against communist guerrillas in the last stages of the Emergency . The squadron remained at Butterworth during the 1960s , providing regional air defence during the Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia . It returned to Williamtown in early 1969 to re @-@ equip with Dassault Mirage III supersonic jet fighters . No. 77 Squadron began converting to Hornets in June 1987 . It supplied a detachment of four aircraft to the American base on Diego Garcia in 2001 – 02 , supporting the war in Afghanistan , and deployed to the Middle East as part of the military intervention against ISIL in 2015 – 16 . Along with its Hornets , the squadron briefly operated Pilatus PC @-@ 9s in the forward air control role in the early 2000s . The RAAF plans to replace its Hornets with Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II fighters commencing in 2018 , and No. 77 Squadron is scheduled to convert to the new type in 2021 .
= = Role and equipment = =
No. 77 Squadron is located at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales , and controlled by No. 81 Wing , which is part of Air Combat Group . No. 81 Wing maintains three fighter squadrons for offensive and defensive counter @-@ air operations . As well as air @-@ to @-@ air combat , No. 77 Squadron is tasked with land strike , close air support and maritime strike missions . Its staff includes maintenance , supply and other support personnel . The unit motto is " Swift to Destroy " and the crest features an oriental temple lion , a legacy of No
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. 77 Squadron 's role in the Korean War . Nicknamed the " grumpy monkey " , the lion represents " a defender of peace , which , when disturbed , is swift to destroy " .
The squadron operates McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet multi @-@ role fighters , the first of which was delivered in June 1987 . The twin @-@ engined Hornet is armed with a 20 mm cannon and can carry short- and medium @-@ range air @-@ to @-@ air missiles and a variety of guided and unguided air @-@ to @-@ surface ordnance . It can be refuelled in flight by the RAAF 's Airbus KC @-@ 30A Multi Role Tanker Transports . No. 77 Squadron primarily operates the single @-@ seat F / A @-@ 18A Hornet ; each Hornet squadron also operates one or two F / A @-@ 18Bs , a two @-@ seat model used for pilot conversion . Squadron staff are responsible for day @-@ to @-@ day servicing and some heavy maintenance tasks . Other heavy maintenance is carried out by an industry coalition contracted through Boeing . No. 77 Squadron regularly undertakes exercises with air forces from South @-@ East Asia , New Zealand and the United States .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
As the Japanese advanced in the South West Pacific during early 1942 , the RAAF hurriedly established three fighter units — Nos. 75 , 76 and 77 Squadrons — equipped with Curtiss P @-@ 40E Kittyhawks recently delivered from the United States . No. 77 Squadron was formed at RAAF Station Pearce , Western Australia , on 16 March , with a complement of three officers and 100 men . Temporarily commanded by Squadron Leader D. F. Forsyth , the unit was initially responsible for the defence of Perth . Squadron Leader Dick Cresswell assumed command on 20 April . The squadron transferred to Batchelor Airfield near Darwin , Northern Territory , in August , the first RAAF fighter unit to be stationed in the area . Until this time , air defence over Darwin had been provided by the P @-@ 40s flown by the USAAF 's 49th Fighter Group . No. 77 Squadron moved to another of Darwin 's satellite airfields , Livingstone , in September . Among its pilots was John Gorton , future Prime Minister of Australia . No. 77 Squadron saw action defending Darwin from Japanese air raids and claimed its first aerial victory just after 5 a.m. on 23 November 1942 , when Cresswell destroyed a Mitsubishi " Betty " bomber . It was the first " kill " for an Australian squadron over the mainland , and the first night victory over Australia . As of 24 December , the unit 's strength was twenty @-@ four Kittyhawks .
In February 1943 , concurrent with No. 1 Wing and its three Supermarine Spitfire squadrons becoming operational in the Darwin area , No. 77 Squadron was transferred to Milne Bay in New Guinea . Along with Nos. 6 , 75 and 100 Squadrons it came under the control of the newly formed No. 71 Wing , which was part of No. 9 Operational Group , the RAAF 's main mobile formation in the South West Pacific Area . No. 77 Squadron registered its first daytime victory on 11 April , when a Kittyhawk shot down a Mitsubishi Zero taking part in a raid on Allied shipping near Buna . Four days later the Japanese attacked Milne Bay ; the squadron claimed four bombers and a fighter for the loss of one Kittyhawk . By this time , Allied headquarters had finalised plans for a drive north to the Philippines involving heavy attacks on Rabaul and the occupation of territory in New Guinea , New Britain and the Solomon Islands . No. 77 Squadron began moving to Goodenough Island in May , and was fully established and ready for operations by 15 June . As Japanese fighter opposition was limited , the squadron took part in several ground @-@ attack missions in New Britain , armed with incendiary and general @-@ purpose bombs , a practice that had been employed by Kittyhawk units in the Middle East . During one such raid on 2 August , Cresswell 's designated successor as commanding officer , Flight Lieutenant Daryl Sproule , was forced to crash @-@ land on a beach and was captured and executed by the Japanese . Cresswell remained in command until Squadron Leader " Buster " Brown took over on 20 August . Japanese fighter strength in New Britain and New Guinea increased in September and October , and eight of No. 77 Squadron 's Kittyhawks were briefly detached to Nadzab as escorts for the CAC Boomerangs of No. 4 Squadron , which were supporting the 7th Australian Division .
In January 1944 , No. 77 Squadron took part in the two largest raids mounted by the RAAF to that time , each involving over seventy aircraft attacking targets in New Britain . It was subsequently assigned to Los Negros in the Admiralty Islands , under the control of No. 73 Wing , along with Nos. 76 and 79 Squadrons . No. 77 Squadron 's ground party went ashore at Los Negros on 6 March , in the middle of a firefight with Japanese forces . Fourteen of the squadron 's Kittyhawks arrived a week later , and another ten on 28 March . Their primary duty was providing air cover for Allied shipping , though no Japanese aircraft were encountered ; they also flew ground @-@ attack missions in support of US troops on Manus Island . Following the capture of the Admiralties , which completed the isolation of Rabaul , No. 77 Squadron remained with No. 73 Wing on garrison duty at Los Negros from May to July 1944 . Between 13 August and 14 September , the squadron transferred to Noemfoor in western New Guinea to join Nos. 76 and 82 Squadrons as part of No. 81 Wing under No. 10 Operational Group ( later the Australian First Tactical Air Force ) , which had taken over the mobile role previously performed by No. 9 Group and was supporting the American landings along the north coast of New Guinea . Cresswell , now a wing commander , arrived for his second tour of duty as commanding officer on 26 September . Operating P @-@ 40N Kittyhawks , No. 77 Squadron bombed Japanese positions on the Vogelkop Peninsula in October and on Halmahera in November . Cresswell handed over command in March 1945 . The squadron moved to Morotai on 13 April and conducted ground @-@ attack sorties over the Dutch East Indies until 30 June , when it redeployed with No. 81 Wing to Labuan to support the 9th Australian Division in North Borneo until hostilities ended in August 1945 . The squadron 's tally of aerial victories during the war was seven aircraft destroyed and four " probables " , for the loss of eighteen pilots killed .
= = = Occupation of Japan = = =
No. 77 Squadron began re @-@ equipping with North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs at Labuan in September 1945 . In the wake of Japan 's surrender , No. 81 Wing became part of Australia 's contribution to the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) . No. 77 Squadron was the last of the wing 's three flying units to deploy to Japan , arriving at Bofu , a former kamikaze base , on 21 March 1946 . No. 481 ( Maintenance ) Squadron provided technical service for the Mustangs . Occupation duties proved uneventful , the main operational task being surveillance patrols , but units maintained an intensive training regime and undertook combined exercises with other Allied forces . Many RAAF personnel were accompanied to Japan by their families .
No. 81 Wing transferred to Iwakuni in April 1948 , the same month that the Federal government decided to reduce Australia 's contribution to BCOF , retaining only No. 77 Squadron in Japan . Wing headquarters and No. 481 Squadron disbanded in November 1948 , and No. 77 Squadron came under the aegis of a new organisation called RAAF Component . The squadron was now the largest operational unit in the RAAF , with a strength of 299 officers and men , forty Mustangs , three CAC Wirraways , two Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas and two Austers . The Dakotas and Austers formed the No. 77 Squadron Communications Flight . In December 1949 , the Mustangs competed in a gunnery competition against three groups of Mustangs and two groups of F @-@ 80 Shooting Star jets belonging to the US Far East Air Force ( FEAF ) . No. 77 Squadron 's Flight Lieutenant " Bay " Adams achieved the highest individual score of the competition , earning the personal congratulations of Lieutenant Generals George E. Stratemeyer , commander of FEAF , and Horace Robertson , commander of BCOF . The RAAF personnel were preparing to return to Australia when , on 25 June 1950 , they were placed on standby for action in the Korean War , which had just broken out .
= = = Korean War = = =
Led by Wing Commander Lou Spence , No. 77 Squadron was committed to action over Korea as part of United Nations Command , and came under the operational control of the US Fifth Air Force . The Australian unit was specifically requested by General Douglas MacArthur , commander of UN forces ; the Mustang was considered the best long @-@ range ground @-@ attack aircraft in the theatre , and Stratemeyer contended that No. 77 Squadron was the best Mustang outfit in Japan . The squadron flew its initial escort and patrol sorties from Iwakuni on 2 July 1950 , becoming the first non @-@ American UN unit to commence operations . Several Australian families were still living at Iwakuni pending their repatriation from what had become an operational theatre , and could watch the Mustangs depart for missions over Korea . A friendly fire incident occurred on 3 July , when No. 77 Squadron attacked a train full of US and South Korean troops on the main highway between Suwon and P 'yongtaek , inflicting many casualties , twenty @-@ nine of them fatal . Spence had raised concerns before the mission that the North Koreans could not have penetrated so far south , but was assured by Fifth Air Force controllers that the target was correct ; the incident was widely reported in US newspapers but a public statement by Stratemeyer cleared the RAAF of any blame . No. 77 Squadron did not encounter enemy aircraft in the opening phase of the war but often faced intense ground fire . It suffered its first fatality on 7 July when its deputy commander , Squadron Leader Graham Strout , was killed during a raid on Samchok . He was also the first Australian , and the first non @-@ American UN serviceman , to die in Korea .
For the next two months , equipped with bombs , rockets and napalm , No. 77 Squadron supported UN troops retreating before the North Korean advance . To expedite turnaround times between missions , the Mustangs , which were still based at Iwakuni , often refuelled and rearmed at Taegu near the Pusan Perimeter , where UN forces made a last @-@ ditch stand on the southern tip of Korea . One of the squadron 's Dakotas regularly flew between Iwakuni and Taegu carrying ordnance and spare parts . According to the official history of the Air Force in 1946 – 71 , the squadron 's part in the victory at Pusan earned recognition " not only for the RAAF but also Australia at the highest political levels in the United States " . During a visit to Japan in August 1950 , Prime Minister Robert Menzies presented the Gloucester Cup to No. 77 Squadron as the RAAF 's most proficient unit of the past year . That month , the squadron claimed thirty @-@ five tanks , 212 other vehicles , eighteen railway engines or cars , and thirteen fuel or ammunition dumps destroyed . On 3 September , Sergeant Bill Harrop was forced down behind enemy lines and executed by the North Koreans . Six days later , Spence was killed when his Mustang failed to pull out of a dive during a napalm attack on Angang @-@ ni . His death was a serious blow to the squadron , and the RAAF despatched Cresswell on his third tour as commanding officer to replace him . Cresswell arrived at Iwakuni on 17 September and set about restoring morale , undertaking four sorties on his first day of operations three days later . MacArthur had meanwhile launched an amphibious landing behind North Korean lines at Inchon , forcing the communists to retreat from the Pusan Perimeter . No. 77 Squadron was transferred from Iwakuni to Pohang , South Korea , on 12 October , to support UN forces advancing northwards . On 20 October , the squadron became a component of the RAAF 's newly established No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing , which also included No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron , No. 491 ( Maintenance ) Squadron , and No. 30 Communications Flight , formerly the No. 77 Squadron Communications Flight . The wing and all units except No. 77 Squadron , which came under the operational control of the US 35th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Group , were headquartered at Iwakuni .
China entered the war in mid @-@ October 1950 , as advancing UN troops closed in on the Yalu River . No. 77 Squadron undertook its first sorties against Chinese ground forces on 1 November . The squadron flew its first missions supporting the Australian Army on 5 November , when it attacked Chinese troops opposing the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment , at Pakchon . No. 77 Squadron personnel were housed in tents in freezing conditions at Pohung ; two pilots died from burns after a fire in their quarters on 14 November . Two days later the Australians began moving forward with the 35th Group to Yonpo , near Hamhung . North Korea 's counter @-@ attack , supported by Chinese forces , led to the squadron being withdrawn to Pusan on 3 December 1950 . The Chinese operated a Russian @-@ designed swept @-@ wing jet fighter , the Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 15 , that outclassed all other fighters in the theatre except the new North American F @-@ 86 Sabre . The RAAF attempted to procure Sabres to replace No. 77 Squadron 's Mustangs but the priority being given to re @-@ equipping the USAF meant that deliveries would not be possible until 1954 . The Australian government agreed to purchase Gloster Meteor straight @-@ wing jet fighters from Britain as the only viable alternative ; the initial order included thirty @-@ six single @-@ seat Mk.8 interceptors and four two @-@ seat Mk.7 trainers . No. 77 Squadron completed its last Mustang mission on 6 April 1951 and returned to Iwakuni the next day to begin converting to Meteors . It subsequently transferred to Kimpo , South Korea , and commenced operations with its new aircraft on 29 July . The squadron deployed twenty @-@ two Meteors at Kimpo , and came under the control of the USAF 's 4th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Wing . Although it had operated effectively as a ground @-@ attack unit with its Mustangs , No. 77 Squadron 's primary role in the RAAF was interception , and it was expected that with the Meteor it could again focus on fighter duties , particularly as by this stage the USAF had only two squadrons of Sabres in the theatre .
Wing Commander Gordon Steege succeeded Cresswell on 16 August 1951 , by which time No. 77 Squadron 's Meteors had conducted offensive sweeps up the Yalu River with USAF Sabres , and escorted Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortresses on bombing missions . MiG @-@ 15s had appeared on several occasions without engaging the Meteors ; it was speculated at the time , and subsequently confirmed , that they had been observing the performance of the newly arrived RAAF jets . No. 77 Squadron 's first Meteor fatalities occurred on 22 August , when two aircraft collided in mid @-@ air as they returned to Kimpo after a sweep . The Meteors first engaged MiG @-@ 15s on 25 August , but scored no hits . Four days later , eight Meteors and sixteen Sabres fought twelve MiGs ; one RAAF pilot ejected when his aircraft was shot down , and a second Meteor was badly damaged . One week later another Meteor suffered severe damage in a dogfight with MiGs . As a result of these clashes , Steege became convinced that the Meteor was outclassed as a fighter . Following discussions with the Fifth Air Force , he decided to take No. 77 Squadron out of its air @-@ to @-@ air combat role and curtail its operations in " MiG Alley " , the area between the Yalu and Chongchon Rivers on North Korea 's border with Manchuria . This caused controversy among those who believed that proper tactics exploiting the Meteor 's manoeuvrability and heavy armament would have allowed it to remain competitive as a fighter ; for the Australian pilots the change of role amounted to a loss of prestige . The Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal George Jones , backed the decision , which relegated the squadron mainly to escort duty and local air defence . Morale suffered and it was not until Wing Commander Ron Susans succeeded Steege on 26 December 1951 that the Meteors were once more assigned an offensive role , namely ground attack .
In the intervening period , Flight Lieutenant " Smoky " Dawson registered No. 77 Squadron 's first jet combat claim when he damaged a MiG during an escort mission on 26 September 1951 . On 27 October , Flying Officer Les Reading was credited with damaging another MiG ; it was subsequently confirmed as having been destroyed , making it the squadron 's first MiG " kill " . The squadron was awarded the Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation for " exceptionally meritorious service & heroism " on 1 November . Fifty MiGs attacked a formation of fourteen Meteors on 1 December 1951 ; at least one MiG was shot down and another damaged , for the loss of three Meteors . On 8 January 1952 , Susans led the squadron on its first ground @-@ attack mission in Meteors , which were armed with eight rockets under the wings as well as their four internal 20 mm cannon . They continued to operate mainly in the ground @-@ attack role until the end of the war , but registered two more victories over MiGs on 4 and 8 May 1952 . The squadron took part in a mass air strike on 29 August , when 420 UN aircraft attacked Pyongyang . One Meteor was shot down and another damaged by MiGs on 2 October 1952 . No. 77 Squadron was credited with downing its last MiG on 27 March 1953 . Squadron Leader Len McGlinchey became its final wartime fatality when his Meteor crashed while taking off from Kimpo on 16 July .
Following the armistice on 27 July 1953 , the squadron remained in South Korea on garrison duties — initially at Kimpo , later at Kunsan — until transferring to Iwakuni on 12 October 1954 . It departed for Australia on 19 November and arrived in Sydney on 3 December , having been based overseas for eleven years , a record for an RAAF unit . Its performance in the early days of the war has been cited as a factor in the United States ' decision to ratify the ANZUS treaty in September 1951 . The squadron 's casualty rate in Korea was twenty @-@ five percent killed or captured . Forty @-@ one pilots died , thirty @-@ five from the RAAF and six on exchange from the Royal Air Force . A further seven pilots became prisoners of war . Aircraft losses totalled almost sixty , including over forty Meteors , mostly to ground fire . The squadron flew 18 @,@ 872 sorties , including 3 @,@ 872 in Mustangs and 15 @,@ 000 in Meteors . It was credited with shooting down five MiG @-@ 15s and destroying 3 @,@ 700 buildings , 1 @,@ 408 vehicles , ninety @-@ eight railway engines and carriages , and sixteen bridges .
= = = Malayan Emergency and Konfrontasi = = =
No. 77 Squadron became operational at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales , on 4 January 1955 . On 21 March , it joined Nos. 3 and 75 Squadrons as part of No. 78 Wing , which had recently been reorganised following garrison duty in Malta . No. 77 Squadron ceased Meteor operations in August 1956 and re @-@ formed on 19 November equipped with CAC Sabres . Between October 1958 and February 1959 , Nos. 3 and 77 Squadrons deployed with No. 78 Wing to RAAF Butterworth in Malaya , to support Commonwealth forces in the Emergency . The Sabres were among the first to wear the RAAF 's recently introduced " leaping kangaroo " roundel . No. 478 ( Maintenance ) Squadron provided servicing for the aircraft . No. 77 Squadron undertook its first mission dive @-@ bombing communist guerrillas on 13 August 1959 , and flew two more ground @-@ attack sorties on 10 June 1960 . The RAAF pilots also sometimes tried to startle the communists by diving their jets through the sound barrier to create sonic booms that simulated the sound of artillery fire . Two No. 77 Squadron Sabres collided in mid @-@ air on 22 July , but both pilots ejected safely . The Emergency was declared officially over on 31 July 1960 .
The RAAF squadrons remained at Butterworth as part of Australia 's contribution to the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve . Eight Sabres , along with their pilots and ground crew , were detached from No. 77 Squadron in May 1962 to re @-@ form No. 79 Squadron at Ubon , Thailand . The Sabres were flown to Thailand via Singapore to give the appearance that they were not drawn from the Strategic Reserve , thus preserving Malaysia 's neutrality . Personnel and equipment from Nos. 3 and 77 Squadrons continued to rotate through No. 79 Squadron on a regular basis . The Butterworth @-@ based Sabres , armed with Sidewinder missiles , were responsible for regional air defence during the Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia from July 1963 until August 1966 , though no combat took place . From 26 October until 27 November 1965 , a detachment of six Sabres from No. 77 Squadron was based at Labuan to conduct combat patrols over the Indonesian – Malaysian border on Borneo . Following the disbandment of No. 78 Wing in November 1967 , No. 77 Squadron became an independently operating unit under the command of Headquarters RAAF Butterworth .
= = = Supersonic era = = =
No. 77 Squadron returned to Williamtown in early 1969 to re @-@ equip with Dassault Mirage III supersonic fighters , undertaking its initial flights on 7 July . The Mirages were charged with interception , high- and low @-@ angle bombing , close air support , and photo reconnaissance ; their armament included 30 mm cannon , Sidewinder missiles and conventional bombs . No. 77 Squadron 's prime role was ground attack , although none of the RAAF 's Mirages ever saw combat . No. 481 Squadron was responsible for day @-@ to @-@ day servicing , as well as most heavy maintenance . No. 77 Squadron suffered its first fatal Mirage accident on 3 April 1973 , when an aircraft crashed during a training flight at low altitude . Another pilot was killed when his Mirage hit the water during formation flying at night on 24 June 1976 . The squadron began training with laser @-@ guided bombs in October 1980 . As of March 1984 , its aircraft complement was nineteen Mirages . Two pilots died following a mid @-@ air collision at low level on 9 April that year . On 1 January 1985 , in preparation for the introduction of the McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet to Australian service , No. 77 Squadron took over all Mirages and Macchi MB @-@ 326s of No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit , assuming responsibility for fighter combat instructor , introductory fighter , and Mirage conversion courses . The transfer swelled the squadron 's strength to fifty @-@ six aircraft — forty Mirages and sixteen Macchis — and over 500 officers and men , making it the largest operational unit in the RAAF . Along with a heavily expanded training program , and its existing Australian Army close support role , No. 77 Squadron 's fleet support commitment was increased to take up the slack resulting from the diminution of the Royal Australian Navy 's fixed @-@ wing capability . Its last fatal accident with the Mirage occurred on 2 May 1986 ; the aircraft crashed into water during air @-@ to @-@ air gunnery practice .
The squadron began phasing out the Mirage in July 1986 , and took delivery of its first Hornet on 29 June 1987 . It had come under the control of a newly re @-@ formed No. 81 Wing that February . No. 77 Squadron 's last Mirage departed Williamtown on 27 November 1987 . Hornet maintenance at Williamtown was the responsibility of No. 481 Wing , which had evolved from No. 481 Squadron . One of No. 77 Squadron 's Hornets crashed near Rockhampton , Queensland , on 19 May 1992 , killing the pilot and his passenger , a defence scientist . In September that year , the squadron undertook a proving exercise over Halifax Bay in Far North Queensland , when four of its Hornets — refuelled in flight on the round trip from Williamtown by a Boeing 707 tanker — became the first jet aircraft in Australia to drop aerial mines . No. 481 Wing was reorganised as No. 402 Wing in July 1996 ; the latter transferred its functions to No. 81 Wing 's flying squadrons in July 1998 . No. 77 Squadron operated a detachment of Pilatus PC @-@ 9 aircraft in the forward air control role from 2000 until 2003 ; this role was subsequently filled by the Forward Air Control Development Unit . Four Hornets from No. 77 Squadron were deployed to protect the US base at Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean between November 2001 and February 2002 , during the early phase of the war in Afghanistan . In March 2006 , the squadron sent a detachment of aircraft to RAAF Base East Sale , Victoria , to assist with security for the Commonwealth Games being held in Melbourne . No. 77 Squadron deployed to the Middle East in September 2015 as part of Operation Okra , Australia 's contribution of the military intervention against ISIL ; it handed over to the next rotation , from No. 3 Squadron , in April 2016 .
The Australian government plans to replace the Hornet force with seventy @-@ two Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II fighters . Under the Defence Materiel Organisation 's Project AIR 6000 Phase 2A / B , the first Lightnings will be delivered to the RAAF in late 2018 . Each of No. 81 Wing 's three fighter squadrons will operate sixteen of the new aircraft . No. 77 Squadron is scheduled to begin conversion in 2021 ; RAAF Hornet operations are expected to cease the following year .
= = Battle honours = =
World War II : Milne Bay , Morotai , Borneo 1945 , New Guinea 1943 – 1944 , Darwin 1942 – 1943 , Dutch New Guinea , New Britain 1943
Korean War : Korea 1950 – 1953
Malayan Emergency and Konfrontasi : Malaya 1948 – 1960 , Malaysia ( Confrontation ) 1962 – 1966
= = Aircraft operated = =
Curtiss P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk ( March 1942 – September 1945 )
North American P @-@ 51 Mustang ( September 1945 – April 1951 )
Gloster Meteor ( April 1951 – August 1956 )
CAC Sabre ( November 1956 – July 1969 )
Dassault Mirage III ( July 1969 – June 1987 )
Macchi MB @-@ 326 ( January 1985 – June 1987 )
McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet ( June 1987 – current )
Pilatus PC @-@ 9 ( 2000 – 03 )
= Grace Banker =
Grace D. Banker ( October 25 , 1892 – September 17 , 1960 ) was a telephone operator who served during World War I ( 1917 – 1918 ) as Chief Operator of telephones for the American Expeditionary Forces ( AEF ) in the U.S. Army Signal Corps . She led thirty @-@ three women telephone operators known popularly as Hello Girls . They were assigned in New York to travel to France to operate telephone switch boards at the war front in Paris , and at Chaumont , Haute @-@ Marne . They also operated the telephone switch boards at First Army headquarters at Ligny @-@ en @-@ Barrois , about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) to the south of Saint @-@ Mihiel , and later during the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive . After her return to civilian life , Banker and her team members were treated as citizen volunteers and initially not given recognition as members of the military . In 1919 , Banker was honoured with the Distinguished Service Medal for her services with the First Army headquarters during the St. Mihiel and Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensives , with a commendation .
= = Life = =
Banker was born at Passaic , New Jersey on 25 October 1892 . After graduating from Barnard College she joined American Telephone and Telegraph Company ( AT & T ) where she worked as a switchboards instructor . During World War I Banker was chosen to head a team of thirty @-@ three telephone operators of Telephone Unit No. 1 assigned to war duty in France for telephone operations . This was the first group of women who were given the popular name Hello Girls .
Banker sailed with her team members from New Jersey on 6 March 1918 , to take up the assignment as chief operator for First Army headquarters in Paris . After arriving with her team in England , the group set sail by ferry across the English Channel . However , bad weather , in the form of thick fog , prevented the ferry from reaching French shores , and it had to be anchored a few miles away to wait for the fog to lift . This location made the vessel an easy target for German bombing ( at that time , one vessel out of four had suffered bombing ) , and the team members remained at full readiness to evacuate the vessel at short notice . The women 's group stayed on deck in the open for forty @-@ eight hours continuously . This situation did not dishearten Banker or her team members , and , as Banker later said : " What good sports girls were in that First Unit ! They took everything in their stride . They were the pioneers " .
Upon arrival in Paris , Banker and her team were posted to the headquarters of the Advance Section in Chaumont sur Haute Marne , which was then the headquarters of General John J. Pershing . Five months later , Baker was asked to move to the war front , to the First Army headquarters at Ligny @-@ en @-@ Barrois , south of Saint @-@ Mihiel . On 25 August 1918 , she moved to the war front with only five operators helping her . For this operation at Saint @-@ Mihiel , Banker had to make a choice of the best operators for the job , she selected : Suzanne Prevot , Esther Fresnel , Helen Hill , Berthe Hunt , and Marie Lange . Equipped with gas masks and helmets , the women operated from trenches where the danger was real ; despite this , those not chosen to go felt left out .
During offensive operations at Saint @-@ Mihiel , though artillery bombing was in force , Banker and her team of operators manned the switchboards . When the First Army headquarters moved to Bar @-@ le @-@ Duc in September , Banker and her operators had to work in a place which was damaged extensively . They operated even under heavy bombing by German planes , but no team members were injured . They worked under severe weather conditions without heating , and their barracks leaked , and were later gutted , making conditions even harsher .
Following the Armistice of 11 November 1918 , fighting ceased . Banker and her team were then ordered to return to Paris . In Paris , Banker was deputed initially to work at the temporary residence of President Woodrow Wilson . As she did not find this job exciting compared to the work at the war front , she accepted an offer to move to the Army of Occupation at Coblenz , Germany ; while there she was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal .
After working for twenty months at the war front , in September 1919 Banker and the rest of her team returned home . General Edgar Russel , chief signal officer of the AEF , extolled their service as " indispensable " . Reminiscing about her wartime experience as chief operator , Banker humorously noted that " an afternoon in the switchboard office sometimes sounded like a scene from Alice in Wonderland , where only the initiated can make sense of the proceedings " . She also observed on the confidentiality aspect of her assignment when she was tested by an intelligence officer about her ability to keep a secret , which was about her posting out of the unit . About her work at the war front she said that " the secrecy surrounding their operations gave it an aura of romance and set it apart from the civilian work . " After returning from the war front with her team , she reflected : " We missed the First Army with its code of loyalty and hard work . We were back in the petty squabbles of civilian life where even chief operators had ' tantrums ' and where the wives of civilians attached to the Peace Conference spilled all over Paris in Army cars " .
After the war , when they returned to civilian life , Banker and her team members were treated as citizen volunteers and not recognized as members of the military . They were not given a " formal discharge or even a certificate of service " . Banker died on 17 September 1960 , in Scarsdale , New York . In 1977 Congress enacted legislation that gave due recognition to Banker and her team , and treated them as " veterans " .
= = Awards = =
On 26 May 1919 vide Government order no . 70 , Banker was honoured with the Distinguished Service Medal for her services with the First Army headquarters during the St. Mihiel and Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensives , with the commendation which read : " For exceptional ability ... [ and ] untiring devotion to her exacting duties under trying conditions .... to assure the success of the telephone service during the operations of the First Army against the Saint Michel salient and the exertions to the north of Verdun " .
= Ragnar Garrett =
Lieutenant General Sir Alwyn Ragnar Garrett , KBE , CB ( 12 February 1900 – 4 November 1977 ) was a senior commander in the Australian Army . He served as Chief of the General Staff ( CGS ) from 1958 to 1960 . Born in Western Australia , Garrett graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in 1921 . He was adjutant and quartermaster in several regiments of the Australian Light Horse before undertaking staff training in England , which he completed just as the Second World War broke out . Garrett joined the Second Australian Imperial Force soon afterwards , and commanded the 2 / 31st Battalion in England before seeing action with Australian brigades in Greece and Crete in 1941 . Promoted to colonel the following year , he held senior staff positions with I Corps in New Guinea and II Corps on Bougainville in 1944 – 45 . He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his staff work .
After the war , Garrett served two terms as commandant of the Staff College , Queenscliff , in 1946 – 47 and 1949 – 51 . Between these appointments he was posted to Japan with the British Commonwealth Occupation Force . Promoted major general , he became General Officer Commanding ( GOC ) Western Command in August 1951 , and Deputy Chief of the General Staff in January 1953 . He took over Southern Command as a lieutenant general in October 1954 , and was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1957 . As CGS from March 1958 , Garrett focused on rearmament and reorganisation , initiating the Army 's short @-@ lived restructure into a " pentropic " formation . He was knighted in 1959 . After retiring from the military in June 1960 , Garrett became Honorary Colonel of the Royal Australian Regiment , and was principal of the Australian Administrative Staff College until 1964 . He died at Mornington , Victoria , in 1977 .
= = Early life = =
Born on 12 February 1900 at Northam , Western Australia , Alwyn Ragnar Garrett was the son of accountant Alwyn Garrett and his Swedish wife Maria Carolina ( née Wohlfahrt ) . Ragnar attended Guildford Grammar School before entering the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in 1918 . He graduated in 1921 and was posted to the Australian Light Horse as a lieutenant . In December 1922 , Garrett served as an extra aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the new Governor of South Australia , General Sir Tom Bridges . He was appointed adjutant / quartermaster of the 23rd Light Horse Regiment in November 1922 . In November the following year he was seconded to the British Army , and spent the next twelve months attached to the 2nd Dragoon Guards in Bangalore , India . On his return to Australia in January 1925 , Garrett was reappointed adjutant / quartermaster of the 23rd Light Horse . He married Shirley Lorraine Hunter , a nurse , on 9 September at St Peter 's Anglican Church in the Adelaide suburb of Glenelg ; the couple had a son and a daughter . Garrett became adjutant / quartermaster of the 9th Light Horse Regiment at Jamestown , South Australia , in February 1926 . He was promoted to captain in November 1929 .
In March 1930 , Garrett was posted as adjutant / quartermaster to the 3rd Light Horse Regiment at Mount Gambier , South Australia . As a speaker at Mount Gambier 's Anzac Day commemorations on 25 April 1934 , he was reported as warning of the poor state of Australia 's preparedness for war , admonishing : " We shall not have the time that we had before the last war , and we shall not be fighting for our homes thousands of miles away . We shall be fighting at our own back door . That is what we have to prepare for . " In August that year he was transferred to the 4th Light Horse Regiment at Warrnambool , Victoria , as adjutant / quartermaster . Garrett was posted to the staff of Army Headquarters , Melbourne , in March 1936 , and departed for England in November the following year to attend the Staff College , Camberley . He was promoted to major in July 1938 , and returned to Australia upon the outbreak of the Second World War .
= = Second World War = =
Garrett joined the Second Australian Imperial Force in November 1939 , and was appointed brigade major of the 18th Brigade under Brigadier Leslie Morshead in January 1940 . The brigade departed for the Middle East in May but , owing to the military situation following the Fall of France , it was diverted to Britain , arriving in June . Garrett was promoted lieutenant colonel on 16 September and took command of the 2 / 31st Battalion the same day ; he handed over the battalion to Selwyn Porter in February 1941 , and departed England for the Middle East . He saw active service with the 19th Brigade and Savige Force in Greece and Crete , under Brigadier Stanley Savige . Returning to Australia , Garrett was promoted to temporary colonel in April 1942 and became senior operations officer in the 1st Armoured Division , which served as a garrison force in case of Japanese invasion . He was posted to Army Headquarters , Melbourne , in October as Director of Armoured Fighting Vehicles .
In September 1943 , Garrett was appointed General Staff Officer Grade 1 ( Operations ) of I Corps under Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring in New Guinea . Three months later he was promoted temporary brigadier and became Brigadier General Staff of I Corps . He continued to serve in that position as I Corps was redesignated II Corps in April 1944 , New Guinea Force the following month , and finally II Corps again in October 1944 for the campaign on Bougainville under Lieutenant General Savige . Garrett was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his " skill , direction , and supervision " in having " prepared and guided all staff work to meet every conceivable requirement in the complete reorganisation of forces in New Guinea " ; the honour was promulgated in The London Gazette on 19 July 1945 . He was responsible for interrogating the first Japanese peace envoy to make contact with the Australians on Bougainville , on 18 August 1945 , and was present when the instrument of surrender was signed on 8 September . In November 1945 , Garrett took command of the 8th Brigade in New Guinea . He oversaw the brigade 's return to Australia prior to its disbandment in March 1946 . His " exceptional service in the field " in the South West Pacific Area earned him another mention in despatches , which was gazetted on 6 March 1947 and backdated to 2 November 1946 .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
Following a three @-@ month course at Staff College , Camberley , Garrett was appointed commandant of the Staff College , Queenscliff , Victoria , in June 1946 . He was posted to Japan in March 1947 , becoming Brigadier @-@ in @-@ Charge of Administration for the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in July . The size and scope of the occupation declined considerably during his tour , which finished in October 1949 . Approximately 2 @,@ 400 Australians , most from the 67th Battalion , remained by late 1948 , compared to 11 @,@ 000 in October 1946 . In December 1949 , Garrett resumed command of the Staff College , Queenscliff . Promoted temporary major general , he was appointed General Officer Commanding ( GOC ) Western Command , which covered the state of Western Australia , in August 1951 . He became Deputy Chief of the General Staff in February 1953 .
In December 1953 , Garrett succeeded Major General Eric Woodward as Adjutant @-@ General and Second Military Member of the Military Board . He was promoted temporary lieutenant general in October 1954 and appointed GOC Southern Command , which covered Victoria , South Australia , and Tasmania and was , as of April 1953 , the superior headquarters for several major Citizen Military Forces ( CMF ) formations including the 3rd Infantry Division , the 4th and 6th Infantry Brigades , the 2nd Armoured Brigade , and two artillery groups . His elevation to lieutenant general was made permanent in December 1954 . Garrett was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the Queen 's Birthday Honours on 13 June 1957 . He succeeded Lieutenant General Sir Henry Wells as Chief of the General Staff ( CGS ) on 23 March 1958 . Garrett was raised to Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1959 New Year Honours .
The Army underwent significant change during Garrett 's term as CGS . In March 1959 , he chaired the first meeting of the Military Board at the new Army Headquarters in Canberra , following its move from Melbourne . That August , he announced to his senior officers a radical reorganisation of the Army that would strengthen the regular forces and reduce reliance on the CMF , which since Federation had formed the backbone of Australia 's military . This plan included the abolition of National Service , to which the Federal government had already agreed , and the introduction of a " pentropic " divisional structure . Garrett championed the pentropic structure to overcome what he saw as the weakness of the traditional battalion for overseas deployments , and to ensure compatibility with the US Army 's pentomic formations . The Australian Army 's traditional " triangular " divisional structure of three infantry battalions under a brigade headquarters was to be replaced with an organisation consisting of five larger battalions ( hence " pentropic " ) without a brigade layer between division and battalion headquarters . The plan was opposed by CMF officers as it would result in the disbandment of the citizens ' brigades and many of the old militia battalions . Under the new structure the CMF would not only shrink , its units would lose traditional ties to local communities through the establishment of new multi @-@ battalion state @-@ based regiments , leading to suspicions that the entire process was designed to demolish the CMF .
Garrett was concerned not only with changing the Army 's organisation but with upgrading its equipment ; by the early 1960s the Army would acquire the FN 7.62mm rifle , the M60 machine gun , the M101 105mm howitzer , the M113 armoured personnel carrier , and new mortars and radios . He also advocated strongly for the Army to operate its own helicopters and light aircraft ; the Australian Army Aviation Corps was eventually established in July 1968 . Garrett was scheduled to retire from the Army on his sixtieth birthday in February 1960 but the government extended his term . He retired on 30 June 1960 and was succeeded by Lieutenant General Reg Pollard , whom Garrett had recommended for the post in the face of opposition from the Minister for the Army , John Cramer , who had attempted to appoint Major General Ivan Dougherty , a retired CMF officer . Although Garrett 's proposed reorganisation of the Army along pentropic lines went ahead under Pollard , it proved short @-@ lived . The US Army abandoned the system in June 1961 , and the Australian Army returned to the triangular formation following a review commissioned by Pollard 's successor as CGS , Lieutenant General Sir John Wilton , in October 1964 .
= = Retirement = =
Upon retiring from the military , Garrett became principal of the Australian Administrative Staff College , a private institution delivering courses to senior business and government personnel at Mount Eliza , Victoria . During his four @-@ year tenure , he lobbied for the reintroduction of conscription , and when the Federal government brought in a new selective service scheme in 1965 , he was invited to draw the first ballot of names . Garrett also advocated that the Army should have a division ready for war at all times . He served as honorary colonel of the Royal Australian Regiment and the Royal Western Australia Regiment from 1960 until 1965 , when he was appointed Chairman of the Western Australian Coastal Shipping Commission , a position he held until 1970 . He died on 4 November 1977 at Mornington , Victoria , and was cremated . His wife had died earlier , and he was survived by his two children .
= OverClocked ReMix =
OverClocked ReMix , also known as OC ReMix and OCR , is a non @-@ commercial organization dedicated to preserving and paying tribute to video game music through arranging and re @-@ interpreting the songs with new technology and software , as well as by various traditional means . The primary focus of OC ReMix is its website which offers thousands of free fan @-@ made video game music arrangements , information on game music and composers , resources for aspiring artists , and a community forum for video game music fans .
The webmaster of OverClocked ReMix is David W. Lloyd ( a.k.a. djpretzel ) , who coined the word " ReMix " to refer to interpretive arrangements , as opposed to a remix which typically involves alterations to master recordings . Ambiguity regarding the term ReMix is unintentional , since the organization is dedicated to distinctive rearrangements of video game themes , not to arrangements involving changing minor details or plagiarizing the work of others .
= = History = =
Lloyd began the organization under the name of DJ Pretzel 's OverClocked ReMix in December 1999 as a spin @-@ off of OverClocked , his 3D webcomic about playing and emulating video games . The format was derived from Commodore 64 arrangement website C64Audio.com ( then a host for many fan arrangements ) ; Lloyd chose to expand the focus to all games regardless of game system . Originally coded in basic HTML and sporting an orange color scheme , the site underwent a conversion to a database @-@ driven system in 2001 , as well as visual redesigns in 2001 ( blue ) , 2002 ( purple ) and its current design in 2004 ( silver & orange ) . OC ReMix was located at the subdomain remix.overclocked.org before moving to www.ocremix.org in July 2003 . Both domains were hosted for several years by ZTNet , with OCR eventually becoming self @-@ funded and switching to dedicated hosting with LiquidWeb in late 2006 . Lloyd registered OverClocked ReMix as a limited liability company in 2007 .
Originally , music submissions were evaluated solely by David W. Lloyd . To better accommodate the volume of music submissions and improve selection consistency , a panel of judges , composed of accomplished artists and contributors to the community , was instituted in early 2002 to assist Lloyd in music selection . Earlier in 2002 , a dispute over administrative decisions , including the proposal of a judges panel , caused artists virt , prozax , and mp to leave OCR to found VGMix , and they demanded that their ReMixes be removed , to which Lloyd agreed . Other artists who left asked that their works stay , although they would not submit future works . Subsequently , some who removed their ReMixes from the site requested to return , and the request was granted with the provision that they not remove their work from the site again . OC ReMix judge Larry Oji ( a.k.a. Liontamer ) became head submissions evaluator for the organization in June 2006 , providing initial evaluation of all submissions and freeing up Lloyd 's time to develop the site .
The site 's first fan convention appearance was Otakon 2006 in Baltimore , Maryland . In April 2008 , Lloyd and Oji joined Six Apart 's Anil Dash , MetaFilter 's Matt Haughey , Reddit 's Alexis Ohanian and FARK.com 's Drew Curtis for a panel discussion on virtual communities at Internet meme convention , ROFLCon , co @-@ sponsored by Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology .
= = Main features = =
There have been more than 3 @,@ 000 " ReMixes " hosted on the site submitted by more than 900 " ReMixers " from a variety of genres . ReMixes are available individually and through bundled BitTorrent distributions , and are searchable through a database of games , composers , companies , systems and ReMixers . ReMixes are released under a non @-@ commercial , attribution @-@ requiring content policy .
The site approves ReMixes based on standards and guidelines encouraging arrangement creativity and capable production quality . Throughout the years , more than 150 works have been removed after initially being admitted , generally due to stricter enforcement of the site 's standards after the admission of the work . A common violation is a " MIDI rip " , which involves obtaining a MIDI transcription of the source material , making minor modifications to it , and passing it off as one 's own work . Other violations include stolen or unoriginal recordings , cover versions , arrangements which differ so far from the source material as to be unrecognizable , and obvious sub @-@ par execution . The website currently hosts several digital albums which arrange entire game soundtracks , created through community collaboration , with new albums added periodically . The site also maintains a database of the skills of members of its community to encourage artist collaboration . Lloyd and other staff also conduct interviews with prolific ReMixers , video game music composers and celebrities about video game music creation .
OverClocked ReMix 's discussion forums and IRC channel are where the majority of community interaction occurs . Areas of discussion include boards devoted to reviews , works in progress , projects , and competitions , as well as more general boards for discussion of topics less related to remixing .
= = Albums and other projects = =
In addition to hosting individual files , OC ReMix also publishes albums of entire game soundtracks , created as collaboration among groups of remixers ; as of 2016 , it has released over 70 albums .
The musicians of OverClocked ReMix were chosen to handle the Super Street Fighter II Turbo HD Remix soundtrack after Capcom U.S.A. associate producer Rey Jimenez heard the organization 's 2006 Super Street Fighter II Turbo tribute album Blood on the Asphalt . Entitled OC ReMix : Super Street Fighter II Turbo HD Remix Official Soundtrack , the complete 66 @-@ track album was freely released at OverClocked ReMix . Along with several new arrangements , edited versions of Blood on the Asphalt tracks and prior remixes from the site comprise the soundtrack . The remixers arranged the music based on knowledge of the Street Fighter II series alone , as the music for the game was completed before the visuals and gameplay . OC ReMix founder David " djpretzel " Lloyd directed the soundtrack and served as the organization 's contact with Capcom " to ensure that working with a large fan community was as close as possible for Capcom to working with a single composer " .
Jimenez praised HD Remix 's music as " above and beyond our expectations " and OC ReMix 's efforts as " one of the most rewarding aspects of working on SF HD Remix " . Capcom 's Vice @-@ President of Strategic Planning & Business Development , Christian Svensson , described the soundtrack as " impactful " after guests , to whom he showed a demo of the game , praised the remixed music before any other aspect of the demo . In its review of HD Remix , gaming & entertainment website IGN commended OC ReMix 's work as " a great tribute to the original soundtrack " . Other entities with favorable reviews of the soundtrack included Eurogamer , GameSpot , Official Xbox Magazine , GamesRadar , 1UP.com , as well as long @-@ time game composer " The Fat Man " George Sanger , who referred to the Capcom @-@ OC ReMix collaboration as " Game Audio 2 @.@ 0 " .
OC ReMix has freely released official indie game soundtracks for titles including iOS game Trenches , the Xbox Live Arcade game Return All Robots ! , and Missile Master , Episode 1 : Invasion . In addition to its free albums , the site partnered with Capcom to release OC ReMix 's first commercial album , For Everlasting Peace : 25 Years of Mega Man featuring licensed arrangements of various Mega Man soundtracks .
The website has an associated record label , OverClocked Records , through which they sell licensed songs and albums . On July 15 , 2015 , they published their first officially licensed remix , an arrangement of " Song of the Ancients " from Nier . It was made available to stream or purchase .
In addition to the albums and remixes , the OverClocked ReMix community has undertaken other projects in efforts to enhance or promote its main website . Some , such as an official Winamp skin , the OverClocked ReCollections download manager , the VGDJ podcast , and the VG Frequency news blog were abandoned after long periods of inactivity . Among the successful projects are Chipamp , a Winamp plugin bundle to make chiptunes and video game music sound formats more accessible , and OCR Radio , an endorsed fanmade internet radio stream of OC ReMixes that is a part of Rainwave .
= = Reception = =
The community has grown through word of mouth and mention of the website in several publications and on several websites . The most influential early coverage of the site came in a mid @-@ 2002 issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly . OC ReMix has since been covered in reports by sources such as G4techTV , PC Gamer magazine , 1UP.com , Game Informer magazine , Nintendo Power magazine , Ars Technica , Minnesota Public Radio , BBC Radio 1 , Hyper magazine , and others .
= = = Industry reaction = = =
According to a 2005 interview ,
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Somerset , Poyntz batted strongly in the lower order to help secure Somerset 's only victory of the season . Poyntz 's score of 32 in the first innings could not prevent the follow @-@ on , but in the second innings , he hit 60 runs to widen Somerset 's lead to almost 150 runs , a total Gloucestershire failed to chase down . His success against Gloucestershire continued in the return fixture later that season , in which he scored 89 of Somerset 's total of 169 in the first innings , and 42 runs in the second innings , though their opponents won by an innings after amassing 521 runs in their only innings . In all , Poyntz played five matches in his debut season , totalling 307 runs . His season 's batting average of 34 @.@ 11 was the highest of his career .
In David Foot 's history of Somerset cricket , after the 1903 season he wrote that " it 's time discreetly to leap over undistinguished seasons . " Between 1903 and the cessation of county cricket due to the First World War , Somerset never finished higher than tenth in the County Championship . Poyntz himself struggled for runs between 1906 and 1909 : in thirty matches for the county , he failed to score a half @-@ century . Statistically , his worst season came in 1907 , when he averaged just 4 @.@ 66 runs per innings . His most notable incident that season occurred during the match against Middlesex at Lord 's . In his own benefit match , Albert Trott claimed two hat @-@ tricks ; Poyntz was one of the victims , falling for a second innings duck .
= = County captain = =
In 1910 , Poyntz captained Somerset for the first time , standing @-@ in during the absence of the regular captain , John Daniell . In that season , he struck his first half @-@ century since 1905 , scoring 50 runs in the second innings of a match against Middlesex at Bath . He followed that with another in his next innings , finishing on 52 not out against Lancashire , though Somerset lost both matches by an innings . He finished the 1910 season with 363 runs at an average of 16 @.@ 50 , and appeared in a representative match for the West of England against the East . In their summary of the 1911 season , Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack claimed that " the outlook for Somerset is cheerless . " The county finished bottom of the championship with only one victory , against Hampshire at Bath . Despite this , Poyntz had one of his most successful seasons : he scored 597 runs at an average of 22 @.@ 96 , and his five half @-@ centuries were the most in any year of his career . He began the season with half @-@ centuries in both innings of a drawn match with Hampshire in Southampton , and two matches later , he bowled for the first time in first @-@ class cricket . Facing Lancashire , Poyntz was called upon as Somerset 's ninth bowler in their opponent 's second innings : only the captain Daniell and the wicket @-@ keeper , Harry Chidgey , did not bowl . Poyntz bowled eight overs and three balls , and claimed five wickets ; his best analysis in first @-@ class cricket . He continued to bowl occasionally for the remainder of the season , but only claimed three further wickets , and finished his career with a bowling average of 39 @.@ 62 . Poyntz was unable to appear as often in 1912 ; he only played eight times for Somerset , six less than the season before . He scored 253 runs at an average 18 @.@ 07 that year , and did not pass fifty run in an innings .
Somerset 's difficulties were not confined to the pitch . In 1912 , the club made a loss of £ 327 , and they could not persuade Daniell to remain at the club rather than travel to India . Initially the county asked Arthur Newton , who was at that time 50 years old , to serve as captain , but after consideration he declined the role , and Poyntz was appointed instead . The team that he inherited remained a poor one : the Wisden summary in 1913 stated that they had , " no temptation to deal at any great length with the doings of Somerset " . During a season in which his side had finished bottom of the championship with only two wins , Poyntz scored 363 runs at an average of 15 @.@ 12 , with a single half @-@ century ; 50 runs exactly scored against Derbyshire . The club once again recorded a loss during the season , and at the club 's annual general meeting , the mood was negative . Despite this , Poyntz was reappointed as captain for 1914 after a proposal made by Bruce Hylton @-@ Stewart and seconded by Newton . Rare optimism was shown by Newton and Poyntz , with the latter claiming that it was due to " a lot of bad luck that they [ Somerset ] did not finish half way up the table instead of at the bottom . "
That optimism was not reflected in Somerset 's results the following year . Further financial losses were made , and the county finished second @-@ bottom of the championship . On a personal level , Poyntz scored more runs than in any other season , accruing 642 during his 19 matches at an average of 18 @.@ 34 , and scored three half @-@ centuries . The start of the First World War during the summer of 1914 resulted in the cancellation of some matches , along with a number of players joining the armed forces , disrupting the end of the cricket season . Although Somerset fared poorly under his charge , David Foot claims that Poyntz received " more praise than criticism " for his captaincy .
= = Wartime career and later life = =
In September 1914 , Poyntz was appointed to the 3rd Battalion , Bedfordshire Regiment . He received promotion to Lieutenant , and then Captain in 1915 , before being transferred to the 2nd Battalion in December of that year , serving in the Somme under the command of his brother , Major Hugh Stainton Poyntz . He was shortly thereafter assigned command of " B " Company . He continued to command B Company during the Battle of the Somme . Poyntz commanded the 2nd Battalion for a while in 1917 during his brother 's leave , but spent most of the remainder of the war in reserve with the 3rd Battalion . He completed his military service as a Major .
Poyntz only played three further first @-@ class cricket matches after the war . He made his highest total during a match for the Army against Cambridge University , at Fenner 's . Batting at number eight , he struck 15 fours and 3 sixes to reach 114 runs in the second innings . The Army lost the match by 10 wickets . Later in the season , he his final appearances for Somerset , playing against Sussex and Hampshire under the captaincy of Daniell , averaging 10 @.@ 00 from three innings . In all , Poyntz scored 3 @,@ 127 runs during his first @-@ class career at an average of 17 @.@ 08 . He died on 26 December 1934 in Minehead , Somerset .
= = Style and technique = =
Although not highly thought of as a batsman , Poyntz was known for being able to hit the ball hard . A right @-@ handed batsman , he is described as lacking " technique and consistency " by David Foot , but obituaries suggest that his shortage of talent was offset by application of effort . Wisden declared him " an excellent fielder " , but Foot is more reserved , describing him as a " passable slip fielder " . Sammy Woods was Poyntz 's godfather , while Poyntz in turn acted as a godfather to John Daniell 's son Nigel . David Foot portrays an element of caricature about Poyntz , describing him as , " a tall man who slammed his hair back with a distinctive parting in the middle . " He also related a story from a Somerset teammate in which Poyntz claimed that he could trace him family all the way back to William the Conqueror , and had a massive coat of arms in his Bristol flat .
= Iván Nova =
Iván Manuel Nova Guance ( born January 12 , 1987 ) is a Dominican professional baseball pitcher for the New York Yankees of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Nova made his MLB debut in 2010 . He bats and throws right @-@ handed .
Nova grew up poor in the Dominican Republic , where he started playing baseball at a young age . An unheralded prospect , the Yankees signed Nova as an international free agent in 2004 . After pitching in minor league baseball through the 2008 season , the San Diego Padres selected Nova from the Yankees in the Rule 5 draft . The Padres opted not to carry Nova on their 25 @-@ man roster , however , and returned him to the Yankees .
Nova enjoyed a breakout season in the minors for the Yankees in 2009 . He reached MLB with the Yankees in 2010 . Nova established himself as a key member of the Yankees ' starting rotation during the 2011 season . After struggling in 2012 , Nova reemerged in 2013 , winning the American League Pitcher of the Month Award for August 2013 .
= = Early life = =
Nova was raised in San Cristóbal , Dominican Republic . His father , Manuel , managed a restaurant on the beach . To make ends meet , Nova and his four siblings slept in the same bed and often worked in their father 's restaurant .
Nova rooted for the New York Yankees of Major League Baseball and the Leones del Escogido of the Dominican Professional Baseball League as a child . He played baseball as a shortstop and outfielder , but was not highly regarded as a prospect . He went unnoticed by scouts until he experienced a growth spurt at the age of 15 . Local scouts asked Nova to pitch in a game against older players , and he continued to train as a pitcher .
The Boston Red Sox invited Nova to their Dominican academy , where they attempted to sign him . Nova declined their contract offer , however , as the Red Sox are rivals of the Yankees . When he was 17 years old , a trainer recommended Nova to Victor Mata , a Yankees scout , who invited Nova to attend their Dominican academy .
= = Career = =
= = = Minor league career = = =
After a two @-@ week tryout , the Yankees signed Nova as an international free agent on July 15 , 2004 . Nova received an $ 80 @,@ 000 signing bonus , about the average bonus given to a Dominican prospect . Though other teams would have offered Nova more money , he insisted on signing with the Yankees .
Nova made his professional debut with the Gulf Coast Yankees in the Rookie @-@ level Gulf Coast League in 2006 , where he accumulated a 3 – 0 win – loss record with a 2 @.@ 72 earned run average ( ERA ) . After starting the 2007 season in extended spring training , the Yankees assigned him to the Charleston RiverDogs of the Class A South Atlantic League .
In 2008 , Nova pitched for the Tampa Yankees of the Class A @-@ Advanced Florida State League . Nova started the season with an 0 – 5 win – loss record and a 5 @.@ 06 ERA , at which point he considered quitting baseball . But Nova persevered , and he rebounded to finish the season with an 8 – 13 win – loss record and a 4 @.@ 36 ERA in 26 games , 24 of which he started . He recorded 109 strikeouts and 46 walks .
The Yankees opted not to add Nova to their 40 @-@ man roster after the 2008 season , exposing him to the Rule 5 draft that off @-@ season . They calculated that Nova , if selected , would be returned to the organization by the end of spring training , as he was unlikely to last the entire season on a team 's 25 @-@ man roster , as required by the Rule 5 process . In December 2008 , the San Diego Padres selected Nova with the twentieth selection in the Rule 5 draft . Competing for a spot on the Padres ' roster , Nova had an 8 @.@ 31 ERA in spring training , allowing eight earned runs and 13 hits in 8 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched , while walking four and striking out three . He was returned to the Yankees after clearing outright waivers at the end of spring training .
Nova began the 2009 season with the Trenton Thunder of the Class AA Eastern League . He started the season with a 2 @.@ 36 ERA in 12 games started . His performance led the Yankees to promote him to the Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre Yankees of the Class AAA International League , where he made his first start on June 29 , pitching 5 2 ⁄ 3 innings of no @-@ hit baseball against the Rochester Red Wings . Combined , Nova finished with a 6 – 8 win – loss record and a 3 @.@ 68 ERA during the regular season , and had a 1 – 0 record and a 1 @.@ 93 ERA in two postseason starts with Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre . Following the 2009 season , the Yankees added Nova to their 40 @-@ man roster , to ensure he was not selected in the Rule 5 draft again .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
= = = = 2010 – 2011 = = = =
After recording a 2 @.@ 43 ERA and 1 @.@ 27 walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) ratio over his first six starts for Scranton / Wilkes Barre , Nova was promoted to the major leagues on May 10 , 2010 , to serve as a long reliever in the Yankees ' bullpen . He pitched three shutout innings in relief before he was optioned back to Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre . Nova was recalled to the majors on August 21 , and he made his first career major league start on August 23 . He impressed the Yankees in his first start , going 5 1 ⁄ 3 innings and allowing two runs on six hits against the Toronto Blue Jays . He was given his second start , replacing Javier Vázquez in the Yankees ' starting rotation . Nova struck out seven Chicago White Sox in his first MLB victory on August 29 .
At the time of his MLB debut , the league investigated Nova and fellow Yankees pitching prospect Wilkins de la Rosa for injecting each other with Vitamin B12 . Overall , Nova made seven starts for the Yankees in 2010 , pitching to a 1 – 2 record and a 4 @.@ 50 ERA . Nova reached the sixth inning only once , however , as he allowed a higher opponents ' batting average and ERA in the fifth inning than in the first four . The Yankees did not include Nova on their postseason roster .
Nova entered spring training in 2011 expected to secure a spot in the starting rotation . Nova was named to the Yankees ' starting rotation . On June 20 , Nova had the longest start in his career , allowing one run in eight innings against the Cincinnati Reds , while striking out seven . Through June , Nova had an 8 – 4 win – loss record and 4 @.@ 15 ERA , including a 4 – 1 record and 3 @.@ 35 ERA in his six most recent starts .
Despite Nova 's success , he was demoted to Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre due to the return of Bartolo Colón and Phil Hughes from the disabled list , as Nova had minor league options remaining . Nova used the time with Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre to work on his slider .
Nova was called up to the majors due to a double @-@ header against the Baltimore Orioles on July 30 . Nova solidified himself in the Yankee rotation after a 7 2 ⁄ 3 inning , six hit , one run , ten strikeout , zero walk performance against the Chicago White Sox . He remained in the rotation , as manager Joe Girardi went with a six @-@ man rotation , in place of the usual five @-@ man rotation , in order to keep starting Nova . After his July 30 promotion , Nova had an 8 – 0 record with a 3 @.@ 18 ERA . The Yankees selected Nova for their three @-@ man postseason starting rotation at the end of the season . Girardi named Nova the starter in Game 2 of the 2011 American League Division Series ( ALDS ) . When Game 1 was postponed by rain in the third inning , he pitched 6 2 ⁄ 3 innings of the resumed game , while allowing only two runs and earning the win . He pitched again for the Yankees in Game 5 but the team lost the series .
Nova compiled a 16 – 4 record in 2011 , the most wins for a Yankees rookie since Stan Bahnsen won 17 games in 1968 . He also had a 3 @.@ 70 ERA . He was named to the Baseball America All @-@ Rookie Team following the season . Nova finished fourth in balloting for the American League ( AL ) Rookie of the Year Award , finishing behind Jeremy Hellickson , Mark Trumbo , and Eric Hosmer .
= = = = 2012 – present = = = =
Nova secured for a spot in the starting rotation for the 2012 season in spring training . He won 15 consecutive games from June 2011 through May 2012 , one short of the franchise record set by Roger Clemens . He surpassed the Yankees ' rookie record of twelve consecutive wins , set by Atley Donald in 1939 , during the 2011 season .
Nova struggled at the beginning of the 2012 season , recording a 5 @.@ 60 ERA through May , but decreased it to 3 @.@ 92 by the All @-@ Star break . During an interleague game against the Atlanta Braves on June 11 , 2012 , Nova got his first career base hit off of Randall Delgado in a 3 – 0 win . Nova was not very effective after the All @-@ Star break , pitching to a 2 – 5 record with a 6 @.@ 40 ERA in 10 starts , and was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list due to rotator cuff inflammation . Due to his struggles late in the season , the Yankees decided to demote Nova to the bullpen for the postseason roster until the team lost in the 2012 ALCS to the Detroit Tigers . Despite his 5 @.@ 02 ERA , he still finished the 2012 season with a record of 12 – 8 in 28 starts .
Nova struggled in his first four starts of the 2013 season , in which he failed to pitch past the fifth inning , pitching to a 1 – 1 record and a 6 @.@ 28 ERA . On April 27 , 2013 , Nova was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list after an MRI revealed he had inflammation of his right triceps . Nova was activated on May 24 , 2013 , and demoted to the bullpen . He pitched an immaculate inning on May 29 , 2013 against the New York Mets . However , he was demoted to Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre the next day , as the Yankees decided they wanted Nova to continue to start .
The Yankees recalled Nova on June 23 . On July 5 , he pitched his first career complete game in a 3 – 2 win against the Orioles . Again facing the Orioles , Nova pitched his first career shutout on August 31 . Nova was named the AL Pitcher of the Month for August 2013 , in which he recorded a 4 – 0 record and a 2 @.@ 08 ERA . From July 5 through August 31 , Nova made seven consecutive starts in which he pitched at least seven innings and allowed three or fewer runs . Nova compiled a 7 – 5 record and a 2 @.@ 70 ERA in 17 games , 16 of them starts , after being recalled from the minor leagues . His final 2013 record was 9 – 6 with a 3 @.@ 10 ERA in 23 games pitched , 20 of them starts .
Eligible for salary arbitration , Nova and the Yankees agreed on a $ 3 @.@ 3 million salary for the 2014 season . He was removed from his April 19 start with an elbow injury , which was diagnosed as a partially torn ulnar collateral ligament and required Tommy John surgery , ending Nova 's season . He had a 2 – 2 record and a 8 @.@ 47 ERA in four starts before the surgery .
Nova began a throwing program to rehabilitate his arm in September , and spent the winter at the Yankees ' spring training facility in Tampa , Florida , rather than returning to the Dominican Republic . The Yankees signed Nova to a $ 3 @.@ 3 million contract for the 2015 season , avoiding arbitration . On April 11 , 2015 , the Yankees placed Nova on the 60 @-@ day disabled list to begin the season recovering from his Tommy John surgery . He made his first rehabilitation start on June 8 , and returned to the Yankees on June 24 . Nova pitched to a 5 @.@ 11 ERA in 14 starts before the Yankees took Nova out of the starting rotation on September 16 ; however , Nova remained in the rotation due to an injury to Masahiro Tanaka . He finished the 2015 season with a 6 – 11 record and a 5 @.@ 07 ERA .
In his final year of arbitration , Nova signed a contract worth $ 4 @.@ 1 million for the 2016 season . Nova began the 2016 season as a relief pitcher before making his first start on May 9 .
= = Scouting report = =
Nova throws four pitches : a four @-@ seam fastball between 91 to 95 miles per hour ( 146 – 153 km / h ) ( tops out at 97 mph ) , a circle changeup between 85 to 88 miles per hour ( 137 – 142 km / h ) , a slider / cut fastball between 85 to 89 miles per hour ( 137 – 143 km / h ) , and a 12 – 6 curveball between 79 to 82 miles per hour ( 127 – 132 km / h ) . He relies heavily on his four @-@ seamer against hitters from both sides of the plate . A high percentage ( 20 – 25 % ) of his pitches are curveballs , especially when facing left @-@ handers . Nova worked in 2011 to develop his slider , changing his grip at the suggestion of Yankees executive Billy Connors . The work paid off , as his slider garnered a whiff rate of 43 % in 2011 . Nova 's changeup is not his main weapon and is not used against right @-@ handed hitters .
= = Personal life = =
Nova 's family resides in the Dominican Republic . His father traveled to the United States to watch his second MLB start in person . Nova dedicated his 2011 season to his grandfather , who died in 2010 .
Nova is married to Ada de la Cruz , a Dominican beauty pageant champion .
= SS Kroonland =
SS Kroonland was an ocean liner for International Mercantile Marine ( IMM ) from her launch in 1902 until scrapped in 1927 . Kroonland was the sister ship of Finland and a near sister ship of Vaderland and Zeeland of the same company . Kroonland sailed for IMM 's Red Star Line for 15 years , and also sailed for IMM 's American Line and Panama Pacific Line . During World War I , the ship served as United States Army transport USAT Kroonland through April 1918 , and as the Navy auxiliary USS Kroonland ( ID @-@ 1541 ) from April 1918 to October 1919 .
Announced by the Red Star Line in 1899 , Kroonland was completed in 1902 by William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia . When launched , she was the largest U.S. steamship ever built . Kroonland sailed from New York City to Antwerp on her maiden voyage in June 1902 , beginning service on the route she would sail for the next twelve years . According to The New York Times , Kroonland became the first ship to issue a wireless distress call at sea when she radioed for help during a storm in 1903 . In another radio first , Kroonland heard the " first real broadcast of history " in December 1906 . Kroonland was one of ten ships that came to the aid of the burning liner Volturno in the mid @-@ Atlantic in October 1913 . Despite stormy seas , Kroonland was able to take aboard 89 survivors , for which captain and crew received accolades that included U.S. Congressional Gold Medals .
When the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 disrupted service to Belgium , Kroonland shifted to alternate routes . On a trip to the Mediterranean in October 1914 , Kroonland was detained by British authorities at Gibraltar , and part of her cargo was confiscated amidst diplomatic wrangling between the then @-@ neutral United States and the United Kingdom . During a chartered circumnavigation of South America in February 1915 , Kroonland became the largest passenger ship to date to transit the Panama Canal . Kroonland was placed in New York – Panama Canal – San Francisco service until a landslide temporarily closed the canal to navigation . Returned to transatlantic service , Kroonland was one of the first U.S. ships armed by the Navy for defense against German submarine attacks . In May 1917 Kroonland was struck by a torpedo , which failed to detonate and only slightly damaged the ship .
After the United States entered World War I , Kroonland served as a troopship for the U.S. Army and Navy . She made six trips carrying troops to France before the Armistice and eight voyages after , transporting nearly 38 @,@ 000 troops in total . Returned to IMM in late 1919 , Kroonland was scorched in a shipyard fire in January 1920 while she was being refitted for passenger service . The liner resumed North Atlantic service in April , remaining there until returning to New York – San Francisco service in 1923 . Kroonland inaugurated IMM 's winter New York – Miami service from December 1925 to March 1926 , but was laid up in Hoboken , New Jersey , when IMM did not resume the Miami service the following year . The ship was sold and scrapped at Genoa in 1927 .
= = Design and construction = =
In July 1899 , the Red Star Line announced plans for the construction of four large ocean liners . Two ships , Kroonland and Finland , were to be built at William Cramp and Sons in Philadelphia , and the others , Vaderland and Zeeland , at John Brown & Company of Clydebank in Scotland . By April 1901 , the two Scottish @-@ built ships were completed and in service for Red Star , with the construction of the American pair well underway .
Kroonland and the virtually identical Finland , at 12 @,@ 760 gross register tons ( GRT ) each , were slightly larger than Vaderland and Zeeland . The American pair were the largest steamships built in the United States at the time of their launch , and were the highest tonnage civilian ships ever built by William Cramp . Kroonland was 560 feet ( 170 @.@ 7 m ) long ( pp ) and 60 @-@ foot ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) abeam , with a molded depth of 42 feet ( 12 @.@ 8 m ) . Her hull was steel and nearly all the rivets were set with pneumatic rivet guns .
Kroonland was propelled at up to 17 knots ( 31 km / h ) by twin triple @-@ expansion steam engines . The engines were each rated at 5 @,@ 100 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 800 kW ) and had cylinders of 32 @.@ 5 inches ( 83 cm ) , 54 inches ( 140 cm ) , and 89 @.@ 5 inches ( 227 cm ) with a 42 @-@ inch ( 110 cm ) stroke . There were nine single @-@ ended coal @-@ fired Scotch boilers with a heating area of 22 @,@ 400 square feet ( 2 @,@ 080 m2 ) , a grate area of 643 square feet ( 59 @.@ 7 m2 ) , and an operating pressure of 170 pounds per square inch ( 1 @,@ 200 kPa ) . Kroonland had eleven watertight compartments with reinforced bulkheads , and was designed to remain afloat with up to two compartments flooded . Kroonland 's coal bunkers surrounded the boilers , to offer limited protection in case the ship was used in wartime .
The area below the main deck could carry up to 11 @,@ 000 long tons ( 11 @,@ 000 t ) of freight and stores . Kroonland 's water tanks could carry 200 long tons ( 200 t ) of fresh water . Refrigerated storage was provided for meats and other perishables .
Third @-@ class passenger accommodations were located on the main deck : three compartments for men located forward , and a single compartment for families at the rear . The family compartment had state rooms containing either two , four , or six bunks . All compartments had well @-@ lighted dining areas and wide hallways that led to lavatories and sanitary facilities on the upper deck .
The upper deck housed facilities for officers and first- and second @-@ class passengers . A long forecastle contained the accommodations for the crew and petty officers , as well as a hospital and the third @-@ class lavatories . First @-@ class staterooms for 106 passengers were located close to the middle of the ship . To their rear , between the funnels , was the first @-@ class passenger dining room , spanning the width of the ship . With seating for 208 , it featured mahogany furniture and satinwood paneling with inlays , and a glass skylight ceiling that extended up through two decks . Beyond this area were the galleys , sculleries , and pantries that served all passenger classes . Moving further aft , the second @-@ class passenger dining room , which could accommodate 120 diners , was next . It , too , spanned the width of the ship and featured mahogany furniture , but was paneled with tapestry upon a cream @-@ colored ground . Beyond the dining area were cabins for 76 second @-@ class passengers .
A 220 @-@ foot ( 67 m ) long bridge deck amidships contained state rooms for another 204 first @-@ class and 120 second @-@ class passengers . In the rear was a deck house that contained a social room for third @-@ class passengers . A promenade deck was located above and was permanently enclosed by a boat deck , where Kroonland 's 20 steel lifeboats were stowed . The promenade deck housed the library and smoking room for first @-@ class passengers .
Kroonland was launched on the afternoon of 20 February 1902 in a small , informal ceremony . Mrs. Rodman Griscom christened the ship , but Kroonland did not budge on the launching way ; cold weather had frozen the tallow used to grease the timbers . Hydraulic jacks eventually freed the ship for her plunge into the Delaware River .
= = Red Star Line service , 1902 – 1914 = =
Kroonland sailed on her maiden voyage from New York to Antwerp on 28 June 1902 . Kroonland remained on New York – Antwerp service for the next twelve years . In these early years of service , she was involved in two radio firsts . After the steering gear failed 130 nautical miles ( 240 km ) west of Fastnet Rock during a moderate gale in early December 1903 , the ship 's crew was able to communicate their predicament via Marconi wireless system , becoming , according to one contemporary news account , the first ship in distress ever to use wireless . Kroonland put in at Queenstown , Ireland , for repairs , and transferred her passengers and freight to ships of the White Star Line , another IMM subsidiary . The other radio first came on 24 December 1906 , when the ship 's wireless operator heard — rather than the expected dots and dashes of morse code — the voice of a woman singing . The singing was followed by a recording of Handel 's " Largo " , a poetry reading , and more music played from phonographs . The steamer was on the receiving end of what journalist and author Robert St. John called the " first real broadcast of history " , originated by early radio pioneer Reginald Fessenden from Brant Rock in Massachusetts .
During her time on the New York – Antwerp route , Kroonland was frequently battered by the storms that were typical in the North Atlantic . In November 1904 , a Brussels news agency reported a rumor that the ship had foundered in a mid @-@ ocean storm . The report — proved false when Kroonland safely docked in New York — received wide coverage in the American press . While in a heavy December gale , the ship was struck by what contemporary news accounts referred to as a " tidal wave " as high as the tops of her funnels . The wave crashed over the deck , and brought the ship to a standstill . A Belgian passenger 's leg was broken when he was thrown into a wall , and a crewman on watch in the crow 's nest was sent tumbling to the deck 40 feet ( 12 m ) below with only minor injuries .
In another December gale in 1907 , one of the two propeller shafts on Kroonland broke while the liner was off the Isles of Scilly . Using the lone remaining propeller , the liner was able to make her way back to Southampton , where two tugs brought her into port . Passengers were transferred to Majestic to continue their transit to New York , while Kroonland entered drydock at Southampton . Fitted with a new shaft , she sailed — without passengers and cargo — for New York , where she arrived on 2 January 1908 . In February 1910 , severe winter storms on the North Atlantic extended one of Kroonland 's westbound trips , delaying her arrival in New York by three days . In May , Kroonland broke another propeller shaft , and again headed to Southampton for repairs .
Not all of the ship 's mishaps were storm @-@ related . In late April 1911 , Kroonland hit the breakwater in Dover Harbour , disabling the steering gear and delaying the ship by a day . On 8 January 1913 , Kroonland ran aground in Ambrose Channel during a heavy fog while outbound from New York . It took more than six hours for tugs to free the liner from the soft mud .
The Red Star Line changed Kroonland from American to Belgian registry on 6 November 1908 in Antwerp . One reason given for the change was to allow Red Star to hire non @-@ American crews at lower cost . She made her maiden voyage under the Belgian flag the next day . In May 1911 , Kroonland 's crew , acting on rumors of an impending British mariner 's strike , refused to sign on for the ship 's next voyage , forcing Red Star to hire a replacement crew .
International Mercantile Marine submitted a bid for a ten @-@ year contract for Kroonland and Finland to carry U.S. mail between New York and San Francisco after the opening of the Panama Canal . By law , only U.S.-flagged ships could carry U.S. mail under contract . It was also anticipated that U.S.-flagged vessels would receive preferential treatment for canal tolls . In a short ceremony aboard the liner in New York Harbor on 27 December 1911 , the Belgian flag was lowered and the American flag was raised to the playing of " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " by the steamer 's band , shortly before she sailed for Antwerp .
= = = Volturno rescue = = =
At about 06 : 00 on 9 October 1913 , Volturno , a Royal Line ship under charter to the Uranium Line , caught fire in a gale on the North Atlantic . The crew fought the fire for about two hours , but , realizing the severity of the fire and the limited options for dousing it in the high seas , Captain Francis Inch of Volturno had his wireless operator send out SOS signals . The westbound Kroonland , already beyond Volturno 's location , turned east to aid the burning liner . In the meantime , several of Volturno 's lifeboats with women and children aboard were launched with tragic results : all those aboard the lifeboats were killed as the boats capsized or were smashed by the hull of the heaving ship .
In all , ten ships heeded the distress calls , arriving throughout the day and into the next . Kroonland arrived at about 17 : 00 , and by 20 : 00 had launched a lifeboat with a volunteer crew . The boat was unable to get close to the burning liner . Kroonland 's lifeboat returned at 22 : 30 with an exhausted crew and the one person who had dared to brave the jump into the stormy water . Captain J. C. Barr of Carmania , the first ship to arrive , took command of the rescue effort . Barr had the vessels form a " battle line " of sorts and slowly circle the burning ship , while his ship kept a searchlight on Volturno and another sweeping the ring of rescue ships to help them avoid collisions . Despite Carmania 's efforts , Kroonland and the French Line steamer La Touraine almost collided , coming — according to one passenger — within 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) of impact .
Kroonland 's lifeboat , manned by a fresh crew , headed back out and returned with 13 steerage passengers . On board Volturno , the crew and some of the male passengers , unable to extinguish the fire , were at least able to keep it from spreading to the aft cargo holds , over which the others on board were gathered . Shortly before dawn , a large explosion — probably of her boilers — rocked Volturno , and the rescuers felt that the ship , which had not been in imminent danger of sinking up to this point , might founder at any time . The tanker Narragansett turned on her pumps and sprayed lubricating oil on the sea to help calm the surface . The combined effect of the oil and the lessening of the storm allowed many more lifeboats to be sent to Volturno 's aid . Kroonland launched two more boats herself and saved 75 more , including Captain Inch , the last person to leave the stricken ship . In all , some 520 passengers and crew were rescued by the ten ships — 89 on Kroonland alone . The loss of life was limited to around 130 , mostly women and children from the early lifeboat launchings .
With all boats recovered by 09 : 00 , the liners resumed their original courses . Kroonland turned west and continued on to the United States , hampered by a cracked crankshaft that slowed her to 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) . During her slow passage to New York , Kroonland 's cabin passengers drafted a resolution honoring Captain Kreibohm and the crew for their actions during the rescue , and raised $ 700 for the benefit of the Volturno survivors . Kroonland finally docked in New York on 16 October .
The crew , like those of the other nine ships involved , received many accolades for its rescue efforts . After sending the ship a congratulatory telegram at the time of the rescue , King Albert of Belgium made Capt. Kreibohm a Chevalier ( Knight ) of the Order of the Crown in January 1914 . At the same time , the Belgian government awarded its Third Class Civic Cross to Kroonland 's third officer , and First Class Civic Medals to six crewmen and a steward . In March , King George V of the United Kingdom , on recommendation of the Board of Trade , awarded 39 of the ship 's crew the Silver Sea Gallantry Medal , along with a £ 3 award . Crewmen from all ten ships received Sea Gallantry Medals , but no other ship had more medals awarded than Kroonland . Later in March , the United States Congress honored Kreibohm with a gold watch , Kroonland 's officers — including Kreibohm — with Congressional Gold Medals , and other crewmen with five silver and 25 bronze medals . In April , the Life Saving Benevolent Association of New York awarded its Life Saving Medal to Kreibohm , four officers , and 35 crewmen . In June 1916 , Kreibohm was presented with the American Cross of Honor by Congressman Henry Bruckner .
Kroonland resumed her normal New York – Antwerp service until 11 August 1914 , when she arrived at New York with passengers that had narrowly escaped the hostilities beginning to engulf the European continent .
= = = Notable passengers = = =
During her pre @-@ war New York – Antwerp sailings , Kroonland carried some notable and interesting passengers . On 1 August 1904 , one of the ship 's passengers arrived in New York as somewhat of a mystery woman . She recounted that she had gone out for dinner in Antwerp and awakened to find herself at sea with only the white silk evening gown she was wearing . Having no money or luggage , she was barred from entering the United States and was compelled to remain on board the ship . After her predicament was reported in The New York Times , she received letters and telegrams that included marriage proposals . Her background story and a letter of credit eventually verified her identity , but she was deported after a New York doctor pronounced her insane . Later the same month The New York Times reported on first @-@ class passengers ' complaints over privileges for their dogs and the conditions in the kennel aboard the liner . One passenger was determined to have her dog in her state room , and after others joined her in removing canine companions from the kennel , Kroonland 's crew took all the dogs back to the kennel . Many of the dog owners refused to speak to the others involved for the duration of the voyage .
On 27 May 1905 , American author Molly Elliot Seawell sailed for Europe on Kroonland on a day when six liners , with over 1 @,@ 500 passengers , departed New York . In October , Helen Taft returned from Europe on Kroonland and was met by her husband , Secretary of War William Howard Taft . The next August , Henry Yates Satterlee , the first Episcopal Bishop of Washington , returned on Kroonland from a six @-@ week tour of cathedrals of Europe , during which he noted both good and bad design elements of cathedrals in preparation for the building of the Washington National Cathedral . Also returning on the same voyage were Admiral Charles Sperry and Lieutenant Daniel W. Wurtsbaugh of the U.S. Navy , and Brigadier General Robert O 'Reilly , the Surgeon General of the U.S. Army ; all were American delegates to the Second Geneva Convention . It was not the first trip on Kroonland for either Satterlee and O 'Reilly . Satterlee had traveled on the liner the previous May to visit the spa town of Bad Nauheim in Hesse ; O 'Reilly had been on the November 1904 trip in which Kroonland had been reported as sunk .
Kroonland was the scene of an attempted murder @-@ suicide in October 1908 . Two acquaintances in steerage had an argument over a young female second @-@ class passenger that both men knew . One man threw a knife at the other — only slightly wounding him — and then fled and jumped over the railing into the English Channel near Dover . U.S. Senator Benjamin Tillman and his wife were aboard the liner at the time and saw the young man jump overboard . Although the ship lowered a boat to look for him , no trace of him was found , and he was presumed drowned .
American actresses Kitty Cheatham and Isabel Irving — each married to a different man named " W. H. Thompson " — traveled on Kroonland in May 1910 . Alerted to each other 's presence when mail addressed to " Mrs. W. H. Thompson " was confused , the actresses — old friends , having both worked in the theatre company of Augustin Daly — shared a state room for the voyage . Later that month , the ship was the official " World Missionary Conference Steamship " for delegates and representatives on their way to the World Missionary Conference in Edinburgh , Scotland . Honda Yoitsu , said to be the only Japanese Methodist Episcopal bishop , was among those on the liner when she sailed on 31 May . News accounts reported on some of the unusual activities aboard Kroonland during this trip . Among them were morning devotional services held daily in the ship 's dining room , and the spontaneous singing of hymns on deck every evening .
Kroonland was tangentially involved in a more sinister affair in July 1910 . American physician Hawley Crippen and his lover , Ethel La Neve , had fled England after the circumstances around his wife 's death were questioned . After a body was found in the basement of Crippen 's North London residence , Scotland Yard Chief Inspector Walter Dew sought the couple for murder charges . One theory had the couple sailing from Dover on Kroonland , but when inspected in New York on arrival , Crippen and Le Neve were not to be found . The fleeing couple had instead sailed from Antwerp on the Canadian Pacific liner Montrose . Crippen , identified during Montrose 's crossing , was arrested , convicted of his wife 's murder , and hanged ; La Neve was acquitted .
The American novelist Theodore Dreiser , returning from an extended European tour in April 1912 , briefly considered returning on RMS Titanic , but instead sailed two days later on the American @-@ flagged — and less expensive — Kroonland . Dreiser recounted the gloomy mood of Kroonland 's passengers after hearing the news of Titanic 's sinking , observing that the " terror of the sea had come swiftly and directly home to all " . On Kroonland 's next return trip to New York , Horst von der Goltz , a self @-@ described German secret agent , eluded German authorities by working as a steward in steerage aboard the liner .
= = American Line service , 1914 – 1915 = =
With the German invasion of Belgium in early August 1914 , Kroonland was switched to New York – Liverpool service . After two circuits on that route , IMM announced that the ship would be moved to service in the Mediterranean to attract business to offset that lost because of the war . Sailing from New York on 15 October for Gibraltar , Naples , and Piraeus , Kroonland became what IMM called the first large , American @-@ flagged steamer " to engage in trade with the far corners of the Mediterranean " . Along with passengers , the ship carried a cargo of rubber and 1 @,@ 500 long tons ( 1 @,@ 520 t ) of copper destined for Italy .
On 28 October , British authorities detained the ship at Gibraltar . Because neutral Italy did not restrict the shipment of copper ( which could be used in war munitions ) to Germany or Austria @-@ Hungary , the British claimed the right to detain the ship — a claim disputed by the U.S. State Department . Kroonland was allowed to resume her journey on 8 November after the copper and rubber were unloaded and taken to a prize court . The ship arrived at Naples on 11 November , then completed the rest of her Mediterranean trek . Returning to New York , she carried the new minister from Bulgaria to the United States , arriving on 4 December . IMM had advertised that Kroonland would sail the Mediterranean route again in December , but the liner was removed from the route .
In late January 1915 , Kroonland departed on a business tour of South America under charter to the American Trade Tour Company . The tour was designed as a showcase for American companies hoping to expand into South America , and Kroonland circumnavigated that continent , traveling over 15 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 28 @,@ 000 km ) in 82 days . During the voyage , the liner docked at various ports where businessmen or trade representatives , like the Babson Statistical Organization , made sales pitches and showed films of factories to potential customers aboard Kroonland . During this South American foray , the ship sailed westbound through the Panama Canal on 2 February , becoming the largest passenger ship to transit the canal to that date . Also on the trip , while transiting the Straits of Magellan in late February , Kroonland passed British cruiser Bristol refueling from a collier , and , on 26 February , when entering the harbor of Punta Arenas , Chile , passed the departing HMS Glasgow , on the hunt for the German cruiser Dresden . Kroonland returned to New York on 14 April .
= = Panama Pacific Line service , 1915 = =
In May 1915 , Kroonland and sister ship Finland were chartered to the Panama Pacific Line for the long @-@ planned service between New York and San Francisco via the Panama Canal . Kroonland departed from New York for California on 22 May and counted 50 honeymooning couples and a large cargo of flour from St. Paul , Minnesota , among her payload . The intercoastal trip took about 17 days each way and the ships called at either Los Angeles or San Diego on eastbound and westbound trips . With two ships on the route , one ship departed from either New York or San Francisco about every three weeks . The service was marketed as the ideal manner to visit the Panama @-@ California Exposition in San Diego and the Panama @-@ Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco . At the San Francisco exhibition , a detailed model of Kroonland was one of ten that comprised a part of IMM 's 6 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 600 m2 ) exhibit in the Palace of Transportation .
Frequent and progressively worse landslides in the canal disrupted Kroonland 's and Finland 's service . In August 1915 , Kroonland 's arrival in New York was delayed a day by a Gaillard Cut slide . In early September , both ships were delayed ten days while waiting for the canal to be dredged after another slide . In early October , another landslide in the Gaillard Cut — this one in excess of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 760 @,@ 000 m3 ) of mud and dirt — closed the canal , and it was expected that it might remain closed for as long as ten months . Kroonland was en route to the canal from San Francisco , while Finland was at the canal 's eastern terminus , Colón . After Kroonland arrived at the canal 's western end at Balboa , the two liners exchanged passengers — including former First Lady Helen Taft and her daughter , Helen — by rail across the isthmus .
= = American Line service , 1915 – 1917 = =
The delay caused by the October slide in the Panama Canal created uncertainty for the immediate future of Kroonland . Her sister ship Finland was transferred to a New York – London route almost immediately after the canal 's closure , but Kroonland was " trapped " on the west side of the continent . By early November , Kroonland — loaded with cargo destined for the United Kingdom , and sailing under the banner of the American Line — departed San Francisco for London , via the Straits of Magellan . On 21 December , the liner arrived at Rio de Janeiro after having run aground , but was found to be undamaged . Continuing on to London , Kroonland departed for New York on 30 January 1916 . Although plans were announced in mid 1916 for the two sister ships to return to the Panama Pacific Line , and to add the Hawaiian port of Honolulu to the canal route , both ships remained in North Atlantic service .
On 20 February , Kroonland , continuing to sail for the American Line , returned to New York – Liverpool service after an absence of 18 months . As a ship of the still @-@ neutral United States sailing in a war zone , Kroonland had her name painted in large letters on each side of her hull . The name was flanked on either side by large American flags and kept illuminated at night . In June , she carried US $ 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 of Argentine gold from London for deposit with the Guaranty Trust Company of New York . On late 1916 , a cook aboard Kroonland was arrested for smuggling feathers , wings , and heads of birds of paradise and crowned pigeons . The man , who was paid $ 300 for each load of feathers , smuggled in at least three loads of the avian contraband before his arrest . In January 1917 , a jumble sale held in the saloon on Kroonland raised £ 73 15s 11d for The Times Fund , for the benefit of the British Red Cross and the Order of St. John .
While returning from Liverpool in early February 1917 , passengers and crew on Kroonland witnessed the German U @-@ boat UC @-@ 46 sink the Dutch ship Gamma off the Irish coast . On 1 February 1917 , at around 15 : 30 , passengers and crew saw the German submarine overtake and stop the Dutch freighter . At about 16 : 15 , the U @-@ boat , by then on the far side of the Dutch ship and out of view from Kroonland , fired three shots from her deck gun . Gamma immediately began listing to port and sank within five minutes . Kroonland was less than 5 nautical miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km ) away , and was prepared to rescue the crew of the sunken ship , but stopped when the German submarine took Gamma 's lifeboat in tow . Four days later , a suspected submarine was seen 5 nautical miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km ) off Kroonland 's port side , and there were other reports of a ship that passengers took to be a German commerce raider or submarine tender .
Because Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare again on 1 February , Kroonland was laid up for almost two months at the American Line piers in New York , along with sister ship Finland and three other vessels . During this forced downtime , Kroonland was converted from coal burning to oil burning , a long @-@ awaited modification that had been announced in October 1915 . The conversion reduced the number of stokers needed from 75 to 12 , lowering Kroonland 's payroll . Because fuel oil was stored inside the double bottom of her hull , her cargo capacity was increased through the elimination of her coal bunkers . The labor savings and the additional freight revenues from the increased cargo space resulted in a net gain of $ 25 @,@ 000 income per trip .
= = Troopship duties = =
Kroonland served as a troopship for about the next year . In early March , U.S. Navy ordnance officers inspected Kroonland and took measurements in preparation to arm her for defense against submarine attacks . On 13 March , she was assigned guns by the Navy , becoming one of the first seven ships to be armed . With her arming complete , and carrying an armed naval guard to man the guns , Kroonland sailed for Liverpool on 25 March 1917 . Twelve days later , the United States formally declared war on Germany .
On the morning of 20 May , while the liner steamed toward Liverpool through a heavy fog , a torpedo struck her without exploding . Two minutes later her lookouts spotted a submarine bearing down on Kroonland so close alongside the liner that her guns could not be depressed enough to open fire on the raider . Although the U @-@ boat , apparently also taken by surprise , reversed her screws and tried to turn to avoid a collision , she lightly struck the liner 's hull and scraped along her side before diving out of sight . Meanwhile , two more torpedoes came within some 20 feet ( 6 m ) of hitting Kroonland 's stern . That afternoon the liner sighted another submarine , surfaced some 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) off her port quarter . Kroonland immediately began shelling the U @-@ boat , forcing the submarine to dive for safety . In early June , this failed torpedo attack on the ship made front page news in American newspapers .
In September , elements of the U.S. 42nd Infantry Division sailed from New York to Halifax on Kroonland . The ship sailed from Halifax on 30 September in an Allied convoy with the American ship Mongolia and Commonwealth ships Carmania ( which had led the Volturno rescue in 1913 ) , Anchises , Canada , Grampian , Ionican , Themistocles , Victoria , Carpathia , Medic , Miltiades , Mokoia , and Ruahine . Two days out from Halifax , the last five ships split off from the convoy and headed to Scotland ; Kroonland 's group sailed to Liverpool .
On 15 October 1917 , the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) requisitioned all American passenger ships over 2 @,@ 500 GT for use by the government in the war effort . Though it is not clear what immediate impact this had on Kroonland , it is known that the liner was operating as a U.S. Army transport ( under the name USAT Kroonland ) by February 1918 , when she was loaded with materiel and departed New York for Saint @-@ Nazaire , France .
In February 1918 the USSB assigned Kroonland to the transport fleet as an U.S. Army Chartered Transport ( USACT ) , and after her return from France on 9 April , she was converted to a troop transport in New York by the William J. Kennedy Company . A typical conversion from passenger liner to troop transport involved having all of the second- and third @-@ class accommodations ripped out and replaced with berths for troops . Cooking and toilet facilities also had to be greatly expanded to handle the large numbers of men aboard .
= = U.S. Navy transport duties = =
After problems with crew discipline aboard Army transports Antilles and Finland when they were torpedoed , the U.S. Navy , led by the recommendations of Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves , insisted that all troop transports be manned entirely by Navy personnel . This was accomplished soon after , to avoid the need for what Gleaves called " ignorant and unreliable men " who were " the sweepings of the docks " . Accordingly , Kroonland was handed over to the Navy on 22 April and commissioned the same day , with Commander Manley H. Simons in command .
= = = Transporting troops to France = = =
USS Kroonland was assigned to the Cruiser and Transport Force after being commissioned . The ship departed New York on 30 April with the transports Matsonia , Manchuria , and Finland . Martha Washington and Powhatan — two transports that sailed from Newport News , Virginia — rendezvoused with Kroonland 's group . South Dakota provided the convoy with protection until its arrival in France on 12 May . Kroonland returned to New York on 1 June .
Kroonland next left New York on 15 June with Finland , DeKalb , George Washington , Covington , Rijndam , the Italian steamer Dante Alighieri , and the British steamer Vauban and met up with the Newport News portion of the convoy — consisting of Lenape , Wilhelmina , Princess Matoika , Pastores , and the British troopship Czar ( another fellow Volturno rescuer ) — the next morning and set out for France . The convoy was escorted by the cruisers North Carolina and Frederick , and the destroyers Stevens and Fairfax ; the battleship Texas and several other destroyers joined in escort duties for the group for a time . The convoy had a false alarm when a floating barrel was mistaken for submarine , but the otherwise uneventful trip concluded at Brest on the afternoon of 27 June .
On 10 July , as Kroonland steamed homeward from France , a lookout spotted a periscope rising from the water about 200 yards ( 180 m ) away . Kroonland opened fire and the fourth shot from her No. 4 gun " burst with a tremendous cloud of dirty blue smoke " exactly on the periscope . The submarine zig @-@ zagged " erratically back and forth until she was directly in the disturbed water " of Kroonland 's wake . The transport continued firing until the submarine disappeared , leaving an oil slick which could be seen for at least 15 minutes . Kroonland arrived safely in New York on 13 July .
On 26 July , Kroonland , loaded with 3 @,@ 248 officers and men , departed on her next trip to France . In the company of Finland and the Italian steamer Taormina , she met up with Pocahontas , Susquehanna , and the Italian steamers Duca d 'Aosta and Caserta from Newport News . The cruisers Pueblo , Huntington , and destroyers Rathburne and Colhoun escorted the transports . Gordon Van
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of limiting the growth of arms , but of eliminating , for the first time , an entire class of nuclear weapons from the face of the Earth . "
= = Response and legacy = =
The speech received " relatively little coverage from the media " , Time magazine reported 20 years later . East German Politburo member Guenter Schabowski considered the speech to be " absurd " , and the Soviet press agency TASS accused Reagan of giving an " openly provocative , war @-@ mongering speech . "
Former West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl said he would never forget standing near Reagan when he challenged Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall . " He was a stroke of luck for the world , especially for Europe . "
In an interview with Reagan himself , he recalls the East German police not allowing people to get near the wall , which prevented the citizens from experiencing the speech at all . The fact that West German police acted in a similar way has however seldom been noted in accounts such as these .
Peter Robinson , the White House wordsmith who drafted the address , said its most famous line was inspired by a conversation with Ingeborg Elz of West Berlin who had remarked in a conversation with him , " If this man Gorbachev is serious with his talk of Glasnost and perestroika he can prove it by getting rid of this wall . "
Despite Reagan urging Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall , there are some such as Romesh Ratnesar of Time who commented that there is little evidence that the speech had any impact on the decision to tear down the wall , let alone an impact on the people he addressed . Another critic is Liam Hoare in a 2012 article in The Atlantic , who points to the many reasons for the tendency for American media to focus on the significance of this particular speech , without weighing the complexity of the events as they unfolded in both East and West Germany and the Soviet Union .
John Kornblum , senior US diplomat in Berlin at the time of Reagan 's speech , and US Ambassador to Germany from 1997 to 2001 , said " [ The speech ] wasn 't really elevated to its current status until 1989 , after the wall came down . "
= 2 / 5th Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 2 / 5th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army that operated during World War II . It was raised at Melbourne , Victoria , on 18 October 1939 as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) , attached to the 17th Brigade of the 6th Division . The 2 / 5th was one of only two Australian infantry battalions to fight against all of the major Axis powers during the war , seeing action against the Germans and Italians in Egypt , Libya , Greece and Crete , and the Vichy French in Syria , before returning to Australia in 1942 to fight the Japanese following a period of garrison duties in Ceylon , where it formed part of an Australian force established to defend against a possible Japanese invasion .
Following its return to Australia , the battalion was re @-@ organised for jungle warfare and took part in two campaigns in New Guinea . The first of these campaigns came in 1942 – 43 when it was involved in the defence of Wau and the Salamaua – Lae campaign , and then again in 1944 – 45 when it took part in the Aitape – Wewak campaign . Following the end of the war , the battalion embarked for Australia on 1 December 1945 and disbanded at Puckapunyal in early February 1946 . Its battle honours are maintained by the 5th / 6th Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and training 1940 – 41 = = =
Following the outbreak of World War II on 3 September 1939 , the Australian government announced the decision to raise the all @-@ volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) , since the Defence Act precluded sending Australia 's part @-@ time military forces overseas . As part of the force , the 2 / 5th Battalion was raised in Melbourne , Victoria , on 18 October 1939 and began to receive its first intake of men on 2 November 1939 when it moved to Puckapunyal . Many of the battalion 's initial recruits came from the Victorian Scottish Regiment , a Militia unit associated with the 5th Battalion , which had been raised as part of the First Australian Imperial Force during World War I. The battalion 's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Cook , although he was replaced as commander by Major Hugh Wrigley before the battalion went into combat , as Cook was considered too old to lead troops in combat .
Along with the 2 / 6th , 2 / 7th and 2 / 8th Battalions , the 2 / 5th formed the 17th Brigade , and was assigned to the 6th Division , the first infantry division formed as part of the 2nd AIF . The colours chosen for the battalion 's Unit Colour Patch ( UCP ) were the same as those of the 5th Battalion . These colours were black over red , in a horizontal rectangular shape , although a border of gray was added to the UCP to distinguish the battalion from its Militia counterpart . With an authorised strength of around 900 personnel , like other Australian infantry battalions of the time , the battalion consisted of four rifle companies , from ' A ' to ' D ' , each consisting of three platoons . These companies were supported by a battalion headquarters and a headquarters company with six specialist platoons : signals , pioneer , anti @-@ aircraft , transport , administrative and mortars . The battalion also had a regimental aid post attached . The battalion 's personnel assembled between November 1939 and April 1940 , undertaking basic training in Australia before embarking for the Middle East on 14 April 1940 aboard the transport HMT Ettrick from Port Melbourne .
= = = North Africa , Greece and Syria 1941 – 42 = = =
The battalion arrived in Egypt on 18 May 1940 , and joined the 17th Brigade 's other two infantry battalions in camp at Beit Jirja . A further period of training in Palestine followed before the battalion took part in the fighting against the Italians in Libya in January – February 1941 , during which the 2 / 5th was involved in attacks on Bardia and Tobruk , as the Australians went into battle for the first time . During the fighting around Bardia , the battalion 's commander , Wrigley , was seriously wounded in an artillery bombardment , and was temporarily replaced by Major George Sell , as the battalion was committed to the fighting in the second phase of the assault , advancing through the bridgehead that had been established towards the railway switchline . Later , during the assault on Tobruk , the 2 / 5th was tasked with conducting a diversionary attack to the east of the Italian perimeter . The battalion 's time in Libya cost it 32 killed , and 60 wounded .
A few months later in April the 6th Division was sent to Greece in order to defend against a possible German invasion of that nation . The invasion took place as anticipated , although in the end the British and Commonwealth forces were unable to stem the tide of the German onslaught . The 2 / 5th Battalion began the campaign at Kalambaka on 14 April . In a series of withdrawals made necessary by the lightning advance of German forces , it was pushed back all the way to the port of Kalamata , where it was evacuated a couple of weeks later on 27 April 1941 . The battalion lost 21 men killed , 26 wounded and 47 as prisoners of war ; most of the prisoners were drivers who were captured having been unable to make it out in time . The majority of the battalion , consisting of 560 personnel , was evacuated to Alexandria , and from there concentrated in Palestine ; a few – 74 men – in the confusion of the evacuation were landed on Crete , where they formed a composite battalion along with other 17th Brigade units and personnel , including about 260 personnel from the 2 / 6th Battalion . These personnel were assigned to Cremor Force in the Suda Sector , and occupied a position around Kalami . They then took part in the Battle of Crete following the German invasion on 20 May , during which the majority of the 2 / 5th personnel assigned to the composite battalion were captured . The battalion 's casualties for the campaign amounted to three killed in action or died of wounds , three wounded and 58 captured . Six men from the battalion are known to have evaded capture during the fighting in Greece or Crete , although one of these was later killed in action while fighting alongside Yugoslav resistance forces . Those that were taken prisoner were eventually moved to camps in Germany or Poland until they were liberated at the end of the war .
In June – July 1941 , the Australians were deployed to Syria and Lebanon for the campaign against the Vichy French , which was launched by the British in order to prevent the French @-@ held colonies from being controlled by the Germans ; the majority of the Australian forces were drawn from the 7th Division , although the 17th Brigade was called upon to provide reinforcements , detaching the 2 / 3rd and 2 / 5th Battalions . The 2 / 5th Battalion 's initial involvement in the campaign came in mid @-@ June during the French counterattack , when one of its companies went into action around Merdjayuon . After this , the battalion 's main involvement came in early July , when it took part in the Battle of Damour , which proved to be the final battle of the campaign . After a preliminary move across the Damour River , during the final assault on Damour , the 2 / 5th Battalion , in concert with the 2 / 3rd , advanced from El Boum , moving through the 21st Brigade 's position , to cut the road to the north of the Damour , while other forces advanced from the east . In the days following the capture of Damour , the 2 / 5th had continued the advance north towards Khalde on the coastal road to Beirut ; meanwhile , the Vichy commanders sought an armistice , bringing the campaign to an end on 12 July . The 2 / 5th 's casualties during the brief campaign amounted to 41 men killed or wounded . In the aftermath , the battalion remained in the Middle East , serving as an occupation force in Syria and Lebanon until January 1942 . Following Japan 's entry into the war , the Australian government requested the return of the battalion as it was needed for the fighting in New Guinea and elsewhere in the Pacific .
= = = New Guinea 1942 – 45 = = =
The battalion departed the Middle East on 10 March 1942 aboard the troopship SS Otranto ; however , on the voyage back to Australia the 16th and 17th Brigades were disembarked in Ceylon , due to fears of a Japanese attack . For nearly four months they were stationed on the island , initially in Galle , around the fort , and then later around the bay , where observation posts and section defensive positions were established . Throughout April and May , the 2 / 5th Battalion endured heavy rains but nevertheless undertook a series of exercises and training . In early July , the battalion finally received orders to return to Australia and , after being relieved at the Galle Fort by the 3rd Battalion , 8th Gurkhas , was transported to Colombo to embark upon the Athlone Castle . On 4 August 1942 , the battalion arrived in Melbourne , having been away for over two years .
A short period of home leave followed , before the battalion 's personnel concentrated at Royal Park for a march through Melbourne . A draft of reinforcements arrived around this time also , incorporating men from New South Wales and several others states . In mid @-@ September , the battalion moved to Greta , New South Wales , travelling by rail through Shepparton , Tocumwal and Newcastle . A brief period of training was undertaken there , during which the battalion 's khaki uniforms were dyed green . During this time , the battalion was re @-@ organised and converted to the jungle establishment ; as part of this process its authorised strength was reduced to around 800 personnel of all ranks . The situation in the Pacific had deteriorated dramatically , and the Australian forces holding out against the Japanese in New Guinea were hard @-@ pressed and desperately in need of reinforcement . Thus in early October 1942 , not more than two months after returning to Australia , the 2 / 5th moved to Brisbane , Queensland , where it deployed to Milne Bay , which had only recently been held in the face of a Japanese landing , aboard the Dutch transport Maetsuyker .
The battalion did not take part in any fighting until a few months later when , in January 1943 , it took part in the defence of Wau after the 17th Brigade was despatched to reinforce Kanga Force . Sailing to Port Moresby from Milne Bay on the MV Duntroon , an advance party of two companies from the battalion was flown into Wau on 24 January to hastily reinforce the small force around Ballams . The remainder – totalling about 450 men – arriving on 29 January , after which they secured the airfield , which was now under direct Japanese fire , as the two companies that had arrived earlier were pulled back from Ballams . In early February , as the Australians gained the initiative , the battalion was relieved from holding the airfield , and went on the offensive , attacking alongside the 2 / 7th Battalion , in an effort to push the Japanese away from their positions on the bank of the Bulolo River , around Crystal Creek , to the south @-@ west of Wau . The fighting was intense , and over the course of three days , the battalion lost 27 killed and 31 wounded .
After Wau was secured , the battalion undertook patrolling operations around Mubo , along with the rest of Kanga Force , before joining the advance on Salamaua in support of the 3rd Division , with a view to drawing Japanese reinforcements away from Lae , where a landing was planned for September . The Japanese put up a strong resistance and the battalion became involved in heavy fighting around Mubo in May , before fighting at Goodview Junction and Mount Tambu in July and August as part of actions to secure Komiatum ; around Goodview , two companies were deployed in a holding action and to attempt to outflank Mount Tambu to cut the Japanese line of communication , while the other two companies attacked Mount Tambu itself . Casualties for the battalion between April and September amounted to 34 killed and 95 wounded . As the 5th Division arrived to take over from the 3rd following the capture of Mount Tambu and the link up with US forces , the 2 / 5th Battalion was withdrawn from the line , concentrating around Nassau Bay in late August as the 17th Brigade was relieved by the 29th . After a fortnight of unloading ships around the bay , the battalion was moved by landing craft to Milne Bay , where it embarked on the Liberty ship Charles Steinmetz and the Dutch transport Boschfontein . On 23 September 1943 , the battalion arrived back in Australia , landing at Cairns , Queensland . The fighting in the Salamaua area resulted in the following losses for the 2 / 5th : 94 killed and 165 wounded .
Concentrating at Wondecla , on the Atherton Tablelands in north Queensland , after an extended period of home leave during which time the Victorian and South Australian personnel took part in a march through Melbourne , the 2 / 5th Battalion spent the next year training on the Tablelands along with the rest of the 6th Division . There was also a large turn over in the battalion 's personnel at this time , as it had been severely depleted due to illness during its previous campaign , and it was brought up to strength by April 1944 with several drafts of reinforcements , with the majority coming from New South Wales . To counter boredom and malaise amongst the men during late 1944 , the battalion was occupied with a series of various sporting events and further leave . In the new year , a series of amphibious exercises were undertaken during this time with a view to preparing the battalion for future operations .
Finally , late in the war , the battalion received orders to deploy overseas again . Boarding the Duntroon on 24 November 1944 , a week later the battalion arrived at Aitape in New Guinea . There , the 6th Division took over from the American garrison in order to free up the US troops for further fighting in the Philippines . Following disembarkation , the 2 / 5th concentrated around Tadji airstrip . In December , the Australians began offensive operations against the Japanese forces that were operating in the surrounding areas . For the next seven months until the war ended the 2 / 5th undertook patrols through the Torricelli and Prince Alexander mountain ranges , as the 17th Brigade worked to initially establish and hold the Australian base around Aitape , before moving inland towards Maprik and then on to Kiarivu to pursue the Japanese forces that had withdrawn into the interior . Although only intended as a mopping up campaign , it was an arduous and costly period . Consisting primarily of small unit actions which resulted in disproportionately heavy casualties for the Australians , throughout the course of the campaign the 2 / 5th suffered 146 casualties , including eight officers killed or wounded .
= = = Disbandment and legacy = = =
Following the end of the war , the 2 / 5th remained in New Guinea as personnel were posted into the unit from other units that were being disbanded . In September , the battalion was withdrawn from the Kaboibus area and flown back to Wewak . The battalion took part in a divisional parade in October while later that month it was declared " redundant " under demobilisation plans , and during this time many soldiers undertook educational or vocational training to prepare them for civilian life while they waited to return to Australia . In November , there was a considerable turn over in the battalion 's troops , as members were posted to other units depending upon their demobilisation priority : these units included the 2 / 1st , the 2 / 2nd , the 2 / 6th , the 2 / 7th , and the 30th Infantry Battalions . After this , the battalion was left with only 108 personnel , all of whom possessed the required points for discharge . Finally , on 1 December 1945 , the remaining personnel embarked upon the transport Duntroon , bound for Brisbane . A brief stay in camp at Chermside , in the Brisbane suburbs , followed before the battalion moved by rail to Victoria . Personnel detrained at Seymour and then moved by road to Puckapunyal . From there the Victorian , South Australian and Western Australian contingents marched out for discharge , leaving behind a small cadre staff .
The battalion was subsequently disbanded in early February 1946 while at Puckapunyal . Throughout its involvement in the war , a total of 2 @,@ 967 men served with the 2 / 5th Battalion of whom 216 were killed , and 390 wounded . Members of the battalion received two Distinguished Service Orders , 14 Military Crosses , six Distinguished Conduct Medals , 20 Military Medals , and 56 Mentions in Despatches ; one member of the battalion was appointed as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire and three were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire . Alongside the 2 / 3rd Battalion , the 2 / 5th was the only other Australian infantry battalion to fight against all the major Axis powers during the war .
In 1948 , the Citizen Military Forces was re @-@ constituted and the 5th Battalion , Victorian Scottish Regiment was re @-@ raised . At the time many of its members were drawn from the 2 / 5th Battalion and because of its territorial and personnel links it was decided that the Victorian Scottish Regiment would take custody of the 2 / 5th Battalion 's World War II battle honours . As a result of the reorganisation of the Australian Army in the 1960s , which saw the disbandment of the regionally @-@ based single battalion regiments and the raising of new multi @-@ battalion state @-@ based regiments these battle honours were inherited by the 5th / 6th Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment , an Australian Army Reserve battalion based around Melbourne .
= = Battle honours = =
The 2 / 5th Battalion received the following battle honours for its service during World War II :
North Africa , Bardia 1941 , Capture of Tobruk , Syria 1941 , Merjayun , Damour , Greece 1941 , South @-@ West Pacific 1942 – 1945 , Wau , Bobdubi II , Mubo II , Mount Tambu , Komiatum , Liberation of Australian New Guinea , Perimbil , Balif , Yamil – Ulupu , Kaboibus – Kiarivu .
In 1961 – 62 , these battle honours were entrusted to the 5th Battalion , and through this link are maintained by the Royal Victoria Regiment .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following officers commanded the 2 / 5th Battalion during the war :
Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Page Cook ( 1939 – 40 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Hugh Wrigley ( 1940 – 41 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Roy King ( 1941 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Patrick Daniel Sarsfield Starr ( 1942 – 43 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Mayo Conroy ( 1943 – 44 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Alfred William Buttrose ( 1944 – 45 ) .
= 563d Rescue Group =
The 563d Rescue Group is a United States Air Force unit stationed at Davis @-@ Monthan Air Force Base , Arizona . The group also controls the rescue squadrons at Nellis Air Force Base , Nevada . It is assigned to the 23d Wing at Moody Air Force Base , Georgia . The group directs flying operations dedicated to personnel recovery and is part of Air Combat Command . The group was activated under its current designation at Davis @-@ Monthan in 2003 to command rescue units in the western United States .
The group was first activated during World War II as the 3d Emergency Rescue Squadron at Keesler Field , Mississippi . After training on the Gulf Coast , the squadron moved to the Southwest Pacific Theater in the fall of 1944 , and served in combat until the surrender of Japan , earning a Philippine Presidential Unit Citation . After the war , the squadron moved to Japan , where it became part of the occupation forces , and was located there when the Korean War began . It again served in combat , expanding to become the 3d Air Rescue Group in 1952 , and earning two Distinguished Unit Citations and two Korean Presidential Unit Citations during the war . The group was inactivated in 1957 , when Air Rescue Service eliminated its groups and assigned its squadrons directly to its regional rescue centers .
The group was organized again at Tan Son Nhut Airport in 1966 as the 3d Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Group , to command United States Air Force rescue units engaged in the War in Vietnam . It participated in every campaign after 1966 , winning an additional four Presidential Unit Citations , an Air Force Outstanding Unit Award with Combat " V " Device and two Vietnamese Gallantry Cross with Palm during combat in Southeast Asia . When the United States withdrew from Vietnam , the group moved its headquarters to Thailand and , after participating in the evacuations of Phnom Penh and Saigon , was inactivated there in 1976 .
= = Mission = =
The 563d Rescue Group directs flying operations dedicated to personnel recovery and is part of Air Combat Command . The group is responsible for training , readiness , and operations of one Lockheed HC @-@ 130J Combat King squadron , two Sikorsky HH @-@ 60G Pave Hawk squadrons , two " Guardian Angel " squadrons , and an operations support squadron .
= = Units = =
The 48th Rescue Squadron at Davis @-@ Monthan , and the 58th Rescue Squadron at Nellis Air Force Base , Nevada , are " Guardian Angel " squadrons that train , equip and employ pararescuemen ( commonly known as " PJs " ) , combat rescue officers , and supporting personnel worldwide . During combat rescue operations , they use various fixed and rotary wing aircraft for insertion and extraction . The squadrons provide survivor contact , treatment , and extraction during combat rescue operations . They provide combat and humanitarian search , rescue , and medical assistance .
The 55th Rescue Squadron operates the Sikorsky HH @-@ 60G Pave Hawk and deploys combat rescue forces worldwide . It employs its helicopter and aircrews in hostile environments to recover downed aircrew and isolated personnel during day , night , or marginal weather conditions . The squadron also conducts civil search and rescue , disaster relief , international aid , emergency medical evacuation , and counter @-@ drug activities .
The 66th Rescue Squadron at Nellis Air Force Base , Nevada operates the HH @-@ 60G Pave Hawk , and its mission is similar to the 55th Rescue Squadron . The squadron also meets HH @-@ 60G logistical and maintenance support requirements for the USAF Weapons School and Air Combat Command directed operational test missions .
The 79th Rescue Squadron operates the HC @-@ 130J Combat King II and provides combat rescue forces to theater commanders worldwide . It conducts helicopter air refueling , airdrop , and landing of pararescue personnel on unimproved runways , and equipment to recover combat personnel . Its crews fly low @-@ level operations and perform these missions day or night .
The 563d Operations Support Squadron supports the training and employment of the 563d Rescue Group 's six combat and support squadrons . It provides support functions , including weapons and tactics , current operations , intelligence , training , life support , and mobility . It manages programmed flying hours to insure that operational and training requirements are met within parameters set by higher headquarters . It is also responsible for implementing contingency and theater war plans .
= = History = =
= = = World War II and occupation of Japan = = =
= = = = World War II = = = =
The unit was first activated at Gulfport Army Air Field , Mississippi in February 1944 as a Consolidated OA @-@ 10 Catalina unit . As with most Army Air Forces rescue units , especially those deploying to the Pacific , the unit was organized primarily for water recovery of downed aircrews . A number of the squadron 's cadre had already received training from the United States Navy with the Catalina at Naval Air Station Pensacola . The unit continued its training at Keesler Field , Mississippi in April . On 18 May the ground echelon departed for the Southwest Pacific Theater , while the air echelon continued training at Keesler . The ground echelon arrived at Oakland Army Base , California on 20 May 1944 to ship out for Australia on the SS Boschfontein , arriving at Archerfield Airport near Brisbane , Australia on 17 June . It moved to Oro Bay Airfield , New Guinea three days later , and moved forward to Mokmer Airfield on Biak in the Netherlands East Indies on 2 September 1944 .
The squadron 's air echelon continued training at Keesler until 5 July 1944 , when it flew to the Sacramento Air Depot , California , arriving the following day . It moved to Fairfield @-@ Suisun Army Air Field , California on 15 August , and arrived at Archerfield Airport on 1 September 1944 . It was finally reunited with the ground echelon at Mokmer on 29 September 1944 .
The squadron 's first combat mission was flown on 21 September 1944 , when it picked up two downed Navy fliers . In November 1944 , the squadron began operating from the Philippines . Initially the Army was unable to support its OA @-@ 10s , and for several months , they were supported by the Navy 's seaplane tenders , USS Orca ( AVP @-@ 49 ) and USS Half Moon ( AVP @-@ 26 ) . This support continued even after the arrival of the squadron 's ground echelon . During the last four months of the war , the squadron began to operate Boeing SB @-@ 17 Dumbos , which were equipped with a 27 foot long life boat with survival equipment that could be dropped to downed aircrews , in addition to its Catalinas . This permitted the rescue of crews who were downed in seas that were too high for the Catalinas to land and pick them up . The Dumbos would frequently accompany strike aircraft , orbiting off the coast during the attack , so as to be in position to accompany distressed aircraft on the return flight . If needed , the life boat , whose engines gave it a range 500 miles , could be dropped to crews that ditched or bailed out of their aircraft . The squadron also provided courier service , carried supplies and messages , evacuated allied prisoners and wounded personnel , and occasionally provided reconnaissance .
The squadron 's flights frequently operated at bases separated from the squadron headquarters . For example , in the last month of the war , August 1945 , squadron flights or detachments were located at Mindoro , Floridablanca Airfield and Laoag on Luzon , and on Ie Shima near Okinawa . During its eleven months of operating in the Pacific , it was credited with rescuing 325 persons .
= = = = Occupation of Japan = = = =
The squadron was one of the first American military units to move to Japan after VJ Day . Elements of the unit were at Atsugi Airfield in September 1945 , and the squadron headquarters joined them in October . Although the squadron became part of the occupation forces , its personnel did not , and by early 1946 , only one qualified Catalina pilot was assigned to the unit . It was not until the summer of 1946 that regular Army Air Forces officers and soldiers were assigned in sufficient strength for the squadron to resume operations . Squadron flights were located at Atsugi , Chitose Air Base , Itazuke Air Base and Itami Air Base in Japan and at Kimpo Air Base in Korea .
From 1946 through 1950 , the squadron , called the 3d Rescue Squadron after 1948 , provided rescue capabilities in Japan . Its primary mission was to intercept distressed aircraft and escort them over the Japanese Home Islands and the adjacent waters . Experience in the China Burma India Theater had demonstrated the need for land rescue capabilities using helicopters and light planes . In response , the squadron added Sikorsky R @-@ 6 helicopters and Stinson L @-@ 5 Sentinels to its inventory in 1947 . In 1949 , Air Rescue Service , which had been formed and assigned to Air Transport Command in 1946 to control rescue units in the United States and along that command 's overseas routes , took over command of rescue units in the Pacific , although they remained attached to Far East Air Forces units for operational control .
= = = Korean War = = =
= = = = Deployment of elements to Korea = = = =
Following the North Korean invasion of South Korea on 25 June 1950 , the squadron deployed two L @-@ 5 Sentinels and one Douglas SC @-@ 47 Skytrain to Pusan West Air Base to perform search and rescue missions . These were replaced a week later by Sikorsky H @-@ 5 helicopters . By late August , a squadron representative was stationed with the Joint Operations Center to coordinate rescue operations . Three months later , this single officer expanded into a Rescue Control Center , under the command of the squadron 's deputy commander , and was also known as " 3d Air Rescue Squadron in Korea . "
= = = = Operations in Korea = = = =
Combat operations in Korea , and the changing tactical situation there , soon added the missions of rescuing aircrew downed behind enemy lines , and evacuating wounded personnel with the squadron 's helicopters . The squadron 's first rescue of a downed pilot behind enemy lines occurred on 4 September , when a North American F @-@ 51 Mustang pilot of the 35th Fighter @-@ Bomber Squadron was rescued by a squadron helicopter . Initially , because of the aircraft available to the unit , now called the 3d Air Rescue Squadron , efforts were limited to short range missions . The squadron 's H @-@ 5 helicopters could operate from Korea 's many rice paddies , sometimes escorted by the unit 's L @-@ 5 Sentinels , which also flew aeromedical evacuation missions from small unprepared fields . Because of the limited resources of the squadron , it was augmented by crews and aircraft of the 2d Air Rescue Squadron at Clark Air Base in the Philippines . The augmentation by the 2d was particularly in the form of Boeing SB @-@ 29 Superdumbos , which operated offshore from strike areas , much as the SB @-@ 17 Dumbos had during World War II .
The squadron 's Boeing SB @-@ 17 Dumbos and SC @-@ 47 Skytrains were used in the search role , with the C @-@ 47 " Gooneybirds " being commandeered on occasion to fly critical supply missions . Early in the war , both these planes began to be replaced by SB @-@ 29 Superdumbos . When the war began , Air Rescue Service 's newest plane , the Grumman SA @-@ 16 Albatross amphibian , was not on the strength of any unit in the Pacific . To remedy this , a detachment of four Albatrosses from the 5th Rescue Squadron at Lowry Air Force Base , Colorado was dispatched in July 1950 to augment the 3d Squadron . By November , the squadron began to receive its own SA @-@ 16s , and it was fully equipped by the following March . In March 1951 , the squadron received a YH @-@ 19 test model of the Sikorsky helicopter to evaluate in combat . Replacement of the H @-@ 5s by the Sikorsky H @-@ 19 greatly extended the range of the squadron 's rotary wing elements .
The squadron 's helicopters frequently flew wounded soldiers to Army Mobile Army Surgical Hospital ( MASH ) units , typically stationing one H @-@ 5 and one L @-@ 5 with each MASH . In December 1951 , the squadron successfully evacuated troops to a Navy hospital ship sailing off the Korean coast . Dr. Elmer Henderson , a former chairman of the American Medical Association , credited the drop in the mortality rate for wounded soldiers to half that experienced during World War II to their quick evacuation by rescue helicopters . Over 7 @,@ 000 casualties were evacuated by the 3d during the war . Squadron elements operated out of Paengnyong @-@ do and Cho @-@ do islands off the coast of North Korea , enabling its limited range helicopters to rescue aircrew far behind enemy lines .
Associated in part with these forward locations , the squadron assumed a secondary mission of special operations . Shortly after the arrival of the YH @-@ 19 , it was used to extract " United Nations personnel " ( most likely Korean guerillas ) from behind enemy lines . During November 1950 , squadron SB @-@ 17s dropped a number of agents near the Chinese border , along with radio equipment , to provide intelligence data on enemy components . In April 1951 , the unit recovered components of a MiG @-@ 15 that had crashed near Sinanju for study by military intelligence .
= = = = Squadron to group = = = =
While still flying combat missions , in November 1952 , the squadron was expanded , becoming the 3d Air Rescue Group . Each of the squadron 's flights was replaced by a newly @-@ activated squadron , assigned to the new group :
At the same time , Detachment 1 of the squadron at Seoul , Korea was expanded into the 2157th Air Rescue Squadron
The group was credited with rescuing almost 10 @,@ 000 United Nations personnel during the Korean War , including almost 1 @,@ 000 combat saves from behind enemy lines , and 200 water rescues . Its actions earned the unit a Distinguished Unit Citation and two Korean Presidential Unit Citations .
Following the war , the group returned to providing rescue capability in Japan . As Air Rescue Service shrank from a peak of 50 squadrons in 1954 , the 37th Squadron was inactivated in May 1955 . During 1955 , the group replaced its SB @-@ 29s with Douglas SC @-@ 54 Skymasters . The SC @-@ 54 carried four 40 man inflatable rafts that were safer to drop than the single wooden boat carried by the SB @-@ 29 . In 1957 , group headquarters and the 38th Squadron were inactivated , and the 36th and 39th Squadrons were transferred to the 2d Air Rescue Group . By 1961 Air Rescue Service would have only eleven squadrons assigned .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
= = = = Buildup of rescue forces = = = =
Coordination of USAF rescue operations in Southeast Asia had begun with the establishment of Detachment 3 , Pacific Air Rescue Center , which was replaced in July 1965 by the 38th Air Rescue Squadron , with rescue detachments at several bases in South Vietnam and Thailand . The squadron also manned the Joint Search and Rescue Center at Tan Son Nhut Airport , which operated through regional rescue coordination centers at Da Nang Air Base , South Vietnam and Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base . The Joint Center also directed Seventh Fleet rescue operations in the Gulf of Tonkin .
Rising aircraft losses in late 1965 led to the expansion of Air Force rescue assets in Southeast Asia . The group was reactivated as the 3d Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Group , with Detachment 1 at Da Nang , and Detachment 2 at Udorn , manning the regional rescue centers . The 38th Squadron became responsible for local base rescue detachments at bases in Vietnam and Thailand , using Kaman HH @-@ 43 Huskies . The 37th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron was established at Da Nang , and was responsible for rescue missions in North Vietnam , Laos and for Air Force rescue efforts in the Gulf of Tonkin . It used Sikorsky HH @-@ 3 Jolly Green Giants for combat rescue , and Lockheed HC @-@ 130s as command and control aircraft to coordinate rescue operations . It was also assigned HU @-@ 16s for long range water rescue over the Gulf of Tonkin . Later , the HC @-@ 130s at Da Nang and Udorn were combined to form the group 's third squadron , the 39th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron .
= = = = Improved equipment = = = =
The capabilities of the off the shelf rescue helicopters assigned to it limited the group 's effectiveness . The HH @-@ 43 could not hover at higher altitudes , and the HH @-@ 3 needed to stage from forward bases in Laos to provide rescue coverage for North Vietnam . This deficiency was partially remedied by the addition of air refueling capability to the HH @-@ 3s . Within a few months after the first combat refueling in June 1967 , in flight refueling became standard , but staging bases in Laos continued to be used . In addition to extending the range of the group 's refuelable helicopters , air refueling permitted them to dump fuel when needed to lighten the aircraft , and to enable it to hover for rescues at high altitudes , knowing that it would be able to connect with a tanker after the rescue attempt and on @-@ load sufficient fuel to return to its home base .
In parallel with the introduction of the HC @-@ 130H air refueling aircraft , in the spring of 1967 , the group implemented Operation High Drink , which enabled the HH @-@ 3s to take on fuel from virtually any Navy ship operating in the Gulf of Tonkin , either landing on larger ships , or hovering alongside smaller ones . Combined with the Jolly Green Giant 's ability to land on water , this permitted the withdrawal of the HU @-@ 16 amphibians , which flew their last combat rescue sortie on 30 September 1967 .
In the fall of 1967 , the group received its first Sikorsky HH @-@ 53 Super Jolly Green Giant , which were stationed at Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base . These helicopters improved capabilities over Laos and North Vietnam , since they were faster , could hover at altitudes up to 6 @,@ 500 ft pressure altitude and were armed with three GAU @-@ 28 / A 7.62mm miniguns . Because of their larger size , HH @-@ 53s also carried a second pararescue specialist . However , despite the improved capability provided by the BUFF ( as it was called by crewmembers ) , the unit 's night rescue capability remained very limited and night rescue attempts were rarely successful . In March 1968 , expanded rescue missions over Laos and North Vietnam led to the formation of a second squadron at Udorn , the 40th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron .
= = = = Reductions in rescue operations = = = =
Reductions in the size of the group began in December 1969 , when the local base rescue detachment at Binh Thuy Air Base was discontinued . Closure of these detachments continued through 1970 as bases were closed or transferred to the Army or the Vietnamese Air Force . The closure of Tuy Hoa Air Base required the group 's 39th Squadron to move to Cam Ranh Bay Air Base in the fall of 1970 . By July 1971 reductions in local base rescue reached the point where the 38th Squadron was inactivated and the few remaining detachments were transferred directly to the group . That same month , the 40th Squadron moved to Nakhon Phanom Royal Thai Air Force Base , to better support the campaign against the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos , where air strikes had been concentrated since the bombing halt above the 20th parallel .
Although the group did not directly participate in the Son Tay Raid in November 1970 , when the Joint Contingency Task Force arrived in theater , it used seven HH @-@ 53s from the group 's 40th Squadron , and two HH @-@ 3s from the 37th Squadron .
In March 1972 , the HC @-@ 130Ps of the 39th Squadron left Vietnam for Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base . Shortly after its arrival there , the squadron was inactivated , and its planes were temporarily absorbed by the Korat local base rescue detachment . However , in July , the 56th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron was activated to manage these aircraft . By late in the year , withdrawals in connection with the cease fire had resulted in the withdrawal of almost all rescue forces from Vietnam . The 37th Squadron at Da Nang Air Base was inactivated in November , and its remaining assets were absorbed by the 40th Squadron . The group moved with Seventh Air Force to Nakhon Phanom , and the existing Joint Rescue Centers were replaced by one located with group headquarters . Rescue operations continued in Laos and Cambodia , but the group also began to participate in training exercises .
= = = = 1975 : Eagle Pull , Frequent Wind and the Mayaguez incident = = = =
On 3 April 1975 , group forces were placed on alert for the possible implementation of Operation Eagle Pull , the evacuation of Americans from Phnom Penh , as Khmer Rouge forces surrounded Cambodia 's capital . A group helicopter flew a United States Marine Corps command element into Phnom Penh to assume control of the evacuation . On 12 April , the group 's helicopters positioned for evacuation , and flew a combat control team to the beleaguered city . After Marine helicopters had evacuated civilians , two group helicopters returned to the landing zone to extract the combat control team and remaining security forces . One HH @-@ 53 was hit by ground fire and badly damaged , but was able to return to base for an emergency landing .
As conditions in Southeast Asia continued to deteriorate , Operation Frequent Wind , the evacuation of Saigon , was implemented at the end of the month . The group placed rescue helicopters on alert at bases in Thailand and aboard USS Midway ( CV @-@ 41 ) . On 29 April , the two helicopters aboard Midway accompanied Marine CH @-@ 53s on three missions to evacuate people at the Defense Attaché Compound . The last flight carried as many as 97 refugees aboard one of the aircraft . By the end of the last mission , both Super Jollys were out of commission , having flown the group 's last mission in Vietnam .
On 12 May , Khmer Rouge forces seized the SS Mayaguez , a U.S. merchant ship . The group initially flew two of its HH @-@ 53s to transport Security Policemen from Nakhon Phanom for use as a possible rescue force . On 15 May , group HH @-@ 53s again joined CH @-@ 53s of other units in transporting a Marine assault force from U @-@ Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield to the island where the Mayaguez had been run aground . After offloading their Marines on the USS Howard E. Holt , the Jolly Greens headed for one of the CH @-@ 53s , Knife 21 , which had been shot down after offloading its Marines . Although the crew was rescued , one of the pararescuemen on the Jolly was lost in the effort . The Jollys then escorted another CH @-@ 53 , which had been struck while attempting to land its Marines . As the attempt to extract the Marines from Koh Tang Island began , additional HH @-@ 53s transported a relief force of Marines for additional security . Evacuation efforts continued under heavy enemy fire throughout the afternoon and evening in the Air Force 's last combat operation in Southeast Asia .
In October 1975 , the 56th Squadron was inactivated , and its remaining HC @-@ 130s absorbed by the 40th Squadron . As the United States continued its withdrawal from Southeast Asia , the Rescue Coordination Center was shut down on 15 December 1975 , and the group and the 40th Squadron were inactivated at the end of January 1976 . The group was credited with 3 @,@ 681 saves during the war , including 2 @,@ 632 combat saves .
= = = Reactivation = = =
Since reactivating in 2003 as the 563d Rescue Group , the group has deployed airmen and aircraft almost annually in support of Operation Enduring Freedom , Operation Iraqi Freedom , and Combined Joint Task Force – Horn of Africa . It has conducted humanitarian operations during Hurricane Katrina ( which included evacuation support along the Gulf Coast ) , Hurricane Rita , and other hurricanes , and has supported NASA during launch and recovery of the space shuttle . 48th Squadron recovery teams have saved hundreds of lives in combat and noncombat situations .
= = = Medal of Honor , Distinguished Service Cross and Air Force Cross = = =
Three members of the group received the second highest award for heroism awarded by the United States military . After a later review , one of these awards was upgraded to the nation 's highest award , the Medal of Honor .
During June 1951 , Lt John J. Najarian landed his SA @-@ 16 amphibian in the Taedong River , which was not only shallow , but filled with floating debris , while low @-@ hanging high @-@ tension power lines ran over the river , to rescue a Mustang pilot , who had bailed out of his plane at twilight . Assisted by covering flights of Mustangs to suppress enemy flak , Lt Najarian was able to make the difficult night landing , pick up the pilot and take off successfully . For this mission , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross .
Airman First Class William H. Pitsenbarger of the group 's 38th Squadron was the first enlisted man to be awarded the Air Force Cross . Flying as a parajumper , or PJ , on an HH @-@ 43 sent to extract an Army unit caught in a Viet Cong ambush on 7 March 1966 , he descended to assist with hoisting soldiers up to the helicopter . When the Pedro had been loaded with all the wounded soldiers it could hold , Airman Pitsenbarger elected to remain behind to render aid to the remaining soldiers , all of whom were wounded . When a second HH @-@ 43 arrived on the scene , its PJ descended and found that the Viet Cong had killed Airman Pitsenbarger and the remaining soldiers . On 8 December 2000 , following a review , Airman Pitsenbarger 's Air Force Cross was replaced by an award of the Medal of Honor , and he was posthumously promoted to the rank of Staff Sergeant .
Airman First Class Duane D. Hackney , a PJ with the 37th Squadron , was awarded the Air Force Cross for actions on 13 March 1967 in a rescue operation for two Marine helicopters , a Sikorsky CH @-@ 37 Mojave that had been shot down , and a Boeing Vertol CH @-@ 46 Sea Knight that had crashed while attempting to aid the first Marine chopper , when it reported that enemy forces were closing in on the crash site . Airman Hackney made multiple trips to the ground while exposed to enemy fire , loading as many Marines on his HH @-@ 3 's Stokes litter as possible each trip . The HH @-@ 3 was struck by enemy fire , losing hydraulic pressure , and forcing the pilot to head for an emergency landing field . Airman Hackney continued to tend to the wounded on board , even after being rendered temporarily unconscious from a bullet that had struck his helmet .
= = Lineage = =
The lineage of the 563d Rescue Group from inception to today :
Constituted as the 3d Emergency Rescue Squadron on 14 February 1944
Activated on 15 February 1944
Redesignated 3d Rescue Squadron on 28 January 1948
Redesignated 3d Air Rescue Squadron on 10 August 1950
Redesignated 3d Air Rescue Group on 14 November 1952
Inactivated on 18 June 1957
Redesignated 3d Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Group and activated on 14 December 1965 ( not organized )
Organized on 8 January 1966
Inactivated on 31 January 1976
Redesignated 563d Rescue Group on 29 July 2003
Activated on 1 October 2003
= = = Assignments = = =
Assignments of the 563d Rescue Group from inception to today :
Army Air Forces Training Command , 15 February 1944
AAF Eastern Technical Training Command , 4 March 1944
Thirteenth Air Force , 28 July 1944
Fifth Air Force , 17 August 1944
Under operational control of V Bomber Command , 26 August – 2 October 1944
5276th Rescue Composite Group ( Provisional ) , 2 October 1944
5th Emergency Rescue Group , 16 March 1945
V Bomber Command , 21 November 1945
314th Composite Wing , 31 May 1946
Fifth Air Force , 6 June 1946
Air Rescue Service , 1 May 1949 – 18 June 1957 ( attached to Fifth Air Force , 1 May 1949 , 314th Air Division , 18 May 1951 , Japanese Air Defense Force , 14 November 1952 , Far East Air Forces , 1 August 1954 – 18 June 1957 )
Military Air Transport Service , 14 December 1965 ( not organized )
Military Airlift Command , 1 January 1966 ( not organized )
Pacific Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Center ( later 41st Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Wing , 41st Rescue and Weather Reconnaissance Wing ) , 8 January 1966 – 31 January 1976
347th Rescue Wing , 1 October 2003
23d Wing , 1 October 2006 – present
= = = Components = = =
Operational Squadrons
Operational squadrons of the 563d Rescue Group from 1952 to today :
33d Air Rescue Squadron : 20 September 1955 – 18 June 1957
36th Air Rescue Squadron : 14 November 1952 – 18 June 1957
37th Air Rescue Squadron ( later 37th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron ) : 14 November 1952 – 8 May 1955 ; 8 January 1966 – 20 August 1972
38th Air Rescue Squadron ( later , 38th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron ) : 14 November 1952 – 18 June 1957 ; 8 January 1966 – 1 July 1972
39th Air Rescue Squadron ( later , 39th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron ) : 14 November 1952 – 18 June 1957 ; 18 January 1967 – 30 April 1972
40th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron : 18 March 1968 – 20 August 1972
48th Rescue Squadron : 1 October 2003 – present
55th Rescue Squadron : 1 October 2003 – present
56th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron : 8 July – 20 August 1972
58th Rescue Squadron : 1 October 2003 – present
60th Air Rescue Squadron : 8 April 1956 – 18 June 1957
66th Rescue Squadron : 1 October 2003 – present
79th Rescue Squadron : 1 October 2003 – present
2157th Air Rescue Squadron : 1 March 1953 – 8 April 1956
Detachments
Detachment F , 14 September 1950 – 22 June 1951
Detachment 1 , 22 June 1951 – 1 March 1953
Detachment 1 , 8 January 1966 – 15 December 1966
Detachment 2 , 8 January 1966 – 15 December 1966
= = = Stations = = =
Stations of the 563d Rescue Group from inception to today :
= = = Aircraft = = =
Aircraft of the 563d Rescue Group from inception to today :
= = = Awards and campaigns = = =
= Close Encounters of the Third Kind =
Close Encounters of the Third Kind is a 1977 American science fiction film , written and directed by Steven Spielberg and starring Richard Dreyfuss , François Truffaut , Melinda Dillon , Teri Garr , Bob Balaban , and Cary Guffey . It tells the story of Roy Neary , an everyday blue collar worker in Indiana , whose life changes after an encounter with an unidentified flying object ( UFO ) .
Close Encounters was a long @-@ cherished project for Spielberg . In late 1973 , he developed a deal with Columbia Pictures for a science fiction film . Though Spielberg received sole credit for the script , he was assisted by Paul Schrader , John Hill , David Giler , Hal Barwood , Matthew Robbins , and Jerry Belson , all of whom contributed to the screenplay in varying degrees . The title is derived from UFO @-@ ologist J. Allen Hynek 's classification of close encounters with aliens , in which the third kind denotes human observations of aliens or " animate beings . " Douglas Trumbull served as the visual effects supervisor , while Carlo Rambaldi designed the aliens .
Made on a production budget of $ 18 million , Close Encounters was released in a limited number of cities on November 16 , 1977 or November 23 , 1977 before expanding into a wide release the following month . It was a critical and financial success , eventually grossing over $ 337 million worldwide .
A Special Edition of the film , featuring additional scenes , was released theatrically in 1980 . A third cut of the film was issued on VHS and laserdisc in 1998 ( and later DVD and Blu @-@ ray ) . The film received numerous awards and nominations at the 50th Academy Awards , 32nd British Academy Film Awards , the 35th Golden Globe Awards , the Saturn Awards and has been widely acclaimed by the American Film Institute . In December 2007 , it was deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry .
= = Plot = =
In the Sonoran Desert , French scientist Claude Lacombe ( François Truffaut ) and his American interpreter , mapmaker David Laughlin ( Bob Balaban ) , along with other government scientific researchers , discover Flight 19 , a squadron of Grumman TBM Avengers that went missing more than 30 years earlier . The planes are intact and operational , but there is no sign of the pilots . An old man who witnessed the event claimed " the sun came out at night , and sang to him . " They also find a lost cargo ship in the Gobi Desert named SS Cotopaxi . At an air traffic control center in Indianapolis , a controller listens as two airline flights narrowly avoid a mid @-@ air collision with an apparent unidentified flying object ( UFO ) , which neither pilot chooses to report , even when invited to do so . In Muncie , Indiana , 3 @-@ year @-@ old Barry Guiler ( Cary Guffey ) is awakened in the night when his toys start operating on their own . Fascinated , he gets out of bed and discovers something or someone ( off @-@ screen ) in the kitchen . He runs outside , forcing his mother , Jillian ( Melinda Dillon ) , to chase after him .
Investigating one of a series of large @-@ scale power outages , Indiana electrical lineman Roy Neary ( Richard Dreyfuss ) experiences a close encounter with a UFO , when it flies over his truck and lightly burns the side of his face with its bright lights . The UFO , joining a group of three other UFOs , is pursued by Neary and three police cars , but the spacecraft fly off into the night sky . Roy becomes fascinated by UFOs , much to the dismay of his wife , Ronnie ( Teri Garr ) . He also becomes increasingly obsessed with subliminal , mental images of a mountain @-@ like shape and begins to make models of it . Jillian also becomes obsessed with sketching a unique @-@ looking mountain . Soon after , she is terrorized in her home by a UFO which descends from the clouds . The presence of the UFO energy field makes every appliance in Jillian 's house malfunction and Barry is abducted by unseen beings .
Lacombe and Laughlin — along with a group of United Nations experts — continue to investigate increasing UFO activity and strange , related occurrences . Witnesses in Dharamsala , India report that the UFOs make distinctive sounds : a five @-@ tone musical phrase in a major scale . Scientists broadcast the phrase to outer space , but are mystified by the response : a seemingly meaningless series of numbers ( 104 44 30 40 36 10 ) repeated over and over until Laughlin , with his background in cartography , recognizes it as a set of geographical coordinates ( this is actually a goof ; those coordinates are near Ft . Collins , Colorado ... if the 40 had been a 44 , the coordinates would have been plot @-@ correct ) . The coordinates point to Devils Tower near Moorcroft , Wyoming . Lacombe and the U.S. military converge on Wyoming . The United States Army evacuates the area , planting false reports in the media that a train wreck has spilled a toxic nerve gas , all the while preparing a secret landing zone for the UFOs and their occupants .
Meanwhile , Roy 's increasingly erratic behavior causes Ronnie to leave him , taking their three children with her . When a despairing Roy inadvertently sees a television news program about the train wreck near Devils Tower , he realizes the mental image of a mountain plaguing him is real . Jillian sees the same broadcast , and she and Roy , as well as others with similar visions and experiences , travel to the site in spite of the public warnings about nerve gas .
While most of the civilians who are drawn to the site are apprehended by the Army , Roy and Jillian persist and make it to the site just as dozens of UFOs appear in the night sky . The government specialists at the site begin to communicate with the UFOs by use of light and sound on a large electrical billboard . Following this , an enormous mother ship lands at the site , releasing animals and over a dozen long @-@ missing adults and children , all from different past eras . Among these returned abductees include the missing pilots from Flight 19 and sailors from the Cotopaxi , all of whom have strangely not aged since their abductions . Barry is also returned and reunited with a relieved Jillian . The government officials decide to include Roy in a group of people whom they have selected to be potential visitors to the mothership , and hastily prepare him . As the aliens finally emerge from the mothership , they select only Roy to join them on their travels . As Roy enters the mothership , one of the aliens pauses for a few moments with the humans . Lacombe uses Curwen hand signs that correspond to the five @-@ note alien tonal phrase . The alien replies with the same gestures , smiles , and returns to its ship , which ascends into the galaxy .
= = Cast = =
Richard Dreyfuss as Roy Neary , an electrical lineman in Indiana who encounters and forms an obsession with unidentified flying objects . Steve McQueen was Spielberg 's first choice . Although McQueen was impressed with the script , he felt he was not right for the role as he was unable to cry on cue . Dustin Hoffman , Al Pacino and Gene Hackman turned down the part as well . Jack Nicholson turned it down because of scheduling conflicts . Spielberg explained when filming Jaws , " Dreyfuss talked me into casting him . He listened to about 155 days ' worth of Close Encounters . He even contributed ideas . " Dreyfuss reflected , " I launched myself into a campaign to get the part . I would walk by Steve 's office and say stuff like ' Al Pacino has no sense of humor ' or ' Jack Nicholson is too crazy ' . I eventually convinced him to cast me . "
François Truffaut as Claude Lacombe , a French government scientist in charge of UFO @-@ related activities in the United States . Gérard Depardieu , Philippe Noiret , Jean @-@ Louis Trintignant and Lino Ventura were considered for the role . During filming , Truffaut used his free time to write the script for The Man Who Loved Women . He also worked on a novel titled The Actor , a project he abandoned .
Melinda Dillon as Jillian Guiler , Barry 's mother . She forms a similar obsession to Roy 's , and the two become friends . Teri Garr wanted to portray Jillian , but was cast as Ronnie . Hal Ashby , who worked with Dillon on Bound for Glory , suggested her for the part to Spielberg . Dillon was cast three days before filming began .
Teri Garr as Veronica " Ronnie " Neary , Roy 's wife . Amy Irving also auditioned for the role .
Cary Guffey as Barry Guiler , Jillian 's young child abducted in the middle of the film . Spielberg conducted a series of method acting techniques to help Guffey , who was cast when he was just three years old .
Bob Balaban as David Laughlin , Lacombe 's assistant and English @-@ French interpreter . They meet for the first time in the Sonoran Desert at the beginning of the film . His former position as a cartographer allows him to interpret the alien signals as coordinates leading to the meeting at Devils Tower .
Josef Sommer as Larry Butler , a man who meets Roy and Jillian in Wyoming and attempts to scale Devils Tower with them .
Lance Henriksen as Robert , Lacombe 's assistant
Roberts Blossom as Farmer , a radical who claims to have seen Bigfoot .
J. Allen Hynek and Stanton T. Friedman make cameo appearances in the closing scene . Spielberg 's friends Hal Barwood and Matthew Robbins cameo as two World War II pilots returning from the mother ship . Real @-@ life ARP technician Phil Dodds cameos as the operator of the ARP 2500 synthesizer communicating with the alien ship . Musician Jerry Garcia also makes an appearance in the crowd scene . Carl Weathers appeared as a soldier in the film .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The film 's origins can be traced to director Steven Spielberg 's youth , when he and his father watched a meteor shower in New Jersey . As a teenager , Spielberg completed the full @-@ length science fiction film Firelight . Many scenes from Firelight would be incorporated in Close Encounters on a shot @-@ for @-@ shot basis . In 1970 he wrote a short story called Experiences about a lovers ' lane in a Midwestern United States farming community and the " light show " a group of teenagers see in the night sky . In late 1973 , during post @-@ production on The Sugarland Express , Spielberg developed a deal with Columbia Pictures for a science fiction film . 20th Century Fox previously turned down the offer . Julia and Michael Phillips instantly signed on as producers .
He first considered doing a documentary or a low @-@ budget feature film about people who believed in UFOs . Spielberg decided " a film that depended on state of the art technology couldn 't be made for $ 2 @.@ 5 million . " Borrowing a phrase from the ending of The Thing from Another World , he retitled the film Watch the Skies , rewriting the premise concerning Project Blue Book and pitching the concept to Willard Huyck and Gloria Katz . Katz remembered " It had flying saucers from outer space landing on Robertson Boulevard [ in West Hollywood , California ] . I go , ' Steve , that 's the worst idea I ever heard . " Spielberg brought Paul Schrader to write the script in December 1973 with principal photography to begin in late @-@ 1974 . However , Spielberg started work on Jaws in 1974 , pushing Watch the Skies back .
With the financial and critical success of Jaws , Spielberg earned a vast amount of creative control from Columbia , including the right to make the film any way he wanted . Schrader turned in his script , which Spielberg called , " one of the most embarrassing screenplays ever professionally turned in to a major film studio or director . It was a terribly guilt @-@ ridden story not about UFOs at all . " Titled Kingdom Come , the script 's protagonist was a 45 @-@ year @-@ old Air Force Officer named Paul Van Owen who worked with Project Blue Book . " [ His ] job for the government is to ridicule and debunk flying saucers . " Schrader continued . " One day he has an encounter . He goes to the government , threatening to blow the lid off to the public . Instead , he and the government spend 15 years trying to make contact . " Spielberg and Schrader experienced creative differences , hiring John Hill to rewrite . At one point the main character was a police officer . Spielberg " [ found ] it hard to identify with men in uniform . I wanted to have Mr. Everyday Regular Fella . " Spielberg rejected the Schrader / Hill script during post @-@ production on Jaws . He reflected , " they wanted to make it like a James Bond adventure . "
David Giler performed a rewrite ; Hal Barwood and Matthew Robbins , friends of Spielberg , suggested the plot device of a kidnapped child . Spielberg then began to write the script . The song " When You Wish upon a Star " from Pinocchio influenced Spielberg 's writing style . " I hung my story on the mood the song created , the way it affected me personally . " Jerry Belson and Spielberg wrote the shooting script together . In the end , Spielberg was given solo writing credit . During pre @-@ production , the title was changed from Kingdom Come to Close Encounters of the Third Kind . J. Allen Hynek , who worked with the United States Air Force on Project Blue Book , was hired as a scientific consultant . Hynek felt " even though the film is fiction , it 's based for the most part on the known facts of the UFO mystery , and it certainly catches the flavor of the phenomenon . Spielberg was under enormous pressure to make another blockbuster after Jaws , but he decided to make a UFO movie . He put his career on the line . " USAF and NASA declined to cooperate on the film . In fact , NASA reportedly sent a 20 @-@ page letter to Spielberg , telling him that releasing the film was dangerous . In an interview , he said : " I really found my faith when I heard that the Government was opposed to the film . If NASA took the time to write me a 20 @-@ page letter , then I knew there must be something happening . "
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on May 16 , 19
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Borden Bridge provides twinned highway service across the North Saskatchewan River . The old Borden Bridge was a narrow , two @-@ way traffic bridge enhanced with arches , which is still visible from the new bridge . Langham is a town of 1 @,@ 290 residents northwest of Saskatoon . Saskatoon , a city of 222 @,@ 189 in 2011 , is the largest city of the province , serving interprovincial travellers with a bypass road named Circle Drive .
= = = East = = =
Clavet a village of 345 residents is the first settlement east of Saskatoon . Elstow a village of 89 residents , and Colonsay a town of 475 residents are the next settlements in the Allan Hills area of Saskatchewan . Viscount boasted 252 folk in 2011 . Plunkett , a village , maintains its status with 75 residents on the last census . Guernsey is located at the boundary of the rural municipalities of Usborne and Wolverine No. 340 west of the Yellowhead at the Hwy 668 intersection . Lanigan is a town of 1 @,@ 390 residents ( 2011 ) . Dafoe maintains village status with its 15 residents in 2011 . This village is south of Big Quill Lake , and north of the Touchwood Hills . Located at the CanAm highway intersection .
Wynyard a town of 1 @,@ 767 residents on the 2011 census is located just east of the Hwy 640 intersection and is in the northern area of the Touchwood Hills . Wynyard and District Regional Park is located 2 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) south of the Yellowhead at the intersection with Hwy 640 . The population of Elfros has dropped from about 300 residents in 1955 to 96 in 2011 . It is located at the intersection of Hwy 35 . Leslie Station , established in 1909 , changed name to Leslie in 1962 .
Foam Lake is south of the lake of the same name and west of the Hwy 310 intersection . Foam Lake incorporated as a village in 1909 , and a town in 1924 , and still maintains town status with a population of 1 @,@ 148 residents in 2011 . Sheho is located 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of Sheho Lake , north of the Beaver Hills , at the Hwy 617 intersection . The statue of a sharp @-@ tailed grouse , Saskatchewan 's provincial bird , was erected in 1985 at Sheho to commemorate both the 80th anniversary of the province of Saskatchewan as well as the incorporation of Sheho as a village . To the south of Foam Lake are the rolling Beaver Hills area . Sheho had a population near 300 in a district of about 1 @,@ 500 in 1955 , which although dropped to 121 in 2006 , saw growth to 130 in 2011 . This area of the rail and Yellowhead highway runs southwest of the Whitesand River in this area .
Insinger today is just a small hamlet within Insinger No. 275 Rural municipality . Next is Theodore a village of 345 residents . Next is Springside a town of 525 residents that is located at the intersection of the Yellowhead with Hwy 47 and Hwy 726 south of Good Spirit Lake . The Royal Canadian Air Force ( RCAF ) Station Yorkton was renamed White Spruce in 1966 . Yorkton is a city of 15 @,@ 669 ( 2011 ) Yorkton is north of Roussay and Leech lakes at the junction of Hwy 52 , Hwy 10 , Saskota Travel Route , and the Yellowhead .
Clonmel is a hamlet within Saltcoats No. 213 Rural municipality . Stirling was the first naming of Saltcoats , which is now a town of 474 . Bredenbury , a town of 364 ( in 2011 ) is located at the Hwy 637 junction . Churchbridge is a town of 743 as of the 2011 census located at the Hwy 80 intersection . A large Canadian Dollar Coin was erected in 1993 at Churchbridge south of the Yellowhead to commemorate Rita Swanson , the artist resident of Churchbridge whose design was chosen to mark Canada 's 125th birthday in 1992 .
Langenburg has grown to a town of 1 @,@ 148 persons in 2011 and is situated on the Hwy 8 and Yellowhead intersection . Langenburg is home to the world 's largest swing , named Goliath , and is the last incorporated Saskatchewan community before the Manitoba provincial boundary .
= = History = =
= = = Red River Trail = = =
Travel across Canada originated in the early 19th century when the Hudson 's Bay Company and North West Company wanted to transport furs from the east to Fort St. James in the New Caledonia district , British Columbia . Sir George Simpson , governor of the Hudson 's Bay Company , employed a surveyor , James Macmillan , to find a route west . James Macmillan used an Iroquois guide " Tête Jaune " ( Pierre Bostonais ) to help find the most feasible path . Leather was needed at Fort St. James for moccasins and mukluks . The path from Saskatchewan to British Columbia through the Rocky Mountains became known as the Leather Pass or Leather Track and more commonly the Yellowhead . Tête Jaune or Yellowhead was the moniker for Pierre Bostonais , which referred to his blonde hair . Pierre Bostonais , the founder of the Yellowhead trail , has also been recorded as Pierre Hatsinaton and his nickname Tête Jaune Cache . The beginnings of this overland route can be found in the 19th century travel along the Carlton Trail , a Red River cart dirt trail which connected Fort Gary , Fort Ellice , Fort Carlton , Fort Battleford , and Fort Pitt through a northerly route . In 1876 , Battleford became the capital of the North @-@ West Territories . This area at the junction of the Battle River and the North Saskatchewan River was home to Cole 's Post as early as 1780 . A Hudson 's Bay Company store and trading post , the North @-@ West Mounted Police barracks and Government House were all established in 1876 .
= = = Immigration and settlements = = =
The railways would not build across the western frontier without settlement as it would be too costly to provide train service across a barren wilderness . The Clifford Sifton immigration policy encourages settlers to arrive . Western settlement began and immigration encroached across the Manitoba boundary into the North @-@ West Territories , later to become Saskatchewan . Immigration settlement to the last best west and the highway early beginnings began in the southeast . The federal government survey crew reached this southeastern area of the District of Assiniboia , North @-@ West Territories in 1880 . In 1881 , the province of Manitoba expanded to its present boundaries and land could be purchased for $ 10 an acre . U.S. President Lincoln 's Homestead Act was passed in 1862 and lands there were taken . In 1872 , Canada passed the Dominion Lands Act , attracting homesteaders to the West .
With the establishment of settlements and population came the attendant need for education , health , fire and police protection and an urgent need to improve methods of travel . The North @-@ West Territories established departments , which did not last long , and were soon replaced by a rural administrative system called local improvement districts ( LID ) . Local improvement districts were very large , and with the early dirt trails for roads , and a limited number of automobiles , the area was found much too large to administer . The LID soon gave way to the rural municipality ( RM ) system of rural civic administration and encompassed on average nine townships , three by three in area , which were each 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) square , and with some modifications is still the rural administration in use today . This civic government with its elected officials attended to the maintenance and construction of the early pioneer road .
= = = Provincial Highway 14 = = =
Provincial Highway 14 , the precursor of the Yellowhead Saskatchewan Highway 16 followed the surveyed grade of the Manitoba and North West railway , later the CPR between the Manitoba boundary and Saskatoon .
Travel along the current Yellowhead before the 1940s would have been travelling on the square following the township road allowances , barbed wire fencing and rail lines . As the surveyed township roads were the easiest to travel , the first highway was designed on 90 @-@ degree , right @-@ angle corners as the distance traversed the prairie along range roads and township roads . 1926 Saskatchewan map Two @-@ horse then eight @-@ horse scrapers maintained these early dirt roads .
Up until 1904 all municipal affairs were administered by the Territorial Dept. of Public Works . In 1904 , [ Churchbridge ] ... became a potion of a larger area known as a Local Improvement District of approximately 144 miles ( 232 km ) square miles ... Road construction costs around 1900 , were very low . The cost of building a road 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide with an 0 feet 18 inches ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) crown cost approximately $ 30 , per 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km )
The rail line was graded in 1907 and the Pleasant Hill branch connecting Sutherland to Viscount was operational in 1908 . The Great West Express provided passenger service between Winnipeg and Saskatoon during the years 1909 to 1960 . The Local Improvement District # 17T2 was the first administrative government in the area starting in 1907 serving until the incorporation of Viscount No. 341 in 1909 .
Elstow first formed in the area known as Lakeview . Administrative affairs were handled from 1905 to 1909 by the Local Improvement District # 17 @-@ A3 and then by rural municipality Blucher No. 343 . The station of Fountain was on the rail line and Provincial Highway 14 in 1907 . Lanigan received steel in 1907 . Lanigan was a CPR junction point and five rail lines served the area from Lanigan , as well as Provincial highway 14 ( the Yellowhead ) and Hwy 20 . Humboldt and Watson were served to the north , and Nokomis to the south as well as the main Saskatoon Winnipeg line . The rail came to Wynyard in 1909 , and three years later the area incorporated as a town . Wynyard was the CPR divisional point . Laxdal received its post office in 1907 , and renamed to Mozart in 1909 .
= = = Provincial Highway 5 = = =
Provincial Highway 5 , the Evergreen Route , the precursor of the Yellowhead Saskatchewan Highway 16 followed the surveyed grade of the Canadian Northern Railway , later the Canadian National Railway line between Saskatoon and the Alberta provincial boundary at Lloydminster . In 1903 – 1904 the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Grand Trunk Railway extended southeast from Saskatoon .
One benefit from the grading of the two railways was that good construction roads paralleled the lines . Thus , the modern Yellowhead highway between Saskatoon and Lanigan owes its origins to the grading crews .
The one event that had the greatest impact on the western segment of the Yellowhead was the decision of Donald Mann and William Mackenzie , owners of the Canadian Northern , to build from Manitoba to the Pacific .
1926 Saskatchewan map
Whereas Langham and Dalmeny were both a part of the historical Provincial Highway 5 they are not located directly upon the Yellowhead Highway ( Saskatchewan Highway 16 ) presently . This survey crossed the North Saskatchewan River twice before reaching North Battleford . The stage coach route followed along to the south of the North Saskatchewan River , and the steel to the north of the North Saskatchewan River . The postal service was later given to the rails , and dissolved the use of the stage coach trail .
The ferry crossing was near the present Borden Bridge . This parkland area north of the river was termed the Baltimore district . The first railway crossing was at Ceepee located on the southeast river bank of the North Saskatchewan River .
The first siding west of Saskatoon was Goodrich , which is more commonly known as Radisson today .
There were two L.I.D. ' s that formed the municipality. the northern one was L.I.D. 21 @-@ D @-@ 3 and the southern portion was L.I.D. 20 @-@ D @-@ 3
The local improvement districts administered the area between 1906 and the formation of Great Bend No. 405 in 1910 . Local Improvement district No. 21 @-@ J @-@ 3 handled affairs between 1905 and 1910 when the local government was taken over by Mayfield No. 406 rural municipality .
July 28 , 1905 , Lloydminster was reached by the Canadian Northern Railway and November 24 , 1905 , Edmonton . The oil capital , Lloydminster was founded by the Barr colonists ' settlement of 1903 . Maymont saw its beginnings arise from a few Barr colonists who settled here en route to the Britannia settlement . The rails arrived in the Battlefords in 1906 . The Cutknife Highway Hwy Highway 674 to the south and the Paynton Ferry on the north crossing the North Saskatchewan River were both constructed in 1906 – 1907 creating the main intersection of Provincial Highway 5 ( Yellowhead Highway ) and Highway 674 .
= = = Automobile and road evolution = = =
The car appeared in the early 20th century to be pulled by horse again in the dirty thirties . In 1906 , cars could be registered , and plates were issued as early as 1912 . In the late 1920s the roads were gravelled near the larger centers such as Yorkton , Saskatoon , the Battlefords , and Lloydminster . All @-@ weather roads were developed in the 1930s , which began to depart from the surveyed township roads connecting centres directly . Roads also were constructed to allow for rain run @-@ off , with a rounded top surface .
Lack of roads and excessive difficulties in building them throughout the district were major problems of the [ Churchbridge ] council as a resolution as passed and forwarded to the Provincial Government indicate . In a preamble to their resolution they point out that Good roads are the most important factor in forming a well to @-@ do and contented population. and the Burden [ sic ] of building good roads would be too strenuous for the present generations . In Jan. 1910 records show us that L.I.D. No. 12 A @-@ 1 has become Local Improvement District No. 211 .
On February 20 , 1907 , J.B. Gibson introduced the first car in Yorkton . It was a 20 horsepower Reo . Within the space of a few months , several other cars appeared on the streets of Yorkton , and the pattern spread to other towns along the line .
A chain @-@ driven Case was the first gasoline power buggy driven in Paynton by Eddie Langier followed by Alex McKay 's McLaughlin automobile .
... when this was a Local Improvement District ... men worked out the taxes by building up the road with pick and shovel and a team of horses and what we called a scraper .
Norman Lambert of Denholm sold Ford Model T gas @-@ powered buggies and the McLaughlin Buicks providing a 15- or 20 @-@ minute driving lesson to the proud new owner .
The roads were just prairie trails which wound around bluffs , up and down hills . These roads were quite adequate for horses , but were a different story for cars ; very few of the roads went on the square where the roads allowances were finally surveyed . When it rained there was always a mud puddle at the bottom of every hill and every car that went through made the ruts deeper and deeper until you were stuck . The coming of cars soon made a big difference . The prairie trails proved inadequate and road allowances were graded and built up ; culverts had to be installed where the natural water runs were . The new graded roads were a big improvement but many a muddy mile was driven over the country roads . Gradually , some of the main highways would get some gravel and it was quite a pleasure to pull of a muddy country road on to a few miles of gravel — Les Moffatt .
Mr. Hugh Gibson thought oxen were too slow — so he bought a motorcycle , then in 1912 he bought a Maxwell car , the first car in the area . [ Maymont ]
In the spring of 1912 , debentures were sold to Wood and Gandy Co. for $ 17 @,@ 700 , so five new , steel road graders were purchased from Hamilton Machinery Co .... World War II ended ... Victory bonds were cashed and a Crawler tractor with a carry @-@ all scraper was purchased . The first motor patrol operator was hired at $ 125 per month . Snow removal became necessary so a V @-@ plow attachment and a set of chains were added ... [ 1954 @-@ 1956 ] Highway # 14 had been reconstructed so the R.M. posted new signs for the towns at junctions .
.
Radisson became a town July 1 , 1913 , eight years following the arrival of the rail .
On January 1 , 1913 , our [ Churchbridge ] district became part of the R.M. No. 211 .
A by @-@ law passed in 1913 limited speed to 10 m.p.h. [ 10 miles ( 16 km ) / hour ] for motor vehicles , amended in 1917 to 15 m.p.h. [ 15 miles ( 24 km ) / per hour ] and again in 1937 to 20 m.p.h. [ 20 miles ( 32 km ) / per hour ] Provincial licenses were required for cars in 1913 and the license number and make of car to be registered with the secretary @-@ treasurer . A person had to be 18 years of age to drive a car . In 1917 motor vehicles were required to be operated in a manner not to frighten horses .
I.J. Carruthers operated Carruthers Garage in Lashburn , and six Model T Ford cars were shipped here October 5 , 1917 . These cars required assembly , and in total 18 cars were sold in 1917 , and 24 in 1918 with prices ranging from $ 563 to $ 818 . Lashburn was served by Provincial Highway 5 , the early name for Saskatchewan Highway 16 .
The Viscount RM arranged for surveys for the area 's main roads in 1917 .
The Canadian Pacific Railway came to Lloydminster in 1926 .
In 1927 the Department of Highways suggested that the Jasper Highway follow the C.N.R. tracks between Radisson and Borden , but the Town did not agree with this and asked that the old highway on the square be continued — 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) or 7 miles ( 11 km ) east of Radisson , thence south 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to a point near Borden . This plan was followed at that time . In 1930 a delegation from council addressed the Minister of Highways and the Cabinet at Regina requesting that # 5 Highway be an all @-@ weather highway across the Province . In other words gravel all the way . In 1947 several lots on the north of the town were sold to the Provincial Department of Highways for the construction of Highway # 5 to by @-@ pass the town on the north end .
The company that built the old highway ( # 5 ) that paralleled the Canadian National Railway ... grading that road in 1928 or 1929 with their four horse teams .
The construction of Number 14 Highway between Lanigan and Saskatoon was started in 1929 . It was to have an earth @-@ built road bed , with a right of way of 66 feet ( 20 m ) and a road surface of 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) .
The Provincial Number 14 was graveled in 1930 . The 1930s saw the beginnings of gravel roads , and the surface from Wynyard to Manitoba was gravel , and the 1940s saw the entire eastern route graveled .
The Borden Bridge was constructed in 1936 replacing ferry service across the North Saskatchewan River . This northwestern route was gravelled by 1955 . The Borden Bridge – Saskatoon cut off was officially opened on October 20 , 1969 , shortening the trip between North Battleford and Saskatoon by 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) As the highway was developed and the course straightened out , some towns disappeared as they were disconnected from the Yellowhead route . Dalmeny survived the Borden Bridge – Saskatoon straightening project .
Some highway construction ensued as a make work project of the thirties . A work and wages program provided assistance to farmers during the depression years of the Dirty Thirties . The municipality received improved roads under this program wherein many RM roads were gravelled .
In January 1943 , rates for roadwork were set at 80 cents an hour for a man with a four @-@ horse team , a single man received 40 cents an hour and a man with a two @-@ horse team could receive 65 cents per hour . The foreman collected wages of 50 cents an hour for roadwork .
A larger improvement came about as a part of the industrial revolution in the 1940s following the return of the men from World War II . Following World War II improved economic and farming factors saw an increase of taxation , and mechanized road building programs resulting in better roads .
The [ Churchbridge ] municipality had now acquired power road building and maintenance equipment .
In 1958 , the road construction equipment was traded for an Adams No. 440 motor grader and snow plow . Improved highways and travel by automobile soon saw the demise of a great majority of settlements along the prairie which were lively communities in the first half of the 20th century .
November 1947 saw communities along the Yellowhead organize together with caravans and meetings to encourage the Trans @-@ Canada Trail to build on the northern route connecting eastern and western Canada . The Trans @-@ Canada was officially opened in 1962 along the southern route .
The highway [ near Sheho ] is currently [ 1955 ] being re @-@ rerouted and completely rebuilt .
In 1955 , the Battlefords were served by Highways 4 , 5 , and 40 as well as the CNR and CPR . Saskatchewan Highway 16 , then Provincial Highway 5 was nicknamed the Evergreen Route . Fort Battleford is still a national historic site . In 1955 it was predicted that the Trans @-@ Canada Yellowhead would soon be hard surfaced along the route . As of 1955 @,@
Highway No. 5 is an excellent all @-@ weather hard @-@ top road running into Saskatoon and connecting with good roads to other centres .
= = = Archaeology site = = =
The original Kirilovka Doukhobor Village was discovered by the Saskatchewan Highways and Transportation when undertaking construction of new lanes for Provincial Hwy 5 northwest of Saskatoon , and west of Langham . Excavations commenced August 23 , 1996 . A 1944 aerial photograph was superimposed upon the Hwy 5 construction area showing house foundations .
= = = Yellowhead Highway = = =
The early Provincial Highway 14 in the east and Provincial Highway 5 to the west were built and driven on the square . In 1957 , the Trans @-@ Canada Highway opened , and soon after , the Yellowhead became eligible for federal funding . The opening ceremonies for the Yellowhead were held in 1962 , and the highway was finished in 1965 . Provincial highway 14 was widened in 1957 . The route was straightened bypassing Plunkett and Viscount .
The 1957 road specifications were a right of way of 150 ′ and a road surface of 38 ′ . The centre 22 ′ of this road was oiled , leaving 8 ′ gravel shoulders on each side .
In 1968 the road was once again rebuilt ... the right of way was widened to 180 ′ and the road . Improvements were made on this northern route , and on August 15 , 1970 , the Yellowhead Route was officially opened .
This road was fully paved .... In 1978 when # 14 became part of the Yellowhead Route the number was changed to 16 .
The Yellowhead Regional Economic Development Authority ( REDA ) came into formation April 1998 to encourage economic development by towns , villages , rural municipalities along the Yellowhead Route . This was Saskatchewan 's 25th REDA and it included the founding members of Langenburg , Churchbridge and Bredenbury , MacNutt , Langenburg No. 181 and Churchbridge No. 211 .
= = Divided highway = =
Canada is one of the only industrialized countries without a federally funded highway system ... Recent federal policy changes have meant that freight , which was moved by rail , is now being moved by road . This has placed enormous stress on our roads . A strong national roads system is essential to the transfer of goods and services across this country.Highways and Transportation Minister Judy Bradley
A ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony was held August 24 , 2000 when 10 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 6 mi ) of the Yellowhead highway were twinned in the summer of 2000 between Lashburn and Marshall . East of Marshall , the highway connected to the already twinned section . Grading will begin to twin another 16 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 10 @.@ 1 mi ) section of highway between Lashburn and Maidstone in 2000 , with the paving of this section completed in 2001 . Highways and Transportation Minister Maynard Sonntag commented that
twinning on the Yellowhead Highway will help to save lives , along with improving driver safety and comfort ... We are on track to meeting our twinning commitment for the national highway system.Highways and Transportation Minister Maynard Sonntag
The four @-@ lane twinned highway between Saskatoon and North Battleford was officially opened December 8 , 1997 by Highways and Transportation Minister Judy Bradley and Federal Transport Minister David Collenette . $ 42 @.@ 4 million was spent on this twinning creating
92 kilometres ( 57 mi ) of new highway , a new bridge over the north Saskatchewan River near Borden and a new railway underpass . - Government of Saskatchewan
Construction of these improvements cost $ 42 @.@ 4 million . The Strategic Highway Improvement Program ( SHIP ) was a program between the federal and provincial government to upgrade highways with a main focus over five years to twin this section of the Yellowhead . By 2012 the Yellowhead is to be twinned from Saskatoon to the Alberta boundary . $ 164 million has been allocated for the two national highways in Saskatchewan , to finish twinning the Trans @-@ Canada Highway 1 and to twin the Yellowhead between North Battleford and Lloydminster by the Federal and provincial governments on March 5 , 2003 .
= = Major intersections = =
= San Francisco =
San Francisco ( / sæn frənˈsɪskoʊ / ) , officially the City and County of San Francisco , is the cultural , commercial , and financial center of Northern California and the only consolidated city @-@ county in California . San Francisco encompasses a land area of about 46 @.@ 9 square miles ( 121 km2 ) on the northern end of the San Francisco Peninsula , which makes it the smallest county in the state . It has a density of about 18 @,@ 451 people per square mile ( 7 @,@ 124 people per km2 ) , making it the most densely settled large city ( population greater than 200 @,@ 000 ) in the state of California and the second @-@ most densely populated major city in the United States after New York City . San Francisco is the fourth @-@ most populous city in California , after Los Angeles , San Diego , and San Jose , and the 13th @-@ most populous city in the United States — with a Census @-@ estimated 2015 population of 864 @,@ 816 . The city and its surrounding areas are known as the San Francisco Bay Area , and are a part of the larger OMB @-@ designated San Jose @-@ San Francisco @-@ Oakland combined statistical area , the fifth most populous in the nation with an estimated population of 8 @.@ 7 million .
San Francisco ( Spanish for Saint Francis ) was founded on June 29 , 1776 , when colonists from Spain established Presidio of San Francisco at the Golden Gate and Mission San Francisco de Asís named for St. Francis of Assisi a few miles away . The California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth , making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time . San Francisco became a consolidated city @-@ county in 1856 . After three @-@ quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire , San Francisco was quickly rebuilt , hosting the Panama @-@ Pacific International Exposition nine years later . In World War II , San Francisco was the port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater . After the war , the confluence of returning servicemen , massive immigration , liberalizing attitudes , along with the rise of the " hippie " counterculture , the Sexual Revolution , the Peace Movement growing from opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War , and other factors led to the Summer of Love and the gay rights movement , cementing San Francisco as a center of liberal activism in the United States . Politically , the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines .
A popular tourist destination , San Francisco is known for its cool summers , fog , steep rolling hills , eclectic mix of architecture , and landmarks , including the Golden Gate Bridge , cable cars , the former Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary , Fisherman 's Wharf , and its Chinatown district . San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co . , Gap Inc . , Salesforce.com , Dropbox , Reddit , Square , Inc . , Dolby , Airbnb , Weebly , Pacific Gas and Electric Company , Yelp , Pinterest , Twitter , Uber , Lyft , Mozilla , Wikimedia Foundation , and Craigslist . It has several nicknames , including " The City by the Bay " , " Fog City " , " San Fran " , and " Frisco " , as well as older ones like " The City that Knows How " , " Baghdad by the Bay " , " The Paris of the West " , or simply " The City " . As of 2015 , San Francisco was ranked high on world livability rankings .
= = History = =
The earliest archaeological evidence of human habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC . The Yelamu group of the Ohlone people resided in a few small villages when an overland Spanish exploration party , led by Don Gaspar de Portolà , arrived on November 2 , 1769 , the first documented European visit to San Francisco Bay . Seven years later , on March 28 , 1776 , the Spanish established the Presidio of San Francisco , followed by a mission , Mission San Francisco de Asís ( Mission Dolores ) , established by the Spanish explorer Juan Bautista de Anza .
Upon independence from Spain in 1821 , the area became part of Mexico . Under Mexican rule , the mission system gradually ended , and its lands became privatized . In 1835 , Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead , near a boat anchorage around what is today Portsmouth Square . Together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro , he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement , and the town , named Yerba Buena , began to attract American settlers . Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7 , 1846 , during the Mexican – American War , and Captain John B. Montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later . Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year , and Mexico officially ceded the territory to the United States at the end of the war . Despite its attractive location as a port and naval base , San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography .
The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers ( known as " forty @-@ niners " , as in " 1849 " ) . With their sourdough bread in tow , prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia , raising the population from 1 @,@ 000 in 1848 to 25 @,@ 000 by December 1849 . The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields , leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor . Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships , saloons and hotels ; many were left to rot and some were sunk to establish title to the underwater lot . By 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships . By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land . Buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings .
California was quickly granted statehood , and the U.S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate and a fort on Alcatraz Island to secure the San Francisco Bay . Silver discoveries , including the Comstock Lode in 1859 , further drove rapid population growth . With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city , lawlessness was common , and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals , prostitution , and gambling .
Entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush . Early winners were the banking industry , with the founding of Wells Fargo in 1852 and the Bank of California in 1864 . Development of the Port of San Francisco and the establishment in 1869 of overland access to the Eastern U.S. rail system via the newly completed Pacific Railroad ( the construction of which the city only reluctantly helped support ) helped make the Bay Area a center for trade . Catering to the needs and tastes of the growing population , Levi Strauss opened a dry goods business and Domingo Ghirardelli began manufacturing chocolate . Immigrant laborers made the city a polyglot culture , with Chinese Railroad Workers , drawn to " Old Gold Mountain " , creating the city 's Chinatown quarter . In 1870 , Asians made up 8 % of the population . The first cable cars carried San Franciscans up Clay Street in 1873 . The city 's sea of Victorian houses began to take shape , and civic leaders campaigned for a spacious public park , resulting in plans for Golden Gate Park . San Franciscans built schools , churches , theaters , and all the hallmarks of civic life . The Presidio developed into the most important American military installation on the Pacific coast . By 1890 , San Francisco 's population approached 300 @,@ 000 , making it the eighth @-@ largest city in the U.S. at the time . Around 1901 , San Francisco was a major city known for its flamboyant style , stately hotels , ostentatious mansions on Nob Hill , and a thriving arts scene . The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900 – 1904 .
At 5 : 12 am on April 18 , 1906 , a major earthquake struck San Francisco and northern California . As buildings collapsed from the shaking , ruptured gas lines ignited fires that spread across the city and burned out of control for several days . With water mains out of service , the Presidio Artillery Corps attempted to contain the inferno by dynamiting blocks of buildings to create firebreaks . More than three @-@ quarters of the city lay in ruins , including almost all of the downtown core . Contemporary accounts reported that 498 people lost their lives , though modern estimates put the number in the several thousands . More than half of the city 's population of 400 @,@ 000 was left homeless . Refugees settled temporarily in makeshift tent villages in Golden Gate Park , the Presidio , on the beaches , and elsewhere . Many fled permanently to the East Bay .
Rebuilding was rapid and performed on a grand scale . Rejecting calls to completely remake the street grid , San Franciscans opted for speed . Amadeo Giannini 's Bank of Italy , later to become Bank of America , provided loans for many of those whose livelihoods had been devastated . The influential San Francisco Planning and Urban Research Association or SPUR was founded in 1910 to address the quality of housing after the earthquake . The earthquake hastened development of western neighborhoods that survived the fire , including Pacific Heights , where many of the city 's wealthy rebuilt their homes . In turn , the destroyed mansions of Nob Hill became grand hotels . City Hall rose again in splendid Beaux Arts style , and the city celebrated its rebirth at the Panama @-@ Pacific International Exposition in 1915 .
It was during this period San Francisco built some of its most important infrastructure . Civil Engineer Michael O 'Shaughnessy was hired by San Francisco Mayor James Rolph as chief engineer for the city in September 1912 to supervise the construction of the Twin Peaks Reservoir , the Stockton Street Tunnel , the Twin Peaks Tunnel , the San Francisco Municipal Railway , the Auxiliary Water Supply System , and new sewers . San Francisco 's streetcar system , of which the J , K , L , M , and N lines survive today , was pushed to completion by O 'Shaughnessy between 1915 and 1927 . It was the O 'Shaughnessy Dam , Hetch Hetchy Reservoir , and Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct that would have the largest effect on San Francisco . An abundant water supply enabled San Francisco to develop into the city it has become today .
In ensuing years , the city solidified its standing as a financial capital ; in the wake of the 1929 stock market crash , not a single San Francisco @-@ based bank failed . Indeed , it was at the height of the Great Depression that San Francisco undertook two great civil engineering projects , simultaneously constructing the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge and the Golden Gate Bridge , completing them in 1936 and 1937 respectively . It was in this period that the island of Alcatraz , a former military stockade , began its service as a federal maximum security prison , housing notorious inmates such as Al Capone , and Robert Franklin Stroud , The Birdman of Alcatraz . San Francisco later celebrated its regained grandeur with a World 's fair , the Golden Gate International Exposition in 1939 – 40 , creating Treasure Island in the middle of the bay to house it .
During World War II , the Hunters Point Naval Shipyard became a hub of activity , and Fort Mason became the primary port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater of Operations . The explosion of jobs drew many people , especially African Americans from the South , to the area . After the end of the war , many military personnel returning from service abroad and civilians who had originally come to work decided to stay . The UN Charter creating the UN was drafted and signed in San Francisco in 1945 and , in
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, and where the new Warrior 's stadium will be built .
West of downtown , across Van Ness Avenue , lies the large Western Addition neighborhood , which became established with a large African American population after World War II . The Western Addition is usually divided into smaller neighborhoods including Hayes Valley , the Fillmore , and Japantown , which was once the largest Japantown in North America but suffered when its Japanese American residents were forcibly removed and interned during World War II . The Western Addition survived the 1906 earthquake with its Victorians largely intact , including the famous " Painted Ladies " , standing alongside Alamo Square . To the south , near the geographic center of the city is Haight @-@ Ashbury , famously associated with 1960s hippie culture . The Haight is now home to some expensive boutiques and a few controversial chain stores , although it still retains some bohemian character . North of the Western Addition is Pacific Heights , an affluent neighborhood that features the homes built by wealthy San Franciscans in the wake of the 1906 earthquake . Directly north of Pacific Heights facing the waterfront is the Marina , a neighborhood popular with young professionals that was largely built on reclaimed land from the Bay .
In the south @-@ east quadrant of the city is the Mission District — populated in the 19th century by Californios and working @-@ class immigrants from Germany , Ireland , Italy , and Scandinavia . In the 1910s , a wave of Central American immigrants settled in the Mission and , in the 1950s , immigrants from Mexico began to predominate . In recent years , gentrification has changed the demographics of parts of the Mission from Latino , to twenty @-@ something professionals . Noe Valley to the southwest and Bernal Heights to the south are both increasingly popular among young families with children . East of the Mission is the Potrero Hill neighborhood , a mostly residential neighborhood that features sweeping views of downtown San Francisco . West of the Mission , the area historically known as Eureka Valley , now popularly called the Castro , was once a working @-@ class Scandinavian and Irish area . It has become North America 's first and best known gay village , and is now the center of gay life in the city . Located near the city 's southern border , the Excelsior District is one of the most ethnically diverse neighborhoods in San Francisco . The predominantly African American Bayview @-@ Hunters Point in the far southeast corner of the city is one of the poorest neighborhoods and suffers from a high rate of crime , though the area has been the focus of several revitalizing and controversial urban renewal projects .
The construction of the Twin Peaks Tunnel in 1918 connected southwest neighborhoods to downtown via streetcar , hastening the development of West Portal , and nearby affluent Forest Hill and St. Francis Wood . Further west , stretching all the way to the Pacific Ocean and north to Golden Gate Park lies the vast Sunset District , a large middle class area with a predominantly Asian population . The northwestern quadrant of the city contains the Richmond , also a mostly middle @-@ class neighborhood north of Golden Gate Park , home to immigrants from other parts of Asia as well as many Russian and Ukrainian immigrants . Together , these areas are known as The Avenues . These two districts are each sometimes further divided into two regions : the Outer Richmond and Outer Sunset can refer to the more western portions of their respective district and the Inner Richmond and Inner Sunset can refer to the more eastern portions .
Many piers remained derelict for years until the demolition of the Embarcadero Freeway reopened the downtown waterfront , allowing for redevelopment . The centerpiece of the port , the Ferry Building , while still receiving commuter ferry traffic , has been restored and redeveloped as a gourmet marketplace . The port 's other activities now focus on developing waterside assets to support recreation and tourism .
= = = Climate = = =
San Francisco 's climate is characteristic of the cool @-@ summer Mediterranean climate ( Csb ) of California ’ s coast , with moist mild winters and dry summers . San Francisco 's weather is strongly influenced by the cool currents of the Pacific Ocean on the west side of the city , and the water of San Francisco Bay to the north and east . Being surrounded by water moderates temperature swings and produces a remarkably mild year @-@ round climate with little seasonal temperature variation .
Among major U.S. cities , San Francisco has the coolest daily mean , maximum , and minimum temperatures for June , July , and August . During the summer , rising hot air in California 's interior valleys creates a low pressure area that draws winds from the North Pacific High through the Golden Gate , which creates the city 's characteristic cool winds and fog . The fog is less pronounced in eastern neighborhoods and during the late summer and early fall , which is the warmest time of the year .
Because of its sharp topography and maritime influences , San Francisco exhibits a multitude of distinct microclimates . The high hills in the geographic center of the city are responsible for a 20 % variance in annual rainfall between different parts of the city . They also protect neighborhoods directly to their east from the foggy and sometimes very cold and windy conditions experienced in the Sunset District ; for those who live on the eastern side of the city , San Francisco is sunnier , with an average of 260 clear days , and only 105 cloudy days per year .
Temperatures reach or exceed 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) on an average of only 21 and 23 days a year at downtown and San Francisco International Airport ( SFO ) , respectively . The dry period of May to October is mild to warm , with the normal monthly mean temperature peaking in September at 62 @.@ 7 ° F ( 17 @.@ 1 ° C ) . The rainy period of November to April is slightly cooler , with the normal monthly mean temperature reaching its lowest in January at 51 @.@ 3 ° F ( 10 @.@ 7 ° C ) . On average , there are 73 rainy days a year , and annual precipitation averages 23 @.@ 65 inches ( 601 mm ) . Variation in precipitation from year to year is high . Above average rain years are often associated with warm El Niño conditions in the Pacific while dry years often occur in cold water La Niña periods . In 2013 ( a " La Niña " year ) , a record low 5 @.@ 59 in ( 142 mm ) of rainfall was recorded at downtown San Francisco , where records have been kept since 1849 . Snowfall in the city is very rare , with only 10 measurable accumulations recorded since 1852 , most recently in 1976 when up to 5 inches ( 130 mm ) fell on Twin Peaks .
The highest recorded temperature at the official National Weather Service office was 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) on July 17 , 1988 , and June 14 , 2000 . The lowest recorded temperature was 27 ° F ( − 3 ° C ) on December 11 , 1932 . The National Weather Service provides a helpful visual aid graphing the information in the table below to display visually by month the annual typical temperatures , the past year 's temperatures , and record temperatures .
San Francisco falls under the USDA 10b Plant Hardiness zone .
= = Demographics = =
The 2010 United States Census reported that San Francisco had a population of 805 @,@ 235 . With a population density of 17 @,@ 160 per square mile ( 6 @,@ 632 / km2 ) , San Francisco is the second @-@ most densely populated major American city behind only New York ( among cities greater than 200 @,@ 000 population ) .
San Francisco is the traditional focal point of the San Francisco Bay Area and forms part of the five @-@ county San Francisco – Oakland – Hayward , CA Metropolitan Statistical Area , a region of 4 @.@ 6 million people . It is also part of the greater 12 @-@ county San Jose @-@ San Francisco @-@ Oakland , CA Combined Statistical Area , whose population is over 8 @.@ 7 million , making it the fifth @-@ largest in the United States as of July 1 , 2015 . The U.S. Census Bureau estimates San Francisco 's population increased to 864 @,@ 816 as of July 1 , 2015 .
= = = Race , ethnicity , and languages = = =
San Francisco has a minority @-@ majority population , as non @-@ Hispanic whites comprise less than half of the population , 41 @.@ 9 % , down from 92 @.@ 5 % in 1940 . As of the 2010 census , the ethnic makeup and population of San Francisco included : 390 @,@ 387 Whites ( 48 % ) , 267 @,@ 915 Asians ( 33 % ) , 48 @,@ 870 African Americans ( 6 % ) , and others . There were 121 @,@ 744 Hispanics or Latinos of any race ( 15 % ) .
In 2010 , residents of Chinese ethnicity constituted the largest single ethnic minority group in San Francisco at 21 % of the population ; the other Asian groups are Filipinos ( 5 % ) and Vietnamese ( 2 % ) . The population of Chinese ancestry is most heavily concentrated in Chinatown , Sunset District , and Richmond District , whereas Filipinos are most concentrated in the Crocker @-@ Amazon ( which is contiguous with the Filipino community of Daly City , which has one of the highest concentrations of Filipinos in North America ) , as well as in SoMa . The Tenderloin District is home to a large portion of the city 's Vietnamese population as well as businesses and restaurants , which is known as the city 's Little Saigon .
The principal Hispanic groups in the city were those of Mexican ( 7 % ) and Salvadoran ( 2 % ) ancestry . The Hispanic population is most heavily concentrated in the Mission District , Tenderloin District , and Excelsior District . The city 's percentage of Hispanic residents is less than half of that of the state . San Francisco 's African American population has declined to 6 % of the city 's population . The percentage of African Americans in San Francisco is similar to that of California . The majority of the city 's black population reside within the neighborhoods of Bayview @-@ Hunters Point , and Visitacion Valley , and in the Fillmore District .
Only 38 % of the city 's residents were born in California , while 25 % were born in a different U.S. state , and 36 % were born outside the United States .
As of 2010 , 55 % ( 411 @,@ 728 ) of San Francisco residents spoke English at home as a primary language , while 19 % ( 140 @,@ 302 ) spoke a variety of Chinese ( mostly Taishanese and Cantonese ) , 12 % ( 88 @,@ 147 ) Spanish , 3 % ( 25 @,@ 767 ) Tagalog , and 2 % ( 14 @,@ 017 ) Russian . In total , 45 % ( 342 @,@ 693 ) of San Francisco 's population spoke a mother language other than English .
= = = Education , households , and income = = =
Of all major cities in the United States , San Francisco has the second @-@ highest percentage of residents with a college degree , behind only Seattle . Over 44 % of adults have a bachelor 's or higher degree . San Francisco had the highest rate at 7 @,@ 031 per square mile , or over 344 @,@ 000 total graduates in the city 's 46 @.@ 7 square miles ( 121 km2 ) .
San Francisco has the highest percentage of gay and lesbian individuals of any of the 50 largest U.S. cities , at 15 % . San Francisco also has the highest percentage of same @-@ sex households of any American county , with the Bay Area having a higher concentration than any other metropolitan area .
San Francisco ranks third of American cities in median household income with a 2007 value of $ 65 @,@ 519 . Median family income is $ 81 @,@ 136 . An emigration of middle @-@ class families has left the city with a lower proportion of children , 15 % , than any other large American city . The city 's poverty rate is 12 % , lower than the national average . Homelessness has been a chronic problem for San Francisco since the early 1970s . The city is believed to have the highest number of homeless inhabitants per capita of any major U.S. city .
There are 345 @,@ 811 households in the city , out of which : 133 @,@ 366 households ( 39 % ) were individuals , 109 @,@ 437 ( 32 % ) were opposite @-@ sex married couples , 63 @,@ 577 ( 18 % ) had children under the age of 18 living in them , 21 @,@ 677 ( 6 % ) were unmarried opposite @-@ sex partnerships , and 10 @,@ 384 ( 3 % ) were same @-@ sex married couples or partnerships . The average household size was 2 @.@ 26 ; the average family size was 3 @.@ 11 . 452 @,@ 986 people ( 56 % ) lived in rental housing units , and 327 @,@ 985 people ( 41 % ) lived in owner @-@ occupied housing units . The median age of the city population is 38 years .
= = Economy = =
San Francisco has a diversified service economy , with employment spread across a wide range of professional services , including financial services , tourism , and ( increasingly ) high technology . In 2012 , approximately 25 % of workers were employed in professional business services ; 16 % in government services ; 15 % in leisure and hospitality ; 11 % in education and health care ; and 9 % in financial activities . In 2013 , GDP in the five @-@ county San Francisco metropolitan area was US $ 388 @.@ 3 billion .
The legacy of the California Gold Rush turned San Francisco into the principal banking and finance center of the West Coast in the early twentieth century . Montgomery Street in the Financial District became known as the " Wall Street of the West " , home to the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco , the Wells Fargo corporate headquarters , and the site of the now @-@ defunct Pacific Coast Stock Exchange . Bank of America , a pioneer in making banking services accessible to the middle class , was founded in San Francisco and in the 1960s , built the landmark modern skyscraper at 555 California Street for its corporate headquarters . Many large financial institutions , multinational banks , and venture capital firms are based in or have regional headquarters in the city . With over 30 international financial institutions , six Fortune 500 companies , and a large support infrastructure of professional services — including law , public relations , architecture and design — San Francisco is designated as an Alpha ( - ) World City , and is ranked in 10th place among the top global financial centers .
Since the 1990s , San Francisco 's economy has diversified away from finance and tourism towards the growing fields of high tech , biotechnology , and medical research . Technology jobs accounted for just 1 percent of San Francisco 's economy in 1990 , growing to 4 percent in 2010 and an estimated 8 percent by the end of 2013 . San Francisco became an epicenter of Internet start @-@ up companies during the dot @-@ com bubble of the 1990s and the subsequent social media boom of the late 2000s ( decade ) . Since 2010 , San Francisco proper has attracted an increasing share of venture capital investments as compared to nearby Silicon Valley , attracting 423 financings worth US $ 4 @.@ 58 billion in 2013 . In 2004 , the city approved a payroll tax exemption for biotechnology companies to foster growth in the Mission Bay neighborhood , site of a second campus and hospital of the University of California , San Francisco ( UCSF ) . Mission Bay hosts the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine , California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences , and Gladstone Institutes , as well as more than 40 private @-@ sector life sciences companies .
The top employer in the city is the city government itself , employing 5 @.@ 3 % ( 25 @,@ 000 + people ) of the city 's population , followed by UCSF with over 22 @,@ 000 employees . Third — at 1 @.@ 8 % ( 8 @,@ 500 + people ) — is California Pacific Medical Center , the largest private @-@ sector employer . Small businesses with fewer than 10 employees and self @-@ employed firms make up 85 % of city establishments , and the number of San Franciscans employed by firms of more than 1 @,@ 000 employees has fallen by half since 1977 . The growth of national big box and formula retail chains into the city has been made intentionally difficult by political and civic consensus . In an effort to buoy small privately owned businesses in San Francisco and preserve the unique retail personality of the city , the Small Business Commission supports a publicity campaign to keep a larger share of retail dollars in the local economy , and the Board of Supervisors has used the planning code to limit the neighborhoods where formula retail establishments can set up shop , an effort affirmed by San Francisco voters .
Like many U.S. cities , San Francisco once had a significant manufacturing sector employing nearly 60 @,@ 000 workers in 1969 , but nearly all production left for cheaper locations by the 1980s . As of 2014 , San Francisco has seen a small resurgence in manufacturing , with more than 4 @,@ 000 manufacturing jobs across 500 companies , doubling since 2011 . The city 's largest manufacturing employer is Anchor Brewing Company , and the largest by revenue is Timbuk2 .
= = = Tourism & conventions = = =
Tourism is one of the city 's largest private @-@ sector industries , accounting for more than one out of seven jobs in the city . The city 's frequent portrayal in music , film , and popular culture has made the city and its landmarks recognizable worldwide . It attracts the fifth @-@ highest number of foreign tourists of any city in the U.S. and is one of the 100 most visited cities worldwide according to Euromonitor International . More than 18 million visitors arrived in San Francisco in 2014 , injecting US $ 10 @.@ 67 billion into the economy . With a large hotel infrastructure and a world @-@ class convention facility in the Moscone Center , San Francisco is a popular destination for annual conventions and conferences .
The port currently uses Pier 35 to handle the 60 – 80 cruise ship calls and 200 @,@ 000 passengers that come to San Francisco . Itineraries from San Francisco usually include round trip cruises to Alaska and Mexico . The new Terminal Project at Pier 27 is scheduled to open 2014 as a replacement . The existing primary terminal at Pier 35 has neither the sufficient capacity to allow for the increasing size of new cruise ships nor the amenities needed for an international cruise terminal .
A heightened interest in conventioneering in San Francisco , marked by the establishment of convention centers such as Yerba Buena , acted as a feeder into the local tourist economy and resulted in an increase in the hotel industry : " In 1959 , the city had fewer than thirty @-@ three hundred first @-@ class hotel rooms ; by 1970 , the number was nine thousand ; and by 1999 , there were more than thirty thousand . " The commodification of the Castro District has contributed to San Francisco 's tourist economy .
= = Culture and contemporary life = =
Although the Financial District , Union Square , and Fisherman 's Wharf are well @-@ known around the world , San Francisco is also characterized by its numerous culturally rich streetscapes featuring mixed @-@ use neighborhoods anchored around central commercial corridors to which residents and visitors alike can walk . Because of these characteristics , San Francisco is ranked the second " most walkable " city in the U.S. by Walkscore.com. Many neighborhoods feature a mix of businesses , restaurants and venues that cater to both the daily needs of local residents while also serving many visitors and tourists . Some neighborhoods are dotted with boutiques , cafes and nightlife such as Union Street in Cow Hollow , 24th Street in Noe Valley , Valencia Street in the Mission , Grant Avenue in North Beach , and Irving Street in the Inner Sunset . This approach especially has influenced the continuing South of Market neighborhood redevelopment with businesses and neighborhood services rising alongside high @-@ rise residences .
Since the 1990s , the demand for skilled information technology workers from local startups and nearby Silicon Valley has attracted white @-@ collar workers from all over the world and created a high standard of living in San Francisco . Many neighborhoods that were once blue @-@ collar , middle , and lower class have been gentrifying , as many of the city 's traditional business and industrial districts have experienced a renaissance driven by the redevelopment of the Embarcadero , including the neighborhoods South Beach and Mission Bay . The city 's property values and household income have risen to among the highest in the nation , creating a large and upscale restaurant , retail , and entertainment scene . According to a 2014 quality of life survey of global cities , San Francisco has the highest quality of living of any U.S. city . However , due to the exceptionally high cost of living , many of the city 's middle and lower @-@ class families have been leaving the city for the outer suburbs of the Bay Area , or for California 's Central Valley . By June 2 , 2015 , the median rent was reported to be as high as $ 4 @,@ 225 . The high cost of living is due in part to restrictive planning laws which limit new residential construction .
The international character that San Francisco has enjoyed since its founding is continued today by large numbers of immigrants from Asia and Latin America . With 39 % of its residents born overseas , San Francisco has numerous neighborhoods filled with businesses and civic institutions catering to new arrivals . In particular , the arrival of many ethnic Chinese , which accelerated beginning in the 1970s , has complemented the long @-@ established community historically based in Chinatown throughout the city and has transformed the annual Chinese New Year Parade into the largest event of its kind outside China .
With the arrival of the " beat " writers and artists of the 1950s and societal changes culminating in the Summer of Love in the Haight @-@ Ashbury district during the 1960s , San Francisco became a center of liberal activism and of the counterculture that arose at that time . The Democrats and to a lesser extent the Green Party have dominated city politics since the late 1970s , after the last serious Republican challenger for city office lost the 1975 mayoral election by a narrow margin . San Francisco has not voted more than 20 % for a Republican presidential or senatorial candidate since 1988 . In 2007 , the city expanded its Medicaid and other indigent medical programs into the " Healthy San Francisco " program , which subsidizes certain medical services for eligible residents .
San Francisco also has had a very active environmental community . Starting with the founding of the Sierra Club in 1892 to the establishment of the non @-@ profit Friends of the Urban Forest in 1981 , San Francisco has been at the forefront of many global discussions regarding our natural environment . The 1980 San Francisco Recycling Program was one of the earliest curbside recycling programs . The city 's GoSolarSF incentive promotes solar installations and the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission is rolling out the CleanPowerSF program to sell electricity from local renewable sources . SF Greasecycle is a program to recycle used cooking oil for conversion to biodiesel .
The Sunset Reservoir Solar Project , completed in 2010 , installed 24 @,@ 000 solar panels on the roof of the reservoir . The 5 @-@ megawatt plant more than tripled the city 's 2 @-@ megawatt solar generation capacity when it opened in December 2010 .
= = = LGBT = = =
San Francisco has long had an LGBT @-@ friendly history . It was home to the first lesbian @-@ rights organization in the United States , Daughters of Bilitis ; the first openly gay person to run for public office in the U.S. , José Sarria ; the first openly gay man to be elected to public office in the U.S. , Harvey Milk ; the first openly lesbian judge appointed in the U.S. , Mary C. Morgan ; and the first transgender police commissioner , Theresa Sparks . The city 's large gay population has created and sustained a politically and culturally active community over many decades , developing a powerful presence in San Francisco 's civic life . One of the most popular destinations for gay tourists internationally , the city hosts San Francisco Pride , one of the largest and oldest pride parades .
San Francisco Pride events have been held continuously since 1972 . The events are themed and a new theme is created each year . In 2013 , over 1 @.@ 5 million people attended , around 500 @,@ 000 more than the previous year .
= = = Entertainment and performing arts = = =
San Francisco 's War Memorial and Performing Arts Center hosts some of the most enduring performing @-@ arts companies in the U.S. The War Memorial Opera House houses the San Francisco Opera , the second @-@ largest opera company in North America as well as the San Francisco Ballet , while the San Francisco Symphony plays in Davies Symphony Hall .
The Fillmore is a music venue located in the Western Addition . It is the second incarnation of the historic venue that gained fame in the 1960s , housing the stage where now @-@ famous musicians such as the Grateful Dead , Janis Joplin , Led Zeppelin and Jefferson Airplane first performed , fostering the San Francisco Sound .
San Francisco has a large number of theaters and live performance venues . Local theater companies have been noted for risk taking and innovation . The Tony Award @-@ winning non @-@ profit American Conservatory Theater ( A.C.T. ) is a member of the national League of Resident Theatres . Other local winners of the Regional Theatre Tony Award include the San Francisco Mime Troupe . San Francisco theaters frequently host pre @-@ Broadway engagements and tryout runs , and some original San Francisco productions have later moved to Broadway .
= = = Museums = = =
The San Francisco Museum of Modern Art ( SFMOMA ) houses 20th century and contemporary works of art . It moved to its current building in the South of Market neighborhood in 1995 and attracted more than 600 @,@ 000 visitors annually . SFMOMA closed for renovation and expansion in 2013 . The museum is scheduled to reopen in 2016 with an addition , designed by Snøhetta , that will double the museum 's size .
The Palace of the Legion of Honor holds primarily European antiquities and works of art at its Lincoln Park building modeled after its Parisian namesake . The de Young Museum in Golden Gate Park features American decorative pieces and anthropological holdings from Africa , Oceania and the Americas , while Asian art is housed in the Asian Art Museum . Opposite the de Young stands the California Academy of Sciences , a natural history museum that also hosts the Morrison Planetarium and Steinhart Aquarium . Located on Pier 15 on the Embarcadero , the Exploratorium is an interactive science museum . The Contemporary Jewish Museum is a non @-@ collecting institution that hosts a broad array of temporary exhibitions . On Nob Hill , the Cable Car Museum is a working museum featuring the cable car power house , which drives the cables .
= = Sports = =
Major League Baseball 's San Francisco Giants have played in San Francisco since moving from New York in 1958 . The Giants play at AT & T Park , which opened in 2000 . The Giants won World Series titles in 2010 , 2012 and in 2014 . The Giants have boasted such stars as Willie Mays , Willie McCovey and Barry Bonds . In 2012 , San Francisco was ranked # 1 in a study that examined which U.S. metro areas have produced the most Major Leaguers since 1920 .
The San Francisco 49ers of the National Football League ( NFL ) were the longest @-@ tenured major professional sports franchise in the city until moving in 2013 . The team began play in 1946 as an All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) league charter member , moved to the NFL in 1950 and into Candlestick Park in 1971 . The team began playing its home games at Levi 's Stadium in Santa Clara in 2014 , closer to the city of San Jose . The 49ers won five Super Bowl titles in the 1980s and 1990s .
At the collegiate level , the San Francisco Dons compete in NCAA Division I. Bill Russell led the Don 's basketball team to NCAA championships in 1955 and 1956 . AT & T Park hosted the annual Fight Hunger Bowl college football game from 2002 through 2013 before it moved to Santa Clara .
The Bay to Breakers footrace , held annually since 1912 , is best known for colorful costumes and a celebratory community spirit . The San Francisco Marathon attracts more than 21 @,@ 000 participants . The Escape from Alcatraz triathlon has , since 1980 , attracted 2 @,@ 000 top professional and amateur triathletes for its annual race . The Olympic Club , founded in 1860 , is the oldest athletic club in the United States . Its private golf course has hosted the U.S. Open on five occasions . San Francisco hosted the 2013 America 's Cup yacht racing competition .
With an ideal climate for outdoor activities , San Francisco has ample resources and opportunities for amateur and participatory sports and recreation . There are more than 200 miles ( 320 km ) of bicycle paths , lanes and bike routes in the city . San Francisco residents have often ranked among the fittest in the U.S. Golden Gate Park has miles of paved and unpaved running trails as well as a golf course and disc golf course . Boating , sailing , windsurfing and kitesurfing are among the popular activities on San Francisco Bay , and the city maintains a yacht harbor in the Marina District .
= = Beaches and parks = =
Several of San Francisco 's parks and nearly all of its beaches form part of the regional Golden Gate National Recreation Area , one of the most visited units of the National Park system in the United States with over 13 million visitors a year . Among the GGNRA 's attractions within the city are Ocean Beach , which runs along the Pacific Ocean shoreline and is frequented by a vibrant surfing community , and Baker Beach , which is located in a cove west of the Golden Gate and part of the Presidio , a former military base . Also within the Presidio is Crissy Field , a former airfield that was restored to its natural salt marsh ecosystem . The GGNRA also administers Fort Funston , Lands End , Fort Mason , and Alcatraz . The National Park Service separately administers the San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park – a fleet of historic ships and waterfront property around Aquatic Park .
There are more than 220 parks maintained by the San Francisco Recreation & Parks Department . The largest and best @-@ known city park is Golden Gate Park , which stretches from the center of the city west to the Pacific Ocean . Once covered in native grasses and sand dunes , the park was conceived in the 1860s and was created by the extensive planting of thousands of non @-@ native trees and plants . The large park is rich with cultural and natural attractions such as the Conservatory of Flowers , Japanese Tea Garden and San Francisco Botanical Garden . Lake Merced is a fresh @-@ water lake surrounded by parkland and near the San Francisco Zoo , a city @-@ owned park that houses more than 250 animal species , many of which are endangered . The only park managed by the California State Park system located principally in San Francisco , Candlestick Point was the state 's first urban recreation area .
= = Law and government = =
San Francisco — officially known as the City and County of San Francisco — is a consolidated city @-@ county , a status it has held since the 1856 secession of what is now San Mateo County . It is the only such consolidation in California . The mayor is also the county executive , and the county Board of Supervisors acts as the city council . The government of San Francisco is a charter city and is constituted of two co @-@ equal branches . The executive branch is headed by the mayor and includes other citywide elected and appointed officials as well as the civil service . The 11 @-@ member Board of Supervisors , the legislative branch , is headed by a president and is responsible for passing laws and budgets , though San Franciscans also make use of direct ballot initiatives to pass legislation .
The members of the Board of Supervisors are elected as representatives of specific districts within the city . Upon the death or resignation of mayor , the President of the Board of Supervisors becomes acting mayor until the full Board elects an interim replacement for the remainder of the term . In 1978 , Dianne Feinstein assumed the office following the assassination of George Moscone and was later selected by the Board to finish the term . In 2011 , Edwin M. Lee was selected by the Board to finish the term of Gavin Newsom , who resigned to take office as Lieutenant Governor of California .
Because of its unique city @-@ county status , local government exercises jurisdiction over property that would otherwise be located outside of its corporation limit . San Francisco International Airport , though located in San Mateo County , is owned and operated by the City and County of San Francisco . San Francisco also has a county jail complex located in San Mateo County , in an unincorporated area adjacent to San Bruno . San Francisco was also granted a perpetual leasehold over the Hetch Hetchy Valley and watershed in Yosemite National Park by the Raker Act in 1913 .
San Francisco serves as the regional hub for many arms of the federal bureaucracy , including the U.S. Court of Appeals , the Federal Reserve Bank , and the U.S. Mint . Until decommissioning in the early 1990s , the city had major military installations at the Presidio , Treasure Island , and Hunters Point — a legacy still reflected in the annual celebration of Fleet Week . The State of California uses San Francisco as the home of the state supreme court and other state agencies . Foreign governments maintain more than seventy consulates in San Francisco .
The municipal budget for fiscal year 2013 – 14 was $ 7 @.@ 9 billion . The city employs around 27 @,@ 000 workers .
= = = Crime = = =
The following table includes the number of incidents reported and the rate per 1 @,@ 000 persons for each type of offense .
In 2011 , 50 murders were reported , which is 6 @.@ 1 per 100 @,@ 000 people . There were about 134 rapes , 3 @,@ 142 robberies , and about 2 @,@ 139 assaults . There were about 4 @,@ 469 burglaries , 25 @,@ 100 thefts , and 4 @,@ 210 motor vehicle thefts . The Tenderloin area has the highest crime rate in San Francisco : 70 % of the city 's violent crimes , and around one @-@ fourth of the city 's murders , occur in this neighborhood . The Tenderloin also sees high rates of homelessness , drug abuse , gang violence , and prostitution . Another area with high crime rates is the Bayview @-@ Hunters Point area . In the first six months of 2015 there were 25 murders compared to 14 in the first six months of 2014 . However , the murder rate is still much lower than in past decades .
= = = Homelessness = = =
Homelessness , historically , has been a major problem in the city and remains a growing problem in modern times . The homeless population is estimated to be 13 @,@ 500 with 6 @,@ 500 living on the streets .
= = = Gangs = = =
Several street gangs operate in the city , including MS @-@ 13 , the Sureños and Norteños in the Mission District , and to some extent the Crips in Bayview @-@ Hunters Point . There is a presence of Asian gangs in Chinatown . In 1977 , an ongoing rivalry between two Chinese gangs led to a shooting attack at a restaurant in Chinatown , which left 5 people dead and 11 wounded . None of the victims in this attack were gang members . Five members of the Joe Boys gang were arrested and convicted of the crime . In 1990 , a gang @-@ related shooting killed one man and wounded six others outside a nightclub near Chinatown . In 1998 , six teenagers were shot and wounded at the Chinese Playground ; a 16 @-@ year @-@ old boy was subsequently arrested .
= = = Public Safety = = =
The city is mainly patrolled by the San Francisco Police Department . The San Francisco Sheriff 's Department , BART Police ( public transit only ) , Amtrak Police , California Highway Patrol and many other local , state , and federal agencies perform law enforcement tasks in the city . The portions of Golden Gate National Recreation Area located within the city , including the Presidio and Ocean Beach , are patrolled by the United States Park Police .
The San Francisco Fire Department provides both fire suppression and emergency medical services to the city .
= = Education = =
= = = Colleges and universities = = =
The University of California , San Francisco is the sole campus of the University of California system entirely dedicated to graduate education in health and biomedical sciences . It is ranked among the top five medical schools in the United States and operates the UCSF Medical Center , which ranks among the top 15 hospitals in the country . UCSF is a major local employer , second in size only to the city and county government . A 43 @-@ acre ( 170 @,@ 000 m2 ) Mission Bay campus was opened in 2003 , complementing its original facility in Parnassus Heights . It contains research space and facilities to foster biotechnology and life sciences entrepreneurship and will double the size of UCSF 's research enterprise . All in all , UCSF operates more than 20 facilities across San Francisco . The University of California , Hastings College of the Law , founded in Civic Center in 1878 , is the oldest law school in California and claims more judges on the state bench than any other institution . San Francisco 's two University of California institutions have recently formed an official affiliation in the UCSF / UC Hastings Consortium on Law , Science & Health Policy .
San Francisco State University is part of the California State University system and is located near Lake Merced . The school has approximately 30 @,@ 000 students and awards undergraduate , master 's and doctoral degrees in more than 100 disciplines . The City College of San Francisco , with its main facility in the Ingleside district , is one of the largest two @-@ year community colleges in the country . It has an enrollment of about 100 @,@ 000 students and offers an extensive continuing education program .
Founded in 1855 , the University of San Francisco , a private Jesuit university located on Lone Mountain , is the oldest institution of higher education in San Francisco and one of the oldest universities established west of the Mississippi River . Golden Gate University is a private , nonsectarian , coeducational university formed in 1901 and located in the Financial District . With an enrollment of 13 @,@ 000 students , the Academy of Art University is the largest institute of art and design in the nation . Founded in 1871 , the San Francisco Art Institute is the oldest art school west of the Mississippi . The California College of the Arts , located north of Potrero Hill , has programs in architecture , fine arts , design , and writing . The San Francisco Conservatory of Music , the only independent music school on the West Coast , grants degrees in orchestral instruments , chamber music , composition , and conducting . The California Culinary Academy , associated with the Le Cordon Bleu program , offers programs in the culinary arts , baking and pastry arts , and hospitality and restaurant management . California Institute of Integral Studies , founded in 1968 , offers a variety of graduate programs in its Schools of Professional Psychology & Health , and Consciousness and Transformation .
= = = Primary and secondary schools = = =
Public schools are run by the San Francisco Unified School District as well as the State Board of Education for some charter schools . Lowell High School , the oldest public high school in the U.S. west of the Mississippi , and the smaller School of the Arts High School are two of San Francisco 's magnet schools at the secondary level . Public school students attend schools based on an assignment system rather than neighborhood proximity .
Just under 30 % of the city 's school @-@ age population attends one of San Francisco 's more than 100 private or parochial schools , compared to a 10 % rate nationwide . Nearly 40 of those schools are Catholic schools managed by the Archdiocese of San Francisco .
= = Media = =
The major daily newspaper in San Francisco is the San Francisco Chronicle , which is currently Northern California 's most widely circulated newspaper . The Chronicle is most famous for a former columnist , the late Herb Caen , whose daily musings attracted critical acclaim and represented the " voice of San Francisco " . The San Francisco Examiner , once the cornerstone of William Randolph Hearst 's media empire and the home of Ambrose Bierce , declined in circulation over the years and now takes the form of a free daily tabloid , under new ownership . Sing Tao Daily claims to be the largest of several Chinese language dailies that serve the Bay Area . SF Weekly is the city 's alternative weekly newspaper . San Francisco Magazine and 7x7 are major glossy magazines about San Francisco . The national newsmagazine Mother Jones is also based in San Francisco .
The San Francisco Bay Area is the sixth @-@ largest TV market and the fourth @-@ largest radio market in the U.S. The city 's oldest radio station , KCBS ( AM ) , began as an experimental station in San Jose in 1909 , before the beginning of commercial broadcasting . KALW was the city 's first FM radio station when it signed on the air in 1941 . The city 's first television station was KPIX , which began broadcasting in 1948 .
All major U.S. television networks have affiliates serving the region , with most of them based in the city . CNN , MSNBC , BBC , Al Jazeera America , Russia Today , and CCTV America also have regional news bureaus in San Francisco . Bloomberg West was launched in 2011 from a studio on the Embarcadero and CNBC broadcasts from One Market Plaza since 2015 . ESPN uses the local ABC studio for their broadcasting . The regional sports network , Comcast SportsNet Bay Area and its sister station Comcast SportsNet California , are both located in San Francisco . The Pac @-@ 12 Network is also based in San Francisco .
Public broadcasting outlets include both a television station and a radio station , both broadcasting under the call letters KQED from a facility near the Potrero Hill neighborhood . KQED @-@ FM is the most @-@ listened @-@ to National Public Radio affiliate in the country . Another local broadcaster , KPOO , is an independent , African @-@ American owned and operated noncommercial radio station established in 1971 . San Francisco – based CNET and Salon.com pioneered the use of the Internet as a media outlet . Satellite channel non @-@ commercial Link TV was launched in 1999 from San Francisco .
San Francisco @-@ based inventors made important contributions to modern media . During the 1870s , Eadweard Muybridge began recording motion photographically and invented a zoopraxiscope with which to view his recordings . These were the first motion pictures . Then in 1927 , Philo Farnsworth 's image dissector camera tube transmitted its first image . This was the first television .
= = Transportation = =
= = = Freeways and roads = = =
Due to its unique geography , and the freeway revolts of the late 1950s , San Francisco is one of the few American cities with arterial thoroughfares instead of having numerous highways within the city .
Interstate 80 begins at the approach to the Bay Bridge and is the only direct automobile link to the East Bay . U.S. Route 101 connects to the western terminus of Interstate 80 and provides access to the south of the city along San Francisco Bay toward Silicon Valley . Northward , the routing for U.S. 101 uses arterial streets to connect to the Golden Gate Bridge , the only direct automobile link to Marin County and the North Bay .
State Route 1 also enters San Francisco from the north via the Golden Gate Bridge and bisects the city as the 19th Avenue arterial thoroughfare , joining with Interstate 280 at the city 's southern border . Interstate 280 continues south from San Francisco , and also turns to the east along the southern edge of the city , terminating just south of the Bay Bridge in the South of Market neighborhood . After the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake , city leaders demolished the Embarcadero Freeway and a portion of the Central Freeway , converting them into street @-@ level boulevards .
State Route 35 enters the city from the south as Skyline Boulevard and terminates at its intersection with Highway 1 . State Route 82 enters San Francisco from the south as Mission Street , and terminates shortly thereafter at its junction with 280 .
The Western Terminus of the historic transcontinental Lincoln Highway , the first road across America , is in San Francisco 's Lincoln Park .
= = = Public transportation = = =
32 % of San Francisco residents use public transportation in daily commuting to work , ranking it first on the West Coast and third overall in the United States . The San Francisco Municipal Railway , known as Muni , is the primary public transit system of San Francisco . Muni is the seventh @-@ largest transit system in the United States , with 210 @,@ 848 @,@ 310 rides in 2006 . The system operates both a combined light rail and subway system , the Muni Metro , and a large bus network . Additionally , it runs a historic streetcar line , which runs on Market Street from Castro Street to Fisherman 's Wharf . It also operates the famous cable cars , which have been designated as a National Historic Landmark and are a major tourist attraction .
BART , a regional Rapid Transit system , connects San Francisco with the East Bay through the underwater Transbay Tube . The line runs under Market Street to Civic Center where it turns south to the Mission District , the southern part of the city , and through northern San Mateo County , to the San Francisco International Airport , and Millbrae . Another Commuter Rail system , Caltrain , runs from San Francisco along the San Francisco Peninsula to San Jose . Historically , trains operated by Southern Pacific Lines ran from San Francisco to Los Angeles , via Palo Alto and San Jose .
Amtrak California Thruway Motorcoach runs a shuttle bus from San Francisco to its rail station across the Bay in Emeryville . Lines from Emeryville Station include the Capitol Corridor , San Joaquin , California Zephyr , and Coast Starlight . Thruway service also runs south to San Luis Obispo , California with connection to the Pacific Surfliner .
San Francisco Bay Ferry operates from the Ferry Building and Pier 39 to points in Oakland , Alameda , Bay Farm Island , South San Francisco , and north to Vallejo in Solano County . The Golden Gate Ferry is the other ferry operator with service between San Francisco and Marin County . Soltrans runs supplemental bus service between the Ferry Building and Vallejo .
San Francisco was an early adopter of carsharing in America . The non profit City Carshare opened in 2001 . Zipcar closely followed .
= = = Airports = = =
Though located 13 miles ( 21 km ) south of downtown in unincorporated San Mateo County , San Francisco International Airport ( SFO ) is under the jurisdiction of the City and County of San Francisco . SFO is a hub for United Airlines and Virgin America . SFO is a major international gateway to Asia and Europe , with the largest international terminal in North America . In 2011 , SFO was the 8th busiest airport in the U.S. and 22nd busiest in the world , handling over 40 @.@ 9 million passengers .
Located across the bay , Oakland International Airport is a popular , low @-@ cost alternative to SFO . Geographically , Oakland Airport is approximately the same distance from downtown San Francisco as SFO , but due to its location across San Francisco Bay , it is greater driving distance from San Francisco .
= = = Cycling and walking = = =
Cycling is a popular mode of transportation in San Francisco . 75 @,@ 000 residents commute by bicycle per day . Bay Area Bike Share launched in August 2013 with 700 bikes in downtown San Francisco and selected cities south to San Jose . The San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency and Bay Area Air Quality Management District are responsible for the operation with management provided by Alta Bicycle Share . The system will be expanded in the future . Pedestrian traffic is a major mode of transport . In 2015 , Walk Score ranked San Francisco the second @-@ most walkable city in the United States .
San Francisco has significantly higher rates of pedestrian and bicyclist traffic deaths than the USA on average . In 2013 , 21 pedestrians were killed in vehicle collisions , the highest since 2001 , which is 2 @.@ 5 deaths per 100 @,@ 000 population – 70 % higher than the national average of 1 @.@ 5 deaths per 100 @,@ 000 population .
Cycling is growing in San Francisco . Annual bicycle counts conducted by the Municipal Transportation Agency ( MTA ) in 2010 showed the number of cyclists at 33 locations had increased 58 % from the 2006 baseline counts . In 2008 , the MTA estimated that about 128 @,@ 000 trips were made by bicycle each day in the city , or 6 % of total trips . Since 2002 , improvements in cycling infrastructure in recent years , including additional bike lanes and parking racks , have made cycling in San Francisco safer and more convenient . Since 2006 , San Francisco has received a Bicycle Friendly Community status of " Gold " from the League of American Bicyclists .
= = Notable people = =
= = Consulates and sister cities = =
San Francisco participates in the Sister Cities program . A total of 41 consulates general and 23 honorary consulates have offices in the San Francisco Bay Area .
= = = Sister cities = = =
= U.S. Route 24 in Michigan =
US Highway 24 ( US 24 ) is a United States Numbered Highway that runs from Minturn , Colorado , to Independence Township , Michigan . In Michigan , it is also known as Telegraph Road and runs for 79 @.@ 828 miles ( 128 @.@ 471 km ) as a major north – south state trunkline highway from the Ohio state line through Metro Detroit . The highway runs through three counties in southeastern Michigan , Monroe , Wayne and Oakland , as it parallels the Lake Erie shoreline and bypasses Metro Detroit on the west . Telegraph Road connects several suburbs together and passes through the western edge of Detroit before it terminates northwest of Clarkston at an interchange with Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) .
The northern part of the highway follows a section of an old Indian trail called the Saginaw Trail that connected Detroit with points further north . The southern sections in the Downriver area south to Monroe parallel telegraph lines from the mid @-@ 19th century . These lines gave the road its name . Later this road was added to the state highway system in the early 20th century . It was upgraded and extended during the 1920s to serve as a western bypass of Detroit . The US 24 designation was applied to the highway on November 11 , 1926 , when the United States Numbered Highway System was inaugurated . Since that time , an alternate route , Alternate US Highway 24 ( ALT US 24 ) was designated between the state line and the Gibraltar area ; this highway later became part of I @-@ 75 . In the 1970s , the northernmost section gained the US 10 designation when that highway was rerouted . That overlap was eliminated in 1986 , and US 24 was extended north to Clarkston to replace a segment of US 10 . At the same time , a business loop in Pontiac was redesignated for US 24 in addition to its connector routes it has .
= = Route description = =
Like other state highways in Michigan , US 24 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 85 @,@ 302 vehicles used the highway daily between the " Mixing Bowl " and 12 Mile Road and 6 @,@ 401 vehicles did so each day in southern Monroe County , the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . All of US 24 north of I @-@ 275 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = = Monroe County and Downriver = = =
US 24 crosses the Ohio state line and follows Telegraph Road northeasterly through Monroe County . The highway runs parallel to the Lake Erie shoreline , farther inland than both I @-@ 75 ( Detroit – Toledo Freeway ) or M @-@ 125 ( Dixie Highway ) . The area around the trunkline is a mixture of farm friends and clusters of houses . Luna Pier Road connects US 24 to M @-@ 125 near Erie ; this roadway is an unsigned highway called Connector US 24 ( Conn . US 24 ) that runs as a connector route between the two highways . Further north , US 24 passes to the west side of Monroe , meeting the eastern terminus of M @-@ 50 ( Custer Road ) near Custer Airport . The trunkline crosses the River Raisin near this intersection as well . North of Monroe near Stoney Creek , M @-@ 125 merges into US 24 and terminates . Further north , US 24 crosses I @-@ 275 before passing near the Flat Rock Speedway . The highway then crosses the Huron River and into Wayne County , entering the Downriver area .
Telegraph Road runs through downtown Flat Rock as it parallels the Lake Erie shoreline . North of the city in Brownstown Township , Telegraph Road and US 24 turn due north ; a second Conn . US 24 runs along Dix – Toledo Highway to connect US 24 to I @-@ 75 near Woodhaven . There is a third Conn . US 24 in Taylor that provides access from southbound US 24 to southbound I @-@ 75 and from northbound I @-@ 75 to northbound US 24 between a pair of interchanges near the Southland Center . Telegraph continues northward through Taylor , widening into a boulevard and gaining a median . Traffic turning left onto the road needs to perform a Michigan left maneuver to do so , and drivers changing directions along US 24 have to use the U @-@ turn crossovers in the median . From here north , the road runs through residential areas of the suburb approximately three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of Detroit Metropolitan Airport , lined with various businesses immediately adjacent to the roadway . It crosses the South Branch of the Ecorse River . There are a pair of interchanges on US 24 for Ecorse Road and I @-@ 94 ( Detroit Industrial Freeway ) , the latter being of the single point urban interchange ( SPUI ) design .
= = = Western suburbs = = =
North of the Van Born Road intersection , Telegraph crosses into Dearborn Heights for the first time and over the North Branch of the Ecorse River . Past the river , the highway enters Dearborn . In the middle of its course through that city , US 24 crosses US 12 ( Michigan Avenue ) south of a branch of the River Rouge and the Dearborn Hills Golf Course . Telegraph crosses back into Dearborn Heights at the intersection with M @-@ 153 ( Ford Road ) east of St. Hedwig Cemetery . North of the cemetery , in the a section of the Middle River Rouge Park , Telegraph crosses the middle branch of that river before entering the southeastern corner of Redford Township . There is an interchange for a boulevard section of Plymouth Road before US 24 meets I @-@ 96 ( Jeffries Freeway ) on a section of the border with Detroit .
To the northeast of the I @-@ 96 interchange is the Elisa Howell Park as US 24 continues due north along a segment of the Detroit – Redford Township boundary . The trunkline crosses into Detroit completely north of Puritan Street . Telegraph passes through urban residential neighborhoods on the city 's far west side flanked by various municipal parkland along the River Rouge to its immediate east . US 24 eventually intersects with M @-@ 5 ( Grand River Avenue ) , one of the five principal avenues of the Detroit street plan , south of 7 Mile Road . When it crosses M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) , US 24 leaves Wayne County and Detroit and enters Oakland County at the city of Southfield .
= = = Northern suburbs = = =
Running through Southfield , Telegraph Road continues due north to a location between 9 and 10 Mile roads . There the highway curves to the northwest and back north to approach the " Mixing Bowl " , a complex interchange near 11 Mile Road that includes connections to I @-@ 696 ( Reuther Freeway ) and M @-@ 10 ( Lodge Freeway and Northwestern Highway ) . Between the Mixing Bowl and 12 Mile Road , Telegraph runs through a commercial district in Southfield , and north of 13 Mile Road , the highway forms part of the border between the villages of Franklin and Bingham Farms ; this area is predominantly suburban residential subdivisions .
At 14 Mile Road , US 24 crosses into Bloomfield Township and begins to meander between the lakes of Oakland County 's lake country . The highway turns to the northwest before crossing Square Lake Road ( 19 Mile ) south of Pontiac . Square Lake Road forms part of Business US 24 ( Bus . US 24 ) , a business loop that runs into downtown Pontiac ; Telegraph Road bypasses downtown to the southwest and west . At the interchange with Orchard Lake Road on the border between Pontiac and Sylvan Lake , US 24 turns northward along Pontiac 's western border as an undivided roadway . Telegraph intersects M @-@ 59 ( Huron Road ) on the border between Waterford Township and Pontiac .
North of the Summit Place Mall , Telegraph Road ends at the intersection with Dixie Highway and the northern end of Bus . US 24 ( Cesar Chavez Avenue ) . US 24 turns northwesterly along Dixie Highway , crossing into Waterford Township . The highway meanders again through lake country flanked by residential subdivisions of the township . South of Clarkston , US 24 intersects the southern end of M @-@ 15 . US 24 bypasses the city to the west and terminates at an interchange with I @-@ 75 .
= = History = =
In 1701 , the first transportation routes through what became the state of Michigan were the lakes , rivers and Indian trails . One of these Indian trails , the Saginaw Trail followed a path from the Detroit area north to Saginaw ; this trail ran along what is now Dixie Highway from Pontiac northwards .
Telegraph lines were first installed from the Detroit area south to the Monroe area in the mid @-@ 19th century with additional lines north to Pontiac completed around 1868 . As these communication lines were installed , roadways were added as needed to provide access for maintenance . The parallel road from Dearborn south was named for these lines , becoming Telegraph Road . When the state initially signposted its state highways in 1919 , Telegraph Road from the Ohio state line north to Dearborn was assigned the original M @-@ 10 designation . The same year , the Dixie Highway , an auto trail that ran south from Detroit to Miami , Florida , was extended through Pontiac northward to the Straits of Mackinac . The numerical highway designation was changed to US 24 when the United States Numbered Highway System was inaugurated on November 11 , 1926 .
Highway traffic coming north from Toledo was forced to pass through Detroit to get to points north at the time . To ease the congestion downtown , a westerly bypass was constructed in the 1920s . Between Flat Rock and Dearborn , the upgraded highway was opened in 1922 , with an extension to Stoney Creek the following year . The new road was built north from Michigan Avenue to Grand River Avenue in 1924 . The extension to the state line was finished in 1925 , and the remainder to Dixie Highway north of Pontiac was done in 1930 . At the time , US 24 was extended north to the corner of Telegraph and Square Lake roads , with M @-@ 58 routed along the western Pontiac bypass . The highway was widened into a multi @-@ lane highway starting in 1936 .
By 1945 , a divided highway designated Alternate US 24 ( ALT US 24 ) was opened from the state line north to Erie . This divided highway , now named the Detroit – Toledo Expressway , was extended in 1956 to Gibraltar , and the ALT US 24 designation was continued north to connect back to the mainline near Woodhaven . The former connection near Erie became a connector route , now part of Conn . US 24 and Conn . M @-@ 125 . Additional segments of freeway were opened through 1958 , and the I @-@ 75 designation was applied to the freeway the following year , becoming the first segment of Interstate Highway so signed in Michigan .
Between 1960 and 1963 , the four @-@ lane undivided highway was turned into a seven- and eight @-@ lane divided highway in Wayne County . At this time , the Michigan State Highway Department , predecessor to MDOT , added median crossovers along Telegraph Road . These additions were used to eliminate left turns at intersections and shift traffic less than 350 feet ( 110 m ) away from the intersection . The distance complicated traffic flow . Later this concept was refined and used at the intersection of 8 Mile Road and Livernois Avenue , becoming the first Michigan left intersection in the state .
In 1970 , US 10 was moved from its routing along Woodward Avenue between Detroit and Pontiac to follow the Lodge Freeway . From the northern end of the Lodge to Square Lake Road near Pontiac , US 10 and US 24 were run concurrently along Telegraph Road . North of Square Lake Road , US 10 continued along Telegraph back to Dixie Highway as before . In 1986 , US 10 was truncated to end at Bay City instead of continuing on to Detroit . In the process , Telegraph Road lost its US 10 co @-@ designation , US 24 was extended to its current northern terminus near Clarkston and the existing Bus . US 10 in Pontiac was redesignated to become a Bus . US 24 instead .
The interchange with I @-@ 94 had only two bridges and left hand exits were used throughout . This interchange was reconfigured in 2005 to a SPUI design that was completed in December of that year . A pair of bridges called the Gateway Bridge ( alternately " Gateway to Detroit " ) was incorporated in the new interchange .
On November 30 , 2005 , President George W. Bush signed the 2006 appropriations bill related to the US Department of Transportation and other agencies . Contained in that law was a provision that named a 30 @-@ mile ( 48 km ) stretch of US 24 from I @-@ 96 to its northern end at I @-@ 75 the " Max M. Fisher Memorial Highway " ; the highway was dedicated in May 2008 . In June 2012 , Governor Rick Snyder signed a bill from the Michigan Legislature that designated a section of Telegraph Road in Taylor for Cpl. Matthew Edwards , a member of the Taylor Police Department that was killed in the line of duty .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Related trunklines = =
There are one business loop in Pontiac and three connector routes for US 24 in Michigan . The connectors run between US 24 and I @-@ 75 in Erie , Taylor and Woodhaven . There used to be an alternate route signed for US 24 between the state line and the Gibraltar area . This route was incorporated into I @-@ 75 in 1959 .
= = = Business route = = =
Business US Highway 24 ( Bus . US 24 ) is a business loop running through downtown Pontiac . The highway starts at an intersection between US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) and Square Lake Road in Bloomfield Township southwest of downtown Pontiac . From there , the business loop follows Square Lake Road eastward to an intersection with M @-@ 1 ( Woodward Avenue ) and Business Loop Interstate 75 ( BL I @-@ 75 ) . The two business loops merge and run concurrently northward on Woodward Avenue into Pontiac . On the southern edge of downtown , Woodward Avenue splits to form a one @-@ way loop round the central business district . Northbound BL I @-@ 75 / Bus . US 24 follows the eastern side of the loop and intersects a pair of one @-@ way streets that carry M @-@ 59 through the city . At the northern intersection , westbound M @-@ 59 merges onto Woodward Avenue Loop . Northbound BL I @-@ 75 splits from the concurrency at the intersection with Perry Street ; the southbound direction of BL I @-@ 75 merges onto the loop at this intersection . Northbound Bus . US 24 splits from the loop at Cesar Chavez Avenue . From there , the business loop continues through the northern end of Pontiac , rejoining the southbound traffic at an intersection with Oakland Avenue at the northern edge of town . Bus . US 24 follows Dixie Highway once it crosses into Waterford Township . The northern end of the business loop as an intersection with US 24 where the parent highway transitions from Telegraph Road to Dixie Highway in Waterford Township .
In 1985 , the Michigan Department of Transportation received permission from the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials to truncate US 10 to Bay City , and when the change was made the following year , US 24 replaced US 10 on Telegraph Road north of Square Lake Road , and Bus . US 10 through downtown was redesignated Bus . US 24 .
Major intersections
The entire highway was in Oakland County .
= 1916 Irondale earthquake =
The 1916 Irondale earthquake struck north – central Alabama on October 18 . The greatest earthquake in state history , it registered an estimated magnitude of 5 @.@ 1 on the Richter magnitude scale and resulted in extensive minor damage . Damage , limited to Shelby and Jefferson counties , reached its maximum severity near the epicenter in the city of Irondale , including cracked windows , fallen chimneys , and dried @-@ up wells . While there were no fatalities , the earthquake spawned widespread panic , sending alarmed workers from tall buildings .
The earthquake originated in the Eastern Tennessee Seismic Zone , a fault noted for earthquakes of moderate magnitude . Faulting in the area is strike @-@ slip @-@ oriented probably because of the Alabama @-@ New York Lineament , which runs adjacent to the fault . Several scientists believe that the small earthquakes from the zone highlight the reactivation of deep , ancient faults . Alabama has seen roughly 20 earthquakes since the beginning of the 20th century . The earthquakes have been moderate , never reaching above magnitude 5 @.@ 1 , and tend to cause damage only near their epicenters while reaching areas much further away . Major events include those in 1916 ,
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they regard the discovery as confirmed . As of 2013 , the discovery remains in doubt because a search program at La Silla Observatory did not confirm it exists .
Published sources remain in disagreement as to the proposed planet 's basic parameters . Values for its orbital period range from 6 @.@ 85 to 7 @.@ 2 years . Estimates of the size of its elliptical orbit — the semimajor axis — range from 3 @.@ 38 AU to 3 @.@ 50 AU and approximations of its orbital eccentricity range from 0 @.@ 25 ± 0 @.@ 23 to 0 @.@ 702 ± 0 @.@ 039 .
The true mass of this planet remains unknown , but it can be estimated based on the displacement effect of the planet 's gravity on Epsilon Eridani . Only the component of the displacement along the line of sight to Earth is known , which yields a value for the formula m sin i , where m is the mass of the planet and i is the orbital inclination . Estimates for the value of m sin i range from 0 @.@ 60 Jupiter masses to 1 @.@ 06 Jupiter masses , which sets the lower limit for the mass of the planet ( because the sine function has a maximum value of 1 ) . By choosing a mass of 0 @.@ 78 and an estimated inclination of 30 ° , this yields the frequently cited value of 1 @.@ 55 ± 0 @.@ 24 Jupiter masses for the planet 's mass .
Of all the measured parameters for this planet , the value for orbital eccentricity is the most uncertain . The frequently cited value of 0 @.@ 7 for Epsilon Eridani b 's eccentricity is inconsistent with the presence of the proposed asteroid belt at a distance of 3 AU . If the eccentricity was actually this high , the planet would pass through the asteroid belt and clear it out within about ten thousand years . If the belt has existed for longer than this period , which appears likely , it imposes an upper limit on Epsilon Eridani b 's eccentricity of about 0 @.@ 10 – 0 @.@ 15 . If the dust disk is instead being generated from the outer debris disk , rather than from collisions in an asteroid belt , then no constraints on the planet 's orbital eccentricity are needed to explain the dust distribution .
The planet and its host star is one of the planetary systems selected by the International Astronomical Union as part of their public process for giving proper names to exoplanets and their host star ( where no proper name already exists ) . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names . In December 2015 , the IAU announced the winning names were Ran for the star and AEgir for the planet , both names from Norse mythology .
= = = = Planet c = = = =
Computer simulations of the dusty disk orbiting Epsilon Eridani suggest that the shape of the disk may be explained by the presence of a second planet , tentatively dubbed Epsilon Eridani c . Clumping in the dust disk may occur because dust particles are being trapped in orbits that have resonant orbital periods with a planet in an eccentric orbit . The postulated Epsilon Eridani c would orbit at a distance of 40 AU , with an eccentricity of 0 @.@ 3 and a period of 280 years . The inner cavity of the disk may be explained by the presence of additional planets . Current models of planet formation cannot easily explain how a planet could have been created at this distance from Epsilon Eridani . The disk is expected to have dissipated long before a giant planet could have formed . Instead , the planet may have formed at an orbital distance of about 10 AU then migrated outward because of gravitational interaction with the disc or with other planets in the system .
= = = = Potential habitability = = = =
Epsilon Eridani is a target for planet finding programs because it has properties that allow an Earth @-@ like planet to form . Although this system was not chosen as a primary candidate for the now @-@ canceled Terrestrial Planet Finder , it was a target star for NASA 's proposed Space Interferometry Mission to search for Earth @-@ sized planets . The proximity , Sun @-@ like properties and suspected planets of Epsilon Eridani have also made it the subject of multiple studies on whether an interstellar probe can be sent to Epsilon Eridani .
The orbital radius at which the stellar flux from Epsilon Eridani matches the solar constant — where the emission matches the Sun 's output at the orbital distance of the Earth — is 0 @.@ 61 astronomical units ( AU ) . That is within the maximum habitable zone of a conjectured Earth @-@ like planet orbiting Epsilon Eridani , which currently stretches from about 0 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 0 AU . As Epsilon Eridani ages over a period of 20 billion years , the net luminosity will increase , causing this zone to slowly expand outward to about 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 4 AU . However , the presence of a large planet with a highly elliptical orbit in proximity to Epsilon Eridani 's habitable zone reduces the likelihood of a terrestrial planet having a stable orbit within the habitable zone .
A young star such as Epsilon Eridani can produce large amounts of ultraviolet radiation that may be harmful to life . The orbital radius where the UV flux matches that on the early Earth lies at just under 0 @.@ 5 AU . Epsilon Eridani 's proximity , Sun @-@ like properties and suspected planets have made it a destination for interstellar travel in science fiction stories .
From Epsilon Eridani , the Sun would appear as a 2 @.@ 4 @-@ magnitude star in Serpens .
= Aleister Crowley =
Aleister Crowley ( / ˈkroʊli / ; born Edward Alexander Crowley ; 12 October 1875 – 1 December 1947 ) was an English occultist , ceremonial magician , poet , painter , novelist , and mountaineer . He founded the religion and philosophy of Thelema , identifying himself as the prophet entrusted with guiding humanity into the Æon of Horus in the early 20th century .
Born to a wealthy Plymouth Brethren family in Royal Leamington Spa , Warwickshire , Crowley rejected this fundamentalist Christian faith to pursue an interest in Western esotericism . He was educated at the University of Cambridge , where he focused his attentions on mountaineering and poetry , resulting in several publications . Some biographers allege that here he was recruited into a British intelligence agency , further suggesting that he remained a spy throughout his life . In 1898 he joined the esoteric Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn , where he was trained in ceremonial magic by Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers and Allan Bennett . Moving to Boleskine House by Loch Ness in Scotland , he went mountaineering in Mexico with Oscar Eckenstein , before studying Hindu and Buddhist practices in India . He married Rose Edith Kelly and in 1904 they honeymooned in Cairo , Egypt , where Crowley claimed to have been contacted by a supernatural entity named Aiwass , who provided him with The Book of the Law , a sacred text that served as the basis for Thelema . Announcing the start of the Æon of Horus , The Book declared that its followers should adhere to the code of " Do what thou wilt " and seek to align themselves with their Will through the practice of magick .
After an unsuccessful attempt to climb Kanchenjunga and a visit to India and China , Crowley returned to Britain , where he attracted attention as a prolific author of poetry , novels , and occult literature . In 1907 , he and George Cecil Jones co @-@ founded a Thelemite order , the A ∴ A ∴ , through which they propagated the religion . After spending time in Algeria , in 1912 he was initiated into another esoteric order , the German @-@ based Ordo Templi Orientis ( O.T.O. ) , rising to become the leader of its British branch , which he reformulated in accordance with his Thelemite beliefs . Through the O.T.O. , Thelemite groups were established in Britain , Australia , and North America . Crowley spent the First World War in the United States , where he took up painting and campaigned for the German war effort against Britain , later revealing that he had infiltrated the pro @-@ German movement to assist the British intelligence services . In 1920 he established the Abbey of Thelema , a religious commune in Cefalù , Sicily where he lived with various followers . His libertine lifestyle led to denunciations in the British press , and the Italian government evicted him in 1923 . He divided the following two decades between France , Germany , and England , and continued to promote Thelema until his death .
Crowley gained widespread notoriety during his lifetime , being a recreational drug experimenter , bisexual and an individualist social critic . He was denounced in the popular press as " the wickedest man in the world " and a Satanist . Crowley has remained a highly influential figure over Western esotericism and the counter @-@ culture , and continues to be considered a prophet in Thelema . In 2002 , a BBC poll ranked him as the seventy @-@ third greatest Briton of all time .
= = Early life = =
= = = Youth : 1875 – 94 = = =
Crowley was born as Edward Alexander Crowley at 30 Clarendon Square in Royal Leamington Spa , Warwickshire , on 12 October 1875 . His father , Edward Crowley ( 1834 – 87 ) , was trained as an engineer , but his share in a lucrative family brewing business , Crowley 's Alton Ales , had allowed him to retire before his son was born . His mother , Emily Bertha Bishop ( 1848 – 1917 ) , came from a Devonshire @-@ Somerset family and had a strained relationship with her son ; she described him as " the Beast " , a name that he revelled in . The couple had been married at London 's Kensington Registry Office in November 1874 , and were evangelical Christians . Crowley 's father had been born a Quaker , but had converted to the Exclusive Brethren , a faction of a Christian fundamentalist group known as the Plymouth Brethren , with Emily joining him upon marriage . Crowley 's father was particularly devout , spending his time as a travelling preacher for the sect and reading a chapter from the Bible to his wife and son after breakfast every day . Following the death of their baby daughter in 1880 , in 1881 the Crowleys moved to Redhill , Surrey . At the age of 8 , Crowley was sent to H.T. Habershon 's evangelical Christian boarding school in Hastings , and then to Ebor preparatory school in Cambridge , run by the Reverend Henry d 'Arcy Champney , whom Crowley considered a sadist .
In March 1887 , when Crowley was 11 , his father died of tongue cancer . Crowley described this as a turning point in his life , and he always maintained an admiration of his father , describing him as " his hero and his friend " . Inheriting a third of his father 's wealth , he began misbehaving at school and was harshly punished by Champney ; Crowley 's family removed him from the school when he developed albuminuria . He then attended Malvern College and Tonbridge School , both of which he despised and left after a few terms . He became increasingly sceptical regarding Christianity , pointing out inconsistencies in the Bible to his religious teachers , and went against the Christian morality of his upbringing by smoking , masturbating , and having sex with prostitutes from whom he contracted gonorrhea . Sent to live with a Brethren tutor in Eastbourne , he undertook chemistry courses at Eastbourne College . Crowley developed interests in chess , poetry , and mountain climbing , and in 1894 climbed Beachy Head before visiting the Alps and joining the Scottish Mountaineering Club . The following year he returned to the Bernese Alps , climbing the Eiger , Trift , Jungfrau , Mönch , and Wetterhorn .
= = = Cambridge University : 1895 – 98 = = =
Having adopted the name of Aleister over Edward , in October 1895 Crowley began a three @-@ year course at Trinity College , Cambridge , where he was entered for the Moral Science Tripos studying philosophy . With approval from his personal tutor , he changed to English literature , which was not then part of the curriculum offered . Crowley spent much of his time at university engaged in his pastimes , becoming president of the chess club and practising the game for two hours a day ; he briefly considered a professional career as a chess player . Crowley also embraced his love of literature and poetry , particularly the works of Richard Francis Burton and Percy Bysshe Shelley . Many of his own poems appeared in student publications such as The Granta , Cambridge Magazine , and Cantab . He continued his mountaineering , going on holiday to the Alps to climb every year from 1894 to 1898 , often with his friend Oscar Eckenstein , and in 1897 he made the first ascent of the Mönch without a guide . These feats led to his recognition in the Alpine mountaineering community .
Crowley had his first significant mystical experience while on holiday in Stockholm in December 1896 . Several biographers , including Lawrence Sutin , Richard Kaczynski , and Tobias Churton , believed that this was the result of Crowley 's first same @-@ sex sexual experience , which enabled him to recognise his bisexuality . At Cambridge , Crowley maintained a vigorous sex life , largely with female prostitutes , from one of whom he caught syphilis , but eventually he took part in same @-@ sex activities , despite their illegality . In October 1897 , Crowley met Herbert Charles Pollitt , president of the Cambridge University Footlights Dramatic Club , and the two entered into a relationship . They broke apart because Pollitt did not share Crowley 's increasing interest in Western esotericism , a breakup that Crowley would regret for many years .
In 1897 , Crowley travelled to St Petersburg in Russia , later claiming that he was trying to learn Russian as he was considering a future diplomatic career there . Biographers Richard Spence and Tobias Churton suggested that Crowley had done so as an intelligence agent under the employ of the British secret service , speculating that he had been enlisted while at Cambridge .
In October 1897 , a brief illness triggered considerations of mortality and " the futility of all human endeavour " , and Crowley abandoned all thoughts of a diplomatic career in favour of pursuing an interest in the occult . In March 1898 , he obtained A.E. Waite 's The Book of Black Magic and of Pacts ( 1898 ) , and then Karl von Eckartshausen 's The Cloud Upon the Sanctuary ( 1896 ) , furthering his occult interests . In 1898 Crowley privately published 100 copies of his poem Aceldama : A Place to Bury Strangers In , but it was not a particular success . That same year he published a string of other poems , including White Stains , a Decadent collection of erotic poetry that was printed abroad lest its publication be prohibited by the British authorities . In July 1898 , he left Cambridge , not having taken any degree at all despite a " first class " showing in his 1897 exams and consistent " second class honours " results before that .
= = = The Golden Dawn : 1898 – 99 = = =
In August 1898 , Crowley was in Zermatt , Switzerland , where he met the chemist Julian L. Baker , and the two began discussing their common interest in alchemy . Back in London , Baker introduced Crowley to George Cecil Jones , Baker 's brother in @-@ law , and a fellow member of the occult society known as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn , which had been founded in 1888 . Crowley was initiated into the Outer Order of the Golden Dawn on 18 November 1898 by the group 's leader , Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers . The ceremony took place in the Golden Dawn 's Isis @-@ Urania Temple held at London 's Mark Masons Hall , where Crowley took the magical motto and name " Frater Perdurabo " , which he interpreted as " I shall endure to the end " . Biographers Richard Spence and Tobias Churton have suggested that Crowley joined the Order under the command of the British secret services to monitor the activities of Mathers , who was known to be a Carlist .
Crowley moved into his own luxury flat at 67 – 69 Chancery Lane and soon invited a senior Golden Dawn member , Allan Bennett , to live with him as his personal magical tutor . Bennett taught Crowley more about ceremonial magic and the ritual use of drugs , and together they performed the rituals of the Goetia , until Bennett left for South Asia to study Buddhism . In November 1899 , Crowley purchased Boleskine House in Foyers on the shore of Loch Ness in Scotland . He developed a love of Scottish culture , describing himself as the " Laird of Boleskine " , and took to wearing traditional highland dress , even during visits to London . He continued writing poetry , publishing Jezebel and Other Tragic Poems , Tales of Archais , Songs of the Spirit , Appeal to the American Republic , and Jephthah in 1898 – 99 ; most gained mixed reviews from literary critics , although Jephthah was considered a particular critical success .
Crowley soon progressed through the lower grades of the Golden Dawn , and was ready to enter the group 's inner Second Order . He was unpopular in the group ; his bisexuality and libertine lifestyle had gained him a bad reputation , and he had developed feuds with some of the members , including W.B. Yeats . When the Golden Dawn 's London lodge refused to initiate Crowley into the Second Order , he visited Mathers in Paris , who personally admitted him into the Adeptus Minor Grade . A schism had developed between Mathers and the London members of the Golden Dawn , who were unhappy with his autocratic rule . Acting under Mathers ' orders , Crowley – with the help of his mistress and fellow initiate Elaine Simpson – attempted to seize the Vault of the Adepts , a temple space at 36 Blythe Road in West Kensington , from the London lodge members . When the case was taken to court , the judge ruled in favour of the London lodge , as they had paid for the space 's rent , leaving both Crowley and Mathers isolated from the group . Spence suggested that the entire scenario was part of an intelligence operation to undermine Mathers ' authority .
= = = Mexico , India , Paris , and marriage : 1900 – 03 = = =
In 1900 , Crowley travelled to Mexico via the United States , settling in Mexico City and taking a local woman as his mistress . Developing a love of the country , he continued experimenting with ceremonial magic , working with John Dee 's Enochian invocations . He later claimed to have been initiated into Freemasonry while there , and he wrote a play based on Richard Wagner 's Tannhäuser as well as a series of poems , published as Oracles ( 1905 ) . Eckenstein joined him later that year , and together they climbed several mountains , including Iztaccihuatl , Popocatepetl , and Colima , the latter of which they had to abandon owing to a volcanic eruption . Spence has suggested that the purpose of the trip might have been to explore Mexican oil prospects for British intelligence . Leaving Mexico , Crowley headed to San Francisco before sailing for Hawaii aboard the Nippon Maru . On the ship he had a brief affair with a married woman named Mary Alice Rogers ; saying he had fallen in love with her , he wrote a series of poems about the romance , published as Alice : An Adultery ( 1903 ) .
Briefly stopping in Japan and Hong Kong , Crowley reached Ceylon , where he met with Allan Bennett , who was there studying Shaivism . The pair spent some time in Kandy before Bennett decided to become a Buddhist monk in the Theravada tradition , travelling to Burma to do so . Crowley decided to tour India , devoting himself to the Hindu practice of raja yoga , from which he claimed to have achieved the spiritual state of dhyana . He spent much of this time studying at the Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madura . At this time he also composed and also wrote poetry which was published as The Sword of Song ( 1904 ) . He contracted malaria , and had to recuperate from the disease in Calcutta and Rangoon . In 1902 , he was joined in India by Eckenstein and several other mountaineers : Guy Knowles , H. Pfannl , V. Wesseley , and Jules Jacot @-@ Guillarmod . Together the Eckenstein @-@ Crowley expedition attempted K2 , which had never been climbed . On the journey , Crowley was afflicted with influenza , malaria , and snow blindness , and other expedition members were also struck with illness . They reached an altitude of 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) before turning back .
Having arrived in Paris in November 1902 he socialised with friend and future brother @-@ in @-@ law , the painter Gerald Kelly , and through him became a fixture of the Parisian arts scene . Whilst there , Crowley authored a series of poems on the work of an acquaintance , the sculptor Auguste Rodin . These poems were later published as Rodin in Rime ( 1907 ) . One of those frequenting this milieu was W. Somerset Maugham , who after briefly meeting Crowley later used him as a model for the character of Oliver Haddo in his novel The Magician ( 1908 ) . Returning to Boleskine in April 1903 , in August Crowley wed Gerald 's sister Rose Edith Kelly in a " marriage of convenience " to prevent her entering an arranged marriage ; the marriage appalled the Kelly family and damaged his friendship with Gerald . Heading on a honeymoon to Paris , Cairo , and then Ceylon , Crowley fell in love with Rose and worked to prove his affections . While on his honeymoon , he wrote her a series of love poems , published as Rosa Mundi and other Love Songs ( 1906 ) , as well as authoring the religious satire Why Jesus Wept ( 1904 ) .
= = Developing Thelema = =
= = = Egypt and The Book of the Law : 1904 = = =
In February 1904 , Crowley and Rose arrived in Cairo . Claiming to be a prince and princess , they rented an apartment in which Crowley set up a temple room and began invoking ancient Egyptian deities , while studying Islamic mysticism and Arabic . According to Crowley 's later account , Rose regularly became delirious and informed him " they are waiting for you " . On 18 March , she explained that " they " were the god Horus , and on 20 March proclaimed that " the Equinox of the Gods has come " . She led him to a nearby museum , where she showed him a seventh @-@ century BCE mortuary stele known as the Stele of Ankh @-@ ef @-@ en @-@ Khonsu ; Crowley thought it important that the exhibit 's number was 666 , the number of the beast in Christian belief , and in later years termed the artefact the " Stele of Revealing . "
According to Crowley 's later statements , on 8 April he heard a disembodied voice that claimed to be that of Aiwass , the messenger of Horus , or Hoor @-@ Paar @-@ Kraat . Crowley said that he wrote down everything the voice told him over the course of the next three days , and titled it Liber L vel Legis or The Book of the Law . The book proclaimed that humanity was entering a new Aeon , and that Crowley would serve as its prophet . It stated that a supreme moral law was to be introduced in this Aeon , " Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law , " and that people should learn to live in tune with their Will . This book , and the philosophy that it espoused , became the cornerstone of Crowley 's religion , Thelema . Crowley said that at the time he had been unsure what to do with The Book of the Law . Often resenting it , he said that he ignored the instructions which the text commanded him to perform , which included taking the Stele of Revealing from the museum , fortifying his own island , and translating the book into all the world 's languages . According to his account , he instead sent typescripts of the work to several occultists he knew , putting the manuscript away and ignoring it .
= = = Kangchenjunga and China : 1905 – 06 = = =
Returning to Boleskine , Crowley came to believe that Mathers had begun using magic against him , and the relationship between the two broke down . On 28 July 1905 , Rose gave birth to Crowley 's first child , a daughter named Lilith , with Crowley authoring the pornographic Snowdrops From a Curate 's Garden to entertain his recuperating wife . He also founded a publishing company through which to publish his poetry , naming it the Society for the Propagation of Religious Truth in parody of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge . Among its first publications were Crowley 's Collected Works , edited by Ivor Back . His poetry often received strong reviews ( either positive or negative ) , but never sold well . In an attempt to gain more publicity , he issued a reward of £ 100 for the best essay on his work . The winner of this was J. F. C. Fuller , a British Army officer and military historian , whose essay , The Star in the West ( 1907 ) , heralded Crowley 's poetry as some of the greatest ever written .
Crowley decided to climb Kangchenjunga in the Himalayas of Nepal , widely recognised as the world 's most treacherous mountain . Assembling a team consisting of Jacot @-@ Guillarmod , Charles Adolphe Reymond , Alexis Pache , and Alcesti C. Rigo de Righi , the expedition was marred by much argument between Crowley and the others , who thought that he was reckless . They eventually mutinied against Crowley 's control , with the other climbers heading back down the mountain as nightfall approached despite Crowley 's warnings that it was too dangerous . Subsequently , Pache and several porters were killed in an accident , something for which Crowley was widely blamed by the mountaineering community .
Spending time in Moharbhanj , where he took part in big game hunting and wrote the homoerotic work The Scented Garden , Crowley met up with Rose and Lilith in Calcutta before being forced to leave India after shooting dead a native man who tried to mug him . Briefly visiting Bennett in Burma , Crowley and his family decided to tour Southern China , hiring porters and a nanny for the purpose . Spence has suggested that this trip to China was orchestrated as part of a British intelligence scheme to monitor the region 's opium trade . Crowley smoked opium throughout the journey , which took the family from Tengyueh through to Yungchang , Tali , Yunnanfu , and then Hanoi . On the way he spent much time on spiritual and magical work , reciting the " Bornless Ritual " , an invocation to his Holy Guardian Angel , on a daily basis .
While Rose and Lilith returned to Europe , Crowley headed to Shanghai to meet old friend Elaine Simpson , who was fascinated by The Book of the Law ; together they performed rituals in an attempt to contact Aiwass . Crowley then sailed to Japan and Canada , before continuing to New York City , where he unsuccessfully solicited support for a second expedition up Kangchenjunga . Upon arrival in Britain , Crowley learned that his daughter Lilith had died of typhoid in Rangoon , something he later blamed on Rose 's increasing alcoholism . Under emotional distress , his health began to suffer , and he underwent a series of surgical operations . He began short @-@ lived romances with actress Vera " Lola " Neville ( née Snepp ) and author Ada Leverson , while Rose gave birth to Crowley 's second daughter , Lola Zaza , in February 1907 .
= = = The A ∴ A ∴ and the Holy Books of Thelema : 1907 – 09 = = =
With his old mentor George Cecil Jones , Crowley continued performing the Abramelin rituals at the Ashdown Park Hotel in Coulsdon , Surrey . Crowley claimed that in doing so he attained samadhi , or union with Godhead , thereby marking a turning point in his life . Making heavy use of hashish during these rituals , he wrote an essay on " The Psychology of Hashish " ( 1909 ) in which he championed the drug as an aid to mysticism . He also claimed to have been contacted once again by Aiwass in late October and November 1907 , adding that Aiwass dictated two further texts to him , " Liber VII " and " Liber Cordis Cincti Serpente " , both of which were later classified in the corpus of Holy Books of Thelema . Crowley wrote down more Thelemic Holy Books during the last two months of the year , including " Liber LXVI " , " Liber Arcanorum " , " Liber Porta Lucis , Sub Figura X " , " Liber Tau " , " Liber Trigrammaton " and " Liber DCCCXIII vel Ararita " , which he again claimed to have received from a preternatural source . Crowley stated that in June 1909 , when the manuscript of The Book of the Law was rediscovered at Boleskine , he developed the opinion that Thelema represented objective truth .
Crowley 's inheritance was running out . Trying to earn money , he was hired by George Montagu Bennett , the Earl of Tankerville , to help protect him from witchcraft ; recognising Bennett 's paranoia as being based in his cocaine addiction , Crowley took him on holiday to France and Morocco to recuperate . In 1907 , he also began taking in paying students , whom he instructed in occult and magical practice . Victor Neuburg , whom Crowley met in February 1907 , became his sexual partner and closest disciple ; in 1908 the pair toured northern Spain before heading to Tangier , Morocco . The following year Neuburg stayed at Boleskine , where he and Crowley engaged in sadomasochism . Crowley continued to write prolifically , producing such works of poetry as Ambergris , Clouds Without Water , and Konx Om Pax , as well as his first attempt at an autobiography , The World 's Tragedy . Recognising the popularity of short horror stories , Crowley wrote his own , some of which were published , and he also published several articles in Vanity Fair , a magazine edited by his friend Frank Harris . He also wrote Liber 777 , a book of magical and Qabalistic correspondences that borrowed from Mathers and Bennett .
In November 1907 , Crowley and Jones decided to found an occult order to act as a successor to the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn , being aided in doing so by Fuller . The result was the A ∴ A ∴ . The group 's headquarters and temple were situated at 124 Victoria Street in central London , and their rites borrowed much from those of the Golden Dawn , but with an added Thelemic basis . Its earliest members included solicitor Richard Noel Warren , artist Austin Osman Spare , Horace Sheridan @-@ Bickers , author George Raffalovich , Francis Henry Everard Joseph Feilding , engineer Herbert Edward Inman , Kenneth Ward , and Charles Stansfeld Jones . In March 1909 , Crowley began production of a biannual periodical titled The Equinox . He billed this periodical , which was to become the " Official Organ " of the A ∴ A ∴ , as " The Review of Scientific Illuminism " .
Crowley had become increasingly frustrated with Rose 's alcoholism , and in November 1909 he divorced her on the grounds of his own adultery . Lola was entrusted to Rose 's care ; the couple remained friends and Rose continued to live at Boleskine . Her alcoholism worsened , and as a result she was institutionalised in September 1911 .
= = = Algeria and the Rites of Eleusis : 1909 – 11 = = =
In November 1909 , Crowley and Neuburg travelled to Algeria , touring the desert from El Arba to Aumale , Bou Saâda , and then Dā 'leh Addin , with Crowley reciting the Quran on a daily basis . During the trip he invoked the thirty aethyrs of Enochian magic , with Neuburg recording the results , later published in The Equinox as The Vision and the Voice . Following a mountaintop sex magic ritual , Crowley also performed an invocation to the demon Choronzon involving blood sacrifice , considering the results to be a watershed in his magical career . Returning to London in January 1910 , Crowley found that Mathers was suing him for publishing Golden Dawn secrets in The Equinox ; the court found in favour of Crowley . The case was widely reported in the press , with Crowley gaining wider fame . Crowley enjoyed this , and played up to the sensationalist stereotype of being a Satanist and advocate of human sacrifice , despite being neither .
The publicity attracted new members to the A ∴ A ∴ , among them Frank Bennett , James Bayley , Herbert Close , and James Windram . The Australian violinist Leila Waddell soon became Crowley 's lover . Deciding to expand his teachings to a wider audience , Crowley developed the Rites of Artemis , a public performance of magic and symbolism featuring A ∴ A ∴ members personifying various deities . It was first performed at the A ∴ A ∴ headquarters , with attendees given a fruit punch containing peyote to enhance their experience . Various members of the press attended , and reported largely positively on it . In October and November 1910 , Crowley decided to stage something similar , the Rites of Eleusis , at Caxton Hall , Westminster ; this time press reviews were mixed . Crowley came under particular criticism from West de Wend Fenton , editor of The Looking Glass newspaper , who called him " one of the most blasphemous and cold @-@ blooded villains of modern times " . Fenton 's articles suggested that Crowley and Jones were involved in homosexual activity ; Crowley did not mind , but Jones unsuccessfully sued for libel . Fuller broke off his friendship and involvement with Crowley over the scandal , and Crowley and Neuburg returned to Algeria for further magical workings .
The Equinox continued publishing , and various books of literature and poetry were also published under its imprint , like Crowley 's Ambergris , The Winged Beetle , and The Scented Garden , as well as Neuburg 's The Triumph of Pan and Ethel Archer 's The Whirlpool . In 1911 , Crowley and Waddell holidayed in Montigny @-@ sur @-@ Loing , where he wrote prolifically , producing poems , short stories , plays , and 19 works on magic and mysticism , including the two final Holy Books of Thelema . In Paris , he met Mary Desti , who became his next " Scarlet Woman " , with the two undertaking magical workings in St. Moritz ; Crowley believed that one of the Secret Chiefs , Ab @-@ ul @-@ Diz , was speaking through her . Based on Desti 's statements when in trance , Crowley wrote the two @-@ volume Book 4 ( 1912 – 13 ) and at the time developed the spelling " magick " in reference to the paranormal phenomenon as a means of distinguishing it from the stage magic of illusionists .
= = = Ordo Templi Orientis and the Paris Working : 1912 – 14 = = =
In early 1912 , Crowley published The Book of Lies , a work of mysticism that biographer Lawrence Sutin described as " his greatest success in merging his talents as poet , scholar , and magus " . The German occultist Theodor Reuss later accused him of publishing some of the secrets of his own occult order , the Ordo Templi Orientis ( O.T.O. ) , within The Book . Crowley convinced Reuss that the similarities were coincidental , and the two became friends . Reuss appointed Crowley as head of the O.T.O 's British branch , the Mysteria Mystica Maxima ( MMM ) , and at a ceremony in Berlin Crowley adopted the magical name of Baphomet and was proclaimed " X ° Supreme Rex and Sovereign Grand Master General of Ireland , Iona , and all the Britons " . With Reuss ' permission , Crowley set about advertising the MMM and re @-@ writing many O.T.O. rituals , which were then based largely on Freemasonry ; his incorporation of Thelemite elements proved controversial in the group . Fascinated by the O.T.O 's emphasis on sex magic , Crowley devised a magical working based on anal sex and incorporated it into the syllabus for those O.T.O. members who had been initiated into the eleventh degree .
In March 1913 Crowley acted as producer for The Ragged Ragtime Girls , a group of female violinists led by Waddell , as they performed at London 's Old Tivoli theatre . They subsequently performed in Moscow for six weeks , where Crowley had a sadomasochistic relationship with the Hungarian Anny Ringler . In Moscow , Crowley continued to write plays and poetry , including " Hymn to Pan " , and the Gnostic Mass , a Thelemic ritual that became a key part of O.T.O. liturgy . Churton suggested that Crowley had travelled to Moscow on the orders of British intelligence to spy on revolutionary elements in the city . In January 1914 Crowley and Neuburg settled in to an apartment in Paris , where the former was involved in the controversy surrounding Jacob Epstein 's new monument to Oscar Wilde . Together Crowley and Neuburg performed the six @-@ week " Paris Working " , a period of intense ritual involving strong drug use in which they invoked the gods Mercury and Jupiter . As part of the ritual , the couple performed acts of sex magic together , at times being joined by journalist Walter Duranty . Inspired by the results of the Working , Crowley authored Liber Agapé , a treatise on sex magic . Following the Paris Working , Neuburg began to distance himself from Crowley , resulting in an argument in which Crowley cursed him .
= = = United States : 1914 – 19 = = =
By 1914 Crowley was living a hand @-@ to @-@ mouth existence , relying largely on donations from A ∴ A ∴ members and dues payments made to O.T.O. In May he transferred ownership of Boleskine House to the MMM for financial reasons , and in July he went mountaineering in the Swiss Alps . During this time the First World War broke out . After recuperating from a bout of phlebitis , Crowley set sail for the United States aboard the RMS Lusitania in October 1914 . Arriving in New York City , he moved into a hotel and began earning money writing for the American edition of Vanity Fair and undertaking freelance work for the famed astrologer Evangeline Adams . In the city , he continued experimenting with sex magic , through the use of masturbation , female prostitutes , and male clients of a Turkish bathhouse ; all of these encounters were documented in his diaries .
Professing to be of Irish ancestry and a supporter of Irish independence from Great Britain , Crowley began to espouse support for Germany in their war against Britain . He became involved in New York 's pro @-@ German movement , and in January 1915 German spy George Sylvester Viereck employed him as a writer for his propagandist paper , The Fatherland , which was dedicated to keeping the US neutral in the conflict . In later years , detractors denounced Crowley as a traitor to Britain for this action . In reality , Crowley was a double agent , working for the British intelligence services to infiltrate and undermine Germany 's operation in New York . Many
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basic training , flight training progressed through the levels A1 , A2 and B1 , B2 , referred to as A / B flight training . Graf 's A training included theoretical and practical training in aerobatics , navigation , long @-@ distance flights and deadstick landings , graduating from A2 on 25 September 1936 . Graf joined the B1 school in Ulm @-@ Dornstadt on 4 October 1937 . The B courses included high @-@ altitude flights , instrument flights , night landings and training to handle the aircraft in difficult situations . He completed his B1 training on 23 December 1937 and progressed to B2 training in Karlsruhe on 19 January 1938 , completing on 31 May 1938 .
After the B2 course the pilots were either selected for fighter pilot training and transferred to a Jagdfliegerschule ( fighter pilot school ) or chosen for bomber or transport pilot training at a C flight school . Graf , at the age of 26 , was initially thought to be too old for fighter pilot training and selected for the transport pilot C school . Largely due to the fact that the fighter force was in dire need for new officers , Unteroffizier ( non @-@ commissioned officer ) Graf , without training on modern fighter aircraft , was transferred to 2 . Staffel ( 2nd squadron ) of I. / Jagdgeschwader 51 ( I. / JG 51 — 1st group of the 51st fighter wing ) at Bad Aibling on 31 May 1939 after he had completed his officers candidate training at Neubiberg . I. / JG 51 was equipped with the most modern German fighter aircraft at the time , the Messerschmitt Bf 109 E1 . Graf , who had never flown a modern fighter aircraft before , ended his first flight on the Bf 109 with a crash . In July 1939 , I. / JG 51 was briefly reequipped with the Czechoslovakian built Avia B @-@ 534 biplane , giving Graf an opportunity to show his flying skills as well as to reestablish his self @-@ confidence .
= = World War II = =
World War II in Europe began on 1 September 1939 when German forces invaded Poland . On this day , I. / JG 51 was stationed at the French border at Speyer and Graf was promoted to Feldwebel ( staff sergeant ) . I. / JG 51 exchanged the Avia B @-@ 534 biplanes for the Bf 109 and was charged with protection of Germany 's Western border during the Phoney War — the phase in the months following Britain and France 's declaration of war on Germany in September 1939 and preceding the Battle of France in May 1940 . During the Phoney War , Graf flew 21 combat sorties without firing his guns and was still considered an unreliable pilot . On 20 January 1940 , his Gruppenkommandeur ( Group Commander ) Hans @-@ Heinrich Brustellin had Graf transferred to Ergänzungs @-@ Jagdgruppe Merseburg ( a supplementary training unit stationed at Merseburg ) where newly trained fighter pilots received instruction from pilots with combat experience . Graf 's completion of the program resulted in his promotion to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) on 1 May 1940 . At Merseburg Graf met and befriended two other fighter pilot trainees , Alfred Grislawski and Heinrich Füllgrabe . Ergänzungs @-@ Jagdgruppe Merseburg at the time was under the command of Major ( Major ) Gotthard Handrick , the 1936 Olympic gold medalist and former commander of Jagdgruppe 88 of the " Condor Legion " during the Spanish Civil War . On 6 October 1940 , Major Handrick was appointed Gruppenkommandeur of III . / Jagdgeschwader 52 ( III . / JG 52 — 3rd group of the 52nd fighter wing ) . Handrick had some influence on the personnel rotation within the Luftwaffe and had Graf , Füllgrabe and Grislawski transferred to 9 . / JG 52 ( 9th Squadron of the 52nd Fighter Wing ) on 6 October 1940 as well .
= = = Service in Romania and invasion of Greece = = =
Romania , isolated and threatened following the non @-@ aggression pact signed by Germany and the Soviet Union , sought to uphold its neutrality . The Soviet occupation of Romania 's regions , Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina , consented to by the King Carol II of Romania , caused Carol 's popularity to fall . This gave Ion Antonescu an opportunity to rise to power and he soon established a dictatorship in Romania .
Under Antonescu , Romania 's armed forces were reorganized , supported by a military mission from Germany called Luftwaffenmission Rumänien ( Luftwaffe Mission Romania ) under the command of Generalleutnant ( Lieutenant General ) Wilhelm Speidel . Stationed in Bucharest , III . / JG 52 was temporarily renamed I. / Jagdgeschwader 28 ( I. / JG 28 — 1st group of the 28th fighter wing ) until 27 December 1940 . Its primary task was to train Romanian Air Force personnel . Here the trio of Füllgrabe , Graf and Grislawski was joined by Ernst Süß , and later by Leopold Steinbatz and Edmund Roßmann .
The German airmen of 9 . / JG 52 spent a number of very relaxing days in Bucharest . Graf even managed to play football when a team of the Deutsche Luftwaffe played against Cyclope Bucharest at the Bucharest Sport 's Arena before thirty thousand spectators . The relaxed life continued until late 1940 when the Romanian internal political situation deteriorated . Ion Antonescu , mainly a nationalist and the Iron Guard , led by Horia Sima , formed a tense alliance climaxing in the brief but bloody civil war from 21 – 24 January 1941 . The three @-@ day civil war was eventually won by Antonescu with support from the German Army . In May 1941 III . / JG 52 was transferred to Greece to support Operation Merkur , the invasion of Crete . The unit flew mostly ground attack missions during this time .
= = = War against the Soviet Union = = =
In early June the unit transferred back to Romania , and from 22 June the unit supported Army Group South in Operation Barbarossa from bases in the country . On 1 August JG 52 transferred to forward airfields in Ukraine , and on 4 August Graf claimed his first aerial victory against a Polikarpov I @-@ 16 while escorting a Junkers Ju 87 strike . Graf recorded the victory at 06 : 20 . His second victory fell the next day . Graf became an official ace upon achieving his fifth victory on 6 September 1941 . The victory was achieved at night , 18 : 23 local time , in the vicinity of Krementschug .
JG 52 moved forward into the Soviet Union as the German advance quickened in the late summer and autumn . Flying air superiority missions during the First Battle of Kharkov in September and October 1941 he accounted for 12 victories ( nos . 8 – 20 ) which included five Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 3s . Graf was finding his stride and accounted for 10 enemy aircraft in November and 12 in December 1941 , increasing his personal success to 42 aerial victories by the end of 1941 .
This period had witnessed some bitter aerial combat as Graf experienced the Battle of Rostov and opening phases of the Siege of Sevastopol . Graf remained with his unit as operations ground to a halt , and stalemate . On 24 January , with his tally now 45 victories , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( German : Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) . On 3 February 1942 he accounted for his 47th victim , a Sukhoi Su @-@ 2 ground attack aircraft . It was to be his last victory for several weeks . After seven months of ceaseless combat operations he was withdrawn from the frontline and sent on leave to Germany .
On 23 March Graf was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 9 . / JG 52 . That same day , Graf accounted for four enemy aircraft and by the end of March 1942 had reached 58 aerial victories . 9 . / JG 52 moved to the Crimea in April to support Erich von Manstein 's 11th Army . The Battle of the Kerch Peninsula ( Unternehmen Trappenjagd ) was designed to eject Red Army forces that had conducted an amphibious landing in the region on 26 December 1941 . Tasked with clearing the skies above Manstein 's limited forces , Graf achieved substantial success . On 30 April 1942 he became an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " after shooting down six enemy aircraft in the region followed by seven on 2 May and again seven on 8 May . By 11 May the Kerch campaign was reaching its climax ; it ended in complete victory for the Germans and their allies eight days later . On this day Hermann Graf reached a tally of 89 aerial victories . Graf was ordered north immediately to assist German air forces near Kharkov . The Soviets had launched a surprise offensive beginning the Second Battle of Kharkov . Graf recorded 19 air victories in the heavy air fighting . On 14 May 1942 , Graf was credited with his 100th aerial victory . He was the 7th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark . He was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 17 May 1942 for 100 air victories . Only two days later , his score had increased to 105 , he also received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) on 19 May 1942 . The 39 claims submitted in May 1942 brought his personal tally to 108 by the time the battle was over . On 24 May 1942 , Graf , together with Leutnant Adolf Dickfeld , flew to the Wolf 's Lair , Hitler 's headquarters in Rastenburg , present @-@ day Kętrzyn in Poland , for the official Oak Leaves and Swords presentation the next day . Following the presentation , he was sent on home leave , where he made a number of public appearances .
= = = Towards Stalingrad = = =
Upon return to his post , Graf claimed his next victory on 30 June 1942 . From August onwards , JG 52 supported Army Group South advances towards Stalingrad . Graf had volunteered for service in the Gefechtsverband Stalingrad ( Combat Detachment Stalingrad ) , which was under the leadership of Hauptmann Wolf @-@ Dietrich Wilcke ; Graf increased his number of aerial victories to 140 by the end of August . In September alone he shot down 62 enemy aircraft , including 5 on 2 September and 10 on 23 September . The aerial fighting was fierce . On 4 September 1942 , he claimed his 150th victory , a Yakovlev Yak @-@ 1 ; he was the second pilot , after Gordon Gollob , to achieve this mark . Graf 's aircraft suffered over 100 hits during the engagement with the Yak @-@ 1 . He barely escaped being killed on several occasions . On 15 September his aircraft cabin was hit by a cannon shell . On 16 September his plane was again hit , this time suffering 30 bullet holes and on 19 September the anti @-@ aircraft artillery shot away half the rudder . His Gruppe was then relocated to the Pitomnik Airfield in Stalingrad .
Flying from Pitomnik Airfield , Graf achieved his 172nd aerial victory on 9 September 1942 for which he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Goldenem Eichenlaub , Schwertern und Brillanten ) on 16 September , the fifth member of the Wehrmacht to receive this distinction . Within a time @-@ frame of 235 days he had received every grade of the Knight 's Cross available at the time . The next day , on 17 September , he claimed three more victories and on 23 September , victories 188 to 197 . On 26 September , he became the first pilot in aviation history to claim 200 enemy aircraft shot down . He claimed three victories that day taking his total to an unprecedented 202 . Following this he received a promotion to Major on 1 October 1942 . Some time after this Graf was ordered not to fly operationally anymore , as the High Command was concerned about the potential morale loss if he was to be shot down .
= = = Fighter pilot instructor — Jagdgruppe Ost = = =
On 28 January 1943 Graf , now a Major , was sent to southern France to command Ergänzungs @-@ Jagdgruppe Ost ( Supplemntary Fighter Group East ) , a fighter pilot school . Here newly trained fighter pilots destined for the Eastern Front received their final training from experienced Eastern Front pilots . The main base was at St. Jean d 'Angély 70 miles ( 110 kilometers ) north of Bordeaux on the Atlantic coast . However , he spent most of his time at the Toulouse @-@ Blagnac Airport , where he nursed his passion for football . Peter Düttmann , whom Graf would later send to JG 52 , was one of the pilots at the time at Jagdgruppe Ost . Graf selected a Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 A @-@ 5 aircraft for his personal use .
On 11 March Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring was summoned to the Wolf 's Lair by Hitler . Following the Allied aerial bombings of Nuremberg and Paderborn , Hitler blamed Göring for the Luftwaffe 's inability to protect the German cities against the intensified Allied bomber offensive . In particular , German cities were vulnerable to the speedy , multi @-@ use de Havilland Mosquito fighter @-@ bombers , which had all returned home without having been intercepted by German defenses . Two days after the attack on Paderborn , Göring met with Germany 's leading aircraft manufacturers , Willy Messerschmitt , Ernst Heinkel and Claude Dornier on 18 March 1943 . Göring berated them for their inability to produce a German aircraft capable of competing with the Mosquito . He then withdrew to Berchtesgarden , where he came up with the idea to create a Mosquito @-@ intercept task force led by Graf and Herbert Ihlefeld . Graf was ordered to Berchtesgarden , where he received his instructions from Göring personally . In the project , Graf was directly subordinated to Göring and , when asked what he required , responded that he wanted to appoint his own team . Göring approved this request and subsequently Graf was able to call upon his old friends Grislawski , Süß and Füllgrabe , as well as a number of good football players , who had served as administrators , drivers and mechanics in southern France .
Following the meeting with Göring at Bertechsgaden , Graf traveled to Berlin to organize the necessary personnel authorizations at the Luftwaffenpersonalamt ( Luftwaffe personnel office ) . In Berlin , he took the opportunity to watch a football match at the Olympic Stadium . Here Graf was introduced to the young film actress Jola Jobst . Graf flew back to Toulouse from Berlin , where he learned that his Mosquito assignment had been delayed . Hitler , who had assisted Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War , made repeated efforts to convince Franco to join the war on Germany 's side . Since 1941 Spanish fighter squadrons had operated together with the Luftwaffe in the East and German propaganda had employed images of Graf interacting with the Spaniards . In this role , under Graf 's supervision , the 4ta Escudrilla Azul ( 4th Blue Squadron ) , one of five Spanish voluntary fighter squadrons , received three weeks of specialized fighter pilot training for the Eastern Front from 18 May to 6 June 1943 .
= = = Defense of the Reich = = =
On 11 June 1943 , Graf arrived at the Wiesbaden airfield , where he began the creation of the high @-@ altitude fighter unit . Organizationally , it was based on Jagdgruppe Süd . The unit was to be equipped with the Messerschmitt Bf 109 G @-@ 5 , a high @-@ altitude variant of the Bf 109 equipped with a pressurized cockpit , but arrival of the aircraft was delayed and , in the meantime , Graf 's focus was on football . He invited Sepp Herberger to Wiesbaden to train Graf 's team for one day . During this visit , Herberger encouraged Graf to use his influence to save Germany 's best football players from frontline duty . Subsequently , Graf brought to his unit players like Hermann Eppenhoff , Hermann Koch , Alfons Moog , Franz Hanreiter and Walter Bammes . Graf also requested Fritz Walter , who later captained the West German World Cup team of 1954 , to be transferred to his unit . Walter 's transfer was more difficult to achieve . Graf had to submit his request directly to Generaloberst ( Colonel General ) Friedrich Fromm , the commander of the Ersatzheer ( Reserve Army ) . Along with playing football , recruiting his pilots and staff , Graf again encountered the actress Jobst .
His unit received the first 12 Bf 109 G @-@ 5 in July 1943 . With one of these aircraft he managed to reach an altitude of 14 @,@ 300 meters ( 46 @,@ 900 feet ) . Military success came quickly when the unit achieved its first aerial victory over an intruding Mosquito . However , aircraft shortage still prevented him to declare full operational status . In parallel to these events the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) based in England escalated its daylight offensive over Europe . The heavy four @-@ engined Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress and Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator bombers they had first appeared over northern Germany on 27 January 1943 in daytime attacks against the port of Wilhelmshaven . The number of heavy bombers of the USAAF Eighth Air Force surpassed the 800 mark and tight flying combat box formations struck deeply into German airspace by July 1943 . Graf ordered all his available Bf 109s to intercept the American bombers targeted for Kassel on 28 and 30 July 1943 . He was credited with the destruction of his first B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress during one of these attacks .
The unit , consisting of 19 aircraft , was declared combat ready on 31 July 1943 . Graf 's football team , the Rote Jäger ( Red Hunters ) , was also ready and played its first game on 4 August 1943 , with Graf as goalkeeper . This football team followed Graf in his assignments for the remainder of the war . On 15 August 1943 Graf 's unit was renamed to Jagdgeschwader 50 ( JG 50 — 50th Fighter Wing ) . It was expected that JG 50 would be equipped with the Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket fighter . The Me 163 was being tested by Major Wolfgang Späte 's test unit Erprobungskommando 16 ( 16th Test Commando ) at Peenemünde and Rechlin in the summer of 1943 . Following a visit of this test unit , Graf also learned about the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter , and he returned to JG 50 full of optimism . During this assignment Graf shot down three enemy aircraft , including two B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bombers and a Mosquito in June 1943 .
= = = Wing commander of JG 1 and JG 11 = = =
Oberstleutnant ( Lieutenant Colonel ) Hans Philipp , Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) of Jagdgeschwader 1 ( JG 1 — 1st Fighter Wing ) , was killed in action on 8 October 1943 . The next day , Graf , officially remaining in command of JG 50 , was appointed acting Geschwaderkommodore of JG 1 and transferred to Jever . Graf subsequently appointed Grislawski as acting @-@ commander of JG 50 . The Eighth Air Force flew their Second Raid on Schweinfurt on 14 October 1943 . Although costly to the attackers — 77 heavy bombers were destroyed by either German fighters or by the anti @-@ aircraft fire at the price of 46 German fighters lost — Göring was not satisfied . On 23 October , Graf and Major Anton Mader , Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 11 ( JG 11 — 11th Fighter Wing ) were summoned to a meeting with Göring at Deelen Air Base near Arnhem . Graf , Mader and Unteroffizier Karl Blaha as a rear observer , made the journey from Jever in a Messerschmitt Bf 108 Taifun . During this flight they were nearly shot down by a flight of two Mosquitos over the North Sea Coast .
Despite their successes , after the October meeting , Göring disbanded the unit , and it was absorbed into I. / Jagdgeschwader 301 ; Graf was promoted to Oberst ( Colonel ) and appointed Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) of JG 11 on 11 November . JG 11 was tasked with Reichsverteidigung ( Defense of the Reich ) , and despite officially being banned from flying operational missions Graf managed to down six more aircraft over the next four months . On 29 March 1944 Graf shot down one P @-@ 51 Mustang and in the confusion of the dog fight collided with another . He managed to bail out , but was injured and had to spend some time in a hospital . While on convalescence leave Graf married the German actress Jobst on 24 June 1944 .
= = = Wing commander of JG 52 = = =
Following his convalescence , Graf was appointed Geschwaderkommodore of his old unit JG 52 by the General der Jagdflieger ( General of Fighters ) , Generalleutnant Adolf Galland . The Geschwaderstab and I. / JG 52 were based at Kraków in southern Poland at the time and the men of JG 52 gave Graf a welcome celebration on 20 September 1944 . With German forces in retreat by this time , Graf did not have any opportunity for further air combat . Graf disobeyed an order from General Hans Seidemann , who had ordered him and Erich Hartmann to fly to the British sector to avoid capture by the Russians when the rest of the wing surrendered to the Soviets . Together with his fellow pilots and ground personnel he marched through Bohemia toward Bavaria , where he surrendered his unit to the 90th US Infantry Division near Písek on 8 May 1945 and became a prisoner of war ( POW ) .
= = Prisoner of war = =
Along with most of the JG 52 personnel , Graf was handed over by the Americans to the Soviets shortly after his surrender on 15 May 1945 . Having become famous via the Nazi propaganda machine and as the Commander of JG 52 , Graf was singled out for attention by the Soviets . On 8 December 1945 he was moved from the prisoner of war camp Nr. 150 in Gryazovets to the prisoner of war camp Nr. 27 in Krasnogorsk . He was then moved to the war camp Nr. 69 ( Heimkehrerlager Gronenfelde ) near Frankfurt ( Oder ) in East Germany . There he was released from captivity on 25 December 1949 .
This relatively early release was perceived by many to be caused by co @-@ operation with his Soviet captors , something for which his fellow pilots criticized him , especially following a 1950s book by fellow fighter ace and Soviet POW Hans " Assi " Hahn entitled " I Speak the Truth " ( Ich spreche die Wahrheit ) . This led to Graf 's exclusion from post @-@ war Luftwaffe comrade associations .
= = Later life = =
Initially , Graf had a hard time obtaining work , but his relationships in the football community helped him . Sepp Herberger introduced Graf to Roland Endler , an electronics manufacturer ( " Elektro @-@ Schweiss @-@ Industrie GmbH " ) from Neuss , who also was president of the FC Bayern Munich football club between 1958 and 1962 . Endler employed Graf as a salesman in his company , and Graf eventually advanced to branch leader in Baden @-@ Württemberg and Chief of Sales .
Graf 's marriage with Jobst collapsed and they divorced . He remarried twice thereafter . His third marriage in May 1959 with Helga Schröck resulted in the birth of his son , Hermann @-@ Ulrich , in 1959 , and his daughter Birgit , in 1961 . In 1965 , Graf was diagnosed with Parkinson 's disease , a condition that affected many of the high @-@ altitude flyers , which had a slow deteriorating effect on his health . Graf died in his hometown Engen on 4 November 1988 .
= = Aerial victory credits = =
Graf was credited with 212 aerial victories , claimed in over 830 combat missions , 10 on the Western Front which included six four @-@ engined @-@ bombers and one Mosquito , and 212 on the Eastern Front .
This and the ♠ ( Ace of spades ) indicates those aerial victories which made Graf an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " , a term which designates a fighter pilot who has shot down five or more airplanes in a single day . This along with the * ( asterisk ) indicates an Herausschuss ( separation shot ) — a severely damaged heavy bomber forced to separate from his combat box which was counted as an aerial victory .
= = Awards = =
Wound Badge in Silver
Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ( 9 December 1941 )
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge in Gold with Diamonds
Romanian Pilots Badge
Crimea Shield
Romanian Knight of Order of the Crown ( 23 May 1941 )
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 9 August 1941 )
1st Class ( 31 August 1941 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Fighter Pilots in Gold
in Bronze ( 15 May 1941 )
in Silver ( 25 August 1941 )
in Gold ( 10 November 1941 )
German Cross in Gold in April 1942
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds
Knight 's Cross on 24 January 1942 as Leutnant of the Reserves and pilot in the 9 . / Jagdgeschwader 52
93rd Oak Leaves on 17 May 1942 as Leutnant of the Reserves and Staffelführer of the 9 . / Jagdgeschwader 52
11th Swords on 19 May 1942 as Leutnant of the Reserves and Staffelkapitän of the 9 . / Jagdgeschwader 52
5th Diamonds on 16 September 1942 as Oberleutnant of the Reserves and Staffelkapitän of the 9 . / Jagdgeschwader 52
Mentioned five times in the Wehrmachtbericht
= = = Dates of rank = = =
= = = Biography = = =
= Leonard 's Bakery =
Leonard 's Bakery is a Portuguese bakery in Honolulu , Hawaii , known for popularizing the malasada . The fried pastry , slightly crispier and chewier than a doughnut and with no hole , is known as a cuisine of Hawaii . Though Portuguese immigrants brought the malasada to Hawaii at the turn of the 20th century , Leonard 's opened in 1952 and brought it to a wider audience . They offer filled and sugar @-@ coated malasadas as well as coffee cakes , sweet bread , and pão doce meat wraps . Leonard 's is a household name in Hawaii and is well known in the continental United States and internationally . A franchise location opened in Japan in 2008 .
= = Background and history = =
Margaret and Frank Leonard Rego Sr. opened Leonard 's Bakery in 1952 . Rego 's mother had encouraged him to sell malasadas , a holeless Portuguese doughnut with a " crispier " outside and a " chewier " inside . Portuguese plantation workers brought the dessert to the Hawaiian islands when they immigrated at the turn of the 20th century , though Leonard 's is known for popularizing it . The plain malasadas are coated with white sugar , but the bakery sells variations garnished with cinnamon or filled with haupia , custard , or chocolate pudding . The bakery sells anthropomorphized malasada stuffed animals and other malasada @-@ related items . Leonard 's is otherwise an " old @-@ fashioned , plain @-@ Jane bakery " that sells coffee cakes , sweet bread , and pão doce meat wraps . As of 2011 , the bakery remains a family business owned by Leonard Rego Jr. whose own children participate in its operation just as he once did .
Andrew McCarthy of the National Geographic Traveler wrote that the bakery is an institution that " anchored " its neighborhood . In Hawaii , Leonard 's is a " household name " . Residents from the other Hawaiian islands often bring home Leonard 's malasadas as an omiyage ( souvenir gift ) . The fried doughnut @-@ like item may be unique to Hawaii , but are well known both in the continental United States and internationally . The Honolulu bakery is a point of interest on at least one island tour . In 2012 , the Honolulu Star @-@ Advertiser reported that the bakery sold over 15 @,@ 000 malasadas daily , or over 160 million since its opening .
Rego Jr. opened a franchise location in Japan 's Yokohama World Quarter Shopping Center in December 2008 . The location only sold cinnamon and sugar malasadas at first , but later added malasadas with fillings . Japanese investors Forest Inc. first asked Rego Jr. about licensing the brand in March 2008 , and Rego Jr. felt that the timing with the Great Recession " couldn 't have been more perfect " . The deal was completed three months prior to the opening , and the owner flew in to train the staff for a week and a half . Rego Jr. plans to open more franchised locations in Japan and on the other islands of Hawaii . In 2009 , the company employed 60 people between three stores ( two in Oahu and one in Yokohama ) and two Oahu food trucks .
= = Reception = =
The bakery 's malasadas were Foodspotting 's top " Hawaii food find " , and USA Today described the doughnuts as having become " a Hawaiian icon " . Sunset recognized Leonard 's for making the sweet a " Hawaiian classic " that is now served at Honolulu restaurants from drive @-@ ins to Chef Mavro , " the city 's classiest restaurant " . Vinnee Tong of The New York Sun wrote that Leonard 's was " a required stop for foodies and ... dessert addicts " .
Frommer 's calls it a " Honolulu landmark " , and The Huffington Post lists Leonard 's malasadas alongside poke , Spam musubi and shave ice as " must try " Hawaiian cuisine experiences . It is also profiled in Mimi Sheraton 's critical food book 1 @,@ 000 Foods to Eat Before You Die , and John T. Edge 's Donuts : An American Passion .
= Battle of Kupres ( 1994 ) =
The Battle of Kupres ( Bosnian , Croatian , Serbian : Bitka za Kupres ) was a battle of the Bosnian War , fought between the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) and the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) on one side and the Army of Republika Srpska ( VRS ) on the other from 20 October to 3 November 1994 . It marks the first tangible evidence of the Bosniak – Croat alliance set out in the Washington Agreement of March 1994 , brokered by the United States to end the Croat – Bosniak War fought between the ARBiH and the HVO in Bosnia and Herzegovina . The ARBiH and the HVO were not coordinated at first , rather they launched separate operations aimed at capture of Kupres .
The ARBiH offensive , codenamed Autumn @-@ 94 ( Jesen @-@ 94 ) , started on 20 October , with the primary aim of advancing from Bugojno towards VRS @-@ held Donji Vakuf , supported by a secondary attack towards Kupres aimed at disruption of the VRS defences and threatening a supply route to Donji Vakuf . The primary attacking force soon ground to a halt , shifting the focus of the operation to Kupres , where substantial reinforcements were deployed to ensure a gradual advance of the ARBiH . On 29 October , the HVO decided to attack , as it considered the ARBiH had directly threatened the strategic Kupres plateau . The HVO launched its offensive , codenamed Operation Cincar ( Operacija Cincar ) , on 1 November . Following a brief lull in the ARBiH advance , thought to be brought on by a variety of causes and a direct request by the President of Bosnia and Herzegovina Alija Izetbegović to the ARBiH to cooperate with the HVO , commanding officers of the two forces met to coordinate their operations for the first time since the Washington Agreement . Kupres itself was captured by the HVO on 3 November 1994 .
Besides the political significance of the battle for future developments of the war in Bosnia , the battle was militarily significant for planning and execution of Operation Winter ' 94 by the Croatian Army ( HV ) and the HVO aimed at relieving the siege of Bihać in late November and December 1994 . Territorial gains made by the HVO and the ARBiH in the Battle of Kupres safeguarded the right flank of Operation Winter ' 94 .
= = Background = =
The 1990 revolt of the Croatian Serbs was centered on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around the city of Knin , parts of Lika , Kordun , Banovina regions and in eastern Croatian settlements with significant Serb populations . These areas were subsequently named the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) . The RSK declared its intention of political integration with Serbia and was viewed by the Government of Croatia as a rebellion . By March 1991 , the conflict escalated to war — the Croatian War of Independence . In June 1991 , Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated , followed by a three @-@ month moratorium on the decision , thus the decision came into effect on 8 October . A campaign of ethnic cleansing was then initiated by the RSK against Croatian civilians and most non @-@ Serbs were expelled by early 1993 . By November 1993 , less than 400 and 1 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 000 ethnic Croats remained in UN protected areas Sector South and Sector North respectively .
As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) increasingly supported the RSK and the Croatian police was unable to cope with the situation , the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) was formed in May 1991 . The ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army ( HV ) in November . The establishment of the military of Croatia was hampered by a United Nations ( UN ) arms embargo introduced in September . The final months of 1991 saw the fiercest fighting of the war , culminating in the Battle of the barracks , the Siege of Dubrovnik , and the Battle of Vukovar .
In January 1992 , the Sarajevo Agreement was signed by representatives of Croatia , the JNA and the UN , and fighting between the two sides paused . Ending the series of unsuccessful ceasefires , United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) was deployed to Croatia to supervise and maintain the agreement . The conflict largely passed on to entrenched positions , and the JNA soon retreated from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina , where a new conflict was anticipated , but Serbia continued to support the RSK . HV advances restored small areas to Croatian control — as the siege of Dubrovnik was lifted , and in Operation Maslenica . Croatian towns and villages were intermittently attacked by artillery , or missiles .
As the JNA disengaged in Croatia , its personnel prepared to set up a new Bosnian Serb army , as Bosnian Serbs declared the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992 , ahead of the 29 February – 1 March 1992 referendum on independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina — which would later be cited as a pretext for the Bosnian War . Bosnian Serbs set up barricades in the capital , Sarajevo and elsewhere on 1 March , and the next day the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj . In the final days of March , the Bosnian Serb army started artillery attacks on Bosanski Brod , and the HV 108th Brigade crossed the border adjacent to the town in reply . On 4 April , Serb artillery began shelling Sarajevo . Even though the war originally pitted Bosnian Serbs against non @-@ Serbs in the country , it evolved into a three @-@ sided conflict by the end of the year , as the Croat – Bosniak War started . By that time , the Bosnian Serb army — renamed Army of Republika Srpska ( VRS ) after the Republika Srpska state proclaimed in the Bosnian Serb @-@ held territory — controlled about 70 % of Bosnia and Herzegovina . That proportion would not change significantly over the next two years . Republika Srpska was involved in the Croatian War of Independence in a limited capacity , through military and other aid to the RSK , occasional air raids launched from Banja Luka , and most significantly through artillery attacks against urban centres .
= = Prelude = =
Following a new military strategy of the United States endorsed by Bill Clinton since February 1993 , the Washington Agreement was signed by Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in March 1994 . The agreement ended the Croat – Bosniak War and established the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina . The political settlement allowed the ARBiH and the HVO to deploy additional troops against the VRS in a series of small @-@ scale attacks designed to wear down the Bosnian Serb military , but the attacks claimed no territorial gains before October . The ARBiH adopted an attrition warfare strategy relying on its numerical superiority compared to the VRS , which suffered from manpower shortages . This strategy aimed for limited advances , without support of heavy weapons and means of transport — unavailable to the ARBiH at the time .
In March – November 1994 , the ARBiH conducted a series of attacks with relatively limited objectives , attacking the VRS at the Vlašić Mountain , the Stolice Peak of the Majevica Mountain and Donji Vakuf , as well as in the area between Tešanj and Teslić , near Brčko , Kladanj , Sarajevo , on the Bjelašnica and the Treskavica Mountain , Gračanica , Vareš , Konjic and Doboj . Further efforts were made , together with the HVO , against the VRS near Nevesinje in September – November , but most of the offensives made little or no gains . At the same time , VRS attacks north of Sarajevo were successfully repulsed . It was hoped by the ARBiH General Staff that the VRS could not muster sufficient reserves to hold off the simultaneous , relatively limited attacks . Little territory changed hands as a result of the ARBiH offensive by the end of October , but the VRS shortage of troops worsened .
Kupres was of interest to the ARBiH and the HVO , albeit for different reasons . The HVO wanted to reverse April 1992 loss of the town , home to a significant Croat community before the war , and to control the Tomislavgrad – Bugojno – Šipovo road . The ARBiH advance towards Kupres was planned as a secondary axis of its offensive towards Donji Vakuf , 20 kilometres ( 12 miles ) to the northwest , codenamed Autumn @-@ 94 . The ARBiH wanted to deny the VRS a supply route passing through Kupres in order to weaken VRS defence around Donji Vakuf .
It is not clear how the ARBiH and the HVO coordinated before their advance to Kupres . Most probably , the two forces ' commands agreed on a simultaneous offensive against Kupres , without revealing actual battle plans to their counterparts . The HVO 's contribution in the offensive , codenamed Operation Cincar , was planned jointly by the HVO and the HV .
= = Order of battle = =
Initially , the ARBiH committed 3 @,@ 130 troops to its secondary axis — the thrust towards Kupres . They were organized with the 370th Mountain Infantry Brigade on the right flank of the 14 @-@ kilometre ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) front manned by the ARBiH 7th Corps southwest of Bugojno , and the 307th Mountain Infantry Brigade on the left flank of the ARBiH effort . In the primary attack axis zone , the ARBiH grouped about 5 @,@ 600 additional troops , facing an estimated 4 @,@ 800 VRS soldiers around Donji Vakuf . Kupres itself and the surrounding plateau were defended by approximately 2 @,@ 700 VRS troops , assigned to the 7th Motorized Infantry Brigade of the 2nd Krajina Corps , supported by corps @-@ level artillery and armour . The bulk of the HVO force consisted of troops contributed by the 1st , the 2nd and the 3rd Guards Brigades , supported by the Bosnian Croat special police and the 60th Guards Airborne Battalion " Ludvig Pavlović " . Although participation of the HV in the battle was denied by Croatia , it is thought to have likely occurred . Specifically , the 1st Croatian Guards Brigade is thought to have taken part in the battle , and Bosnian Croat reports pertaining to the battle specify the Zrinski Battalion of the brigade as taking part in the operation . The ARBiH 7th Corps was commanded by Brigadier General Mehmed Alagić , while the HVO Tomislavgrad Corps , formally in control of Operation Cincar , was commanded by Colonel Josip Černi . The VRS 2nd Krajina Corps was under command of Colonel Radivoje Tomanić .
= = Timeline = =
= = = October = = =
The ARBiH launched the secondary axis of Operation Autumn @-@ 94 — drive towards Kupres — at 2 am on 20 October , hours after the primary attacking force started moving against Donji Vakuf . As the primary effort of the ARBiH offensive bogged down the same day , Kupres became the main objective . The 317th Mountain Infantry Brigade was added to augment the ARBiH force that made initial advances towards Kupres . The next day , as the ARBiH gradually advanced , elements of the 305th Mountain Brigade were also sent as reinforcements to the attacking force . By 23 October , the ARBiH moved close enough to Kupres to direct heavy mortar fire against the town . On 25 October , the ARBiH 7th Corps requested a meeting with the HVO Tomislavgrad Corps representatives to coordinate further advances in the area , however the HVO postponed the meeting until after 28 October due to replacement of the Tomislavgrad Corps commanding officer . On 27 October , the ARBiH 37th Light Infantry Brigade was added to the attack , slowly progressing from one mountain ridge to the next . In addition , elements of the 27th Mountain Infantry Brigade and a battalion of the 7th Conscripted Mountain Infantry Brigade joined the ARBiH push . On 28 November , the ARBiH General Staff committed a guards brigade attached to the General Staff to the battle .
Since the beginning of the ARBiH offensive , the HVO had been assembling three of its four guards brigades under command of General Ante Roso , as well as other supporting units , including the 60th Guards Airborne Battalion . On 29 October , the Ministry of Defence of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg @-@ Bosnia and the HVO General Staff met and decided to launch Operation Cincar to capture the town of Kupres . The decision was reportedly motivated by a desire to consolidate territory controlled by the HVO around Kupres and by the strategic importance of the Kupres plateau , which commanded the northern approaches to the HVO @-@ held Livanjsko field . The operation was originally scheduled for 31 October at 4 : 30 am , only to be postponed by 24 hours , as the HVO needed more time to prepare . Delayed arrival of reconnaissance teams further postponed the HVO offensive until 8 am on 1 November 1994 .
= = = November = = =
The HVO advanced north along two main axes of attack . The western axis advanced from Šuica along the main road towards Kupres , capturing the village of Donji Malovan on 1 November . The eastern axis of the HVO offensive moved from Ravno towards Rilić . Just as the HVO began to move north , the ARBiH suspended its westward advance . Various explanations for the pause were put forward , including fog , rain , need to secure territorial gains , wear of equipment and fatigue of personnel . Regardless , that day the President of Bosnia and Herzegovina Alija Izetbegović telephoned Alagić requesting an adequate level of cooperation and avoidance of any conflicts with the HVO . Finally , Alagić made a public call to the HVO to participate in the offensive against the VRS in Kupres . The same day , the VRS targeted Bugojno using two 9K52 Luna @-@ M missiles .
On 2 November , the HVO captured Gornji Malovan and Rilić , while the Serb civilian population started to evacuate from Kupres . Alagić visited the HVO Tomislavgrad Corps headquarters to discuss cooperation , but refused to discuss the matter , citing inadequate officers present there , and proposed a new meeting at 11 pm that day at the ARBiH 317th Brigade headquarters in Gornji Vakuf . The Chief of the HVO General Staff , Major General Tihomir Blaškić made a written apology on behalf of the HVO claiming the HVO officers had to be elsewhere at the time . A new meeting took place as proposed by Alagić . The meeting concluded at 3 am , with an agreement between Alagić and Černi to withdraw some of the ARBiH troops on the right flank of the HVO thrust to allow the HVO to strike Kupres from that direction , and coordinate their further advances beyond Kupres . Although cooperation was established , there was no joint command of the ARBiH and the HVO .
The ARBiH pullback was completed by 11 am on 3 November , while the right flank of the ARBiH force pressed forward to capture the Kupreška Vrata Pass , 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 miles ) away from Kupres . The Bosnian Croat special police and the 60th Guards Airborne Battalion entered Kupres shortly after noon , and the HVO completed capture of the town by 1 : 30 pm . The HVO proceeded to capture nearly the entire Kupres plateau , bringing the 1st , the 79th and the 80th Home Guards Regiments of the HVO to hold defensive positions on the plateau . The VRS was unable to counter @-@ attack in a timely manner , because it had no reserves in place for the task .
= = Aftermath = =
The ARBiH significantly shortened its positions held opposite the VRS and captured 130 square kilometres ( 50 square miles ) of territory , while the HVO captured nearly 400 square kilometres ( 150 square miles ) of the area around Kupres . Battle losses of the ARBiH amounted to 41 killed in action and 162 wounded troops . By 3 November , 4 HVO troops were killed and 15 wounded , and further 3 soldiers died and 5 were wounded in a VRS counter @-@ attack near Zlosela at 11 am on 4 November .
The Battle of Kupres was the first concrete result of the renewed Bosniak – Croat alliance in the Bosnian War , and the advance to Kupres was the first military effort coordinated between the ARBiH and the HVO since the Washington Agreement . Following the victory , morale of the ARBiH and the HVO soared . Further advantages for them were the recapture of initiative from the VRS and full control of the Split – Livno – Kupres – Bugojno road , allowing improved logistics of the ARBiH and the HVO in the area , as well as greater volume of transport of arms and ammunition , especially after the United States unilaterally ended the arms embargo against Bosnia and Herzegovina in November 1994 . The move in effect allowed the HV to supply itself as the arms shipments flowed through Croatia . Finally , the outcome of the Battle of Kupres secured the right flank of the Livanjsko field , which became especially significant later that month when Operation Winter ' 94 was launched by the HV and the HVO northwest of Livno in order to draw off a part of the force besieging Bihać and prevent capture of Bihać by the VRS . The battle is considered to be a significant contribution to subsequent success of the HV in the Croatian War of Independence and the Bosnian War .
= Kepler @-@ 4 =
Kepler @-@ 4 is a sunlike star located about 1631 light @-@ years away in the constellation Draco . It is in the field of view of the Kepler Mission , a NASA operation purposed with finding Earth @-@ like planets . Kepler @-@ 4b , a Neptune @-@ sized planet that orbits extremely close to its star , was discovered in its orbit and made public by the Kepler team on January 4 , 2010 . Kepler @-@ 4b was the first discovery by the Kepler satellite , and its confirmation helped to demonstrate the spacecraft 's effectiveness .
= = Nomenclature and history = =
Kepler @-@ 4 is named for the Kepler spacecraft , a NASA telescope tasked with finding Earth @-@ like planets that transit their stars as seen from Earth . As the previous three planets that Kepler confirmed had already been confirmed by other finds , Kepler @-@ 4 and its planet were the first to be discovered by the Kepler team . The star and its system were announced in Washington , D.C. at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society on January 4 , 2010 , along with Kepler @-@ 5 , Kepler @-@ 6 , Kepler @-@ 7 , and Kepler @-@ 8 . Of the presented planets , Kepler @-@ 4b was the smallest , around the size of planet Neptune . The discovery of Kepler @-@ 4b and the other planets presented at the AAS meeting helped to confirm that the Kepler spacecraft was indeed functional .
The Harlan J. Smith Telescope at McDonald Observatory in Fort Davis , Texas was used by astronomers from the University of Texas at Austin to follow up on Kepler 's discoveries and confirm them . Telescopes in Hawaii , California , Arizona , and the Canary Islands were also used to confirm the findings .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 4 is a G0 @-@ type star , which is similar to the Sun , except slightly brighter . The star is 1 @.@ 092 Msun and 1 @.@ 533 Rsun , or 109 % the mass of and 153 % the radius of the Sun . With a metallicity of .17 ( ± 0 @.@ 06 ) [ Fe / H ] , Kepler @-@ 4 is more metal @-@ rich than the Sun by 48 % , a figure that is important in that metal @-@ rich stars tend to have orbiting planets more often than metal @-@ poor stars . Kepler @-@ 4 is also 4 @.@ 5 ( ± 1 @.@ 5 ) billion years old . In comparison , the Sun is 4 @.@ 6 billion years old . In addition , Kepler @-@ 4 has an effective temperature of 5781 ( ± 76 ) K , which is almost identical , within the errors , to that of the Sun , which is 5778 K.
As seen from Earth , Kepler @-@ 4 has an apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 7 . It is , as a result , not visible with the naked eye .
= = Planetary system = =
Kepler @-@ 4b 's discovery was announced on January 4 , 2010 . It is the size of planet Neptune , at 0 @.@ 077 MJ ( 7 % the mass of Jupiter ) and 0 @.@ 357 RJ ( 36 % the radius of Jupiter ) . The planet orbits its star every 3 @.@ 214 days at 0 @.@ 045 AU from the star . This distance compares to planet Mercury , which is 0 @.@ 39 AU from the Sun . Kepler @-@ 4 's eccentricity was assumed to be 0 , however a subsequent independent reanalysis of the discovery data found a value of 0 @.@ 25 ± 0 @.@ 12 . Likewise , the temperature of the planet is assumed to be 1650 K , far hotter than Jupiter 's , which is assumed to be 124 K ( not considering its internal heat and atmosphere ) .
= Gary Suter =
Gary Lee Suter ( born June 24 , 1964 ) is an American former professional ice hockey defenseman who played over 1 @,@ 000 games in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) between 1985 and 2002 . He was a ninth round selection of the Calgary Flames , 180th overall , at the 1984 NHL Entry Draft and played with Calgary for nine years . He won the Calder Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's top rookie in 1986 , played in four All @-@ Star Games and was a member of Calgary 's Stanley Cup championship team in 1989 . He was traded to the Chicago Blackhawks in 1994 , then to the San Jose Sharks in 1998 , with whom he finished his career .
Suter played with the United States National Team on numerous occasions . He appeared in two World Championships and two Canada Cup tournaments . He was a member of the American team that won the inaugural World Cup of Hockey in 1996 and was a two @-@ time Olympian , winning a silver medal in 2002 . Suter is an honored member of the United States Hockey Hall of Fame , inducted in 2011 .
= = Early life = =
Suter was born on June 24 , 1964 , in Madison , Wisconsin . He is the youngest of five children , all of whom were heavily involved in sports . Gary followed his three elder brothers , John , Bob and Steve into hockey , while his sister was a figure skater . Their father Marlow was a senior player in the 1950s , and helped found and coach the Madison Capitols minor hockey system that all four boys played with in their youth . Gary idolized his brother Bob , who was a member of the American " Miracle on Ice " team that won the gold medal at the 1980 Winter Olympics .
After playing his junior and senior seasons of high school hockey with the Culver Military Academy , Suter joined the Dubuque Fighting Saints program in the United States Hockey League ( USHL ) . He appeared in 18 games with the Fighting Saints in the 1981 – 82 season , recording 3 goals and 7 points . He was eligible for the 1982 NHL Entry Draft , but listed at five feet , nine inches tall by the Central Scouting Bureau , was considered too small for the NHL and went undrafted . Suter established himself as one of the first star players in the USHL 's junior era , improving to 39 points in 41 games in 1982 – 83 and leading Dubuque to the Clark Cup championship . The team 's captain , he also led Dubuque to a national junior championship . He was again passed over by the NHL in the 1983 Draft , but accepted a full scholarship to play at the University of Wisconsin – Madison .
Suter was the third member of his family to play defence for the Wisconsin Badgers , following brothers John and Bob . He appeared in 34 games in 1983 – 84 , scoring 22 points . Ian McKenzie , coordinator of scouting for the Calgary Flames , noticed Suter 's play at Wisconsin and that he had added over two inches of height , which Central Scouting had failed to update in its record on him . The Flames picked Suter with their ninth round selection , 180th overall , in the 1984 Draft . Suter , who had been working in a beer factory , was initially disappointed at his selection . He was in his last year of draft eligibility and was hoping to follow other college players who signed lucrative contracts as free agents after going unselected . Following his sophomore season of 1984 – 85 , in which he recorded 51 points in 39 games for Wisconsin , Suter left Wisconsin to turn professional .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
The departure of Kari Eloranta prior to the 1985 – 86 NHL season created an opening on the Flames ' defense . Suter excelled in training camp and not only earned a spot on the team , he was quickly recognized by head coach Bob Johnson as the team 's best overall defenseman . He scored his first two goals in his second NHL game , a 9 – 2 victory over the Los Angeles Kings , and by mid @-@ season was among the league 's rookie scoring leaders . He was one of two first @-@ year players ( along with Wendel Clark ) to play in the 1986 All @-@ Star Game , while his offensive production and ability to play in all situations made him a top contender for the Calder Memorial Trophy . Suter finished the season with 18 goals , and his 68 points tied Al MacInnis for the team lead for scoring among defensemen . He added ten points in ten playoff games , but was knocked out of the postseason in the Smythe Division Final against the Edmonton Oilers after suffering stretched knee ligaments following a hit by Mark Messier . Suter watched as the Flames reached , and ultimately lost , the 1986 Stanley Cup Final to the Montreal Canadiens . Following the season , he was named to the All @-@ Rookie Team on defense and was voted the winner of the Calder Trophy . Suter was the third American @-@ born player to win the award , given to the NHL 's top rookie .
The knee injury hampered Suter throughout much of the 1986 – 87 season ; he attempted to play through it , but ultimately missed 12 games . Nonetheless , he still scored 49 points in 68 games played . Healthy for 1987 – 88 , Suter had the finest season of his career . His 70 assists and 91 points were the highest single season totals he would record in his career . He played in his second All @-@ Star Game , was named a Second Team All @-@ Star and was a finalist for the James Norris Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's top defenseman . Suter appeared in his third All @-@ Star Game in 1988 – 89 , but missed 16 games after undergoing an emergency appendectomy . He had 62 points in 63 games . As had happened in 1986 , Suter was injured in the early stages of a deep post @-@ season run by the Flames . He missed most of the 1989 Stanley Cup Playoffs after suffering a broken jaw in Calgary 's opening round series against the Vancouver Canucks . He watched as the team won the Stanley Cup in six games over Montreal .
Suter reached the 70 point mark in the next two seasons , finishing with 76 in 1989 – 90 and 70 in 1990 – 91 . His latter campaign earned him his fourth All @-@ Star Game appearance . Suter also played much of the season while awaiting trial after he was arrested following a June 1990 scuffle with police as they tried to arrest fellow NHL player Chris Chelios . The issue was resolved in February 1991 when he agreed to a plea bargain on reduced charges and paid an $ 8 @,@ 250 fine . A knee injury caused Suter to miss ten games in 1991 – 92 , but he reached two milestones during the season . He scored his 100th career goal on February 25 , 1992 , against the Buffalo Sabres , and played in his 500th game on March 12 against the Philadelphia Flyers .
A career @-@ high 23 goals led Suter 's 81 @-@ point campaign in 1992 – 93 , but he again struggled with a pair of knee injuries that caused him to miss three months of the 1993 – 94 season and limited him to 25 games for the Flames . His tenure with Calgary ended on March 10 , 1994 , when the team included him in a six @-@ player trade . The Flames sent Suter , along with Paul Ranheim and Ted Drury , to the Hartford Whalers in exchange for James Patrick , Zarley Zalapski and Michael Nylander . The move surprised Suter : " Calgary 's meant a great deal to me . You always hear how trades are part of the game and that you don 't have any control over them . When it happens , it 's a shock . It just blows me away
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= = = Chicago Blackhawks = = =
Suter 's tenure with the Whalers lasted only one day , as Hartford immediately dealt him to the Chicago Blackhawks along with Randy Cunneyworth and a draft pick for Frantisek Kucera and Jocelyn Lemieux . Suter appeared in 16 regular season games with the Blackhawks , finishing the season with 41 games played and 18 points combined between Calgary and Chicago . He quickly established a place alongside Chris Chelios as the team 's top defensive pair . In his first full season in Chicago , Suter was looked upon to serve as a team leader and played a key role with the team 's power play . He appeared in all 48 games of the lockout @-@ shortened 1994 – 95 season , scoring 37 points , but missed several playoff games after suffering a broken hand against the Vancouver Canucks .
With 67 points in 1995 – 96 , Suter was named to an All @-@ Star Team for the fifth time , but a knee injury prevented him from participating in the contest . The 1996 – 97 season was one of frustration for Suter , as he battled a season @-@ long slump that saw him go 26 games without scoring goal at one point early in the season , then 21 games without a point late . He finished with 28 points , compared to an average of 69 in his previous nine campaigns .
In the final year of his contract with Chicago , Suter improved to 42 points in 1997 – 98 . When attempts to negotiate a new deal during the season failed , the team publicly shopped his playing rights around the league late in the season but failed to complete a trade . Chicago 's best contract offer was a two @-@ year proposal that would have paid Suter $ 1 @.@ 85 million per season . Unable to reach terms following the season , the Blackhawks quietly traded his negotiating rights to the San Jose Sharks for a ninth round pick a few days before he would have become an unrestricted free agent . He signed a three @-@ year contract worth $ 10 million with San Jose .
= = = San Jose Sharks = = =
Suter played only one game for the Sharks in the 1998 – 99 season , missing virtually the entire campaign after a microbe in his triceps caused an infection that required three surgeries to alleviate . During treatment , doctors also discovered a hole in his heart that required another surgery to correct . At 35 years old , Suter said he never contemplated retirement due to the ailments as he wanted to repay the Sharks for their support of him . He agreed to defer a portion of his salary that year to allow San Jose to sign a replacement player . Suter returned for the 1999 – 2000 season healthy and played over 20 minutes per game as San Jose 's most experienced defenseman .
Reaching a career milestone , Suter played in his 1,000th NHL game on October 25 , 2000 , scoring a goal in a 3 – 1 victory over the Columbus Blue Jackets . He said the achievement meant a lot to him given both the ailments he overcame and that he was dismissed by critics as unlikely to play in the NHL when he was drafted in 1984 . Suter finished the regular season with 34 points , but missed nearly the entire playoffs after suffering a concussion in the Sharks ' first post @-@ season game .
Signing a new one @-@ year contract , Suter returned to San Jose for a final season in 2001 – 02 in which he scored 33 points , including his 200th career goal , against the Philadelphia Flyers on January 2 , 2002 . He announced his retirement as a player following the season .
= = = International = = =
Suter made his international debut with the American national junior team at the 1984 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships where he recorded a goal and an assist in seven games . He was playing college hockey with Wisconsin when he made his debut with the senior team at the 1985 World Championship . One of his team 's top players in the tournament , he was named co @-@ MVP of Team USA . Suter played in a second World Championship in 1992 .
His international career was marred by three controversial incidents . Suter was the target of international criticism following a vicious incident during the 1987 Canada Cup in a game against the Soviet Union . Following a physical battle with Andrei Lomakin , Suter was speared in the neck by the Soviet player . He retaliated with a " baseball swing " that broke his stick across Lomakin 's face , causing a gash that required 20 stitches to close . Suter was given a six @-@ game suspension from international competition by the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) , while the NHL assessed a four @-@ game ban of its own . Suter was again vilified in the 1991 Canada Cup tournament after he knocked Canada 's Wayne Gretzky out of the tournament with a check @-@ from @-@ behind in the first game of the best @-@ of @-@ three final . Gretzky forgave Suter for the hit , noting that he was usually a clean player . In the second game , he was responsible for two turnovers that led to goals , including what proved to be the championship @-@ winning marker in a 4 – 2 victory for Canada . Suter was a member of the American team that won the inaugural World Cup of Hockey in 1996 .
The third incident occurred during an NHL game shortly before the 1998 Winter Olympic tournament while Suter was a member of the Chicago Blackhawks . In a game against the Anaheim Ducks , he cross @-@ checked Paul Kariya in the head as the latter player celebrated a goal . The hit knocked Kariya , who was expected to represent Canada , out of the Olympic tournament . Suter was given a four @-@ game suspension by the NHL that carried through the Olympic tournament . However , the IIHF allowed him to play in a decision that incensed Canadian officials and resulted in Suter receiving a death threat from an angry Canadian fan .
At the age of 38 and in the final season of his playing career , Suter appeared in his second Olympics , playing in the 2002 tournament at Salt Lake City . He recorded one assist in six games for the silver @-@ medal @-@ winning American team . The medal came 22 years after his brother Bob 's gold in 1980 . In recognition of his career and achievements , Suter was inducted into the United States Hockey Hall of Fame in 2011 .
= = Off the ice = =
Suter returned to Wisconsin following his playing career , settling in the rural community of Minocqua where he and his wife Cathy raised their family . They have two sons , Jake and Jared , both of whom also play hockey . Jake is currently a defenseman for the UMass Lowell River Hawks . In addition to his sons , several of Suter 's nephews are also defensemen . Among them is Bob 's son Ryan , who also plays in the NHL and is an Olympian , and whom Gary considered unretiring to play with when the younger Suter was drafted by the Nashville Predators in 2003 . Instead , he turned to coaching , working with the Madison Capitols program , as well as assisting with the Lakeland Union High School T @-@ Birds in Minocqua . Gary is one of several members of the Suter family who operate a youth hockey camp in Madison that was held for the 17th year in 2012 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honors = =
= Un @-@ Break My Heart =
" Un @-@ Break My Heart " is the second single performed by American recording artist Toni Braxton , from her second studio album , Secrets ( 1996 ) . The ballad was written by Diane Warren . Braxton expressed a dislike for the song ; however , L.A. Reid was able to convince the singer to record it and include on her album . It was released as the second single from the album in October 1996 , through LaFace Records . Lyrically , the song alludes to a " blistering heartbreak " in which Braxton begs a former lover to return and undo the pain he has caused . It won a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance in 1997 .
" Un @-@ Break My Heart " attained commercial success worldwide . In the United States , the song reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , where it stayed a total of eleven weeks , while reaching the same position on the Hot Dance Club Songs and Adult Contemporary component charts . When Billboard celebrated their 40 years charting from 1958 to 1998 , the song was declared as the most successful song by a solo artist in the Billboard Hot 100 history . In Europe , the song reached the top five in more than ten countries while peaking at number one in Austria , Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Sweden , and Switzerland .
Bille Woodruff directed the accompanying video for the single . It portrays Braxton mourning the death of her lover , while remembering the good times they had together . Braxton performed the song on the opening ceremony of the 1996 Billboard Music Awards . " Un @-@ Break My Heart " has been covered by several artists , including American alternative rock band Weezer on the album Death to False Metal .
= = Background = =
Diane Warren wrote " Un @-@ Break My Heart " in 1995 . When asked about her songwriting process , she said that songs usually come to her from a title , a chorus , or a drum beat . " Un @-@ Break My Heart " was conceived from its title , and , according to Warren , " it popped into my head , and I thought , ' I don 't think I 've heard that before , that 's kind of interesting . ' I started playing around on the piano with these chords and did a key change , and then I knew , ' OK , this is magic . ' " Warren further explained that she wrote " Un @-@ Break My Heart " as a ballad and dance song , because that was the way she heard it . She said : " some people only know it as a – gay – dance song ! "
When Warren played the finished song to Arista Records ' president L.A. Reid , he thought it would fit Braxton 's then upcoming album . When " Un @-@ Break My Heart " was sent to Braxton , she expressed dislike for the song . According to Warren , " Toni hated the song . She didn 't want to do it . " Reid was able to convince Braxton to record it , and later it became her signature song . Following the recording sessions of the song , Braxton approached Warren and explained why she was skeptical about recording it , further explaining that she didn 't want another " heartbreak track " .
Recording sessions occurred at The Record Plant and Chartmarker Studios in Los Angeles , California in the same year . " Un @-@ Break My Heart " was released as the second single from Secrets on November 11 , 1996 .
= = Composition = =
Produced by David Foster , " Un @-@ Break My Heart " is a four minute @-@ 25 second pop and R & B power ballad . The song 's theme alludes to a " blistering heartbreak " in which Braxton begs a former lover to return and undo the pain he has caused . According to sheet music published by Realsongs at Musicnotes.com , the verses of " Un @-@ Break My Heart " are composed in the key of B minor , and the piece modulates to D minor for the chorus and G @-@ sharp minor for the bridge ; the song is set in a time signature of common time with a moderately slow tempo of 55 beats per minute . Braxton 's vocal range spans from the low @-@ key of B2 to the high @-@ note of E ♭ 5 . David Willoughby , author of The World of Music ( 2009 ) , said a few phrases such as " Don 't leave me in all this pain " are sufficient to reveal the " sadness and the longing " in the song .
The song was remixed by several DJs such as Hex Hector and Soul Solution . As noted by Jose F. Promis of Allmusic , the song " in its original form , was a massive adult contemporary and pop hit , and , with its larger @-@ than @-@ life chorus , worked equally well as an unstoppable dance number , even if the vocals were never re @-@ recorded . " The " Soul @-@ Hex Vocal Anthem " remix , with a length over nine minutes , was influenced by tribal house music ; while the " Classic Radio Mix " is a piano @-@ driven house music edit . A Spanish version of " Un @-@ Break My Heart " , titled " Regresa a Mi " , was included as a bonus track on Secrets . MusicOMH contributor Uma Uthayashanker considered it " an easy listen " version " that encapsulates the passion and meaning of the original but opens it up to a wider audience . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Spin journalist Charles Aaron positively reviewed the song and joked : " this exquisitely crafted , heart @-@ pumping l @-@ u @-@ v song has been droning in the produce department of my grocery store for about a year now , but I 'd just like to go on record as saying that if it ever stops , I 'll really be heartbroken . " Bob McCann , author of Encyclopedia of African American actresses in film and television ( 2010 ) , considered it " simply one of the most haunting R & B records ever made " , while Robert Christgau named it " miraculous " and explained " the miracle being that it 's by Diane Warren and you want to hear it again . " About.com reviewer Mark Edward Nero named it one of the best R & B break @-@ up songs and considered it Braxton 's " finest moment " . He further commented , " damn , this song is so sad it can make people cry for hours at a time . " In 1997 , " Un @-@ Break My Heart " won a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance .
While reviewing the album , Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said the songs produced by David Foster are too predictable due to their " slick commercial appeal " . However , Erlewine noted that Braxton " manages to infuse the songs with life and passion that elevates them beyond their generic confines " due to her vocal ability . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly considered the track " a tearjerker so grandiose and yet so intrinsically , assuredly hit @-@ bound , it 's the kind of mass @-@ appeal grabber that 's probably already sent a jealous Diana Ross diving for a comfort gallon of Häagen @-@ Dazs . " Tucker also named it the worst track on Secrets , and further stated : " Un @-@ Break My Heart " is " one of those the @-@ verses @-@ exist @-@ only @-@ for @-@ the @-@ swelling @-@ chorus showstoppers that allude to emotions without ever actually embodying them . Braxton does her darnedest to plug some life into the song , to no avail " . J.D. Considine of The Baltimore Sun described " Un @-@ Break My Heart " as " overblown " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United States , " Un @-@ Break My Heart " managed to peak at number one on Billboard Hot 100 for eleven weeks , from the week of December 7 , 1996 to the week of February 15 @,@ 1997 , and stayed in the same position on the Adult Contemporary chart for fourteen weeks . It sold 2 @.@ 4 million copies domestically and was certified platinum by the RIAA . " Un @-@ Break My Heart " also achieved commercial success worldwide , reaching number one in Austria , Belgium ( Wallonia ) , the European Hot 100 Singles , Sweden , and Switzerland , while reaching the top five in several European countries .
In the week of November 4 , 1996 , the song debuted at number four in the UK Singles Chart , reaching a peak at number two after seven weeks on the chart . According to the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , it has shipped over 600 @,@ 000 copies there , being certified Platinum . In Australia , the song peaked at number six , and was later certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipments of more than 70 @,@ 000 units of the single .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
LaFace Records commissioned a music video to be directed by Bille Woodruff . The concept evolves around the ending of Braxton 's relationship with her lover , played by model Tyson Beckford . As the video begins , Beckford is seen leaving their home , with Braxton giving him a goodbye kiss , then going to check the mailbox . After he leaves the garage , a fast car suddenly appears and causes an accident , leaving him lying on the street while Braxton cries over his body . She then walks around the house , remembering the good moments she had with him , such as swimming in the pool and playing Twister . During the bridge and final chorus , Braxton is seen singing the song during a live concert , an allusion to the film " A Star is Born " . As applause rises , the video fades to black . The music video premiered on September 10 , 1996 on MTV .
= = = Live performances and covers = = =
" Un @-@ Break My Heart " was performed during the opening of the 1996 Billboard Music Awards . During the up @-@ tempo rendition of the track , Braxton sported an outfit similar to the ones of theatrical productions Ziegfeld Follies . She also performed it as the closing number of the Libra Tour ( 2006 ) .
Saxophonist Marion Meadows covered the song for his album Pleasure in 1997 , while Filipino singer Nina recorded her own version of it for her 2008 album Nina Sings the Hits of Diane Warren . Italian group Il Divo cover of the Spanish version of the track received positive appreciation from critics , who said the cover " has the potential to be a hit and to open doors for many of opera 's most acclaimed stars . " American alternative rock band Weezer also covered " Un @-@ Break My Heart " in 2005 . Their version was released on the album Death to False Metal in 2010 . Lead vocalist Rivers Cuomo explained why the band covered the track :
" I loved that song . It was actually Rick Rubin 's suggestion . We both loved that song and we both thought it would be great for Weezer , and for my voice , and it ’ d be great to do like a rock version of it with more of an alternative aesthetic . And you know , just the way I would sing it versus in the way Toni Braxton would sing it . And I love the way it came out , and I think probably the rest of the band really does not like it , and that ’ s probably why it didn ’ t make our fifth record , in 2005 when we were recording it . "
= = Track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= One by One ( Foo Fighters album ) =
One by One is the fourth studio album by alternative rock band Foo Fighters , released on October 22 , 2002 by RCA . The album is the first to feature guitarist Chris Shiflett . Production on the album was troubled , with initial recording sessions considered unsatisfying and raising tensions between the band members . They eventually decided to redo the album from scratch during a two @-@ week period at frontman Dave Grohl 's home studio in Alexandria , Virginia . The songs on the album , which include the successful singles " All My Life " and " Times Like These " , have been noted for their introspective lyrics and a heavier and more aggressive sound compared to the band 's earlier work , which Grohl said was intended to translate the energy of the Foo Fighters ' live performances into a recording .
The album was a commercial success , topping the charts in Australia , Ireland and the United Kingdom and sold over one million copies in the United States . One by One was positively received by critics , winning a Grammy Award for Best Rock Album in 2004 — the second Grammy Award for Best Rock Album won by the band — and praised for its sound and production . However , some considered the work inferior to the band 's previous albums , and the musicians themselves eventually grew distasteful of the record as a whole .
= = Production = =
Following the extended tour promoting There Is Nothing Left to Lose , which kept the Foo Fighters mostly on the road between 1999 and 2001 , the band started to compose songs for their next album in early 2001 . After demo work in drummer Taylor Hawkins ' home studio in Topanga , the band used the second quarter of 2001 to perform in European festivals . In August , after performing in Chelmsford 's V Festival , Hawkins suffered a heroin overdose that left him in a coma for two days . After taking time off to recover , during which frontman Dave Grohl accepted an offer to play drums for the Queens of the Stone Age on their album Songs for the Deaf , the band got together in October 2001 to continue composition . During November and December , they had been recording at Grohl 's Studio 606 in Alexandria , Virginia , working with both the producer for their previous album , Adam Kasper , and recording engineer Nick Raskulinecz , whom they met after he had engineered " A320 " for Godzilla : The Album . Raskulinecz had just left his job at Sound City Studios , and speculated that Grohl , having found difficulty in ' finding a guy who would commit to sitting in his basement for four months ' , picked him for his energetic and enthusiastic nature .
The progress of the Virginia sessions started to become stale , so with six tracks finished , in January 2002 the band moved to Los Angeles ' Conway Studios for a " change of scenery " . 29 songs were recorded , including " The One " — featured in the film Orange County and released as a standalone single — and ten finished tracks that were considered for the upcoming album . The sessions took four months and were at the cost of over US $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . It was the first Foo Fighters album to use Pro @-@ Tools and have each instrument recorded separately .
The recording sessions were considered unsatisfying ; Hawkins said that " nobody had their studio chops together " , and Grohl considered that the band was lacking enthusiasm and were too focused on production , adding that he felt the rough mixes " sucked a lot of the life out of the songs " and " sound [ e ] d like another band playing our songs . Tensions were escalating , as arguments broke out at the studio , and Hawkins said he " didn 't feel we were much of a band " as there was much animosity among the bandmembers . Bassist Nate Mendel said that he was in a bad attitude during the sessions due to disagreements with Grohl , and guitarist Chris Shiflett added that he felt he would at times spend whole days in the studio without playing anything .
The band also showed disappointment with the ten songs that emerged from the sessions , as Hawkins described the finished tracks as " million @-@ dollar demos " , and Grohl considered the recordings " far too clean , too tame and boring " . The band only liked five of the ten songs , and thought that listeners would enjoy the other five anyway . Grohl was afraid to promote the album because of his lack of confidence in it . After manager John Silva listened to the recordings , he agreed that it was not a work that represented the band well , and that " we can release it now , but I don 't know if anyone would want to buy it " .
In April 2002 , the band discarded the recordings and took a break . The members then each started individual projects : Grohl became the full @-@ time Queens of the Stone Age drummer for a tour , Shiflett started the Viva Death and Jackson projects with his brother Scott and rejoined his former band Me First and the Gimme Gimmes , Hawkins played with Jane 's Addiction bassist Eric Avery , and Mendel both played with Juno and reunited with his former bandmate William Goldsmith in The Fire Theft . Later on April , they reunited for the Foo Fighters ' scheduled concert at the 2002 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival , which Grohl felt could be the last the band would perform . During the rehearsals , the tensions broke out in huge fights , specially between Grohl and Hawkins . The musicians decided to at least perform in Coachella before deciding whether to continue playing together or end the band . After enjoying their performance , the bandmembers decided to remain united and returned to re @-@ recording the album .
Grohl decided to take a two @-@ week period before the QOTSA went on tour to work on the Foo Fighters record , and after consulting Raskulinecz decided to promote him to producer . First , Grohl visited Hawkins in Topanga to rework the songs that had already been done and show new compositions , such as " Times Like These " , " Low " , and " Disenchanted Lullaby " . Then Grohl and Hawkins went to Virginia to redo the drum , vocal and guitar tracks across a twelve @-@ day period , and Mendel and Shiflett were later called to record their parts in Los Angeles ' The Hook Studios , which were mostly done with the supervision of Raskulinecz , as Grohl had to go back to QOTSA . The only remaining track from the original sessions was " Tired of You " , which features a guest appearance by Queen guitarist Brian May . Two of the demos would leak online in 2012 , with the other five unreleased demos being leaked on Reddit in 2015 .
The title One by One — taken from a lyric on " All My Life " , and for which the spelling 1 X 1 was also considered — was chosen according to Grohl because " it somehow made sense " , and even worked as a reference to relationships — " one person by another person , or one after another " . The singer added that the word one is frequently used in the album 's lyrics , meaning either loneliness or continuation .
= = Composition = =
Upon its release , One by One was considered the band 's heaviest album , as Grohl described the sound as a darker and more aggressive approach as opposed to the band 's usual work . Grohl said that the album mainly focused on the energy of live performances , which he attributed to both the extensive touring preceding the compositions , and the short period during which the re @-@ recordings were done . The frontman added that although the previous albums had songs which were never played live , the track listing on One by One was compared to a set list where he would play all songs every night . As the results of the early recording sessions had manager John Silva complimenting the songs that did not sound like the band 's previous work , and suggesting Grohl to " stop trying to write hit singles and go back to being weird " , the band decided to be more experimental in addition to writing music meant to be played in full arenas . The variety included moody songs such as " Have It All " and " Tired of You " , the seven @-@ minute " epic opus " album closer " Come Back " , and the alternating dynamics of " Halo " , which drew inspiration from Tom Petty , Cheap Trick and Guided by Voices . Grohl added that the sonority tried to blend dissonance and melody : " We figured we 're gonna get mean , we 're gonna get ugly . And then I end up putting this four @-@ part harmony on it , and all of sudden it 's beautiful . Like ' wait a second , it was supposed to be gross , and now it 's gorgeous ' . "
While in previous records Grohl tried to not get introspective in his lyrics , for One by One he found himself writing lyrics that matched the " emotional level we were hinting with the music " , such as " Come Back " , with words " revealing all these dark , shitty sides of myself " . The lyrics to a song were usually done after finishing the vocal track for another . Grohl described the track listing as " 11 tortured love songs " , with a major theme of " surrendering to yourself " , and a sequencing that described the difficult beginnings of falling in love , and then the relief of feeling comfortable in love . A major inspiration was Grohl 's new girlfriend Jordyn Blum , as well as the troubled times with the band , demonstrated in " Times Like These " , which laments the absence of the Foo Fighters and ponders about their future .
= = Packaging and versions = =
The album artwork was done by Raymond Pettibon , who has worked with punk bands such as Black Flag and The Minutemen . Grohl was introduced to Pettibon by ex @-@ Minutemen bassist Mike Watt and , after visiting his house , decided to hire him for the artwork because " we had to somehow pay tribute to Pettibon as a hero , because his stuff , those images just stuck with me my whole life . " Grohl came up with the heart theme used in the booklet and related singles . The album was issued with two different covers , black and white . The first 575 @,@ 000 units comprised a limited edition with a bonus DVD .
A limited international edition features seven bonus tracks : the outtake " Walking a Line " , three live songs , and three covers , The Psychedelic Furs ' " Sister Europe " , the Ramones ' " Danny Says " - with Shiflett on the vocals — and Joe Walsh 's " Life of Illusion " - sung by Hawkins . A Norwegian version had an extra album with tracks recorded at the Oslo Spektrum on December 4 , 2002 . One by One was also issued as a double vinyl LP record , and a DVD @-@ Audio with 5 @.@ 1 surround sound mixes .
An Enhanced CD edition was released with weblinks to their official website and where to download free music .
= = Release and reception = =
One by One was released on October 22 , 2002 . That same day the band started the One by One Tour with a concert at the Los Angeles Wiltern Theatre . The lead single " All My Life " had been released on September 7 , and the band issued three more songs as singles in 2003 : " Times Like These " , " Low " , and " Have It All " . BMG became partners with telecom firm O2 and music provider Musiwave to promote the album in Europe with a special campaign focused on cellphones .
The album debuted at third place on the Billboard 200 , with 122 @,@ 000 copies sold in one week , and spent 50 overall weeks on the chart . By 2011 , One by One had sold 1 @.@ 333 million units in North America , being certified Platinum by the RIAA . The international release was also successful , with RCA announcing One by One had surpassed 2 million copies worldwide in January 2003 . The album debuted at number one in the United Kingdom , Ireland , and Australia , and outsold predecessor There Is Nothing Left to Lose in Australia , Japan and various Asian markets .
= = = Critical response = = =
One by One received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics . At Metacritic , a website that assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 75 , based on 19 reviews . Reviewer Jon Pareles of Rolling Stone praised the " potent guitar riffs " and the introspective themes , which he called " stronger and broader than autobiography " . NME 's April Long felt that " even the quieter moments bristle " and considered the album an affirmation of the band 's quality . Michael Paoletta of Billboard considered the album " among the band 's best work " and that the themes gave the record " an emotional intimacy that makes it all more satisfying " . Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker rated the album A- , calling it full of " unexpected exhilaration " and liking the " exploration of various relationships " on the lyrics . The Austin Chronicle reviewer praised the heavy sound of the album , saying it drifted from the light @-@ hearted tone of songs such as " Big Me " while " retaining their melodic instincts " .
However , many reviewers felt that the album was not up to the standards of the Foo Fighters ' previous work . Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that although One by One was well @-@ produced and played , it was too polished to " hit at a gut @-@ level " and that the songs were " not as immediate or memorable " as the band 's earlier compositions . Writing for PopMatters , Margaret Schwartz considered the album " ultimately unsatisfying " despite its quality writing and production , particularly for not drifting much from the band 's typical style . Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club described One by One as " mostly middling , sticking to slick , pounding , functional rock that doesn 't dig much deeper than the usual spleen @-@ venting and loud @-@ quiet brooding @-@ to @-@ bluster formula " . BBC 's Nick Reynolds found the record inconsistent , praising the first four tracks but saying the following songs did not maintain the same quality , and concluding that although One By One is a good record , it may frustrate a listener . Eric Carr of Pitchfork Media was very critical of the album , saying it was overproduced and the songs are " weightless , antiseptic cuts " with " skillful composition " but " lacking strength and character " .
In 2004 , One by One won the Grammy Award for Best Rock Album , while one year earlier at the 45th Grammy Awards " All My Life " was chosen as Best Hard Rock Performance . While the band had a positive opinion about the record following release , as Grohl said the songs were " the best we 've ever written " , he and the rest of the Foo Fighters eventually grew distasteful about the results . Grohl stated that he was frustrated at himself for rushing on the album : " four of the songs were good , and the other seven I never played again in my life . " Hawkins said that " if you think about things too much , they kinda get sterile , as we found out there " , and Shiflett declared that " there are great songs [ in One by One ] , and then there are ... parts of great songs " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Dave Grohl , Taylor Hawkins , Nate Mendel and Chris Shiflett , except where noted .
= = = Special edition DVD = = =
The album was also originally released with a limited edition bonus DVD which contains :
" All My Life " video / 5 @.@ 1 audio / stereo audio versions
" Walking a Line " video / 5 @.@ 1 audio / stereo audio versions
" The One " 5 @.@ 1 audio / stereo audio versions
Extras — making of video + other clips
DVD @-@ ROM — screensavers , buddy icons & weblinks
Photo gallery
= = Personnel = =
Foo Fighters
Dave Grohl – lead vocals , backing vocals , rhythm guitar , lead guitar , piano on " Come Back "
Nate Mendel – bass
Taylor Hawkins – drums , percussion , lead vocals on " Life of Illusion "
Chris Shiflett – lead guitar , rhythm guitar , lead vocals on " Danny Says "
Additional musicians
Brian May – guitar on " Tired of You "
Krist Novoselic - backing vocals on " Walking a Line "
Gregg Bissonette - drums on " Danny Says "
Production
Producers : Foo Fighters , Nick Raskulinecz ; Adam Kasper on " Tired of You "
Engineer : Nick Raskulinecz
Mixing : Bob Ludwig , Jim Scott
Mastering : A.J. Lara , Bob Ludwig , Bob Michaels
Production coordination : Melinda Pepler
Digital editing : A.J. Lara
Authoring : Eddie Escalante
Quality control : Kehni Davis
Graphic design : Rupesh Pattni
Photography : Anton Corbijn , Joshua White
Artwork : Raymond Pettibon
Illustrations : Raymond Pettibon , Joshua White
Liner notes : Hiro Arishima
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Album charts = = =
= = = Singles charts = = =
= = Awards = =
Grammy Awards
= Fairchild Republic A @-@ 10 Thunderbolt II =
The Fairchild Republic A @-@ 10 Thunderbolt II is a single seat , twin turbofan engine , straight wing jet aircraft developed by Fairchild @-@ Republic for the United States Air Force . Commonly referred to by its nicknames " Warthog " or " Hog " , its official name comes from the Republic P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt , a fighter particularly effective at close air support . The A @-@ 10 was designed for close @-@ in support of ground troops , close air support ( CAS ) , providing quick @-@ action support for troops against helicopters , vehicles , and ground troops . It entered service in 1976 and is the only production @-@ built aircraft that has served in the USAF that was designed solely for CAS . Its secondary mission is to provide forward air controller - airborne ( FAC @-@ A ) support , by directing other aircraft in attacks on ground targets . Aircraft used primarily in this role are designated OA @-@ 10 .
The A @-@ 10 was intended to improve on the performance of the A @-@ 1 Skyraider and its poor firepower . The A @-@ 10 was designed around the 30 mm GAU @-@ 8 Avenger rotary cannon . Its airframe was designed for durability , with measures such as 1 @,@ 200 pounds ( 540 kg ) of titanium armor to protect the cockpit and aircraft systems , enabling it to absorb a significant amount of damage and continue flying . Its short takeoff and landing capability permits operation from airstrips close to the front lines , and its simple design enables maintenance with minimal facilities . The A @-@ 10 served in Operation Desert Shield , and Operation Desert Storm , the American intervention against Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait , where the A @-@ 10 distinguished itself . The A @-@ 10 also participated in other conflicts such as Operation Urgent Fury in Grenada , the Balkans , Afghanistan , Iraq , and against ISIL in the Middle East .
The A @-@ 10A single @-@ seat variant was the only version produced , though one pre @-@ production airframe was modified to become the YA @-@ 10B twin @-@ seat prototype to test an all @-@ weather night capable version . In 2005 , a program was started to upgrade remaining A @-@ 10A aircraft to the A @-@ 10C configuration with modern avionics for use of precision weaponry . With a variety of upgrades and wing replacements , the A @-@ 10 's service life may be extended to 2028 .
= = Development = =
= = = Background = = =
The Air Force entered the 1960s after a long period of introducing ever @-@ faster attack aircraft intended primarily for the nuclear strike role . This led to high speed designs like the F @-@ 101 Voodoo and F @-@ 105 Thunderchief , optimized for penetrating enemy airspace at high speeds to deliver a nuclear payload . Designs concentrating on conventional weapons were largely ignored , leaving their entry into the Vietnam War led by the Korean War @-@ era A @-@ 1 Skyraider . While a capable aircraft for its era , with a relatively large payload and long loiter times , the propeller driven Skyraider was also fairly slow and vulnerable to ground fire . The Air Force and Marine Corps lost 266 A @-@ 1s in action , the vast majority of these to small arms fire .
The lack of modern conventional attack capability led a few service members to call for a specialized attack aircraft . On 7 June 1961 , Secretary of Defense McNamara ordered the air force to develop two tactical aircraft , one for the long @-@ range strike and interdictor role , and the other focussing on the fighter @-@ bomber mission . The former became the Tactical Fighter Experimental , or TFX , which emerged as the F @-@ 111 , while the second was filled by a modified version of the US Navy 's F @-@ 4 Phantom II . While the Phantom would go on to be one of the most successful fighter designs of the 1960s , and proved as capable fighter @-@ bomber , it was clearly lacking in the pure CAS role . The lack of loiter time was a major problem , and to a lesser extent , its poor low @-@ speed performance . It was also an expensive aircraft both to purchase and operate , with a flyaway cost around $ 2 million in FY1965 , and operational costs over $ 900 / hour .
The Air Force undertook a broad review of its tactical force structures and concluded that it should adopt a cheap aircraft to supplement the F @-@ 4 and F @-@ 111 . The Air Force first focused on the Northrop F @-@ 5 because of its air @-@ to @-@ air performance . A 1965 cost effectiveness study shifted the focus from new F @-@ 5s to cheaper LTV A @-@ 7Ds , and a contract was awarded . However , this platform was soon the subject of a " gold plating " exercise that led to demands for an upgraded engine and new avionics which doubled its cost .
= = = Helicopter competition = = =
Through this period , the US Army had been introducing the UH @-@ 1 Iroquois into service . First used in its intended role as a transport , it was soon modified in the field to carry more machine guns in what became known as the helicopter gunship role . This proved so effective against the lightly armed enemy that new gun and rocket pods were quickly added to arsenal . These were all further improved with the AH @-@ 1 Cobra , dedicated to the attack role and armed with the long @-@ range TOW missile , able to destroy any tank from well outside the range of defensive fire . The platform was so effective that it led to a revolution in military thought about ways to confront the Warsaw Pact in Europe , blunting their advance using a force of anti @-@ tank helicopters instead of a large number of tactical nuclear weapons that had been the basis for NATO 's battle plans since the 1950s .
As the helicopter improved , Air Force planners became worried that more advanced designs like the Lockheed AH @-@ 56 Cheyenne would pose a threat to Air Force funding . A 1966 Air Force study on existing CAS capabilities revealed gaps in the escort and fire suppression roles , which the Cheyenne could fill . The study concluded that the Air Force should acquire a simple , cheap , dedicated CAS aircraft at least as capable as the A @-@ 1 , and that it should develop doctrine , tactics , and procedures for CAS aircraft to accomplish the missions for which the armed helicopters were provided .
= = = A @-@ X program = = =
In 1966 , the USAF formed the Attack Experimental ( A @-@ X ) program office . On 8 September 1966 , General McConnell ordered that a specialized CAS aircraft be designed , developed , and obtained , on 22 December a Requirements Action Directive ( RAD ) was issued for the A @-@ X CAS airplane . On 6 March 1967 , the Air Force released a request for information to 21 defense contractors for the A @-@ X. The objective was to create a design study for a low @-@ cost attack aircraft . In 1969 , the Secretary of the Air Force asked Pierre Sprey to write the detailed specifications for the proposed A @-@ X project ; Sprey 's initial involvement was kept secret due to his earlier controversial involvement in the F @-@ X project . Sprey 's discussions with Skyraider pilots operating in Vietnam and analysis of aircraft used in the role indicated the ideal aircraft should have long loiter time , low @-@ speed maneuverability , massive cannon firepower , and extreme survivability ; possessing the best elements of the Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 , Henschel Hs 129 , and Skyraider . The specifications also demanded that each aircraft cost less than $ 3 million . Sprey required that the biography of World War II Luftwaffe attack pilot Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel be read by people on the A @-@ X program .
In May 1970 , the USAF issued a modified , more detailed request for proposals ( RFP ) for the aircraft . The threat of Soviet armored forces and all @-@ weather
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assembly cart .
The AGM @-@ 65 Maverick air @-@ to @-@ surface missile is a commonly used munition , targeted via electro @-@ optical ( TV @-@ guided ) or infrared . The Maverick allows target engagement at much greater ranges than the cannon , and thus less risk from anti @-@ aircraft systems . During Desert Storm , in the absence of dedicated forward @-@ looking infrared ( FLIR ) cameras for night vision , the Maverick 's infrared camera was used for night missions as a " poor man 's FLIR " . Other weapons include cluster bombs and Hydra rocket pods . The A @-@ 10 is equipped to carry laser @-@ guided bombs . A @-@ 10s usually fly with an ALQ @-@ 131 ECM pod under one wing and two AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder air @-@ to @-@ air missiles under the other wing for self @-@ defense .
= = = Modernization = = =
The A @-@ 10 Precision Engagement Modification Program will update 356 A @-@ 10 / OA @-@ 10s to the A @-@ 10C variant with a new flight computer , new glass cockpit displays and controls , two new 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) color displays with moving map function and an integrated digital stores management system .
Other funded improvements to the A @-@ 10 fleet include a new data link , the ability to employ smart weapons such as the Joint Direct Attack Munition ( JDAM ) and Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser , and the ability to carry an integrated targeting pod such as the Northrop Grumman LITENING or the Lockheed Martin Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod ( ATP ) . Also included is the Remotely Operated Video Enhanced Receiver ( ROVER ) to provide sensor data to personnel on the ground .
In 2016 the USAF announced a thick @-@ skin urgent spares kitting ( TUSK ) wing assemblies program to extend the lifespan of the aircraft past 2040 .
= = = Colors and markings = = =
Since the A @-@ 10 flies low to the ground and at subsonic speed , aircraft camouflage is important to make the aircraft more difficult to see . Many different types of paint schemes have been tried . These have included a " peanut scheme " of sand , yellow and field drab ; black and white colors for winter operations and a tan , green and brown mixed pattern . Many A @-@ 10s also featured a false canopy painted in dark gray on the underside of the aircraft , just behind the gun . This form of automimicry is an attempt to confuse the enemy as to aircraft attitude and maneuver direction . Many A @-@ 10s feature nose art , such as shark mouth or warthog head features .
The two most common markings applied to the A @-@ 10 have been the European I woodland camouflage scheme and a two @-@ tone gray scheme . The European woodland scheme was designed to minimize visibility from above , as the threat from hostile fighter aircraft was felt to outweigh that from ground @-@ fire . It uses dark green , medium green and dark gray in order to blend in with the typical European forest terrain and was used from the 1980s to the early 1990s . Following the end of the Cold War , and based on experience during the 1991 Gulf War , the air @-@ to @-@ air threat was no longer seen to be as important as that from ground fire , and a new color scheme known as " Compass Ghost " was chosen to minimize visibility from below . This two @-@ tone gray scheme has darker gray color on top , with the lighter gray on the underside of the aircraft , and started to be applied from the early 1990s .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Entering service = = =
The first unit to receive the A @-@ 10 Thunderbolt II was the 355th Tactical Training Wing , based at Davis @-@ Monthan Air Force Base , Arizona , in March 1976 . The first unit to achieve full combat @-@ readiness was the 354th Tactical Fighter Wing at Myrtle Beach AFB , South Carolina , in 1978 . Deployments of A @-@ 10As followed at bases both at home and abroad , including England AFB , Louisiana ; Eielson AFB , Alaska ; Osan Air Base , South Korea ; and RAF Bentwaters / RAF Woodbridge , England . The 81st TFW of RAF Bentwaters / RAF Woodbridge operated rotating detachments of A @-@ 10s at four bases in Germany known as Forward Operating Locations ( FOLs ) : Leipheim , Sembach Air Base , Nörvenich , and Ahlhorn .
A @-@ 10s were initially an unwelcome addition to many in the Air Force . Most pilots switching to the A @-@ 10 did not want to because fighter pilots traditionally favored speed and appearance . In 1987 , many A @-@ 10s were shifted to the forward air control ( FAC ) role and redesignated OA @-@ 10 . In the FAC role the OA @-@ 10 is typically equipped with up to six pods of 2 @.@ 75 inch ( 70 mm ) Hydra rockets , usually with smoke or white phosphorus warheads used for target marking . OA @-@ 10s are physically unchanged and remain fully combat capable despite the redesignation .
A @-@ 10s of the 23rd TFW were deployed to Bridgetown , Barbados during Operation Urgent Fury , the American Invasion of Grenada . They provided air cover for the U.S. Marine Corps landings on the island of Carriacou in late October 1983 , but did not fire weapons as Marines met no resistance .
= = = Gulf War and Balkans = = =
The A @-@ 10 was used in combat for the first time during the Gulf War in 1991 , destroying more than 900 Iraqi tanks , 2 @,@ 000 other military vehicles and 1 @,@ 200 artillery pieces . A @-@ 10s also shot down two Iraqi helicopters with the GAU @-@ 8 cannon . The first of these was shot down by Captain Robert Swain over Kuwait on 6 February 1991 for the A @-@ 10 's first air @-@ to @-@ air victory . Four A @-@ 10s were shot down during the war , all by surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles . Another three battle @-@ damaged A @-@ 10s and OA @-@ 10As returned to base but were written off , some sustaining additional damage in crash landings . The A @-@ 10 had a mission capable rate of 95 @.@ 7 percent , flew 8 @,@ 100 sorties , and launched 90 percent of the AGM @-@ 65 Maverick missiles fired in the conflict . Shortly after the Gulf War , the Air Force abandoned the idea of replacing the A @-@ 10 with a close air support version of the F @-@ 16 .
U.S. Air Force A @-@ 10 aircraft fired approximately 10 @,@ 000 30 mm rounds in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1994 – 95 . Following the seizure of some heavy weapons by Bosnian Serbs from a warehouse in Ilidža , a series of sorties were launched to locate and destroy the captured equipment . On 5 August 1994 , two A @-@ 10s located and strafed an anti @-@ tank vehicle . Afterward , the Serbs agreed to return remaining heavy weapons . In August 1995 , NATO launched an offensive called Operation Deliberate Force . A @-@ 10s flew close air support missions , attacking Bosnian Serb artillery and positions . In late September , A @-@ 10s began flying patrols again .
A @-@ 10s returned to the Balkan region as part of Operation Allied Force in Kosovo beginning in March 1999 . In March 1999 , A @-@ 10s escorted and supported search and rescue helicopters in finding a downed F @-@ 117 pilot . The A @-@ 10s were deployed to support search and rescue missions , but over time the Warthogs began to receive more ground attack missions . The A @-@ 10 's first successful attack in Operation Allied Force happened on 6 April 1999 ; A @-@ 10s remained in action until combat ended in late June 1999 .
= = = Afghanistan , Iraq , Libya , and recent deployments = = =
During the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan , A @-@ 10s did not take part in the initial stages . For the campaign against Taliban and Al Qaeda , A @-@ 10 squadrons were deployed to Pakistan and Bagram Air Base , Afghanistan , beginning in March 2002 . These A @-@ 10s participated in Operation Anaconda . Afterwards , A @-@ 10s remained in @-@ country , fighting Taliban and Al Qaeda remnants .
Operation Iraqi Freedom began on 20 March 2003 . Sixty OA @-@ 10 / A @-@ 10 aircraft took part in early combat there . United States Air Forces Central Command issued Operation Iraqi Freedom : By the Numbers , a declassified report about the aerial campaign in the conflict on 30 April 2003 . During that initial invasion of Iraq , A @-@ 10s had a mission capable rate of 85 percent in the war and fired 311 @,@ 597 rounds of 30 mm ammunition . A single A @-@ 10 was shot down near Baghdad International Airport by Iraqi fire late in the campaign . The A @-@ 10 also flew 32 missions in which the aircraft dropped propaganda leaflets over Iraq .
The A @-@ 10C first deployed to Iraq in 2007 with the 104th Fighter Squadron of the Maryland Air National Guard . The jets include the Precision Engagement Upgrade . The A @-@ 10C 's digital avionics and communications systems have greatly reduced the time to acquire a close air support target and attack it .
A @-@ 10s flew 32 percent of combat sorties in Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom . The sorties ranged from 27 @,@ 800 to 34 @,@ 500 annually between 2009 and 2012 . In the first half of 2013 , they flew 11 @,@ 189 sorties in Afghanistan . From the beginning of 2006 to October 2013 , A @-@ 10s flew 19 percent of CAS operations in Iraq and Afghanistan , more than the F @-@ 15E Strike Eagle or B @-@ 1B Lancer , but less than the 33 percent of CAS missions flown by F @-@ 16s during that time period .
In March 2011 , six A @-@ 10s were deployed as part of Operation Odyssey Dawn , the coalition intervention in Libya . They participated in attacks on Libyan ground forces there .
In September 2014 , the USAF 122nd Fighter Wing revealed it would be deploying to the Middle East in the next month , which includes 12 of the unit 's 21 A @-@ 10 aircraft . Although the deployment had been planned a year in advance in a support role , the timing coincided with the ongoing Operation Inherent Resolve against Islamic State militants . Since mid @-@ November , U.S. commanders began sending A @-@ 10s to hit IS targets in central and northwestern Iraq on an almost daily basis . In about two months time , A @-@ 10s flew 11 percent of all USAF sorties since the start of operations in August 2014 . On 15 November 2015 , two days after the ISIL attacks in Paris , A @-@ 10s and AC @-@ 130s destroyed a convoy of over 100 ISIL @-@ operated oil tanker trucks in Syria . The attacks were part of an intensification of the U.S.-led intervention against ISIL called Operation Tidal Wave II ( named after the original Operation Tidal Wave during World War II , a failed attempt to raid German oil fields that resulted in heavy aircraft and aircrew loss ) in an attempt to cut off oil smuggling as a source of funding for the group .
= = = Future = = =
In 2007 , the A @-@ 10 was expected to be in USAF service until 2028 and possibly later , when it may be replaced by the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II . Critics have said that replacing the A @-@ 10 with the F @-@ 35 would be a " giant leap backwards " given the A @-@ 10 's performance and the F @-@ 35 's rising costs . In 2012 , the Air Force considered the F @-@ 35B STOVL variant as a replacement CAS aircraft , but concluded that the aircraft could not generate sufficient sorties . In August 2013 , Congress and the Air Force examined various proposals , including the F @-@ 35 and the MQ @-@ 9 Reaper unmanned aerial vehicle filling the A @-@ 10 's role . Proponents state that the A @-@ 10 's armor and cannon are superior to aircraft such as the F @-@ 35 for ground attack , that guided munitions other planes rely upon could be jammed , and that ground commanders frequently request A @-@ 10 support .
In the USAF 's FY 2015 budget , the service considered retiring the A @-@ 10 and other single @-@ mission aircraft , prioritizing multi @-@ mission aircraft ; cutting a whole fleet and its infrastructure was seen as the only method for major savings . The U.S. Army had expressed interest in obtaining some A @-@ 10s should the Air Force retire them , but later stated there was " no chance " of that happening . The U.S. Air Force stated that retirement would save $ 3 @.@ 7 billion from 2015 to 2019 . Guided munitions allow more aircraft to perform the CAS mission , reducing the requirement for a specialized aircraft ; since 2001 , multirole aircraft and bombers performed 80 percent of CAS missions . The Air Force stated the A @-@ 10 is also more vulnerable to advanced anti @-@ aircraft defenses . The Army stated that the A @-@ 10 is invaluable for its versatile weapons loads , psychological impact , and reduced logistics needs on ground support systems .
In January 2015 , USAF officials told lawmakers that it would take 15 years to fully develop a new attack aircraft to replace the A @-@ 10 ; that year General Herbert J. Carlisle , the head of Air Combat Command stated that a follow @-@ on weapon system for the A @-@ 10 may need to be developed . It planned for F @-@ 16s and F @-@ 15Es to initially take up CAS sorties , and later by the F @-@ 35A once sufficient numbers become operationally available over the next decade . The service is considering purchasing a relatively inexpensive replacement to perform CAS against enemies that lack sophisticated air defenses . As of 2015 , the US Air Combat Command is considering developing a replacement aircraft . In January 2016 , the USAF revealed it was " indefinitely freezing " plans to retire the A @-@ 10 for at least several years . In addition to Congressional opposition , its use in anti @-@ ISIL operations , deployments to Eastern Europe as a response to Russia 's military intervention in Ukraine , and reevaluation of F @-@ 35 numbers necessitated its retention . Retirement has been deferred until 2022 when F @-@ 35s will begin replacing it on a squadron @-@ by @-@ squadron basis . In March 2016 , the Air Force revealed it had begun studying future CAS aircraft to succeed the A @-@ 10 in low @-@ intensity “ permissive conflicts ” like counterterrorism and regional stability operations , admitting that the F @-@ 35 is too expensive to operate in day @-@ to @-@ day roles ; everything from low @-@ end AT @-@ 6 Wolverine and A @-@ 29 Super Tucano turboprops and the Textron AirLand Scorpion as more basic off @-@ the @-@ shelf options to more sophisticated clean @-@ sheet attack aircraft or " AT @-@ X " derivatives of the T @-@ X next @-@ generation trainer as entirely new attack platforms are being considered .
= = Variants = =
YA @-@ 10A
Pre @-@ production variant . 12 were built .
A @-@ 10A
Single @-@ seat close air support , ground @-@ attack version . ( All updated to A @-@ 10C )
OA @-@ 10A
A @-@ 10As used for airborne forward air control . ( All updated to A @-@ 10C )
YA @-@ 10B Night / Adverse Weather
Two @-@ seat experimental prototype , for work at night and in bad weather . The one YA @-@ 10B prototype was converted from an A @-@ 10A .
A @-@ 10C
A @-@ 10As updated under the incremental Precision Engagement ( PE ) program .
A @-@ 10PCAS
Proposed unmanned version developed by Raytheon and Aurora Flight Sciences as part of DARPA 's Persistent Close Air Support program . The PCAS program eventually dropped the idea of using an optionally manned A @-@ 10 .
Civilian A @-@ 10
Proposed by the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology to replace its North American T @-@ 28 Trojan thunderstorm penetration aircraft . The A @-@ 10 would have its military engines , avionics , and oxygen system replaced by civilian versions . The engines and airframe would receive protection from hail , and the GAU @-@ 8 Avenger would be replaced with ballast or scientific instruments .
= = Operators = =
The A @-@ 10 has been flown exclusively by the United States Air Force and its Air Reserve components , the Air Force Reserve Command ( AFRC ) and the Air National Guard ( ANG ) . The USAF operates 283 A @-@ 10C aircraft , as of FY 2015 .
United States
United States Air Force
25th Fighter Squadron ( Osan Air Force Base , South Korea )
66th Weapons Squadron ( Nellis Air Force Base , Nevada )
74th Fighter Squadron ( Moody Air Force Base , Georgia )
75th Fighter Squadron ( Moody Air Force Base , Georgia )
354th Fighter Squadron ( Davis @-@ Monthan Air Force Base , Arizona )
357th Fighter Squadron ( Davis @-@ Monthan Air Force Base , Arizona )
422d Test and Evaluation Squadron ( Nellis Air Force Base , Nevada )
Air National Guard
104th Fighter Squadron ( Warfield Air National Guard Base , Maryland )
107th Fighter Squadron ( Selfridge Air National Guard Base , Michigan )
163d Fighter Squadron ( Fort Wayne Air National Guard Station , Indiana )
190th Fighter Squadron ( Gowen Field Air National Guard Base , Idaho )
Air Force Reserve Command
45th Fighter Squadron ( Davis @-@ Monthan Air Force Base , Arizona )
47th Fighter Squadron ( Davis @-@ Monthan Air Force Base , Arizona )
76th Fighter Squadron ( Moody Air Force Base , Georgia )
303d Fighter Squadron ( Whiteman Air Force Base , Missouri )
= = = Former operators = = =
United States Air Force
18th Tactical Fighter Squadron
55th Tactical Fighter Squadron
78th Tactical Fighter Squadron
81st Fighter Squadron
91st Tactical Fighter Squadron
92d Tactical Fighter Squadron
343d Tactical Fighter Squadron
353d Tactical Fighter Squadron
355th Tactical Fighter Squadron
356th Tactical Fighter Squadron
358th Fighter Squadron
509th Tactical Fighter Squadron
510th Tactical Fighter Squadron
511th Tactical Fighter Squadron
Air Force Reserve Command
706th Fighter Squadron
Air National Guard
103d Fighter Squadron
118th Fighter Squadron
131st Fighter Squadron
138th Fighter Squadron
172d Fighter Squadron
176th Tactical Fighter Squadron
184th Fighter Squadron
= = Aircraft on display = =
= = = Germany = = =
A @-@ 10A
77 @-@ 0264 – Spangdahlem AB , Bitburg
= = = South Korea = = =
A @-@ 10A
76 @-@ 0515 – Osan AB
= = = United Kingdom = = =
A @-@ 10A
77 @-@ 0259 – American Air Museum at Imperial War Museum Duxford
80 @-@ 0219 - Bentwaters Cold War Museum
= = = United States = = =
YA @-@ 10A
71 @-@ 1370 – Joint Base Langley @-@ Eustis ( Langley AFB ) , Hampton , Virginia
YA @-@ 10B
73 @-@ 1664 – Air Force Flight Test Center Museum , Edwards AFB , California
A @-@ 10A
73 @-@ 1666 – Hill Aerospace Museum , Hill AFB , Utah
73 @-@ 1667 – Flying Tiger Heritage Park at the former England AFB , Louisiana
75 @-@ 0263 – Empire State Aerosciences Museum , Glenville , New York
75 @-@ 0270 – McChord Air Museum , McChord AFB , Washington
75 @-@ 0293 – Wings of Eagles Discovery Center , Elmira , New York
75 @-@ 0288 – Air Force Armament Museum , Eglin AFB , Florida
75 @-@ 0289 – Heritage Park , Eielson AFB , Alaska
75 @-@ 0298 – Pima Air & Space Museum ( adjacent to Davis @-@ Monthan AFB ) , Tucson , Arizona
75 @-@ 0305 – Museum of Aviation , Robins AFB , Warner Robins , Georgia
75 @-@ 0308 – Moody Heritage Park , Moody AFB , Valdosta , Georgia
75 @-@ 0309 – Shaw AFB , Sumter , South Carolina . Marked as AF Ser . No. 81 @-@ 0964 assigned to the 55 FS from 1994 - 1996 . The represented aircraft was credited with downing an Iraqi Mi @-@ 8 Hip helicopter on 15 Feb 1991 while assigned to the 511 TFS .
76 @-@ 0516 – Wings of Freedom Aviation Museum , Horsham , Pennsylvania
76 @-@ 0530 – Whiteman AFB , Missouri
76 @-@ 0535 – Cradle of Aviation , Garden City , New York
76 @-@ 0540 – Aerospace Museum of California , McClellan Airport ( former McClellan AFB ) , Sacramento , California
77 @-@ 0205 – USAF Academy collection , Colorado Springs , Colorado
77 @-@ 0228 – Grissom Air Museum , Grissom ARB ( former Grissom AFB ) , Peru , Indiana
77 @-@ 0244 – Wisconsin Air National Guard Museum , Volk Field ANGB , Wisconsin
77 @-@ 0252 ( nose section only ) – Cradle of Aviation , Garden City , New York
78 @-@ 0681 – National Museum of the United States Air Force , Wright @-@ Patterson AFB , Dayton , Ohio
78 @-@ 0687 – Don F. Pratt Memorial Museum , Fort Campbell , Kentucky
79 @-@ 0097 – Warbird Park , former Myrtle Beach AFB , South Carolina
79 @-@ 0100 – Barnes Air National Guard Base , Westfield , Massachusetts
79 @-@ 0103 – Bradley Air National Guard Base , Windsor Locks , Connecticut
79 @-@ 0116 – Warrior Park , Davis @-@ Monthan AFB , Tucson , Arizona
79 @-@ 0173 – New England Air Museum , Windsor Locks , Connecticut
80 @-@ 0247 - American Airpower Museum , Republic Airport , Farmingdale , New York
80 @-@ 0708 – Selfridge Military Air Museum , Selfridge Air National Guard Base , Harrison Township , Michigan
= = Specifications ( A @-@ 10A ) = =
Data from The Great Book of Modern Warplanes , Fairchild @-@ Republic A / OA @-@ 10 , USAF
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 53 ft 4 in ( 16 @.@ 26 m )
Wingspan : 57 ft 6 in ( 17 @.@ 53 m )
Height : 14 ft 8 in ( 4 @.@ 47 m )
Wing area : 506 ft ² ( 47 @.@ 0 m ² )
Airfoil : NACA 6716 root , NACA 6713 tip
Empty weight : 24 @,@ 959 lb ( 11 @,@ 321 kg )
Loaded weight : 30 @,@ 384 lb ( 13 @,@ 782 kg ) CAS mission : 47 @,@ 094 lb ( 21 @,@ 361 kg ) Anti @-@ armor mission : 42 @,@ 071 lb ( 19 @,@ 083 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 50 @,@ 000 lb ( 23 @,@ 000 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × General Electric TF34 @-@ GE @-@ 100A turbofans , 9 @,@ 065 lbf ( 40 @.@ 32 kN ) each
Internal fuel capacity : 11 @,@ 000 lb ( 4 @,@ 990 kg )
Performance
Never exceed speed : 450 knots ( 518 mph , 833 km / h ) at 5 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) with 18 Mk 82 bombs
Maximum speed : 381 knots ( 439 mph , 706 km / h ) at sea level , clean
Cruise speed : 300 knots ( 340 mph , 560 km / h )
Stall speed : 120 knots ( 138 mph , 220 km / h )
Combat radius : CAS mission : 250 nmi ( 288 mi , 460 km ) at 1 @.@ 88 hour loiter at 5 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) , 10 min combat
Anti @-@ armor mission : 252 nmi ( 290 mi , 467 km ) , 40 nmi ( 45 mi , 75 km ) ) sea @-@ level penetration and exit , 30 min combat
Ferry range : 2 @,@ 240 nmi ( 2 @,@ 580 mi , 4 @,@ 150 km ) with 50 knot ( 55 mph , 90 km / h ) headwinds , 20 minutes reserve
Service ceiling : 45 @,@ 000 ft ( 13 @,@ 700 m )
Rate of climb : 6 @,@ 000 ft / min ( 30 m / s )
Wing loading : 99 lb / ft ² ( 482 kg / m ² )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 36
Armament
Guns : 1 × 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) GAU @-@ 8 / A Avenger rotary cannon with 1 @,@ 174 rounds ( capacity 1 @,@ 350 rd )
Hardpoints : 11 ( 8 × under @-@ wing and 3 × under @-@ fuselage pylon stations ) with a capacity of 16 @,@ 000 lb ( 7 @,@ 260 kg ) and provisions to carry combinations of :
Rockets : 4 × LAU @-@ 61 / LAU @-@ 68 rocket pods ( each with 19 × / 7 × Hydra 70 mm / APKWS rockets , respectively )
4 × LAU @-@ 5003 rocket pods ( each with 19 × CRV7 70 mm rockets )
6 × LAU @-@ 10 rocket pods ( each with 4 × 127 mm ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) Zuni rockets )
Missiles : 2 × AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinders air @-@ to @-@ air missiles for self @-@ defense
6 × AGM @-@ 65 Maverick air @-@ to @-@ surface missiles
Bombs : Mark 80 series of unguided iron bombs or
Mk 77 incendiary bombs or
BLU @-@ 1 , BLU @-@ 27 / B Rockeye II , Mk20 , BL @-@ 755 and CBU @-@ 52 / 58 / 71 / 87 / 89 / 97 cluster bombs or
Paveway series of Laser @-@ guided bombs or
Joint Direct Attack Munition ( A @-@ 10C ) or
Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser ( A @-@ 10C )
Other : SUU @-@ 42A / A Flares / Infrared decoys and chaff dispenser pod or
AN / ALQ @-@ 131 or AN / ALQ @-@ 184 ECM pods or
Lockheed Martin Sniper XR or LITENING targeting pods ( A @-@ 10C ) or
2 × 600 US gallon Sargent Fletcher drop tanks for increased range / loitering time .
Avionics
AN / AAS @-@ 35 ( V ) Pave Penny laser tracker pod ( mounted beneath right side of cockpit ) for use with Paveway LGBs ( Currently the Pave Penny is no longer in use )
Head @-@ up display ( HUD ) for improved technical flying and air @-@ to @-@ ground support .
= = Notable appearances in media = =
= = Nicknames = =
The A @-@ 10 Thunderbolt II received its popular nickname " Warthog " from the pilots and crews of the USAF attack squadrons who flew and maintained it . The A @-@ 10 is the last of Republic 's jet attack aircraft to serve with the USAF . The Republic F @-@ 84 Thunderjet was nicknamed the " Hog " , F @-@ 84F Thunderstreak nicknamed " Superhog " , and the Republic F @-@ 105 Thunderchief tagged " Ultra Hog " . The saying Go Ugly Early has been associated with the aircraft in reference to calling in the A @-@ 10 early to support troops in ground combat .
= Queen Victoria =
Victoria ( Alexandrina Victoria ; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901 ) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death . From 1 May 1876 , she had the additional title of Empress of India .
Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward , Duke of Kent and Strathearn , the fourth son of King George III . Both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820 , and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German @-@ born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld . She inherited the throne aged 18 , after her father 's three elder brothers had all died , leaving no surviving legitimate children . The United Kingdom was already an established constitutional monarchy , in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power . Privately , Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments ; publicly , she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards of personal morality .
Victoria married her first cousin , Prince Albert of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha , in 1840 . Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent , tying them together and earning her the sobriquet " the grandmother of Europe " . After Albert 's death in 1861 , Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances . As a result of her seclusion , republicanism temporarily gained strength , but in the latter half of her reign her popularity recovered . Her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration .
Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era . It was a period of industrial , cultural , political , scientific , and military change within the United Kingdom , and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire . She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover . Her son and successor , Edward VII , belonged to the House of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha , the line of his father .
= = Birth and family = =
Victoria 's father was Prince Edward , Duke of Kent and Strathearn , the fourth son of the reigning King of the United Kingdom , George III . Until 1817 , Edward 's niece , Princess Charlotte of Wales , was the only legitimate grandchild of George III . Her death in 1817 precipitated a succession crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent and his unmarried brothers to marry and have children . In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld , a widowed German princess with two children — Carl ( 1804 – 1856 ) and Feodora ( 1807 – 1872 ) — by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen . Her brother Leopold was Princess Charlotte 's widower . The Duke and Duchess of Kent 's only child , Victoria , was born at 4 @.@ 15 a.m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London .
Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury , Charles Manners @-@ Sutton , on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace . She was baptised Alexandrina , after one of her godparents , Emperor Alexander I of Russia , and Victoria after her mother . Additional names proposed by her parents — Georgina ( or Georgiana ) , Charlotte , and Augusta — were dropped on the instructions of the Duke 's elder brother , the Prince Regent ( later George IV ) .
At birth , Victoria was fifth in the line of succession after her father and his three older brothers : the Prince Regent , the Duke of York , and the Duke of Clarence ( later William IV ) . The Prince Regent and the Duke of York were estranged from their wives , who were both past child @-@ bearing age , so the two eldest brothers were unlikely to have any further children . The Dukes of Kent and Clarence married on the same day 12 months before Victoria 's birth , but both of Clarence 's daughters ( born in 1819 and 1820 respectively ) died as infants . Victoria 's grandfather and father died in 1820 , within a week of each other , and the Duke of York died in 1827 . On the death of her uncle George IV in 1830 , Victoria became heiress presumptive to her next surviving uncle , William IV . The Regency Act 1830 made special provision for the Duchess of Kent to act as regent in case William died while Victoria was still a minor . King William distrusted the Duchess 's capacity to be regent , and in 1836 declared in her presence that he wanted to live until Victoria 's 18th birthday , so that a regency could be avoided .
= = Heiress presumptive = =
Victoria later described her childhood as " rather melancholy " . Her mother was extremely protective , and Victoria was raised largely isolated from other children under the so @-@ called " Kensington System " , an elaborate set of rules and protocols devised by the Duchess and her ambitious and domineering comptroller , Sir John Conroy , who was rumoured to be the Duchess 's lover . The system prevented the princess from meeting people whom her mother and Conroy deemed undesirable ( including most of her father 's family ) , and was designed to render her weak and dependent upon them . The Duchess avoided the court because she was scandalised by the presence of King William 's bastard children , and perhaps prompted the emergence of Victorian morality by insisting that her daughter avoid any appearance of sexual impropriety . Victoria shared a bedroom with her mother every night , studied with private tutors to a regular timetable , and spent her play @-@ hours with her dolls and her King Charles spaniel , Dash . Her lessons included French , German , Italian , and Latin , but she spoke only English at home .
In 1830 , the Duchess of Kent and Conroy took Victoria across the centre of England to visit the Malvern Hills , stopping at towns and great country houses along the way . Similar journeys to other parts of England and Wales were taken in 1832 , 1833 , 1834 and 1835 . To the King 's annoyance , Victoria was enthusiastically welcomed in each of the stops . William compared the journeys to royal progresses and was concerned that they portrayed Victoria as his rival rather than his heiress presumptive . Victoria disliked the trips ; the constant round of public appearances made her tired and ill , and there was little time for her to rest . She objected on the grounds of the King 's disapproval , but her mother dismissed his complaints as motivated by jealousy , and forced Victoria to continue the tours . At Ramsgate in October 1835 , Victoria contracted a severe fever , which Conroy initially dismissed as a childish pretence . While Victoria was ill , Conroy and the Duchess unsuccessfully badgered her to make Conroy her private secretary . As a teenager , Victoria resisted persistent attempts by her mother and Conroy to appoint him to her staff . Once queen , she banned him from her presence , but he remained in her mother 's household .
By 1836 , the Duchess 's brother , Leopold , who had been King of the Belgians since 1831 , hoped to marry his niece to his nephew , Prince Albert of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha . Leopold , Victoria 's mother , and Albert 's father ( Ernest I , Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha ) were siblings . Leopold arranged for Victoria 's mother to invite her Coburg relatives to visit her in May 1836 , with the purpose of introducing Victoria to Albert . William IV , however , disapproved of any match with the Coburgs , and instead favoured the suit of Prince Alexander of the Netherlands , second son of the Prince of Orange . Victoria was aware of the various matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes . According to her diary , she enjoyed Albert 's company from the beginning . After the visit she wrote , " [ Albert ] is extremely handsome ; his hair is about the same colour as mine ; his eyes are large and blue , and he has a beautiful nose and a very sweet mouth with fine teeth ; but the charm of his countenance is his expression , which is most delightful . " Alexander , on the other hand , was " very plain " .
Victoria wrote to her uncle Leopold , whom Victoria considered her " best and kindest adviser " , to thank him " for the prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give me , in the person of dear Albert ... He possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy . He is so sensible , so kind , and so good , and so amiable too . He has besides the most pleasing and delightful exterior and appearance you can possibly see . " However at 17 , Victoria , though interested in Albert , was not yet ready to marry . The parties did not undertake a formal engagement , but assumed that the match would take place in due time .
= = Early reign = =
Victoria turned 18 on 24 May 1837 , and a regency was avoided . On 20 June 1837 , William IV died at the age of 71 , and Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom . In her diary she wrote , " I was awoke at 6 o 'clock by Mamma , who told me the Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Conyngham were here and wished to see me . I got out of bed and went into my sitting @-@ room ( only in my dressing gown ) and alone , and saw them . Lord Conyngham then acquainted me that my poor Uncle , the King , was no more , and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning , and consequently that I am Queen . " Official documents prepared on the first day of her reign described her as Alexandrina Victoria , but the first name was withdrawn at her own wish and not used again .
Since 1714 , Britain had shared a monarch with Hanover in Germany , but under Salic law women were excluded from the Hanoverian succession . While Victoria inherited all the British dominions , Hanover passed instead to her father 's younger brother , her unpopular uncle the Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale , who became King Ernest Augustus I of Hanover . He was her heir presumptive until she married and had a child .
At the time of her accession , the government was led by the Whig prime minister Lord Melbourne , who at once became a powerful influence on the politically inexperienced Queen , who relied on him for advice . Charles Greville supposed that the widowed and childless Melbourne was " passionately fond of her as he might be of his daughter if he had one " , and Victoria probably saw him as a father figure . Her coronation took place on 28 June 1838 at Westminster Abbey . Over 400 @,@ 000 visitors came to London for the celebrations . She became the first sovereign to take up residence at Buckingham Palace and inherited the revenues of the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall as well as being granted a civil list allowance of £ 385 @,@ 000 per year . Financially prudent , she paid off her father 's debts .
At the start of her reign Victoria was popular , but her reputation suffered in an 1839 court intrigue when one of her mother 's ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting , Lady Flora Hastings , developed an abdominal growth that was widely rumoured to be an out @-@ of @-@ wedlock pregnancy by Sir John Conroy . Victoria believed the rumours . She hated Conroy , and despised " that odious Lady Flora " , because she had conspired with Conroy and the Duchess of Kent in the Kensington System . At first , Lady Flora refused to submit to a naked medical examination , until in mid @-@ February she eventually agreed , and was found to be a virgin . Conroy , the Hastings family and the opposition Tories organised a press campaign implicating the Queen in the spreading of false rumours about Lady Flora . When Lady Flora died in July , the post @-@ mortem revealed a large tumour on her liver that had distended her abdomen . At public appearances , Victoria was hissed and jeered as " Mrs. Melbourne " .
In 1839 , Melbourne resigned after Radicals and Tories ( both of whom Victoria detested ) voted against a bill to suspend the constitution of Jamaica . The bill removed political power from plantation owners who were resisting measures associated with the abolition of slavery . The Queen commissioned a Tory , Sir Robert Peel , to form a new ministry . At the time , it was customary for the prime minister to appoint members of the Royal Household , who were usually his political allies and their spouses . Many of the Queen 's ladies of the bedchamber were wives of Whigs , and Peel expected to replace them with wives of Tories . In what became known as the bedchamber crisis , Victoria , advised by Melbourne , objected to their removal . Peel refused to govern under the restrictions imposed by the Queen , and consequently resigned his commission , allowing Melbourne to return to office .
= = Marriage = =
Though queen , as an unmarried young woman Victoria was required by social convention to live with her mother , despite their differences over the Kensington System and her mother 's continued reliance on Conroy . Her mother was consigned to a remote apartment in Buckingham Palace , and Victoria often refused to see her . When Victoria complained to Melbourne that her mother 's close proximity promised " torment for many years " , Melbourne sympathised but said it could be avoided by marriage , which Victoria called a " schocking [ sic ] alternative " . She showed interest in Albert 's education for the future role he would have to play as her husband , but she resisted attempts to rush her into wedlock .
Victoria continued to praise Albert following his second visit in October 1839 . Albert and Victoria felt mutual affection and the Queen proposed to him on 15 October 1839 , just five days after he had arrived at Windsor . They were married on 10 February 1840 , in the Chapel Royal of St James 's Palace , London . Victoria was besotted . She spent the evening after their wedding lying down with a headache , but wrote ecstatically in her diary :
I NEVER , NEVER spent such an evening ! ! ! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert ... his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love & happiness I never could have hoped to have felt before ! He clasped me in his arms , & we kissed each other again & again ! His beauty , his sweetness & gentleness – really how can I ever be thankful enough to have such a Husband ! ... to be called by names of tenderness , I have never yet heard used to me before – was bliss beyond belief ! Oh ! This was the happiest day of my life !
Albert became an important political adviser as well as the Queen 's companion , replacing Lord Melbourne as the dominant , influential figure in the first half of her life . Victoria 's mother was evicted from the palace , to Ingestre House in Belgrave Square . After the death of Princess Augusta in 1840 , Victoria 's mother was given both Clarence and Frogmore Houses . Through Albert 's mediation , relations between mother and daughter slowly improved .
During Victoria
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and separates the Rutgers campus from that of the New Brunswick Theological Seminary . The statue is placed near several academic buildings , including the university 's Graduate School of Education , Van Dyke Hall , and Milledoler Hall .
According to the Smithsonian Institution 's Art Inventories Catalog , the bronze sculpture is approximately 15 feet in height and installed on a square stone base approximately 6 feet in height . It is recorded as weighing 2 @,@ 000 pounds . The sculpture depicts William the Silent standing :
" ... with his proper right hand raised to his chest , pointing with his index finger . He holds an open scroll with his proper left hand . A small dog sits at his feet on his proper right . William the Silent wears the clothes of a civilian magistrate of the 16th century . He has a moustache and a beard , and he wears a ruffled collar , an open ankle @-@ length coat , a buttoned vest , and bloomers . The sculpture is mounted on a square base . "
Each of the four side of the statue 's square base is inscribed with incised letters :
Front : ( facing east ) : WILLIAM THE SILENT / COUNT OF NASSAU / PRINCE OF ORANGE / MDXXXIII MDLXXXIV
Back ( facing west ) : THE HOLLAND SOCIETY / OF NEW YORK / TO RUTGERS UNIVERSITY / MCMXXVIII
Right ( facing south ) : FATHER OF HIS FATHERLAND / FOUNDER OF THE UNITED / STATES OF THE NETHERLANDS
Left ( facing north ) : AS LONG AS HE LIVED / HE WAS THE GUIDING STAR / OF A WHOLE BRAVE NATION / AND WHEN HE DIED THE / LITTLE CHILDREN CRIED
The sculpture bears two inscriptions , a signed Founder 's mark , near its base : " ROYER - STATUAIRE " and " FONDERIE NATLE DES BRONZES " .
= = Gallery = =
= M @-@ derived filter =
Parts of this article or section rely on the reader 's knowledge of the complex impedance representation of capacitors and inductors and on knowledge of the frequency domain representation of signals .
m @-@ derived filters or m @-@ type filters are a type of electronic filter designed using the image method . They were invented by Otto Zobel in the early 1920s . This filter type was originally intended for use with telephone multiplexing and was an improvement on the existing constant k type filter . The main problem being addressed was the need to achieve a better match of the filter into the terminating impedances . In general , all filters designed by the image method fail to give an exact match , but the m @-@ type filter is a big improvement with suitable choice of the parameter m . The m @-@ type filter section has a further advantage in that there is a rapid transition from the cut @-@ off frequency of the pass band to a pole of attenuation just inside the stop band . Despite these advantages , there is a drawback with m @-@ type filters ; at frequencies past the pole of attenuation , the response starts to rise again , and m @-@ types have poor stop band rejection . For this reason , filters designed using m @-@ type sections are often designed as composite filters with a mixture of k @-@ type and m @-@ type sections and different values of m at different points to get the optimum performance from both types .
= = Background = =
Zobel patented an impedance matching network in 1920 which , in essence , used the topology of what are now called m @-@ type filters , but Zobel did not name them as such or analyse them by the image method . This pre @-@ dated George Campbell 's publication of his constant k @-@ type design in 1922 on which the m @-@ type filter is based . Zobel published the image analysis theory of m @-@ type filters in 1923 . Once popular , M @-@ type filters and image parameter designed filters in general are now rarely designed , having been superseded by more advanced network synthesis methods .
= = Derivation = =
The building block of m @-@ derived filters , as with all image impedance filters , is the " L " network , called a half @-@ section and composed of a series impedance Z , and a shunt admittance Y. The m @-@ derived filter is a derivative of the constant k filter . The starting point of the design is the values of Z and Y derived from the constant k prototype and are given by
<formula>
where k is the nominal impedance of the filter , or R0 . The designer now multiplies Z and Y by an arbitrary constant m ( 0 < m < 1 ) . There are two different kinds of m @-@ derived section ; series and shunt . To obtain the m @-@ derived series half section , the designer determines the impedance that must be added to 1 / mY to make the image impedance ZiT the same as the image impedance of the original constant k section . From the general formula for image impedance , the additional impedance required can be shown to be
<formula>
To obtain the m @-@ derived shunt half section , an admittance is added to 1 / mZ to make the image impedance ZiΠ the same as the image impedance of the original half section . The additional admittance required can be shown to be
<formula>
The general arrangements of these circuits are shown in the diagrams to the right along with a specific example of a low pass section .
A consequence of this design is that the m @-@ derived half section will match a k @-@ type section on one side only . Also , an m @-@ type section of one value of m will not match another m @-@ type section of another value of m except on the sides which offer the Zi of the k @-@ type .
= = = Operating frequency = = =
For the low @-@ pass half section shown , the cut @-@ off frequency of the m @-@ type is the same as the k @-@ type and is given by
<formula>
The pole of attenuation occurs at ;
<formula>
From this it is clear that smaller values of m will produce <formula> closer to the cut @-@ off frequency <formula> and hence will have a sharper cut @-@ off . Despite this cut @-@ off , it also brings the unwanted stop band response of the m @-@ type closer to the cut @-@ off frequency , making it more difficult for this to be filtered with subsequent sections . The value of m chosen is usually a compromise between these conflicting requirements . There is also a practical limit to how small m can be made due to the inherent resistance of the inductors . This has the effect of causing the pole of attenuation to be less deep ( that is , it is no longer a genuinely infinite pole ) and the slope of cut @-@ off to be less steep . This effect becomes more marked as <formula> is brought closer to <formula> , and there ceases to be any improvement in response with an m of about 0 @.@ 2 or less .
= = = Image impedance = = =
The following expressions for image impedances are all referenced to the low @-@ pass prototype section . They are scaled to the nominal impedance R0
= 1 , and the frequencies in those expressions are all scaled to the cut @-@ off frequency ωc =
1 .
= = = = Series sections = = = =
The image impedances of the series section are given by
<formula>
and is the same as that of the constant k section
<formula>
= = = = Shunt sections = = = =
The image impedances of the shunt section are given by
<formula>
and is the same as that of the constant k section
<formula>
As with the k @-@ type section , the image impedance of the m @-@ type low @-@ pass section is purely real below the cut @-@ off frequency and purely imaginary above it . From the chart it can be seen that in the passband the closest impedance match to a constant pure resistance termination occurs at approximately m = 0 @.@ 6 .
= = = Transmission parameters = = =
For an m @-@ derived section in general the transmission parameters for a half @-@ section are given by
<formula>
and for n half @-@ sections
<formula>
For the particular example of the low @-@ pass L section , the transmission parameters solve differently in three frequency bands .
For <formula> the transmission is lossless :
<formula>
For <formula> the transmission parameters are
<formula>
For <formula> the transmission parameters are
<formula>
= = = Prototype transformations = = =
The plots shown of image impedance , attenuation and phase change are the plots of a low @-@ pass prototype filter section . The prototype has a cut @-@ off frequency of ωc
= 1 rad / s and a nominal impedance R0 =
1 Ω . This is produced by a filter half @-@ section where L
= 1 henry and C =
1 farad . This prototype can be impedance scaled and frequency scaled to the desired values . The low @-@ pass prototype can also be transformed into high @-@ pass , band @-@ pass or band @-@ stop types by application of suitable frequency transformations .
= = Cascading sections = =
Several L half @-@ sections may be cascaded to form a composite filter . Like impedance must always face like in these combinations . There are therefore two circuits that can be formed with two identical L half @-@ sections . Where ZiT faces ZiT , the section is called a Π section . Where ZiΠ faces ZiΠ the section formed is a T section . Further additions of half @-@ sections to either of these forms a ladder network which may start and end with series or shunt elements .
It should be born in mind that the characteristics of the filter predicted by the image method are only accurate if the section is terminated with its image impedance . This is usually not true of the sections at either end which are usually terminated with a fixed resistance . The further the section is from the end of the filter , the more accurate the prediction will become since the effects of the terminating impedances are masked by the intervening sections . It is usual to provide half half @-@ sections at the ends of the filter with m = 0 @.@ 6 as this value gives the flattest Zi in the passband and hence the best match in to a resistive termination .
= The Stanley Clarke Band =
The Stanley Clarke Band is an album by jazz bassist Stanley Clarke . It was released by Heads Up Record in June 2010 and was produced by Clarke and Lenny White . Band members include Ruslan Sirota on keyboard , Ronald Bruner , Jr. on drums and Hiromi on piano . The album was awarded the 2011 Grammy for Best Contemporary Jazz Album and the track " No Mystery " was nominated for Best Pop Instrumental Performance . The Guardian gave the album three stars , calling it a " return to a funk repertoire reminiscent of Clarke 's roots in Chick Corea electric bands " , while Allmusic gave it a score of three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars . It is also the second Stanley Clarke album to be credited to The Stanley Clarke Band after his 1985 album Find Out ! .
= = The band = =
A core trio is constant throughout the album with Clarke joined by drummer Ronald Bruner , Jr. and keyboardist Ruslan Sirota . Hiromi is billed as a featured artist playing piano on " No Mystery " , " Larry Has Traveled 11 Miles and Waited a Lifetime for the Return of Vishnu ’ s Report " and her composition " Labyrinth " . Several additional musicians appear on most tracks .
Clarke , in discussing the band has said that " our common thread is improvisation " . Keyboardist Ruslan Sirota is from Israel , Clarke has compared him to Chick Corea and George Duke . Pianist Hiromi is from Japan , Clarke has said that she " plays the piano like a tornado " . Hiromi also played on Clarke 's 2009 album Jazz in the Garden . Clarke referred to drummer Ronald Bruner , from Compton , California , as " one of the most important drummers out there " . Bruner and Sirota had been playing with Clarke for five years or so before the album 's release .
The additional musicians include two guitarists Charles Altura and Rob Bacon , bassist Armand Sabal @-@ Lecco on " Fulani " , keyboardist Felton Pilate on " Here 's Why Tears Dry " , saxophonists Bob Sheppard on " Larry Has Traveled 11 Miles and Waited a Lifetime for the Return of Vishnu ’ s Report " . Lorenzo Dunn from Earth , Wind & Fire plays the bass synthesizer on " Soldier " . " Sonny Rollins " features Manhattan Transfer vocalist Cheryl Bentyne and a full horn section with Sheppard sharing saxophone duties with Doug Webb , plus trumpeter John Papenbrook and trombonist Andrew Lippman . Natasha Agrama and Ilsey Juber provide vocals on " Soldier " .
= = Music = =
In describing the album , Clarke said , " Technically , it 's a Stanley Clarke record , but it 's very much a band @-@ oriented record at the same time " . Comparing the album to a ship , he said , " I 'd be the one steering the ship and keeping everybody on course . But all hands were definitely on deck , and everyone played an important role in getting us to our destination " . Clarke has said that this will be his last electric album for a while . Clarke co @-@ produced the album with Lenny White who played drums on Clarke 's 2009 album Jazz in the Garden .
= = Tracks = =
" Soldier " , Ruslan Sirota 's compositional contribution to the album , includes a piano solo with elements borrowed from McCoy Tyner and Herbie Hancock . It was called " Methenyesque " by music critic John Fordham . The track " Fulani " was written by Armand Sabal @-@ Lecco and is " Africa @-@ inspired " and " has a crunching rock feel " .
Talking about the track " Here 's Why Tears Dry " Clarke said , " The tune came about when a family member was ending a long @-@ time love affair . There were a lot of tears , so I came up with that song . The tears evaporate into thin air , and the pain eventually goes away . " " I Wanna Play for You Too " was written by Felton Pilate who plays keyboards on the track .
" Bass Folk Song No. 10 " and the album 's closing track , " Bass Folk Song No. 6 " are both bass solo performances that Clarke wrote many years before they were recorded here . " No Mystery " is a reworking of the song written by Chick Corea when he and Clarke were bandmates in Return to Forever .
" How Is the Weather Up There ? " was written by Clarke and Ronald Bruner , Jr . , and deals with global warming . The song was built around comments left by his fans in response to a post on Clarke 's Facebook page asking for thoughts on global warming .
" Larry Has Traveled 11 Miles and Waited a Lifetime for the Return of Vishnu ’ s Report " pays homage in its name and musical stylings to Larry Coryell 's The Eleventh House , Miles Davis , Mahavishnu Orchestra , The Tony Williams Lifetime , Return to Forever , and Weather Report , all jazz fusion pioneers .
" Labyrinth " was composed by Hiromi and contains elements from " My Favorite Things " with a " funky touch " . " Sonny Rollins " is a Caribbean flavored tribute to saxophonist Sonny Rollins featuring Bob Sheppard on tenor sax and vocals by Cheryl Bentyne .
= = Reception = =
John Fordham of The Guardian called the album a " return to a funk repertoire reminiscent of Clarke 's roots in Chick Corea electric bands " . He goes on to call it " more than just a box @-@ ticking piece of jazz @-@ funk commercialism " but laments " Clarke could probably play a lot of this kind of thing in his sleep " . William R. Wood wrote in the Kalamazoo Gazette that " Clarke ’ s complex bass work is invigorating as he blends jazz , rock and funk " .
Thom Jurek of Allmusic wrote that the album " feels more like a band record than anything [ Clarke has ] done in decades " . He praises Clarke 's choice in bandmates , calling them " prodigies in their own right " but does not praise the whole album . He called " Larry Has Traveled 11 Miles and Waited a Lifetime for the Return of Vishnu 's Report " a " clumsy , failed attempt at summing up the music 's history to date " and that " Bass Folk Song No. 6 " does not " work [ as ] well " as some of the other tracks but " these are minor complaints on an otherwise fine recording " . Jeff Winbush of All About Jazz commented that there " are no radical departures " on this album and it sounds as if Clarke is " taking a victory lap here , revisiting past triumphs " but that he " still pull [ s ] sounds out of his assortment of electric , acoustic and Alembic basses like nobody else , and [ is ] still slapping , plucking and thumbing his way through contemporary , fusion jazz , rock , funk and whatever else he puts his mind to " .
= = Awards = =
The album won the 2011 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Jazz Album and the track " No Mystery " was nominated for Best Pop Instrumental Performance . Clarke accepted his Grammy with his bandmates Ronald Bruner , Jr. and Ruslan Sirota and his wife , Sofi , at the Staples Center during a pre @-@ telecast ceremony . Clarke was on tour in Australia with Return to Forever when he learned of his nominations .
The other nominees for Best Contemporary Jazz Album were Never Can Say Goodbye by Joey DeFrancesco , Now Is the Time by Jeff Lorber Fusion , To the One by John McLaughlin , and Backatown by Trombone Shorty . The Best Pop Instrumental Performance was awarded to Jeff Beck for his rendition of " Nessun dorma " .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written by Stanley Clarke unless noted
" Soldier " ( Ruslan Sirota ) 7 : 07
" Fulani " ( Armand Sabal @-@ Lecco ) 6 : 29
" Here 's Why Tears Dry " 4 : 52
" I Wanna Play for You Too " ( Felton C. Pilate II ) 4 : 13
" Bass Folk Song No. 10 " 3 : 40
" No Mystery " ( Chick Corea ) 7 : 09
" How Is the Weather Up There ? " ( Ronald Bruner , Jr . , Clarke ) 5 : 54
" Larry Has Traveled 11 Miles and Waited a Lifetime for the Return of Vishnu ’ s Report " 6 : 32
" Labyrinth " ( Hiromi ) 5 : 56
" Sonny Rollins " 8 : 49
" Bass Folk Song No. 6 ( Mo Anam Cara ) " 2 : 41
= = Credits = =
= = Chart performance = =
= Climate Change Denial : Heads in the Sand =
Climate Change Denial : Heads in the Sand is a non @-@ fiction book about climate change denial , coauthored by Haydn Washington and John Cook , with a foreword by Naomi Oreskes . Washington had a background in environmental science prior to authoring the work , and Cook was educated in physics and founded the website Skeptical Science which compiles peer @-@ reviewed evidence of global warming . The book was first published in hardcover and paperback formats in 2011 by Earthscan , a division of Routledge .
The book presents an in @-@ depth analysis and refutation of climate change denial , going over several arguments point @-@ by @-@ point and disproving them with peer @-@ reviewed evidence from the scientific consensus for climate change . The authors assert that those denying climate change engage in tactics including cherry picking data purported to support their specific viewpoints , and attacking the integrity of climate scientists . They use social science theory to examine the phenomenon of climate change denial in the wider public , and call this phenomenon a form of pathology .
The book traces financial support for climate change denial to the fossil fuel industry , asserting these companies have attempted to influence public opinion on the matter . Washington and Cook write that politicians have a tendency to use weasel words as part of a propaganda tactic through use of spin , as a way to deflect public interest away from climate change and remain passive on the issue . The authors conclude that if the public ceased engaging in denial , the problem of climate change could be realistically addressed .
For his research on the book , and efforts in communicating the essence of climate change science to the general public , John Cook won the 2011 Australian Museum Eureka Prize for Advancement of Climate Change Knowledge . Climate Change Denial received a positive reception in reviews from publications including : The Ecologist , ECOS magazine , academic journal Natures Sciences Sociétés , the journal Education published by the New South Wales Teachers Federation , . An article in The New American was critical , describing the labels of " deniers " and " denialists " as cruel and forms of character assassination .
= = Background = =
The book was coauthored by Australian environmental science researchers Haydn Washington and John Cook . Washington worked for over 30 years as an environmental scientist prior to writing the book . His previously published books on the subject of environmental science include : Ecosolutions ( 1991 ) , A Sense of Wonder ( 2002 ) , and The Wilderness Knot ( 2009 ) . In 2015 , Washington was a Visiting Fellow with the Institute of Environmental Studies at the University of New South Wales .
Cook 's education includes a background in physics . Prior to his work on the book , Cook founded the website Skeptical Science , which compiles peer @-@ reviewed evidence of climate change . He placed on the site the most common assertions made by individuals arguing against the scientific consensus for climate change , with evidence to refute each point they made . After the publication of Climate Change Denial : Heads in the Sand , Cook coauthored another book on the subject , Climate Change Science : A Modern Synthesis : Volume 1 – The Physical Climate ( 2013 ) . In 2015 , Cook served as the climate communication fellow at the University of Queensland .
Climate Change Denial : Heads in the Sand was first published in 2011 by Earthscan , a division of Routledge . Both hardcover and paperback editions were released in April 2011 . It was released the same year by the publisher in an electronic book format . A second eBook release was published by Routledge in 2012 . The book was made available via Kindle by Amazon.com in May 2013 .
= = Contents summary = =
Climate Change Denial : Heads in the Sand presents a detailed analysis and refutation of climate change denial . In her foreword to the book , Naomi Oreskes writes that people fall victim to the phenomenon of denial due to feeling frightened . The book examines several arguments against global warming , and uses peer @-@ reviewed evidence from the scientific consensus to back @-@ up rationale for disputing the validity of each argument . The methodology of those denying climate change is assessed , including : cherry picking data purporting to support their specific viewpoints , maintaining a high bar for evidence of climate change by those denying it , and criticism of the values of climate scientists themselves . The book puts forth an explanation why certain individuals , and the wider public , have a tendency to deny the scientific consensus for climate change .
The authors discuss the broader concept of denial using social science theory , noting its occurrence appears in society when individuals are frightened or ashamed of their actions . They write that these motivations , when expanded from an individual to wider society , present themselves as a form of disease . The book identifies climate change denial itself as a pathology afflicting the culture of the planet . The authors lament that an inverse relationship exists between an increasing scientific consensus regarding climate change , and a simultaneous increase in denial within the greater public about the same issue .
The book identifies a corporate underpinning influencing public opinion by way of companies which derive profit from the fossil fuel industry . Washington and Cook write that politicians often use weasel words as a form of spin and propaganda , in order to act as if they are going to do something about climate change , while in actuality remaining passive on the issue . The authors go on to identify a greater level of denial — within the wider public itself . They argue that society enables denial of climate science through inaction and resistance to the scientific consensus . The authors conclude that if the public stopped denying climate change , the problem itself could realistically be significantly addressed .
= = Reception = =
The book 's coauthor John Cook won the 2011 Eureka Prize for Advancement of Climate Change Knowledge , awarded by the New South Wales Government as part of the Australian Museum Eureka Prizes , and was honoured for his role in communicating the essence of climate change science to the general public . Director of the University of Queensland Global Change Institute , Professor Ove Hoegh @-@ Guldberg , cited Cook 's research and authorship of Climate Change Denial : Heads in the Sand as the rationale behind him winning the award .
The Ecologist reviewed the book and described it as : " well researched and painstakingly footnoted " . The review concluded : Climate Change Denial is a wise and timely book . ... It deserves an audience " . Writing for ECOS magazine , Mary @-@ Lou Considine wrote that the book " dissects objections to the peer @-@ reviewed science " in " forensic detail " . Considine recommended the book for those who had previously visited the website Skeptical Science and subsequently wanted to learn more about the wider topic discussed on the site .
In a review of the book by the academic journal Natures Sciences Sociétés , the authors ' thesis was praised for its ability to bring reason to their analysis : " This book shows how we can break through denial , accept reality , and thus solve the climate crisis " . Natures Sciences Sociétés recommended the work for multiple stakeholders , concluding : " It will engage scientists , university students , climate change activists as well as the general public seeking to roll back denial and act " .
Janine Kitson reviewed the book for the journal Education , a publication of the New South Wales Teachers Federation . Kitson described the work as timely and important within the context of a need for the public to act before a point of no return : " This is a crucial book to read before runaway climate change is truly beyond our control " . Her review concluded : " One can only hope that this book will be read by climate deniers so we can start the challenging journey to an ecologically sustainable future " .
In The New American , contributor William F. Jasper criticised the book 's authors ' characterization of those who engage in climate change denial as character assassination . He wrote that the labels " deniers " and " denialists " were non @-@ constructive and cruel . Jasper disputed the book 's thesis that individuals who disagreed with anthropogenic global warming were organised and financed by the fossil fuel industry .
= Crysis 3 =
Crysis 3 is a first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Crytek and published by Electronic Arts for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 . It was released in North America on 19 February 2013 . Officially announced 16 April 2012 , it is the third main installment of the Crysis series , a sequel to the 2011 video game Crysis 2 . The multiplayer portion of the game was developed by Crytek UK .
Set in the year 2047 , the game takes place in New York City , which has been encased in a giant Nanodome created by the corrupt CELL corporation , and turned into a veritable urban rainforest . Crysis 3 's story revolves around Prophet , a Nanosuit holder who is on a quest to take revenge on the Alpha Ceph , the leader of the Ceph alien race , with the help of his former companion , Psycho . The game 's story serves as the end of the Crysis trilogy . Gameplay revolves around the use of the Nanosuit , which grants players a variety of abilities such as being invisible . New features introduced in Crysis 3 include a new Nanosuit ability called " Rip & Throw " , a new compound bow and the " hacking " feature , which allows players to hack into enemies ' equipment and weapons .
The game is set in a post @-@ apocalyptic New York City , in an effort to combine the urban landscape of Crysis 2 and the forest setting of the original Crysis . The game introduces the " Seven Wonders " , with each wonder having its own unique landscape . Due to complaints about Crysis 2 's linearity , the game 's levels were opened up so as to grant players more freedom . The development team also put efforts into creating a more emotional story , and the story 's protagonist , Prophet , was inspired by the lead character of District 9 . The game was developed by a team of 100 people during its 23 months development cycle .
Crysis 3 was met with positive reception after its release . Praise was directed at the game 's level design , visuals and multiplayer , while it was criticised for its story and length . With a budget of $ 66 million , the game sold 205 @,@ 000 copies in its debut month , and became a commercial failure for Electronic Arts . The game was later included in the The Crysis Trilogy bundle , which was released on February 20 , 2014 .
= = Gameplay = =
Similar to the earlier games in the Crysis series , Crysis 3 is a first @-@ person shooter . Players take control of Prophet as he progresses through New York City to defeat the Ceph , an alien race . Throughout the game , players can slide , sprint , jump and crouch . When encountering enemies , players can defeat them by shooting guns or arrows , throwing explosives like grenades and C4 , or by performing a melee attack . Performing certain movements takes up energy from the Nanosuit , the armor worn by Prophet . Some abilities are not available for players to perform or utilize if the Nanosuit 's energy is too low ; they must wait until energy is refilled . As a result , players are tasked to manage the use of the energy . The game 's artificial intelligence was updated allowing enemies to react more quickly to players ' attacks . Enemies can take cover when attacked , and can deploy strategy to assist and support each other against attacks .
The Nanosuit allows players to identify the threat level , and the weapons held by enemies . Players can tag enemies and items by enabling visor , and can spot enemies using Nano @-@ Vision , which detects the heat of both enemies and allies . Levels are more open @-@ ended than in Crysis 2 . Players are given more freedom , and can choose a gameplay style based on direct confrontation , or a more discreet and stealthy approach , in order to deal with enemies and to complete their objectives . There is no definite way to beat the game 's seven levels . Instead , players can take different alternate routes to reach their objectives . Players can fight against enemies utilizing a wide array of gadgets and weapons , and by using the abilities processed by the Nanosuit . They can utilize an invisibility cloak to evade enemies , prevent themselves from being detected , or to perform silent takedowns . New weapons are introduced in Crysis 3 , such as a compound bow . Players can use the bow while using the cloak . When using other firearms , the cloak is disrupted and can no longer function until it cools down . Arrows can be collected by players after use . Players can hack into enemies ' weapons , one of the game 's new features . In addition , players can hack security codes , weapon boxes , Ceph technology , mines , lasers , and sentry turrets , which can all be used to fight against enemies . Players can also upgrade and customize their weapons and Nanosuits . They can change the attachment and ammo types for their weapons . For instance , players can change between explosive arrows and electric arrows for their bow . The Nanosuit can be upgraded by collecting different modules scattered across the world . These upgrades can increase the suit 's properties , and strengthen or unlock new abilities for players as they progress through the game .
Gameplay remains similar when playing the multiplayer mode . Unlike the single @-@ player campaign , when players sprint or boost their armor in the multiplayer mode , it does not take any energy from the nanosuit . There are 8 different modes , each with 12 available maps . In each mode , special weapons with scarce ammo can be found on a map which can be picked up by players . Players can also activate a new Nanosuit ability called Rip and Throw , in which they interact with environmental objects to create obstacles for hostile players and tactical advantages for themselves . A refined kill streak system is introduced in Crysis 3 , allowing players to gain rewards by killing hostile players simultaneously while collecting their dog tag . In addition to traditional multiplayer modes , a new multiplayer mode , the Hunter mode , is featured in the game . It is an asymmetrical multiplayer mode which pits two teams of players , playing as either hunters , or troopers from CELL , against each other . The two classes are equipped with completely different weapons , and defeated troopers respawn as hunters and have to defeat their former teammates . The PC version of the game can accommodate up to 16 players , while the console versions can only support 12 players .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Players take on the role of Prophet as he returns to New York in 2047 , 24 years after the events of Crysis 2 . He discovers the city has been encased in a giant Nanodome created by the corrupt CELL corporation . The New York City Liberty Dome is a veritable urban rainforest teeming with overgrown trees , dense swamplands , and raging rivers . Within the Liberty Dome , seven distinct and treacherous environments are known as the Seven Wonders . Prophet is said to be on a " revenge mission " after uncovering the truth behind CELL 's motives for building the quarantined Nanodome .
= = = Plot = = =
After the events of Crysis 2 , Psycho and Prophet travel the world looking for the Alpha Ceph , the ultimate Ceph leader . Prophet and Psycho finally trace the Alpha Ceph in Russia and imprison it . However , shortly afterwards CELL Corporation , now attempting global domination of land and technology , disables Prophet in Siberia and captures all the Nanosuit soldiers , skinning them of their suits to recover the Ceph genetics stored in them . CELL transfers Prophet to a facility to skin him . Locked in a storage device , Prophet is transported by CELL to New York , encased within a giant " Nanodome " . He is saved by a resistance force , led by Claire Fontanelli , as Prophet is the only Nanosuit holder who can stop CELL . Psycho explains to Prophet that during his absence , CELL used Ceph technology to generate unlimited energy , and gained a monopoly over the world 's power supply . Those who could not pay for energy were turned into slaves . The source of CELL 's power generation for the entire world , called System X , is located in now abandoned New York . The resistance group wants System X destroyed to free the world from CELL .
After Psycho and Prophet disable System X 's core , it turns out that it is a system protocol designed to contain the Alpha Ceph . However , the secondary defense protocol was initiated , causing the power facility to self @-@ destruct . The Alpha Ceph , free from containment , opens a wormhole to the Ceph homeland . They plan to send a force to invade Earth through the wormhole . With the Alpha Ceph no longer dormant , the Ceph coordinator reactivates , and a coordinated Ceph attack ensues . Prophet decides to kill the Alpha Ceph and end the alien threat .
After unlocking his potential ability by removing some neural blocks in his suit , Prophet learns that CELL plans to use Archangel , a satellite @-@ based energy distribution device that can draw power from the world 's power grid , as a directed energy weapon to destroy the Alpha Ceph . Firing it would cause a chain reaction that would destroy Earth . They shut off the weapon before it has enough energy to fire . Prophet , Psycho , and Fontanelli board the VTOL and engage in a massive air battle with Ceph ships , eventually crashing . Fontanelli dies in the process . Psycho , saddened by her death , laments to Prophet that he is powerless because he no longer possesses a Nanosuit . Encouraged to keep fighting , Psycho , now going by his real name , Michael , finds another VTOL to take Prophet to the Ceph .
Michael and Prophet head towards the Alpha Ceph , but are bogged down by the Ceph Master Mind . Prophet finds his way through the Ceph Army hordes and kills the Alpha Ceph which in turn kills all other Ceph troopers in the area . However , they do not have enough time to destroy the Ceph wormhole structure and the beam powering the wormhole pulls Prophet into space . Now in orbit around Earth , Prophet sees a massive Ceph warship coming through the wormhole . Recalling Archangel 's power , Prophet hacks into the satellite and uses it to destroy the warship . The explosion collapses the wormhole and Prophet is pushed back to Earth . He lands in the water near the Lingshan Islands where the events of Crysis took place 27 years earlier .
When Prophet wakes the next morning , he is in an abandoned hut in Lingshan , the same area Nomad initially encountered during the events of Crysis . As the neural blocks are removed from the Nanosuit , the suit 's outer layer is changed to reform Prophet 's former physical body , resurrecting him . He walks out onto the beach and relinquishes his past by throwing his tags into the water . He then decides to use his actual name " Laurence Barnes " from then on .
= = Development = =
Crysis 3 's development began in February 2011 , two months before the release of Crysis 2 . The game 's development was handled by Crytek Frankfurt ; its multiplayer was handled by Crytek UK . Its development budget was significantly smaller than that of Crysis 2 , as resources and manpower were relocated to develop Homefront 2 and Ryse : Son of Rome . As a result , only about 100 people worked on the game during its 23 months development . The game 's budget was about $ 66 million .
Crysis 2 was criticised for abandoning the island setting of the original Crysis . The studio decided to recreate New York City and set the game in a post @-@ apocalyptic environment . To do this , the company introduced a concept called " Nanodome " , a dome set up by CELL to isolate New York City , which had fallen to ruins over the years . Plants have grown significantly , leading to an environment that is a mix between an urban environment and the jungle setting of the past two games . The decision was made to create this environment as the team wanted to stay away from typical urban war field shown in other games of the same genre . Instead of having a rainforest in the abandoned wasteland , the Nanodome is used to fix the shape of the forest , and Crytek hoped that it would define the atmosphere and the narrative of the game .
The game 's main protagonist is Prophet , a nanosuit holder who had previously appeared in Crysis and Crysis 2 . He returns in Crysis 3 as Crytek considered him as the most complex character who has the longest heritage in the series . When designing him , the team took inspiration from the protagonist of District 9 . Psycho from the original Crysis and Crysis Warhead returns as Prophet 's companion . The game revolves around Prophet attempting to redeem himself by taking revenge after finding his former squad members are dead . The story explores the themes of redemption and revenge as well as the relationship between humans and technology . Mike Read , the game 's producer , summed up the game calling it " human " . Unlike Crysis 2 's protagonist Alcatraz who does not speak throughout the game , Prophet is voiced in Crysis 3 in an effort to deliver more emotional connection . The company made use of performance capture to record actor 's performance , body movements and facial expressions . According to Read , this helps the company to create a more affecting and emotional story . This was not done in the previous games due to technological limitations .
Unlike the original Crysis , which gives players more freedom to explore , Crysis 2 was criticized for being too linear . As a result , in developing the game 's campaign , Crytek attempted to integrate the two major aspects of the previous installments , the freedom given in the original Crysis and the linearity of Crysis 2 . Despite not being as open as the first half of Crysis , maps are significantly larger in this game than in previous installments . Several linear segments were preserved . Crytek referred to the game 's map as " action bubbles " , which do not necessarily fix players in a small place but allows them to move around freely . Linearity was preserved as developers considered having such segments present could help players to experience " epic " moments and " massive Michael Bay " moments . Crytek hoped that by opening up levels they could give players a sense of control , allowing them to plan and execute strategy . The game 's seven levels were developed simultaneously , and the focus phrases of gameplay , art and optimization of a level was about one to two weeks .
Another theme featured in the game is " hunt " and , as a result , many weapons were built around the concept . The studio wanted to stay away from typical weapon design and did not want a weapon to simply differentiate between Crysis 3 and Crysis 2 . The team aimed to use weapons to create narrative . The game features a compound bow which is reminiscent of a weapon that a hunter often uses . The game 's gameplay is built based on three pillars , access , adapt , and attack . Players are often tasked to do detect , spot , and to learn their enemies ' behaviors and patterns before attacking . With the bow , players are encouraged to play the game stealthily , extending the game 's combat . A new feature called " hacking " was developed . According to Crytek , hacking plays a huge role throughout the game . The game 's combat was also made more fast @-@ paced than that of its predecessors .
One of the major goals in developing Crysis 3 was to " push graphics " , as the company considered that they can effectively assist and drive gameplay and create immersion for the player . The game is powered by CryEngine 3 , Crytek 's proprietary engine . It utilizes some of the newest features of CryEngine 3 , such as volumetric fog shadows , improved dynamic vegetation , dynamic caustics , improved area lighting and diffuse shadows . After Crysis 2 received some criticism from PC gamers because of the design sacrifices made due to the limitations of the older console hardware , Crytek responded that the PC version of Crysis 3 will figuratively " melt down PCs " due to its high system requirements . The PC version of the game required a DirectX 11 compatible video card and operating system . Similar to Crysis 2 , the game is a multi @-@ platform title , and Crytek considered the development of the game 's console version a huge obstacle they had to " rip the engine to pieces " so as to get the game running on console .
The multiplayer portion of the game was created by Crytek UK . It was designed to improve the efficiency of the Nanosuit in an online environment . In an effort to create memorable maps , the team designed routes that can only be discovered after a player 's first playthrough . Crytek UK hoped that this approach would help players to become more immersed in the game 's universe . The Hunter mode , introduced in this game , originated from a TimeSplitters 's Gladiator mode . The decision to make sprint energy separated from the nanosuit energy was due to the development team 's desire to create larger levels , and help players to navigate the map in a faster way .
The game 's music was composed by Borislav Slavov , who had previously led the soundtrack development of Crysis 2 . New music was composed for the game , while some other themes from the past installments were rearranged . The theme of the game 's music is changed so as to fit the game 's post @-@ apocalyptic setting . The game 's music is dynamic and is designed to reflect players ' gameplay style . As a result , when players use a radical approach to complete missions , more exciting background music will be played . In contrast , when players are playing stealthily , the background music will be relatively calmer and quieter .
= = Marketing and release = =
In November 2010 , Nathan Camarillo , an executive producer from Crytek , revealed that the Crysis series could potentially be a very long @-@ running franchise , as the company considered the series ' universe easy for players to get into and become invested in . He added : " As the franchise grows down the line , there 's no reason it can 't be as big [ as Call of Duty ] " . The story elements of the game had already been planned in January 2011 . Despite that , Cevat Yerli , Crytek 's CEO , claimed that if Crysis 2 was not a successful title , Crytek would not develop its sequel . In March 2012 , Crytek teased an " absolutely fantastic " project and announced that a full reveal of the game would be held in April 2012 . The game was accidentally revealed by EA on its web store on 11 April 2012 . It
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The agency carried out an unusual legal manoeuvre to speed up the works , declassifying the barn from a scheduled monument to a Grade I listed building . This enabled the notice to be issued more speedily , overriding the owners ' objections .
The repairs mainly involved fixing holes in the roof and preventing the ingress of rain water , as well as repairing the weatherboards on the sides . The intervention by English Heritage led to a protracted dispute over the £ 30 @,@ 000 cost of the repairs that was scheduled to come to trial at the High Court of Justice in April 2012 . In January 2012 , a settlement was reached in which Harmondsworth Barn Ltd sold the barn to English Heritage for £ 20 @,@ 000 . By that time the government had abandoned its plans to expand Heathrow Airport and the barn had become a liability for the company .
Simon Thurley , the Chief Executive of English Heritage , called the barn " one of the greatest medieval buildings in Britain , built by the same skilled carpenters who worked on our magnificent medieval cathedrals . Its rescue is at the heart of what English Heritage does . " The local Member of Parliament , John McDonnell , praised the hard work of local people and English Heritage staff and said that he was " now overjoyed that we have secured this wonderful building for future generations . " The SPAB also welcomed the decision , calling the barn one of the " symbols of the dominance of the rural economy in the past , and the immense investment in craftsmanship and materials that agriculture deserved . "
= = Reopening and future management = =
The barn is managed by volunteers from the Friends of the Great Barn at Harmondsworth , a local preservation group , acting on behalf of the owners , English Heritage . It is open to the public for free on the second and fourth Sunday of each month between April and October .
= Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act =
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act ( PPACA ) , commonly called the Affordable Care Act ( ACA ) or , colloquially , Obamacare , is a United States federal statute signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23 , 2010 . Together with the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act amendment , it represents the most significant regulatory overhaul of the U.S. healthcare system since the passage of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965 . Under the act , hospitals and primary physicians would transform their practices financially , technologically , and clinically to drive better health outcomes , lower costs , and improve their methods of distribution and accessibility .
The ACA was enacted to increase the quality and affordability of health insurance , lower the uninsured rate by expanding public and private insurance coverage , and reduce the costs of healthcare for individuals and the government . It introduced mechanisms like mandates , subsidies , and insurance exchanges . The law requires insurance companies to cover all applicants within new minimum standards and offer the same rates regardless of pre @-@ existing conditions or sex . In 2011 , the Congressional Budget Office projected that the ACA would lower both future deficits and Medicare spending .
On June 28 , 2012 , the United States Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the ACA 's individual mandate as an exercise of Congress 's taxing power in the case National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius . However , the Court held that states cannot be forced to participate in the ACA 's Medicaid expansion under penalty of losing their current Medicaid funding . Since the ruling , the law and its implementation have continued to face challenges in Congress and federal courts , and from some state governments , conservative advocacy groups , labor unions , and small business organizations . On June 25 , 2015 , in the case King v. Burwell , the Supreme Court affirmed that the law 's federal subsidies to help individuals pay for health insurance are available in all states , not just in those that have set up state exchanges .
In March 2015 , the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that the average number of uninsured during the period from January to September 2014 was 11 @.@ 4 million fewer than the average in 2010 . In April 2016 , Gallup reported that the percentage of adults who were uninsured dropped from 18 % in the third quarter of 2013 to 11 % in the first quarter of 2016 .
= = Overview of provisions = =
The Affordable Care Act ( ACA ) or Obamacare , includes numerous provisions that took effect between 2010 and 2020 . Policies issued before 2010 are exempted by a grandfather clause from many of the changes to insurance standards , but they were affected by other provisions . Significant reforms , most of which took effect on January 1 , 2014 , include :
Guaranteed issue prohibits insurers from denying coverage to individuals due to pre @-@ existing conditions , and a partial community rating requires insurers to offer the same premium price to all applicants of the same age and geographical location without regard to gender or most pre @-@ existing conditions ( excluding tobacco use ) .
Minimum standards for health insurance policies are established .
An individual mandate requires all individuals not covered by an employer sponsored health plan , Medicaid , Medicare or other public insurance programs ( such as Tricare ) to secure an approved private @-@ insurance policy or pay a penalty , unless the applicable individual has a financial hardship or is a member of a recognized religious sect exempted by the Internal Revenue Service . The law includes subsidies to help people with low incomes comply with the mandate .
Health insurance exchanges operate as a new avenue by which individuals and small businesses in every state can compare policies and buy insurance ( with a government subsidy if eligible ) . For plans starting in 2017 , the proposed enrollment period is November 1 , 2016 – January 31 , 2017 .
Low @-@ income individuals and families whose incomes are between 100 % and 400 % of the federal poverty level will receive federal subsidies on a sliding scale if they purchase insurance via an exchange . Section 1401 ( 36B ) of PPACA explains that each subsidy will be provided as an advanceable , refundable tax credit and gives a formula for its calculation . The formula was changed in the amendments ( HR 4872 ) passed March 23 , 2010 , in section 1001 . In 2015 , the subsidy would apply for incomes up to $ 46 @,@ 680 for an individual or $ 95 @,@ 400 for a family of four ; consumers can choose to receive their tax credits in advance , and the exchange will send the money directly to the insurer every month . Small businesses will be eligible for subsidies .
Medicaid eligibility expanded to include individuals and families with incomes up to 133 % of the federal poverty level , including adults without disabilities and without dependent children . The law also provides for a 5 % " income disregard " , making the effective income eligibility limit for Medicaid 138 % of the poverty level . Furthermore , the State Children 's Health Insurance Program ( CHIP ) enrollment process is simplified . However , in National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius , the Supreme Court ruled that states may opt out of the Medicaid expansion , and several have done so .
Dependents , mostly children , will be permitted to remain on their parents ' insurance plan until their 26th birthday , and regulations implemented under the ACA include dependents that no longer live with their parents , are not a dependent on a parent 's tax return , are no longer a student , or are married .
Insurers are prohibited from imposing lifetime dollar limits on essential benefits , like hospital stays , in new policies issued .
Insurers are prohibited from dropping policyholders when they get sick .
All new insurance plans must cover preventive care and medical screenings rated Level A or B by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force . Insurers are prohibited from charging co @-@ payments , co @-@ insurance , or deductibles for these services .
Reforms to the Medicare payment system are meant to promote greater efficiency in the healthcare delivery system by restructuring Medicare reimbursements from fee @-@ for @-@ service to bundled payments . Under the new payment system , a single payment is paid to a hospital and a physician group for a defined episode of care ( such as a hip replacement ) rather than individual payments to individual service providers . In addition , the Medicare Part D coverage gap ( commonly called the " donut hole " ) will shrink incrementally , closing completely by January 1 , 2020 .
The Hospital Readmissions Reduction Program ( HRPP ) was established as an addition to the Social Security Act , in an effort to reduce hospital readmissions and the cost they incur to Medicare . This program penalizes hospitals with higher than expected readmission rates by decreasing their Medicare reimbursement rate .
Businesses that employ 50 or more people but do not offer health insurance to their full @-@ time employees will pay a tax penalty if the government has subsidized a full @-@ time employee 's healthcare through tax deductions or other means . This is commonly known as the employer mandate . In July 2013 , the Internal Revenue Service delayed enforcement of this provision for one year .
= = Legislative history = =
= = = Background = = =
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act consists of a combination of measures to control healthcare costs , and an expansion of coverage through public and private insurance : broader Medicaid eligibility and Medicare coverage , and subsidized , regulated private insurance . An individual mandate coupled with subsidies for private insurance as a means for universal healthcare was considered the best way to win the support of the Senate because it had been included in prior bipartisan reform proposals . The concept goes back to at least 1989 , when the conservative Heritage Foundation proposed an individual mandate as an alternative to single @-@ payer health care . It was championed for a time by conservative economists and Republican senators as a market @-@ based approach to healthcare reform on the basis of individual responsibility and avoidance of free rider problems . Specifically , because the 1986 Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act ( EMTALA ) requires any hospital participating in Medicare ( which nearly all do ) to provide emergency care to anyone who needs it , the government often indirectly bore the cost of those without the ability to pay .
When President Bill Clinton proposed a healthcare reform bill in 1993 that included a mandate for employers to provide health insurance to all employees through a regulated marketplace of health maintenance organizations , Republican Senators proposed an alternative that would have required individuals , but not employers , to buy insurance . Ultimately the Clinton plan failed amid an unprecedented barrage of negative advertising funded by politically conservative groups and the health insurance industry and due to concerns that it was overly complex . After failing to obtain a comprehensive reform of the healthcare system , Clinton negotiated a compromise with the 105th Congress to instead enact the State Children 's Health Insurance Program ( SCHIP ) in 1997 .
The 1993 Republican alternative , introduced by Senator John Chafee as the Health Equity and Access Reform Today Act , contained a " universal coverage " requirement with a penalty for noncompliance — an individual mandate — as well as subsidies to be used in state @-@ based ' purchasing groups ' . Advocates for the 1993 bill included prominent Republicans who , by the time of the Affordable Care Act , opposed a mandate , such as Senators Orrin Hatch , Chuck Grassley , Bob Bennett , and Kit Bond . Of the 43 Republicans Senators from 1993 , 20 supported the HEART Act . Another Republican proposal , introduced in 1994 by Senator Don Nickles ( R @-@ OK ) , the Consumer Choice Health Security Act , contained an individual mandate with a penalty provision ; however , Nickles subsequently removed the mandate from the bill , stating he had decided " that government should not compel people to buy health insurance " . At the time of these proposals , Republicans did not raise constitutional issues with the mandate ; Mark Pauly , who helped develop a proposal that included an individual mandate for George H. W. Bush , remarked , " I don 't remember that being raised at all . The way it was viewed by the Congressional Budget Office in 1994 was , effectively , as a tax . "
In 2006 , an insurance expansion bill was enacted at the state level in Massachusetts . The bill contained both an individual health insurance mandate and an insurance exchange . Republican Governor Mitt Romney vetoed the mandate , but after Democrats overrode his veto , he signed it into law . Romney 's implementation of the ' Health Connector ' exchange and individual mandate in Massachusetts was at first lauded by Republicans . During Romney 's 2008 presidential campaign , Senator Jim DeMint praised Romney 's ability to " take some good conservative ideas , like private health insurance , and apply them to the need to have everyone insured " . Romney said of the individual mandate : " I 'm proud of what we 've done . If Massachusetts succeeds in implementing it , then that will be the model for the nation . "
In 2007 , a year after the Massachusetts reform , Republican Senator Bob Bennett and Democratic Senator Ron Wyden introduced the Healthy Americans Act , which also featured an individual mandate and state @-@ based regulated insurance markets called " State Health Help Agencies " . The bill initially attracted bipartisan support but died in committee . Many of the sponsors and co @-@ sponsors remained in Congress during the 2008 healthcare debate .
By 2008 many Democrats were considering using this approach as the basis for healthcare reform . Experts have said that the legislation that eventually emerged from Congress in 2009 and 2010 bears many similarities to the 2007 bill and that it was deliberately patterned after Romney 's state healthcare plan . Jonathan Gruber , a professor of economics at MIT and an architect of Massachusetts ' health care reform who advised the Clinton and Obama presidential campaigns on healthcare issues , served as a technical consultant to the Obama administration , and helped draft the ACA .
= = = Healthcare debate , 2008 – 10 = = =
Healthcare reform was a major topic of discussion during the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries . As the race narrowed , attention focused on the plans presented by the two leading candidates , Hillary Clinton and the eventual nominee , Barack Obama . Each candidate proposed a plan to cover the approximately 45 million Americans estimated to not have health insurance at some point each year . Clinton 's plan would have required all Americans to obtain coverage ( in effect , an individual mandate ) , while Obama 's provided a subsidy but rejected the use of an individual mandate . During the general election , Obama said that fixing healthcare would be one of his top four priorities if he won the presidency .
After his inauguration , Obama announced to a joint session of Congress in February 2009 his intent to work with Congress to construct a plan for healthcare reform . By July , a series of bills were approved by committees within the House of Representatives . On the Senate side , from June to September , the Senate Finance Committee held a series of 31 meetings to develop a healthcare reform bill . This group — in particular , Democrats Max Baucus , Jeff Bingaman , and Kent Conrad , and Republicans Mike Enzi , Chuck Grassley , and Olympia Snowe — met for more than 60 hours , and the principles that they discussed , in conjunction with the other committees , became the foundation of the Senate 's healthcare reform bill .
With universal healthcare as one of the stated goals of the Obama administration , congressional Democrats and health policy experts like Jonathan Gruber and David Cutler argued that guaranteed issue would require both community rating and an individual mandate to ensure that adverse selection and / or " free riding " would not result in an insurance " death spiral " ; they convinced Obama that this was necessary , and persuaded him to accept congressional proposals that included a mandate . This approach was taken because the president and congressional leaders had concluded that more progressive plans , such as the ( single @-@ payer ) Medicare for All act , could not obtain filibuster @-@ proof support in the Senate . By deliberately drawing on bipartisan ideas — the same basic outline was supported by former Senate majority leaders Howard Baker , Bob Dole , Tom Daschle and George J. Mitchell — the bill 's drafters hoped to increase the chances of garnering the necessary votes for passage .
However , following the adoption of an individual mandate as a central component of the proposed reforms by Democrats , Republicans began to oppose the mandate and threatened to filibuster any bills that contained it . Senate minority leader Mitch McConnell , who led the Republican congressional strategy in responding to the bill , calculated that Republicans should not support the bill , and worked to keep party discipline and prevent defections :
It was absolutely critical that everybody be together because if the proponents of the bill were able to say it was bipartisan , it tended to convey to the public that this is O.K. , they must have figured it out .
Republican Senators , including those who had supported previous bills with a similar mandate , began to describe the mandate as " unconstitutional " . Journalist Ezra Klein wrote in The New Yorker that " the end result was ... a policy that once enjoyed broad support within the Republican Party suddenly faced unified opposition . " Reporter Michael Cooper of The New York Times wrote that : " It can be difficult to remember now , given the ferocity with which many Republicans assail it as an attack on freedom , but the provision in President Obama 's healthcare law requiring all Americans to buy health insurance has its roots in conservative thinking . "
The reform negotiations also attracted a great deal of attention from lobbyists , including deals between certain lobby groups and the advocates of the law to win the support of groups that had opposed past reforms , as in 1993 . The Sunlight Foundation documented many of the reported ties between " the healthcare lobbyist complex " and politicians in both major parties .
During the August 2009 summer congressional recess , many members went back to their districts and entertained town hall meetings to solicit public opinion on the proposals . Over the recess , the Tea Party movement organized protests and many conservative groups and individuals targeted congressional town hall meetings to voice their opposition to the proposed reform bills . There were also many threats made against members of Congress over the course of the Congressional debate .
To maintain the progress of the legislative process , when Congress returned from recess , in September 2009 President Obama delivered a speech to a joint session of Congress supporting the ongoing Congressional negotiations , to re @-@ emphasize his commitment to reform and again outline his proposals . He acknowledged the polarization of the debate , and quoted a letter from the late Senator Edward " Ted " Kennedy urging on reform : " what we face is above all a moral issue ; that at stake are not just the details of policy , but fundamental principles of social justice and the character of our country . " On November 7 , the House of Representatives passed the Affordable Health Care for America Act on a 220 – 215 vote and forwarded it to the Senate for passage .
= = = = Senate = = = =
The Senate began work on its own proposals while the House was still working on the Affordable Health Care for America Act . Instead , the Senate took up H.R. 3590 , a bill regarding housing tax breaks for service members . As the United States Constitution requires all revenue @-@ related bills to originate in the House , the Senate took up this bill since it was first passed by the House as a revenue @-@ related modification to the Internal Revenue Code . The bill was then used as the Senate 's vehicle for their healthcare reform proposal , completely revising the content of the bill . The bill as amended would ultimately incorporate elements of proposals that were reported favorably by the Senate Health and Finance committees . With the Republican minority in the Senate vowing to filibuster any bill they did not support , requiring a cloture vote to end debate , 60 votes would be necessary to get passage in the Senate . At the start of the 111th Congress , Democrats had only 58 votes ; the Senate seat in Minnesota ultimately won by Al Franken was still undergoing a recount , and Arlen Specter was still a Republican .
To reach 60 votes , negotiations were undertaken to satisfy the demands of moderate Democrats , and to try to bring several Republican senators aboard ; particular attention was given to Bob Bennett , Mike Enzi , Chuck Grassley , and Olympia Snowe . Negotiations continued even after July 7 — when Franken was sworn into office , and by which time Specter had switched parties — due to disagreements over the substance of the bill , which was still being drafted in committee , and because moderate Democrats hoped to win bipartisan support . Then , on August 25 , before the bill could come up for a vote , Ted Kennedy — a longtime healthcare reform advocate — died , depriving Democrats of their 60th vote . Before Kennedy 's seat was filled , attention was drawn to Snowe because of her vote in favor of the draft bill in the Finance Committee on October 15 , but she explicitly stated that this did not mean she would support the final bill . Paul Kirk was appointed as Senator Kennedy 's temporary replacement on September 24 .
After the Finance Committee vote , negotiations turned to the demands of moderate Democrats , whose votes would be necessary to break the anticipated Republican filibuster . Majority leader Harry Reid focused on satisfying the Democratic caucus 's centrist members until the holdouts came down to Joe Lieberman of Connecticut , an independent who caucused with Democrats , and Ben Nelson , a conservative Democrat , representing Nebraska . Lieberman , despite intense negotiations with Reid in search of a compromise , refused to support a public option , agreeing to vote for the bill only if the provision were not included , although it had majority support in Congress . His demand was met . There was debate among the bill 's supporters over the importance of the public option , although the vast majority of supporters concluded it was a minor part of the reform overall , and Congressional Democrats ' fight for it won various concessions , including conditional waivers allowing states to set up state @-@ based public options such as Vermont 's Green Mountain Care .
With every other Democrat now in favor and every Republican now opposed , the White House and Reid moved on to addressing Nelson 's concerns in order to win filibuster @-@ proof support for the bill ; they had by this point concluded " it was a waste of time dealing with [ Snowe ] " because , after her vote for the draft bill in the Finance Committee , she had come under intense pressure from the Republican Senate leadership . After a final 13 @-@ hour negotiation , Nelson 's support for the bill was won with two concessions : a compromise on abortion , modifying the language of the bill " to give states the right to prohibit coverage of abortion within their own insurance exchanges " , which would require consumers to pay for the procedure out of pocket if the state so decided ; and an amendment to offer a higher rate of Medicaid reimbursement for Nebraska . The latter half of the compromise was derisively called the " Cornhusker Kickback " and was repealed in the subsequent reconciliation amendment bill .
On December 23 , the Senate voted 60 – 39 to end debate on the bill : a cloture vote to end the filibuster . The bill then passed , also 60 – 39 , on December 24 , 2009 , with all Democrats and two independents voting for it , and all Republicans against ( except Jim Bunning , who did not vote ) . The bill was endorsed by the AMA and AARP .
Several weeks later , on January 19 , 2010 , Massachusetts Republican Scott Brown was elected to the Senate in a special election to replace the late Ted Kennedy , having campaigned on giving the Republican minority the 41st vote needed to sustain Republican filibusters . The special election had become significant to the reform debate because of its effects on the legislative process . The first was psychological : the symbolic importance of losing Kennedy 's traditionally Democratic Massachusetts seat made many Congressional Democrats concerned about the political cost of passing a bill . The second effect was more practical : the loss of the Democratic supermajority complicated reform proponents ' legislative strategy .
= = = = House = = = =
Brown 's election meant Democrats could no longer break a filibuster in the Senate . In response , White House Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel argued that Democrats should scale back to a less ambitious bill ; House Speaker Nancy Pelosi pushed back , dismissing Emanuel 's scaled @-@ down approach as " Kiddie Care " . Obama also remained insistent on comprehensive reform , and the news that Anthem Blue Cross in California intended to raise premium rates for its patients by as much as 39 % gave him a new line of argument to reassure nervous Democrats after Scott Brown 's win . On February 22 , President Obama laid out a " Senate @-@ leaning " proposal to consolidate the bills . He held a meeting with both parties ' leaders on February 25 . With Democrats having lost a filibuster @-@ proof supermajority in the Senate but having already passed the Senate bill with 60 votes on December 24 , comprehensive reform proponents ' most workable option was for the House to abandon its bill , the Affordable Health Care for America Act , and pass the Senate 's bill , the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , instead .
Various health policy experts encouraged the House to pass the Senate version , but House Democrats were not happy with it and had expected to be able to negotiate changes in a House @-@ Senate conference before passing a final bill . With that option off the table , since any bill that emerged from conference that differed from the Senate bill would have to be passed in the Senate despite another Republican filibuster , most House Democrats agreed to pass the Senate bill on condition that it be amended by a subsequent bill . They drafted the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act , which could be passed by the reconciliation process .
Unlike rules under regular order , as per the Congressional Budget Act of 1974 , reconciliation cannot be subject to a filibuster . But reconciliation is limited to budget changes , which is why the procedure was not used to pass the ACA in the first place ; the bill had inherently non @-@ budgetary regulations . Still , although the already passed Senate bill could not have been passed by reconciliation , most of House Democrats ' demands were budgetary : " these changes — higher subsidy levels , different kinds of taxes to pay for them , nixing the Nebraska Medicaid deal — mainly involve taxes and spending . In other words , they 're exactly the kinds of policies that are well @-@ suited for reconciliation . "
The remaining obstacle was a pivotal group of pro @-@ life Democrats led by Bart Stupak who were initially reluctant to support the bill . The group found the possibility of federal funding for abortion significant enough to warrant opposition . The Senate bill had not included language that satisfied their abortion concerns , but they could not include additional such language in the reconciliation bill as it would be non @-@ budgetary and thus outside the process 's domain . Instead , Obama issued Executive Order 13535 , reaffirming the principles in the Hyde Amendment . This won the support of Stupak and members of his group and assured the bill 's passage . The House passed the Senate bill with a 219 – 212 vote on March 21 , 2010 , with 34 Democrats and all 178 Republicans voting against it . The next day , Republicans introduced legislation to repeal the bill . Obama signed the ACA into law on March 23 , 2010 . The amendment bill , The Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act , was also passed by the House on March 21 ; the Senate passed it by reconciliation on March 25 , and Obama signed it on March 30 .
= = Impact = =
= = = Public policy = = =
The Affordable Care Act represents the most significant regulatory overhaul of the U.S. healthcare system since the passage of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965 . The New York Times summarized the overall impact of the Affordable Care Act on a variety of dimensions during October 2014 . The number of uninsured persons has been reduced significantly . About 7 @.@ 3 million people remain enrolled in private coverage through the online marketplaces ; 85 % of those qualified for federal subsidies to help pay premiums . For those who qualified for subsidies through the federal exchange , the subsidies lowered the cost by 76 % on average . Middle @-@ income persons who don 't qualify for subsidies are more likely to have challenges with premium costs . It is too early to tell whether the Act has affected health outcomes . While healthcare costs have grown slower in recent years , the effect of ACA on this trend is unclear . The healthcare industry has generally been helped by the law , due to the additional customers the law created for it .
= = = = Change in number of uninsured = = = =
The ACA has two primary mechanisms for increasing insurance coverage : expanding Medicaid eligibility to include individuals within 138 % of the federal poverty level , and creating state @-@ based insurance exchanges where individuals and small business can buy health insurance plans — those individuals with incomes between 100 % and 400 % of the federal poverty level will be eligible for subsidies to do so . The Congressional Budget Office ( CBO ) originally estimated that the legislation will reduce the number of uninsured residents by 32 million , leaving 23 million uninsured residents in 2019 after the bill 's provisions have all taken effect . With the elderly covered by Medicare , the CBO estimate projected that the law would raise the proportion of insured non @-@ elderly citizens from 83 % to 94 % . A July 2012 CBO estimate raised the expected number of uninsured by 3 million , reflecting the successful legal challenge to the ACA 's expansion of Medicaid .
Among the people who will remain uninsured :
Illegal immigrants , estimated at around 8 million — or roughly a third of the 23 million projection — will be ineligible for insurance subsidies and Medicaid . They will also be exempt from the health insurance mandate but will remain eligible for emergency services under provisions in the 1986 Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act ( EMTALA ) .
Citizens not enrolled in Medicaid despite being eligible .
Citizens not otherwise covered and opting to pay the annual penalty instead of purchasing insurance , mostly younger and single Americans .
Citizens whose insurance coverage would cost more than 8 % of household income and are exempt from paying the annual penalty .
Citizens who live in states that opt out of the Medicaid expansion and who qualify for neither existing Medicaid coverage nor subsidized coverage through the states ' new insurance exchanges .
ACA drafters believed that increasing insurance coverage would not only improve quality of life but also help reduce medical bankruptcies ( currently the leading cause of bankruptcy in America ) and job lock . In addition , many believed that expanding coverage would help ensure that the cost controls successfully function ; healthcare providers could more easily adapt to payment system reforms that incentivize value over quantity if their costs were partially offset — for example , hospitals having to do less charity care or insurers having larger and more stable risk pools to distribute costs over .
Due to the new regulations of guaranteed issue , and allowing children to be included on their parents ' plans until age 26 , several insurance companies announced that they would stop issuing new child @-@ only policies . However , because children would now be covered by their parents ' plans , the Census Bureau found that the number of uninsured 19- to 25 @-@ year @-@ olds had declined by 1 @.@ 6 % or 393 @,@ 000 people by 2011 . Starting January 1 , 2014 , state health insurance exchanges will be required to offer a child @-@ only coverage option , and Medicaid eligibility will be made available to 16 million individuals with incomes below 133 % of the federal poverty level .
Under the law , those workers whose employers offer " affordable coverage " will not be eligible for subsidies in the exchanges . To be eligible , per the law 's definition , the cost of employer @-@ based health insurance must exceed 9 @.@ 5 % of the worker 's household income . In January 2013 the Internal Revenue Service ruled that only the cost of covering the individual employee would be considered in determining whether the cost of coverage exceeded 9 @.@ 5 % of income . However , the cost of a family plan is often higher , but the ruling means that those higher costs will not be considered even if the extra premiums push the cost of coverage above the 9 @.@ 5 % income threshold . The New York Times said this could leave 2 – 4 million Americans unable to afford family coverage under their employers ’ plans and ineligible for subsidies to buy coverage elsewhere .
Multiple 2014 and 2015 studies and surveys indicated that the number of uninsured had fallen due to expanded Medicaid eligibility and health insurance exchanges established due to PPACA . These changes took effect January 1 , 2014 .
The Commonwealth Fund reported in July 2014 that an additional 9 @.@ 5 million people aged 19 – 64 had obtained health insurance , roughly 5 % of the working @-@ aged population .
Gallup reported in April 2015 that the uninsured rate among adults 18 and over fell from 18 @.@ 0 % in Q3 2013 to 11 @.@ 9 % by Q1 2015 .
The Rand Corporation reported that by March 2014 : " Enrollment in employer @-@ sponsored insurance plans increased by 8 @.@ 2 million and Medicaid enrollment increased by 5 @.@ 9 million , although some individuals did lose coverage during this period . The authors also found that 3 @.@ 9 million people are now covered through the state and federal marketplaces — the so called insurance exchanges — and less than 1 million people who previously had individual @-@ market insurance became uninsured during the period in question . While the survey cannot tell if this latter group lost their insurance due to cancellation or because they simply felt the cost was too high , the overall number is very small , representing less than 1 percent of people between the ages of 18 and 64 . " Thereafter , data from August 2014 showed that 7 @.@ 3 million people had enrolled through the marketplace and paid their premiums .
A 2015 study found that as a result of the dependent coverage provision of the ACA allowing young adults to stay on their parents ' plans until age 26 , young adults were more likely to have insurance , a primary care doctor , and report having excellent health . The same study found that this provision had also reduced body mass index among young adults .
In a 2016 scholarly review of ACA accomplishments , Barack Obama presented data showing that the ACA succeeded in sharply increasing insurance coverage . Since the ACA became law , he wrote , the uninsured rate has declined by 43 % , from 16 @.@ 0 % in 2010 to 9 @.@ 1 % in 2015 @,@ 7 with most of that decline occurring after the law 's main coverage provisions took effect in 2014 .
= = = = Insurance exchanges and the individual mandate = = = =
The Act establishes state @-@ based health insurance exchanges . The exchanges are regulated , online marketplaces , administered by either federal or state government , where individuals and small business can purchase private insurance plans starting October 1 , 2013 , with coverage beginning January 1 , 2014 . Individuals with incomes between 100 % and 400 % of the federal poverty level who purchase insurance plans via an exchange will be eligible to receive federal subsidies to help pay premium costs .
The exchanges will take the form of websites where the private plans allowed on sale within them will be regulated and comparable : Consumers will be able to visit these websites or ring a call center , compare the plans on offer , fill out a form to the government that will be used to determine their eligibility for subsidies , and then purchase the insurance of their choice from the options available during limited open enrollment periods . The first open enrollment period will last from October 1 , 2013 , to March 31 , 2014 , after which time uninsured individuals generally may not purchase insurance through an exchange until the following open enrollment period . In subsequent years , the open enrollment period will start on October 15 and end on December 7 . Despite some controversy , Members of Congress and their staff will participate in this system : they are required to obtain health insurance through the exchanges or plans otherwise approved by the bill ( such as Medicare ) instead of the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program that they currently use .
The insurance exchanges are a method designed to create a market for private insurance in a way that addresses market failures , such as the high number of uninsured , medical bankruptcies , coverage limits , unaffordability , and inflation through regulation : Only approved plans that meet certain standards will be allowed to be sold on the exchanges , and insurers will be prohibited from denying insurance to consumers on the basis of pre @-@ existing conditions . Several methods will be employed to make these plans affordable : Subsidies will be provided to those eligible . Regulations intended to reduce prices through competition will make plans and prices more transparent and price comparisons more accessible for consumers with online information ; and federally approved , multi @-@ state plans will be phased @-@ into state exchanges to help guarantee enough options . And price regulations will be implemented , including a minimum medical loss ratio , and partial community rating that prevents price discrimination from pricing individuals out of the market through unaffordable plans or premium increases on the insured — namely poor and sick individuals who are more expensive to cover for insurers motivated either by profit maximization and / or the economics of insurance ; specifically , the risk of an insurance pool not providing enough net @-@ premiums to offset net @-@ pay @-@ outs .
These regulations are enabled to function due to the individual mandate — the requirement to buy insurance or pay a penalty — and the limits on open enrollment , without which healthy people might put @-@ off insuring themselves until they got sick . In such a situation , insurers would have to raise their premiums to afford the remaining ( relatively sicker and thus more expensive ) population , which could create a vicious cycle in which more and more people drop their coverage – a result known as an insurance death spiral . Alternatively , the process could settle at a stable equilibrium relying on relatively high premiums for the insured and less coverage ( and thus more illness and medical bankruptcy ) for the uninsured . The absence of the Mandate would have likely caused the exchanges as a whole to malfunction , and ultimately perform similarly to the current private insurance market , according to its supporters , based on studies by the CBO , Jonathan Gruber , and Rand Health have concluded . Conversely , the inclusion of the mandate increases the size and diversity of the insured population , broadening the risk pool to spread the cost of insurance in a sustainable manner . Policy experience in New Jersey on
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as " rife with gross — and even cruel — distortions " . In 2010 , the Pew Research Center reported that 85 % of Americans were familiar with the claim , and 30 % believed it was true , with three contemporaneous polls finding similar results . A poll in August 2012 found that 39 % of Americans still believed the " death panels " claim .
The " death panel " misconception distorts separate issues initially related to two proposed provisions found in the early drafts of the ACA . One was a claim that under the law , seniors can be denied care due to their age and the other that the government will advise them to end their own lives instead of receiving due care — the former eventually morphing into alluding to the Independent Payment Advisory Board ( IPAB ) , which was established with the passage of the ACA , instead . The IPAB has the authority to determine then recommend additional cost @-@ saving changes to the Medicare program by facilitating the adoption of additional cost @-@ effective treatments and similar cost @-@ recovering measures when the statutory levels set for the administration of the Medicare program are exceeded within any given 3 @-@ year cycle scheduled . In fact , the Board is prohibited from recommending changes that would reduce payments to certain providers before 2020 , and is also prohibited from recommending changes in premiums , benefits , eligibility and taxes , or other changes that would result in rationing .
The other related issue concerns advance @-@ care planning consultation : a section of the House reform proposal would have reimbursed physicians for providing voluntary consultations of Medicare recipients on end @-@ of @-@ life health planning ( which is also covered by many private plans ) , enabling patients to specify , on request , the kind of care they wish to receive in their old age . As described by the site Snopes.com , " This provision would allow patients to prepare for the day when they might be seriously ill and unable to make medical decisions for themselves by engaging in consultations with doctors to discuss the full range of end @-@ of @-@ life care options available to them , and to have the cost of such consultations covered by Medicare ... [ including ] directives to accept or refuse extreme life @-@ saving measures , selection of hospice care programs , appointment of relatives " to act on the patient 's behalf , etc . The provision was not included in the final draft of the 2009 bill that was enacted into law .
= = = = = Members of Congress are not exempt = = = = =
The ACA requires members of Congress and their staffs to obtain health insurance either through an exchange or some other program approved by the law ( such as Medicare ) , instead of using the insurance offered to federal employees ( the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program ) . The federal government will continue to maintain its contributions to the new health insurance plans of federal employees .
= = = = = No benefits for illegal immigrants = = = = =
The ACA does not provide benefits to illegal immigrants , although a poll found that 42 % believed that it does . It explicitly denies insurance subsidies to " unauthorized ( illegal ) aliens " .
= = Opposition and resistance = =
Opposition and efforts to repeal the legislation have drawn support from a range of sources which includes labor unions , prominent conservative advocacy groups , Congressional and many state Republicans , certain small business organizations , and the Tea Party movement . These groups believe the law will lead to disruption of existing health plans , increased costs from new insurance standards , and that it will increase the deficit . Some are also against the idea of universal healthcare , viewing insurance as similar to other commodities to which people are not entitled .
As of 2013 unions that have expressed concerns about the negative impact the ACA will have on their members ' health care benefits , included the AFL @-@ CIO , which called the ACA " highly disruptive " to union health care plans and said it would drive up costs of union @-@ sponsored plans ; and International Brotherhood of Teamsters , United Food and Commercial Workers International Union , and UNITE @-@ HERE , leaders of which sent a letter to Harry Reid ( D @-@ NV ) and Nancy Pelosi ( D @-@ CA ) arguing that " the ACA will shatter not only our hard @-@ earned health benefits , but destroy the foundation of the 40 @-@ hour work week that is the backbone of the American middle class . " In January 2014 , Terry O 'sullivan , president of the Laborers ' International Union of North America ( LIUNA ) and D. Taylor , president of Unite Here sent a letter to Harry Reid ( D @-@ NV ) and Nancy Pelosi ( D @-@ CA ) stating that , " The ACA , as implemented , undermines fair marketplace competition in the health care industry . "
= = = Legal challenges = = =
Opponents of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act turned to the federal courts to challenge the constitutionality of the legislation . In National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius , decided on June 28 , 2012 , the Supreme Court ruled on a 5 – 4 vote that the individual mandate is constitutional under Congress 's taxation powers , although the law could not have been upheld under Congress 's regulatory power under the Commerce Clause . The Court also determined that states could not be forced to participate in the Medicaid expansion , effectively allowing states to opt out of this provision . As written , the ACA withheld all Medicaid funding from states declining to participate in the expansion . The Supreme Court ruled that this withdrawal of funding was unconstitutionally coercive and that individual states had the right to opt out of the Medicaid expansion without losing preexisting Medicaid funding from the federal government . All provisions of ACA will continue in effect or will take effect as scheduled subject to the states ' determination on Medicaid expansion .
In March 2012 the Roman Catholic Church , while supportive of the ACA 's objectives , has voiced concern through the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops that aspects of the mandate covering artificial contraception and sterilization and HHS 's narrow definition of a religious organization were violations of the First Amendment right to free exercise of religion and conscience . Numerous lawsuits are pending addressing these concerns .
On June 25 , 2015 , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6 – 3 that federal subsidies for health insurance premiums could be used in the 34 states that did not set up their own insurance exchanges .
= = = State rejections of Medicaid expansion = = =
Following the Supreme Court ruling in NFIB v. Sebelius , several states with legislatures or governorships controlled by Republicans opted to reject the expanded Medicaid coverage provided for by the Act . Over half of the national uninsured population lives in those states . As of January 2016 , 31 states and the District of Columbia have adopted the Medicaid expansion ; a few states have remained undecided . States that declined to expand Medicaid before 2014 may still choose to opt in at any time .
The drafters of the ACA had intended for Medicaid to cover individuals and families with incomes up to 133 % ( 138 % under effective definitions of income ) of the federal poverty level by expanding Medicaid eligibility and simplifying the CHIP enrollment process . Low @-@ income individuals and families above 100 % and up to 400 % of the federal poverty level were to receive federal subsidies on a sliding scale if they choose to purchase insurance via an exchange . For example , individuals with incomes between 133 % and 150 % of the poverty level would be subsidized such that their premium cost would be 3 % to 4 % of their income . The Supreme Court ruling created the potential for a coverage gap . States that chose to reject the Medicaid expansion could maintain the pre @-@ existing Medicaid eligibility thresholds they have set , which in many states are significantly below 133 % of the poverty line for most individuals . Furthermore , many states do not make Medicaid available to childless adults at any income level . Because subsidies on insurance plans purchased through exchanges are not available to those below the poverty line , this created a coverage gap in those states between the state Medicaid threshold and the subsidy eligibility threshold . For example , in Kansas , where only those able @-@ bodied adults with children and with an income below 32 % of the poverty line are eligible for Medicaid , those with incomes from 32 % to 100 % of the poverty level ( $ 6 @,@ 250 to $ 19 @,@ 530 for a family of three ) would be ineligible for both Medicaid and federal subsidies to buy insurance . If they have no children , able @-@ bodied adults are not eligible for Medicaid in Kansas . Studies of the impact of state decisions to reject the Medicaid expansion , as of July 2013 , calculate that up to 6 @.@ 4 million Americans could fall into this coverage gap . A 2013 Commonwealth Fund report found that if all states that had not expanded Medicaid did so , as many as 21 @.@ 3 million currently uninsured Americans could gain insurance by 2022 .
For states that do expand Medicaid , the federal government pays for 100 % of the expansion through 2016 , and the subsidy tapers to 90 % by 2020 . Several opposing states argue that their 10 % responsibility of funding the expansion will be too much for their states ' budgets . Studies suggest that rejecting the expansion will cost states more than expanding Medicaid due to increased spending on uncompensated emergency care that otherwise would have been partially paid for by Medicaid coverage , as well as deprive opting @-@ out states of federal funding that would benefit the states ' economies if they agreed to the expansion . Medicaid expansion has also been associated with increased tax revenue , job growth and significant reductions in the expansion states ' uninsured population . A 2015 study found that due to states not expanding Medicaid , 7 @.@ 74 million Americans will remain uninsured , and that this would lead to " between 7 @,@ 076 and 16 @,@ 945 more deaths " than if the states had agreed to expand Medicaid .
= = = Non @-@ cooperation = = =
Officials in Texas , Florida , Alabama , Wyoming , Arizona , Oklahoma and Missouri have decided to oppose those elements of the ACA over which they have discretion . For example , Missouri declined to expand Medicaid or establish a health insurance marketplace but is also engaged in an active program of non @-@ cooperation , having enacted a statute forbidding any state or local official to render any aid not specifically required by federal law to the functioning of the Affordable Care Act . Other Republican politicians have tried to discourage efforts to advertise the benefits of the law , and some conservative political groups have launched ad campaigns to discourage enrollment .
= = = Repeal efforts = = =
The ACA has been the subject of unsuccessful repeal efforts by Republicans in the 111th , 112th , and 113th Congresses : U.S. House Reps Steve King ( R @-@ IA ) and Michele Bachmann ( R @-@ MN ) introduced bills in the House to repeal the ACA the day after it was signed , as did Senator Jim DeMint ( R @-@ SC ) in the U.S. Senate . In 2011 , after Republicans gained control of the House of Representatives , one of the first votes held was on a bill titled " Repealing the Job @-@ Killing Health Care Law Act " ( H.R. 2 ) , which the House passed on a 245 – 189 vote . All Republicans and 3 Democrats voted for repeal . House Democrats proposed an amendment that repeal not take effect until a majority of the Senators and Representatives had opted out of the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program ; Republicans voted down the measure . In the Senate , the bill was offered as an amendment to an unrelated bill but was voted down . President Obama had stated that he would have vetoed the bill even if it had passed both chambers of Congress .
Following the 2012 Supreme Court ruling upholding the ACA as constitutional , Republicans held another vote to repeal the law on July 11 ; the House of Representatives voted with all 244 Republicans and 5 Democrats in favor of repeal , which marked the 33rd , partial or whole , repeal attempt . With President Obama 's reelection and the Democrats expanding their majority in the Senate following the 2012 elections , many Republicans conceded that repeal almost certainly will not occur . On February 3 , 2015 , the House of Representatives added its 67th repeal vote to the record with 239 to 186 and nine members abstaining , moving the action to the Senate , where Republican Senator Ted Cruz , ( R @-@ Texas ) , introduced legislation for full repeal with vote on September 2 , 2015 .
= = = = 2013 federal government shutdown = = = =
Strong partisan disagreement in Congress has prevented adjustments to the Act 's provisions . However , at least one change , a proposed repeal of a tax on medical devices , has received bipartisan support . Some Congressional Republicans argued against improvements to the law on the grounds they would weaken the arguments for repeal .
Republicans attempted to defund its implementation , and in October 2013 , House Republicans , supported by Senators Rand Paul , Ted Cruz , Mike Lee , and Marco Rubio , refused to fund the federal government unless accompanied with a delay in implementation of the ACA , after the President unilaterally pushed back the employer mandate by one year , which critics claim he had no legal right to do . The Republican @-@ held House of Representatives passed three versions of a bill funding all elements of the government while submitting various versions that would repeal or delay the ACA , with the last version delaying enforcement of the " individual mandate " . These bills were unable to muster enough votes in the Democrat @-@ held Senate , with Democratic leadership stating the Senate would only pass a " clean " funding bill without any restrictions on the ACA . After Congress failed to pass a continuing funding resolution by midnight on October 1 , a government shutdown ensued . Conservative groups such as Heritage Action provided lobbying support for the linkage between the ACA and the government shutdown . Senate Republicans threatened to block appointments to relevant agencies , such as the Independent Payment Advisory Board and Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services .
= = = = Economic consequences = = = =
Until passage of the ACA , the majority of US citizens had a company sponsored insurance plan , and the U.S. was the only rich nation where this was the case . Companies began offering insurance policies during World War II to attract talent from the reduced supply of workers , a practice later cemented by tax policies that encouraged untaxed benefits ( such as health care ) rather than taxable ones such as cash . Offering insurance in lieu of cash compensation made corporations responsible for their employee 's health . Rising insurance costs coupled with rising salaries squeezed both benefits and salaries until aging workers found their salaries stagnating and their benefits cut .
As of 2014 large company policies were still the norm , since tax laws until 2018 make benefits cheaper than cash , but many employees have been losing their " paternalistic " corporate policies and must find their own insurance . With the insurance system introduced under the ACA , employers who stopped their company sponsored insurance plan eliminated one of their largest compensation benefits , and shifted more costs on to employees . These include insurance premiums rising to 28 % in 2013 , compared with 26 % in 2003 , according to the Kaiser Family Foundation , and more workers paying deductibles of $ 1 @,@ 000 reaching 38 % in 2013 , more than twice what it was in 2008 . According to one study , as of 2014 , only 25 % of firms saw themselves offering any insurance in 10 years .
The CEPR has found no evidence companies are reducing the hours of their workers to avoid the ACA requirements for employees working over 30 hours per week .
The House Republican leadership put forth the argument in favor of repeal that " this is a job @-@ killing law , period . " They contended that the ACA would lead to a loss of 650 @,@ 000 jobs , attributing the figure to a report by the Congressional Budget Office . However , FactCheck.org noted that the 650 @,@ 000 figure was not included in the CBO report referred to , saying that the Republican statement " badly misrepresents what the Congressional Budget Office has said about the law . In fact , CBO is among those saying the effect [ on employment ] ' will probably be small . ' " PolitiFact rated the Republican statement as false .
Jonathan Cohn , citing the projections of the CBO , summarized that the primary employment effect of the ACA is to alleviate job lock : " People who are only working because they desperately need employer @-@ sponsored health insurance will no longer do so . " He concluded that the " reform 's only significant employment impact was a reduction in the labor force , primarily because people holding onto jobs just to keep insurance could finally retire " because they have health insurance outside of their jobs .
= = = = Impact of repeal on federal budget projections = = = =
In May 2011 , the nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office ( CBO ) analyzed proposals to repeal the law . Mirroring its analysis of the law itself , the CBO estimated that repealing the entire law ( both its taxing and spending provisions ) would increase the net 2011 – 2021 federal deficit by $ 210 billion . Revised CBO accounting , following the July 11 , 2012 , House repeal vote ( H.R. 6079 ) , and taking into account the impact of Supreme Court ruling , was consistent with its previous estimate : that repeal would cause a net increase in federal budget deficits of $ 109 billion over the 2013 – 2022 period .
= Radish =
The radish ( Raphanus sativus ) is an edible root vegetable of the Brassicaceae family that was domesticated in Europe in pre @-@ Roman times . Radishes are grown and consumed throughout the world , being mostly eaten raw as a crunchy salad vegetable . They have numerous varieties , varying in size , flavor , color , and length of time they take to mature . Radishes owe their sharp flavor to the various chemical compounds produced by the plants , including glucosinolate , myrosinase , and isothiocyanate . They are sometimes grown as companion plants and suffer from few pests and diseases . They germinate quickly and grow rapidly , smaller varieties being ready for consumption within a month , while larger daikon varieties take several months . Another use of radish is as cover or catch crop in winter or as a forage crop . Some radishes are grown for their seeds ; daikon , for instance , may be grown for oil production . Others are used for sprouting and both roots and leaves are sometimes served cooked or cold .
= = History = =
Varieties of radish are now broadly distributed around the world , but almost no archeological records are available to help determine their early history and domestication . However , scientists tentatively locate the origin of Raphanus sativus in southeast Asia , as this is the only region where truly wild forms have been discovered . India , central China , and central Asia appear to have been secondary centers where differing forms were developed . Radishes enter the historical record in third century BC . Greek and Roman agriculturalists of the first century AD gave details of small , large , round , long , mild , and sharp varieties . The radish seems to have been one of the first European crops introduced to the Americas . A German botanist reported radishes of 100 lb ( 45 kg ) and roughly 3 ft in length in 1544 , although the only variety of that size today is the Japanese Sakurajima radish . The large , mild , and white East Asian form was developed in China , but is mostly associated in the West with the Japanese daikon , owing to Japanese agricultural development and larger exports .
= = Description = =
Radishes are annual or biennial brassicaceous crops grown for their swollen tap roots which can be globular , tapering , or cylindrical . The root skin colour ranges from white through pink , red , purple , yellow , and green to black , but the flesh is usually white . Smaller types have a few leaves about 13 cm ( 5 in ) long with round roots up to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) in diameter or more slender , long roots up to 7 cm ( 3 in ) long . Both of these are normally eaten raw in salads . A longer root form , including oriental radishes , daikon or mooli , and winter radishes , grows up to 60 cm ( 24 in ) long with foliage about 60 cm ( 24 in ) high with a spread of 45 cm ( 18 in ) . The flesh of radishes harvested timely is crisp and sweet , but becomes bitter and tough if the vegetable is left in the ground too long . Leaves are arranged in a rosette . They have a lyrate shape , meaning they are divided pinnately with an enlarged terminal lobe and smaller lateral lobes . The white flowers are borne on a racemose inflorescence . The fruits are small pods which can be eaten when young .
The radish is a diploid species , and has 18 chromosomes ( 2n = 18 ) .
= = Cultivation = =
Radishes are a fast @-@ growing , annual , cool @-@ season crop . The seed germinates in three to four days in moist conditions with soil temperatures between 65 and 85 ° F ( 18 and 29 ° C ) . Best quality roots are obtained under moderate day lengths with air temperatures in the range 50 to 65 ° F ( 10 to 18 ° C ) . Under average conditions , the crop matures in 3 – 4 weeks , but in colder weather , 6 – 7 weeks may be required .
Radishes grow best in full sun in light , sandy loams , with a soil pH 6 @.@ 5 to 7 @.@ 0 , but for late @-@ season crops , a clayey @-@ loam is ideal . Soils that bake dry and form a crust in dry weather are unsuitable and can impair germination . Harvesting periods can be extended by making repeat plantings , spaced a week or two apart . In warmer climates , radishes are normally planted in the autumn . The depth at which seeds are planted affects the size of the root , from 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) deep recommended for small radishes to 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) for large radishes . During the growing period , the crop needs to be thinned and weeds controlled , and irrigation may be required .
Radishes are a common garden crop in the United States , and the fast harvest cycle makes them a popular choice for children 's gardens . After harvesting , radishes can be stored without loss of quality for two or three days at room temperature , and about two months at 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) with a relative humidity of 90 – 95 % .
= = = Companion plant = = =
Radishes can be useful as companion plants for many other crops , probably because their pungent odour deters such insect pests as aphids , cucumber beetles , tomato hornworms , squash bugs , and ants . They can function as a trap crop , luring insect pests away from the main crop . Cucumbers and radishes seem to thrive when grown in close association with each other , and radishes also grow well with chervil , lettuce , peas , and nasturtiums . However , they react adversely to growing in close association with hyssop .
= = = Pests = = =
As a fast @-@ growing plant , diseases are not generally a problem with radishes , but some insect pests can be a nuisance . The larvae of flea beetles ( Delia radicum ) live in the soil , but the adult beetles cause damage to the crop , biting small " shot holes " in the leaves , especially of seedlings . The swede midge ( Contarinia nasturtii ) attacks the foliage and growing tip of the plant and causes distortion , multiple ( or no ) growing tips , and swollen or crinkled leaves and stems . The larvae of the cabbage root fly sometimes attack the roots . The foliage droops and becomes discoloured , and small , white maggots tunnel through the root , making it unattractive or inedible .
= = Varieties = =
Broadly speaking , radishes can be categorized into four main types according to the seasons when they are grown and a variety of shapes lengths , colors , and sizes , such as red , pink , white , gray @-@ black , or yellow radishes , with round or elongated roots that can grow longer than a parsnip .
It is not widely known that Beatrix Potter 's famous character " Peter Rabbit " is shown eating long scarlet radishes , not carrots , in Mr McGregor 's garden .
= = = Spring or summer radishes = = =
Sometimes referred to as European radishes or spring radishes if they are planted in cooler weather , summer radishes are generally small and have a relatively short three- to four @-@ week cultivation time .
The ' April Cross ' is a giant white radish hybrid that bolts very slowly .
'Bunny Tail ' is an heirloom variety from Italy , where it is known as Rosso Tondo A Piccola Punta Bianca . It is slightly oblong , mostly red , with a white tip .
'Cherry Belle ' is a bright red @-@ skinned round variety with a white interior . It is familiar in North American supermarkets .
'Champion ' is round and red @-@ skinned like the ' Cherry Belle ' , but with slightly larger roots , up to 5 cm ( 2 in ) , and a milder flavor .
'Red King ' has a mild flavor , with good resistance to club root , a problem that can arise from poor drainage .
'Sicily Giant ' is a large heirloom variety from Sicily . It can reach up to 5 cm ( 2 in ) in diameter .
'Snow Belle ' is an all @-@ white variety of radish , similar in shape to the ' Cherry Belle ' .
'White Icicle ' or ' Icicle ' is a white carrot @-@ shaped variety , around 10 – 12 cm ( 4 – 5 in ) long , dating back to the 16th century . It slices easily , and has better than average resistance to pithiness .
'French Breakfast ' is an elongated , red @-@ skinned radish with a white splash at the root end . It is typically slightly milder than other summer varieties , but is among the quickest to turn pithy .
'Plum Purple ' , a purple @-@ fuchsia radish , tends to stay crisp longer than average .
'Gala ' and ' Roodbol ' are two varieties popular in the Netherlands in a breakfast dish , thinly sliced on buttered bread .
'Easter Egg ' is not an actual variety , but a mix of varieties with different skin colors , typically including white , pink , red , and purple radishes . Sold in markets or seed packets under the name , the seed mixes can extend harvesting duration from a single planting , as different varieties may mature at different times .
= = = Winter varieties = = =
'Black Spanish ' or ' Black Spanish Round ' occur in both round and elongated forms , and are sometimes simply called the black radish ( Raphanus sativus L. var. niger ( M. ) S.K. or L. ssp. niger ( M. ) . D.C. var. albus D.C ) or known by the French name Gros Noir d 'Hiver . It dates in Europe to 1548 , and was a common garden variety in England and France during the early 19th century . It has a rough , black skin with hot @-@ flavored , white flesh , is round or irregularly pear shaped , and grows to around 10 cm ( 4 in ) in diameter .
Daikon refers to a wide variety of winter oilseed radishes from Asia . While the Japanese name daikon has been adopted in English , it is also sometimes called the Japanese radish , Chinese radish , Oriental radish or mooli ( in India and South Asia ) . Daikon commonly have elongated white roots , although many varieties of daikon exist . One well @-@ known variety is ' April Cross ' , with smooth white roots . The New York Times describes ' Masato Red ' and ' Masato Green ' varieties as extremely long , well @-@ suited for fall planting and winter storage . The Sakurajima radish is a hot @-@ flavored variety which is typically grown to around 10 kg ( 22 lb ) , but which can grow to 30 kg ( 66 lb ) when left in the ground .
= = = Seed pod varieties = = =
The seeds of radishes grow in siliques ( widely referred to as " pods " ) , following flowering that happens when left to grow past their normal harvesting period . The seeds are edible , and are sometimes used as a crunchy , sharp addition to salads . Some varieties are grown specifically for their seeds or seed pods , rather than their roots . The rat @-@ tailed radish , an old European variety thought to have come from East Asia centuries ago , has long , thin , curly pods which can exceed 20 cm ( 8 in ) in length . In the 17th century , the pods were often pickled and served with meat . The ' München Bier ' variety supplies seed pods that are sometimes served raw as an accompaniment to beer in Germany .
= = Nutritional value = =
In a 100 gram serving , raw radishes provide 16 calories and have a moderate amount of vitamin C ( 18 % of Daily Value ) , with other essential nutrients in low content ( table ) .
= = Uses = =
= = = Cooking = = =
The most commonly eaten portion is the napiform taproot , although the entire plant is edible and the tops can be used as a leaf vegetable . The seed can also be sprouted and eaten raw in a similar way to a mung bean .
The bulb of the radish is usually eaten raw , although tougher specimens can be steamed . The raw flesh has a crisp texture and a pungent , peppery flavor , caused by glucosinolates and the enzyme myrosinase , which combine when chewed to form allyl isothiocyanates , also present in mustard , horseradish , and wasabi .
Radishes are mostly used in salads , but also appear in many European dishes . Radish leaves are sometimes used in recipes , like potato soup or as a sauteed side dish . They are also found blended with fruit juices in some recipes .
= = = Other uses = = =
The seeds of radishes can be pressed to extract radish seed oil . Wild radish seeds contain up to 48 % oil , and while not suitable for human consumption , this oil is a potential source of biofuel . The daikon grows well in cool climates and , apart from its industrial use , can be used as a cover crop , grown to increase soil fertility , to scavenge nutrients , suppress weeds , help alleviate soil compaction , and prevent winter erosion of the soil .
= = = Culture = = =
The daikon varieties of radish are important parts of East , Southeast , and South Asian cuisine . In Japan and Korea , radish dolls are sometimes made as children 's toys . Daikon is also one of the plants that make up the Japanese Festival of Seven Herbs ( Nanakusa no sekku ) on the seventh day after the new year .
Citizens of Oaxaca , Mexico , celebrate the Night of the Radishes ( Noche de los rábanos ) on December 23 as a part of Christmas celebrations . This folk art competition uses a large type of radish up to 50 cm ( 20 in ) long and weighing up to 3 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) . Great skill and ingenuity are used to carve these into religious and popular figures , buildings , and other objects , and they are displayed in the town square .
= = Production trends = =
About seven million tons of radishes are produced yearly , representing roughly 2 % of global vegetable production .
= = Gallery = =
= = = Cited literature = = =
Dixon , Geoffrey R. ( 2007 ) . Vegetable Brassicas and Related Crucifers ( Print ) . Crop Production Science in Horticulture 14 . Wallingford : CAB International . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84593 @-@ 138 @-@ 4 .
= 1893 – 94 Small Heath F.C. season =
The 1893 – 94 season was the 13th season of competitive association football and second season in the Football League played by Small Heath F.C. , an English football club based in Birmingham . In 1892 – 93 , the inaugural season of the Football League Second Division , Small Heath had won the divisional championship but failed to gain promotion via the test match system . This year , they finished as distant runners @-@ up in the League , eight points behind Liverpool , but were successful in the test match , defeating Darwen 3 – 1 to confirm their place in the First Division for the 1894 – 95 Football League season . The club struggled financially during the season , and there were suggestions that it might have disbanded had promotion not been secured .
Small Heath entered the 1893 – 94 FA Cup in the first round proper , and lost in that round for the second consecutive year , this time to the eventual losing finalists , Bolton Wanderers of the First Division . In local competitions , they were eliminated by Midland League club Loughborough in the first round of the Birmingham Senior Cup and by Wolverhampton Wanderers in the semi @-@ final of the Mayor of Birmingham 's Charity Cup . Small Heath played fewer friendly matches than in the previous season , instead competing in a regionally organised supplementary competition , the United Counties League , in which they finished third of four teams in the southern section .
Small Heath used 23 different players in nationally organised competitive matches during the season and had 12 different goalscorers . Four players , Ted Devey , Fred Wheldon , Tommy Hands and Billy Ollis , appeared in every League match , all but Devey for the second consecutive season . The top scorer was inside @-@ forward Frank Mobley with 25 goals – his total of 24 League goals made him the Second Division 's leading scorer – and all five first @-@ choice forwards reached double figures for the second season running .
= = Background = =
Small Heath were elected to the newly formed Second Division in 1892 , and went on to win the divisional championship . However , promotion to the First Division depended on the test match system , in which each of the lowest @-@ ranked three teams from the First Division played off against one of the highest @-@ ranked three from the Second Division . Small Heath lost to Newton Heath after a replay , so were not promoted . The League 's Annual General Meeting heard proposals that the First Division be expanded to either 20 or 18 teams . Both motions were , unsurprisingly , seconded by Small Heath , but both were defeated , thus confirming that the team would play in the Second Division for the 1893 – 94 season . The Second Division championship shield was presented to the club at a meeting of the Football League held at the Colonnade Hotel in New Street , Birmingham , in August .
Of the regular first @-@ team members from the previous season , goalkeeper Chris Charsley , a serving police officer , was unavailable and full back Tom Bayley had been released . Fred Speller , who had suffered a badly broken leg early in the season , had been playing in practice matches and was believed to be back to full fitness . Fringe players Harry Edwards and Fred Jones had left the club , and Harry Morris had retired to concentrate on his plumbing business . Goalkeeper George Hollis , backs Arthur Littleford , Bernard Pumfrey and George Short , half @-@ backs Ted Devey , Caesar Jenkyns , Teddy Jolley and Billy Ollis , and forwards Jack Hallam , Tommy Hands , Frank Mobley , Billy Walton and Fred Wheldon all remained with the club . Newcomers included forwards Jack Lee , Charles Izon and Walter Jackson , all signed from non @-@ league clubs in the West Midlands area . Alfred Jones continued as secretary @-@ manager , and Caesar Jenkyns retained the captaincy . The team adopted a new kit , keeping the white knickerbockers but replacing the royal blue shirt and stockings with shirts in a lighter shade of blue , with navy collar trim , cuffs and pocket and navy stockings .
= = Review = =
= = = September = = =
Small Heath opened their second season in the Football League with a visit to Walsall , who were playing at Wednesbury because their new ground was not yet ready . Former Small Heath full @-@ back Tom Bayley was one of several newcomers for the hosts , but their visitors had few changes in personnel . Teddy Jolley came in at full @-@ back , and replacing Billy Walton was Jack Lee , who " dribbles cleverly , and is a very dangerous forward round goal " . In the presence of 4 @,@ 000 spectators , Lee scored twice as Small Heath won 3 – 1 . Fred Wheldon opened the scoring for Small Heath in the first 30 seconds of their next match , at home to Rotherham Town ; 15 minutes later the visitors were 3 – 2 ahead , but by half @-@ time the home side had regained the lead . Unsurprisingly the tempo dropped in the second half , but a game played in a " friendly and sportsmanlike spirit " was marred towards the end by Rotherham forward Alf Pickering suffering a fracture of his right leg just below the knee in an accidental collision with Bernard Pumfrey , " the snap of the bone being heard all round the ground " . Initial reports suggested the break was such that he was " almost certain " never to play football again . This was followed by a comfortable 6 – 1 defeat of Burton Swifts , in which Jolley moved to inside right in Jack Hallam 's absence through illness , giving Gilbert Smith his debut at full back .
In the return fixture against Walsall , Charles Izon , a well @-@ built forward who " is quick on the ball , and shoots excellently " , scored a hat @-@ trick on his debut as Small Heath again won comfortably . A visit to Liverpool gave Caesar Jenkyns the honour of scoring the first Football League goal conceded by the home side , but the visitors " fell all to pieces " in the second half , and were decisively beaten . The young and inexperienced Smith made mistakes that cost two goals , but the forwards " were undoubtedly the weak spot " , and the Birmingham Daily Post 's reporter suggested they would " have to learn to shoot harder and play with far more spirit if they are to keep up the reputation they gained last season " . After Burslem Port Vale " beat Small Heath on Monday in more decided a fashion than did Liverpool " , by five goals to nil , the poor form shown in the previous two matches by the forwards , and by Wheldon in particular , was much improved at Ardwick . Although Small Heath scored only once , the resultant win was enough to take them into October in second place in the division , having already completed a quarter of the 28 @-@ game league programme .
= = = October = = =
Small Heath came back from a 2 – 1 half @-@ time deficit to beat Grimsby Town 5 – 2 , but the visit of Liverpool was eventful in a rather different manner . After the referee rejected the Liverpool players ' claim that Small Heath 's equaliser had entered the goal through a hole in the side netting , their play became rough , culminating in centre @-@ half Joe McQue , a " strapping fellow " , kicking Frank Mobley in the abdomen , apparently intentionally . While the referee was cautioning McQue , Small Heath captain Caesar Jenkyns rushed in , knocked McQue to the ground , and was sent off . With a man advantage , it still took Liverpool until the stroke of time to score the winning goal . The Post 's reporter suggested that , despite the provocation , Jenkyns should not have reacted the way he did , but " the knowledge that it cost his side the game " was sufficient punishment . Despite the referee in his report agreeing that " the punishment of being sent off would meet case " , and that Jenkyns had " played a perfectly fair game " and had expressed regret at his actions , both when dismissed and after the game , the Football Association imposed a four @-@ week suspension , to begin on 31 October .
In the meantime the play of Jenkyns and his fellow half @-@ backs was instrumental in a 4 – 1 defeat of Woolwich Arsenal . The first half hour was played " in a spiritless fashion " , but then Wheldon scored " a fine goal with one of his characteristic shots " , and the remainder of the game was one @-@ sided . The Small Heath team prepared for their match at Newcastle United by taking the train as far as York on the Friday evening , which left only another 70 miles ( 110 km ) for the day of the match . Contrary to expectation , Small Heath were successful in a " hard game " , with the half @-@ backs again influential despite Jenkyns receiving a " nasty blow in the mouth " . They ended October level on points with three other clubs , in third place on goal average .
= = = November = = =
While most of the Second Division clubs were involved in FA Cup qualifying ties , Small Heath , who had received a bye to the first round proper , lost a friendly match against Everton 's reserve team by five goals to nil . Everton 's near neighbours Liverpool complained to the League that the game adversely affected the attendance at their home fixture with Newcastle , but the League confirmed that Everton were within their rights to arrange the match . " Better forward play [ had ] rarely been witnessed at Lincoln than that shown by Small Heath " in a 5 – 2 defeat of Lincoln City , whose defence failed to cope with the industry and creativity of Teddy Jolley feeding the " light but nimble " forwards , Mobley in particular . The next weekend , numerous matches were postponed or abandoned because of the weather . Although the Small Heath and Crewe Alexandra players were changed and ready to play , the referee would not start the game because the " blinding snowstorm would prevent him from having a proper sight of the play " .
Advertised as a " Grand League Match " in the local paper – vying for attention with the forthcoming Sailors ' Bazaar , a Boys ' Brigade band concert and a clearance sale of squirrel @-@ tail fur boas – Small Heath 's visit to Middlesbrough Ironopolis failed to live up to the billing . A storm that cost hundreds of lives at sea had left the Paradise Ground with damaged railings and grandstand blown down , and only a few hundred spectators stood in the pouring rain to see the home side produce a surprise victory by three goals to nil on a sodden pitch . The Leicester Chronicle feared " that last year 's second division champions are far from being what they were " , having dropped as many points already as in the whole of the previous season .
= = = December = = =
Jenkyns returned from suspension against a Northwich Victoria side bottom of the division and playing with only ten men . Wheldon scored four and Mobley three in an 8 – 0 win , and the goalscoring continued in midweek in the fixture postponed because of the snowstorm , as Small Heath beat a Crewe Alexandra side without several first @-@ choice players by six goals to one . Burton Swifts proved more difficult opponents . On a heavy pitch , play was concentrated in the midfield area as the strength of both teams lay in their half backs , and Small Heath 's winning goal came with ten minutes of the match remaining . It was reported that the club had turned down a big offer from First Division club Aston Villa for the services of Fred Wheldon . Newcastle United travelled to Birmingham on the Friday , to be fresh for Saturday 's match , as Small Heath had done in the reverse fixture , and again , the tactic worked . Their forwards " displayed excellent combination " , were " splendidly supported by the half @-@ backs " , and " but for [ Jenkyns ' ] untiring efforts matters would have been worse " than the 4 – 1 defeat .
Changes were made for the visit of Middlesbrough Ironopolis , Arthur Littleford , Charles Izon and Bernard Pumfrey coming in for Smith , Mobley and Jack Hallam . The half @-@ backs were again the backbone of the team , and Wheldon , who produced " a brilliant exposition of dodging and shooting " , scored the winning goal five minutes from time in what the Standard 's reporter described as a " rattling good game " . Fred Speller was reported to have " not been seen in such form since his leg was broken last year " in a Boxing Day friendly with top amateur club Marlow , the club from which he signed for Small Heath . Their last League match of 1893 , a comfortable 6 – 0 victory against Lincoln City , took them into the new year in second place in the division , three points ahead of Notts County but two points behind Liverpool , who had played two fewer matches . Pumfrey strengthened the defence , George Hollis was as usual secure in goal , and the forwards , with the returning Mobley and the introduction of reserve @-@ team player Walter Jackson , " showed better combination and greater dash than they have recently done " .
= = = January = = =
On New Year 's Day , Small Heath made the short trip to Wellington Road for a friendly with Aston Villa . After a dull and goalless first half , Tommy Hands crossed the ball for Wheldon to open the scoring , from which point goals followed regularly until the match finished as a 4 – 3 home win . Wheldon was involved in two of his side 's three goals , but was " too closely watched by Reynolds to be as effective as usual " . On a day when the hard and slippery surface meant " those teams whose players have the least regard for the safety of their limbs usually gain the victory " , Small Heath , without Hallam , who was unwell , and William Reynolds , injured against Aston Villa , defeated a " very indifferent " Northwich Victoria 7 – 0 . In their next match , at Crewe Alexandra , the home players reportedly played " with supreme indifference to the safety of their opponents ' limbs " . Hands , who had been one of Small Heath 's better performers , was carried off after receiving a " nasty kick " to the leg , but despite having to play with ten men , the visitors won 5 – 3 . Of Crewe 's three goals , the first should have been disallowed for offside and the third was a Ted Devey own goal .
Midland League club Loughborough hosted Small Heath in the first round of the Birmingham Senior Cup . In heavy rain , the scores were level until ten minutes from time , when goalkeeper George Hollis was barged into the goal before he could get to a shot from distance . The ball followed him over the line , and despite the obstruction on the goalkeeper , the referee awarded Loughborough a goal . Small Heath threw men forward in search of an equaliser , which left them ill @-@ protected in defence , and they conceded twice more . In the FA Cup , Small Heath were drawn at home to Bolton Wanderers , who were so keen to have the match played on their own ground that they offered Small Heath the total gate receipts up to £ 150 and a half share of receipts above that figure , with a minimum guarantee of £ 60 , to agree to a change of venue . The offer was declined . Bolton were predicted to lose , but they did not . With the wind behind them , Small Heath took a two @-@ goal half @-@ time lead , but in the second half , Hollis , who had " not given a worse display in goal all season " , made numerous mistakes , gifted the visitors two goals , and the final score was 4 – 3 to the First Division side .
= = = February = = =
Third @-@ placed Notts County beat Small Heath 3 – 1 to narrow the gap between the clubs to just one point . Charles Partridge , making his Football League debut after Hollis was taken ill , played behind an experimental defensive pairing of half @-@ back Ted Devey and reserve @-@ team player George Short . Despite the scoreline , the Nottinghamshire Guardian described them as " a very useful pair of backs " , although not up to the home team 's standard , and the Daily Post rated Devey as " easily the best left @-@ back the club have played this season " . Two of Notts ' goals were fortunate : an attempted clearance by Devey ricocheted off Jenkyns ' head for their second goal , and for their third , the ball appeared to be heading safely over the crossbar until caught by a gust of wind .
Eight Midlands clubs formed a league to be played as a supplementary competition to fill vacant dates in the season without the trouble and expense of arranging friendly matches , later joined by Small Heath and Notts County . Small Heath 's first four matches in this United Counties League were played in February . After " a creditable draw " at home to Wolverhampton Wanderers of the First Division , they " thoroughly deserved " to win the return match 2 – 1 . West Bromwich Albion took a 5 – 1 lead in the first half at Coventry Road , yet in the second , the Small Heath forwards raised their level of performance , scored three times without reply , and were unfortunate not to secure a draw . Two days later , the First Division club won the return match at Stoney Lane rather more comfortably .
The committee organised a public meeting at which chairman Walter Hart bemoaned the poor attendances , which he felt would not improve unless the team were promoted to the First Division , mentioned that the club had rejected a " big offer from a neighbouring club for the release of a prominent player " , and called for £ 200 to be raised to bring in players to strengthen the team 's defence . A collection in the hall raised cash and pledges to the value of £ 42 10s , and supporters contributed generously to the public appeal . An attempt to sign full @-@ back Jack Oliver from Middlesbrough Ironopolis was unsuccessful , and the club offered the services of goalkeeper Chris Charsley to Aston Villa .
= = = March = = =
In front of a large crowd , Small Heath suffered what was described as an " unfortunate " one @-@ goal defeat at Grimsby Town . Hollis should have done better with Grimsby 's opener , Frank Mobley was injured around the eye in collision with the goalkeeper when scoring Small Heath 's only goal and showed some bravery in remaining on the field , and Wheldon had an apparently valid goal disallowed . Short , in a " trifle risky " style , and the solid Devey again did well in defence . Lost gate receipts because of Aston Villa 's withdrawal from the United Counties League was decidedly unpopular with the other members , and the Small Heath committee arranged a smoking concert to raise funds . Those clubs at the bottom of the First Division and top of the Second were all recruiting new players : " the test matches mean such a lot to the clubs concerned that there is no wonder at this anxiety to secure new blood . " Small Heath acquired the services of full @-@ backs Percy Watson and William Purves , from Rotherham Town and Irish club Glentoran respectively .
The Small Heath club staged a " double @-@ header " the following Saturday . After the reserves beat Brierley Hill Alliance 3 – 0 in the Birmingham & District League , Watson made a promising debut at back as the first team played a friendly against a below @-@ strength Nottingham Forest side . Charsley returned to first @-@ team duty in a 10 – 2 demolition of Ardwick , whose goalkeeper arrived with his team already one goal behind . Mobley 's fourth hat @-@ trick gave him ten goals from his last six matches , taking him past the 20 @-@ goal mark for the season . A close game at Rotherham produced a 3 – 2 win , and against Burslem Port Vale , the Small Heath forwards had " rarely been seen to greater advantage " as they scored six without reply .
The semi @-@ final of the Birmingham Charity Cup provided a break from League action . Mobley opened the scoring , but Wolverhampton Wanderers shot against the woodwork on several occasions and the visitors were " singularly fortunate " in restricting the home side to one goal , and that a penalty kick . With the scores level , a decision was made not to play extra time , and the replay was arranged for two weeks later at Coventry Road . In their penultimate match of the Football League season , Small Heath produced a good team performance to win 4 – 1 at Woolwich Arsenal and reach 100 League goals for the season . The forwards played a characteristic " beautifully combined " game , the half @-@ backs , particularly Jenkyns , were too strong for the home forwards , Purves looked set to be the full @-@ back the team had needed for some time , and Charsley " kept goal exceedingly well " .
= = = April = = =
Against Stoke in the United Counties League , Jack Hallam opened the scoring after a fine passing move as Small Heath won 3 – 0 . In the return fixture , Charles Partridge 's " magnificent performance " in goal kept the score down to a 2 – 1 defeat , as Small Heath finished third in the four @-@ team division .
Going into the last match of the Football League season , Small Heath were in second place in the division , one point ahead of opponents Notts County . Neither could challenge Liverpool for the title , but both were sure of their places in the promotion test matches . The likely opponent for the team finishing second would be Darwen , whereas the third @-@ placed team could expect the rather tougher prospect of Preston North End . Notts County had won the FA Cup the previous weekend , and the Daily Post took that as a good omen , " inasmuch as the winners of the English Cup rarely do themselves justice on the following Saturday " .
Nor did they , being " decidedly stale " , according to the Nottinghamshire Guardian , having " been indulged in all manner of festivities " , and without centre @-@ forward Jimmy Logan , who had scored a hat @-@ trick in the Cup Final . Small Heath were decisive victors by three goals to nil , Hallam 's wing play drawing particular praise , as did Jenkyns ' " admirable captaincy " . The attendance was something over 8 @,@ 000 , of whom 6 @,@ 800 paid on the day , generating gate receipts of £ 200 . Although the result was rather overshadowed by Aston Villa beating Burnley away from home to be confirmed as First Division champions , the Dart clearly appreciated how Small Heath " in a blaze of glory before the largest crowd ever seen at Coventry Road , gave the English Cup holders a licking " .
Handicapped early on by George Short suffering concussion and being unable to continue , Small Heath lost the replayed Charity Cup semi @-@ final to Wolverhampton Wanderers 2 – 0 . Fred Wheldon was the only Second Division player selected in the Football League representative team to play the Scottish League at Goodison Park , Liverpool . Expected to join Aston Villa should Small Heath not be promoted , and " thought by many to be the best inside left in England " , Wheldon " performed like the clever and finished player he is " as the match was drawn .
The Leicester Chronicle felt that Darwen would have to " play up " to stand much chance against Small Heath , who had " a smarter set of forwards than can be found amongst most of the first division teams " , and pointed out that Small Heath were the only team in either division to have scored 100 goals during the season . The players prepared for the test match at Droitwich Spa , where the saturated salt water of the Brine Baths provided relief for tired muscles . The match , played at Stoke 's Victoria Ground , was an exciting one . Darwen had much the best of the first half , but failed to take their chances . Small Heath were restricted to rare attacks , but were dangerous on the break , and opened the scoring through Jack Hallam . Darwen equalised before the interval , and continued their dominance until superior fitness told . With six minutes left , Small Heath took the lead , the goal variously attributed to Wheldon or an Orr own goal , after which Darwen lost heart and Tommy Hands scored again four minutes later . The Daily Post suggested that " one would scarcely believe that they were the same five forwards who have so often delighted the spectators with their play at Coventry Road " , but " to every man [ of the defence ] great praise is due for so ably checking the opposing forwards " . The Nottinghamshire Guardian was less critical of the forwards , but took the view that Small Heath were fortunate to catch Darwen " in a very crippled condition " , and that goalkeeper Chris Charsley had done the club a considerable service in making himself available for such a vital game .
The victorious team arrived back in Birmingham by train , the engine 's funnel draped in blue and white , to be greeted by 1 @,@ 000 supporters at New Street Station , and " were loudly cheered on their return to Small Heath " . The season ended with a friendly against newly crowned Football League champions Aston Villa , the visitors giving their services free for the benefit of the Small Heath club . Before a crowd of four or five thousand , both clubs fielded strong sides , and the match finished as a 3 – 3 draw .
= = Summary and aftermath = =
The Daily Post 's pleasure at Small Heath 's victory was heightened by their belief that " defeat would in all probability have meant the disbanding of the club " , ambitions of promotion having sustained the committee 's efforts throughout the season to raise enough funds to keep the club going . They pointed out that further expense was necessary both to strengthen the team , " for it cannot be expected that eleven or twelve men will stand the strain of a season 's work amongst the first division clubs " , and to improve facilities at the Coventry Road ground . The club held a celebratory dinner , at which the chairman congratulated the players , exhorted them to redouble their efforts to make a decent showing in the First Division , and appealed to their continuing loyalty . He attempted to dispel suggestions that the city could not support two teams in the top division , and expressed gratitude to the Aston Villa club for their sincere best wishes as demonstrated by their generous donation of the recent benefit match . The balance sheet showed expenditure of £ 2 @,@ 039 , of which players ' wages accounted for £ 1 @,@ 303 , which resulted in a net loss of £ 222 when set against income of £ 1 @,@ 816 , of which £ 1 @,@ 586 came from gate receipts and £ 104 from season tickets . Nevertheless , during the close season the club began work on a grandstand and " the furrows on the field of play [ were ] filled up " .
Small Heath went through the League season without drawing a match . They scored 103 goals , at a rate of 3 @.@ 6 goals per game , and became the first team to exceed 100 goals in a
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held by George in Northumbria , and the canons issued there , but little detail survives of Theophylact 's mission . After the northern council George returned to the south and another council was held , attended by both Offa and Jaenberht , at which further canons were issued .
In 787 , Offa succeeded in reducing the power of Canterbury through the establishment of a rival archdiocese at Lichfield . The issue must have been discussed with the papal legates in 786 , although it is not mentioned in the accounts that have survived . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle reports a " contentious synod " in 787 at Chelsea , which approved the creation of the new archbishopric . It has been suggested that this synod was the same gathering as the second council held by the legates , but historians are divided on this issue . Hygeberht , already Bishop of Lichfield , became the new archdiocese 's first and only archbishop , and by the end of 788 he received the pallium , a symbol of his authority , from Rome . The new archdiocese included the sees of Worcester , Hereford , Leicester , Lindsey , Dommoc and Elmham ; these were essentially the midland Anglian territories . Canterbury retained the sees in the south and southeast .
The few accounts of the creation of the new archbishopric date from after the end of Offa 's reign . Two versions of the events appear in the form of an exchange of letters between Coenwulf , who became king of Mercia shortly after Offa 's death , and Pope Leo III , in 798 . Coenwulf asserts in his letter that Offa wanted the new archdiocese created out of enmity for Jaenberht ; but Leo responds that the only reason the papacy agreed to the creation was because of the size of the kingdom of Mercia . Both Coenwulf and Leo had their own reasons for representing the situation as they did : Coenwulf was entreating Leo to make London the sole southern archdiocese , while Leo was concerned to avoid the appearance of complicity with the unworthy motives Coenwulf imputed to Offa . These are therefore partisan comments . However , both the size of Offa 's territory and his relationship with Jaenberht and Kent are indeed likely to have been factors in Offa 's request for the creation of the new archdiocese . Coenwulf 's version has independent support , with a letter from Alcuin to Archbishop Æthelheard giving his opinion that Canterbury 's archdiocese had been divided " not , as it seems , by reasonable consideration , but by a certain desire for power " . Æthelheard himself later said that the award of a pallium to Lichfield depended on " deception and misleading suggestion " .
Another possible reason for the creation of an archbishopric at Lichfield relates to Offa 's son , Ecgfrith of Mercia . After Hygeberht became archbishop , he consecrated Ecgfrith as king ; the ceremony took place within a year of Hygeberht 's elevation . It is possible that Jaenberht refused to perform the ceremony , and that Offa needed an alternative archbishop for that purpose . The ceremony itself is noteworthy for two reasons : it is the first recorded consecration of any English king , and it is unusual in that it asserted Ecgfrith 's royal status while his father was still alive . Offa would have been aware that Charlemagne 's sons , Pippin and Louis , had been consecrated as kings by Pope Adrian , and probably wished to emulate the impressive dignity of the Frankish court . Other precedents did exist : Æthelred of Mercia is said to have nominated his son Coenred as king during his lifetime , and Offa may have known of Byzantine examples of royal consecration .
Despite the creation of the new archdiocese , Jaenberht retained his position as the senior cleric in the land , with Hygeberht conceding his precedence . When Jaenberht died in 792 , he was replaced by Æthelheard , who was consecrated by Hygeberht , now senior in his turn . Subsequently Æthelheard appears as a witness on charters and presides at synods without Hygeberht , so it appears that Offa continued to respect Canterbury 's authority .
A letter from Pope Adrian to Charlemagne survives which makes reference to Offa , but the date is uncertain ; it may be as early as 784 or as late as 791 . In it Adrian recounts a rumour that had reached him : Offa had reportedly proposed to Charlemagne that Adrian should be deposed , and replaced by a Frankish pope . Adrian disclaims all belief in the rumour , but it is clear it had been a concern to him . The enemies of Offa and Charlemagne , described by Adrian as the source of the rumour , are not named . It is unclear whether this letter is related to the legatine mission of 786 ; if it predates it , then the mission might have been partly one of reconciliation , but the letter might well have been written after the mission .
Offa was a generous patron of the church , founding several churches and monasteries , often dedicated to St Peter . Among these was St Albans Abbey , which he probably founded in the early 790s . He also promised a yearly gift of 365 mancuses to Rome ; a mancus was a term of account equivalent to thirty silver pennies , derived from Abbasid gold coins that were circulating in Francia at the time . Control of religious houses was one way in which a ruler of the day could provide for his family , and to this end Offa ensured ( by acquiring papal privileges ) that many of them would remain the property of his wife or children after his death . This policy of treating religious houses as worldly possessions represents a change from the early 8th century , when many charters showed the foundation and endowment of small minsters , rather than the assignment of those lands to laypeople . In the 770s , an abbess named Æthelburh ( who may have been the same person as Offa 's daughter of that name ) held multiple leases on religious houses in the territory of the Hwicce ; her acquisitions have been described as looking " like a speculator assembling a portfolio " . Æthelburh 's possession of these lands foreshadows Cynethryth 's control of religious lands , and the pattern was continued in the early 9th century by Cwoenthryth , the daughter of King Coenwulf .
Either Offa or Ine of Wessex is traditionally supposed to have founded the Schola Saxonum in Rome , in what is today the Roman rione , or district , of Borgo . The Schola Saxonum took its name from the militias of Saxons who served in Rome , but it eventually developed into a hostelry for English visitors to the city .
= = European connections = =
Offa 's diplomatic relations with Europe are well documented , but appear to belong only to the last dozen years of his reign . In letters dating from the late 780s or early 790s , Alcuin congratulates Offa for encouraging education and greets Offa 's wife and son , Cynethryth and Ecgfrith . In about 789 , or shortly before , Charlemagne proposed that his son Charles marry one of Offa 's daughters , most likely Ælfflæd . Offa countered with a request that his son Ecgfrith should also marry Charlemagne 's daughter Bertha : Charlemagne was outraged by the request , and broke off contact with Britain , forbidding English ships from landing in his ports . Alcuin 's letters make it clear that by the end of 790 the dispute was still not resolved , and that Alcuin was hoping to be sent to help make peace . In the end diplomatic relations were restored , at least partly by the agency of Gervold , the abbot of St Wandrille .
Charlemagne sought support from the English church at the council of Frankfurt in 794 , where the canons passed in 787 at the Second Council of Nicaea were repudiated , and the heresies of two Spanish bishops , Felix and Elipandus , were condemned . In 796 Charlemagne wrote to Offa ; the letter survives and refers to a previous letter of Offa 's to Charlemagne . This correspondence between the two kings produced the first surviving documents in English diplomatic history . The letter is primarily concerned with the status of English pilgrims on the continent and with diplomatic gifts , but it reveals much about the relations between the English and the Franks . Charlemagne refers to Offa as his " brother " , and mentions trade in black stones , sent from the continent to England , and cloaks ( or possibly cloths ) , traded from England to the Franks . Charlemagne 's letter also refers to exiles from England , naming Odberht , who was almost certainly the same person as Eadberht Praen , among them . Egbert of Wessex was another refugee from Offa who took shelter at the Frankish court . It is clear that Charlemagne 's policy included support for elements opposed to Offa ; in addition to sheltering Egbert and Eadberht he also sent gifts to Æthelred I of Northumbria .
Events in southern Britain to 796 have sometimes been portrayed as a struggle between Offa and Charlemagne , but the disparity in their power was enormous . By 796 Charlemagne had become master of an empire which stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Hungarian Plain , and Offa and then Coenwulf were clearly minor figures by comparison .
= = Government = =
The nature of Mercian kingship is not clear from the limited surviving sources . There are two main theories regarding the ancestry of Mercian kings of this period . One is that descendants of different lines of the royal family competed for the throne . In the mid @-@ 7th century , for example , Penda had placed royal kinsmen in control of conquered provinces . Alternatively , it may be that a number of kin @-@ groups with local power @-@ bases may have competed for the succession . The sub @-@ kingdoms of the Hwicce , the Tomsæte and the unidentified Gaini are examples of such power @-@ bases . Marriage alliances could also have played a part . Competing magnates , those called in charters " dux " or " princeps " ( that is , leaders ) , may have brought the kings to power . In this model , the Mercian kings are little more than leading noblemen . Offa seems to have attempted to increase the stability of Mercian kingship , both by the elimination of dynastic rivals to his son Ecgfrith , and the reduction in status of his subject kings , sometimes to the rank of ealdorman . He was ultimately unsuccessful , however ; Ecgfrith only survived in power for a few months , and 9th century Mercia continued to draw its kings from multiple dynastic lines .
There is evidence that Offa constructed a series of defensive burhs , or fortified towns ; the locations are not generally agreed on but may include Bedford , Hereford , Northampton , Oxford and Stamford . In addition to their defensive uses , these burhs are thought to have been administrative centres , serving as regional markets and indicating a transformation of the Mercian economy away from its origins as a grouping of midland peoples . The burhs are forerunners of the defensive network successfully implemented by Alfred the Great a century later to deal with the Danish invasions . However , Offa did not necessarily understand the economic changes that came with the burhs , so it is not safe to assume he envisioned all their benefits . In 749 , Æthelbald of Mercia had issued a charter that freed ecclesiastical lands from all obligations except the requirement to build forts and bridges – obligations which lay upon everyone , as part of the trinoda necessitas . Offa 's Kentish charters show him laying these same burdens on the recipients of his grants there , and this may be a sign that the obligations were being spread outside Mercia . These burdens were part of Offa 's response to the threat of " the pagan seaman " .
Offa issued laws in his name , but no details of them have survived . They are known only from a mention by Alfred the Great , in the preface to Alfred 's own law code . Alfred says that he has included in his code those laws of Offa , Ine of Wessex and Æthelberht of Kent which he found " most just " . The laws may have been an independent lawcode , but it is also possible that Alfred is referring to the report of the legatine mission in 786 , which issued statutes that the Mercians undertook to obey .
= = Coinage = =
At the start of the 8th century , sceattas were the primary circulating coinage . These were small silver pennies , which often did not bear the name of either the moneyer or the king for whom they were produced . To contemporaries these were probably known as pennies , and are the coins referred to in the laws of Ine of Wessex . This light coinage ( in contrast to the heavier coins minted later in Offa 's reign ) can probably be dated to the late 760s and early 770s . A second , medium @-@ weight coinage can be identified before the early 790s . These new medium @-@ weight coins were heavier , broader and thinner than the pennies they replaced , and were prompted by the contemporary Carolingian currency reforms . The new pennies almost invariably carried both Offa 's name and the name of the moneyer from whose mint the coins came . The reform in the coinage appears to have extended beyond Offa 's own mints : the kings of East Anglia , Kent and Wessex all produced coins of the new heavier weight in this period .
Some coins from Offa 's reign bear the names of the archbishops of Canterbury , Jaenberht and , after 792 , Æthelheard . Jaenberht 's coins all belong to the light coinage , rather than the later medium coinage . There is also evidence that coins were issued by Eadberht , who was Bishop of London in the 780s and possibly before . Offa 's dispute with Jaenberht may have led him to allow Eadberht coining rights , which may then have been revoked when the see of Lichfield was elevated to an archbishopric .
The medium @-@ weight coins often carry designs of high artistic quality , exceeding that of the contemporary Frankish currency . Coin portraits of Offa have been described as " showing a delicacy of execution which is unique in the whole history of the Anglo @-@ Saxon coinage " . The depictions of Offa on the coins include a " striking and elegant " portrait showing him with his hair in voluminous curls , and another where he wears a fringe and tight curls . Some coins show him wearing a necklace with a pendant . The variety of these depictions implies that Offa 's die @-@ cutters were able to draw on varied artistic sources for their inspiration .
Offa 's wife Cynethryth was the only Anglo @-@ Saxon queen ever named or portrayed on coinage – in a remarkable series of pennies struck by the moneyer Eoba . These were probably derived from contemporary coins from the reign of the Byzantine emperor Constantine VI , who minted a series showing a portrait of his mother , the later Empress Irene , though the Byzantine coins show a frontal bust of Irene rather than a profile , and so cannot have been a direct model .
Around the time of Jaenberht 's death and replacement with Æthelheard in 792 @-@ 93 , the silver currency was reformed a second time : in this " heavy coinage " the weight of the pennies was increased again , and a standardised non @-@ portrait design was introduced at all mints . None of Jaenberht 's or Cynethryth 's coins occur in this coinage , whereas all of Æthelheard 's coins are of the new , heavier weight .
There are also surviving gold coins from Offa 's reign . One is a copy of an Abbasid dinar struck in 774 by Caliph Al @-@ Mansur , with " Offa Rex " centred on the reverse . It is clear that the moneyer had no understanding of Arabic as the Arabic text contains many errors . The coin may have been produced to trade with Islamic Spain ; or it may be part of the annual payment of 365 mancuses that Offa promised to Rome . There are other Western copies of Abbasid dinars of the period , but it is not known whether they are English or Frankish . Two other English gold coins of the period survive , from two moneyers , Pendraed and Ciolheard : the former is thought to be from Offa 's reign but the latter may belong either to Offa 's reign or to that of Coenwulf , who came to the throne in 796 . Nothing definite is known about their use , but they may have been struck to be used as alms .
Although many of the coins bear the name of a moneyer , there is no indication of the mint where each coin was struck . As a result , the number and location of mints used by Offa is uncertain . Current opinion is that there were four mints , in Canterbury , Rochester , East Anglia and London .
= = Stature = =
The title Offa used on most of his charters was " rex Merciorium " , or " king of the Mercians " , though this was occasionally extended to " king of the Mercians and surrounding nations " . Some of his charters use the title " Rex Anglorum , " or " King of the English , " and this has been seen as a sweeping statement of his power . There is debate on this point , however , as several of the charters in which Offa is named " Rex Anglorum " are of doubtful authenticity . They may represent later forgeries of the 10th century , when this title was standard for kings of England . The best evidence for Offa 's use of this title comes from coins , not charters : there are some pennies with " Of ℞ A " inscribed , but it is not regarded as definite that this stood for " Offa Rex Anglorum . "
In Anglo @-@ Saxon England , Stenton argued that Offa was perhaps the greatest king of the English kingdoms , commenting that " no other Anglo @-@ Saxon king ever regarded the world at large with so ... acute a political sense " . Many historians regard Offa 's achievements as second only to Alfred the Great among the Anglo @-@ Saxon kings . Offa 's reign has sometimes been regarded as a key stage in the transition to a unified England , but this is no longer the general view among historians in the field . In the words of Simon Keynes , " Offa was driven by a lust for power , not a vision of English unity ; and what he left was a reputation , not a legacy . " It is now believed that Offa thought of himself as " King of the Mercians , " and that his military successes were part of the transformation of Mercia from an overlordship of midland peoples into a powerful and aggressive kingdom .
= = Death and succession = =
Offa died on 29 July 796 , and may be buried in Bedford , though it is not clear that the " Bedeford " named in that charter was actually Bedford . He was succeeded by his son , Ecgfrith , but according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle Ecgfrith died after a reign of only 141 days . A letter written by Alcuin in 797 to a Mercian ealdorman named Osbert makes it apparent that Offa had gone to great lengths to ensure that his son Ecgfrith would succeed him . Alcuin 's opinion is that Ecgfrith " has not died for his own sins ; but the vengeance for the blood his father shed to secure the kingdom has reached the son . For you know very well how much blood his father shed to secure the kingdom on his son . " It is apparent that in addition to Ecgfrith 's consecration in 787 , Offa had eliminated dynastic rivals . This seems to have backfired , from the dynastic point of view , as no close male relatives of Offa or Ecgfrith are recorded , and Coenwulf , Ecgfrith 's successor , was only distantly related to Offa 's line .
= Goliath ( Six Flags Over Georgia ) =
Goliath is a steel Hyper Coaster located at the Six Flags Over Georgia amusement park in Cobb County , Georgia , United States . Designed by Bolliger & Mabillard it reaches a maximum height of 200 feet ( 61 m ) , a top speed of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , and has approximately 4 @,@ 480 feet ( 1 @,@ 370 m ) of track . Great Gasp and Looping Starship were both removed by the end of the 2005 season to make room for the roller coaster . Goliath was announced to the public on September 1 , 2005 and opened on April 1 , 2006 . In 2006 , Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards voted it the fourth @-@ best new steel roller coaster of that year and the 9th @-@ best steel roller coaster . It was voted the 7th @-@ best steel roller coaster in 2013 .
= = History = =
On September 1 , 2005 , the park officially announced Goliath , a $ 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 steel Hyper Coaster . By the end of the 2005 season , the rides Great Gasp and Looping Starship were closed and removed from the park to make room for the new roller coaster . Foundations for Goliath 's supports began to be poured in September 2005 . In early October , track began to arrive at the park ; erection of the supports and track began soon after . In November and December , construction on the lift hill was complete . In March 2006 , Goliath 's trains were delivered to the park . After construction on the track and testing was complete , the roller coaster opened to the public on April 1 , 2006 .
= = Ride experience = =
After being dispatched from the station , the train makes a left hand turn towards the 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) chain lift hill . Once at the top , the train drops back down 170 feet ( 52 m ) reaching a maximum speed of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) . Following the drop , the train goes over the first of its camelback hills , where the train experiences the ride 's tallest drop at 175 feet ( 53 m ) . As the train exits the park boundaries , it enters a banked left turn then its second camelback hill with a 129 @-@ foot ( 39 m ) drop . Next , the train rises back up and enters a 540 @-@ degree downward helix before passing through a set of trim brakes and going over the third camelback hill , this time with a 118 @-@ foot ( 36 m ) drop . The train then enters a horseshoe leading back into the park , followed by the final three camelback hills with a drop height of 79 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) , 56 @-@ foot ( 17 m ) , and 48 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) , each lower than the previous one . Following a banked left turn , the train makes a quick drop before entering the final brake run leading back to the station . One cycle of the ride lasts about three and a half minutes .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Track = = =
The steel track of Goliath is approximately 4 @,@ 480 feet ( 1 @,@ 370 m ) long and covers an area of about 8 @.@ 5 acres ( 3 @.@ 4 ha ; 0 @.@ 0133 sq mi ) . The height of the lift is 200 feet ( 61 m ) . The roller coaster has no inversions , though it does feature six camelback hills and a 540 degree helix . The track is painted orange while the supports are painted teal . Goliath was manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia , Ohio .
= = = Trains = = =
Goliath operates with two steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has nine cars which can seat four riders in a single row , for a total of 36 riders per train ; each seat has its own individual lap @-@ bar restraint . This configuration allows the ride to achieve a theoretical hourly capacity of 1 @,@ 220 riders per hour . The structure of the trains are painted orange and teal , with matching colored restraints and seats .
= = Reception = =
Joel Bullock from The Coaster Critic and Mike from NewsPlusNotes both praised the g @-@ forces experienced while going through the helix , and the amount of airtime Goliath has . Bullock described Goliath as , " not only the park ’ s best roller coaster , but arguably the best coaster in the South East ( south of Virginia ) . " Mike Collins from Coaster Radio particularly enjoyed the section of the roller coaster that takes riders outside of the park boundaries . He also said that , " [ Goliath is ] a fun and fast coaster . It ’ s all about the airtime ... and you get a lot of it . "
In Goliath 's opening year , it was voted the fourth best new ride for 2006 and the ninth best steel roller coaster in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards . The roller coaster peaked at position four in 2009 and 2011 .
In Mitch Hawker 's Best Steel Roller Coaster Poll , Goliath was voted as the tenth best steel roller coaster in the world in its first year ; it peaked at position seven in 2007 .
= = Incidents = =
On July 27 , 2006 , a 45 @-@ year @-@ old man was found unresponsive and not breathing on Goliath after losing consciousness during the ride . Park employees began to treat the man before he was taken to a local hospital and pronounced dead . After an inspection of the ride showed that the roller coaster was operating properly , it reopened to the public .
= Meteorological history of Cyclone Leon – Eline =
Cyclone Leon – Eline in February 2000 was the third @-@ longest tracked tropical cyclone in the South @-@ West Indian Ocean . On February 1 , a tropical low originated within the monsoon trough to the south of Indonesia , and would eventually become Tropical Cyclone Leon in the Australian basin . Moving westward , the storm fluctuated in strength due to changes in the atmosphere , mostly increasing and decreasing wind shear . After crossing 90 ° E , the Météo @-@ France office in Réunion ( MFR ) began tracking the system as Tropical Storm Eline on February 8 . The storm continued across the Indian Ocean and intensified greatly as it approached the east coast of Madagascar . Late on February 17 , Eline made landfall near Mahanoro , with 10 ‑ minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . The storm rapidly weakened over land , but restrengthened in the Mozambique Channel to reach peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . On February 22 , Eline made landfall about 80 km ( 50 mi ) south of Beira , Mozambique near peak intensity and quickly weakened over land . The well @-@ defined circulation moved across southern Africa , finally dissipating over eastern Namibia on February 29 .
Eline was unusual in its track after striking Madagascar . Most storms in the Mozambique Channel turn to the south , ultimately missing land ; however , upon landfall , Eline became one of 5 % of recorded cyclones to strike southern Africa . In addition , favorable conditions allowed the storm to maintain its identity over land . Overall , Cyclone Leon – Eline traveled over 11 @,@ 000 km ( 6 @,@ 800 mi ) during its 29 – day duration .
= = Origins = =
The origins of Leon – Eline were from a low pressure area that developed within the monsoon trough on February 1 in the eastern Indian Ocean , about 250 km ( 155 mi ) south of the Indonesian island of Bali . The low formed due to a surge of energy within the monsoon that had crossed the equator from the northwest . Associated convection , or thunderstorms , was initially sparse . Over the subsequent few days the system tracked west @-@ southwestward without much development , moving around a large ridge over northwestern Australia . There was initially moderate wind shear in the region . However , a developing anticyclone allowed the convection to persist over the center and develop outflow . At 22 : 00 UTC on February 3 , the Perth Tropical Cyclone Warning Center ( PTCWC ) upgraded the tropical low to a Category 1 on the Australian tropical cyclone scale , estimating 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . At 04 : 00 UTC the next day , the PTCWC named the storm Tropical Cyclone Leon . On the same day at 03 : 00 UTC , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began issuing advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 11S . Around that time , the storm was located about 215 km ( 130 mi ) south @-@ southeast of Christmas Island .
After becoming a named storm , Leon turned more to the west @-@ southwest , due to a trough weakening the ridge to the south . The storm developed increased convective banding , aided by decreasing wind shear , and quickly intensified . Early on February 5 , the PTCWC upgraded Leon to a Category 3 on the Australian scale , estimating 10 ‑ minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . At 22 : 00 UTC that day , the agency estimated an initial peak of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . On February 6 , the cyclone developed an eye in the center of the convection that was only visible on Special sensor microwave / imager , not on satellite imagery . On the same day , the JTWC upgraded Leon to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , estimating 1 ‑ minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . A trough passing to the south increased wind shear , causing the storm to weaken . Around that time , Leon passed about 510 km ( 315 mi ) south of the Cocos Islands , while turning more to the west after the ridge strengthened to the south . By February 8 , the circulation was exposed from the rapidly dwindling thunderstorms . At 18 : 00 UTC that day , Leon crossed 90 ° E into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean , and as result was renamed Eline by the Mauritius Meteorological Service . By that time , Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) estimated 10 ‑ minute winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) .
= = Strengthening and first landfall = =
Over the subsequent few days , wind shear caused the convection to wax and wane over Eline 's center , limiting the thunderstorms to the southern periphery . The track shifted more to the west @-@ northwest . On February 11 , Eline had weakened into a minimal tropical storm according to the MFR , about 1110 km ( 690 mi ) south of Diego Garcia , and the JTWC operationally downgraded it to a tropical depression . Later that day , however , a decrease in shear allowed thunderstorms to refire . On February 13 , a weakness in the ridge caused the storm to turn back to the west @-@ southwest . Moving back beneath an anticyclone , conditions became more favorable for strengthening , allowing outflow and a central dense overcast to form , with the beginnings of an eye feature . Eline quickly intensified into a severe tropical storm late on February 13 . At 00 : 00 UTC the next day , the JTWC upgraded Eline to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane with 1 ‑ minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The MFR held off upgrading the storm , due to a passing trough increasing wind shear again . On February 14 , Eline passed about 85 km ( 55 mi ) south of St. Brandon , and shortly thereafter resumed its strengthening after the shear dropped . Later that day , the storm bypassed Mauritius about 180 km ( 110 mi ) to the northwest , with the small structure sparing the island from the strongest winds . Early on February 16 , Eline attained tropical cyclone status , with 10 ‑ minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , while passing about 160 km ( 100 mi ) northwest of Réunion . This was nine days after it had weakened to tropical storm status the first time .
After becoming a tropical cyclone , Eline was still encountering wind shear and dry air . Despite these factors , the eye became better defined and the storm intensified , aided by favoring upper @-@ level conditions . The cyclone turned more to the west toward Madagascar , despite a weakness in the ridge to the south . While approaching the country , Eline quickly intensified , reaching 10 ‑ minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) by 18 : 00 UTC on February 17 . Around that time , the cyclone made landfall on eastern Madagascar near Mahanoro . Eline rapidly weakened over land while moving to the west @-@ southwest , and the JTWC downgraded the storm to tropical depression status within 18 hours of moving ashore .
= = Mozambique Channel and final landfall = =
After crossing Madagascar for 26 hours , Eline emerged into the Mozambique Channel near Belo , still maintaining good outflow . With warm waters and a favorable upper level environment , the depression quickly re @-@ intensified as convection increased . At 12 : 00 UTC on February 19 , Eline re @-@ attained moderate tropical storm status . While in the central Mozambique Channel , Eline passed about 35 km ( 20 mi ) north of Europa Island , which recorded a barometric pressure of 992 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) . Shortly thereafter , the storm turned more to the west @-@ northwest due to a strengthening ridge to the south . A brief increase in wind shear delayed the strengthening trend , but Eline resumed intensifying on February 21 while slowly approaching southeastern Africa . Over a 24 ‑ hour period , the pressure dropped by 45 mbar ( 1 @.@ 3 inHg ) , indicative of rapid deepening . During that time , the convection organized into an intense eyewall around a well @-@ defined 60 km ( 35 mi ) eye . Eline had re @-@ attained tropical cyclone at 12 : 00 UTC on February 21 , and by 18 hours later reached intense tropical cyclone status . The MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) ; in contrast , the JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) , the equivalent of a Category 4 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale . While at peak intensity , Eline made landfall about 80 km ( 50 mi ) south of Beira , Mozambique , where a pressure of 989 mbar ( 29 @.@ 2 inHg ) was recorded . Gusts at landfall were estimated at 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) .
Although the winds rapidly decreased after landfall , the storm maintained a well @-@ defined structure as it crossed from Mozambique into Zimbabwe late on February 22 . Weakening to tropical depression status , Eline crossed Zimbabwe and maintained its circulation , entering Botswana on February 24 . Three days later , the center drifted into eastern Namibia and turned to the south , dissipating on February 29 . After the circulation dissipated , the residual system merged with a heat low and an approaching cold front .
= = Statistics = =
Throughout its duration , Leon @-@ Eline lasted 29 days , a record longevity for a storm in the southern Indian Ocean . The track was over 11 @,@ 000 km ( 6 @,@ 800 mi ) , or about 25 % of the Earth 's circumference . However , Eline was in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean for 21 days , which is the third most on record . It was behind Cyclone Alibera in 1989 and Cyclone Georgette in 1968 , the latter of which lasted 24 days in the basin . The MFR noted that Eline was the strongest cyclone to strike the nation in several decades . The storm was uncommon in its landfall on mainland Africa ; only 5 % of storms in the basin do so , and most that cross or form in the Mozambique Channel turn to the south . Eline was unusual in maintaining its identity so far inland , aided by increased moisture and enhanced upper @-@ level environmental conditions over southern Africa . The storm 's long track brought heavy rainfall across Madagascar and southern Africa , causing additional widespread flooding .
= The Simpsons =
The Simpsons is an American animated sitcom created by Matt Groening for the Fox Broadcasting Company . The series is a satirical depiction of a working class lifestyle epitomized by the Simpson family , which consists of Homer , Marge , Bart , Lisa , and Maggie . The show is set in the fictional town of Springfield and parodies American culture , society , television , and many aspects of the human condition . It 's the 20th Century Fox debut in animation .
The family was conceived by Groening shortly before a solicitation for a series of animated shorts with the producer James L. Brooks . Groening created a dysfunctional family and named the characters after members of his own family , substituting Bart for his own name . The shorts became a part of The Tracey Ullman Show on April 19 , 1987 . After a three @-@ season run , the sketch was developed into a half @-@ hour prime time show and was an early hit for Fox , becoming the network 's first series to land in the Top 30 ratings in a season ( 1989 – 90 ) .
Since its debut on December 17 , 1989 , the series has broadcast 596 episodes . It will begin airing its 28th season in September 2016 . The Simpsons is the longest @-@ running American sitcom , the longest @-@ running American animated program , and in 2009 it surpassed Gunsmoke as the longest @-@ running American scripted primetime television series . The Simpsons Movie , a feature @-@ length film , was released in theaters worldwide on July 27 , 2007 , and grossed over $ 527 million . On May 4 , 2015 , the series was officially renewed for seasons twenty @-@ seven ( 2015 – 16 ) and twenty @-@ eight ( 2016 – 17 ) , consisting of 22 episodes each .
The Simpsons has received widespread critical acclaim , especially for the " Golden Age " of approximately its first ten seasons . Time magazine named it the 20th century 's best television series , and The A.V. Club named it " television 's crowning achievement regardless of format " . On January 14 , 2000 , the Simpson family was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . It has won dozens of awards since it debuted as a series , including 31 Primetime Emmy Awards , 30 Annie Awards , and a Peabody Award . Homer 's exclamatory catchphrase " D 'oh ! " has been adopted into
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the English language , while The Simpsons has influenced many adult @-@ oriented animated sitcoms . Despite this , the show has also been criticized for what many perceive as a decline in quality over the years .
= = Premise = =
= = = Characters = = =
The Simpsons are a family who live in a fictional " Middle American " town of Springfield . Homer , the father , works as a safety inspector at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , a position at odds with his careless , buffoonish personality . He is married to Marge Simpson , a stereotypical American housewife and mother . They have three children : Bart , a ten @-@ year @-@ old troublemaker ; Lisa , a precocious eight @-@ year @-@ old activist ; and Maggie , the baby of the family who rarely speaks , but communicates by sucking on a pacifier . Although the family is dysfunctional , many episodes examine their relationships and bonds with each other and they are often shown to care about one another . The family owns a dog , Santa 's Little Helper , and a cat , Snowball V , renamed Snowball II in " I , ( Annoyed Grunt ) -Bot " . Both pets have had starring roles in several episodes .
The show includes an array of quirky supporting characters : co @-@ workers , teachers , family friends , extended relatives , townspeople and local celebrities . The creators originally intended many of these characters as one @-@ time jokes or for fulfilling needed functions in the town . A number of them have gained expanded roles and subsequently starred in their own episodes . According to Matt Groening , the show adopted the concept of a large supporting cast from the comedy show SCTV .
Despite the depiction of yearly milestones such as holidays or birthdays passing , the characters do not age between episodes ( either physically or in stated age ) , and generally appear just as they did when the series began . The series uses a floating timeline in which episodes generally take place in the year the episode is produced even though the characters do not age . Flashbacks / forwards do occasionally depict the characters at other points in their lives , with the timeline of these depictions also generally floating relative to the year the episode is produced . In a nod to the non @-@ aging aspect of the show , when asked during the Family Guy crossover episode " The Simpsons Guy " how long Nelson Muntz has been bullying him , Bart replies " 24 years . "
= = = Setting = = =
The Simpsons takes place in the fictional American town of Springfield in an unknown and impossible @-@ to @-@ determine U.S. state . The show is intentionally evasive in regard to Springfield 's location . Springfield 's geography , and that of its surroundings , contains coastlines , deserts , vast farmland , tall mountains , or whatever the story or joke requires . Groening has said that Springfield has much in common with Portland , Oregon , the city where he grew up . The name " Springfield " is a common one in America and appears in 22 states . Groening has said that he named it after Springfield , Oregon , and the fictitious Springfield which was the setting of the series Father Knows Best . He " figured out that Springfield was one of the most common names for a city in the U.S. In anticipation of the success of the show , I thought , ' This will be cool ; everyone will think it 's their Springfield . ' And they do . " An astronomer and fan of the show , Phil Plait , noticed that The Simpsons could be set in Australia , because the moon in Springfield faces the wrong way to be an American location . It is drawn facing the right , as it would in the Southern Hemisphere .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
When producer James L. Brooks was working on the television variety show The Tracey Ullman Show , he decided to include small animated sketches before and after the commercial breaks . Having seen one of cartoonist Matt Groening 's Life in Hell comic strips , Brooks asked Groening to pitch an idea for a series of animated shorts . Groening initially intended to present an animated version of his Life in Hell series . However , Groening later realized that animating Life in Hell would require the rescinding of publication rights for his life 's work . He therefore chose another approach while waiting in the lobby of Brooks 's office for the pitch meeting , hurriedly formulating his version of a dysfunctional family that became the Simpsons . He named the characters after his own family members , substituting " Bart " for his own name , adopting an anagram of the word " brat " .
The Simpson family first appeared as shorts in The Tracey Ullman Show on April 19 , 1987 . Groening submitted only basic sketches to the animators and assumed that the figures would be cleaned up in production . However , the animators merely re @-@ traced his drawings , which led to the crude appearance of the characters in the initial shorts . The animation was produced domestically at Klasky Csupo , with Wes Archer , David Silverman , and Bill Kopp being animators for the first season . Colorist Gyorgyi Peluce was the person who decided to make the characters yellow .
In 1989 , a team of production companies adapted The Simpsons into a half @-@ hour series for the Fox Broadcasting Company . The team included the Klasky Csupo animation house . Brooks negotiated a provision in the contract with the Fox network that prevented Fox from interfering with the show 's content . Groening said his goal in creating the show was to offer the audience an alternative to what he called " the mainstream trash " that they were watching . The half @-@ hour series premiered on December 17 , 1989 , with " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " . " Some Enchanted Evening " was the first full @-@ length episode produced , but it did not broadcast until May 1990 , as the last episode of the first season , because of animation problems . In 1992 , Tracey Ullman filed a lawsuit against Fox , claiming that her show was the source of the series ' success . The suit said she should receive a share of the profits of The Simpsons — a claim rejected by the courts .
= = = Executive producers and showrunners = = =
Matt Groening and James L. Brooks have served as executive producers during the show 's entire history , and also function as creative consultants . Sam Simon , described by former Simpsons director Brad Bird as " the unsung hero " of the show , served as creative supervisor for the first four seasons . He was constantly at odds with Groening , Brooks and the show 's production company Gracie Films and left in 1993 . Before leaving , he negotiated a deal that sees him receive a share of the profits every year , and an executive producer credit despite not having worked on the show since 1993 , at least until his passing in 2015 . A more involved position on the show is the showrunner , who acts as head writer and manages the show 's production for an entire season .
= = = Writing = = =
The first team of writers , assembled by Sam Simon , consisted of John Swartzwelder , Jon Vitti , George Meyer , Jeff Martin , Al Jean , Mike Reiss , Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky . Newer Simpsons ' writing teams typically consist of sixteen writers who propose episode ideas at the beginning of each December . The main writer of each episode writes the first draft . Group rewriting sessions develop final scripts by adding or removing jokes , inserting scenes , and calling for re @-@ readings of lines by the show 's vocal performers . Until 2004 , George Meyer , who had developed the show since the first season , was active in these sessions . According to long @-@ time writer Jon Vitti , Meyer usually invented the best lines in a given episode , even though other writers may receive script credits . Each episode takes six months to produce so the show rarely comments on current events .
Credited with sixty episodes , John Swartzwelder is the most prolific writer on The Simpsons . One of the best @-@ known former writers is Conan O 'Brien , who contributed to several episodes in the early 1990s before replacing David Letterman as host of the talk show Late Night . English comedian Ricky Gervais wrote the episode " Homer Simpson , This Is Your Wife " , becoming the first celebrity to both write and guest star in an episode . Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg , writers of the film Superbad , wrote the episode " Homer the Whopper " , with Rogen voicing a character in it .
At the end of 2007 , the writers of The Simpsons went on strike together with the other members of the Writers Guild of America , East . The show 's writers had joined the guild in 1998 .
= = = Voice actors = = =
The Simpsons has six main cast members : Dan Castellaneta , Julie Kavner , Nancy Cartwright , Yeardley Smith , Hank Azaria and Harry Shearer . Castellaneta voices Homer Simpson , Grampa Simpson , Krusty the Clown , Groundskeeper Willie , Mayor Quimby , Barney Gumble and other adult , male characters . Julie Kavner voices Marge Simpson and Patty and Selma , as well as several minor characters . Castellaneta and Kavner had been a part of The Tracey Ullman Show cast and were given the parts so that new actors would not be needed . Cartwright voices Bart Simpson , Nelson Muntz , Ralph Wiggum and other children . Smith , the voice of Lisa Simpson , is the only cast member who regularly voices only one character , although she occasionally plays other episodic characters . The producers decided to hold casting for the roles of Bart and Lisa . Smith had initially been asked to audition for the role of Bart , but casting director Bonita Pietila believed her voice was too high , so she was given the role of Lisa instead . Cartwright was originally brought in to voice Lisa , but upon arriving at the audition , she found that Lisa was simply described as the " middle child " and at the time did not have much personality . Cartwright became more interested in the role of Bart , who was described as " devious , underachieving , school @-@ hating , irreverent , [ and ] clever " . Groening let her try out for the part instead , and upon hearing her read , gave her the job on the spot . Cartwright is the only one of the six main Simpsons cast members who had been professionally trained in voice acting prior to working on the show . Azaria and Shearer do not voice members of the title family , but play a majority of the male townspeople . Azaria , who has been a part of the Simpsons regular voice cast since the second season , voices recurring characters such as Moe Szyslak , Chief Wiggum , Apu Nahasapeemapetilon and Professor Frink . Shearer also provides voices for Mr. Burns , Mr. Smithers , Principal Skinner , Ned Flanders , Reverend Lovejoy and Dr. Hibbert . Every main cast member has won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance .
With one exception , episode credits list only the voice actors , and not the characters they voice . Both Fox and the production crew wanted to keep their identities secret during the early seasons and , therefore , closed most of the recording sessions while refusing to publish photos of the recording artists . However , the network eventually revealed which roles each actor performed in the episode " Old Money " , because the producers said the voice actors should receive credit for their work . In 2003 , the cast appeared in an episode of Inside the Actors Studio , doing live performances of their characters ' voices .
The six main actors were paid $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode until 1998 , when they were involved in a pay dispute with Fox . The company threatened to replace them with new actors , even going as far as preparing for casting of new voices , but series creator Groening supported the actors in their action . The issue was soon resolved and , from 1998 to 2004 , they were paid $ 125 @,@ 000 per episode . The show 's revenue continued to rise through syndication and DVD sales , and in April 2004 the main cast stopped appearing for script readings , demanding they be paid $ 360 @,@ 000 per episode . The strike was resolved a month later and their salaries were increased to something between $ 250 @,@ 000 and $ 360 @,@ 000 per episode . In 2008 , production for the twentieth season was put on hold due to new contract negotiations with the voice actors , who wanted a " healthy bump " in salary to an amount close to $ 500 @,@ 000 per episode . The negotiations were soon completed , and the actors ' salary was raised to $ 400 @,@ 000 per episode . Three years later , with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut , the cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut , down to just over $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode .
In addition to the main cast , Pamela Hayden , Tress MacNeille , Marcia Wallace , Maggie Roswell , and Russi Taylor voice supporting characters . From 1999 to 2002 , Roswell 's characters were voiced by Marcia Mitzman Gaven . Karl Wiedergott has also appeared in minor roles , but does not voice any recurring characters . Wiedergott left the show in 2010 , and since then Chris Edgerly has appeared regularly to voice minor characters . Repeat " special guest " cast members include Albert Brooks , Phil Hartman , Jon Lovitz , Joe Mantegna , Maurice LaMarche , and Kelsey Grammer . Following Hartman 's death in 1998 , the characters he voiced ( Troy McClure and Lionel Hutz ) were retired ; Wallace 's character of Edna Krabappel was retired as well after her death in 2013 .
Episodes will quite often feature guest voices from a wide range of professions , including actors , athletes , authors , bands , musicians and scientists . In the earlier seasons , most of the guest stars voiced characters , but eventually more started appearing as themselves . Tony Bennett was the first guest star to appear as himself , appearing briefly in the season two episode " Dancin ' Homer " . The Simpsons holds the world record for " Most Guest Stars Featured in a Television Series " .
The Simpsons has been dubbed into several other languages , including Japanese , German , Spanish , and Portuguese . It is also one of the few programs dubbed in both standard French and Quebec French . The show has been broadcast in Arabic , but due to Islamic customs , numerous aspects of the show have been changed . For example , Homer drinks soda instead of beer and eats Egyptian beef sausages instead of hot dogs . Because of such changes , the Arabized version of the series met with a negative reaction from the lifelong Simpsons fans in the area .
= = = Animation = = =
Several different U.S. and international studios animate The Simpsons . Throughout the run of the animated shorts on The Tracey Ullman Show , the animation was produced domestically at Klasky Csupo . With the debut of the series , because of an increased workload , Fox subcontracted production to several international studios , located in South Korea . These are AKOM , Anivision , Rough Draft Studios , USAnimation , and Toonzone Entertainment . A subcontractor connection to the North Korean SEK Studio has been suspected but not confirmed . The production staff at the U.S. animation studio , Film Roman , draws storyboards , designs new characters , backgrounds , props and draws character and background layouts , which in turn become animatics to be screened for the writers at Gracie Films for any changes to be made before the work is shipped overseas . The overseas studios then draw the inbetweens , ink and paint , and render the animation to tape before it is shipped back to the United States to be delivered to Fox three to four months later .
For the first three seasons , Klasky Csupo animated The Simpsons in the United States . In 1992 , the show 's production company , Gracie Films , switched domestic production to Film Roman , who continue to animate the show as of 2012 . In Season 14 , production switched from traditional cel animation to digital ink and paint . The first episode to experiment with digital coloring was " Radioactive Man " in 1995 . Animators used digital ink and paint during production of the season 12 episode " Tennis the Menace " , but Gracie Films delayed the regular use of digital ink and paint until two seasons later . The already completed " Tennis the Menace " was broadcast as made .
The series began high @-@ definition production in Season 20 ; the first episode , " Take My Life , Please " , aired February 15 , 2009 . The move to HDTV included a new opening sequence . Matt Groening called it a complicated change because it affected the timing and composition of animation .
= = Themes = =
The Simpsons uses the standard setup of a situational comedy , or sitcom , as its premise . The series centers on a family and their life in a typical American town , serving as a satirical parody of a middle class American lifestyle . However , because of its animated nature , The Simpsons ' scope is larger than that of a regular sitcom . The town of Springfield acts as a complete universe in which characters can explore the issues faced by modern society . By having Homer work in a nuclear power plant , the show can comment on the state of the environment . Through Bart and Lisa 's days at Springfield Elementary School , the show 's writers illustrate pressing or controversial issues in the field of education . The town features a vast array of media channels — from kids ' television programming to local news , which enables the producers to make jokes about themselves and the entertainment industry .
Some commentators say the show is political in nature and susceptible to a left @-@ wing bias . Al Jean admitted in an interview that " We [ the show ] are of liberal bent . " The writers often evince an appreciation for liberal ideals , but the show makes jokes across the political spectrum . The show portrays government and large corporations as callous entities that take advantage of the common worker . Thus , the writers often portray authority figures in an unflattering or negative light . In The Simpsons , politicians are corrupt , ministers such as Reverend Lovejoy are indifferent to churchgoers , and the local police force is incompetent . Religion also figures as a recurring theme . In times of crisis , the family often turns to God , and the show has dealt with most of the major religions .
= = Hallmarks = =
= = = Opening sequence = = =
The Simpsons ' opening sequence is one of the show 's most memorable hallmarks . The standard opening has gone through three iterations ( a replacement of some shots at the start of the second season , and a brand new sequence when the show switched to high @-@ definition in 2009 ) . Each has the same basic sequence of events : The camera zooms through cumulus clouds , through the show 's title towards the town of Springfield . The camera then follows the members of the family on their way home . Upon entering their house , the Simpsons settle down on their couch to watch television . The original opening was created by David Silverman , and was the first task he did when production began on the show . The series ' distinctive theme song was composed by musician Danny Elfman in 1989 , after Groening approached him requesting a retro style piece . This piece has been noted by Elfman as the most popular of his career .
One of the most distinctive aspects of the opening is that three of its elements change from episode to episode : Bart writes different things on the school chalkboard , Lisa plays different solos on her saxophone and different gags accompany the family as they enter their living room to sit on the couch .
= = = Halloween episodes = = =
The special Halloween episode has become an annual tradition . " Treehouse of Horror " first broadcast in 1990 as part of season two and established the pattern of three separate , self @-@ contained stories in each Halloween episode . These pieces usually involve the family in some horror , science fiction , or supernatural setting and often parody or pay homage to a famous piece of work in those genres . They always take place outside the normal continuity of the show . Although the Treehouse series is meant to be seen on Halloween , this changed by the 2000s , when new installments have premiered after Halloween due to Fox 's current contract with Major League Baseball 's World Series , however , as of 2011 every Treehouse of Horror episode has aired during the month of October .
= = = Humor = = =
The show 's humor turns on cultural references that cover a wide spectrum of society so that viewers from all generations can enjoy the show . Such references , for example , come from movies , television , music , literature , science , and history . The animators also regularly add jokes or sight gags into the show 's background via humorous or incongruous bits of text in signs , newspapers , billboards , and elsewhere . The audience may often not notice the visual jokes in a single viewing . Some are so fleeting that they become apparent only by pausing a video recording of the show . Kristin Thompson argues that The Simpsons uses a " flurry of cultural references , intentionally inconsistent characterization , and considerable self @-@ reflexivity about television conventions and the status of the programme as a television show . "
One of Bart 's early hallmarks was his prank calls to Moe 's Tavern owner Moe Szyslak in which Bart calls Moe and asks for a gag name . Moe tries to find that person in the bar , but soon realizes it is a prank call and angrily threatens Bart. These calls were apparently based on a series of prank calls known as the Tube Bar recordings , though Groening has denied any causal connection . Moe was based partly on Tube Bar owner Louis " Red " Deutsch , whose often profane responses inspired Moe 's violent side . As the series progressed , it became more difficult for the writers to come up with a fake name and to write Moe 's angry response , and the pranks were dropped as a regular joke during the fourth season . The Simpsons also often includes self @-@ referential humor . The most common form is jokes about Fox Broadcasting . For example , the episode " She Used to Be My Girl " included a scene in which a Fox News Channel van drove down the street while displaying a large " Bush Cheney 2004 " banner and playing Queen 's " We Are the Champions " , in reference to the 2004 U.S. presidential election and claims of conservative bias in Fox News .
The show uses catchphrases , and most of the primary and secondary characters have at least one each . Notable expressions include Homer 's annoyed grunt " D 'oh ! " , Mr. Burns ' " Excellent " and Nelson Muntz 's " Ha @-@ ha ! " . Some of Bart 's catchphrases , such as " ¡ Ay , caramba ! " , " Don 't have a cow , man ! " and " Eat my shorts ! " appeared on T @-@ shirts in the show 's early days . However , Bart rarely used the latter two phrases until after they became popular through the merchandising . The use of many of these catchphrases has declined in recent seasons . The episode " Bart Gets Famous " mocks catchphrase @-@ based humor , as Bart achieves fame on the Krusty the Clown Show solely for saying " I didn 't do it . "
= = Influence and legacy = =
= = = Idioms = = =
A number of neologisms that originated on The Simpsons have entered popular vernacular . Mark Liberman , director of the Linguistic Data Consortium , remarked , " The Simpsons has apparently taken over from Shakespeare and the Bible as our culture 's greatest source of idioms , catchphrases and sundry other textual allusions . " The most famous catchphrase is Homer 's annoyed grunt : " D 'oh ! " So ubiquitous is the expression that it is now listed in the Oxford English Dictionary , but without the apostrophe . Dan Castellaneta says he borrowed the phrase from James Finlayson , an actor in many Laurel and Hardy comedies , who pronounced it in a more elongated and whining tone . The staff of The Simpsons told Castellaneta to shorten the noise , and it went on to become the well @-@ known exclamation in the television series .
Groundskeeper Willie 's description of the French as " cheese @-@ eating surrender monkeys " was used by National Review columnist Jonah Goldberg in 2003 , after France 's opposition to the proposed invasion of Iraq . The phrase quickly spread to other journalists . " Cromulent " and " Embiggen " , words used in " Lisa the Iconoclast " , have since appeared in the Dictionary.com 's 21st Century Lexicon , and scientific journals respectively . " Kwyjibo " , a fake Scrabble word invented by Bart in " Bart the Genius " , was used as one of the aliases of the creator of the Melissa worm . " I , for one , welcome our new insect overlords " , was used by Kent Brockman in " Deep Space Homer " and has become a common phrase . Variants of Brockman 's utterance are used to express obsequious submission . It has been used in media , such as New Scientist magazine . The dismissive term " Meh " , believed to have been popularized by the show , entered the Collins English Dictionary in 2008 . Other words credited as stemming from the show include " yoink " and " craptacular " .
The Oxford Dictionary of Modern Quotations includes several quotations from the show . As well as " cheese @-@ eating surrender monkeys " , Homer 's lines , " Kids , you tried your best and you failed miserably . The lesson is never try " , from " Burns ' Heir " ( season five , 1994 ) as well as " Kids are the best , Apu . You can teach them to hate the things you hate . And they practically raise themselves , what with the Internet and all " , from " Eight Misbehavin ' " ( season 11 , 1999 ) , entered the dictionary in August 2007 .
= = = Television = = =
The Simpsons was the first successful animated program in American prime time since Wait Till Your Father Gets Home in the 1970s . During most of the 1980s , US pundits considered animated shows as appropriate only for children , and animating a show was too expensive to achieve a quality suitable for prime @-@ time television . The Simpsons changed this perception . The use of Korean animation studios for tweening , coloring , and filming made the episodes cheaper . The success of The Simpsons and the lower production cost prompted US television networks to take chances on other animated series . This development led US producers to a 1990s boom in new , animated prime @-@ time shows , such as South Park , Family Guy , King of the Hill , Futurama and The Critic . For Family Guy creator Seth MacFarlane , " The Simpsons created an audience for prime @-@ time animation that had not been there for many , many years ... As far as I 'm concerned , they basically re @-@ invented the wheel . They created what is in many ways — you could classify it as — a wholly new medium . "
The Simpsons has had crossovers with four other shows . In the episode " A Star Is Burns " , Marge invites Jay Sherman , the main character of The Critic , to be a judge for a film festival in Springfield . Matt Groening had his name removed from the episode since he had no involvement with The Critic . South Park later paid homage to The Simpsons with the episode " Simpsons Already Did It " . In " Simpsorama " , the Planet Express crew from Futurama come to Springfield in the present to prevent the Simpsons from destroying the future . In the Family Guy episode " The Simpsons Guy " , the Griffins visit Springfield and meet the Simpsons .
The Simpsons has also influenced live @-@ action shows like Malcolm in the Middle , which featured the use of sight gags and did not use a laugh track unlike most sitcoms . Malcolm in the Middle debuted January 9 , 2000 , in the time slot after The Simpsons . Ricky Gervais called The Simpsons an influence on The Office , and fellow British sitcom Spaced was , according to its director Edgar Wright , " an attempt to do a live @-@ action The Simpsons . " In Georgia , the animated television sitcom The Samsonadzes , launched in November 2009 , has been noted for its very strong resemblance with The Simpsons , which its creator Shalva Ramishvili has acknowledged .
= = Reception and achievements = =
= = = Early success = = =
The Simpsons was the Fox network 's first television series to rank among a season 's top 30 highest @-@ rated shows . While later seasons would focus on Homer , Bart was the lead character in most of the first three seasons . In 1990 , Bart quickly became one of the most popular characters on television in what was termed " Bartmania " . He became the most prevalent Simpsons character on memorabilia , such as T @-@ shirts . In the early 1990s , millions of T @-@ shirts featuring Bart were sold ; as many as one million were sold on some days . Believing Bart to be a bad role model , several American public schools banned T @-@ shirts featuring Bart next to captions such as " I 'm Bart Simpson . Who the hell are you ? " and " Underachiever ( ' And proud of it , man ! ' ) " . The Simpsons merchandise sold well and generated $ 2 billion in revenue during the first 14 months of sales . Because of his popularity , Bart was often the most promoted member of the Simpson family in advertisements for the show , even for episodes in which he was not involved in the main plot .
Due to the show 's success , over the summer of 1990 the Fox Network decided to switch The Simpsons ' time slot so that it would move from 8 : 00 p.m. ET on Sunday night to the same time on Thursday , where it would compete with The Cosby Show on NBC , the number one show at the time . Through the summer , several news outlets published stories about the supposed " Bill vs. Bart " rivalry . " Bart Gets an F " ( season two , 1990 ) was the first episode to air against The Cosby Show , and it received a lower Nielsen ratings , tying for eighth behind The Cosby Show , which had an 18 @.@ 5 rating . The rating is based on the number of household televisions that were tuned into the show , but Nielsen Media Research estimated that 33 @.@ 6 million viewers watched the episode , making it the number one show in terms of actual viewers that week . At the time , it was the most watched episode in the history of the Fox Network , and it is still the highest rated episode in the history of The Simpsons . The show moved back to its Sunday slot in 1994 and has remained there ever since .
The Simpsons has been praised by many critics , being described as " the most irreverent and unapologetic show on the air . " In a 1990 review of the show , Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly described it as " the American family at its most complicated , drawn as simple cartoons . It 's this neat paradox that makes millions of people turn away from the three big networks on Sunday nights to concentrate on The Simpsons . " Tucker would also describe the show as a " pop @-@ cultural phenomenon , a prime @-@ time cartoon show that appeals to the entire family . "
= = = Run length achievements = = =
On February 9 , 1997 , The Simpsons surpassed The Flintstones with the episode " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show " as the longest @-@ running prime @-@ time animated series in the United States . In 2004 , The Simpsons replaced The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet ( 1952 to 1966 ) as the longest @-@ running sitcom ( animated or live action ) in the United States . In 2009 , The Simpsons surpassed The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet 's record of 435 episodes and is now recognized by Guinness World Records as the world 's longest running sitcom ( in terms of episode count ) . In October 2004 , Scooby @-@ Doo briefly overtook The Simpsons as the American animated show with the highest number of episodes . However , network executives in April 2005 again cancelled Scooby @-@ Doo , which finished with 371 episodes , and The Simpsons reclaimed the title with 378 episodes at the end of their seventeenth season . In May 2007 , The Simpsons reached their 400th episode at the end of the eighteenth season . While The Simpsons has the record for the number of episodes by an American animated show , other animated series have surpassed The Simpsons . For example , the Japanese anime series Sazae @-@ san has over 7 @,@ 000 episodes to its credit .
In 2009 , Fox began a year @-@ long celebration of the show titled " Best . 20 Years . Ever . " to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the premiere of The Simpsons . One of the first parts of the celebration is the " Unleash Your Yellow " contest in which entrants must design a poster for the show . The celebration ended on January 10 , 2010 ( almost 20 years after " Bart the Genius " aired on January 14 , 1990 ) , with The Simpsons 20th Anniversary Special – In 3 @-@ D ! On Ice ! , a documentary special by documentary filmmaker Morgan Spurlock that examines the " cultural phenomenon of The Simpsons " .
As of the twenty @-@ first season ( 2009 – 2010 ) , The Simpsons became the longest @-@ running American scripted primetime television series , having surpassed Gunsmoke . However , Gunsmoke 's episode count of 635 episodes surpasses The Simpsons , which will not reach that mark until its approximate 29th season under normal programming schedules . However , since Gunsmoke was a full @-@ hour series for its latter fourteen seasons , The Simpsons is the longest @-@ running half @-@ hour series in primetime television . In May 2015 , Fox renewed the show up to the end of a 28th season .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
The Simpsons has won dozens of awards since it debuted as a series , including 31 Primetime Emmy Awards , 30 Annie Awards and a Peabody Award . In a 1999 issue celebrating the 20th century 's greatest achievements in arts and entertainment , Time magazine named The Simpsons the century 's best television series . In that same issue , Time included Bart Simpson in the Time 100 , the publication 's list of the century 's 100 most influential people . Bart was the only fictional character on the list . On January 14 , 2000 , the Simpsons were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . Also in 2000 , Entertainment Weekly magazine TV critic Ken Tucker named The Simpsons the greatest television show of the 1990s . Furthermore , viewers of the UK television channel Channel 4 have voted The Simpsons at the top of two polls : 2001 's 100 Greatest Kids ' TV shows , and 2005 's The 100 Greatest Cartoons , with Homer Simpson voted into first place in 2001 's 100 Greatest TV Characters . Homer would also place ninth on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the " 50 Greatest TV icons " . In 2002 , The Simpsons ranked # 8 on TV Guide 's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time , and in 2007 it was included in Time 's list of the " 100 Best TV Shows of All Time " . In 2008 the show was placed in first on Entertainment Weekly 's " Top 100 Shows of the Past 25 Years " . Empire named it the greatest TV show of all time . In 2010 , Entertainment Weekly named Homer " the greatest character of the last 20 years " , while in 2013 the Writers Guild of America listed The Simpsons as the 11th " best written " series in television history . In 2013 , TV Guide ranked The Simpsons as the greatest TV cartoon of all time and the tenth greatest show of all time .
= = = Criticism and controversy = = =
Bart 's rebellious , bad boy nature , which frequently resulted in no punishment for his misbehavior , led some parents and conservatives to characterize him as a poor role model for children . In schools , educators claimed that Bart was a " threat to learning " because of his " underachiever and proud of it " attitude and negative attitude regarding his education . Others described him as " egotistical , aggressive and mean @-@ spirited " . In a 1991 interview , Bill Cosby described Bart as a bad role model for children , calling him " angry , confused , frustrated " . In response , Matt Groening said , " That sums up Bart , all right . Most people are in a struggle to be normal [ and ] he thinks normal is very boring , and does things that others just wished they dare do . " On January 27 , 1992 , then @-@ President George H. W. Bush said , " We are going to keep on trying to strengthen the American family , to make American families a lot more like the Waltons and a lot less like the Simpsons . " The writers rushed out a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek reply in the form of a short segment which aired three days later before a rerun of " Stark Raving Dad " in which Bart replied , " Hey , we 're just like the Waltons . We 're praying for an end to the Depression , too . "
Various episodes of the show have generated controversy . The Simpsons visit Australia in " Bart vs. Australia " ( season six , 1995 ) and Brazil in " Blame It on Lisa " ( season 13 , 2002 ) and both episodes generated controversy and negative reaction in the visited countries . In the latter case , Rio de Janeiro 's tourist board – who claimed that the city was portrayed as having rampant street crime , kidnappings , slums , and monkey and rat infestations – went so far as to threaten Fox with legal action . Groening was a fierce and vocal critic of the episode " A Star Is Burns " ( season six , 1995 ) which featured a crossover with The Critic . He felt that it was just an advertisement for The Critic , and that people would incorrectly associate the show with him . When he was unsuccessful in getting the episode pulled , he had his name removed from the credits and went public with his concerns , openly criticizing James L. Brooks and saying the episode " violates the Simpsons ' universe . " In response , Brooks said , " I am furious with Matt , ... he 's allowed his opinion , but airing this publicly in the press is going too far . ... his behavior right now is rotten . " " The Principal and the Pauper " ( season nine , 1997 ) is one of the most controversial episodes of The Simpsons . Many fans and critics reacted negatively to the revelation that Seymour Skinner , a recurring character since the first season , was an impostor . The episode has been criticized by Groening and by Harry Shearer , who provides the voice of Skinner . In a 2001 interview , Shearer recalled that after reading the script , he told the writers , " That 's so wrong . You 're taking something that an audience has built eight years or nine years of investment in and just tossed it in the trash can for no good reason , for a story we 've done before with other characters . It 's so arbitrary and gratuitous , and it 's disrespectful to the audience . "
The show has reportedly been taken off the air in several countries . China banned it from prime @-@ time television in August 2006 , " in an effort to protect China 's struggling animation studios . " In 2008 , Venezuela barred the show from airing on morning television as it was deemed " unsuitable for children " . The same year , several Russian Pentecostal churches demanded that The Simpsons , South Park and some other Western cartoons be removed from broadcast schedules " for propaganda of various vices " and the broadcaster 's license to be revoked . However , the court decision later dismissed this request .
= = = Criticism of declining quality = = =
Critics ' reviews of early Simpsons episodes praised the show for its sassy humor , wit , realism , and intelligence . However , in the late 1990s , around the airing of seasons nine and ten , the tone and emphasis of the show began to change . Some critics started calling the show " tired " . By 2000 , some long @-@ term fans had become disillusioned with the show , and pointed to its shift from character @-@ driven plots to what they perceived as an overemphasis on zany antics . Jim Schembri of The Sydney Morning Herald attributed the decline in quality to an abandonment of character @-@ driven storylines in favor of and overuse of celebrity cameo appearances and references to popular culture . Schembri wrote : " The central tragedy of The Simpsons is that it has gone from commanding attention to merely being attention seeking . It began by proving that cartoon characters don 't have to be caricatures ; they can be invested with real emotions . Now the show has in essence fermented into a limp parody of itself . Memorable story arcs have been sacrificed for the sake of celebrity walk @-@ ons and punchline @-@ hungry dialogue . "
The BBC noted " the common consensus is that The Simpsons ' golden era ended after season nine " , while Todd Leopold of CNN , in an article looking at its perceived decline , stated " for many fans ... the glory days are long past . " Similarly , Tyler Wilson of Coeur d 'Alene Press has referred to seasons one to nine as the show 's " golden age " , and Ian Nathan of Empire described the show 's classic era as being " say , the first ten seasons . " Jon Heacock of LucidWorks stated that " for the first ten years [ seasons ] , the show was consistently at the top of its game " , with " so many moments , quotations , and references – both epic and obscure – that helped turn the Simpson family into the cultural icons that they remain to this day . "
Mike Scully , who was showrunner during seasons nine through twelve , has been the subject of criticism . Chris Suellentrop of Slate wrote that " under Scully 's tenure , The Simpsons became , well , a cartoon . ... Episodes that once would have ended with Homer and Marge bicycling into the sunset now end with Homer blowing a tranquilizer dart into Marge 's neck . The show 's still funny , but it hasn 't been touching in years . " When asked in 2007 how the series ' longevity is sustained , Scully joked : " Lower your quality standards . Once you 've done that you can go on forever . "
Al Jean , showrunner since season thirteen , has also been the subject of criticism , with some arguing that the show has continued to decline in quality under his tenure . Former writers have complained that under Jean , the show is " on auto @-@ pilot " , " too sentimental " , and the episodes are " just being cranked out . " Some critics believe that the show has " entered a steady decline under Jean and is no longer really funny . " John Ortved , author of The Simpsons : An Uncensored , Unauthorized History , characterized the Jean era as " toothless " , and criticized what he perceived as the show 's increase in social and political commentary . Jean has responded to this criticism by saying : " Well , it 's possible that we 've declined . But honestly , I 've been here the whole time and I do remember in season two people saying , ' It 's gone downhill . ' If we 'd listened to that then we would have stopped after episode 13 . I 'm glad we didn 't . "
In 2003 , to celebrate the show 's 300th episode " Barting Over " , USA Today published a pair of Simpsons related articles : a top @-@ ten episodes list chosen by the webmaster of The Simpsons Archive fansite , and a top @-@ 15 list by The Simpsons ' own writers . The most recent episode listed on the fan list was 1997 's " Homer 's Phobia " ; the Simpsons ' writers most recent choice was 2000 's " Behind the Laughter " . The series ' ratings have also declined ; while the first season enjoyed an average of 13 @.@ 4 million viewing households per episode in the U.S. , the twenty @-@ first season had an average of 7 @.@ 2 million viewers .
In 2004 , Harry Shearer criticized what he perceived as the show 's declining quality : " I rate the last three seasons as among the worst , so Season Four looks very good to me now . " In response , Dan Castellaneta stated " I don 't agree , ... I think Harry 's issue is that the show isn 't as grounded as it was in the first three or four seasons , that it 's gotten crazy or a little more madcap . I think it organically changes to stay fresh . "
Author Douglas Coupland described claims of declining quality in the series as " hogwash " , saying " The Simpsons hasn 't fumbled the ball in fourteen years , it 's hardly likely to fumble it now . " In an April 2006 interview , Matt Groening said , " I honestly don 't see any end in sight . I think it 's possible that the show will become too financially cumbersome ... but right now , the show is creatively , I think , as good or better than it 's ever been . The animation is incredibly detailed and imaginative , and the stories do things that we haven 't done before . So creatively there 's no reason to quit . "
In 2016 , popular culture writer Anna Leszkiewicz suggested that despite the fact that the Simpsons still holds cultural relevance , contemporary appeal is only for the first ten seasons , with recent Simpsons episodes only garnering mainstream attention when a favourite character from the golden era is killed off , or when new information and shock twists are given for old characters .
= = Other media = =
= = = Comic books = = =
Numerous Simpson @-@ related comic books have been released over the years . So far , nine comic book series have been published by Bongo Comics since 1993 . The first comic strips based on The Simpsons appeared in 1991 in the magazine Simpsons Illustrated , which was a companion magazine to the show . The comic strips were popular and a one @-@ shot comic book titled Simpsons Comics and Stories , containing four different stories , was released in 1993 for the fans . The book was a success and due to this , the creator of The Simpsons , Matt Groening , and his companions Bill Morrison , Mike Rote , Steve Vance and Cindy Vance created the publishing company Bongo Comics . Issues of Simpsons Comics , Bart Simpson 's Treehouse of Horror and Bart Simpson have been collected and reprinted in trade paperbacks in the United States by HarperCollins .
= = = Film = = =
20th Century Fox , Gracie Films , and Film Roman produced The Simpsons Movie , an animated film that was released on July 27 , 2007 . The film was directed by long @-@ time Simpsons producer David Silverman and written by a team of Simpsons writers comprising Matt Groening , James L. Brooks , Al Jean , George Meyer , Mike Reiss , John Swartzwelder , Jon Vitti , David Mirkin , Mike Scully , Matt Selman , and Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham . Production of the film occurred alongside continued writing of the series despite long @-@ time claims by those involved in the show that a film would enter production only after the series had concluded . There had been talk of a possible feature @-@ length Simpsons film ever since the early seasons of the series . James L. Brooks originally thought that the story of the episode " Kamp Krusty " was suitable for a film , but he encountered difficulties in trying to expand the script to feature @-@ length . For a long time , difficulties such as lack of a suitable story and an already fully engaged crew of writers delayed the project .
= = = Music = = =
Collections of original music featured in the series have been released on the albums Songs in the Key of Springfield , Go Simpsonic with The Simpsons and The Simpsons : Testify . Several songs have been recorded with the purpose of a single or album release and have not been featured on the show . The album The Simpsons Sing the Blues was released in September 1990 and was a success , peaking at # 3 on the Billboard 200 and becoming certified 2 × platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . The first single from the album was the pop rap song " Do the Bartman " , performed by Nancy Cartwright and released on November 20 , 1990 . The song was written by Michael Jackson , although he did not receive any credit . The Yellow Album was released in 1998 , but received poor reception and did not chart in any country .
= = = The Simpsons Ride = = =
In 2007 , it was officially announced that The Simpsons Ride , a simulator ride , would be implemented into the Universal Studios Orlando and Universal Studios Hollywood . It officially opened May 15 , 2008 in Florida and May 19 , 2008 , in Hollywood . In the ride , patrons are introduced to a cartoon theme park called Krustyland built by Krusty the Clown . However , Sideshow Bob is loose from prison to get revenge on Krusty and the Simpson family . It features more than 24 regular characters from The Simpsons and features the voices of the regular cast members , as well as Pamela Hayden , Russi Taylor and Kelsey Grammer . Harry Shearer did not participate in the ride , so none of his characters have vocal parts .
= = = Video games = = =
Numerous video games based on the show have been produced . Some of the early games include Konami 's arcade game The Simpsons ( 1991 ) and Acclaim Entertainment 's The Simpsons : Bart vs. the Space Mutants ( 1991 ) . More modern games include The Simpsons : Road Rage ( 2001 ) , The Simpsons : Hit & Run ( 2003 ) and The Simpsons Game ( 2007 ) . Electronic Arts , which produced The Simpsons Game , has owned the exclusive rights to create video games based on the show since 2005 . In 2010 , they released a game called The Simpsons Arcade for iOS . Another EA @-@ produced mobile game , Tapped Out , was released in 2012 for iOS users , then in 2013 for Android and Kindle users . Two Simpsons pinball machines have been produced : one that was available briefly after the first season , and another in 2007 , both out of production .
= = Syndication and streaming availability = =
In 2013 the cable television network FXX acquired exclusive cable and digital syndication rights for The Simpsons for a reported $ 750 million , a deal which broke the record for being the biggest off @-@ network deal in television history . Original contracts had previously stated that syndication rights for The Simpsons would not be sold to cable until the series conclusion , at a time when cable syndication deals were highly rare . The series has been syndicated to local broadcast stations in nearly all markets throughout the United States since September 1993 .
FXX premiered The Simpsons on their network on August 21 , 2014 by starting a twelve @-@ day marathon which featured the first 552 episodes ( every single episode that had already been released at the time ) aired chronologically , including The Simpsons Movie , which FX Networks had already owned the rights to air . It was the longest continuous marathon in the history of television ( until VH1 Classic aired a 433 @-@ hour , nineteen @-@ day , marathon of Saturday Night Live in 2015 ; celebrating that program 's 40th anniversary ) . The first day of the marathon was the highest rated broadcast day in the history of the network so far , the ratings more than tripled that those of regular prime time programming for FXX . Ratings during the first six nights of the marathon grew night after night , with the network ranking within the top 5 networks in basic cable each night .
On October 21 , 2014 , a digital service courtesy of the FXNOW app , called Simpsons World , launched . Simpsons World has every episode of the series accessible to authenticated FX subscribers , and is available on game consoles such as Xbox One , streaming devices such as Roku and Apple TV , and online via web browser . There was early criticism of both wrong aspect ratios for earlier episodes and the length of commercial breaks on the streaming service , but there are now fewer commercial breaks during individual episodes . Later it was announced that Simpsons World would now let users watch all of the SD episodes in their original format .
= = Merchandise = =
The popularity of The Simpsons has made it a billion @-@ dollar merchandising industry . The title family and supporting characters appear on everything from T @-@ shirts to posters . The Simpsons has been used as a theme for special editions of well @-@ known board games , including Clue , Scrabble , Monopoly , Operation , and The Game of Life , as well as the trivia games What Would Homer Do ? and Simpsons Jeopardy ! . Several card games such as trump cards and The Simpsons Trading Card Game have also been released . Many official or unofficial Simpsons books such as episode guides have been published . Many episodes of the show have been released on DVD and VHS over the years . When the first season DVD was released in 2001 , it quickly became the best @-@ selling television DVD in history , although it was later overtaken by the first season of Chappelle 's Show . In particular , seasons one through seventeen have been released on DVD in the U.S. ( Region 1 ) , Europe ( Region 2 ) and Australia / New Zealand / Latin America ( Region 4 ) . However , on April 19 , 2015 , Al Jean announced that the Season 17 DVD would be the last one ever produced , leaving the collection from Season 1 to 17 , Season 20 ( released out of schedule in 2009 ) , with Seasons 18 , 19 , and 21 onwards unreleased . Jean also stated that the deleted scenes and commentary would try to be released to the Simpsons World app , and that they were pushing for Simpsons World to be expanded outside of the U.S.
In 2003 , about 500 companies around the world were licensed to use Simpsons characters in their advertising . As a promotion for The Simpsons Movie , twelve 7 @-@ Eleven stores were transformed into Kwik @-@ E @-@ Marts and sold The Simpsons related products . These included " Buzz Cola " , " Krusty @-@ O " cereal , pink doughnuts with sprinkles , and " Squishees " .
In 2008 consumers around the world spent $ 750 million on merchandise related to The Simpsons , with half of the amount originating from the United States . By 2009 , 20th Century Fox had greatly increased merchandising efforts . On April 9 , 2009 , the United States Postal Service unveiled a series of five 44 @-@ cent stamps featuring Homer , Marge , Bart , Lisa and Maggie , to commemorate the show 's twentieth anniversary . The Simpsons is the first television series still in production to receive this recognition . The stamps , designed by Matt Groening , were made available for purchase on May 7 , 2009 . Approximately one billion were printed , but only 318 million were sold , costing the Postal Service $ 1 @.@ 2 million .
= = Simpsonwave = =
= = Frinkiac = =
= New York State Route 174 =
New York State Route 174 ( NY 174 ) is a state highway in Onondaga County , located in Central New York , in the United States . The highway is 16 @.@ 7 miles ( 26 @.@ 9 km ) long and passes through mostly rural regions . Route 174 begins at an intersection with NY 41 in Borodino , a hamlet of Spafford . It heads generally northward for most of its length , except for short distances in the villages of Marcellus and Camillus . The route ends at a junction with NY 5 west of Camillus , at the west end of the Route 5 Camillus bypass . Route 174 is located along a large mapped sedimentary bedrock unit , known as the Marcellus Formation . The formation is named for an outcrop found near the town of Marcellus , New York , during a geological survey in 1839 .
The road was first constructed in the early 19th century following the path of Nine Mile Creek , which connected several early settlements in Central New York . The northern half of the route , between the villages of Marcellus and Camillus , was later improved as a plank road in 1855 by a private corporation that collected tolls from travelers on the road . The state took over the maintenance of the road by the beginning of the 20th century . The former plank road and an extension south to Otisco Lake and southwest to Skaneateles Lake was first designated as Route 174 in the 1930 state highway renumbering . Since then , several minor realignments have been made in the areas of the villages of Marcellus and Camillus to accommodate newly built bypasses .
= = Route description = =
NY 174 begins its 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) route through Onondaga County at an intersection with NY 41 in the hamlet of Borodino , on the shores of Skaneateles Lake . The road heads north , passing to the east of Hardscrabble Point , to an intersection with Eibert Road ( County Route 131 or CR 131 ) where it turns east . The highway then heads eastward for about a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to a turn along the shore of Otisco Lake . It follows the shoreline of the lake northward into the town of Marcellus , soon entering the hamlet of Marietta . North of Marietta , the lake narrows into the Nine Mile Creek , which parallels NY 174 for the rest of the highway 's length .
Within the town of Marcellus , NY 174 intersects and becomes concurrent with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) for about 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 5 km ) until Sevier Road . NY 174 continues north along Sevier Road , still paralleling the creek , towards the village of Marcellus . South of the village line , NY 175 joins NY 174 and the two routes are concurrent for about 2 miles ( 3 km ) . The two roads go around the southeast border of the village , passing by the county park , then split in different directions just east of the village . Route 175 turns to the east while NY 174 turns to the west along the West Seneca Turnpike , entering the village of Marcellus .
NY 174 passes through the village center then turns north along North Street and heads out of the village , turning northward through the hamlet of Marcellus Falls . After Marcellus , the land around the route becomes more developed with residential areas becoming more common . About 0 @.@ 3 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 5 km ) north of Marcellus , NY 174 crosses Nine Mile Creek ; the bridge itself is designated as NY 174X , which is an internal designation used by NYSDOT and not signed as such .
The road continues north , still paralleling the Nine Mile Creek , into the town of Camillus . In Bennetts Corners , NY 174 intersects with Forward Road ( unsigned NY 931F ) , a connector road to NY 321 , then changes direction to head northeast . The road passes by Nose Hill before entering the village of Camillus . In the village center , NY 174 makes a sharp turn to the west onto West Genesee Street , where it comes to an end just west of the village line at a junction with NY 5 ( where its freeway begins ) that includes a jughandle , a slip road onto the freeway . NY 174 is located along a geological feature known as a mapped sedimentary bedrock unit , known as the Marcellus Formation . The formation is named for an outcrop found near the town of Marcellus , New York , during a geological survey in 1839 .
= = History = =
= = = Old roads = = =
The village of Marcellus was first settled in 1794 at the intersection of two transportation routes : an old Iroquois trail running east – west ( later to become the Seneca Turnpike ) and the north – south Nine Mile Creek . At the beginning of the 19th century , land travel along the Nine Mile Creek was very difficult and most travel between Marcellus and the settlements along Onondaga Lake was by water . In 1831 the New York State Legislature authorized the construction of a road to follow Nine Mile Creek from Marcellus towards the town of Salina at Onondaga Lake .
In 1855 , the road from Marcellus to Camillus along the Nine Mile Creek route was improved by the Camillus and Marcellus Plank Road Company , which was first chartered in 1853 and authorized to collect tolls from travelers using the road . The improvement of the road led to it becoming a stagecoach route in the middle of the 19th century . The former plank road alignment in the village of Marcellus ( North Street ) and the southward continuation along Cherry Street ( now South Street ) was paved in 1911 as part of the construction of a new state highway that would pass through the town .
= = = Designation = = =
The route from Marcellus ( at US 20 ) to Camillus was designated as NY 174 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . At the time , the segment of modern NY 174 from Otisco Valley Road ( south of US 20 ) to Borodino was designated as NY 337 while NY 174 followed Otisco Valley and Oak Hill Roads southeast to an intersection with NY 80 in Otisco . NY 174 was truncated northwestward c . 1932 to begin at US 20 south of Marcellus . The portion of its former routing between US 20 and NY 337 became a northward extension of NY 337 . This change was short @-@ lived as NY 337 was supplanted by an extended NY 174 by the following year . The northernmost portion of NY 174 from Forward Road to NY 5 in Camillus village was originally designated as part of NY 26 in 1924 . The route began in Ithaca and ended in Syracuse . The portion of NY 26 between the villages of Skaneateles and Camillus became NY 321 as part of the 1930 renumbering , resulting in an overlap with NY 174 from Forward Road to NY 5 . NY 321 has since been relocated to the west on a county road , and Forward Road is now NY 931F , an unsigned , state @-@ maintained highway known as a reference route .
NY 20N was designated c . 1938 as a northerly alternate route of US 20 between Skaneateles and Cazenovia . It utilized existing numbered roads , including NY 174 from US 20 in Skaneateles north to Marcellus , where it turned eastward to follow NY 175 . The NY 20N designation was removed c . 1962 .
NY 174 has also had several minor realignments . After Route 5 was realigned onto a new expressway from Camillus to Fairmount , NY 174 was extended on its northern end to meet the west end of the bypass in Camillus . The new alignment makes a sharp hook west along the former Route 5 . NY 174 has also been relocated onto a southeastern bypass around the village of Marcellus that also carries Route 175 . Originally , NY 174 and 175 entered the village along South Street . The routes were realigned to the bypass between 1976 and 1989 . NY 174 now enters downtown Marcellus using several blocks of the historic Seneca Turnpike between the old and new alignments . This section of the route is maintained by Onondaga County as CR 41 . The former South Street
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