id string | dataset string | question string | options list | answer string | explanation string |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
medmcqa_7969 | medmcqa | <ctx>
diabetic nephropathy, also known as diabetic kidney disease, is the chronic loss of kidney function occurring in those with diabetes mellitus. diabetic nephropathy is the leading causes of chronic kidney disease ( ckd ) and end - stage renal disease ( esrd ) globally. the triad of protein leaking into the urine ( proteinuria or albuminuria ), rising blood pressure with hypertension and then falling renal function is common to many forms of ckd. protein loss in the urine due to damage of the glomeruli may become massive, and cause a low serum albumin with resulting generalized body swelling ( edema ) so called nephrotic syndrome. likewise, the estimated glomerular filtration rate ( egfr ) may progressively fall from a normal of over 90 ml / min / 1. 73m2 to less than 15, at which point the patient is said to have end - stage renal disease. it usually is slowly progressive over years. pathophysiologic abnormalities in diabetic nephropathy usually begin with long - standing poorly controlled blood glucose levels. this is followed by multiple changes in the filtration units of the kidneys, the nephrons. ( there are normally about 750, 000 – 1. 5 million nephrons in each adult kidney ). initially, there is constriction of the efferent arterioles and dilation of afferent arterioles, with resulting glomerular capillary hypertension and hyperfiltration particularly as nephrons become obsolescent and the adaption of hyperfiltration paradoxically causes further shear stress related damage to the delicate glomerular capillaries, further proteinuria, rising blood pressure and a vicious circle of additional nephron damage and decline in overall renal function. concurrently, there are changes within the glomerulus itself : these include a thickening of the basement membrane, a widening of the slit membranes of the podocytes, an increase in the number of mesangial cells, and an increase in mesangial matrix. this matrix invades the glomerular capillaries and produces deposits called kimmelsti
these include a thickening of the basement membrane, a widening of the slit membranes of the podocytes, an increase in the number of mesangial cells, and an increase in mesangial matrix. this matrix invades the glomerular capillaries and produces deposits called kimmelstiel - wilson nodules. the mesangial cells and matrix can progressively expand and consume the entire glomerulus, shutting off filtration. the status of diabetic nephropathy may be monitored by measuring two values : the amount of protein in the urine - proteinuria ; and a blood test called the serum creatinine. the amount of the proteinuria reflects the degree of damage to any still - functioning glomeruli. the value of the serum creatinine can be used to calculate the estimated glomerular filtration rate ( egfr ), which reflects the percentage of glomeruli which are no longer filtering the blood. treatment with an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker, which dilates the arteriole exiting the glomerulus, thus reducing the blood pressure within the glomerular capillaries, which may slow ( but not stop ) progression of the disease. three classes of diabetes medications – glp - 1 agonists, dpp - 4 inhibitors, and sglt2 inhibitors – are also thought to slow the progression of diabetic nephropathy. diabetic nephropathy is the most common cause of end - stage renal disease and is a serious complication that affects approximately one quarter of adults with diabetes in the united states. affected individuals with end - stage kidney disease often require hemodialysis and eventually kidney transplantation to replace the failed kidney function. diabetic nephropathy is associated with an increased risk of death in general, particularly from cardiovascular disease. signs and symptoms the onset of symptoms is 5 to 10 years after the disease begins. a usual first symptom is frequent urination at night : nocturia. other symptoms include tiredness, headaches, a general feeling of illness, nausea, vomiting, frequent daytime urination, lack of
anti - gbm develops florid glomerulonephritis. the bb ’ subunit is aberrant in sle t cells, controls il - 2 deprivation - induced cell death, and probably accounts for the prolonged survival of activated autoreactive t cells. furthermore, pp2a contributes to the production of il - 17. the concept of specific subunits of pp2a controlling specific lymphocyte functions is appealing because we can consider correcting the levels of subunits to correct abnormal lymphocyte function. in ongoing studies, we find that other subunits control il - 2 and autoantibody production. the deletion of pp2a in tregs results in severe early auto / inflammatory syndrome. role of complement molecules in tissue injury, repair and regeneration tsokos established the role of complement activation in tissue injury and regeneration. his findings demonstrated for the first time that significant intestinal injury occurs during ischemia prior to reperfusion and that this is due to the activation of c3 within the intestinal epithelial cells in a cathepsin - dependent manner. his work also confirmed that an anaphylatoxin molecule of complement activation “ c3a ” enhances intestinal stem cell expansion, organoid formation and supports intestinal regeneration. tsokos'recent prospective study confirmed the significant correlation between injury severity score and deposition of c4d and c5b - 9 in human subjects of trauma and patients with severe trauma maintain high deposition of complement components for at least 72 hours. recently, his group developed a novel system to culture podocytes to study kidney injury, repair, and regeneration. for the better practice of podocyte culture, tsokos proposed a biophysical approach, termed macromolecular crowding as means to create ecm - rich tissue equivalents and decellularization to remove intracellular milieu. he provided evidence that decellularized matrix produced by human fibroblasts support podocyte in vitro microenvironment to regulate cell physiology and to develop accurate in vitro models for diagnostics and drug discovery purposes. honors and awards tsokos has served as president of the clinical immunology society
##ugliani, r., munoz rojas, v., martins, a., valadares, e., clarke, j., goes, j., kakkis, e., worden, m., sidman, m., cox, g. : a dose - optimization trial of laronidase ( aldurazyme ) in patients with mucopolysaccharidosis i. molecular genetics and metabolism, 96 ( 1 ) ; 13 - 19, 2009. clarke, l. a., wraith, j. e., beck, m., kolodny, e. h., pastores, g. m., muenzer, j., rapoport, d. m., berger, k. i., sidman, m., kakkis, e. d., cox, g. f. : long - term efficacy and safety of laronidase in the treatment of mucopolysaccharidosis i. pediatrics, 123 ; 229 - 240, 2009. trefz fk, burton bk, longo n, casanova mm, gruskin dj, dorenbaum a, kakkis ed, crombez ea, grange dk, harmatz p, lipson mh, milanowski a, randolph lm, vockley j, whitley cb, wolff ja, bebchuk j, christ - schmidt h, hennermann jb, sapropterin study group efficacy of sapropterin dihydrochloride in increasing phenylalanine tolerance in children with phenylketonuria : a phase iii, randomized, double - blind, placebo - controlled study. j pediatr, 2009 mar 2, vol., pages,. kakkis, emil ( 2022 ) saving ryan, impositivity media, references external links everylife foundation saving ryan - reader's digest battling rare diseases in a blockbuster world new fda groups for rare, neglected diseases could speed path to market biomarin genzyme dr. kakkis testifies in congress ultragenyx pharmaceuticals american genetic
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
All of the following are decrease in Nephrotic syndrome except -
A. Transferrin
B. Ceniloplasmin
C. Fibrinogen
D. Albumin
Answer: | [
"Transferrin",
"Ceniloplasmin",
"Fibrinogen",
"Albumin"
] | C | |
aquarat_48954 | aquarat | <ctx>
, for a set of randomly chosen people, what is the probability that some pair of them will have the same birthday? the problem itself is mainly concerned with counterintuitive probabilities, but we can also tell by the pigeonhole principle that if there are 367 people in the room, there is at least one pair of people who share the same birthday with 100 % probability, as there are only 366 possible birthdays to choose from ( including february 29, if present ). team tournament imagine seven people who want to play in a tournament of teams items ), with a limitation of only four teams holes ) to choose from. the pigeonhole principle tells us that they cannot all play for different teams ; there must be at least one team featuring at least two of the seven players : subset sum any subset of size six from the set = { 1, 2, 3,..., 9 } must contain two elements whose sum is 10. the pigeonholes will be labeled by the two element subsets { 1, 9 }, { 2, 8 }, { 3, 7 }, { 4, 6 } and the singleton { 5 }, five pigeonholes in all. when the six " pigeons " ( elements of the size six subset ) are placed into these pigeonholes, each pigeon going into the pigeonhole that has it contained in its label, at least one of the pigeonholes labeled with a two - element subset will have two pigeons in it. uses and applications the principle can be used to prove that any lossless compression algorithm, provided it makes some inputs smaller ( as " compression " suggests ), will also make some other inputs larger. otherwise, the set of all input sequences up to a given length could be mapped to the ( much ) smaller set of all sequences of length less than without collisions ( because the compression is lossless ), a possibility that the pigeonhole principle excludes. a notable problem in mathematical analysis is, for a fixed irrational number, to show that the set of fractional parts is dense in. one finds that it is not easy to explicitly find integers such that where is a small positive number and is some arbitrary irrational number. but if one takes such that by the pigeon
self - centered, he nonetheless has a deep moral sense. " the participants in this group were asked to rank the nine areas listed in part 1 in terms of how similar tom w. is to the prototypical graduate student of each area. " prediction group ", who were given the personality sketch described in 2, but were also given the information " the preceding personality sketch of tom w. was written during tom's senior year in high school by a psychologist, on the basis of projective tests. tom w. is currently a graduate student. please rank the following nine fields of graduate specialization in order of the likelihood that tom w. is now a graduate student in each of these fields. " the judgments of likelihood were much closer for the judgments of similarity than for the estimated base rates. the findings supported the authors'predictions that people make predictions based on how representative something is ( similar ), rather than based on relative base rate information. for example, more than 95 % of the participants said that tom would be more likely to study computer science than education or humanities, when there were much higher base rate estimates for education and humanities than computer science. the taxicab problem in another study done by tversky and kahneman, subjects were given the following problem : a cab was involved in a hit and run accident at night. two cab companies, the green and the blue, operate in the city. 85 % of the cabs in the city are green and 15 % are blue. a witness identified the cab as blue. the court tested the reliability of the witness under the same circumstances that existed on the night of the accident and concluded that the witness correctly identified each one of the two colours 80 % of the time and failed 20 % of the time. what is the probability that the cab involved in the accident was blue rather than green knowing that this witness identified it as blue? most subjects gave probabilities over 50 %, and some gave answers over 80 %. the correct answer, found using bayes'theorem, is lower than these estimates : there is a 12 % probability ( 0. 12 = 0. 15 × 0. 80 ) that the blue cab is ( correctly ) identified by the witness as blue. there is a
the possible numbers of successes, given in the final column of this table, are derived as follows. for 0 successes, there is clearly only one set of four choices ( namely, choosing all four incorrect cups ) giving this result. for one success and three failures, there are four correct cups of which one is selected, which by the combination formula can occur in different ways ( as shown in column 2, with x denoting a correct cup that is chosen and o denoting a correct cup that is not chosen ) ; and independently of that, there are four incorrect cups of which three are selected, which can occur in ways ( as shown in the second column, this time with x interpreted as an incorrect cup which is not chosen, and o indicating an incorrect cup which is chosen ). thus a selection of any one correct cup and any three incorrect cups can occur in any of 4×4 = 16 ways. the frequencies of the other possible numbers of successes are calculated correspondingly. thus the number of successes is distributed according to the hypergeometric distribution. specifically, for a random variable equal to the number of successes, we may write, where is the population size or total number of cups of tea, is the number of success states in the population or four cups of either type, and is the number of draws, or four cups. the distribution of combinations for making k selections out of the 2k available selections corresponds to the kth row of pascal's triangle, such that each integer in the row is squared. in this case, because 4 teacups are selected from the 8 available teacups. the critical region for rejection of the null of no ability to distinguish was the single case of 4 successes of 4 possible, based on the conventional probability criterion < 5 %. this is the critical region because under the null of no ability to distinguish, 4 successes has 1 chance out of 70 ( ≈ 1. 4 % < 5 % ) of occurring, whereas at least 3 of 4 successes has a probability of ( 16 + 1 ) / 70 ( ≈ 24. 3 % > 5 % ). thus, if and only if the lady properly categorized all 8 cups was fisher willing to reject the null hypothesis – effectively acknowledging the lady
and face demotion if they do not win at least eight of them. the sumo community is very close - knit, and the wrestlers at the top levels tend to know each other well. the authors looked at the final match, and considered the case of a wrestler with seven wins, seven losses, and one fight to go, fighting against an 8 – 6 wrestler. statistically, the 7 – 7 wrestler should have a slightly below even chance, since the 8 – 6 wrestler is slightly better. however, the 7 – 7 wrestler actually wins around 80 % of the time. levitt uses this statistic and other data gleaned from sumo wrestling matches, along with the effect that allegations of corruption have on match results, to conclude that those who already have eight wins collude with those who are 7 – 7 and let them win, since they have already secured their position for the following tournament. despite condemnation of the claims by the japan sumo association following the book's publication in 2005, the 2011 grand tournament in tokyo was canceled for the first time since 1946 because of allegations of match - fixing. the authors attempt to demonstrate the power of data mining, as a number of their results emerge from levitt's analysis of various databases. the authors posit that various incentives encourage teachers to cheat by assisting their students with multiple - choice high - stakes tests. such cheating in the chicago school system is inferred from detailed analysis of students'answers to multiple - choice questions. levitt asks, " what would the pattern of answers look like if the teacher cheated? ", and hypothesizes that the more difficult questions found at the end of test sections will be answered correctly more frequently than the easy questions at the beginning of test sections. second edition in chapter 2 of freakonomics, the authors wrote of their visit to folklorist stetson kennedy's florida home where the topic of kennedy's investigations of the ku klux klan were discussed. however, in their january 8, 2006, column in the new york times magazine, dubner and levitt wrote of questions about stetson kennedy's research ( " hoodwinked ", pp. 26 – 28 ) leading to the conclusion that kennedy '
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Twelve telegenic contestants with a variety of personality disorders are to be divided into two “tribes” of five members each, tribe A and tribe B, for a competition. How many distinct groupings of two tribes are possible?
A. A)120
B. B)126
C. C)792
D. D)1200
Answer: | [
"A)120",
"B)126",
"C)792",
"D)1200"
] | C | My ans is 12C5 = 792
C |
medmcqa_1270 | medmcqa | <ctx>
mri and these features are predominantly associated with poor prognosis. the combination of more dangerous genetic alterations, histology and clinical outcomes for patients with prostate tumours which are visible on mpmri, has led to suggestions that the definition of'clinically significant cancer'should be at least in part based on mpmri findings. the radiogenomic approach has been also successfully applied in breast cancer. in 2014, mazurowski et al. showed that enhancement dynamics in mri, computed using computer vision algorithms, are associated with gene expression - based tumor molecular subtype in breast cancer patients. programs that study the connections between radiology and genomics are active at the university of pennsylvania, ucla, md anderson cancer center, stanford university and at baylor college of medicine in houston, texas. multiparametric radiomics multiparametric radiological imaging is vital for detection, characterization and diagnosis of many different diseases. however, current methods in radiomics are limited to using single images for the extraction of these textural features and may limit the applicable scope of radiomics in different clinical settings. thus, in the current form, they are not capable of capturing the true underlying tissue characteristics in high dimensional multiparametric imaging space. recently, a multiparametric imaging radiomic framework termed mprad for extraction of radiomic features from high dimensional datasets was developed. the multiparametric radiomics was tested on two different organs and diseases ; breast cancer and cerebrovascular accidents in brain, commonly referred to as stroke. breast cancer in breast cancer, the mprad framework classified malignant from benign breast lesions with excellent sensitivity and specificity of 87 % and 80. 5 % respectively with an auc of 0. 88. mprad provided a 9 % - 28 % increase in auc over single radiomic parameters. more importantly, in breast, normal glandular tissue mprad were similar between each group with no significance differences. stroke similarly, the mprad features in brain stroke demonstrated increased performance in distinguishing the perfusion - diffusion mismatch compared to single parameter radiomics and there were no differences within the white and gray matter tissue. the majority of the single radiomic second order features ( glcm ) did not show any
##s, especially in aged dogs, can appear similar to mf or non - epidermotropic cutaneous lymphoma ( necl ). multiple histiocytomas may look like cutaneous histiocytosis, although morphologically histiocytomas are consistently epidermotropic and commonly epidermally invasive, these are not features of cutaneous histiocytosis. delayed regression of multiple histiocytomas can occur and lesions can persist for up to 10 months. metastatic histiocytoma recently, several cases of histiocytoma were observed in which histiocytes had migrated to draining lymph nodes and obliterated them. pathologists diagnosed histiocytic sarcoma in these instances and prognosis was reported as poor. in 3 instances regression of these lesions occurred spontaneously within 3 – 4 weeks. in other instances the metastatic lesions of histiocytoma failed to regress and dogs were euthanized. the disease course in these cases extended over several months. spread beyond lymph nodes to lung has also been observed in some of these cases. these complications are rare. langerhans cell histiocytosis the presence of multiple histiocytomas is now a well recognized syndrome. however, there is yet another presentation in which widespread cutaneous lesions histologically identical to histiocytoma are observed. clinically, the lesions are almost confluent in affected regions. rapid internal spread is observed and the affected animals have all been euthanized. there is one published account of such a case, and we have data on 3 dogs with what appears to be an identical syndrome. immunophenotypic studies immunohistochemistry ( ihc ) is best performed on frozen sections of tumor ( not formalin fixed material! ). histiocytoma is readily distinguished from other histiocytic disorders and cutaneous lymphoma with the aid of ihc. our work has clearly shown that histiocytomas have the phenotype of epidermal langerhans cells. they express cd1a, cd1
a potential therapeutic target in the aggressive forms of thyroid cancer. proc natl acad sci u s a. 2014 ; mar ; 111 ( 11 ) : 4233 – 4238. yip l, wharry li, armstrong mj, silbermann a, mccoy kl, stang mt, ohori np, lebeau so, coyne c, nikiforova mn, bauman je, johnson jt, tublin me, hodak sp, nikiforov ye, carty se. a clinical algorithm for fine - needle aspiration molecular testing effectively guides the appropriate extent of initial thyroidectomy. ann surg. 2014 260 : 163 - 8. armstrong mj, yang h, yip l, ohori np, mccoy kl, stang mt, hodak sp, nikiforova mn, carty se, nikiforov ye. pax8 / pparγ rearrangement in thyroid nodules predicts follicular - pattern carcinomas, in particular the encapsulated follicular variant of papillary carcinoma. thyroid. 2014 dec ; 122 ( 12 ) : 873 : 82. cancer genome atlas research network ( nikiforov ye among 243 co - authors ). integrated genomic characterization of papillary thyroid carcinoma. cell. 2014 oct 23 ; 159 ( 3 ) : 676 - 90. nikiforov ye, carty se, chiosea si, coyne c, duvvuri u, ferris rl, gooding we, hodak sp, lebeau so, ohori np, seethala rr, tublin me, yip l, nikiforova mn. highly accurate diagnosis of cancer in thyroid nodules with follicular neoplasm / suspicious for a follicular neoplasm cytology by thyroseq v2 next - generation sequencing assay. cancer. 2014, 120 : 3627 - 34. radkay la, chiosea si, seethala rr, hodak sp, lebeau so, yip l, mccoy kl, carty se, schoedel ke,
gallbladder ( known as courvoisier's sign ) may also raise suspicion, and can help differentiate pancreatic cancer from gallstones. medical imaging techniques, such as computed tomography ( ct scan ) and endoscopic ultrasound ( eus ) are used both to confirm the diagnosis and to help decide whether the tumor can be surgically removed ( its " resectability " ). on contrast ct scan, pancreatic cancer typically shows a gradually increasing radiocontrast uptake, rather than a fast washout as seen in a normal pancreas or a delayed washout as seen in chronic pancreatitis. magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography may also be used, and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography may be useful in some cases. abdominal ultrasound is less sensitive and will miss small tumors, but can identify cancers that have spread to the liver and build - up of fluid in the peritoneal cavity ( ascites ). it may be used for a quick and cheap first examination before other techniques. a biopsy by fine needle aspiration, often guided by endoscopic ultrasound, may be used where there is uncertainty over the diagnosis, but a histologic diagnosis is not usually required for removal of the tumor by surgery to go ahead. liver function tests can show a combination of results indicative of bile duct obstruction ( raised conjugated bilirubin, γ - glutamyl transpeptidase and alkaline phosphatase levels ). ca19 - 9 ( carbohydrate antigen 19. 9 ) is a tumor marker that is frequently elevated in pancreatic cancer. however, it lacks sensitivity and specificity, not least because 5 % of people lack the lewis ( a ) antigen and cannot produce ca19 - 9. it has a sensitivity of 80 % and specificity of 73 % in detecting pancreatic adenocarcinoma, and is used for following known cases rather than diagnosis. histopathology the most common form of pancreatic cancer ( adenocarcinoma ) is typically characterized by moderately to poorly differentiated glandular structures on microscopic examination. there is typically considerable desmopl
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Which of the following malignancy shows least lymph node involvement:
A. Supraglottic
B. Subglottic
C. Glottic cancer
D. Ca nasopharynx
Answer: | [
"Supraglottic",
"Subglottic",
"Glottic cancer",
"Ca nasopharynx"
] | C | Ans: c (Glottic cancer) Ref: Dhingra, 3rd ed, p. 372; 4th ed, p. 286No lymphatics in vocal cords so nodal metastasis are practically never seen in cord lesions unless the disease spreads beyond the membraneous cord. SupraglottisGlottisSubglottisSiteEpiglottisAryepiglottic foldArytenoidVentricular bandsVentricles & sacculeTrue vocal cordsAnt.commissurePost.commissureWall of subglottis upto lower border of cricoid cartilageFrequencyLess frequent than glotticMost commonLeast commonNodal metsNodal mets earlyNo lymph node metsNodal mets as common as in supraglottic varietySymptomsOften silent, hoarseness lateHoarsenessStridor |
medmcqa_9951 | medmcqa | <ctx>
deletion mutants are highly sensitive, and damage of a single hypha can result in complete lysis of a young mycelium. in animals in contrast to septins in yeast, and in contrast to other cytoskeletal components of animals, septins do not form a continuous network in cells, but several dispersed ones in the cytoplasm of the cell cortex. these are integrated with actin bundles and microtubules. for example, the actin bundling protein anillin is required for correct spatial control of septin organization. in the sperm cells of mammals, septins form a stable ring called annulus in the tail. in mice ( and potentially in humans, too ), defective annulus formation leads to male infertility. human in humans, septins are involved in cytokinesis, cilium formation and neurogenesis through the capability to recruit other proteins or serve as a diffusion barrier. there are 13 different human genes coding for septins. the septin proteins produced by these genes are grouped into four subfamilies each named after its founding member : ( i ) sept2 ( sept1, sept4, sept5 ), ( ii ) sept3 ( sept9, sept12 ), ( iii ) sept6 ( sept8, sept10, sept11, sept14 ), and ( iv ) sept7. septin protein complexes are assembled to form either hetero - hexamers ( incorporating monomers selected from three different groups and the monomer from each group is present in two copies ; 3 x 2 = 6 ) or hetero - octamers ( monomers from four different groups, each monomer present in two copies ; 4 x 2 = 8 ). these hetero - oligomers in turn form higher - order structures such as filaments and rings. septins form cage - like structures around bacterial pathogens, immobilizing harmful microbes and preventing them from invading healthy cells. this cellular defence system could potentially be exploited to create therapies for dysentery and other illnesses. for example, shigella is a bacterium that causes lethal diarrhoea in humans. to propagate from cell to
breadth of their symptoms, and the challenges of identifying impacted patients all complicate the diagnosis. these related conditions include : tunica vasculosa lentis : a capillary network that branches from the hyaloid artery and covers the lens surface ; if this capillary network persists, the lens does not form properly ; it includes anterior and posterior divisions encircling the human lens ; anteriorly, the tunica vasculosa lentis has attachments that extend to the pupillary frill of the iris and onto the anterior lens surface ; posteriorly, the tunica vasculosa lentis anastomosis with the hyaloid system and is attached to the ciliary process. hyaloid system : also called primary vitreous ; composed of both the hyaloid vessel that extends from the optic nerve to the posterior lens, as well as the vasculature that fills the vitreous cavity and has many attachments to the retinal surface ; normally regresses by 28 to 30 weeks gestational age. it includes the vaso hyaloidea proprea, the tunica vasculosa lentis, and the pupillary membrane. anterior pfv syndrome : eyes with mostly tunica vasculosa changes posterior pfv syndrome : eyes with mostly hyaloid artery changes mittendorf dot : the termination of the normally regressed anterior portion of the hyaloid artery, found slightly to the nasal side of the intraocular space as the artery approaches the posterior pole of the lens ; benign finding unless related to other intraocular persistent vasculature ; the brittle star configuration is seen when an enlarging mittendorf dot anastomoses with residual vessels of the posterior tunica vasculosa lentis ; bergmeister papilla : a remnant of the posterior portion of the hyaloid artery ’ s fibrous sheath at the optic disc ; not known to cause any visual disorders ; visualized as a linear, gray structure anterior to the optic disc. due to pfv ’ s close resemblance with retinoblastoma in particular, conclusively identifying pfv through advanced medical imaging is
front of the sacroiliac joint, one on either side, and each bifurcates into the external and internal iliac arteries. iliac artery, external – the external iliac arteries are two major arteries which bifurcate off the common iliac arteries anterior to the sacroiliac joint of the pelvis. they proceed anterior and inferior along the medial border of the psoas major muscles. they exit the pelvic girdle posterior and inferior to the inguinal ligament about one third laterally from the insertion point of the inguinal ligament on the pubic tubercle at which point they are referred to as the femoral arteries. the external iliac artery is usually the artery used to attach the renal artery to the recipient of a kidney transplant. ilium – ( plural ilia ), is the uppermost and largest part of the hip bone, and appears in most vertebrates including mammals and birds, but not bony fish. all reptiles have an ilium except snakes, although some snake species have a tiny bone which is considered to be an ilium. the ilium of the human is divisible into two parts, the body and the wing ; the separation is indicated on the top surface by a curved line, the arcuate line, and on the external surface by the margin of the acetabulum. immune system – is a network of biological processes that protects an organism against disease. it detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, as well as objects such as wood splinters, distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy tissue. many species have two major subsystems of the immune system. the innate immune system provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli. the adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered. both use molecules and cells to perform their functions. immunohistochemistry – immunology – is a branch of biology that covers the study of immune systems in all organisms. immunology charts, measures, and contextualizes the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and diseases ; malfu
pterygium ( plural pterygia or pterygiums ) refers to any wing - like triangular membrane occurring in the neck, eyes, knees, elbows, ankles or digits. the term comes from the greek word pterygion meaning " wing ". types popliteal pterygium syndrome, a congenital condition affecting the face, limbs, or genitalia but named after the wing - like structural anomaly behind the knee pterygium ( eye ) or surfer's eye, a growth on the cornea of the eye pterygium colli or webbed neck, a congenital skin fold of the neck down to the shoulders pterygium inversum unguis or ventral pterygium, adherence of the distal portion of the nailbed to the ventral surface of the nail plate pterygium unguis or dorsal pterygium, scarring between the proximal nail fold and matrix pterygium of the eye a pterygium reduces the vision in several ways : distortion of the corneal optics. this begins usually when the pterygium is greater than 2mm from the corneal edge ( limbus ). disruption of the tear film. the tear film is the first lens in the eye. pterygia are associated with eyelid inflammation, called blepharitis. growth over the corneal centre, which leads to dramatic reduction of vision. induced anterior corneal scarring, which often remains after surgical removal. a pterygium of the eye grows very slowly. usually it takes several years or decades to progress. surgical removal indications for surgery, in order of decreasing importance : growth over the corneal centre. reduced vision due to corneal distortion. documented growth. symptoms of discomfort. cosmesis. surgery is usually performed under local anaesthetic with light sedation as day surgery. the pterygium is stripped carefully off the surface of the eye. if this is all that is done, the pterygium regrows frequently. the technique with the lowest recurrence rate uses an auto graft of conjunctiva from under the eyelid. this is placed over the defect remaining from the removed
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Vossius ring occurs in
A. Lens dislocation
B. Concussion injury
C. Penetrating injury
D. Extra capsular extraction
Answer: | [
"Lens dislocation",
"Concussion injury",
"Penetrating injury",
"Extra capsular extraction"
] | B | B i.e. Concussion injury |
qasc_4478 | qasc | <ctx>
from the ground normally just the surface is being sampled. need to assure the samples are allowed to dry before collection, moist samples will still allow further biological material will be modified changing the overall composition of the sample. dry samples can be placed in plastic cartons / vials and leak proof containers. to avoid continuous microbial activity related to sample taken from damp area, they are refrigerated prior. geophysical instruments ground penetrating radar the principle use of a ground - penetrating radar device in regards to forensic geology is to find buried bodies. this instrument has been most useful in resolving missing person cases. as well improving the recovery of the body by giving a general area to which the body is buried this also decreases excavation time. studies conducted using this device show data of its capability to discover hallow and forensic relevant locations as well as specific geometries. this method includes reflective signalling off of objects in the ground that undergo different electronic properties via a transmittance signal. the actual device contains a radio transmitter and receiver that attaches to antennas that are attached to the ground. seismograph the seismograph devices functions under the principle of waves that travel differently through rocks and are recorded as vibrations. for it to function properly there must be shocks produced and a manor on detecting these waves. depending on the rocks under the earth, the waves will travel at different velocities. this is measured through the time it takes for waves to reach the area of shock along with the time it takes to reach the detector. in forensic applications, the device is used to understand explosives and differentiating them from natural occurrences such as earthquakes. because of the varying surface wave magnitude varies significantly between both occurrences. natural disasters emit longer and higher intensity energy then man mad events such as chemical explosions, nuclear explosion, plane or train crashes. see also forensic geophysics forensic science notes geology subfields of geology
be used to detect near surface density anomalies, such as those associated with sinkholes and old mine workings, with repeat monitoring allowing near - surface changes over these to be quantified. ground - penetrating radar ground - penetrating radar is one of the most popularly used near - surface geophysics in forensic archaeology, forensic geophysics, geotechnical investigation, treasure hunting, and hydrogeology, with typical penetration depths down to below ground level, depending upon local soil and rock conditions, although this depends upon the central frequency transmitter / receiver antennae utilised. bulk ground conductivity bulk ground conductivity typically uses transmitter / receiver pairs to obtain primary / secondary em signals from the surrounding environment ( note potential difficulty in urban areas with above - ground em sources of interference ), with collection areas depending upon the antennae spacing and equipment used. there are airborne, land - and water - based systems currently available. they are particularly useful for initial ground reconnaissance work in geotechnical, archaeology and forensic geophysics investigations. electrical resistivity the reciprocal of conductivity, electrical resistivity surveys measure the resistance of material ( usually soil ) between electrical probes, with typical penetration depths one to two times the electrode separations. there are various electrode configurations of equipment, the most typical using two current and two potential electrodes in a dipole - dipole array. they are used for geotechnical, archaeology and forensic geophysics investigations and have better resolution than most conductivity surveys. they do experience significant changes with soil moisture content, a difficulty in most site investigations with heterogeneous ground and differing vegetation distributions. applications milsom & eriksen ( 2011 ) provide a useful field book for field geophysics. archaeology geophysical methods can be used to find or map an archaeological site remotely, avoiding unnecessary digging. they can also be used to date artifacts. in surveys of a potential archaeological site, features cut into the ground ( such as ditches, pits and postholes ) may be detected, even after filled in, by electrical resistivity and magnetic methods. the infill may also be detectable using ground - penetrating radar. foundations and walls may also have a magnetic or electrical signature. furnaces, fireplaces and kilns may have a strong
fluids to improve the sustainable use of earth's finite resources, where problems appear with competing interests, for example, groundwater and waste isolation, offshore oil drilling and risk of spills, natural gas production and induced seismicity. geophysics geophysics is the study of the physical properties of the earth using quantitative physical methods to determine what lies beneath the earth's surface. the physical properties of concern include the propagation of elastic waves ( seismic ), magnetism, gravity, electrical resistivity / conductivity, and electromagnetism. geophysics has historically been most commonly used in oil exploration and mining, but its popularity in non - destructive investigative work has flourished since the early 1990s. it is also used in groundwater exploration and protection, geo - hazard studies ( e. g., faults and landslides ), alignment studies ( e. g., proposed roadway, underground utilities, and pipelines ), foundation studies, contamination characterization and remediation, landfill investigations, unexploded - ordnance investigations, vibration monitoring, dam - safety evaluation, location of underground storage tanks, identification of subsurface voids, and assisting in archeological investigations. ( definition from association of environmental & engineering geologists ) geophysical engineering geophysical engineering is the application of geophysics to the engineering design of facilities including roads, tunnels, wells and mines. environmental - science and environmental - engineering specialties environmental science and environmental engineering are the geoprofessions commonly associated with the identification, remediation, and prevention of environmental contamination. these services range from phase - one and phase - two environmental site - assessments – research designed to assess the likelihood that a property is contaminated and subsurface exploration conducted to identify the nature and extent of contamination, respectively – up through the design of processes and systems to remediate contaminated sites for the protection of human health and the environment. environmental geology is one of the principal geoprofessions engaged in assessing and remediating contaminated sites. environmental geologists help identify the subsurface stratigraphy in which contaminants are located and through which they migrate. environmental chemistry is the geoprofession that encompasses the study of chemical compounds in the soil. these compounds are categorized as pollutants
, but are widely used in geophones. some other sensitive designs measure the current generated by the flow of a non - corrosive ionic fluid through an electret sponge or a conductive fluid through a magnetic field. interconnected seismometers seismometers spaced in a seismic array can also be used to precisely locate, in three dimensions, the source of an earthquake, using the time it takes for seismic waves to propagate away from the hypocenter, the initiating point of fault rupture ( see also earthquake location ). interconnected seismometers are also used, as part of the international monitoring system to detect underground nuclear test explosions, as well as for earthquake early warning systems. these seismometers are often used as part of a large scale governmental or scientific project, but some organizations such as the quake - catcher network, can use residential size detectors built into computers to detect earthquakes as well. in reflection seismology, an array of seismometers image sub - surface features. the data are reduced to images using algorithms similar to tomography. the data reduction methods resemble those of computer - aided tomographic medical imaging x - ray machines ( cat - scans ), or imaging sonars. a worldwide array of seismometers can actually image the interior of the earth in wave - speed and transmissivity. this type of system uses events such as earthquakes, impact events or nuclear explosions as wave sources. the first efforts at this method used manual data reduction from paper seismograph charts. modern digital seismograph records are better adapted to direct computer use. with inexpensive seismometer designs and internet access, amateurs and small institutions have even formed a " public seismograph network ". seismographic systems used for petroleum or other mineral exploration historically used an explosive and a wireline of geophones unrolled behind a truck. now most short - range systems use " thumpers " that hit the ground, and some small commercial systems have such good digital signal processing that a few sledgehammer strikes provide enough signal for short - distance refractive surveys. exotic cross or two - dimensional arrays of geophones are sometimes used to perform three - dimensional reflective imaging of
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
what can a ground be used as?
A. Metling snow
B. energy
C. protect them
D. conductor
Answer: | [
"Metling snow",
"energy",
"protect them",
"conductor"
] | D | |
arc_easy_372 | arc_easy | <ctx>
fluid then flows back to the hot end of the pipe. in the case of vertically oriented heat pipes the fluid may be moved by the force of gravity. in the case of heat pipes containing wicks, the fluid is returned by capillary action. when making heat pipes, there is no need to create a vacuum in the pipe. one simply boils the working fluid in the heat pipe until the resulting vapor has purged the non - condensing gases from the pipe, and then seals the end. an interesting property of heat pipes is the temperature range over which they are effective. initially, it might be suspected that a water - charged heat pipe only works when the hot end reaches the boiling point ( 100 °c, 212 °f, at normal atmospheric pressure ) and steam is transferred to the cold end. however, the boiling point of water depends on the absolute pressure inside the pipe. in an evacuated pipe, water vaporizes from its triple point ( 0. 01 °c, 32 °f ) to its critical point ( 374 °c ; 705 °f ), as long as the heat pipe contains both liquid and vapor. thus a heat pipe can operate at hot - end temperatures as low as just slightly warmer than the melting point of the working fluid, although the maximum rate of heat transfer is low at temperatures below 25 °c ( 77 °f ). similarly, a heat pipe with water as a working fluid can work well above the atmospheric boiling point ( 100 °c, 212 °f ). the maximum temperature for long term water heat pipes is 270 °c ( 518 °f ), with heat pipes operating up to 300 °c ( 572 °f ) for short term tests. the main reason for the effectiveness of heat pipes is the vaporization and condensation of the working fluid. the heat of vaporization greatly exceeds the specific heat capacity. using water as an example, the energy needed to evaporate one gram of water is 540 times the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of that same one gram of water by 1 °c. almost all of that energy is rapidly transferred to the " cold " end when the fluid condenses there, making a very effective heat transfer system with no moving parts. development the general principle of heat pipes using
0. 0697 table 13. 4 triple point temperatures and pressures one example of equilibrium between liquid and gas is that of water and steam at and 1. 00 atm. this temperature is the boiling point at that pressure, so they should exist in equilibrium. why does an open pot of water at boil completely away? the gas surrounding an open pot is not pure water : it is mixed with air. if pure water and steam are in a closed container at and 1. 00 atm, they would coexist — but with air over the pot, there are fewer water molecules to condense, and water boils. what about water at and 1. 00 atm? this temperature and pressure correspond to the liquid region, yet an open glass of water at this temperature will completely evaporate. again, the gas around it is air and not pure water vapor, so that the reduced evaporation rate is greater than the condensation rate of water from dry air. if the glass is sealed, then the liquid phase remains. we call the gas phase a vapor when it exists, as it does for water at, at a temperature below the boiling temperature. check your understanding explain why a cup of water ( or soda ) with ice cubes stays at, even on a hot summer day. solution the ice and liquid water are in thermal equilibrium, so that the temperature stays at the freezing temperature as long as ice remains in the liquid. ( once all of the ice melts, the water temperature will start to rise. ) 562 13 • temperature, kinetic theory, and the gas laws access for free at openstax. org vapor pressure, partial pressure, and dalton ’ s law vapor pressure is defined as the pressure at which a gas coexists with its solid or liquid phase. vapor pressure is created by faster molecules that break away from the liquid or solid and enter the gas phase. the vapor pressure of a substance depends on both the substance and its temperature — an increase in temperature increases the vapor pressure. partial pressure is defined as the pressure a gas would create if it occupied the total volume available. in a mixture of gases, the total pressure is the sum of partial pressures of the component gases, assuming ideal gas behavior
16. 4 • free energy 803 so, saying a process is spontaneous at “ high ” or “ low ” temperatures means the temperature is above or below, respectively, that temperature at which δg for the process is zero. as noted earlier, the condition of δg = 0 describes a system at equilibrium. figure 16. 13 these plots show the variation in δg with temperature for the four possible combinations of arithmetic sign for δh and δs. example 16. 11 equilibrium temperature for a phase transition as defined in the chapter on liquids and solids, the boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its liquid and gaseous phases are in equilibrium ( that is, when vaporization and condensation occur at equal rates ). use the information in appendix g to estimate the boiling point of water. solution the process of interest is the following phase change : when this process is at equilibrium, δg = 0, so the following is true : using the standard thermodynamic data from appendix g, 804 16 • thermodynamics access for free at openstax. org the accepted value for water ’ s normal boiling point is 373. 2 k ( 100. 0 °c ), and so this calculation is in reasonable agreement. note that the values for enthalpy and entropy changes data used were derived from standard data at 298 k ( appendix g ). if desired, you could obtain more accurate results by using enthalpy and entropy changes determined at ( or at least closer to ) the actual boiling point. check your learning use the information in appendix g to estimate the boiling point of cs2. answer : 313 k ( accepted value 319 k ) free energy and equilibrium the free energy change for a process may be viewed as a measure of its driving force. a negative value for δg represents a driving force for the process in the forward direction, while a positive value represents a driving force for the process in the reverse direction. when δg is zero, the forward and reverse driving forces are equal, and the process occurs in both directions at the same rate ( the system is at equilibrium ). in the chapter on equilibrium the reaction quotient, q, was introduced as a convenient measure of
ion and hydroxide ion increase with temperature. for example, at 100 °c, the value for kw is about 5. 6 10−13, roughly 50 times larger than the value at 25 °c. example 14. 1 ion concentrations in pure water what are the hydronium ion concentration and the hydroxide ion concentration in pure water at 25 °c? solution the autoionization of water yields the same number of hydronium and hydroxide ions. therefore, in pure water, [ h3o + ] = [ oh− ] = x. at 25 °c :
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
At what temperature does pure water boil?
A. 0°C
B. 32°C
C. 100°C
D. 212°C
Answer: | [
"0°C",
"32°C",
"100°C",
"212°C"
] | C | |
medmcqa_7224 | medmcqa | <ctx>
and the individual network members. another study asked homeless youth to list recent sexual partners, other non - sexual partner network members, and the relationships between these alters. the risk of unprotected sex was higher to the degree that sexual partners knew other members of the youth's social network. see also social network analysis social network social psychology industrial and organizational psychology health psychology sociology intimate relationship references social networks sociological theories culture social psychology
with regard to four degrees of " cohesion ", i. e. emotional link between family members ( regressed, attached, parted, disengaged ) and four degrees of " adaptability " ( chaotic, flexible, structured, rigid ) i. e. capability of family members to reorganize in response to changes in the situations involving the family. a first revision ( 1993 ) called faces - ii reduced the scale to 30 items, whereas a second one ( 1995 ) called faces - iii further reduced the number of items to 20. fgis ( feminine gender identity scale ) fgis - feminine gender identity scale this scale is made up of 29 items. the questions touch on topics such as childhood playmate preference. adolescent sexual experience, and sexual activity preference in details. grims ( golombok rust inventory of marital state ) grims - golombok rust inventory of marital state a 28 - item questionnaire which is intended to analyse the features of dyadic relationships. it is often used in marriage counselling and couple's therapy. this inventory shows good psychometric features and is often used together with griss which is its individual version. griss ( golombok rust inventory of sexual satisfaction ) griss - golombok rust inventory of sexual satisfaction it consists of two questionnaires ( i. e. a male and a female questionnaire ) with 28 items each. it studies sexual dysfunctions in heterosexual subjects. it provides a total score and subscales scores : intercourse frequency, incommunicability, dissatisfaction, avoiding sexual intercourse, absence of sexuality, anorgasmia and vaginismus ( only in the female version ), impotence and premature ejaculation ( only in the male version ). it is provided with good psychometric features and is easy to administer due to the limited number of items. however, this feature limits its illustrative and diagnostic function. hsas ( hendrick sexual attitude scale ) hsas - hendrick sexual attitude scale a 43 - item self - evaluation scale which explore subjects'attitude towards sexuality. the scale examines four sexuality - related factors : permissiveness, sexual practices, community ( i. e.
2004 bearman, peter, katherine stovel, james moody, and lisa thalji. " the structure of sexual networks and the national longitudinal study of adolescent health ", in network epidemiology : a handbook for survey design and data collection. martina morris ( ed. ). oxford : oxford university press. 2003 bruckner, h and peter s bearman. dating behavior and sexual activity among young adolescents, in albert, william, sarah brown and christine flanagan ( ed ) fourteen and younger : the sexual behavior of young adolescents. national campaign to prevent teen pregnancy. washington, d. c. 1999 bearman, peter s. and hannah bruckner. power in numbers : peer effects on adolescent girls ’ sexual debut and pregnancy. national campaign to prevent teen pregnancy : research monographs. washington, d. c. 1999 bearman, peter s, and hannah bruckner. “ peer effects on adolescent girls ’ sexual debut and pregnancy : an analysis of a national sample of adolescent girls ”, in peer potential : making the most of how teens influence each other. national campaign to prevent teen pregnancy. washington, d. c. 1998 bearman, peter s. and hannah bruckner. “ peer effects on adolescent girls ’ sexual debut and pregnancy risk ”. ppfy network, vol2. no3. 1998 bearman, peter s and laura burns. “ adolescents, health and school : early findings from the national longitudinal study of adolescent health. ” nassp bulletin. vol. 82 : 601 - 23. 1997 udry, j. richard and peter s. bearman. “ new methods for new perspectives on adolescent sexual behavior ”. in richard jessor ( ed ). new perspectives on adolescent sexual behavior. cambridge university press. 1997 bearman, ps., j. jones, and j. r. udry. “ connections count : adolescent health and the design of the national longitudinal study of adolescent health. ” notes references bio on columbia university department of sociology full cv ( 2017 ) on columbia university 1956 births american sociologists brown university alumni columbia university faculty fellows of the american academy of arts and sciences harvard graduate school of arts and sciences alumni living people network scientists members of the national academy of medicine
take a longer time to identify the perpetrator because without forensic evidence, the case becomes significantly more difficult to prosecute. this is one of the main problems that many victims face when coming forward that they had been raped. acquaintance rape the vast majority of sexual assaults are non - stranger ( or " acquaintance " ) cases where the victim knows the assailant. while identifying a suspect is not at issue, the kit's forensic evidence can be used to confirm offender identity in acquaintance rape cases. the kits may also be used to determine whether the offender committed other crimes. in many acquaintance sexual assault cases, the accused assailant will defend the accusations as consensual encounters. in such cases, rape kit evidence that documents the victim's injuries, e. g., photographs of bruising, is a useful tool to corroborate allegations of non - consensual sexual contact. in cases where the victim suffers a serious injury, filing charges and reaching convictions is more likely. in other acquaintance cases, the assailant may deny that sexual intercourse occurred at all. in such cases, specimens that show either sperm or specific enzymes that are unique to seminal fluid ( enzymes prostatic acid phosphates or acid phosphatase ) can be used to prove sexual contact. serial rape cases serial rape is defined as an assailant that has raped two or more victims. serial rape may involve sexual partner violence or non - partner sexual violence, and it may be in the same family, in the same or different regions of a city, or in different cities or states. dna collected by rape kits can help lead to identifying and arresting a person guilty of serial rape. in both stranger and non - stranger sexual assault cases, dna testing of rape kit evidence and dna database hits help identify serial sexual assaults. for example, a 2016 study of 900 previously untested rape kits in detroit, michigan found 259 codis hits, which included stranger and non - stranger sexual assault dna profiles. sixty - nine of the hits were serial sexual assault hits, 15 of which were acquaintance ( non - stranger ) sexual assault cases. in a study analyzing the status of brazil's dna database in 2015, researchers found 223 matches related to 78
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Intercourse in closely related individual in relation -
A. Incest
B. Adultery
C. Bestiality
D. Tribadism
Answer: | [
"Incest",
"Adultery",
"Bestiality",
"Tribadism"
] | A | Ref:Textbook of forensic medicine and toxicology (V.V.Pillay) 17th edition, page no. 404 Incest is defined as natural sexual intercourse between two persons so closely related that they are forbidden by law to marry. Incest most frequently occurs between members of nuclear family, and the victim s are most often children. |
medmcqa_4531 | medmcqa | <ctx>
##s, travels along the ureters to the bladder. it does this through regular contractions called peristalsis. clinical significance ureteral stones a kidney stone can move from the kidney and become lodged inside the ureter, which can block the flow of urine, as well as cause a sharp cramp in the back, side, or lower abdomen. pain often comes in waves lasting up to two hours, then subsides, called renal colic. the affected kidney could then develop hydronephrosis, should a part of the kidney become swollen due to blocked flow of urine. it is classically described that there are three sites in the ureter where a kidney stone will commonly become stuck : where the ureter meets the renal pelvis ; where the iliac blood vessels cross the ureters ; and where the ureters enter the urinary bladder, however a retrospective case study, which is a primary source, of where stones lodged based on medical imaging did not show many stones at the place where the iliac blood vessels cross. most stones are compounds containing calcium such as calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate. the first recommended investigation is a ct scan of the abdomen because it can detect almost all stones. management includes analgesia, often with nonsteroidal antiinflammatories. small stones ( < 4mm ) may pass themselves ; larger stones may require lithotripsy, and those with complications such as hydronephrosis or infection may require surgery to remove. reflux vesicoureteral reflux refers to the reflux of fluid from the bladder into the ureters. this condition can be associated with urinary tract infections, particularly in children, and is present in up to 28 – 36 % of children to some degree. a number of forms of medical imaging are available for diagnosis of the condition, with modalities including doppler urinary tract ultrasound, mag 3 nuclear medicine scaning, and a micturition urethrocystogram. factors that affect which of these are selected depends if a child is able to receive a urinary catheter, and whether a child is toilet trained. whether these investigations are performed at the
diabetic nephropathy, also known as diabetic kidney disease, is the chronic loss of kidney function occurring in those with diabetes mellitus. diabetic nephropathy is the leading causes of chronic kidney disease ( ckd ) and end - stage renal disease ( esrd ) globally. the triad of protein leaking into the urine ( proteinuria or albuminuria ), rising blood pressure with hypertension and then falling renal function is common to many forms of ckd. protein loss in the urine due to damage of the glomeruli may become massive, and cause a low serum albumin with resulting generalized body swelling ( edema ) so called nephrotic syndrome. likewise, the estimated glomerular filtration rate ( egfr ) may progressively fall from a normal of over 90 ml / min / 1. 73m2 to less than 15, at which point the patient is said to have end - stage renal disease. it usually is slowly progressive over years. pathophysiologic abnormalities in diabetic nephropathy usually begin with long - standing poorly controlled blood glucose levels. this is followed by multiple changes in the filtration units of the kidneys, the nephrons. ( there are normally about 750, 000 – 1. 5 million nephrons in each adult kidney ). initially, there is constriction of the efferent arterioles and dilation of afferent arterioles, with resulting glomerular capillary hypertension and hyperfiltration particularly as nephrons become obsolescent and the adaption of hyperfiltration paradoxically causes further shear stress related damage to the delicate glomerular capillaries, further proteinuria, rising blood pressure and a vicious circle of additional nephron damage and decline in overall renal function. concurrently, there are changes within the glomerulus itself : these include a thickening of the basement membrane, a widening of the slit membranes of the podocytes, an increase in the number of mesangial cells, and an increase in mesangial matrix. this matrix invades the glomerular capillaries and produces deposits called kimmelsti
due to chronic inflammation, such as due to stones or schistosomiasis. investigations performed usually include collecting a sample of urine for an inspection for malignant cells under a microscope, called cytology, as well as medical imaging by a ct urogram or ultrasound. if a concerning lesion is seen, a flexible camera may be inserted into the ureters, called ureteroscopy, in order to view the lesion and take a biopsy, and a ct scan will be performed of other body parts ( a ct scan of the chest, abdomen and pelvis ) to look for additional lesions. after the cancer is staged, treatment may involve open surgery to remove the affected ureter and kidney if it is involved ; or, if the lesion is small, it may be removed via ureteroscopy. prognosis can vary markedly depending on the tumour grade, with a worse prognosis associated with an ulcerating lesion. injury injuries to the ureter can occur after penetrating abdominal injuries, and injuries at high speeds followed by an abrupt stop ( such as a high speed car accident ). the ureter can be injured during surgery to nearby structures. it is injured in 2 per 10, 000 cases of vaginal hysterectomies and 13 per 10, 000 cases of abdominal hysterectomies, usually near the suspensory ligament of the ovary or near the cardinal ligament, where the ureter runs close to the blood vessels of the uterus. imaging several forms of medical imaging exist that are used to view the ureters and urinary tract. ultrasound may be able to show evidence of blockage because of hydronephrosis of the kidneys and renal pelvis. ct scans, including ones where contrast media is injected intravenously to better show the ureters, and with contrast to better show lesions, and to differentiate benign from malignant lesions. dye may also be injected directly into the ureters or renal tract ; an antegrade pyelogram is when contrast is injected directly into the renal pelvis, and a retrograde pyelogram is where dye is injected into the urinary tract via a
the ureters have been resited as a result of surgery, for example due to a kidney transplant or due to past surgery for vesicoureteric reflux, that site may also become narrowed. a narrowed ureter may lead to ureteric enlargement ( ) and cause swelling of the kidneys ( hydronephrosis ). associated symptoms may include recurrent infections, pain or blood in the urine ; and when tested, kidney function might be seen to decrease. these are considered situations when surgery is needed. medical imaging, including urinary tract ultrasound, ct or nuclear medicine imaging is conducted to investigate many causes. this may involve reinserting the ureters into a new place on the bladder ( reimplantion ), or widening of the ureter. a ureteric stent may be inserted to relieve an obstruction. if the cause cannot be removed, a nephrostomy may be required, which is the insertion of a tube connected to the renal pelvis which directly drains urine into a stoma bag. cancer cancer of the ureters is known as ureteral cancer. it is usually due to cancer of the urothelium, the cells that line the surface of the ureters. urothelial cancer is more common after the age of 40, and more common in men than women ; other risk factors include smoking and exposure to dyes such as aromatic amines and aldehydes. when cancer is present, the most common symptom in an affected person is blood in the urine ; it may not cause symptoms, and a physical medical examination may be otherwise normal, except in late disease. ureteral cancer is most often due to cancer of the cells lining the ureter, called transitional cell carcinoma, although it can more rarely occur as a squamous cell carcinoma if the type of cells lining the urethra have changed due to chronic inflammation, such as due to stones or schistosomiasis. investigations performed usually include collecting a sample of urine for an inspection for malignant cells under a microscope, called cytology, as well as medical imaging by a ct urogram or ultrasound. if a concerning les
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
The most common cuase of renal scarring in a 3 year old child is -
A. Trauma
B. Tuberculosis
C. Vesicoureteral reflux induced pyelonephritis
D. Interstitial nephritis
Answer: | [
"Trauma",
"Tuberculosis",
"Vesicoureteral reflux induced pyelonephritis",
"Interstitial nephritis"
] | C | Ans. is 'c' i.e., Vesicouretrial reflux induced pyelonephritis The small scarred kidney in childhood;. Risdon RA] `Reflux nephropathy is now a generally accepted term to describe small scarred kidneys discovered during childhood; it recognises the close association between this renal lesion and vesicoureteric reflux (VUR)'. Renal scarring is most commonly a result of chronic pyogenic injection of the kidney or chronic pyelonephritis. Chronic pyelonephritis occurs only in patients with major anatomic abnormalities, such as obstructive uropathy, struvite calculi or, most commonly, VUR (in 30 to 45% of young children with symptomatic UTI). |
aquarat_19345 | aquarat | <ctx>
the square – cube law ( or cube – square law ) is a mathematical principle, applied in a variety of scientific fields, which describes the relationship between the volume and the surface area as a shape's size increases or decreases. it was first described in 1638 by galileo galilei in his two new sciences as the "... ratio of two volumes is greater than the ratio of their surfaces ". this principle states that, as a shape grows in size, its volume grows faster than its surface area. when applied to the real world, this principle has many implications which are important in fields ranging from mechanical engineering to biomechanics. it helps explain phenomena including why large mammals like elephants have a harder time cooling themselves than small ones like mice, and why building taller and taller skyscrapers is increasingly difficult. description the square – cube law can be stated as follows : represented mathematically : where is the original surface area and is the new surface area. where is the original volume, is the new volume, is the original length and is the new length. for example, a cube with a side length of 1 meter has a surface area of 6 m2 and a volume of 1 m3. if the sides of the cube were multiplied by 2, its surface area would be multiplied by the square of 2 and become 24 m2. its volume would be multiplied by the cube of 2 and become 8 m3. the original cube ( 1 m sides ) has a surface area to volume ratio of 6 : 1. the larger ( 2 m sides ) cube has a surface area to volume ratio of ( 24 / 8 ) 3 : 1. as the dimensions increase, the volume will continue to grow faster than the surface area. thus the square – cube law. this principle applies to all solids. applications engineering when a physical object maintains the same density and is scaled up, its volume and mass are increased by the cube of the multiplier while its surface area increases only by the square of the same multiplier. this would mean that when the larger version of the object is accelerated at the same rate as the original, more pressure would be exerted on the surface of the larger object. consider a simple example of a body of mass, m,
between them ). where they are in contact, they merge and share cell volume : they are the same 3 - membrane in those places, not two separate but adjacent 3 - dimensional layers. because there are a total of 7 envelopes, there are places where several envelopes come together and merge volume, and also places where envelopes interpenetrate ( cross from inside to outside each other ). some interior features lie within the 3 - space of the ( outer ) boundary envelope of the 24 - cell itself : each octahedral cell is bisected by three perpendicular squares ( one from each of the tesseracts ), and the diagonals of those squares ( which cross each other perpendicularly at the center of the octahedron ) are 16 - cell edges ( one from each 16 - cell ). each square bisects an octahedron into two square pyramids, and also bonds two adjacent cubic cells of a tesseract together as their common face. as we saw above, 16 - cell tetrahedral cells are inscribed in tesseract cubic cells, sharing the same volume. 24 - cell octahedral cells overlap their volume with cubic cells : they are bisected by a square face into two square pyramids, the apexes of which also lie at a vertex of a cube. the octahedra share volume not only with the cubes, but with the tetrahedra inscribed in them ; thus the 24 - cell, tesseracts, and 16 - cells all share some boundary volume. as a configuration this configuration matrix represents the 24 - cell. the rows and columns correspond to vertices, edges, faces, and cells. the diagonal numbers say how many of each element occur in the whole 24 - cell. the non - diagonal numbers say how many of the column's element occur in or at the row's element. since the 24 - cell is self - dual, its matrix is identical to its 180 degree rotation. symmetries, root systems, and tessellations the 24 root vectors of the d4 root system of the simple lie group so ( 8 ) form the vertices of a 24 - cell. the vertices can be seen in 3
or outside it, and that crosses disks. to prove this, miller et al. use stereographic projection to map the packing onto the surface of a unit sphere in three dimensions. by choosing the projection carefully, the center of the sphere can be made into a centerpoint of the disk centers on its surface, so that any plane through the center of the sphere partitions it into two halfspaces that each contain or cross at most of the disks. if a plane through the center is chosen uniformly at random, a disk will be crossed with probability proportional to its radius. therefore, the expected number of disks that are crossed is proportional to the sum of the radii of the disks. however, the sum of the squares of the radii is proportional to the total area of the disks, which is at most the total surface area of the unit sphere, a constant. an argument involving jensen's inequality shows that, when the sum of squares of non - negative real numbers is bounded by a constant, the sum of the numbers themselves is. therefore, the expected number of disks crossed by a random plane is and there exists a plane that crosses at most that many disks. this plane intersects the sphere in a great circle, which projects back down to a circle in the plane with the desired properties. the disks crossed by this circle correspond to the vertices of a planar graph separator that separates the vertices whose disks are inside the circle from the vertices whose disks are outside the circle, with at most vertices in each of these two subsets. this method leads to a randomized algorithm that finds such a separator in linear time, and a less - practical deterministic algorithm with the same linear time bound. by analyzing this algorithm carefully using known bounds on the packing density of circle packings, it can be shown to find separators of size at most although this improved separator size bound comes at the expense of a more - uneven partition of the graph, argue that it provides an improved constant factor in the time bounds for nested dissection compared to the separators of. the size of the separators it produces can be further improved, in practice, by using a nonuniform distribution
also have the same pressure distribution, and consequently the same total force resulting from hydrostatic pressure, exerted perpendicular to the plane of the surface of each side. there are two pairs of opposing sides, therefore the resultant horizontal forces balance in both orthogonal directions, and the resultant force is zero. the upward force on the cube is the pressure on the bottom surface integrated over its area. the surface is at constant depth, so the pressure is constant. therefore, the integral of the pressure over the area of the horizontal bottom surface of the cube is the hydrostatic pressure at that depth multiplied by the area of the bottom surface. similarly, the downward force on the cube is the pressure on the top surface integrated over its area. the surface is at constant depth, so the pressure is constant. therefore, the integral of the pressure over the area of the horizontal top surface of the cube is the hydrostatic pressure at that depth multiplied by the area of the top surface. as this is a cube, the top and bottom surfaces are identical in shape and area, and the pressure difference between the top and bottom of the cube is directly proportional to the depth difference, and the resultant force difference is exactly equal to the weight of the fluid that would occupy the volume of the cube in its absence. this means that the resultant upward force on the cube is equal to the weight of the fluid that would fit into the volume of the cube, and the downward force on the cube is its weight, in the absence of external forces. this analogy is valid for variations in the size of the cube. if two cubes are placed alongside each other with a face of each in contact, the pressures and resultant forces on the sides or parts thereof in contact are balanced and may be disregarded, as the contact surfaces are equal in shape, size and pressure distribution, therefore the buoyancy of two cubes in contact is the sum of the buoyancies of each cube. this analogy can be extended to an arbitrary number of cubes. an object of any shape can be approximated as a group of cubes in contact with each other, and as the size of the cube is decreased, the precision of the approximation increases. the limiting case for infinitely small cubes is
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
The ratio of the volumes of two cubes is 729 : 343. What is the ratio of their total surface areas?
A. A)81 : 49
B. B)81 : 122
C. C)81 : 124
D. D)81 : 126
Answer: | [
"A)81 : 49",
"B)81 : 122",
"C)81 : 124",
"D)81 : 126"
] | A | Ratio of the sides = 3√729 : 3√343 = 9 : 7
Ratio of surface areas = 9^2 : 7^2 = 81 : 49
Answer: Option A |
medmcqa_3412 | medmcqa | <ctx>
##s, especially in aged dogs, can appear similar to mf or non - epidermotropic cutaneous lymphoma ( necl ). multiple histiocytomas may look like cutaneous histiocytosis, although morphologically histiocytomas are consistently epidermotropic and commonly epidermally invasive, these are not features of cutaneous histiocytosis. delayed regression of multiple histiocytomas can occur and lesions can persist for up to 10 months. metastatic histiocytoma recently, several cases of histiocytoma were observed in which histiocytes had migrated to draining lymph nodes and obliterated them. pathologists diagnosed histiocytic sarcoma in these instances and prognosis was reported as poor. in 3 instances regression of these lesions occurred spontaneously within 3 – 4 weeks. in other instances the metastatic lesions of histiocytoma failed to regress and dogs were euthanized. the disease course in these cases extended over several months. spread beyond lymph nodes to lung has also been observed in some of these cases. these complications are rare. langerhans cell histiocytosis the presence of multiple histiocytomas is now a well recognized syndrome. however, there is yet another presentation in which widespread cutaneous lesions histologically identical to histiocytoma are observed. clinically, the lesions are almost confluent in affected regions. rapid internal spread is observed and the affected animals have all been euthanized. there is one published account of such a case, and we have data on 3 dogs with what appears to be an identical syndrome. immunophenotypic studies immunohistochemistry ( ihc ) is best performed on frozen sections of tumor ( not formalin fixed material! ). histiocytoma is readily distinguished from other histiocytic disorders and cutaneous lymphoma with the aid of ihc. our work has clearly shown that histiocytomas have the phenotype of epidermal langerhans cells. they express cd1a, cd1
dizziness headaches cold hands and feet pale skin dark urine jaundice chest pain pain in the back or legs vomiting or diarrhea heart problems such as an irregular heartbeat ( arrhythmia ), a heart murmur, an enlarged heart, or heart failure. these may occur because the heart has to work harder to make sure the body gets enough healthy red blood cells. many people with cad also experience pain and bluish coloring of the hands and feet ( acrocyanosis ) or raynaud's disease. these symptoms result from slow or poor circulation and can range from mild to disabling. other signs and symptoms of cad may include enlargement of the spleen ( splenomegaly ) and mottled discoloration of the skin ( livedo reticularis ). in people with secondary cad ( associated with another underlying condition ), there may be additional signs and symptoms depending on the condition present. for example : mycoplasma pneumoniae infection ( the most common cause of secondary cad ) may cause respiratory symptoms. various infections or cancers may cause enlarged or swollen lymph nodes. 80 – 99 % of people have these symptoms arthralgia autoimmunity fatigue hemolytic anemia muscular weakness pallor 5 – 29 % of people have these symptoms abnormal urine color back pain diarrhea headache hepatomegaly lymphadenopathy nausea and vomiting splenomegaly cause cold agglutinin disease can be either primary ( unknown cause ) or secondary ( a result of another pathology / caused by an underlying condition ). primary cold agglutinin disease the primary form is caused by excessive cell proliferation of b lymphocytes, characterized by clonal lymphoproliferative disorder. primary cold agglutinin disease occurs after the fifth decade of life and peaks prevalence in a person's 70s and 80s. secondary cold agglutinin disease secondary cold agglutinin syndrome occurs when autoantibodies bind to red blood cells, rendering them subject to attack by the complement system. it is a result of an underlying condition potentially associated with either monoclonal cold - reacting autoantibodies or polyclonal
streptococcal intertrigo is a skin condition that is secondary to a streptococcal bacterial infection. it is often seen in infants and young children and can be characterized by a fiery - red color of the skin, foul odor with an absence of satellite lesions, and skin softening ( due to moisture ) in the neck, armpits or folds of the groin. newborn children and infants commonly develop intertrigo because of physical features such as deep skin folds, short neck, and flexed posture. prompt diagnosis by a medical professional and treatment with topical and / or oral antibiotics can effectively relieve symptoms. etiology the main causes of intertrigo are mechanical factors, such as heat and maceration of the skin, and secondary infections, which mostly happens due to moisture build - up in the skin folds, making those areas ideal feeding places for secondary bacterial and fungal infections. a lot of cases of this disease are seen in individuals with diabetes mellitus since they have higher ph levels in their skin folds because of their condition. given these reasons mentioned above, there have been higher cases of intertrigo in individuals with obesity, diabetes mellitus, immunodeficiency secondary to virus infection, large skin folds, are bedridden, or wear diapers that trap moisture ( i. e. babies or older adults using incontinence supplies ). signs and symptoms streptococcal intertrigo commonly presents with a beefy - red, smooth, shiny lesion that has well - defined borders. there are no satellite lesions surrounding the area, and a distinct foul smell is common. the infection may be accompanied by general malaise and a low - grade fever. the folds of the neck are most commonly affected, but other areas with skin folds are also susceptible, including the armpits, groin, and anus. complications progression of intertrigo is dependent on the strain of streptococcus responsible for the symptoms. streptococcal intertrigo can lead to complications if not appropriately diagnosed and treated in a timely manner. it has been reported that bacteremia, or a bacterial infection of the circulating blood, can occur which may require intravenous
th - 2 and th - 17 pathways are commonly activated in asian people ) possibly explaining the differences in phenotypic presentation of atopic dermatitis in specific populations. mutations in the filaggrin gene, flg, also cause impairment in the skin barrier that contributes to the pathogenesis of ad. filaggrin is produced by epidermal skin cells ( keratinocytes ) in the horny layer of the epidermis. filaggrin stimulates skin cells to release moisturizing factors and lipid matrix material, which cause adhesion of adjacent keratinocytes and contributes to the skin barrier. a loss - of - function mutation of filaggrin causes loss of this lipid matrix and external moisturizing factors, subsequently leading to disruption of the skin barrier. the disrupted skin barrier leads to transdermal water loss ( leading to the xerosis or dry skin commonly seen in ad ) and antigen and allergen penetration of the epidermal layer. filaggrin mutations are also associated with a decrease in natural antimicrobial peptides found on the skin ; subsequently leading to disruption of skin flora and bacterial overgrowth ( commonly staphylococcus aureus overgrowth or colonization ). atopic dermatitis is also associated with the release of pruritogens ( molecules that stimulate pruritus or itching ) in the skin. keratinocytes, mast cells, eosinophils and t - cells release pruritogens in the skin ; leading to activation of aδ fibers and group c nerve fibers in the epidermis and dermis contributing to sensations of pruritus and pain. the pruritogens include the th2 cytokines il - 4, il - 13, il - 31, histamine, and various neuropeptides. mechanical stimulation from scratching lesions can also lead to the release of pruritogens contributing to the itch - scratch cycle whereby there is increased pruritus or itch after scratching a lesion. chronic scratching of lesions can cause thickening or lichenification of the skin or prurigo nodularis ( generalized nodules that are severely itchy ). diagnosis ad is typically diagnosed clinical
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Erythema nodosum is seen in all Except
A. Salicylate poisoning
B. Typhoid
C. Tuberculosis
D. Leprosy
Answer: | [
"Salicylate poisoning",
"Typhoid",
"Tuberculosis",
"Leprosy"
] | A | Drugs causing it are: Levofloxacin Medroxyprogesterone Minocycline Naproxen OC Penicillin Phenytoin Trimethoprim Sulfasalazine Sulphonamides *Erythema nodosum is a skin condition where red lumps appear on the shins and less commonly forearms and thighs. Often it may be the first sign of a systemic disease such as tuberculosis, bacterial or deep fungal infection, sarcoidosis (11-25%), inflammatory bowel disease or associated with pregnancy (2-5%) *Erythema nodosum has recently been recognised in association with salmonella infection .Erythema nodosum leprosum (ENL) is an immune-mediated complication of leprosy, characterized by the presence of multiple inflammatory cutaneous nodules and systemic symptoms such as fever, malaise, ahritis, iritis, neuritis and lymphadenitis Ref: Harrison 20th edition pg 1234 |
aquarat_38720 | aquarat | <ctx>
list of elements is this : ( ( 3, 8, 0 ), ( 2, 8, 1 ), ( 4, 8, 1 ) ) after 2 turns : ( ( 3, 8, 0 ), ( 2, 8, 1 ), ( 4, 8, 1 ), ( 1, 8, 2 ), ( 4, 7, 2 ) ) after 3 turns : (... ( 1, 7, 3 ), ( 4, 6, 3 ), ( 5, 7, 3 ) ) after 4 turns : (... ( 1, 6, 4 ), ( 3, 6, 4 ), ( 6, 7, 4 ) ) after 5 turns : (... ( 1, 5, 5 ), ( 3, 5, 5 ), ( 6, 6, 5 ), ( 6, 8, 5 ) ) after 6 turns : (... ( 1, 4, 6 ), ( 2, 5, 6 ), ( 3, 4, 6 ), ( 6, 5, 6 ), ( 7, 8, 6 ) ) after 7 turns : (... ( 1, 3, 7 ) ) – problem solved, end this stage of the algorithm – note that if you have multiple units chasing the same target ( as in many games – the finish to start approach of the algorithm is intended to make this easier ), you can continue until the entire map is taken up, all units are reached or a set counter limit is reached now, map the counters onto the map, getting this : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x x x x x x x x x x x _ _ _ x x _ x _ x 1 x _ x _ _ x _ _ _ x 2 x s x x _ _ _ x _ x 3 x 6 x 6 _ x _ _ _ x 4 x 5 6 5 x x 6 x _ x 5 x 4 x 4 3 x 5 x _ x 6 x 3 x x 2 3 4 x _ x 7 x 2 1 0 1 x 5 6 _ x 8 x x x x x x x x x x now, start at s ( 7 ) and go to the
now equal this new number ( which is the next prime ), and repeat from step 3. when the algorithm terminates, the numbers remaining not marked in the list are all the primes below. the main idea here is that every value given to will be prime, because if it were composite it would be marked as a multiple of some other, smaller prime. note that some of the numbers may be marked more than once ( e. g., 15 will be marked both for 3 and 5 ). as a refinement, it is sufficient to mark the numbers in step 3 starting from, as all the smaller multiples of will have already been marked at that point. this means that the algorithm is allowed to terminate in step 4 when is greater than. another refinement is to initially list odd numbers only,, and count in increments of in step 3, thus marking only odd multiples of. this actually appears in the original algorithm. this can be generalized with wheel factorization, forming the initial list only from numbers coprime with the first few primes and not just from odds ( i. e., numbers coprime with 2 ), and counting in the correspondingly adjusted increments so that only such multiples of are generated that are coprime with those small primes, in the first place. example to find all the prime numbers less than or equal to 30, proceed as follows. first, generate a list of integers from 2 to 30 : 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 the first number in the list is 2 ; cross out every 2nd number in the list after 2 by counting up from 2 in increments of 2 ( these will be all the multiples of 2 in the list ) : 2 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 the next number in the list after 2 is 3 ; cross out every 3rd number in the list after 3 by counting up from 3 in increments of 3 ( these will be all the multiples of 3 in the list ) : 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 25 29 the
the christian trinity. mathematics : π ≈, the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter. religion : the four noble truths in buddhism. biology : 7 ± 2, in cognitive science, george a. miller's estimate of the number of objects that can be simultaneously held in human working memory. music : 7 notes in a major or minor scale. astronomy : 8 planets in the solar system. religion : the noble eightfold path in buddhism. literature : 9 circles of hell in the inferno by dante alighieri. 101 ( 10 ; ten ) iso : deca - ( da ) demography : the population of pesnopoy, a village in bulgaria, was 10 in 2007. human scale : there are 10 digits on a pair of human hands, and 10 toes on a pair of human feet. mathematics : the number system used in everyday life, the decimal system, has 10 digits : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. religion : the ten commandments in the abrahamic religions. music : the number of notes ( 12 ) in a chromatic scale. astrology : there are 12 zodiac signs, each one representing part of the annual path of the sun's movement across the night sky. computing – microsoft windows : twelve successive consumer versions of windows nt have been released as of december 2021. music : the number ( 15 ) of completed, numbered string quartets by each of ludwig van beethoven and dmitri shostakovich. linguistics : the finnish language has fifteen noun cases. mathematics : the hexadecimal system, a common number system used in computer programming, uses 16 digits where the last 6 are usually represented by letters : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, a, b, c, d, e, f. computing – unicode : the minimum possible size of a unicode block is 16 contiguous code points ( i. e., u + abcde0 - u + abcdef ). computing – utf - 16 / unicode : there are 17 addressable planes in utf - 16, and, thus, as unicode is limited to the
ee ". a number is represented as a sequence of knot clusters in base 10. powers of ten are shown by position along the string, and this position is aligned between successive strands. digits in positions for 10 and higher powers are represented by clusters of simple knots ( e. g., 40 is four simple knots in a row in the " tens " position ). digits in the " ones " position are represented by long knots ( e. g., 4 is a knot with four turns ). because of the way the knots are tied, the digit 1 cannot be shown this way and is represented in this position by a figure - eight knot. zero is represented by the absence of a knot in the appropriate position. because the ones digit is shown in a distinctive way, it is clear where a number ends. one strand on a quipu can therefore contain several numbers. for example, if 4s represents four simple knots, 3l represents a long knot with three turns, e represents a figure - eight knot and x represents a space : the number 731 would be represented by 7s, 3s, e. the number 804 would be represented by 8s, x, 4l. the number 107 followed by the number 51 would be represented by 1s, x, 7l, 5s, e. this reading can be confirmed by a fortunate fact : quipus regularly contain sums in a systematic way. for instance, a cord may contain the sum of the next n cords, and this relationship is repeated throughout the quipu. sometimes there are sums of sums as well. such a relationship would be very improbable if the knots were incorrectly read. some data items are not numbers but what ascher and ascher call number labels. they are still composed of digits, but the resulting number seems to be used as a code, much as we use numbers to identify individuals, places, or things. the khipu database project, for example, decoded that a particular three - number label at the beginning of some quipus may refer to puruchuco, similar to a zip code. other aspects of a quipu could have communicated information as well : color - coding, relative placement of cords,
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Look at this series: 7, 10, 8, 11, 9, 12, 10, 13, 11, 14, 12, ... What number should come next?
A. A)12
B. B)13
C. C)14
D. D)15
Answer: | [
"A)12",
"B)13",
"C)14",
"D)15"
] | D | This is a simple alternating addition and subtraction series. In the first pattern, 3 is added; in the second, 2 is subtracted.
The answer is D. |
medmcqa_5417 | medmcqa | <ctx>
delirium is a common and serious problem, particularly impacting older adults during hospitalization, acute illness, icu stay, or surgery. created in 1990 by dr. sharon inouye, the confusion assessment method ( cam ) rapidly became among the most widely used tools for identification of delirium, since it provided a quick, accurate, and standardized approach. the confusion assessment method ( cam ) is a diagnostic tool developed to allow physicians and nurses to identify delirium in the healthcare setting. it was designed to be brief ( less than 5 minutes to perform ) and based on criteria from the third edition - revision of the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders ( dsm - iii - r ). the cam rates four diagnostic features, including acute onset and fluctuating course, inattention, disorganized thinking, and altered level of consciousness. the cam requires that a brief cognitive test is performed before it is completed. it has been translated into more than 20 languages and adapted for use across multiple settings. elements of score the cam consists of a short and long form. the cam short form assesses four features : 1. acute onset or fluctuating course, 2. inattention, 3. disorganized thinking, and 4. altered level of consciousness. the cam - long form includes the short - form features and adds disorientation, memory impairment, perceptual disturbances, psychomotor agitation or retardation, and altered sleep - wake cycle. these features are based on the 9 features of delirium from dsm - iii - r. each feature is scored as present or absent. delirium is considered present based on the cam diagnostic algorithm : presence of ( acute onset or fluctuating course - and ‐ inattention ) ‐ and either ‐ ( disorganized thinking or altered level of consciousness ) ( table 1 ). detailed training and scoring instructions are available here. interpretation in the original study, the 3 - 5 - minute cam assessment was validated against a > 90 minute assessment by reference standard geriatric psychiatrists using dsm - iii - r, and found to have a sensitivity and specificity of 94 - 100 % and 90 - 95
available here. interpretation in the original study, the 3 - 5 - minute cam assessment was validated against a > 90 minute assessment by reference standard geriatric psychiatrists using dsm - iii - r, and found to have a sensitivity and specificity of 94 - 100 % and 90 - 95 %, respectively, for identification of delirium. in a systematic review of 7 high quality studies involving > 1000 patients, cam was found to have a sensitivity of 94 %, 95 % ci 91 - 97 % ; and specificity of 89 %, 95 % ci 85 - 94 %. a 2013 systematic review of 22 studies involving > 2400 patients found a sensitivity of 82 %, 95 % ci 69 - 91 % ; and specificity of 99 %, 95 % ci 87 - 100 %. a large high - quality stard - compliant diagnostic randomized controlled trial published in 2019 comparing the cam with the 4at delirium detection tool found that the cam had lower sensitivity than the 4at, with the two tools showing similar specificity. though some studies show good performance of the cam in research settings, large scale studies of detection of delirium in real - world clinical practice show that the cam shows a lower sensitivity ( as judged by positive score rates in relation to estimated delirium rates ) of around 30 - 40 %. adaptations the table below describes delirium assessment tools based on the cam, their scoring, and available translations. additional information ( for example : administration and instrument validity ) may be found here. to learn more https : / / deliriumnetwork. org / https : / / help. agscocare. org / productabstract https : / / www. marcusinstituteforaging. org / research / aging - brain - center references mental disorders screening and assessment tools intensive care medicine geriatric psychiatry
a study conducted on young males with less sleep also showed that there was increased connectivity within the somatomotor network ( smn ) during rest. insomnia is a condition where patients have difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep. there is evidence that insomnia involves distributed brain networks and causes increased structural connectivity around the right angular gyrus. a subnetwork that was centralized at the right angular gyrus and included frontal, temporal, and subcortical regions, showed enhanced connectivity in patients with insomnia. further, the lapse in cognitive abilities after a certain period of total sleep deprivation is associated with increased coupling between the default mode network ( dmn ) and the salience network ( sn ). sleep disturbances in adolescents may also be caused by increased grey matter volume in several large - scale networks. dementia dementia is a general term for loss of memory, language, problem - solving and other thinking abilities that are severe enough to interfere with daily life. dementia is a general term like heart disease is a general term. dementia is caused by damage to brain cells. this damage interferes with the ability of brain cells to communicate with each other. when brain cells cannot communicate normally, thinking, behavior and feelings can be affected. there are many signs of dementia. these signs can manifest as short - term memory, problems keeping track of items, and more. usually, dementia is provoked by a " disconnection event " ( e. g., a stroke ) which disconnects one or more functional areas from a task - associated ensemble of functionally connected regions, resulting in a clinically observable " disconnection " syndrome. the most common form of dementia is alzheimer's disease. alzheimer's disease ( ad ) is a progressive, neurodegenerative disease that can be clinically characterized by impaired memory and many other cognitive functions. several recent studies have suggested that ad patients have disruptive neuronal integrity in large - scale structural and functional brain systems underlying high - level cognition, as demonstrated by a loss of small - world network characteristics. in alzheimer's disease, high levels of certain proteins inside and outside brain cells make it hard for brain cells to stay healthy and to communicate with
- centric program that provides insights into the prevalence of dementia and discover biomarkers, risk factors, and protective factors. these factors play a major role in the conversion of mci to dementia among elderly. for the diagnosis and classification of dementia, all centers use robust uniform criteria that are internationally accepted, adapted, and validated in the indian context. findings could help formulate national - level policies for understanding and treating mci in elderly. comparative mapping of common mental disorders ( cmd ) over the lifespan : this flagship program understands how information - processing networks in the brain are affected in cmd, including anxiety, depression, obsessive - compulsive disorder, and post - traumatic stress disorder. the program also studies underlying brain mechanisms that differentiate between these disorders, and whether these networks are affected in the same manner in different age groups. technological advancement dyslexia assessment for languages of india ( dali ) : a package developed using screening tools, remediation kit, and specific assessment tools to identify dyslexia. it integrates four languages ( hindi, kannada, marathi, and english ). kalpana : an integrative package for visualization, preprocessing, and quantitation of mr spectroscopy ( mrs ) data acquired using mrs imaging and meshcher - garwood – point - resolved spectroscopy ( mega - press ). nins - stat : a matlab - based statistical analysis toolbox : a high - performance state - of - the - art automated statistical test selection and execution software package with clinical research applications. brahma template : first accurate high - resolution brain template developed for analyzing structural and functional neuroimaging data specific for indian population. bharat : a multimodality - based hadoop - based big data decision framework, validated using fmri, integrates non - invasive mri, mrs, and neuropsychological test outcomes to identify early diagnostic biomarkers of ad. prateek : the integration of data gathered from multimodal brain imaging systems at various regions of interest ( rois ) avails wealth of information about tissue microenvironment and its association with structural and functional changes in healthy or diseased condition. stimulus timing integrated module (
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Delirium & dementia can be differentiated by?
A. Loss of memory
B. Apraxia
C. Delusion
D. Altered sensorium
Answer: | [
"Loss of memory",
"Apraxia",
"Delusion",
"Altered sensorium"
] | D | ANSWER: (D) Altered sensoriumREF: Kaplan & Sadock's Synopsis of Psychiatry 10th ed chapter-10Repeat Psychiatry 2013 Session 1, June 2010 |
medmcqa_2150 | medmcqa | <ctx>
be reactivated upon re - acidification. the stability of pepsin at high ph has significant implications on disease attributed to laryngopharyngeal reflux. pepsin remains in the larynx following a gastric reflux event. at the mean ph of the laryngopharynx ( ph = 6. 8 ) pepsin would be inactive but could be reactivated upon subsequent acid reflux events resulting in damage to local tissues. pepsin exhibits a broad cleavage specificity. pepsin will digest up to 20 % of ingested amide bonds. residues in the p1 and p1'positions are most important in determining cleavage probability. generally, hydrophobic amino acids at p1 and p1'positions increase cleavage probability. phenylalanine, leucine and methionine at the p1 position, and phenylalanine, tryptophan and tyrosine at the p1'position result in the highest cleavage probability. cleavage is disfavoured by positively charged amino acids histidine, lysine and arginine at the p1 position. in laryngopharyngeal reflux pepsin is one of the primary causes of mucosal damage during laryngopharyngeal reflux. pepsin remains in the larynx ( ph 6. 8 ) following a gastric reflux event. while enzymatically inactive in this environment, pepsin would remain stable and could be reactivated upon subsequent acid reflux events. exposure of laryngeal mucosa to enzymatically active pepsin, but not irreversibly inactivated pepsin or acid, results in reduced expression of protective proteins and thereby increases laryngeal susceptibility to damage. pepsin may also cause mucosal damage during weakly acidic or non - acid gastric reflux. weak or non - acid reflux is correlated with reflux symptoms and mucosal injury. under non - acid conditions ( neutral ph ), pepsin is internalized by cells of the upper airways such as the larynx and hypopharynx by a process known as receptor - mediated endocytosis. the receptor by which
jaundice can be caused by a few viruses that the human body can naturally clear, jaundice in the setting of an obstruction is usually caused by a cancer and can result in intolerable itching and a worsening of liver function that can be life - threatening. depending on a patient's condition, this type of obstructive jaundice can be alleviated with surgery or chemotherapy but if these measures fail to restore proper flow of bile, an interventional radiologist can perform a procedure called a percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography ( ptc ). a ptc is an outpatient procedure lasting anywhere from 15 minutes to an hour where an interventional radiologist accesses the patient's bile duct system with a needle through the skin and liver under imaging guidance. using fluoroscopy ( essentially an xray camera ) to guide a wire ( followed by a catheter over the wire ) through the bile duct system and into the gi tract, essentially restoring the normal flow of bile. if the patient's gi tract cannot be accessed due to the obstruction, the catheter can be placed to drain the bile duct system into a bag that the patient can wear during daily activities. risks of this procedure include bleeding and infection but these are much lower than an equivalent surgical procedure. genitourinary intervention benign prostatic hyperplasia benign prostatic hyperplasia, or bph, is a noncancerous condition that commonly affects men over the age of 50. the prostate gland enlarges and compresses the adjacent urethra, making it difficult for men to control frequency and / or urgency of urination. first line therapy involves medication, though long - term treatment for symptoms that are persistent despite medical optimization typically involves transurethral resection of the prostate ( turp ) as the " gold standard " of care. however, turp can lead to urinary incontinence or permanent male infertility and may not be the ideal procedure for a certain subset of patients. for those reasons, a physician may recommend undergoing a treatment known as prostate artery embolization ( pae ). patients typically go home the same day as the procedure and
removal of the uterus and cervix for early cervical cancer robotic and laparoscopic surgery resulted in similar outcomes with respect to the cancer. bone robots are used in orthopedic surgery. robodoc is the first active robotic system that performs some of the surgical actions in a total hip arthroplasty ( tha ). it is programmed preoperatively using data from computer tomography ( ct ) scans. this allows for the surgeon to choose the optimal size and design for the replacement hip. acrobot and rio are semi - active robotic systems that are used in tha. it consists of a drill bit that is controlled by the surgeon however the robotic system does not allow any movement outside the predetermined boundaries. mazor x is used in spinal surgeries to assist surgeons with placing pedicle screw instrumentation. inaccuracy when placing a pedicle screw can result in neurovascular injury or construct failure. mazor x functions by using templating imaging to locate itself to the target location of where the pedicle screw is needed. spine robotic devices started to be used in minimally invasive spine surgery starting in the mid - 2000s. as of 2014, there were too few randomized clinical trials to judge whether robotic spine surgery is more or less safe than other approaches. as of 2019, the application of robotics in spine surgery has mainly been limited to pedicle screw insertion for spinal fixation. in addition, the majority of studies on robot - assisted spine surgery have investigated lumbar or lumbosacral vertebrae only. studies on use of robotics for placing screws in the cervical and thoracic vertebrae are limited. transplant surgery the first fully robotic kidney transplantations were performed in the late 2000s. it may allow kidney transplantations in people who are obese who could not otherwise have the procedure. weight loss however is the preferred initial effort. general surgery with regards to robotic surgery, this type of procedure is currently best suited for single - quadrant procedures, in which the operations can be performed on any one of the four quadrants of the abdomen. cost disadvantages are applied with procedures such as a cholecystectomy and fundoplication
gallbladder ( known as courvoisier's sign ) may also raise suspicion, and can help differentiate pancreatic cancer from gallstones. medical imaging techniques, such as computed tomography ( ct scan ) and endoscopic ultrasound ( eus ) are used both to confirm the diagnosis and to help decide whether the tumor can be surgically removed ( its " resectability " ). on contrast ct scan, pancreatic cancer typically shows a gradually increasing radiocontrast uptake, rather than a fast washout as seen in a normal pancreas or a delayed washout as seen in chronic pancreatitis. magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography may also be used, and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography may be useful in some cases. abdominal ultrasound is less sensitive and will miss small tumors, but can identify cancers that have spread to the liver and build - up of fluid in the peritoneal cavity ( ascites ). it may be used for a quick and cheap first examination before other techniques. a biopsy by fine needle aspiration, often guided by endoscopic ultrasound, may be used where there is uncertainty over the diagnosis, but a histologic diagnosis is not usually required for removal of the tumor by surgery to go ahead. liver function tests can show a combination of results indicative of bile duct obstruction ( raised conjugated bilirubin, γ - glutamyl transpeptidase and alkaline phosphatase levels ). ca19 - 9 ( carbohydrate antigen 19. 9 ) is a tumor marker that is frequently elevated in pancreatic cancer. however, it lacks sensitivity and specificity, not least because 5 % of people lack the lewis ( a ) antigen and cannot produce ca19 - 9. it has a sensitivity of 80 % and specificity of 73 % in detecting pancreatic adenocarcinoma, and is used for following known cases rather than diagnosis. histopathology the most common form of pancreatic cancer ( adenocarcinoma ) is typically characterized by moderately to poorly differentiated glandular structures on microscopic examination. there is typically considerable desmopl
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Operation of choice in GERD is
A. Highly selective vagotomy
B. Fundoplication
C. Hellers myotomy
D. Gastrectomy
Answer: | [
"Highly selective vagotomy",
"Fundoplication",
"Hellers myotomy",
"Gastrectomy"
] | B | Operations for GORD are based on the creation of an intra-abdominal segment of oesophagus, crural repair and some form of wrap of the upper stomach (fundoplication) around the intra-abdominal oesophagus.Nissen fundoplication is one of the commoner procedures done.Ref: Bailey and Love 27e pg: 1078 |
medmcqa_2416 | medmcqa | <ctx>
in physiology, a stimulus is a detectable change in the physical or chemical structure of an organism's internal or external environment. the ability of an organism or organ to detect external stimuli, so that an appropriate reaction can be made, is called sensitivity ( excitability ). sensory receptors can receive information from outside the body, as in touch receptors found in the skin or light receptors in the eye, as well as from inside the body, as in chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors. when a stimulus is detected by a sensory receptor, it can elicit a reflex via stimulus transduction. an internal stimulus is often the first component of a homeostatic control system. external stimuli are capable of producing systemic responses throughout the body, as in the fight - or - flight response. in order for a stimulus to be detected with high probability, its level of strength must exceed the absolute threshold ; if a signal does reach threshold, the information is transmitted to the central nervous system ( cns ), where it is integrated and a decision on how to react is made. although stimuli commonly cause the body to respond, it is the cns that finally determines whether a signal causes a reaction or not. types internal homeostatic imbalances homeostatic outbalances are the main driving force for changes of the body. these stimuli are monitored closely by receptors and sensors in different parts of the body. these sensors are mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors and thermoreceptors that, respectively, respond to pressure or stretching, chemical changes, or temperature changes. examples of mechanoreceptors include baroreceptors which detect changes in blood pressure, merkel's discs which can detect sustained touch and pressure, and hair cells which detect sound stimuli. homeostatic imbalances that can serve as internal stimuli include nutrient and ion levels in the blood, oxygen levels, and water levels. deviations from the homeostatic ideal may generate a homeostatic emotion, such as pain, thirst or fatigue, that motivates behavior that will restore the body to stasis ( such as withdrawal, drinking or resting ). blood pressure blood pressure, heart
lm. pheromone binding and inactivation by moth antennae. nature 1981 ; 293 : 161 - 163. 2. picimbon jf, leal ws. olfactory soluble proteins of cockroaches. insect biochem mol biol 1999 ; 30 : 973 - 978. 3. angeli s, ceron f, scaloni a, monti m, monteforti g, minnocci a, et al. purification, structural characterization, cloning and immunocytochemical localization of chemoreception proteins from schistocerca gregaria. eur j biochem. 1999 ; 262 : 745 - 754. 4. picimbon jf. biochemistry and evolution of csp and obp proteins. in : blomquist gj, vogt rg, editors. insect pheromone biochemistry and molecular biology, the biosynthesis and detection of pheromones and plant volatiles. elsevier academic press, london, san diego. 2003 ; 539 - 566. 5. lartigue a, campanacci v, roussel a, larsson am, jones ta, tegoni m, et al. x - ray structure and ligand binding study of a moth chemosensory protein. j biol chem. 2002 ; 277 : 32094 - 32098. 6. jansen s, zidek l, lofstedt c, picimbon jf, sklenar v. 1h, 13c, and 15n resonance assignment of bombyx mori chemosensory protein 1 ( bmorcsp1 ). j biomol nmr 2006 ; 36 : 47. 7. jansen s, chmelik j, zidek l, padrta p, novak p, zdrahal z, et al. structure of bombyx mori chemosensory protein 1 in solution. arch insect biochem physiol. 2007 ; 66 : 135 - 145. 8. tomaselli s, crescenzi o, sanfelice d, ab e, wechselberger r, angeli
in the ventrolateral medulla above the nucleus ambiguus. neurons in the dsg are responsible for the generation of the swallowing pattern, while those in the vsg distribute the commands to the various motoneuronal pools. as in other cpgs, the functioning of the central network can be modulated by peripheral and central inputs, so that the swallowing pattern is adapted to the size of the bolus. within this network, central inhibitory connections play a major role, producing a rostrocaudal inhibition that parallels the rostrocaudal anatomy of the swallowing tract. thus, when the neurons controlling the proximal parts of the tract are active, those that command more distal parts are inhibited. apart from the type of connection between the neurons, intrinsic properties of the neurons, especially those of nts neurons, probably also contribute to the shaping and timing of the swallowing pattern. the swallowing cpg is a flexible cpg. this means that at least some of the swallowing neurons may be multifunctional neurons and belong to pools of neurons that are common to several cpgs. one such cpg is the respiratory one, which has been observed interacting with the swallowing cpg. rhythm generators central pattern generators can also play a role in rhythm generation for other functions in vertebrates. for example, the rat vibrissa system uses an unconventional cpg for whisking movements. " like other cpgs, the whisking generator can operate without cortical input or sensory feedback. however, unlike other cpgs, vibrissa motoneurons actively participate in rhythmogenesis by converting tonic serotonergic inputs into the patterned motor output responsible for movement of the vibrissae. " breathing is another non - locomotive function of central pattern generators. for example, larval amphibians accomplish gas exchange largely through rhythmic ventilation of the gills. a study showed that lung ventilation in the tadpole brainstem may be driven by a pacemaker - like mechanism, whereas the respiratory cpg adapts in the adult bullfrog as it matures. thus, cpgs hold a broad range of functions in the vertebrate animal and are widely adaptable and variable with
. y. : 1991 ). 21 : 1954 – 62. pmid 21263037 doi : 10. 1093 / cercor / bhq253 hartley ca, phelps ea. 2010. changing fear : the neurocircuitry of emotion regulation. neuropsychopharmacology : official publication of the american college of neuropsychopharmacology. 35 : 136 – 46. pmid 19710632 doi : 10. 1038 / npp. 2009. 121 sobel n, prabhakaran v, hartley ca, desmond je, zhao z, glover gh, gabrieli jd, sullivan ev. 1998. odorant - induced and sniff - induced activation in the cerebellum of the human. the journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the society for neuroscience. 18 : 8990 – 9001. pmid 9787004 references external links nyu faculty bio page living people year of birth missing ( living people ) african - american psychologists new york university faculty stanford university alumni weill cornell medical college alumni american women psychologists new york university alumni 21st - century african - american people 21st - century african - american women
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Chemoreceptor Trigger Zone is:
A. Pons
B. Lateral hypothalamus
C. Ventral hypothalamus
D. Area postrema
Answer: | [
"Pons",
"Lateral hypothalamus",
"Ventral hypothalamus",
"Area postrema"
] | D | Area postrema |
medmcqa_2449 | medmcqa | <ctx>
or authors including shakespeare. he saw it first mentioned by physicians in 1809 and by balzac in a short story in 1832, showing minimally the disorder had by then been recognized as such. in 1896, kraepelin defined its symptoms, and his student ernst rudin began a genetic study of its transmission in 1916. } the book noted that schizophrenia existed across cultures and its rates had stayed steady for fifty years. a chapter was devoted to criteria for determining schizophrenia, with gottesman preferring those developed by bleuler to those in the american psychiatric association's diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders ( version iii - r ), the international classification of diseases ( icd - 9 ) and kurt schneider ’ s method. diagnosis was based on the ways a person spoke and acted, and the standard measures were hallucinations, delusions, emotional apathy, jumbled thought, and sudden changes in a person. gottesman mentioned a disparity in schizophrenia diagnosis after world war ii across the atlantic, when u. s. psychiatric diagnoses quadrupled those of british psychiatrists. family studies on schizophrenia were reviewed. that the disorder runs in families did not suggest it was genetically inherited, since cultural transmission occurs from parents to children. twin and adoption studies were presented as the standard methods to disentangle contributions from genes and the environment. gottesman used a computer - based method for calculating the odds of becoming schizophrenic based on the many causes. the book examines the problems caused by schizophrenia for relatives of patients and for society at large, larger - scale ones exemplified by the eugenics policies of states such as nazi germany. two final chapters cover molecular biology and neuroanatomy briefly. newer methods of behavioral genetics being researched at the time of publication, such as linkage analysis which used the likelihood of neighboring genes being inherited together, were not covered. committees and organizations gottesman is or has been : an attendee at the society for the study of social biology 1967 conference at princeton university which laid the groundwork for the behavior genetics association ( bga ) ; president - elect and program chair of the bga in 1976 ; american psychological association ( apa ) member from 1958
and socioeconomic factors. references for many of these environmental risk factors have been collected in an online database. there may be an association between non - celiac gluten sensitivity and schizophrenia in a small proportion of people, though large randomized controlled trials and epidemiological studies will be needed before such an association can be firmly established. withdrawal of gluten from the diet is an inexpensive measure which may improve the symptoms in a small ( ≤3 % ) number of people with schizophrenia. a meta - analysis found that high neuroticism increases the risk of psychosis and schizophrenia. several long - term studies found that individuals born with congenital visual impairment do not develop schizophrenia, suggesting a protective effect. the effects of estrogen in schizophrenia have been studied in view of the association between the onset of menopause in women who develop schizophrenia at this time. add - on estrogen therapies have been studied and evaluated for their effect on the symptoms experienced. raloxifene as an adjunctive agent has shown positive results. findings have supported the hypothesis that schizophrenia is associated with alterations of the tryptophane - kynurenine metabolic pathway due to activation of specific sections of the immune system. the relevance of some auto - antibodies that act against the nmdar and vgkc is being studied. current estimates suggest that between 1. 5 - 6. 5 % of patients have these antibodies in their sera. preliminary results have shown that these patients can be treated with immunotherapy such as ivig or plasma exchange and steroids, in addition to antipsychotic medication ( s ), which can lead to a reduction in symptoms. childhood antecedents in general, the antecedents of schizophrenia are subtle and those who will go on to develop schizophrenia do not form a readily identifiable subgroup – which would lead to identification of a specific cause. average group differences from the norm may be in the direction of superior as well as inferior performance. overall, birth cohort studies have indicated subtle nonspecific behavioral features, some evidence for psychotic - like experiences ( particularly hallucinations ), and various cognitive antecedents. there have been some inconsistencies in the particular domains of functioning identified and
including behavioral economics and decision - making. schizophrenia meehl was elected president of the american psychological association in 1962. in his address to the annual convention, he presented his comprehensive theory about the genetic causes of schizophrenia. this conflicted with the prevailing notion that schizophrenia was primarily the result of a person's childhood rearing environment. meehl argued schizophrenia should be considered a genetically based neurological disorder manifesting via complex interactions with personal and environmental factors. his reasoning was shaped by the writings of psychoanalyst sandor rado as well as the behavioral genetics findings at the time. he proposed that existing psychodynamic theory about schizophrenia could be meaningfully integrated into his neurobiological framework for the disorder. dominant schizogene theory meehl hypothesized the existence of an autosomal dominant schizogene widespread throughout the population, which would function as a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for schizophrenia. the schizogene would manifest on the cellular level throughout the central nervous system and should be observed as a functional control aberration called hypokrisia. cells exhibiting hypokrisia should contribute to a characteristic pattern of impaired integrative signal processing across multiple neural circuits in the brain, which meehl termed " schizotaxia ". in response to typical rearing environments and social reinforcement schedules, this neural aberration should invariably lead to a collection of observable behavioral tendencies called " schizotypy ". schizotypy indicators would include neurological soft signs, subtle differences in language usage ( " cognitive slippage " ), and effects on personality and emotion. meehl believed many people in society exhibit signs of schizotypy as a result of the schizogene without showing signs of schizophrenia. schizophrenia would only occur when individuals are carrying other non - specific genetic risk factors ( " polygenic potentiators " ) relevant for traits such as anhedonia, ambivalence, and social fear. these additional traits would be more likely expressed under stress ( e. g., trauma ) and inconsistent social schedules from parents. given these combinations of conditions, decompensation from schizotypy to schizophrenia
there is more similarity between pseudo - psychotic symptoms in bpd and " true " psychosis than originally thought. some researchers critique the concept of pseudo - psychosis for, on top of weak construct validity, the implication that it is " not true " or " less severe ", which could trivialize distress and serve as a barrier to diagnosis and treatment. some researchers have suggested classifying these bpd symptoms as " true " psychosis, or even eliminating the distinction between pseudo - psychosis and true psychosis altogether. the dsm - 5 recognizes transient paranoia that worsens in response to stress as a symptom of bpd. studies have documented both hallucinations and delusions in bpd patients who lack another diagnosis that would better account for those symptoms. phenomenologically, research suggests that auditory verbal hallucinations found in patients with bpd cannot be reliably distinguished from those seen in schizophrenia. some researchers suggest there may be a common etiology underlying hallucinations in bpd and those in other conditions like psychotic and affective disorders. disability many people with bpd are able to work if they find appropriate jobs and their condition is not too severe. people with bpd may be found to have a disability in the workplace if the condition is severe enough that the behaviors of sabotaging relationships, engaging in risky behaviors or intense anger prevent the person from functioning in their job role. the united states social security administration acknowledges bpd as a disability, and affected individuals can apply for disability benefits. causes as is the case with other mental disorders, the causes of bpd are complex and not fully agreed upon. evidence suggests that bpd and post - traumatic stress disorder ( ptsd ) may be related in some way. most researchers agree that a history of childhood trauma can be a contributing factor, but less attention has historically been paid to investigating the causal roles played by congenital brain abnormalities, genetics, neurobiological factors, and environmental factors other than trauma. genetics compared to other major psychiatric disorders, genetic research in bpd is still in its very early stages. the heritability of bpd is estimated to be between 37 % and 69 %. that is, 37 % to 69 % of the variability in
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Bleuler's symptoms for schizophrenia are all except
A. Loosening of association
B. Affect disturbances
C. Autism
D. Hallucinations
Answer: | [
"Loosening of association",
"Affect disturbances",
"Autism",
"Hallucinations"
] | D | Eugen Bleuler's Fundamental Symptoms of Schizophrenia (Also called as 4 A's of Bleuler) 1. Ambivalence: Marked inability to decide for or against 2. Autism: Withdrawal into self 3. Affect disturbances: Disturbances of affect such as inappropriate affect 4. Association disturbances: Loosening of associations; thought disorder Ref: A Sho Textbook of Psychiatry, Niraj Ahuja, 7th Edition, pg. no. 55 |
mmlu_aux_1845 | mmlu_auxiliary | <ctx>
, based on thermal response of the landing site measured by satellites currently orbiting mars. the mars reconnaissance orbiter also helps this cause in the sense that its cameras can see rocks larger than 0. 5 m in diameter. along with the possibility of the lander tipping over on sloped surfaces, large topographical features like hills, mesas, craters and trenches pose the problem of interference with ground sensors. radar and doppler radar can falsely measure altitude during descent and the algorithms that target the touchdown point of the lander can be " tricked " into releasing the lander too early or late if the craft passes over mesas or trenches while descending. history background while it was observed in ancient times by the babylonians, egyptians, greeks, and others, it was not until the invention of the telescope in the 17th century that mars was studied in depth. the first attempt at sending a probe to the surface of mars, nicknamed " marsnik 1, " was by the ussr in 1960. the probe failed to reach earth orbit, and the mission was ultimately unsuccessful. failure to complete mission objectives has been common in missions designed to explore mars ; roughly two - thirds of all spacecraft destined for mars have failed before any observation could begin. the mars exploration program itself was formed officially in the wake of the failed mars observer in september 1992, which had been nasa's first mars mission since the viking 1 and viking 2 projects in 1975. the spacecraft, which was based on a modified earth - orbiting commercial communications satellite ( i. e., ses's astra 1a satellite ), carried a payload of instruments designed to study the geology, geophysics, and climate of mars from orbit. the mission ended in august 1993 when communications were lost three days before the spacecraft had been scheduled to enter orbit. 2000s in the 2000s, nasa established the mars scout program as a campaign under the mars exploration program to send a series of small, low - cost robotic missions to mars, competitively selected from innovative proposals by the scientific community with a budget cap of us $ 485 million. the first robotic spacecraft in this program was phoenix, which utilized a lander originally manufactured for the canceled mars surveyor 2001 mission. phoenix was one of four finalists selected out of 25
##nonne, michel diament, veronique dehant, pascal lee, and robert zubrin. " subsurface water detection on mars by active seismology : simulation at the mars society arctic research station ", conference on the geophysical detection of water on mars, 2001. robert zubrin. " the flashline mars arctic research station : dispatches from the first year's mission simulation ", aiaa 2002 - 0993 40th aiaa aerospace sciences meeting and exhibit, reno, nv. january 14 – 17, 2002. vladimir pletser, robert zubrin, k. quinn. " simulation of martian eva at the mars society arctic research station ", presented to world space congress, houston, tx. october 2002. 2003 jan osburg and walter sipes. " mars analog station cognitive testing ( mascot ) : results of first field season ", sae - 2004 - 01 - 2586. presentations jan osburg. " crew experience at the ‘ flashline mars arctic research station ’ during the 2003 field season ", proceedings of the 34th international conference on environmental systems, colorado springs, co, usa, july 2004, sae - 04ices - 31. cockell, c. s., lim, d. s. s., braham, s, lee, p., clancey, b., " exobiological protocol and laboratory for the human exploration of mars : lessons from a polar impact crater ", journal of the british interplanetary society, vol 56, num 3 – 4, pp. 74 – 86, 2003. w. j. clancey. " principles for integrating mars analog science, operations, and technology research ", workshop on analog sites and facilities for the human exploration of the moon and mars, colorado school of mines, golden, co. may 21 – 23, 2003 2004 held, j., wynn, l., reed, j., and r. wang, " supply requirement prediction during long - duration space missions using bayesian estimation ", international journal of logistics, vol 10, num 4, pp. 351 – 366, 2007. wynn, l., held, j., keresz
planetary science applications, in particular for the study of martian soil. the system consists of a controller board, an electromagnetic scanner and micro - fabricated sensor - chip. eight cantilevers with integrated, piezoresistive deflection sensors are aligned in a row and are engaged one after the other to provide redundancy in case of tip or cantilever failure. silicon and molded diamond tips are used for probing the sample. images can be recorded in both, static and dynamic operation mode. in the latter case, excitation of the resonance frequencies of the cantilevers is achieved by vibrating the whole chip with a piezoelectric disk. this instrument represents the highest spatial resolution instrument ever produced for in situ planetary studies. the required level of operational robustness was achieved by using a redundant array of microfabricated cantilevers. first atomic force microscope image on mars the first image recorded by an atomic force microscope on another planet. on july 9, 2008, mars day 44 of the phoenix mars mission, the atomic force microscope on the mars lander recorded an image of a test grid, which serves as a calibration for the microscope. this image was successfully transmitted to earth by the phoenix mars probe, and demonstrates full functionality of the nano - imaging device under the harsh martian conditions, satisfying the nasa phoenix team as well as the swiss scientific team responsible for the development of the microscope. the area imaged by the microscope is 40 × 40 µm, small enough to fit on an eyelash. the grooves in this substrate are apart, from center to center. the vertical dimension is exaggerated in the image to make surface details more visible. the grooves are deep. references manufacturing companies of switzerland optics manufacturing companies swiss brands companies established in 1997 liestal
missions to mars, competitively selected from innovative proposals by the scientific community with a budget cap of us $ 485 million. the first robotic spacecraft in this program was phoenix, which utilized a lander originally manufactured for the canceled mars surveyor 2001 mission. phoenix was one of four finalists selected out of 25 proposals. the four finalists were phoenix, marvel, scim ( sample collection for investigation of mars ), and the ares ( " aerial regional - scale environmental survey " ) mars airplane. scim was a sample return mission that would have used a free - return trajectory and aerogel to capture mars dust and return it to earth ( see also : the stardust mission ). marvel was an orbiter that would have searched for volcanism as well as analyzed various components of the mars atmosphere. the name is an acronym for mars volcanic emission and life scout, and it was intended to detect gases from life if it was there. ares was an aircraft concept for mars to study the lower atmosphere and surface. on september 15, 2008, nasa announced that it had selected maven for the second mission. this mission was budgeted at no more than us $ 475 million. after only two selections, the nasa science directorate announced in 2010 that mars scout would be incorporated into the discovery program, which was re - scoped to allow mars missions to be proposed. insight, a mars seismology and geology mission, was ultimately chosen as the twelfth discovery program mission. 2010s a significant budget cut of us $ 300 million to nasa's planetary science division occurred in fy2013, which prompted the cancellation of the agency's participation in esa's exomars program, as well as a reevaluation of the mars exploration program as a whole. in february 2012, the mars program planning group ( mppg ) was convened in washington, d. c. to discuss candidate mission concepts for the 2018 or 2020 launch window, in an initiative known as mars next generation. the purpose of the mppg was to develop foundations for a program - level architecture for robotic exploration of mars that is consistent with the obama administration's challenge of sending humans to mars orbit in the decade of the 2030s, yet remain responsive to the primary scientific goals of
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
NASA is moving ahead with plans to put a long-armed Lander on Mars' icy North Pole to search for clues for water and possible signs of life. The $386 million Phoenix Mars is planned to touch down in the Martian arctic in 2008. The stationary probe will use its robotic arm to dig into the icy land and pick up soil samples to analyze. In 2002, the Mars Odyssey orbiter spotted evidence of ice-rich soil near the arctic surface. Scientists hope the Phoenix mission will find clues to the geologic history of water on the Red Planet and determine whether microbes existed in the ice. Phoenix will be the first mission of the Mars Scout program, a renewed, low-cost effort to study the Red Planet. "The Phoenix mission explores new territory in the northern plains of Mars analogous to the permafrost regions on Earth," Peter Smith said. True to its name, Phoenix rose from the ashes of previous missions. The lander for Phoenix was built to fly as part of the 2001 Mars Surveyor program. But the program broke down after the well-known disappearance of the Mars Polar Lander in 1999. The Polar Lander lost contact during a landing attempt near the planet's south pole after its rocket engine shut off _ , causing the spacecraft to fall about 130 feet to almost certain destruction. The Phoenix probe had been in storage at a Lockheed Martin clean room in Denver before it was reused for its present mission. It will carry science instruments that were designed for the Mars Surveyor program including an improved panoramic camera and a trench-digging robotic arm. Phoenix will lift off from the Kennedy Space Center in August 2007 and land on the planet nine months later. The passage mainly tells readers that _ .
A. clues of water will be found in Phoenix
B. Phoenix will be sent to find clues of water on Mars
C. August 2007 will see Phoenix lift off
D. the Mars Scout program will be carried out
Answer: | [
"clues of water will be found in Phoenix",
"Phoenix will be sent to find clues of water on Mars",
"August 2007 will see Phoenix lift off",
"the Mars Scout program will be carried out"
] | B | null |
mmlu_aux_3614 | mmlu_auxiliary | <ctx>
their cloacae in close proximity while facing in opposite directions and then release eggs and sperm simultaneously. the tailed frog ( ascaphus truei ) exhibits internal fertilisation. the " tail " is only possessed by the male and is an extension of the cloaca and used to inseminate the female. this frog lives in fast - flowing streams and internal fertilisation prevents the sperm from being washed away before fertilisation occurs. the sperm may be retained in storage tubes attached to the oviduct until the following spring. most frogs can be classified as either prolonged or explosive breeders. typically, prolonged breeders congregate at a breeding site, the males usually arriving first, calling and setting up territories. other satellite males remain quietly nearby, waiting for their opportunity to take over a territory. the females arrive sporadically, mate selection takes place and eggs are laid. the females depart and territories may change hands. more females appear and in due course, the breeding season comes to an end. explosive breeders on the other hand are found where temporary pools appear in dry regions after rainfall. these frogs are typically fossorial species that emerge after heavy rains and congregate at a breeding site. they are attracted there by the calling of the first male to find a suitable place, perhaps a pool that forms in the same place each rainy season. the assembled frogs may call in unison and frenzied activity ensues, the males scrambling to mate with the usually smaller number of females. there is a direct competition between males to win the attention of the females in salamanders and newts, with elaborate courtship displays to keep the female's attention long enough to get her interested in choosing him to mate with. some species store sperm through long breeding seasons, as the extra time may allow for interactions with rival sperm. life cycle most amphibians go through metamorphosis, a process of significant morphological change after birth. in typical amphibian development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. frogs, toads and salamanders all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills. metamorphosis in amphibians is regulated by thyro
terrestrial animals are animals that live predominantly or entirely on land ( e. g. cats, chickens, ants, spiders ), as compared with aquatic animals, which live predominantly or entirely in the water ( e. g. fish, lobsters, octopuses ), and amphibians, which rely on aquatic and terrestrial habitats ( e. g. frogs and newts ). some groups of insects are terrestrial, such as ants, butterflies, earwigs, cockroaches, grasshoppers and many others, while other groups are partially aquatic, such as mosquitoes and dragonflies, which pass their larval stages in water. terrestrial classes the term " terrestrial " is typically applied to species that live primarily on the ground, in contrast to arboreal species, which live primarily in trees. there are other less common terms that apply to specific groups of terrestrial animals : saxicolous creatures are rock dwelling. " saxicolous " is derived from the latin word saxum, meaning a rock. arenicolous creatures live in the sand. troglofauna predominantly live in caves. taxonomy terrestrial invasion is one of the most important events in the history of life. terrestrial lineages evolved in several animal phyla, among which arthropods, vertebrates and mollusks are representatives of more successful groups of terrestrial animals. terrestrial animals do not form a unified clade ; rather, they share only the fact that they live on land. the transition from an aquatic to terrestrial life by various groups of animals has occurred independently and successfully many times. most terrestrial lineages originated under a mild or tropical climate during the paleozoic and mesozoic, whereas few animals became fully terrestrial during the cenozoic. if internal parasites are excluded, free living species in terrestrial environments are represented by the following eleven phyla : gastrotrichs ( hairy - backs ) live in transient terrestrial water and go dormant during desiccation rotifers ( wheel animals ) live in transient terrestrial water and go dormant during desiccation nematodes ( roundworms ) by going dormant during desiccation eutardigrades ( water bears ) live in transient terrestrial water and go dormant during desiccation flatworms ( land
found that the same genetic programming involved in the segmentation and development of median fins was found in the development of paired appendages in catsharks. although these findings do not directly support the lateral fin - fold hypothesis, the original concept of a shared median - paired fin evolutionary developmental mechanism remains relevant. a similar renovation of an old theory may be found in the developmental programming of chondricthyan gill arches and paired appendages. in 2009, researchers at the university of chicago demonstrated that there are shared molecular patterning mechanisms in the early development of the chondricthyan gill arch and paired fins. findings such as these have prompted reconsideration of the once - debunked gill - arch theory. from fins to limbs fish are the ancestors of all mammals, reptiles, birds and amphibians. in particular, terrestrial tetrapods ( four - legged animals ) evolved from fish and made their first forays onto land 400 million years ago. they used paired pectoral and pelvic fins for locomotion. the pectoral fins developed into forelegs ( arms in the case of humans ) and the pelvic fins developed into hind legs. much of the genetic machinery that builds a walking limb in a tetrapod is already present in the swimming fin of a fish. in 2011, researchers at monash university in australia used primitive but still living lungfish " to trace the evolution of pelvic fin muscles to find out how the load - bearing hind limbs of the tetrapods evolved. " further research at the university of chicago found bottom - walking lungfishes had already evolved characteristics of the walking gaits of terrestrial tetrapods. in a classic example of convergent evolution, the pectoral limbs of pterosaurs, birds and bats further evolved along independent paths into flying wings. even with flying wings there are many similarities with walking legs, and core aspects of the genetic blueprint of the pectoral fin have been retained. the first mammals appeared during the permian period ( between 298. 9 and 252. 17 million years ago ). several groups of these mammals started returning to the sea, including the cetaceans ( whales, dolphins and por
sedate locomotion is seen in the stick insects or walking sticks ( phasmatodea ). a few insects have evolved to walk on the surface of the water, especially members of the gerridae family, commonly known as water striders. a few species of ocean - skaters in the genus halobates even live on the surface of open oceans, a habitat that has few insect species. insect walking is of particular interest as practical form of robot locomotion. the study of insects and bipeds has a significant impact on possible robotic methods of transport. this may allow new hexapod robots to be designed that can traverse terrain that robots with wheels may be unable to handle. swimming a large number of insects live either part or the whole of their lives underwater. in many of the more primitive orders of insect, the immature stages are spent in an aquatic environment. some groups of insects, like certain water beetles, have aquatic adults as well. many of these species have adaptations to help in under - water locomotion. water beetles and water bugs have legs adapted into paddle - like structures. dragonfly naiads use jet propulsion, forcibly expelling water out of their rectal chamber. some species like the water striders are capable of walking on the surface of water. they can do this because their claws are not at the tips of the legs as in most insects, but recessed in a special groove further up the leg ; this prevents the claws from piercing the water's surface film. other insects such as the rove beetle stenus are known to emit pygidial gland secretions that reduce surface tension making it possible for them to move on the surface of water by marangoni propulsion ( also known by the german term entspannungsschwimmen ). ecology insect ecology is the scientific study of how insects, individually or as a community, interact with the surrounding environment or ecosystem. insects play one of the most important roles in their ecosystems, which includes many roles, such as soil turning and aeration, dung burial, pest control, pollination and wildlife nutrition. an example is the beetles, which are scavengers that feed on dead animals and fallen trees
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
You probably know that frogs hop ( ). But did you know that there's a small frog in the Pacific Northwest that bellyflops ? It's called a tailed frog. Dr.Rick Essner, who has been studying tailed frogs for the past few years, says, " I've looked at thousands of jumps and have never seen them land on their feet like other frogs." Most of the time, tailed frogs land on their stomachs and then bring their back legs in to prepare for another jump. Essner forst noticed these frogs because of the way they swim. Other frogs kick both of their back legs at the same time. But when a tailed frog swims, it pushes first with one leg and then the other. To try to find out why tailed frogs bellyflop, Essner and other scientists collected and filmed different kinds of frogs. They found that all of the frogs start their jumps the same way: they hold out their legs. The change comes in the landing. Tailed frogs can't move their back legs as quickly as other frogs do. Maybe they don't need to. Tailed frogs live around water and quickly jump into the water to escape danger. Early frogs developed around watery areas and could jump quickly into the water to escape danger. Scientists think those frogs blended in with (...) the green plants on the side of the rocky rivers, just like today's tailed frogs. "Iwould guess that other animals would have problems _ them, " explains Essner. When other animals find those early frogs, the frogs could jump into the river. They didn't need to continue hopping. Tailed frogs and other kinds of frogs went their own ways about 200 million years ago. Tailed frogs stayed by rivers. Other kinds of frogs moved to places where new hopping skills allowed them to survive. When they are in danger, the detailed frogs would _ .
A. jump into the water for protection
B. hop around quickly
C. hide in the green plants near the river
D. jump into the rock
Answer: | [
"jump into the water for protection",
"hop around quickly",
"hide in the green plants near the river",
"jump into the rock"
] | A | null |
mmlu_aux_1581 | mmlu_auxiliary | <ctx>
the modulation and maintenance of hibernation in dwarf lemurs at the duke lemur center, usa. ( sub. for pub., 2020 ) blanco mb, greene lk, klopfer ph, lynch d, browning j, ehmke ee, yoder ad body mass and tail girth predict hibernation expression in captive dwarf lemurs physiological and biochemical zoology, volume 95, number 2, march 2022. q 2021 the university of chicago. all rights reserved. published by the university of chicago press. https : / / doi. org / 10. 1086 / 718222 blanco mb, greene lk, ellsaesser l, schopler b, davison m, ostrowski c, klopfer ph, fietz j, ehmke ee. of fruits and fats : white adipose tissue profiles in captive dwarf lemurs are affected by diet and temperature. proc. r. soc. b 289 : 202259 blanco mb * 1, 2, greene lk1, 2, klopfer ph2, yoder ad2, ehmke ee1, lin j3, smith dl3telomere dynamics in captive dwarf lemurs resemble patterns of temperate hibernators. sub for pub 2022 1duke lemur center, durham, nc, 27705, usa, orcid. org / 0000 - 0002 - 8779 - 1700 2department of biology, duke university, durham, nc, 27708, usa 3department of biochemistry and biophysics, university of california, san francisco, ca 94143, usa format for biology letters books klopfer, p. h., 1962, behavioral aspects of ecology. prentice - hall, new jersey. klopfer, p. h. and j. p. hailman, 1967, introduction to animal behavior : ethology's first century. prentice - hall. klopfer, p. h., 1969, territories and habitats : a study of the use of space by animals. basic books. klopfer, p. h., 1970,
bats have a high thermal conductivity. the wings are filled with blood vessels, and lose body heat when extended. at rest, they may wrap their wings around themselves to trap a layer of warm air. smaller bats generally have a higher metabolic rate than larger bats, and so need to consume more food in order to maintain homeothermy. bats may avoid flying during the day to prevent overheating in the sun, since their dark wing - membranes absorb solar radiation. bats may not be able to dissipate heat if the ambient temperature is too high ; they use saliva to cool themselves in extreme conditions. among megabats, the flying fox pteropus hypomelanus uses saliva and wing - fanning to cool itself while roosting during the hottest part of the day. among microbats, the yuma myotis ( myotis yumanensis ), the mexican free - tailed bat, and the pallid bat ( antrozous pallidus ) cope with temperatures up to by panting, salivating, and licking their fur to promote evaporative cooling ; this is sufficient to dissipate twice their metabolic heat production. bats also possess a system of sphincter valves on the arterial side of the vascular network that runs along the edge of their wings. when fully open, these allow oxygenated blood to flow through the capillary network across the wing membrane ; when contracted, they shunt flow directly to the veins, bypassing the wing capillaries. this allows bats to control how much heat is exchanged through the flight membrane, allowing them to release heat during flight. many other mammals use the capillary network in oversized ears for the same purpose. torpor torpor, a state of decreased activity where the body temperature and metabolism decreases, is especially useful for bats, as they use a large amount of energy while active, depend upon an unreliable food source, and have a limited ability to store fat. they generally drop their body temperature in this state to, and may reduce their energy expenditure by 50 to 99 %. tropical bats may use it to avoid predation, by reducing the amount of time spent on foraging and thus reducing the chance of being caught by a predator
about 30 % larger than a similarly sized domestic dog, potentially derivative of different needs in their respective way of life. dietary trends of the animals demonstrating the highest eq's ( see associated table ), many are primarily frugivores, including apes, macaques, and proboscideans. this dietary categorization is significant to inferring the pressures which drive higher eq's. specifically, frugivores must utilize a complex, trichromatic map of visual space to locate and pick ripe fruits and are able to provide for the high energetic demands of increased brain mass. trophic level — " height " on the food chain — is yet another factor that has been correlated with eq in mammals. eutheria with either high ab ( absolute brain - mass ) or high eq occupy positions at high trophic levels. eutheria low on the network of food chains can only develop a high rb ( relative brain - mass ) so long as they have small body masses. this presents an interesting conundrum for intelligent small animals, who have behaviors radically different from intelligent large animals. according to steinhausen et al. ( 2016 ) : animals with high rb [ relative brain - mass ] usually have ( 1 ) a short life span, ( 2 ) reach sexual maturity early, and ( 3 ) have short and frequent gestations. moreover, males of species with high rb also have few potential sexual partners. in contrast, animals with high eqs have ( 1 ) a high number of potential sexual partners, ( 2 ) delayed sexual maturity, and ( 3 ) rare gestations with small litter sizes. sociality another factor previously thought to have great impact on brain size is sociality and flock size. this was a long - standing theory until the correlation between frugivory and eq was shown to be more statistically significant. while no longer the predominant inference as to selection pressure for high eq, the social brain hypothesis still has some support. for example, dogs ( a social species ) have a higher eq than cats ( a mostly solitary species ). animals with very large flock size and / or complex social systems consistently score high eq, with dolphins and
- sized lemurs, and is far less common than it was in the past. strict folivory is also less common, now found primarily in small lemurs. in certain cases, subfossil lemurs, such as the sloth lemurs and koala lemurs, may have used leaves as an important fallback food, whereas other species, such as the monkey lemurs and the giant aye - aye, specialized on structurally defended resources, such as hard seeds and wood - boring insect larvae. last, pachylemur was primarily a fruit eater ( frugivorous ). subfossil lemur diets have been reconstructed using analytical tools, including techniques to compare tooth anatomy, structure, and wear ; biogeochemistry ( analysis of isotope levels, like carbon - 13 ) ; and the dissection of fecal pellets associated with subfossil remains. the diets of most subfossil lemurs, most notably palaeopropithecus and megaladapis, consisted primarily of c3 plants, which use a form of photosynthesis that results in higher water loss through transpiration. other subfossil lemurs, such as hadropithecus and mesopropithecus, fed on cam and c4 plants, which use more water - efficient forms of photosynthesis. fruit and animal matter was more common in the diets of subfossil lemurs including pachylemur, archaeolemur, and the giant aye - aye. in southern and southwestern madagascar, the subfossil lemurs of the spiny forests generally favored the c3 plants over the more abundant cam plants, although closely related sympatric species may have fed upon the two types of plants in different ratios, allowing each to divide resources and coexist. since plants produce defenses against leaf - eating animals, the extensive use of spines by plants in the spiny forests suggest that they evolved to cope with leaf - eating lemurs, large and small. seed dispersal giant subfossil lemurs are thought to have also played a significant role in seed dispersal
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
The canopy, the upper level of the trees in the rain forest, holds too much of climbing mammals of moderately large size, which may include monkeys, cats, civets, and porcupines. Smaller species, including such as nice and small squirrels, are not as common overall in high tropical canopies as they are in most habitats globally. Small mammals, being warm blooded, suffer hardship in the exposed and uncertain environment of the uppermost trees. Because a small body has more surface area per unit of weight than a large one of similar shape, it gains or loses heat more rapidly. Thus, in the trees, where protection from heat and cold may be scarce and conditions may be changeable, a small mammal may have trouble maintaining its body temperature. Small size makes it easy to scramble among twigs and branches in the canopy for insects, flowers, or fruit, but small mammals are defeated, in the competition for food, by large ones that have their own strategies for browsing among tbod-rich twigs. The weight of an ape hanging below a branch draws the leaves down so that fruit-bearing leaves drop toward the ape's face. Walking or leaping species of a similar or even larger size access the outer twigs either by breaking and gaining the whole branch or by catching hold of hard branches with the feet or tail and picking food with their hands. Small climbing animals may reach twigs readily, but it is harder for them than for large climbing animals to cross the wide gaps from one tree top to the next that typify the high canopy. A gibbon can hurl itself farther than a mouse can: it can achieve a running start, and it can more effectively use a branch as a springboard . The forward movement of a small animal is seriously reduced by the air friction against the ly large surface area of its body. Which of the following questions does the passage answer?
A. How is the rain forest different from other habitats?
B. How does an animal's body size influence an animal's need for food?
C. Why does rain forest provide an unusual variety of food for animals?
D. Why do large animals tend to dominate the upper canopy of the rain forest?
Answer: | [
"How is the rain forest different from other habitats?",
"How does an animal's body size influence an animal's need for food?",
"Why does rain forest provide an unusual variety of food for animals?",
"Why do large animals tend to dominate the upper canopy of the rain forest?"
] | D | null |
mmlu_aux_2518 | mmlu_auxiliary | <ctx>
common, it is that they are hungry, and that they change. virtually all chtorran life forms engage in some form of symbiosis, which can be recursive. indeed, by later books scientists began to suspect that the " chtorran biosphere " isn't so much a collection of different species as it is one vast hive - like superorganism, with each species not only fulfilling a niche but laying the groundwork for other more complex forms. several species of prey animals are in fact suspected to be the juvenile versions of larger predator animals — the few who survive to adulthood metamorphosize and feed on their younger cousins. what little can be guessed about the chtorran homeworld is that it must have slightly higher gravity than earth, and its atmosphere somewhat lower oxygen content — explaining the strength of chtorran musculature and how efficiently they process oxygen on earth. their planet is also suspected to be located near an older red giant star, resulting in most chtorran creatures possessing a warm color scheme of pink to red ( though this varies ). chtorran organisms use dna as genetic material : theoretical xenobiologists explain that dna was already predicted to be the universal basis for alien biospheres, due to its inherent chemical stability. chtorran dna even auto - sorts into chromosomes on a basic level, however, its inter - relations are vastly more complex than comparable terran genetics. chtorran molecular biology is thus compatible with earth's, with right - handed dna and left - handed proteins - if it wasn't, the infestation would have starved to death as soon as it began, unable to digest terran organisms. chtorran life forms ( at least those encountered so far ) seem to thrive best in semi - tropical climate zones, though they are also quite successful in tropical and temperate zones. it is speculated that they may prefer warmer climates, and have only adapted so well to the temperate zones because there are generally more humans to eat there. whatever the case, six years into the invasion there is not a single region of the planet that does not have at least some small trace of chtorran life forms in it, even micro -
##zzball envisioned by gerrold, they reproduce very quickly, and possess many traits which induce adoration in other species. in the wild, mother animals of many species will actually abandon their young in order to take care of meeps — a potent adaptation indeed. some scientists speculate that the bunnydogs essentially rely on the same tactic as the meeps in a sense : they are so disarmingly cute, literally resembling living teddy bears, that humans are reluctant to attack them. nightstalkers : vaguely insectoid creatures which resemble large bats with cloaks, and of roughly similar size to larger bats and birds of prey. they have a similar ecological niche to birds of prey, primarily eating insects but also smaller rodents. kites : as the name implies, they resemble large living kites. the size of eagles, they fulfill a similar ecological niche as a flying apex predator, preying on nightstalkers just as eagles prey on lesser birds. vampires : a very bizarre creature, essentially resembling a living tarpaulin or translucent blanket fluttering in the wind. it eventually falls on large creatures ( often cattle but also humans ), and drains them of blood to feed, hence their name. these feedings aren't necessarily fatal but frequently are due to severe blood loss. god - bees — what comes after the worms. chtorran plants some chtorran life - forms are similar to plants or fungi, but many are carnivorous plants, or mobile animal - plant hybrids which defy easy categorization. shambler trees : chtorran trees that act as hosts to countless separate species of predatory creatures identified as " tenants ". the trees are mobile, able to cover up to a half mile a day and leaving a root network of " tickler nerves " in their path. the " tickler nerves " alert a tree to approaching prey, which triggers the tenants to swarm and feed. once the tenants eat their fill, the prey's remains will fertilize the root network. ultimately, the trees become a clonal colony or " shambler grove ". at an undetermined point in their growth, a shambler grove may permanently stop in one area and grow a sort of womb beneath
reduce bird collisions. by adjusting the other sensory cues of birds, ecologists may help reduce the presence of avian ecological traps around these structures. pest control in addition to using sensory ecology as a tool to inform conservation strategies, scientists have also used sensory ecology concepts and findings to inform pest management strategies. in particular, the exploitation of senses has been used to control insect, marine, and amphibious pests. managers have used sensory ecology to create highly individualized visual, pheromonal, and chemical traps for pests. visual traps are important in the management of a number of insect species. for example, tsetse flies, a vector of african trypanosomiasis ( sleeping sickness ), are attracted to blue colors. flies can therefore be lured in and killed by blue fabric traps imbued with pesticides. scientists believe that flies are attracted to these blue fabrics because blue colors are similar to the color of the ground under a shady tree. since flies must seek out cool places in the heat of the day, blue colors are more attractive. exploitation of visual cues has also been used for the control of aphids and whiteflies. many aphid species show a strong preference for yellow colors. scientists have suggested that this may be the result of a preference for yellow leaves, which tend to have higher flows of accessible nitrogen sources. pheromones are species - specific chemical cues. when released, pheromones can strongly influence the behavior and physiology of other organisms of the same species. because pheromones are largely species - specific, and because they often elicit strong behavioral responses, scientists and managers have used pheromones to lure and trap an array of species. this method has been particularly exploited in insect populations. this method has been used to capture and control species such as sugarcane weevils, gypsy moths, invasive oriental fruit flies, bark beetles, and carpophilus spp. see also biosemiotics cell signalling chemotaxis ecology ecosemiotics information migration ( disambiguation ), relevant subtopics olfaction ( sense of smell ) semiosphere signalling theory sound stimulus ( physiology ) taxis thermotaxis visual perception references further references collin sp
are adorned with various spines, teeth, scales and bristles, which act to prevent the butterfly from mating with an insect of another species. after it emerges from its pupal stage, a butterfly cannot fly until the wings are unfolded. a newly emerged butterfly needs to spend some time inflating its wings with hemolymph and letting them dry, during which time it is extremely vulnerable to predators. pattern formation the colorful patterns on many butterfly wings tell potential predators that they are toxic. hence, the genetic basis of wing pattern formation can illuminate both the evolution of butterflies as well as their developmental biology. the color of butterfly wings is derived from tiny structures called scales, each of which have their own pigments. in heliconius butterflies, there are three types of scales : yellow / white, black, and red / orange / brown scales. some mechanism of wing pattern formation are now being solved using genetic techniques. for instance, a gene called cortex determines the color of scales : deleting cortex turned black and red scales yellow. mutations, e. g. transposon insertions of the non - coding dna around the cortex gene can turn a black - winged butterfly into a butterfly with a yellow wing band. behaviour butterflies feed primarily on nectar from flowers. some also derive nourishment from pollen, tree sap, rotting fruit, dung, decaying flesh, and dissolved minerals in wet sand or dirt. butterflies are important as pollinators for some species of plants. in general, they do not carry as much pollen load as bees, but they are capable of moving pollen over greater distances. flower constancy has been observed for at least one species of butterfly. adult butterflies consume only liquids, ingested through the proboscis. they sip water from damp patches for hydration and feed on nectar from flowers, from which they obtain sugars for energy, and sodium and other minerals vital for reproduction. several species of butterflies need more sodium than that provided by nectar and are attracted by sodium in salt ; they sometimes land on people, attracted by the salt in human sweat. some butterflies also visit dung and scavenge rotting fruit or carcasses to obtain minerals and nutrients. in many species, this mud
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Do you know why different animals or pests have their special color1s? Their color1s in them seem to be used mainly to protect themselves. Some birds like eating locusts , but birds cannot easily catch them. Why? It is because locusts change their color1s together with the change of the color1s of crops . When crops are green, locusts look green. But as the harvest time comes, locusts change to the same brown color1 as crops have. Some other pests with different color1s from plants are easily found and eaten by others. So they have to hide themselves for lives and appear only at night. If you study the animal life, you'll find the main use of color1ing is to protect the animals themselves. Bears, lions and other animals move quietly through forests. They cannot be easily seen by hunters . This is because they have the color1s much like the trees'. Have you ever noticed an even stranger act? A kind of fish in the sea can send out a kind of very black liquid when it faces danger. While the liquid spreads over , its enemies cannot find it. And it immediately swims away. So it has lived up to now though it is not strong at all. Why can the kind of fish live up to now?
A. Because it is very strong.
B. Because the liquid it sends out can help it escape from its enemies.
C. Because the liquid it sends out can kill its enemies.
D. Because it swims faster than any other fish.
Answer: | [
"Because it is very strong.",
"Because the liquid it sends out can help it escape from its enemies.",
"Because the liquid it sends out can kill its enemies.",
"Because it swims faster than any other fish."
] | B | null |
medmcqa_7642 | medmcqa | <ctx>
. abedon, s. t., p. hyman, and c. thomas. 2003. experimental examination of bacteriophage latent - period evolution as a response to bacterial availability. appl. environ. microbiol. 69 : 7499 - 7506. messenger, s. l., i. j. molineux, and j. j. bull. 1999. virulence evolution in a virus obeys a trade - off. proc. r. soc. lond. b biol. sci. 266 : 397 - 404. bull, j. j., and i. j. molineux. 1992. molecular genetics of adaptation in an experimental model of cooperation. evolution 46 : 882 - 895. bull, j. j., i. j. molineux, and w. r. rice. 1991. selection for benevolence in a host - parasite system. evolution 45 : 875 - 882. the older phage literature contains numerous references to phage virulence, and phage virulence evolution. however, the reader should be warned that virulence is often used as a synonym for " not temperate ", a usage which is neither employed here nor to be encouraged generally. impact of sex / coinfection froissart, r., c. o. wilke, r. montville, s. k. remold, l. chao, and p. e. turner. 2004. co - infection weakens selection against epistatic mutations in rna viruses. genetics montville, r., r. froissart, s. k. remold, o. tenaillon, and p. e. turner. 2005. evolution of mutational robustness in an rna virus. plos biology 3 : e381 sachs, j. l. and j. j. bull. 2005. experimental evolution of conflict mediation between genomes. proc. natl. acad. sci. 102 : 390 - 395. poon, a., and l. chao. 2004. drift increases the advantage of sex in rna bacteriophage
viral sequences. most algorithms used for phylogenetic analysis do not take into recombination into account, which can alter the molecular clock and coalescent estimates of a multiple sequence alignment. strains that show signs of recombination should either be excluded from the data set or analyzed on their own. data analysis evolutionary model the best fitting nucleotide or amino acid substitution model for a multiple sequence alignment is the first step in phylodynamic analysis. this can be accomplished with several different algorithms ( e. g., iqtree, mega ). phylogeny inference there are several different methods to infer phylogenies. these include methods include tree building algorithms such as upgma, neighbor joining, maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and bayesian analysis. hypothesis testing assessing phylogenetic support testing the reliability of the tree after inferring its phylogeny, is a crucial step in the phylodynamic pipeline. methods to test the reliability of a tree include bootstrapping, maximum likelihood estimation, and posterior probabilities in bayesian analysis. phylodynamics inference several methods are used to assess phylodynamic reliability of a data set. these methods include estimating the data set's molecular clock, demographic history, population structure, gene flow, and selection analysis. phylodynamic results of a data set can also influence better study designs in future experiments. examples phylodynamics of cholera cholera is a diarrheal disease that is caused by the bacterium vibrio cholerae. v. cholerae has been a popular bacterium for phylodynamic analysis after the 2010 cholera outbreak in haiti. the cholera outbreak happened right after the 2010 earthquake in haiti, which caused critical infrastructure damage, leading to the conclusion that the outbreak was most likely due to the v. cholerae bacterium being introduced naturally to the waters in haiti from the earthquake. soon after the earthquake, the un sent minustah troops from nepal to haiti. rumors started circulating about terrible conditions of the minustah camp, as well as people claiming that the minustah troops were deposing of their waste in the artibonite river, which is the major water
understanding of natural phenomena associated with the dynamics of cholera epidemics, and molecular mechanisms in the evolution of pathogenic vibrio cholerae, he was awarded the " twas prize - 2005 " in medical sciences, by the world academy of sciences twas. faruque collaborates with scientists from different countries and institutes in india, japan, thailand, sweden, uk, and the us. he also established the genomics centre in icddr, b with financial support by the swedish international development cooperation agency ( sida ). faruque maintained an active research team in icddr, b for over two decades, and then moved to brac university to strengthen life science research in one of the nation's premier private universities. later he joined independent university, bangladesh ( iub ), and worked as the dean of the school of environment and life sciences in iub. addressing the health problems of developing countries, faruque has contributed significantly to the understanding of natural mechanisms associated with the emergence of bacterial pathogens. although he has conducted significant work in understanding the epidemiology and transmission of shigella and diarrhoeagenic escherichia coli infections, his major contribution is in the epidemiology and genetics of vibrio cholerae, the causative agent of cholera epidemics. in collaboration with john mekalanos, adele h. lehman professor of microbiology, harvard medical school, boston, faruque has contributed extensively to the recent understanding of the epidemiology, transmissibility and ecology of vibrio cholerae. their work showed the genetic basis for the origin and evolution of new vibrio cholerae strains with epidemic potential and the role of bacteriophages in this process. they discovered and characterised several novel filamentous phages ( e. g., ksf - 1, rs1 and tlc satellite phages ) of vibrio cholerae, and contributed substantially to understanding the molecular mechanisms for transmission of these phages, and their role in vibrio cholerae evolution. faruque has proposed models to explain the role of environmental and host factors and lytic bacteriophages in the ecology of vibrio
j. j. bull. 2005. experimental evolution of conflict mediation between genomes. proc. natl. acad. sci. 102 : 390 - 395. poon, a., and l. chao. 2004. drift increases the advantage of sex in rna bacteriophage turner, p. e., and l. chao. 1998. sex and the evolution of intrahost competition in rna virus _ 6. genetics 150 : 523 - 532. l. chao, t. t. tran, and t. t. tran. 1997. the advantage of sex in the rna virus _ 6. genetics 147 : 953 - 959. malmberg, r. l. 1977. the evolution of epistasis and the advantage of recombination in populations of bacteriophage t4. genetics 86 : 607 - 621. muller ’ s ratchet de la pena, m., s. f. elena, and a. moya. 2000. effect of deleterious mutation - accumulation on the fitness of rna bacteriophage ms2. evolution 54 : 686 - 691. l. chao. 1990. fitness of rna virus decreased by muller's ratchet. nature 348 : 454 - 455. prisoner ’ s dilemma turner, p. e., and l. chao. 2003. escape from prisoner's dilemma in rna phage _ phi6. am. nat. 161 : 497 - 505. turner, p. e., and l. chao. 1999. prisoner's dilemma in an rna virus. nature 398 : 441 - 443. coevolution buckling, a., y. wei, r. c. massey, m. a. brockhurst, and m. e. hochberg. 2006. antagonistic coevolution with parasites increases the cost of host deleterious mutations. proc. r. soc. lond. b biol. sci. 273 : 45 - 49. morgan, a. d., s. gandon, and a. buckling. 2005. the effect of migration on local adaptation in a coevolving host
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
V. cholera is able to stay in GIT because of ?
A. Acid resistance
B. Bile resistance
C. Motility
D. Binds to specific receptors
Answer: | [
"Acid resistance",
"Bile resistance",
"Motility",
"Binds to specific receptors"
] | C | Ans. is 'c' i.e., Motility |
mmlu_aux_372 | mmlu_auxiliary | <ctx>
##s since 1890 found that over 8, 500 of the submerged wrecks may still contain oil. oil spills can have devastating effects on marine and coastal environments as well as fisheries. in addition to being toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( pahs ), found in crude oil, are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment. shipwreck pollution may also originate with a ship's cargo or munitions, such as unexploded ordnance or chemical weapons canisters. german trawler v 1302 john mahn, sunk in the north sea in 1942, has multiple unexploded depth charges on board which render the wreck hazardous. samples taken from the wreck and nearby sediment show the presence of heavy metals like nickel and copper, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, arsenic and explosive compounds into surrounding waters, which have changed the local microbial ecology. natural deterioration process iron and steel wrecks are subject to corrosion, which is most rapid in shallow sea water where the salinity induces galvanic corrosion, oxygen content is high and water movement replenishes the oxygen rapidly. in deeper water and in still water the corrosion rates can be greatly reduced. corrosion rates of iron and steel are also reduced when concretions, solid layers of rust, or layers of marine organisms separate the metal from the ambient water, and encourage the development of a layer of relatively stable black oxide in the hypoxic layers. ships that sink upright onto a sand bottom tend to settle into the sand to a similar level to that at which they would normally float at the surface. the thinner materials of the upper works tend to break up first, followed by the decks and deck beams, and the hull sides unsupported by bulkheads. the bow and stern may remain relatively intact for longer as they are usually more heavily constructed. heavy machinery like boilers, engines, pumps, winches, propellers, propeller shafts, steering gear, anchors and other heavy fittings also last longer and can provide support to the remaining hull, or cause it to collapse more rapidly. vessels that come to rest upside down on a yielding seabed can be relatively
is shallow at the south spit where the anchor was let go the vessel, in passing over the anchor, may have sustained an injury to her bottom, which being possibly increased by touching on the bar, would have been sufficiently serious to cause the foundering. the other is that at the particular spot where, she touched the bar — assuming, of course, that she did touch — there may have been a rock which would no doubt have inflicted serious injury the kalara had been commanded by captain a, h. gruer until two months prior, when he resigned, and captain henry received the appointment of the vessel. marine board of queensland inquiry commander george poynter heath, r. n., the chairman of the marine board in brisbane lead the hearing into the fate of the kalara on 16 november 1886 it was found that the pilot was in charge of the vessel when exiting the bar and that the tide was in first quarter flood. the speed of the vessel did not exceed four knots, and the vessel was about half - loaded with cedar and hardwood log timber. on getting to the elbow of the channel at the mouth of the tweed, the tide caught her on the starboard bow and threw her off to port. to avoid being thrown up on the west bank of the channel, the port anchor was let go to bring her head to the tide, and the engines were stopped and reversed. the vessel, however, bad so much way on her when the anchor was let go in shoal water that she passed over her anchor, the cable streaming on the starboard beam. the anchor was again weighed, and tho pilot having left, the vessel went out over the bar ; the mate felt her touch slightly forward in crossing, but it was not noticed by the master or the engineer. the board were of opinion that the leak, though not suspected at the time, was caused by the vessel passing over the peak of her anchor when going out to the bar of the tweed, and that, under the circumstances, the star hoard anchor should have been let go, and not the port anchor.'the vessel at the time being in charge of the pilot ( who is not within the jurisdiction of the queensland government ), the board were unwilling to attach
did not give any special caution about not going down after taking off the hatches ; there might have been about three parts of a bucket of charcoal and a quarter of a pound of sulphur ; on sunday afternoon be heard that m'lean was lying dead on board the schooner. jeremiah o ’ connell, cook on board the schooner, deposed that he last saw deceased alive about 4 o'clock on saturday afternoon at the victoria wharf, he was then sober. o ’ connell left the advance about 6 o'clock in company with the mate, and returned about half past 12 on sunday afternoon alone. he went forward and saw that the scuttle leading to the forecastle, and which was closed when he left, was open ; the other hatches were still closed ; he looked into the forecastle and saw the deceased sitting on a seat with his body bent forward and his head resting on the opposite seat there was a smell of charcoal coming up out of the scuttle, he thought deceased was drunk, he spoke to him, but got not reply he shook him, but could not awake him, and found that he was dead. wreck the particulars of the wreck on 11 february 1884 are related by one of the crew : the advance in ballast got underway for port stephens at about 7 o ’ clock yesterday ( monday ) morning, from the government wharf, botany bay there was a light breeze from the se at the time, but the weather was overcast, and the wind gradually freshened till, about three quarters of an hour afterwards, it was blowing a strong gale. we attempted to beat out, and made one board across from the south side of the bay, near captain cook's monument towards la perouse as we proceeded it was thought that she would be able to get right out, but when nearing la perouse the wind headed us veering more to the eastward, and we had to go around in an attempting, to do so the vessel missed stays. we filled on her, as there was no room to wear we made another attempt to stay her she would not stay, however, and the anchor was accordingly let go, which brought her up a kedge was then run out to try and heave her
used for the mooring of offshore structures such as offshore wind turbines, floating production storage and offloading ( fpso ) vessels, floating liquefied natural gas ( flng ) facilities, etc. an industrial example is the ursa tension - leg platform ( tlp ) which has been held on - station by 16 anchor piles, each of which is long, in diameter, and weighs. design anchor piles are hollow steel pipes that are either driven, or inserted into a hole drilled into the seabed and then grouted, similar to pile foundations commonly used in offshore fixed structures. the figure shows the different installation methods, where in the " driven " method, the steel tube is driven mechanically by a hammer, whilst in the " drilled " method a cast in - situ pile is inserted into an oversized borehole constructed with a rotary drill and then grouted with cement. employment of a particular method depends on the geophysical and geotechnical properties of the seabed. anchor piles are typically designed to resist both horizontal and vertical loads. the axial holding capacity of the anchor pile is due to the friction along the pile - soil interface, while the lateral capacity of the pile is generated by lateral soil resistance, where the anchor's orientation is critical to optimising this resistance. as a result, the location of the padeye is placed such that the force from the catenary or taut mooring will result in a moment equilibrium about the point of rotation, to achieve the optimal lateral soil resistance. installation due to the slender nature of anchor piles, there are three installation issues pertaining to driven piles, the first of which is the driveability of the piles at the location, or where excessive soil resistance may prevent penetration to the desired depth. the second issue is the deformation of the piles where tip collapse or buckling occurs due to excessive resistance and a deviation of pile trajectory. the third issue is the geotechnical properties of the soil. insufficient lateral resistance by the soil may lead to a toppling of the anchor, and rocks and boulders along the penetration trajectory may lead to refusal and tip collapse. installation issues pertaining to drilled - and - grouted piles include borehole stability, unwanted soft cuttings at the base of the
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Which of the following causes a ship's iron anchor to sink to the ocean floor when it is released overboard?
A. chemical forces
B. gravity
C. magnetism
D. nuclear forces
Answer: | [
"chemical forces",
"gravity",
"magnetism",
"nuclear forces"
] | B | null |
qasc_3393 | qasc | <ctx>
the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle. in contrast to mitosis, meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing one round of dna replication followed by two divisions. homologous chromosomes are separated in the first division ( meiosis i ), and sister chromatids are separated in the second division ( meiosis ii ). both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle. both are believed to be present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor. prokaryotes ( i. e., archaea and bacteria ) can also undergo cell division ( or binary fission ). unlike the processes of mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotes, binary fission takes in prokaryotes takes place without the formation of a spindle apparatus on the cell. before binary fission, dna in the bacterium is tightly coiled. after it has uncoiled and duplicated, it is pulled to the separate poles of the bacterium as it increases the size to prepare for splitting. growth of a new cell wall begins to separate the bacterium ( triggered by ftsz polymerization and " z - ring " formation ) the new cell wall ( septum ) fully develops, resulting in the complete split of the bacterium. the new daughter cells have tightly coiled dna rods, ribosomes, and plasmids. genetics inheritance genetics is the scientific study of inheritance. mendelian inheritance, specifically, is the process by which genes and traits are passed on from parents to offspring. it has several principles. the first is that genetic characteristics, alleles, are discrete and have alternate forms ( e. g., purple vs. white or tall vs. dwarf ), each inherited from one of two parents. based on the law of dominance and uniformity, which states that some alleles are dominant while others are recessive ; an organism with at least one dominant allele will display the phenotype of that dominant allele. during gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate, so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene. heterozygotic individuals produce gametes with an equal frequency
complementing the inherited parent valves in the offspring once reproduction is complete. the offspring valves are formed within a silica deposition vesicle that gradually grows larger and separates into two different offspring valves. the parent valves become a template for the offspring valves being formed, with patterns of striae and the central cell area also being inherited. however, perfect complementation does not occur every generation, which can lead to consecutive generations inheriting a deformed parental valve that was initially a deformed offspring valve in a previous generation. the likeness of the offspring valves to the parental valves is determined by the flexibility of the girdle bands ; the other factors are unknown. vegetative cell division occurs over hundreds of generations for c. meneghiniana, with the cell diameters of the offspring organisms becoming gradually smaller. regardless of the flexibility of the girdle bands and functionality of vegetative cell division, there is a point where the diameter of c. meneghiniana offspring dips below a certain threshold diameter. it has been observed that at this point, species - specific environmental stimuli induces the change from asexual reproduction to sexual reproduction. sexual reproduction occurs with gametes being formed upon reaching the threshold. during the process of meiosis, male cyclotella cells release sperm and the female cyclotella cells develop and egg from within the two valves. following fertilization of the egg, a zygote is formed from the union of the two gametes. the zygote then develops into an auxophore ( 2n ). once sexual reproduction is complete, the diameter of the offspring is larger and beyond the threshold once again, allowing for the production of another few hundred generations through the asexual division of auxophores. biochemistry despite there being very little known about the internal morphology of cyclotella, there have been a sizable number of studies done on the genus'molecular biology and genome. c. cryptica has been identified to be an oleaginous diatom, with a great deal of triacylglycerol. its genome has been identified to contain many methylated repetitive sequences, which are supposed to function as a way of limiting the occurrences of
reducing grazing. during the sexual phase, the vegetative cells can form gametes that conjugate, resulting in what is called a diploid planozygote that can transform into a resting cyst called a hypnozygote. in some species, the planozygote can go through meiosis and produce a vegetative cell. the gametes can recognize each - other by the help of agglutinin - like compounds and the gametes can then fuse on their ventral side, producing a biflagellated diploid planozygote. the gametes of alexandrium are the same as vegetative cells or they can be smaller in size. the time the hypnozygote spends in the sediment is most likely related to the specific species and or environmental factors. temperature changes have also been shown to produce varying amounts of cysts. in the case of a. tamarense, specific bacteria may inhibit or trigger cyst production. in colder temperatures, the maturation length may be prolonged. the bloom of some species is seasonally driven, or the bloom can be regulated by environmental forces ( e. g. temperature ), in addition to being seasonally driven. under the right conditions, the hypnozygote germinates and releases a motile cell called a planomeiocyte. the sexual cycle is complete once the planomeiocyte divides and produces vegetative cells again. genetics the cell cycle is composed of the typical eukaryotic stages in m1, s phase, g1 and g2. it goes through a light / dark dependent manner. during the night, the cells are haploid and have only one copy of the dna. during the day, the population is in s phase with two copies of dna. they go through closed mitosis. g2 to m phase is regulated by nutrient factors, while the s phase is controlled through light / dark timing. alexandrium species must be of proper size before then can enter s and g2 phase. alexandrium fundyense increases greatly in size during the g2 / m phase and after mitosis, it decreases in size. other species
. stem cells, on the other hand, have the ability to divide for indefinite periods and to give rise to specialized cells. they are best described in the context of normal human development. development begins when a sperm fertilizes an egg and creates a single cell that has the potential to form an entire organism. in the first hours after fertilization, this cell divides into identical cells. in humans, approximately four days after fertilization and after several cycles of cell division, these cells begin to specialize, forming a hollow sphere of cells, called a blastocyst. the blastocyst has an outer layer of cells, and inside this hollow sphere, there is a cluster of cells called the inner cell mass. the cells of the inner cell mass go on to form virtually all of the tissues of the human body. although the cells of the inner cell mass can form virtually every type of cell found in the human body, they cannot form an organism. these cells are referred to as pluripotent. pluripotent stem cells undergo further specialization into multipotent progenitor cells that then give rise to functional cells. examples of stem and progenitor cells include : radial glial cells ( embryonic neural stem cells ) that give rise to excitatory neurons in the fetal brain through the process of neurogenesis. hematopoietic stem cells ( adult stem cells ) from the bone marrow that give rise to red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. mesenchymal stem cells ( adult stem cells ) from the bone marrow that give rise to stromal cells, fat cells, and types of bone cells epithelial stem cells ( progenitor cells ) that give rise to the various types of skin cells muscle satellite cells ( progenitor cells ) that contribute to differentiated muscle tissue. a pathway that is guided by the cell adhesion molecules consisting of four amino acids, arginine, glycine, asparagine, and serine, is created as the cellular blastomere differentiates from the single - layered blastula to the three primary layers of germ cells in mammals, namely the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoder
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
After fertilization and undergoing cell division a gamete becomes a(n)?
A. Embryo
B. grow
C. RNA
D. propagate
Answer: | [
"Embryo",
"grow",
"RNA",
"propagate"
] | A | |
qasc_4552 | qasc | <ctx>
environmental conditions. another group of plants employ " cam - cycling ", in which their stomata do not open at night ; the plants instead recycle produced by respiration as well as storing some during the day. plants showing inducible cam and cam - cycling are typically found in conditions where periods of water shortage alternate with periods when water is freely available. periodic drought – a feature of semi - arid regions – is one cause of water shortage. plants which grow on trees or rocks ( as epiphytes or lithophytes ) also experience variations in water availability. salinity, high light levels and nutrient availability are other factors which have been shown to induce cam. since cam is an adaptation to arid conditions, plants using cam often display other xerophytic characters, such as thick, reduced leaves with a low surface - area - to - volume ratio ; thick cuticle ; and stomata sunken into pits. some shed their leaves during the dry season ; others ( the succulents ) store water in vacuoles. cam also causes taste differences : plants may have an increasingly sour taste during the night yet become sweeter - tasting during the day. this is due to malic acid being stored in the vacuoles of the plants'cells during the night and then being used up during the day. aquatic cam cam photosynthesis is also found in aquatic species in at least 4 genera, including : isoetes, crassula, littorella, sagittaria, and possibly vallisneria, being found in a variety of species e. g. isoetes howellii, crassula aquatica. these plants follow the same nocturnal acid accumulation and daytime deacidification as terrestrial cam species. however, the reason for cam in aquatic plants is not due to a lack of available water, but a limited supply of. is limited due to slow diffusion in water, 10000x slower than in air. the problem is especially acute under acid ph, where the only inorganic carbon species present is, with no available bicarbonate or carbonate supply. aquatic cam plants capture carbon at night when it is abundant due to a lack of competition from other photosynthetic organisms
. the cells of the spongy layer are more branched and not so tightly packed, so that there are large intercellular air spaces between them. the pores or stomata of the epidermis open into substomatal chambers, which are connected to the intercellular air spaces between the spongy and palisade mesophyll cell, so that oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapor can diffuse into and out of the leaf and access the mesophyll cells during respiration, photosynthesis and transpiration. leaves are normally green, due to chlorophyll in chloroplasts in the mesophyll cells. some plants have leaves of different colours due to the presence of accessory pigments such as carotenoids in their mesophyll cells. vascular tissue the veins are the vascular tissue of the leaf and are located in the spongy layer of the mesophyll. the pattern of the veins is called venation. in angiosperms the venation is typically parallel in monocotyledons and forms an interconnecting network in broad - leaved plants. they were once thought to be typical examples of pattern formation through ramification, but they may instead exemplify a pattern formed in a stress tensor field. a vein is made up of a vascular bundle. at the core of each bundle are clusters of two distinct types of conducting cells : xylem cells that bring water and minerals from the roots into the leaf. phloem cells that usually move sap, with dissolved sucrose ( glucose to sucrose ) produced by photosynthesis in the leaf, out of the leaf. the xylem typically lies on the adaxial side of the vascular bundle and the phloem typically lies on the abaxial side. both are embedded in a dense parenchyma tissue, called the sheath, which usually includes some structural collenchyma tissue. leaf development according to agnes arber's partial - shoot theory of the leaf, leaves are partial shoots, being derived from leaf primordia of the shoot apex. early in development they are dorsiventrally flattened with both dorsal and
than conventional methods. soaker hoses help to reduce water use by up to 90 %. they connect to a garden hose and lay along the row of plants under a layer of mulch. a layer of organic material added to the soil helps to increase its absorption and water retention ; previously planted areas can be covered with compost. in caring for a lawn, there are a number of measures that can increase the sustainability of lawn maintenance techniques. a primary aspect of lawn care is watering. to conserve water, it is important to only water when necessary, and to deep soak when watering. additionally, a lawn may be left to go dormant, renewing after a dry spell to its original vitality. sequestering water a common method of water sequestrations is rainwater harvesting, which incorporates the collection and storage of rain. primarily, the rain is obtained from a roof, and stored on the ground in catchment tanks. water sequestration varies based on extent, cost, and complexity. a simple method involves a single barrel at the bottom of a downspout, while a more complex method involves multiple tanks. it is highly sustainable to use stored water in place of purified water for activities such as irrigation and flushing toilets. additionally, using stored rainwater reduces the amount of runoff pollution, picked up from roofs and pavements that would normally enter streams through storm drains. the following equation can be used to estimate annual water supply : collection area ( square feet ) × rainfall ( inch / year ) / 12 ( inch / foot ) = cubic feet of water / year cubic feet / year × 7. 43 ( gallons / cubic foot ) = gallons / year note, however, this calculation does not account for losses such as evaporation or leakage. greywater systems function in sequestering used indoor water, such as laundry, bath and sink water, and filtering it for reuse. greywater can be reused in irrigation and toilet flushing. there are two types of greywater systems : gravity fed manual systems and package systems. the manual systems do not require electricity but may require a larger yard space. the package systems require electricity but are self - contained and can be installed indoors. waste as populations and resource demands climb,
##uch einen entwicklungsgeschickte der pflanzenwelt ( 1879 - 1882 ) ). taken together it clearly gives the impression that schimper has been suspiciously economic with acknowledgements of his great intellectual debts to warming. contents the text on growth forms was written anew by warming for'oecology of plants'new conceptual terms in ‘ plantesamfund ’, warming coined the words hydrophyte, mesophyte, xerophyte and halophyte. hydrophyte - an aquatic plant ; a plant which lives and grows in water. mesophyte - a name given to plants which grow naturally in conditions of intermediate soil moisture. xerophyte - a plant that is able to grow where the water supply is small. xerophytes are plants that are able to control the loss of water from their aerial parts. xerophytes employ many different tools to control the loss of water, such as ; waxy deposits, varnish, or mineral crusts on the epidermis ; reduction of air spaces ; storage organs ; thick - walled epidermis ; and cork in woody plants. some xerophytes are annual plants that grow quickly during the rainy season. halophyte - a plant which grows in salt - impregnated soils. references 1895 non - fiction books ecology books botany books 1895 in biology
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Where do plants store water?
A. watershed
B. Collagen
C. excretory
D. trunks
Answer: | [
"watershed",
"Collagen",
"excretory",
"trunks"
] | D | |
medmcqa_3246 | medmcqa | <ctx>
scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. state - of - the - art facilities are available to evaluate the bulk, surface and biological properties of the produced biomaterials. clinical targets research activities include prototype development of biomaterials from nano - to micro - scale to deliver therapeutics and diagnostics platforms. biomaterial platforms at nfb include : scaffolds with instructive biophysical signals, functional nanoparticles, hyper - branched polymers and cell - sheet technologies. the focus is on the use of biomaterials to address key clinical targets as follows : intervertebral disc regeneration degeneration of intervertebral disc ( ivd ) is the main cause of neck and low back pain. the ivd is composed of a gelatinous nucleus pulposus ( np ) centre and several surrounding coaxial lamellae that form the inner and outer anulus fibrosus. this unique structural feature allows the ivd to constrain motion at high loads and provide flexibility at low loads. while factors such as abnormal mechanical stresses, biochemical imbalances and nutritional and genetic deficiencies are all reported to play a role in disc degeneration, the natural aging process is also characterised by replacement of the gelatinous nucleus pulposus region of the disc by a less - flexible cartilaginous disc. current treatments ( usually massage, mediations ; or acupuncture, manipulation ) typically provide short - term relief though invasive surgery can be used as a last resort. nfb strategy is to develop an injectable, functionalised hydrogel loaded with hollow extracellular matrix - based spheres that will restore the mechanical properties of the disc and deliver genes to upregulate extracellular matrix components such as aggrecan that are limited in the diseased state. the spheres will be functionalised using peg - based hyper - branched polymers, designed and developed in - house, that will enable delivery of specific bioactive molecules and will be delivered by injection directly into the intervertebral column. the findings of fundamental studies currently being carried out at nfb will provide a better understanding of disc degeneration, and will be used to develop new therapeutic interventions to treat
removal of the uterus and cervix for early cervical cancer robotic and laparoscopic surgery resulted in similar outcomes with respect to the cancer. bone robots are used in orthopedic surgery. robodoc is the first active robotic system that performs some of the surgical actions in a total hip arthroplasty ( tha ). it is programmed preoperatively using data from computer tomography ( ct ) scans. this allows for the surgeon to choose the optimal size and design for the replacement hip. acrobot and rio are semi - active robotic systems that are used in tha. it consists of a drill bit that is controlled by the surgeon however the robotic system does not allow any movement outside the predetermined boundaries. mazor x is used in spinal surgeries to assist surgeons with placing pedicle screw instrumentation. inaccuracy when placing a pedicle screw can result in neurovascular injury or construct failure. mazor x functions by using templating imaging to locate itself to the target location of where the pedicle screw is needed. spine robotic devices started to be used in minimally invasive spine surgery starting in the mid - 2000s. as of 2014, there were too few randomized clinical trials to judge whether robotic spine surgery is more or less safe than other approaches. as of 2019, the application of robotics in spine surgery has mainly been limited to pedicle screw insertion for spinal fixation. in addition, the majority of studies on robot - assisted spine surgery have investigated lumbar or lumbosacral vertebrae only. studies on use of robotics for placing screws in the cervical and thoracic vertebrae are limited. transplant surgery the first fully robotic kidney transplantations were performed in the late 2000s. it may allow kidney transplantations in people who are obese who could not otherwise have the procedure. weight loss however is the preferred initial effort. general surgery with regards to robotic surgery, this type of procedure is currently best suited for single - quadrant procedures, in which the operations can be performed on any one of the four quadrants of the abdomen. cost disadvantages are applied with procedures such as a cholecystectomy and fundoplication
pain subjects ; spine 2004 panjabi et al. spine 1997 whiplash produces and s - shape curve... harrision de, jmpt 2003, increasing the cervical lordosis with cbp seated combined extension - compression and transverse load cervical traction with cervical manipulation : non - randomized clinical control trial harrison. journal of spinal disorders 1998 : elliptical modeling of the sagittal lumbar lordosis and segmental rotation angles as a method to discriminate between normal and low back pain subjects. gleb de. spine 1995 : an analysis of sagittal spinal alignment in 100 asymptomatic middle and older aged volunteers. janik tj, journal orthop res, 1998, can the sagittal lumbar curvature be closely approximated by an ellipse? harrision. spine 2001 : methods for cervical mensuration analyzed voutsinas sa, clinical orthorpedics 1986 bernhardt m. spien 1989 : segmental analysis of the sagittal plane alignment of the normal thoracic and lumbar spines and thoracolumbar junction. harrision de, archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation 2002, a new 3 - point bending traction method for restoring cervical lordosis and cervical manipulation : a nonrandomized clinical controlled trial helliwell ps, journal of bone and joint surgery, 1994 the straight cervical spine : does it indicate muscle spasm? banks, r. journal of crash prevention and injury control 2000 : alignment of the lumbar vertebrae in a driving posture troyanovich sj, jmpt 1998 structural rehabilitation of the spine and posture : sheng - yun l. plos one 2014 : comparison of modic changes in the lumbar and cervical spine, in 3167 patients wit hand without spinal pain. harrison de. journal of spinal disorders & techniques : 2002, can the thoracic kyphosis be modeled with a simple geometric shape? : the results of circular and elliptical modeling in 80 asymptomatic patients research regarding primary non surgical treatment : review of surgical outcomes regarding biomechanics, biomechanical effects on neurologic function. treatment : non - surgical surgical biological engineering biomechanics
5. 3 • elasticity : stress and strain 215 where is the shear modulus ( see table 5. 3 ) and is the force applied perpendicular to and parallel to the cross - sectional area. again, to keep the object from accelerating, there are actually two equal and opposite forces applied across opposite faces, as illustrated in figure 5. 16. the equation is logical — for example, it is easier to bend a long thin pencil ( small ) than a short thick one, and both are more easily bent than similar steel rods ( large ). figure 5. 16 shearing forces are applied perpendicular to the length and parallel to the area, producing a deformation. vertical forces are not shown, but it should be kept in mind that in addition to the two shearing forces,, there must be supporting forces to keep the object from rotating. the distorting effects of these supporting forces are ignored in this treatment. the weight of the object also is not shown, since it is usually negligible compared with forces large enough to cause significant deformations. examination of the shear moduli in table 5. 3 reveals some telling patterns. for example, shear moduli are less than young ’ s moduli for most materials. bone is a remarkable exception. its shear modulus is not only greater than its young ’ s modulus, but it is as large as that of steel. this is why bones are so rigid. the spinal column ( consisting of 26 vertebral segments separated by discs ) provides the main support for the head and upper part of the body. the spinal column has normal curvature for stability, but this curvature can be increased, leading to increased shearing forces on the lower vertebrae. discs are better at withstanding compressional forces than shear forces. because the spine is not vertical, the weight of the upper body exerts some of both. pregnant women and people that are overweight ( with large abdomens ) need to move their shoulders back to maintain balance, thereby increasing the curvature in their spine and so increasing the shear component of the stress. an increased angle due to more curvature increases the shear forces along the plane. these higher shear forces increase the risk of back injury through ruptured discs. the lu
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Most common site of disc prolapse in lumbar spine is
A. L2-3
B. L3-4
C. L4-5
D. L5-S1
Answer: | [
"L2-3",
"L3-4",
"L4-5",
"L5-S1"
] | C | Ans. is 'c' i.e., L4-5 Prolapsed intervertebral disc:* Herniation of intervertebral disc is a common cause of combined back pain and sciatica (Pain in back with radiation to lower limb). Prolapsed intervertebral disc is often precipitated by injury, but it may also occur in the absence of any remembered injury.* The site of exit of the nucleus is usually posterolateralon one or the other side.Occasionally, it can be central (posterior-midline)disc prolapse.* The type of nuclear protrusion maybe: a protrusion, an extrusion or a sequestration.* A dissecting extrusion, (an extrusion with discmaterial between the body of the vertebra andposterior longitudinal ligament, stripping the latteroff the body), may occur.* The commonest level of discprolapse is between L4-L5 in the lumbar spine and C5-C6 in the cervical spine. |
medmcqa_9438 | medmcqa | <ctx>
dizziness headaches cold hands and feet pale skin dark urine jaundice chest pain pain in the back or legs vomiting or diarrhea heart problems such as an irregular heartbeat ( arrhythmia ), a heart murmur, an enlarged heart, or heart failure. these may occur because the heart has to work harder to make sure the body gets enough healthy red blood cells. many people with cad also experience pain and bluish coloring of the hands and feet ( acrocyanosis ) or raynaud's disease. these symptoms result from slow or poor circulation and can range from mild to disabling. other signs and symptoms of cad may include enlargement of the spleen ( splenomegaly ) and mottled discoloration of the skin ( livedo reticularis ). in people with secondary cad ( associated with another underlying condition ), there may be additional signs and symptoms depending on the condition present. for example : mycoplasma pneumoniae infection ( the most common cause of secondary cad ) may cause respiratory symptoms. various infections or cancers may cause enlarged or swollen lymph nodes. 80 – 99 % of people have these symptoms arthralgia autoimmunity fatigue hemolytic anemia muscular weakness pallor 5 – 29 % of people have these symptoms abnormal urine color back pain diarrhea headache hepatomegaly lymphadenopathy nausea and vomiting splenomegaly cause cold agglutinin disease can be either primary ( unknown cause ) or secondary ( a result of another pathology / caused by an underlying condition ). primary cold agglutinin disease the primary form is caused by excessive cell proliferation of b lymphocytes, characterized by clonal lymphoproliferative disorder. primary cold agglutinin disease occurs after the fifth decade of life and peaks prevalence in a person's 70s and 80s. secondary cold agglutinin disease secondary cold agglutinin syndrome occurs when autoantibodies bind to red blood cells, rendering them subject to attack by the complement system. it is a result of an underlying condition potentially associated with either monoclonal cold - reacting autoantibodies or polyclonal
when the vessel is 70 % occluded. lack of oxygen may also result in a myocardial infarction ( heart attack ). cad can be contracted over time. risk factors include a family history of cad, smoking, high blood pressure, diabetes, obesity, inactive lifestyle, mental stress and high cholesterol. angina can also occur due to spasm of the coronary arteries, even in individuals without atherosclerosis. in coronary artery spasm, the vessel constricts to limit blood flow through the artery, causing a decrease in oxygen supply to the heart, although the mechanisms for this phenomenon are not fully understood. natural course coronary ischemia can have serious consequences if it is not treated. plaques in the walls of the coronary arteries can rupture, resulting in occlusion of the artery and deprivation of blood flow and oxygen to the heart muscle, resulting in cardiac cell death. this is known as myocardial infarction. a heart attack can cause arrhythmias, as well as permanent damage to the heart muscle. coronary ischemia resulting from coronary artery disease also increases the risk of developing heart failure. most cases of heart failure result from underlying coronary artery disease. a myocardial infarction carries a greater than five - fold increase in relative risk for developing heart failure. diagnosis if coronary ischemia is suspected, a series of tests will be undertaken for confirmation. the most common tests used are an electrocardiogram, an exercise stress test, and a coronary angiography. a medical history will be taken, including queries about past incidences of chest pain or shortness of breath. the duration and frequency of symptoms will be noted as will any measures taken to relieve the symptoms. electrocardiogram a resting electrocardiogram ( ekg ) is an early step in the diagnostic process. an electrocardiogram ( ekg ) involves the use of electrodes that are placed on the arms, chest, and legs. these sensors detect any abnormal rhythms that the heart may be producing. this test is painless and it helps detect insufficient blood flow to the heart. an ekg can also detect
of coronary ischemia is chest pain or pressure, known as angina pectoris. angina may present typically with classic symptoms or atypically with symptoms less often associated with heart disease. atypical presentations are more common women, diabetics, and elderly individuals. typical angina is typically located below the sternum. individuals experiencing angina characterize the pain in different ways, but the pain is usually described as crushing, squeezing, or burning. symptoms may worsen over the course of several minutes. typical angina is aggravated by physical activity or emotional stress and is relieved by rest or nitroglycerin. the pain may radiate to other parts of the body, most commonly the left arm or neck. in some individuals, the pain may be less severe and present as pressure or numbness. less commonly, the pain may radiate to both arms, the jaw, or to the back. atypical women, diabetic individuals, and elderly individuals are more likely to present with atypical symptoms other than chest pain. women may present with back pain, shortness of breath, heartburn, nausea, and vomiting. heart disease in women goes undetected prior to a major cardiac event in up to 60 % of cases. among women who experience a heart attack, many do not have any prior chest pain. due to alterations in sensory pathways, diabetic and elderly individuals also may present without any chest pain and may have atypical symptoms similar to those seen in women. this type of ischemia is also known as silent ischemia. causes coronary artery disease ( cad ) occurs when fatty substances, known as plaques, adhere to the walls of coronary arteries supplying the heart, narrowing them and constricting blood flow, a process known as atherosclerosis, the most common cause of coronary ischemia. angina may start to occur when the vessel is 70 % occluded. lack of oxygen may also result in a myocardial infarction ( heart attack ). cad can be contracted over time. risk factors include a family history of cad, smoking, high blood pressure, diabetes, obesity, inactive lifestyle, mental
the overall physical effects and facial appearance of dwarfism with premature aging. other features and findings include : intrauterine growth retardation, congenital hip dislocations, winged scapulae ( shoulder blades ), pes planus ( fallen arches ), pseudoepiphyses of the second metacarpals ( upper bone of the fingers ), hypotelorism ( close - set eyes ), malformed ears, developmental delay, failure to thrive and abnormal electroencephalograph ( eeg ) readings. dental and orthodontal abnormalities in addition to maxillary hypoplasia and mandibular prognathism have also been observed in gerodermia osteodysplastica. including malocclusion of the dental arches ( the maxilla and mandible ), radiological findings in some cases have indicated significant overgrowth of the mandibular premolar and molar roots ; hypercementosis ( overproduction of cementum ) of the molars and maxillary incisors ; enlarged, funnel - shaped mandibular lingula ( spiny structures on the ramus of the mandible ) ; and a radiolucent effect on portions of many teeth, increasing their transparency to x - rays. genetics originally believed to be inherited in an x - linked recessive fashion, gerodermia osteodysplastica is now known to display strictly autosomal recessive inheritance. this means the defective gene responsible for the disorder is located on an autosome, and two copies of the defective gene ( one inherited from each parent ) are required in order to be born with the disorder. the parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive disorder both carry one copy of the defective gene, but usually do not experience any signs or symptoms of the disorder. it has been associated with scyl1bp1. diagnosis differential diagnosis many features of gerodermia osteodysplastica ( go ) and another autosomal recessive form of cutis laxa, wrinkly skin syndrome ( wss, ), are similar to such an extent that both disorders were believed to be variable phenotype
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Cullen's sign is seen in
A. Acute cholecystitis
B. Acute pancreatitis
C. Acute hemorrhagic pancreatitis
D. Blunt injury abdomen
Answer: | [
"Acute cholecystitis",
"Acute pancreatitis",
"Acute hemorrhagic pancreatitis",
"Blunt injury abdomen"
] | C | Signs indicative of retroperitoneal bleeding in severe pancreatitis Flank ecchymosis - Grey Turner sign Periumbilical ecchymosis- Cullen's sign Inguinal ecchymosis - Fox sign Ref: Sabiston 20th edition Pgno : 1527 |
qasc_6508 | qasc | <ctx>
##l populations ; diversity and population dynamics ; genetic transfers, influence of environmental factors community ecology and functioning processes : interactions between organisms and mineral or organic compounds ; involvement of such interactions in soil pathogenicity ; transformation of mineral and organic compounds, cycling of elements ; soil structuration complementary disciplinary approaches are necessarily utilized which involve molecular biology, genetics, ecophysiology, biogeography, ecology, soil processes, organic matter, nutrient dynamics and landscape ecology. bacteria bacteria are single - cell organisms and the most numerous denizens of agriculture, with populations ranging from 100 million to 3 billion in a gram. they are capable of very rapid reproduction by binary fission ( dividing into two ) in favourable conditions. one bacterium is capable of producing 16 million more in just 24 hours. most soil bacteria live close to plant roots and are often referred to as rhizobacteria. bacteria live in soil water, including the film of moisture surrounding soil particles, and some are able to swim by means of flagella. the majority of the beneficial soil - dwelling bacteria need oxygen ( and are thus termed aerobic bacteria ), whilst those that do not require air are referred to as anaerobic, and tend to cause putrefaction of dead organic matter. aerobic bacteria are most active in a soil that is moist ( but not saturated, as this will deprive aerobic bacteria of the air that they require ), and neutral soil ph, and where there is plenty of food ( carbohydrates and micronutrients from organic matter ) available. hostile conditions will not completely kill bacteria ; rather, the bacteria will stop growing and get into a dormant stage, and those individuals with pro - adaptive mutations may compete better in the new conditions. some gram - positive bacteria produce spores in order to wait for more favourable circumstances, and gram - negative bacteria get into a " nonculturable " stage. bacteria are colonized by persistent viral agents ( bacteriophages ) that determine gene word order in bacterial host. from the organic gardener's point of view, the important roles that bacteria play are : nitrification nitrification is a vital part of the nitrogen cycle, wherein certain bacteria ( which manufacture their own
in the bakery industry. apart from negative contributions of eps in biofilms, eps can also contribute to some beneficial functions. for example, b. subtilis has gained interest for its probiotic properties due to its biofilm which allows it to effectively maintain a favorable microenvironment in the gastrointestinal tract. in order to survive the passage through the upper gastrointestinal tract, b. subtilis produces an extracellular matrix that protects it from stressful environments such as the highly acidic environment in the stomach. in b. subtilis, the protein matrix component, tasa, and the exopolysaccharide have both been shown to be essential for effective plant - root colonization in arabidopsis and tomato plants. it was also suggested that tasa plays an important role in mediating interspecies aggregation with streptococci. ecology exopolysaccharides can facilitate the attachment of nitrogen - fixing bacteria to plant roots and soil particles, which mediates a symbiotic relationship. this is important for colonization of roots and the rhizosphere, which is a key component of soil food webs and nutrient cycling in ecosystems. it also allows for successful invasion and infection of the host plant. bacterial extracellular polymeric substances can aid in bioremediation of heavy metals as they have the capacity to adsorb metal cations, among other dissolved substances. this can be useful in the treatment of wastewater systems, as biofilms are able to bind to and remove metals such as copper, lead, nickel, and cadmium. the binding affinity and metal specificity of epss varies, depending on polymer composition as well as factors such as concentration and ph. in a geomicrobiological context, epss have been observed to affect precipitation of minerals, particularly carbonates. eps may also bind to and trap particles in biofilm suspensions, which can restrict dispersion and element cycling. sediment stability can be increased by eps, as it influences cohesion, permeability, and erosion of the sediment. there is evidence that the adhesion and metal - binding ability of eps affects mineral leaching rates in both environmental and industrial
bacteria ( ; : bacterium ) are ubiquitous, mostly free - living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. they constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on earth, and are present in most of its habitats. bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep biosphere of earth's crust. bacteria play a vital role in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients and the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. the nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of dead bodies ; bacteria are responsible for the putrefaction stage in this process. in the biological communities surrounding hydrothermal vents and cold seeps, extremophile bacteria provide the nutrients needed to sustain life by converting dissolved compounds, such as hydrogen sulphide and methane, to energy. bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. most bacteria have not been characterised and there are many species that cannot be grown in the laboratory. the study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology. humans and most other animals carry vast numbers ( approximately 1013 to 1014 ) of bacteria. most are in the gut, and there are many on the skin. most of the bacteria in and on the body are harmless or rendered so by the protective effects of the immune system, and many are beneficial, particularly the ones in the gut. however, several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause infectious diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy, tuberculosis, tetanus and bubonic plague. the most common fatal bacterial diseases are respiratory infections. antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections and are also used in farming, making antibiotic resistance a growing problem. bacteria are important in sewage treatment and the breakdown of oil spills, the production of cheese and yogurt through fermentation, the recovery of gold, palladium, copper and other metals in the mining sector, as well as in biotechnology, and the manufacture of antibiotics and other chemicals. once regarded as plants constituting the class schizomycetes ( " fission
involved in pollen development and fertilization. ca2 + transporters are essential for pollen tube growth. hence, a constant ca2 + gradient is maintained at the apex of pollen tube for elongation during the process of fertilization. similarly, cam is also essential at the pollen tube apex, where its primarily role involves the guidance of the pollen tube growth. interaction with microbes nodule formation ca2 + plays an important role in nodule formation in legumes. nitrogen is an essential element required in plants and many legumes, unable to fix nitrogen independently, pair symbiotically with nitrogen - fixing bacteria that reduce nitrogen to ammonia. this legume - rhizobium interaction establishment requires the nod factor that is produced by the rhizobium bacteria. the nod factor is recognized by the root hair cells that are involved in the nodule formation in legumes. ca2 + responses of varied nature are characterized to be involved in the nod factor recognition. there is a ca2 + flux at the tip of the root hair initially followed by repetitive oscillation of ca2 + in the cytosol and also ca2 + spike occurs around the nucleus. dmi3, an essential gene for nod factor signaling functions downstream of the ca2 + spiking signature, might be recognizing the ca2 + signature. further, several cam and cml genes in medicago and lotus are expressed in nodules. pathogen defense among the diverse range of defense strategies plants utilize against pathogens, ca2 + signaling is very common. free ca2 + levels in the cytoplasm increases in response to a pathogenic infection. ca2 + signatures of this nature usually activate the plant defense system by inducing defense - related genes and the hypersensitive cell death. cams, cmls and cam - binding proteins are some of the recently identified elements of the plant defense signaling pathways. several cml genes in tobacco, bean and tomato are responsive to pathogens. cml43 is a cam - related protein that, as isolated from apr134 gene in the disease - resistant leaves of arabidopsis for gene expression analysis, is rapidly induced when the leaves are inoculated with pseudo
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
plants roots associate with bacteria in where
A. growth
B. soil
C. moss
D. tissue
Answer: | [
"growth",
"soil",
"moss",
"tissue"
] | B | |
mmlu_aux_3789 | mmlu_auxiliary | <ctx>
##chemically different from the older regions, and that these differences related to igneous processes, not secondary processes like the interaction of water or ice with the surface of elysium in the past. " we determined that while there might have been water in this area in the past, the geochemical properties in the top meter throughout this volcanic province are indicative of igneous processes, " susko said. " we think levels of thorium and potassium here were depleted over time because of volcanic eruptions over billions of years. the radioactive elements were the first to go in the early eruptions. we are seeing changes in the mantle chemistry over time. " " long - lived volcanic systems with changing magma compositions are common on earth, but an emerging story on mars, " said james wray, study co - author and associate professor in the school of earth and atmospheric sciences at georgia tech. overall, these findings indicate that mars is a much more geologically complex body than originally thought, perhaps due to various loading effects on the mantle caused by the weight of giant volcanoes. for decades, we saw mars, as a lifeless rock, full of craters with a number of long inactive volcanoes. we had a very simple view of the red planet. finding a variety of igneous rocks demonstrates that mars has the potential for useful resource utilization and a capacity to sustain a human population on mars. " it's much easier to survive on a complex planetary body bearing the mineral products of complex geology than on a simpler body like the moon or asteroids. " much of the area near the volcanoes is covered with lava flows, some can even be shown approaching, then stopping upon reaching higher ground. ( see pictures below for examples ) sometimes when lava flows the top cools quickly into a solid crust. however, the lava below often still flows, this action breaks up the top layer making it very rough. such rough flow is called aa. research, published in january 2010, described the discovery of a vast single lava flow, the size of the state of oregon, that " was put in place turbulently over the span of several weeks at most. " this flow, near athabasca valles, is the youngest lava flow on mars. it is thought to be of late
of katabatic winds that spiral due to the coriolis effect. the seasonal frosting of areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1 - metre - thick slabs of dry ice above the ground. with the arrival of spring, sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming co2 builds up under a slab, elevating and ultimately rupturing it. this leads to geyser - like eruptions of co2 gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust. this process is rapid, observed happening in the space of a few days, weeks or months, a rate of change rather unusual in geology – especially for mars. the gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spiderweb - like pattern of radial channels under the ice, the process being the inverted equivalent of an erosion network formed by water draining through a single plughole. observations and findings of water evidence in 2004, opportunity detected the mineral jarosite. this forms only in the presence of acidic water, showing that water once existed on mars. the spirit rover found concentrated deposits of silica in 2007 that indicated wet conditions in the past, and in december 2011, the mineral gypsum, which also forms in the presence of water, was found on the surface by nasa's mars rover opportunity. it is estimated that the amount of water in the upper mantle of mars, represented by hydroxyl ions contained within martian minerals, is equal to or greater than that of earth at 50 – 300 parts per million of water, which is enough to cover the entire planet to a depth of. on 18 march 2013, nasa reported evidence from instruments on the curiosity rover of mineral hydration, likely hydrated calcium sulfate, in several rock samples including the broken fragments of " tintina " rock and " sutton inlier " rock as well as in veins and nodules in other rocks like " knorr " rock and " wernicke " rock. analysis using the rover's dan instrument provided evidence of subsurface water, amounting to as much as 4 % water content, down to a depth of, during the rover's traverse from the bradbury landing site to
tracts of vegetation. the person most responsible for popularizing this view of mars was percival lowell ( 1855 – 1916 ), who imagined a race of martians constructing a network of canals to bring water from the poles to the inhabitants at the equator. although generating tremendous public enthusiasm, lowell's ideas were rejected by most astronomers. the majority view of the scientific establishment at the time is probably best summarized by english astronomer edward walter maunder ( 1851 – 1928 ) who compared the climate of mars to conditions atop a peak on an arctic island where only lichen might be expected to survive. in the meantime, many astronomers were refining the tool of planetary spectroscopy in hope of determining the composition of the martian atmosphere. between 1925 and 1943, walter adams and theodore dunham at the mount wilson observatory tried to identify oxygen and water vapor in the martian atmosphere, with generally negative results. the only component of the martian atmosphere known for certain was carbon dioxide ( co2 ) identified spectroscopically by gerard kuiper in 1947. water vapor was not unequivocally detected on mars until 1963. the composition of the polar caps, assumed to be water ice since the time of cassini ( 1666 ), was questioned by a few scientists in the late 1800s who favored co2 ice, because of the planet's overall low temperature and apparent lack of appreciable water. this hypothesis was confirmed theoretically by robert leighton and bruce murray in 1966. today it is known that the winter caps at both poles are primarily composed of co2 ice, but that a permanent ( or perennial ) cap of water ice remains during the summer at the northern pole. at the southern pole, a small cap of co2 ice remains during summer, but this cap too is underlain by water ice. the final piece of the martian climate puzzle was provided by mariner 4 in 1965. grainy television pictures from the spacecraft showed a surface dominated by impact craters, which implied that the surface was very old and had not experienced the level of erosion and tectonic activity seen on earth. little erosion meant that liquid water had probably not played a large role in the planet's geomorphology for billions of years. furthermore, the variations in the radio signal from
and isidis ) and volcanic provinces ( e. g., elysium, olympus mons, tharsis montes, and alba patera ) lack magnetic signatures, but the younger noachian and hesperian volcanoes ( e. g., tyrrhenus mons and syrtis major ) have crustal remanence. mars lander observation the interior exploration using seismic investigations, geodesy and heat transport ( insight ) mission measured the crustal field at the insight landing site located in elysium planitia to be ~ 2 µt. this detailed ground - level data is an order of magnitude higher than satellite - based estimates of ~ 200 nt at the insight landing site. the source of this high magnetization is suggested to be noachian basement ( ~ 3. 9 ga ) beneath the early amazonian and hesperian flows ( ~ 3. 6 and 1. 5 ga ). paleomagnetism paleomagnetic evidence martian meteorites enable estimates of mars'paleofield based on the thermal remanent magnetization ( or trm ) ( i. e., the remanent magnetization acquired when the meteorite cooled below the curie temperature in the presence of the ambient magnetic field ). the thermal remanent magnetization of carbonates in meteorite alh84001 revealed that the early ( 4. 1 – 3. 9 ga ) martian magnetic field was ~ 50 µt, much higher than the modern field, suggesting that a martian dynamo was present until at least this time. younger ( ~ 1. 4 ga ) martian nakhlite meteorite miller range ( mil ) 03346 recorded a paleofield of only ~ 5 µt. however, given the possible source locations of the nakhlite meteorite, this paleointensity still suggests that the surface magnetization is stronger than the magnetic fields estimated from satellite measurements. the ~ 5 µt paleofield of this meteorite can be explained either by a late active dynamo or the field generated from lava flows emplaced in the absence of a late martian dynamo. martian meteorites as paleomagnetic recorders martian meteorites contain a wide range of magnetic minerals that can record ancient
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Mars Was Not Always Bitterly Cold Scientists at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) have reported evidence that Mars was warmer and wetter long ago than it is today. The Caltech scientists say they have directly _ the temperature of Mars four billion years ago. At least, they established the surface temperature on part of the planet at that time. The researchers say it is the first such evidence to be discovered and presented. The Caltech scientists say carbonate minerals formed on Mars at about eighteen degrees Celsius. They reached the finding after studying a meteorite that had its beginnings near the Martian surface. Today, the average temperature on Mars is sixty-three degrees below zero Celsius. The finding was reported on the website of the National Academy of Sciences. Caltech Assistant Professor Woody Fischer helped to prepare the report. He says eighteen degrees Celsius is not especially cold or hot. He says this makes the finding extremely interesting. Knowing the temperature can give scientists an idea of the climate on Mars long ago. It can also help them decide whether the planet had liquid water. Spacecraft orbiting Mars have shown what appear to be rivers, lakebeds and mineral deposits. These pictures suggest that, at one time, water did flow there. Mars Rover vehicles and other spacecraft have confirmed the information. Caltech Geology Professor John Eiler was another writer of the report. He says knowing the temperature of Mars from long ago provides valuable information. It shows that early in the planet's history, at least part of Mars could support a climate like that of Earth. The meteorite the scientists examined is one of the oldest known rocks in the world. It is called the Allan Hills meteorite. Its name came from the place in Antarctica where it was found in 1984. The meteorite is believed to have blown loose from the Mars' surface when another space rock struck its "home." How did Allan Hills meteorite get its name?
A. From its original place on Mars.
B. From where it was found on the earth.
C. From the name of the scientist who found it.
D. From the name of the aircraft that discovered it
Answer: | [
"From its original place on Mars.",
"From where it was found on the earth.",
"From the name of the scientist who found it.",
"From the name of the aircraft that discovered it"
] | B | null |
medmcqa_5576 | medmcqa | <ctx>
##emorrhage is associated with cerebral palsy, problems with cognition, and hydrocephalus. with improved technological advances in science and medicine, survival for preterm infants with this type of neurological disorder has improved and less preterm infants with germinal matrix haemorrhage have severe cerebral palsy. an estimated 15 % of preterm infants who survive develop cerebral palsy and 27 % of the infants who survive experience moderate to severe neurosensory deficits by the time they reach 18 – 24 months old. prognosis is very poor when ivh results from intracerebral hemorrhage related to high blood pressure and is even worse when hydrocephalus follows. it can result in dangerous increases in icp and can cause potentially fatal brain herniation. even independently, ivh can cause morbidity and mortality. first, intraventricular blood can lead to a clot in the csf conduits blocking its flow and leading to obstructive hydrocephalus which may quickly result in increased intracranial pressure and death. second, the breakdown products from the blood clot may generate an inflammatory response that damages the arachnoid granulations, inhibiting the regular reabsorption of csf and resulting in permanent communicating hydrocephalus. associated conditions brain contusions and subarachnoid hemorrhages are commonly associated with ivh. the bleeding can involve the anterior communicating artery or the posterior communicating artery. in both adults and infants, ivh can cause dangerous increases in icp, damage to the brain tissue, and hydrocephalus. epidemiology ivh has been reported to occur in approximately 25 % of infants who are born with a very low birth weight. in preterm infants, intraventricular haemorrhage and germinal matrix haemorrhage are the most widely reported neurological disorders. approximately 12, 000 infants each year are diagnosed with germinal matrix haemorrhage or intraventricular haemorrhage in the united states. research in 2002, a dutch retrospective study analysed cases where neonatologists had intervened and
the risk of venous rupture and hemorrhage. cerebral arteriovenous malformations in the brain have a 2 – 4 % chance of rupture each year. however, many arteriovenous malformations go unnoticed and are asymptomatic throughout a person's lifetime. a germinal matrix hemorrhage is bleeding into the brain of premature infants caused by the rupture of fragile blood vessels within the germinal matrix of premature babies. the germinal matrix is a highly vascularized area within an unborn infant's brain from which brain cells, including neurons and glial cells, originate. infants are at most risk to germinal matrix hemorrhages when they are born prematurely, before 32 weeks. the stresses exposed after birth, along with the fragile blood vessels, increase risk of hemorrhage. signs and symptoms include flaccid weakness, seizures, abnormal posturing, or irregular respiration. cadasil is an inherited disorder caused by mutations in the notch3 gene located on chromosome 19. notch3 codes for a transmembrane protein whose function is not well - known. however, the mutation causes accumulation of this protein within small to medium - sized blood vessels. this disease often presents in early adulthood with migraines, stroke, mood disturbances, and cognitive deterioration. mri shows white matter changes in the brain and also signs of repeated strokes. the diagnosis can be confirmed by gene testing. acquired acquired cerebrovascular diseases are those that are obtained throughout a person's life that may be preventable by controlling risk factors. the incidence of cerebrovascular disease increases as an individual ages. causes of acquired cerebrovascular disease include atherosclerosis, embolism, aneurysms, and arterial dissections. atherosclerosis leads to narrowing of blood vessels and less perfusion to the brain, and it also increases the risk of thrombosis, or a blockage of an artery, within the brain. major modifiable risk factors for atherosclerosis include : controlling these risk factors can reduce the incidence of atherosclerosis and
of these diseases can result in vascular dementia due to ischemic damage to the brain. signs and symptoms the most common presentation of cerebrovascular diseases is an acute stroke, which occurs when blood supply to the brain is compromised. symptoms of stroke are usually rapid in onset, and may include weakness of one side of the face or body, numbness on one side of the face or body, inability to produce or understand speech, vision changes, and balance difficulties. hemorrhagic strokes can present with a very severe, sudden headache associated with vomiting, neck stiffness, and decreased consciousness. symptoms vary depending on the location and the size of the area of involvement of the stroke. edema, or swelling, of the brain may occur which increases intracranial pressure and may result in brain herniation. a stroke may result in coma or death if it involves key areas of the brain. other symptoms of cerebrovascular disease include migraines, seizures, epilepsy, or cognitive decline. however, cerebrovascular disease may go undetected for years until an acute stroke occurs. in addition, patients with some rare congenital cerebrovascular diseases may begin to have these symptoms in childhood. causes congenital congenital diseases are medical conditions that are present at birth that may be associated with or inherited through genes. examples of congenital cerebrovascular diseases include arteriovenous malformations, germinal matrix hemorrhage, and cadasil ( cerebral autosomal - dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy ). arteriovenous malformations are abnormal tangles of blood vessels. usually, a capillary bed separates arteries from veins, which protects the veins from the higher blood pressures that occur in arteries. in arteriovenous malformations, arteries are directly connected to veins, which increases the risk of venous rupture and hemorrhage. cerebral arteriovenous malformations in the brain have a 2 – 4 % chance of rupture each year. however, many arteriovenous malformations go unnoticed and are asymptomatic throughout a
the most widely reported neurological disorders. approximately 12, 000 infants each year are diagnosed with germinal matrix haemorrhage or intraventricular haemorrhage in the united states. research in 2002, a dutch retrospective study analysed cases where neonatologists had intervened and drained csf by lumbar or ventricular punctures if ventricular width ( as shown on ultrasound ) exceeded the 97th centile as opposed to the 97th centile plus 4 mm. professors whitelaw's original cochrane review published in 2001 as well as evidence from previous randomised control trials indicated that interventions should be based on clinical signs and symptoms of ventricular dilatation. an international trial has instead looked an early ( 97th centile ) versus late ( 97th centile plus 4 mm ) for intervening and draining csf. drift has been tested in an international randomised clinical trial ; although it did not significantly lower the need for shunt surgery, severe cognitive disability at two years bayley ( mdi < 55 ) was significantly reduced. repeated lumbar punctures are used widely to reduce the effects in increased intracranial pressure and an alternative to ventriculoperitoneal ( vp ) shunt surgery that cannot be performed in case of intraventricular haemorrhage. the relative risk of repeated lumbar puncture is close to 1. 0, therefore it is not statistically therapeutic when compared to conservative management and does raise the risk of subsequent csf infection. references external links ultrasound pictures of germinal matrix ivh medpix image database neurotrauma
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Most common cause of intracranial haemorrhage is -
A. Sub arachnoid haemorrhage
B. Intracerebral haemorrhage
C. Subdural haemorrhage
D. Extradural haemorrhage
Answer: | [
"Sub arachnoid haemorrhage",
"Intracerebral haemorrhage",
"Subdural haemorrhage",
"Extradural haemorrhage"
] | B | |
qasc_2890 | qasc | <ctx>
have been used for work and transport from the first days of agriculture. animals such as the fruit fly drosophila melanogaster serve a major role in science as experimental models. animals have been used to create vaccines since their discovery in the 18th century. some medicines such as the cancer drug trabectedin are based on toxins or other molecules of animal origin. people have used hunting dogs to help chase down and retrieve animals, and birds of prey to catch birds and mammals, while tethered cormorants have been used to catch fish. poison dart frogs have been used to poison the tips of blowpipe darts. a wide variety of animals are kept as pets, from invertebrates such as tarantulas and octopuses, insects including praying mantises, reptiles such as snakes and chameleons, and birds including canaries, parakeets, and parrots all finding a place. however, the most kept pet species are mammals, namely dogs, cats, and rabbits. there is a tension between the role of animals as companions to humans, and their existence as individuals with rights of their own. a wide variety of terrestrial and aquatic animals are hunted for sport. symbolic uses animals have been the subjects of art from the earliest times, both historical, as in ancient egypt, and prehistoric, as in the cave paintings at lascaux. major animal paintings include albrecht durer's 1515 the rhinoceros, and george stubbs's horse portrait whistlejacket. insects, birds and mammals play roles in literature and film, such as in giant bug movies. animals including insects and mammals feature in mythology and religion. in both japan and europe, a butterfly was seen as the personification of a person's soul, while the scarab beetle was sacred in ancient egypt. among the mammals, cattle, deer, horses, lions, bats, bears, and wolves are the subjects of myths and worship. the signs of the western and chinese zodiacs are based on animals. see also animal coloration ethology fauna list of animal names lists of organisms by population notes references external links tree of life project animal diversity web – university of michigan's database of animals wildscreen arkive – multimedia database
animalia ) and the protozoa, single - celled organisms no longer considered animals. in modern times, the biological classification of animals relies on advanced techniques, such as molecular phylogenetics, which are effective at demonstrating the evolutionary relationships between taxa. humans make use of many animal species, such as for food ( including meat, milk, and eggs ), for materials ( such as leather and wool ), as pets, and as working animals including for transport. dogs have been used in hunting, as have birds of prey, while many terrestrial and aquatic animals were hunted for sports. nonhuman animals have appeared in art since the earliest times and are featured in mythology and religion. etymology the word " animal " comes from the latin, meaning'having breath ','having soul'or'living being '. the biological definition includes all members of the kingdom animalia. in colloquial usage, the term animal is often used to refer only to nonhuman animals. the term " metazoa " is derived from the ancient greek μετα ( meta, meaning " later " ) and ζωα ( zoia, plural of ζωον zoion, meaning animal ). characteristics animals have several characteristics that set them apart from other living things. animals are eukaryotic and multicellular. unlike plants and algae, which produce their own nutrients, animals are heterotrophic, feeding on organic material and digesting it internally. with very few exceptions, animals respire aerobically. all animals are motile ( able to spontaneously move their bodies ) during at least part of their life cycle, but some animals, such as sponges, corals, mussels, and barnacles, later become sessile. the blastula is a stage in embryonic development that is unique to animals, allowing cells to be differentiated into specialised tissues and organs. structure all animals are composed of cells, surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic glycoproteins. during development, the animal extracellular matrix forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganised, making the formation of complex structures possible. this may
in zoology, mammalogy is the study of mammals – a class of vertebrates with characteristics such as homeothermic metabolism, fur, four - chambered hearts, and complex nervous systems. mammalogy has also been known as " mastology, " " theriology, " and " therology. " the archive of number of mammals on earth is constantly growing, but is currently set at 6, 495 different mammal species including recently extinct. there are 5, 416 living mammals identified on earth and roughly 1, 251 have been newly discovered since 2006. the major branches of mammalogy include natural history, taxonomy and systematics, anatomy and physiology, ethology, ecology, and management and control. the approximate salary of a mammalogist varies from $ 20, 000 to $ 60, 000 a year, depending on their experience. mammalogists are typically involved in activities such as conducting research, managing personnel, and writing proposals. mammalogy branches off into other taxonomically - oriented disciplines such as primatology ( study of primates ), and cetology ( study of cetaceans ). like other studies, mammalogy is also a part of zoology which is also a part of biology, the study of all living things. research purposes mammalogists have stated that there are multiple reasons for the study and observation of mammals. knowing how mammals contribute or thrive in their ecosystems gives knowledge on the ecology behind it. mammals are often used in business industries, agriculture, and kept for pets. studying mammals habitats and source of energy has led to aiding in survival. the domestication of some small mammals has also helped discover several different diseases, viruses, and cures. mammalogist a mammalogist studies and observes mammals. in studying mammals, they can observe their habitats, contributions to the ecosystem, their interactions, and the anatomy and physiology. a mammalogist can do a broad variety of things within the realm of mammals. a mammalogist on average can make roughly $ 58, 000 a year. this depends on employer and state. history the first people recorded to have researched mammals were the ancient greeks with records on mammals that were not even native to greece and others that were. aristotle was one of the first to recognize whales and
walnuts, chestnuts, and acorns. the dormice were also caught from the wild in autumn when they were fattest, and either roasted and dipped into honey or baked while stuffed with a mixture of pork, pine nuts, and other flavorings. researchers found that in amazonia, where large mammals were scarce, pacas and common agoutis accounted for around 40 percent of the annual game taken by the indigenous people, but in forested areas where larger mammals were abundant, these rodents constituted only about 3 percent of the take. guinea pigs are used in the cuisine of cuzco, peru, in dishes such as cuy al horno, baked guinea pig. the traditional andean stove, known as a qoncha or a fogon, is made from mud and clay reinforced with straw and hair from animals such as guinea pigs. in peru, there are at any time 20 million domestic guinea pigs, which annually produce 64 million edible carcasses. this animal is an excellent food source since the flesh is 19 % protein. in the united states, mostly squirrels, but also muskrats, porcupines, and groundhogs are eaten by humans. the navajo people ate prairie dog baked in mud, while the paiute ate gophers, squirrels, and rats. animal testing rodents are used widely as model organisms in animal testing. albino mutant rats were first used for research in 1828 and later became the first animal domesticated for purely scientific purposes. nowadays, the house mouse is the most commonly used laboratory rodent, and in 1979 it was estimated that fifty million were used annually worldwide. they are favored because of their small size, fertility, short gestation period and ease of handling and because they are susceptible to many of the conditions and infections that afflict humans. they are used in research into genetics, developmental biology, cell biology, oncology and immunology. guinea pigs were popular laboratory animals until the late 20th century ; about 2. 5 million guinea pigs were used annually in the united states for research in the 1960s, but that total decreased to about 375, 000 by the mid - 1990s. in 2007, they constituted about 2 % of all laboratory animals. guinea pigs played a
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Mammals are
A. animal transport
B. Heterotrophs
C. parasites
D. fur and fat
Answer: | [
"animal transport",
"Heterotrophs",
"parasites",
"fur and fat"
] | B | |
aquarat_47846 | aquarat | <ctx>
birthday problems first match a related question is, as people enter a room one at a time, which one is most likely to be the first to have the same birthday as someone already in the room? that is, for what is maximum? the answer is 20 — if there is a prize for first match, the best position in line is 20th. same birthday as you in the birthday problem, neither of the two people is chosen in advance. by contrast, the probability that someone in a room of other people has the same birthday as a particular person ( for example, you ) is given by and for general by in the standard case of, substituting gives about 6. 1 %, which is less than 1 chance in 16. for a greater than 50 % chance that one person in a roomful of people has the same birthday as you, would need to be at least 253. this number is significantly higher than : the reason is that it is likely that there are some birthday matches among the other people in the room. number of people with a shared birthday for any one person in a group of n people the probability that he or she shares his birthday with someone else is, as explained above. the expected number of people with a shared ( non - unique ) birthday can now be calculated easily by multiplying that probability by the number of people ( n ), so it is : ( this multiplication can be done this way because of the linearity of the expected value of indicator variables ). this implies that the expected number of people with a non - shared ( unique ) birthday is : similar formulas can be derived for the expected number of people who share with three, four, etc. other people. number of people until every birthday is achieved the expected number of people needed until every birthday is achieved is called the coupon collector's problem. it can be calculated by, where is the th harmonic number. for 365 possible dates ( the birthday problem ), the answer is 2365. near matches another generalization is to ask for the probability of finding at least one pair in a group of people with birthdays within calendar days of each other, if there are equally likely birthdays. the number of people required so that the probability
how many buttons ( one, two, or three ) they must press. one button triggers a blast of toothpaste into the contestant's face and eliminates them from the game. you bet your wife : in this game, two teams of spouses or fiances compete against each other. one partner from each couple is suspended from the ceiling in a harness. the other two partners do an auction - style bid on how many answers their partners can give in a given category ( e. g., " national brands of toothpaste " ) within the 30 - second time frame. when one of the partners on the ground issues a challenge, the other team's suspended partner must give the required number of responses. there is no penalty for incorrect answers. giving the required number of responses earns that team one point, while the opposing team's suspended partner gets dropped. if the challenged team fails, the corresponding spouse is dropped. the first team to earn three points wins and chooses one member of the pair to advance to the next round. semifinal games blindfolded musical chairs : five contestants, who won the preliminary games, play this game and are blindfolded. the contestants dance around until the music stops and must find a randomly placed stool to sit on to stay in the game. grant will press a button to determine where the chairs will appear on the dancefloor. the last contestant to not find a seat is eliminated, and others move on to know or go. know or go : the winners of the four preliminary games stand on a row of trap doors, and take turns answering questions. an incorrect answer results in the contestant being eliminated from the game and dropped through the trap door, sliding down a chute that empties below the stage. the last contestant standing advances to the hot hands game. final games hot hands : the contestant has 30 seconds to identify the faces of ten celebrities that fit a certain category. after identifying a celebrity, the contestant must press a button to move on to the next face. contestants may pass if they are unsure but will need to wait three seconds until the next face appears. contestants earn an escalating amount of money based on the number of faces they correctly identify, as
| 23 | | 50. 7 % | - | align = right | 30 | | 70. 6 % | - | align = right | 40 | | 89. 1 % | - | align = right | 50 | | 97. 0 % | - | align = right | 60 | | 99. 4 % | - | align = right | 70 | | 99. 9 % | - | align = right | 75 | | 99. 97 % | - | align = right | 100 | | % | - | align = right | 200 | | % | - | align = right | 300 | | ( 100 − ) % | - | align = right | 350 | | ( 100 − ) % | - | align = right | 365 | | ( 100 − ) % | - | align = right | ≥ 366 | | 100 % | } approximations the taylor series expansion of the exponential function ( the constant ) provides a first - order approximation for for : to apply this approximation to the first expression derived for, set. thus, then, replace with non - negative integers for each term in the formula of until, for example, when, the first expression derived for can be approximated as therefore, an even coarser approximation is given by which, as the graph illustrates, is still fairly accurate. according to the approximation, the same approach can be applied to any number of " people " and " days ". if rather than 365 days there are, if there are persons, and if, then using the same approach as above we achieve the result that if is the probability that at least two out of people share the same birthday from a set of available days, then : simple exponentiation the probability of any two people not having the same birthday is. in a room containing n people, there are pairs of people, i. e. events. the probability of no two people sharing the same birthday can be approximated by assuming that these events are independent and hence by multiplying their probability together. being independent would be equivalent to picking with replacement, any pair of people in the world, not just in a room. in short can be multiplied by itself times, which gives us since this is the probability
give the expected number of days. for example, the expected number of days which are shared ; i. e. which are at least two ( i. e. not zero and not one ) people's birthday is : number of people who repeat a birthday the probability that the th integer randomly chosen from will repeat at least one previous choice equals above. the expected total number of times a selection will repeat a previous selection as such integers are chosen equals this can be seen to equal the number of people minus the expected number of different birthdays. average number of people to get at least one shared birthday in an alternative formulation of the birthday problem, one asks the average number of people required to find a pair with the same birthday. if we consider the probability function pr [ people have at least one shared birthday ], this average is determining the mean of the distribution, as opposed to the customary formulation, which asks for the median. the problem is relevant to several hashing algorithms analyzed by donald knuth in his book the art of computer programming. it may be shown that if one samples uniformly, with replacement, from a population of size, the number of trials required for the first repeated sampling of some individual has expected value, where the function has been studied by srinivasa ramanujan and has asymptotic expansion : with days in a year, the average number of people required to find a pair with the same birthday is, somewhat more than 23, the number required for a 50 % chance. in the best case, two people will suffice ; at worst, the maximum possible number of people is needed ; but on average, only 25 people are required an analysis using indicator random variables can provide a simpler but approximate analysis of this problem. for each pair ( i, j ) for k people in a room, we define the indicator random variable xij, for, by let x be a random variable counting the pairs of individuals with the same birthday. for, if, the expected number of pairs of individuals with the same birthday is ≈ 1. 0356. therefore, we can expect at least one matching pair with at least 28 people. an informal demonstration of the problem can be made from the list of prime ministers of
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
In a room there are 10 people. Each shake hands with every other person. How many hand shakes?
A. A)50
B. B)62
C. C)75
D. D)45
Answer: | [
"A)50",
"B)62",
"C)75",
"D)45"
] | D | Any pair of person = 10C2 = 10!/8!*2! = 45
Answer is D |
medmcqa_4494 | medmcqa | <ctx>
one dopamine precursor, levodopa, was the first drug approved specifically for parkinson's disease. drt increases dopamine in the brain to optimal levels in order to return motor skills, impulsivity, and decision making to normal function. although drt can improve motor skills and decision making in patients with mild to severe parkinson's disease, an overdose of dopamine is associated with impaired impulsivity ( see next section ). the overdose hypothesis dopamine deficiency is more severe in the dorsal frontostriatal circuit than in the ventral frontostriatal circuit. however, drt does not target these areas differently, and delivers the same amount of dopamine to both areas of the brain. drt medication can increase dopamine in the dorsal frontostriatal circuit to an optimal level, leading to an improvement in task - switching activities and working memory. simultaneously, the ventral frontostriatal circuit will experience an overdose of dopamine that will lead to increased impulsive behavior. problems controlling impulsivity due to drt drugs have been shown to induce impulsive forms of behavior, such as compulsive gambling. although drt drugs can worsen impulse control, a lack of drt drugs does not necessarily result in better impulse control. levels of improvement depend on the severity of psychiatric disorder. early studies of dopamine therapy in schizophrenia in patients with schizophrenia, evidence indicates abnormal dopamine receptor d2 structure, as well as a reduced link between dopamine receptor d1 and receptor d2. studies have shown that targeting the d1 receptors in the prefrontal cortex can improve the cognitive functioning of schizophrenic patients. however, adverse effects of dopamine therapy may occur, including difficulty with impulse control. more research is needed to fully understand the effects of dopamine therapy in patients with schizophrenia. references dopamine releasing agents medical treatments
##mia during anticipation and receipt of reward, although this finding is extremely inconsistent. these abnormalities may be related to circadian rhythm dysfunction in bipolar, including increased sleep latency, evening preference and poor sleep quality, as the neural systems responsible for both processes are functionally linked. a few lines of evidence suggest that elevated dopamine signaling, possibly due to reduced functionality in dat, underlie abnormalities in reward function. dopaminergic drugs such as l - dopa can precipitate mania, and drugs that attenuate dopaminergic signaling extracellularly ( antipsychotics ) and intracellularly ( lithium ) can be efficacious in treating mania. while a large body of translational evidence exists to support dat hypofunction, in vivo evidence is limited to one study reporting reduced dat binding in the caudate. neuroimaging structural in a review of structural neuroimaging in bipolar disorder, strakowski proposed dysfunction in an iterative emotional network called the " anterior limbic network ", composed of the thalamus, globus pallidus, striatum, ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, acc, amygdala, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and cerebellar vermis. structural imaging studies frequently find abnormalities in these regions which are putatively involved in emotional and cognitive functions that are disrupted in bipolar disorder. for example, while structural neuroimaging studies do not always find abnormal pfc volume in bipolar disorder, when they do, pfc volume is reduced. furthermore, reduced pfc volume is associated with response inhibition deficits and duration of illness. when the pfc at large is not examined and the focus is narrowed to the orbitofrontal cortex and medial prefrontal cortex, results more consistently observed reductions, although not in bipolar youth. the sgacc volume is observed to be reduced not only in bipolar disorder, but also in unipolar disorder, as well as people with a family history of affective disorders. enlargement of the striatum and globus pallidus are commonly found, and although some studies
and socioeconomic factors. references for many of these environmental risk factors have been collected in an online database. there may be an association between non - celiac gluten sensitivity and schizophrenia in a small proportion of people, though large randomized controlled trials and epidemiological studies will be needed before such an association can be firmly established. withdrawal of gluten from the diet is an inexpensive measure which may improve the symptoms in a small ( ≤3 % ) number of people with schizophrenia. a meta - analysis found that high neuroticism increases the risk of psychosis and schizophrenia. several long - term studies found that individuals born with congenital visual impairment do not develop schizophrenia, suggesting a protective effect. the effects of estrogen in schizophrenia have been studied in view of the association between the onset of menopause in women who develop schizophrenia at this time. add - on estrogen therapies have been studied and evaluated for their effect on the symptoms experienced. raloxifene as an adjunctive agent has shown positive results. findings have supported the hypothesis that schizophrenia is associated with alterations of the tryptophane - kynurenine metabolic pathway due to activation of specific sections of the immune system. the relevance of some auto - antibodies that act against the nmdar and vgkc is being studied. current estimates suggest that between 1. 5 - 6. 5 % of patients have these antibodies in their sera. preliminary results have shown that these patients can be treated with immunotherapy such as ivig or plasma exchange and steroids, in addition to antipsychotic medication ( s ), which can lead to a reduction in symptoms. childhood antecedents in general, the antecedents of schizophrenia are subtle and those who will go on to develop schizophrenia do not form a readily identifiable subgroup – which would lead to identification of a specific cause. average group differences from the norm may be in the direction of superior as well as inferior performance. overall, birth cohort studies have indicated subtle nonspecific behavioral features, some evidence for psychotic - like experiences ( particularly hallucinations ), and various cognitive antecedents. there have been some inconsistencies in the particular domains of functioning identified and
. darrah, j., stefani, m. r., moghaddam, b. ( 2008 ) interaction of n - methyl - d - aspartate ( nmda ) and group 5 metabotropic glutamate ( mglu5 ) receptors on behavioral flexibility using a novel operant set - shift paradigm. behavioral pharmacology, 19 : 225 - 234. moghaddam, b. ( 2004 ) targeting metabotropic glutamate receptors for treatment of cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia. psychopharmacology, 174 : 39 - 44. moghaddam, b. ( 2002 ) stress activation of glutamate neurotransmission in the prefrontal cortex : implications for dopamine - associated psychiatric disorders. biological psychiatry, 51 : 775 - 787. moghaddam, b. ( 1993 ) stress preferentially activates extraneuronal levels of excitatory amino acids in the prefrontal cortex : a comparison to hippocampus and basal ganglia. journal of neurochemistry, 60 : 1650 - 1657. moghaddam, b., roth, r. h., bunney, b. s. ( 1990 ) characterization of dopamine release in the rat prefrontal cortex as assessed by in vivo microdialysis : comparison to the striatum. neuroscience, 36 : 669 - 676. moghaddam, b., adams, r. n. ( 1987 ) regional differences in resting extracellular potassium levels of rat brain. brain research, 406 : 337 - 340. moghaddam, b., schenk, j. o., stewart, w. b., hansen, a. j. ( 1987 ) temporal relationship between neurotransmitter release and ion flux during spreading depression and anoxia. canadian journal of physiology and pharmacology, 65 : 1105 - 1110. media coverage huffington post, 22 march 2016, “ anxiety could be the reason you made a bad decision. ” psychology today, 17 march 2016, “ how does anxiety short circuit the decision - making process? ” forbes, 29
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Extrapyramidal side effects of antipsychotics -a) Dystoniab) Akathisiac) Seizuresd) Diarrheae) Parkinsonism
A. abc
B. bcd
C. abe
D. acd
Answer: | [
"abc",
"bcd",
"abe",
"acd"
] | C | Extrapyramidal side effects of antipsychotics
Extrapyramidal side effects are the major dose limiting side effects of antipsychotics.
Maximum extrapyramidal side effects are seen with haloperidol.
Least extrapyramidal side effects are seen with clozapine (amongst all antipsychotics).
Among typical antipsychotics, thioridazine has least extrapyromidal side effects (EPS).
Amongst atypical antipsychotics, resperidone has maximum tendency to cause EPS.
Different syndromes are : Parkinsonism, acute muscular dystonia, akathisia, malignant neuroleptic syndrome, tardive dyskinesia, rabbit syndrome. |
mmlu_aux_3196 | mmlu_auxiliary | <ctx>
pollutants near highways may be higher due to increased traffic volumes. therefore, the risk of exposure to elevated levels of air pollutants from a highway may be considerable, and further magnified when highways have traffic congestion. new highways can also cause habitat fragmentation, encourage urban sprawl and allow human intrusion into previously untouched areas, as well as ( counterintuitively ) increasing congestion, by increasing the number of intersections. they can also reduce the use of public transport, indirectly leading to greater pollution. high - occupancy vehicle lanes are being added to some newer / reconstructed highways in the united states and other countries around the world to encourage carpooling and mass - transit. these lanes help reduce the number of cars on the highway and thus reduces pollution and traffic congestion by promoting the use of carpooling in order to be able to use these lanes. however, they tend to require dedicated lanes on a highway, which makes them difficult to construct in dense urban areas where they are the most effective. to address habitat fragmentation, wildlife crossings have become increasingly popular in many countries. wildlife crossings allow animals to safely cross human - made barriers like highways. road traffic safety road traffic safety describes the safety performance of roads and streets, and methods used to reduce the harm ( deaths, injuries, and property damage ) on the highway system from traffic collisions. it includes the design, construction and regulation of the roads, the vehicles used on them and the training of drivers and other road - users. a report published by the world health organization in 2004 estimated that some 1. 2 million people were killed and 50 million injured on the roads around the world each year and was the leading cause of death among children 10 – 19 years of age. the report also noted that the problem was most severe in developing countries and that simple prevention measures could halve the number of deaths. for reasons of clear data collection, only harm involving a road vehicle is included. a person tripping with fatal consequences or dying for some unrelated reason on a public road is not included in the relevant statistics. statistics the united states has the world's largest network of highways, including both the interstate highway system and the united states numbered highway system. at least one of these networks is
structural connectivity ( and thus promoting functional connectivity ) by implementing proper wildlife corridors that facilitate easy movement between habitat patches. the usage of green infrastructure that is connected to natural habitats has been shown to reap greater biodiversity benefits than gi implemented in areas far from natural habitats. gi close to natural areas may also increase functional connectivity in natural environments. roadkill mitigation in the united states, roadkill takes the lives of hundreds of thousands to hundreds of millions of mammals, birds and amphibians each year. roadkill mortality has detrimental effects on the persistence probability, abundance and genetic diversity of wildlife populations ( more so than reduced movement through habitat patches ). roadkill also has an effect on driver safety. if green areas cannot be reserved, the presence of wildlife habitats in close proximity to urban roads must be addressed. the optimal situation would be to avoid constructing roads next to these natural habitats, but other preventative measures can be pursued to reduce animal mortality. one way these effects could be mitigated is through implementation of wildlife fencing in prioritized areas. many countries utilize underpasses and overpasses combined with wildlife fencing to reduce roadkill mortality in an attempt to restore habitat connectivity. it is unrealistic to try to fence entire road networks because of financial constraints. therefore, areas in which the highest rates of mortality occur should be focused on. indigenous knowledge urban sprawl is one of many ways that indigenous people's land is taken and developed in cities of the global north, thus the intimate knowledge of the native area ( ecology ) is often lost due to the effects of colonization or because the land has been majorly altered. urban development occurs around areas where indigenous peoples lived as these areas are easy for transport and the natural environmental is fruitful. when developing areas of urban land, consideration should go towards the intimate levels of knowledge held by indigenous peoples and the biocultural and linguistic diversity of the place. urban ecology follows western science frameworks and compartmentalizes nature. urban ecology has the opportunity to be viewed in an interconnected and holistic way, through " two - eyed seeing " and be inclusive of the traditional ecological knowledge held by the local indigenous peoples of the area. urban restoration ecology would be enriched by partnerships with the local indigenous
numbers of deaths were lower near underpasses. this cannot be said about all animals. some have smaller home ranges so they were not inclined to travel to underpasses to cross the road. underpass would most likely benefit larger mammals such as bears, deer, and cougars. underpasses were seen to lower mortality rates and increase local species ability to adapt to a habitat along a major road. recycling materials removed from a road can be reused in construction within the same project or in other locations. road construction can also use waste materials from other industries. asphalt pavement is one of the most recycled materials in the united states. it is estimated that over 80 % of asphalt pavement removed from roadways is reused as construction aggregate. it can be mixed into new pavement or used as a subbase or fill material. similarly, concrete from road or building demolition can be an excellent source of aggregate. common examples of waste products used in road building include coal fly ash ( used to make concrete stronger ), asphalt shingles and shredded tires ( used in asphalt pavement ), ground glass and steel mill slag ( used as aggregates ). in 2012, us asphalt plants used an estimated 68. 3 million tons of reclaimed asphalt pavement, 1. 86 million tons of recycled asphalt shingles, and over 1 million tons of other recycled materials to produce new asphalt. see also acoustic ecology anthropocene congestion pricing environmental effects of cars environmental effects of transport environmental effects of trucks habitat fragmentation low - emission zone motor vehicle emissions roads as extraction route for mines population fragmentation second - hand vehicle dumping railroad ecology rubberized asphalt synanthrope transport and the environment wildlife crossing wildland - urban interface references landscape ecology
as well as video games where players control an animal that crosses roads to avoid becoming roadkill, such as frogger and crossy road''. see also bird strike bushmeat deer – vehicle collisions estray habitat conservation habitat destruction habitat fragmentation moose test motor vehicle fatality rate in u. s. by year tree squirrel as roadkill and traffic hazards wildlife wildlife corridor further reading references external links roadkill observation system in the us states of california and maine " the road lab " roadkill observation project in the united kingdom map road kill in ireland just because it's in slow motion doesn't mean you can stop it - joy hunsberger – an artist who has been photographing roadkill as a form of ancestor worship since 1997 roadkill prevention in the northern beaches of sydney australia hints for the highway, what drivers can do – prevention tips from wildlife collision prevention program of british columbia conservation foundation a guide to road ecology in ontario – 2010 report by ontario road ecology group, toronto zoo caution : animals crossing – canada safety council prevention tips including engineering solutions srazenazver. cz - roadkill observation system in the czech republic kde + software - freeware software for roadkill's hotspots ( clusters ) identification road transport meat wildlife animal death transport and the environment ecological connectivity road hazards articles containing video clips
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Why did the chicken cross the road? To get to the other side. Most people know this joke. But recently, some people have been much more worried about how the grizzly bear and mountain lion can cross the road. " Millions of animals die each year on the U. S. roads, " the Federal Highway Administration reports. In fact, only about 80 ocelots , an endangered wild cat, exist in the U. S. today. The main reason? Roadkill. "Eco-passages" may help animals cross the road without being hit by cars. They are paths both over and under roads. " These ecopassages can be extremely useful,so that wildlife can avoid road accidents ," said Jodi Hilty of the Wildlife Protection Society. But do animals actually use the eco-passages? The answer is yes. Paul Beier of Northern Arizona University found foot marks left by mountain lions on an eco-passage that went under a highway. This showed that the lions used the passage. Builders of eco-passages try to make them look like a natural part of an area by planting trees on and around them. Animals seem to be catching on. Animals as different as salamanders and grizzly bears are using the bridges and underpasses. The next time you visit a park or drive through an area with a lot of wildlife, look around. You might see an animal over-pass ! When the writer says that animals seem "to be catching on" , he means _ .
A. animals begin to realize the danger on the road
B. animals begin to learn to use eco-passages
C. animals are crossing the road in groups
D. animals are becoming safer
Answer: | [
"animals begin to realize the danger on the road",
"animals begin to learn to use eco-passages",
"animals are crossing the road in groups",
"animals are becoming safer"
] | B | null |
arc_easy_1267 | arc_easy | <ctx>
aquatic animals. reduced algae growth therefore impacts oxygen and food availability for the entire food chain. climate change climate change - induced sea - level rise may negatively impact primary production and the food chain, but may also drown the ems - dollard system, so pilot sedimentation projects are being executed in the estuary. the aim is to trap silt particles on kwelders, which are land areas covered with vegetation that lie outside of the embankments. this can be done by placing willow groynes, wooden posts connected with branches, in the ground along the kwelder, slowing down the water and encouraging sedimentation, which may eventually create new land. another way in which silt sedimentation is stimulated in the ems - dollard estuary is by the construction of double dikes. the area in between the dikes is filled with water by a controlled culvert, where silt can settle more easily due to low flow or stagnant water conditions. the settled silt can be used to make clay which is used to strengthen and raise dikes in the area. wulan delta, indonesia the wulan delta is located in the demak district, northern java, indonesia. northern java's deltaic shorelines suffer from severe coastal erosion. more than 3 kilometres of the demak shoreline has already been lost to the sea. the main causes of coastal erosion are the conversion of mangrove forests to aquaculture, land reclamation for coastal infrastructure, and groundwater extraction causing land subsidence. mangrove restoration has been proposed as a strategy to halt coastal erosion in the district of demak. solely replanting mangroves in the area was not possible, because the wave exposure, submersion time and sediment conditions were no longer optimal. instead, a strategy similar to the willow groynes in the ems - dollard estuary was implemented. semi - permeable barriers were built along the demak coast using local materials such as bamboo, twigs and other brushwood. these structures let sea and river water pass through, dampen waves, capture sediment and create sheltered, low - energy conditions near the shoreline for sediment accretion. the main idea behind this strategy is that mangroves seeds will colonise the area naturally when the shore bed
port area ( ) is located on reclaimed land to the south of the lingang industrial area and north of the duliujian ( ) river. it includes the docks of the southern section of the lingang economic area, and will have its own channel. gaoshaling area will focus on heavy equipment handling and other heavy industrial cargo. the nangang port area ( ) is being built on the reclaimed land of the teda nangang industrial zone ( 天 区 南 区 ), south of the duliujian river and north of the ziya river. it will focus at first on petrochemical goods. the first trial wharf opened in 2011. geophysical setting geology the coastal area of tianjin municipality prior to development was dominated by mudflats, salt marshes ( and salterns ), and coastal shallows. this littoral zone is wide and slopes gently : the 0 m isobath ( the intertidal flats ) extends to 3 – 8 km from shore at a slope of 0. 71 – 1. 28 %, the −5 m isobath extends 14 – 18 km from shore, and the −10 m isobath reaches 22 – 36 km from shore. these features make deep water navigation dependent on extensive dredging, but it also means that land reclamation is a cost - effective option for construction. tianjin port is thus by necessity largely man - made through dredging and reclamation. soil geology : as it is largely built on man - made surfaces, tianjin port ’ s engineering geology is fairly regular : a layer of artificial fill from + 4. 6 m to + 2. 0 m of elevation. on older parts of the port, this layer was placed by jetting dredged material, which made the dredged silty clay finer. more recent construction uses the vacuum preloading method, which results in better compacted surfaces. a layer of marine deposits of silt and silty clay interspersed with sand, of recent date ( ~ 800 years bp ). it is around 15 m thick, highly waterlogged, and considered a risk to liquefy during an earthquake. a layer of alluvial deposit of the holocene estuary
beach cleaning or clean - up is the process of removing solid litter, dense chemicals, and organic debris deposited on a beach or coastline by the tide, local visitors, or tourists. humans pollute beaches with materials such as plastic bottles and bags, plastic straws, fishing gear, cigarette filters, six - pack rings, surgical masks and many other items that often lead to environmental degradation. every year hundreds of thousands of volunteers comb beaches and coastlines around the world to clean this debris. these materials are also called “ marine debris ” or " marine pollution " and their quantity has been increasing due to anthropocentric activities. there are some major sources of beach debris such as beach users, oceans, sea drifts, and river flow. many beach users leave their litter behind on the beaches after activities. also, marine debris or chemicals such as raw oil drift from oceans or seas and accumulate on beaches. additionally, many rivers bring some cities'trashes to beaches. these pollutants harm marine life and ecology, human health, and coastal tourism. hartley et al. ’ s ( 2015 ) study shows that environmental education is important to eliminate many beach pollutants on beaches and the marine environment. marine debris there are two causes of the degradation of marine ecology and marine debris : the direct forces ( population growth, technological development, and economic growth ) and proximity forces ( land transformation and industrial processes ). we can think of the direct forces as underlying causes of why we consume an excessive amount of goods by industry process. the excessive consumption of goods causes marine debris because the goods have been packaged by manufactured cheap non - recycle materials such as plastic. solid waste plastics cannot decompose easily in nature and their decomposition process takes thousands of years to million years but plastic breaks down into continuously smaller pieces ( > 5 mm ) forming that is called micro - plastics. thus, such solid waste products are called marine debris that can be seen all through coastlines and on many beaches through the world. there can be many sources of marine debris such as land - based, marine - based, and other anthropocentric activities. million tons of land - based waste products such as plastics, papers, woods, and metals end up
" cracks " or " vents " thousands of kilometers long. these underwater mountain ranges are known as mid - ocean ridges. other seabed environments include hydrothermal vents, cold seeps, and shallow areas. marine life is abundant in the deep sea around hydrothermal vents. large deep sea communities of marine life have been discovered around black and white smokers — vents emitting chemicals toxic to humans and most vertebrates. this marine life receives its energy both from the extreme temperature difference ( typically a drop of 150 degrees ) and from chemosynthesis by bacteria. brine pools are another seabed feature, usually connected to cold seeps. in shallow areas, the seabed can host sediments created by marine life such as corals, fish, algae, crabs, marine plants and other organisms. human impact exploration the seabed has been explored by submersibles such as alvin and, to some extent, scuba divers with special equipment. hydrothermal vents were discovered by an underwater camera platform by researchers in 1977. in recent years satellite measurements of ocean surface topography show very clear maps of the seabed, and these satellite - derived maps are used extensively in the study and exploration of the ocean floor. plastic pollution in 2020 scientists created what may be the first scientific estimate of how much microplastic currently resides in earth's seafloor, after investigating six areas of ~ 3 km depth ~ 300 km off the australian coast. they found the highly variable microplastic counts to be proportionate to plastic on the surface and the angle of the seafloor slope. by averaging the microplastic mass per cm3, they estimated that earth's seafloor contains ~ 14 million tons of microplastic – about double the amount they estimated based on data from earlier studies – despite calling both estimates " conservative " as coastal areas are known to contain much more microplastic pollution. these estimates are about one to two times the amount of plastic thought – per jambeck et al., 2015 – to currently enter the oceans annually. exploitation in art and culture some children's play songs include elements such as " there's a hole at the bottom of the sea ", or " a sailor went to sea... but all
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Which is a quick process that can form new land near an ocean?
A. earthquake
B. landslide
C. volcano erupting
D. weathering from waves
Answer: | [
"earthquake",
"landslide",
"volcano erupting",
"weathering from waves"
] | C | |
medmcqa_743 | medmcqa | <ctx>
it then creates fighter cells that attack the parasite / virus ; literally, causing a war within the body. a virus can affect any part of the body causing a wide range of illnesses such as the flu, the common cold, and sexually transmitted diseases. the flu is an airborne virus that travels through tiny droplets and is formally known as influenza. parasites travel through the air and attack the human respiratory system. people that are initially infected with this virus pass infection on by normal day to day activity such as talking and sneezing. when a person comes in contact with the virus, unlike the common cold, the flu virus affects people almost immediately. symptoms of this virus are very similar to the common cold but much worse. body aches, sore throat, headache, cold sweats, muscle aches and fatigue are among the many symptoms accompanied by the virus. a viral infection in the upper respiratory tract results in the common cold. with symptoms like sore throat, sneezing, small fever, and a cough, the common cold is usually harmless and tends to clear up within a week or so. the common cold is also a virus that is spread through the air but can also be passed through direct contact. this infection takes a few days to develop symptoms ; it is a gradual process unlike the flu. applications of microbial genetics microbes are ideally suited for biochemical and genetics studies and have made huge contributions to these fields of science such as the demonstration that dna is the genetic material, that the gene has a simple linear structure, that the genetic code is a triplet code, and that gene expression is regulated by specific genetic processes. jacques monod and francois jacob used escherichia coli, a type of bacteria, in order to develop the operon model of gene expression, which lay down the basis of gene expression and regulation. furthermore, the hereditary processes of single - celled eukaryotic microorganisms are similar to those in multi - cellular organisms allowing researchers to gather information on this process as well. another bacterium which has greatly contributed to the field of genetics is thermus aquaticus, which is a bacterium that tolerates high temperatures. from this microbe scientists isolated the enzyme taq polymerase, which is now
containment ), a us national institutes of health / national institute of allergy and infectious diseases category a priority pathogen, us cdc centers for disease control and prevention category a bioterrorism agent, and a biological agent for export control by the australia group. structure ebov carries a negative - sense rna genome in virions that are cylindrical / tubular, and contain viral envelope, matrix, and nucleocapsid components. the overall cylinders are generally approximately 80 nm in diameter, and have a virally encoded glycoprotein ( gp ) projecting as 7 – 10 nm long spikes from its lipid bilayer surface. the cylinders are of variable length, typically 800 nm, but sometimes up to 1000 nm long. the outer viral envelope of the virion is derived by budding from domains of host cell membrane into which the gp spikes have been inserted during their biosynthesis. individual gp molecules appear with spacings of about 10 nm. viral proteins vp40 and vp24 are located between the envelope and the nucleocapsid ( see following ), in the matrix space. at the center of the virion structure is the nucleocapsid, which is composed of a series of viral proteins attached to an 18 – 19 kb linear, negative - sense rna without 3 ′ - polyadenylation or 5 ′ - capping ( see following ) ; the rna is helically wound and complexed with the np, vp35, vp30, and l proteins ; this helix has a diameter of 80 nm. the overall shape of the virions after purification and visualization ( e. g., by ultracentrifugation and electron microscopy, respectively ) varies considerably ; simple cylinders are far less prevalent than structures showing reversed direction, branches, and loops ( e. g., u -, shepherd's crook -, 9 -, or eye bolt - shapes, or other or circular / coiled appearances ), the origin of which may be in the laboratory techniques applied. the characteristic " threadlike " structure is, however, a more general morphologic characteristic of filoviruses ( alongside their gp - decorated viral envelope, rna nucleocapsid, etc.
##caniello is also interested in picornavirus evolution and movement. to this means, he intends to isolate and identify picornaviruses found in the wild throughout the northeastern united states. racaniello's laboratory continues to pursue the fundamental principles of virus biology. together with a long - term collaborator, racaniello's lab has determined that neurotropism of zika virus and enterovirus d 68 are not a recently acquired phenotypes. results from their studies examining zika virus infection of the neonatal mouse brain revealed that cortical developmental pathologies associated with virus infection may result from architecture defects of the developing brain. data from their research understanding the mechanism of enterovirus d68 associated acute flaccid myelitis suggests multiple means by which paralysis may result from virus infection. in collaboration with members of the center for infection and immunology at columbia, rosenfeld and racaniello described a cross - reactive anti - enterovirus antibody response. these results challenge the idea that enterovirus infections are modulated solely by a homotypic humoral immune response. science beyond the laboratory understanding that the world wide web is a primary scientific tool, racaniello is one of the co - creators of biocrowd, a social network designed to bring together scientists of all disciplines. racaniello's virology blog, and podcasts this week in virology ; this week in parasitism with colleagues dickson despommier and daniel o. griffin ; this week in microbiology with michelle swanson, michael schmidt, petra levin and elio schaechter ; this week in evolution with nels elde ; immune with stephanie langel, brianne barker and cynthia leifer ; and this week in neuroscience also unify science with technology. his blog, podcasts, specialized pages on influenza 101 and virology 101 aim to bring microbiology to non - scientists. continuing to bring virology to those outside of the field, racaniello established a library containing podcasts of lectures he has recently given at columbia university. he has also begun teaching virology via livestream on youtube. additionally, every
##ypie und andere spezielle epidemiologische laboratoriumsmethoden. [ german & english ; phage typing and other special epidemiological laboratory methods ]. gustav - fischer - verlag, jena, germany. oclc 14423391 gasser, f. 1974. microbiologie generale, volume 1. bacteries et bacteriophages. [ french ; bacteria and bacteriophages ]. ediscience, / mcgraw - hill, paris oclc??? king, r. c. 1974. handbook of genetics : bacteria, bacteriophages, and fungi. plenum press, new york. oclc 914857, krzywy, t., and s. slopek. 1974. morfologia i ultrastruktura bakteriofagow shigella i klebsiella. polish medical publishers, warsaw. [ polish ; morphology and ultrastructure of shigella and klebsiella bacteriophages ] oclc 6943982 champe, s. p. 1974. phage. dowden, hutchinson & ross, stroudsburg, pa. oclc 980240 dalton, a. j., and f. haguenau. 1973. ultrastructure of animal viruses and bacteriophages. an atlas. academic press, new york. oclc 762216, asin b0006c4eea poglazov, b. f. 1973. morphogenesis of t - even bacteriophages. monographs in developmental biology, volume 7, ed. - in - chief a. wolsky. s. karger, new york. oclc???, winkler, u., w. ruger and w. wackernagel. 1972. bakterien -, phagen - und molekulargenetik. [ german ; bacterial, phage and molecular genetics ]. springer, berlin mathews, c. k. 1971. bacteriophage biochemistry. van nostrand reinhold co., new york. oclc 136326,
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
All of the following features are seen in the viral pneumonia except:
A. Presence of interstitial inflammation
B. Predominance of alveolar exudate
C. Bronchiolitis
D. Multinucleate giant cells in the bronchiolar wall
Answer: | [
"Presence of interstitial inflammation",
"Predominance of alveolar exudate",
"Bronchiolitis",
"Multinucleate giant cells in the bronchiolar wall"
] | B | Typical Pneumonia Atypical pneumonia -Bacterial etiology -Alveolar exudate + neutrophilic infilitration -C/F - High grade fever productive Cough Pleuritis Signs of consolidation -Non - bacterial etiology (e.g. Virus) -Interstitial tissue inflammation -C/F- Low grade fever Dry cough Malaise no signs of consolidation |
medmcqa_4588 | medmcqa | <ctx>
##s, travels along the ureters to the bladder. it does this through regular contractions called peristalsis. clinical significance ureteral stones a kidney stone can move from the kidney and become lodged inside the ureter, which can block the flow of urine, as well as cause a sharp cramp in the back, side, or lower abdomen. pain often comes in waves lasting up to two hours, then subsides, called renal colic. the affected kidney could then develop hydronephrosis, should a part of the kidney become swollen due to blocked flow of urine. it is classically described that there are three sites in the ureter where a kidney stone will commonly become stuck : where the ureter meets the renal pelvis ; where the iliac blood vessels cross the ureters ; and where the ureters enter the urinary bladder, however a retrospective case study, which is a primary source, of where stones lodged based on medical imaging did not show many stones at the place where the iliac blood vessels cross. most stones are compounds containing calcium such as calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate. the first recommended investigation is a ct scan of the abdomen because it can detect almost all stones. management includes analgesia, often with nonsteroidal antiinflammatories. small stones ( < 4mm ) may pass themselves ; larger stones may require lithotripsy, and those with complications such as hydronephrosis or infection may require surgery to remove. reflux vesicoureteral reflux refers to the reflux of fluid from the bladder into the ureters. this condition can be associated with urinary tract infections, particularly in children, and is present in up to 28 – 36 % of children to some degree. a number of forms of medical imaging are available for diagnosis of the condition, with modalities including doppler urinary tract ultrasound, mag 3 nuclear medicine scaning, and a micturition urethrocystogram. factors that affect which of these are selected depends if a child is able to receive a urinary catheter, and whether a child is toilet trained. whether these investigations are performed at the
##phaloliths. calculi are usually asymptomatic, and large calculi may have required many years to grow to their large size. cause from an underlying abnormal excess of the mineral, e. g., with elevated levels of calcium ( hypercalcaemia ) that may cause kidney stones, dietary factors for gallstones. local conditions at the site in question that promote their formation, e. g., local bacteria action ( in kidney stones ) or slower fluid flow rates, a possible explanation of the majority of salivary duct calculus occurring in the submandibular salivary gland. enteroliths are a type of calculus found in the intestines of animals ( mostly ruminants ) and humans, and may be composed of inorganic or organic constituents. bezoars are lumps of indigestible material in the stomach and / or intestines ; most commonly, they consist of hair ( in which case they are also known as hairballs ). a bezoar may form the nidus of an enterolith. in kidney stones, calcium oxalate is the most common mineral type ( see nephrolithiasis ). uric acid is the second most common mineral type, but an in vitro study showed uric acid stones and crystals can promote the formation of calcium oxalate stones. pathophysiology stones can cause disease by several mechanisms : irritation of nearby tissues, causing pain, swelling, and inflammation obstruction of an opening or duct, interfering with normal flow and disrupting the function of the organ in question predisposition to infection ( often due to disruption of normal flow ) a number of important medical conditions are caused by stones : nephrolithiasis ( kidney stones ) can cause hydronephrosis ( swollen kidneys ) and kidney failure can predispose to pyelonephritis ( kidney infections ) can progress to urolithiasis urolithiasis ( urinary bladder stones ) can progress to bladder outlet obstruction cholelithiasis ( gallstones ) can predispose to cholecystitis ( gall bladder infections ) and ascending cholangitis ( biliary tree infection ) can progress to cho
healthy bladders of felines, where it prevents bacterial adherence and protects the bladder from the toxic properties of urine. cats suffering from idiopathic cystitis, ( i. e. unexplained inflammation of the bladder ) excrete lower amounts of gp - 51 along with other glycosaminoglycans, leaving the lining of the bladder exposed. substances from the urine come into contact with sensory neurons in the bladder, causing pain and neurogenic bladder inflammation, producing the urge in the cat to strain and void frequently to minimise the intense discomfort resulting from this urinary contact. the sensory neurons are composed of unmyelinated c - fibers ( group c nerve fiber ), and when stimulated cause pelvic pain. prolonged stimulation of the c - fibers causes chronic inflammation that is maintained through the release of the neurotransmitter substance p. this increases the vascular permeability of the bladder, allowing red blood cells and lymphocytes to enter. urolithiasis 15 - 20 % of flutd cases are caused by uroliths ( " stones " ) which occur when crystals which may be present in urine coalesce to form small stones. the most common types observed are struvite and calcium oxalate. the majority of uroliths are located in the urinary bladder, but can also form in the kidneys, ureters and urethra. the underlying microscopic crystals which go on to form bladder stones are not on their own an abnormal finding. they are often found in well - hydrated healthy cats who simply flush them out with their urine. however, they can pose the risk of urethral obstruction if they accumulate in the bladder and are allowed to clump together to form larger stones ( i. e. uroliths ) which then become lodged in the urethra. alternatively, they can coalesce with inflammatory bladder debris ( or “ matrix ” ) to form obstructive § urethral plugs following an attack of feline cystitis ( see below ). if the obstruction ( whatever the cause ) prevents urination altogether then it is a medical emergency which requires immediate intervention. causes some studies
##asis urolithiasis ( urinary bladder stones ) can progress to bladder outlet obstruction cholelithiasis ( gallstones ) can predispose to cholecystitis ( gall bladder infections ) and ascending cholangitis ( biliary tree infection ) can progress to choledocholithiasis ( gallstones in the bile duct ) and gallstone pancreatitis ( inflammation of the pancreas ) gastric calculi can cause colic, obstruction, torsion, and necrosis. diagnosis diagnostic workup varies by the stone type, but in general : clinical history and physical examination imaging studies some stone types ( mainly those with substantial calcium content ) can be detected on x - ray and ct scan many stone types can be detected by ultrasound factors contributing to stone formation ( as in # etiology ) are often tested : laboratory testing can give levels of relevant substances in blood or urine some stones can be directly recovered ( at surgery, or when they leave the body spontaneously ) and sent to a laboratory for analysis of content treatment modification of predisposing factors can sometimes slow or reverse stone formation. treatment varies by stone type, but, in general : healthy diet & exercise ( promotes flow of energy & nutrition ) drinking fluids ( water & electrolytes like lemon juice, diluted vinegar eg. in pickles, salad dressings, sauces, soups, shrubs cocktail ) surgery ( lithotomy ) medication / antibiotics extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy ( eswl ) for removal of calculi history the earliest operation for curing stones is given in the sushruta samhita ( 6th century bce ). the operation involved exposure and going up through the floor of the bladder. the care of this disease was forbidden to the physicians that had taken the hippocratic oath because : there was a high probability of intraoperative and postoperative surgical complication like infection or bleeding the physicians would not perform surgery as in ancient cultures they were two different professions etymology the word comes from latin calculus " small stone ", from calx " limestone, lime ", probably related to greek chalix " small stone, pebble, rubble ", which many trace
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
The kidney stone whose development is seen most commonly is:-
A. Calcium oxalate
B. Triple phosphate
C. Uric acid
D. Cysteine
Answer: | [
"Calcium oxalate",
"Triple phosphate",
"Uric acid",
"Cysteine"
] | A | Commonest stone seen in in kidney - Calcium oxalate Other types of kidney stones : Triple phosphate - Ca, NH4+ ,MgP04 Uric acid Cysteine stones |
aquarat_22663 | aquarat | <ctx>
( tts ) systems do not generate semantic representations of their input texts, as processes for doing so are unreliable, poorly understood, and computationally ineffective. as a result, various heuristic techniques are used to guess the proper way to disambiguate homographs, like examining neighboring words and using statistics about frequency of occurrence. recently tts systems have begun to use hmms ( discussed above ) to generate " parts of speech " to aid in disambiguating homographs. this technique is quite successful for many cases such as whether " read " should be pronounced as " red " implying past tense, or as " reed " implying present tense. typical error rates when using hmms in this fashion are usually below five percent. these techniques also work well for most european languages, although access to required training corpora is frequently difficult in these languages. deciding how to convert numbers is another problem that tts systems have to address. it is a simple programming challenge to convert a number into words ( at least in english ), like " 1325 " becoming " one thousand three hundred twenty - five ". however, numbers occur in many different contexts ; " 1325 " may also be read as " one three two five ", " thirteen twenty - five " or " thirteen hundred and twenty five ". a tts system can often infer how to expand a number based on surrounding words, numbers, and punctuation, and sometimes the system provides a way to specify the context if it is ambiguous. roman numerals can also be read differently depending on context. for example, " henry viii " reads as " henry the eighth ", while " chapter viii " reads as " chapter eight ". similarly, abbreviations can be ambiguous. for example, the abbreviation " in " for " inches " must be differentiated from the word " in ", and the address " 12 st john st. " uses the same abbreviation for both " saint " and " street ". tts systems with intelligent front ends can make educated guesses about ambiguous abbreviations, while others provide the same result in all cases, resulting in nonsensical ( and sometimes comical ) outputs, such as " ulysses s. grant " being rendered
yields c, 5 yields d and 6, 7 or 8 yield e. thus we have a monkey at a typewriter hitting five keys with various probabilities ( 37, 56, 70, 56, 37 over 256 ). there are 55 possible 5 - letter words, and from a string of 256000 ( overlapping ) 5 - letter words, counts are made on the frequencies for each word. the quadratic form in the weak inverse of the covariance matrix of the cell counts provides a chisquare test q5 – q4, the difference of the naive pearson sums of on counts for 5 - and 4 - letter cell counts. the count - the - 1's test for specific bytes consider the file under test as a stream of 32 - bit integers. from each integer, a specific byte is chosen, say the leftmost bits 1 to 8. each byte can contain from 0 to 8 1s, with probabilities 1, 8, 28, 56, 70, 56, 28, 8, 1 over 256. now let the specified bytes from successive integers provide a string of ( overlapping ) 5 - letter words, each " letter " taking values a, b, c, d, e. the letters are determined by the number of 1s, in that byte 0, 1, or 2 → a, 3 → b, 4 → c, 5 → d, and 6, 7 or 8 → e. thus we have a monkey at a typewriter hitting five keys with various probabilities 37, 56, 70, 56, 37 over 256. there are 5 possible 5 - letter words, and from a string of 256000 ( overlapping ) 5 - letter words, counts are made on the frequencies for each word. the quadratic form in the weak inverse of the covariance matrix of the cell counts provides a chisquare test q5 – q4, the difference of the naive pearson sums of on counts for 5 - and 4 - letter cell counts. the parking lot test in a square of side 100, randomly " park " a car – a circle of radius 1. then try to park a 2nd, a 3rd, and so on, each time parking " by
] ='' does not match w [ 3 ] ='d '. rather than beginning to search again at s [ 1 ], we note that no'a'occurs between positions 1 and 2 in s ; hence, having checked all those characters previously ( and knowing they matched the corresponding characters in w ), there is no chance of finding the beginning of a match. therefore, the algorithm sets m = 3 and i = 0. 1 2 m : 01234567890123456789012 s : abc w : i : this match fails at the initial character, so the algorithm sets m = 4 and i = 0 1 2 m : 01234567890123456789012 s : abc w : i : here, i increments through a nearly complete match " abcdab " until i = 6 giving a mismatch at w [ 6 ] and s [ 10 ]. however, just prior to the end of the current partial match, there was that substring " ab " that could be the beginning of a new match, so the algorithm must take this into consideration. as these characters match the two characters prior to the current position, those characters need not be checked again ; the algorithm sets m = 8 ( the start of the initial prefix ) and i = 2 ( signaling the first two characters match ) and continues matching. thus the algorithm not only omits previously matched characters of s ( the " ab " ), but also previously matched characters of w ( the prefix " ab " ). 1 2 m : 01234567890123456789012 s : abc abcd w : i : this search at the new position fails immediately because w [ 2 ] ( a'c') does not match s [ 10 ] ( a'' ). as in the first trial, the mismatch causes the algorithm to return to the beginning of w and begins searching at the mismatched character position of s : m = 10, reset i = 0. 1 2 m : 01234567890123456789012 s : abc abcdab w : i : the
' n'if the current position is the letter'k'then if the next letter is'n'then replace the current position by'n'otherwise replace the current position by'c'if the current position points to the letter string'sch'then replace the string with'sss'' ph'then replace the string with'ff'if the current position is the letter'h'and either the preceding or following letter is not a vowel ( aeiou ) then replace the current position with the preceding letter. if the current position is the letter'w'and the preceding letter is a vowel then replace the current position with the preceding position. if none of these rules applies, then retain the current position letter value. if the current position letter is equal to the last letter placed in the code then set the pointer to point to the next letter and go to step 5. the next character of the nysiis code is the current position letter. increment the pointer to point at the next letter. go to step 5. if the last character of the nysiis code is the letter's'then remove it. if the last two characters of the nysiis code are the letters'ay'then replace them with the single character'y '. if the last character of the nysiis code is the letter'a'then remove this letter. references external links usda report with both the original nysiis procedure and a modified version nist dictionary of algorithms and data structures entry, including pointers to several implementations sample coder, using a variant of the algorithm ruby implementation c # implementation php implementation phonetic algorithms
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
If the letters of the word PLACE are arranged taken all at a time, find how many do not start with AE
A. A)110
B. B)112
C. C)114
D. D)118
Answer: | [
"A)110",
"B)112",
"C)114",
"D)118"
] | C | Total no'of arrangements 5P5 = 5! = 120
no'of arrangements start with AE = 1 × 6 = 6
no'of arrangements which do not start with AE = 120 - 6 = 114.
C |
aquarat_41324 | aquarat | <ctx>
2. 23 find the measure of the angle, in radians, formed by vectors and round to the nearest hundredth. the angle between two vectors can be acute obtuse or straight if then both vectors have the same direction. if then the vectors, when placed in standard position, form a right angle ( figure 2. 46 ). we can formalize this result into a theorem regarding orthogonal ( perpendicular ) vectors. figure 2. 46 ( a ) an acute angle has ( b ) an obtuse angle has ( c ) a straight line has ( d ) if the vectors have the same direction, ( e ) if the vectors are orthogonal ( perpendicular ), theorem 2. 5 orthogonal vectors the nonzero vectors and are orthogonal vectors if and only if proof let and be nonzero vectors, and let denote the angle between them. first, assume then however, and so we must have hence, and the vectors are orthogonal. now assume and are orthogonal. then and we have the terms orthogonal, perpendicular, and normal each indicate that mathematical objects are intersecting at right angles. the use of each term is determined mainly by its context. we say that vectors are orthogonal and lines are perpendicular. the term normal is used most often when measuring the angle made with a plane or other surface. 136 2 • vectors in space access for free at openstax. org example 2. 24 identifying orthogonal vectors determine whether and are orthogonal vectors. solution using the definition, we need only check the dot product of the vectors : because the vectors are orthogonal ( figure 2. 47 ). figure 2. 47 vectors p and form a right angle when their initial points are aligned. 2. 24 for which value of x is orthogonal to example 2. 25 measuring the angle formed by two vectors let find the measures of the angles formed by the following vectors. a. and i b. and j c. and k solution a. let α be the angle formed by and i : b. let β represent the angle formed by and j : 2. 3 • the dot product 137 c. let γ represent the angle formed by and k :
2. 3 • the dot product 145 134. for the following exercises, find the measure of the angle between the three - dimensional vectors a and b. express the answer in radians rounded to two decimal places, if it is not possible to express it exactly. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. [ t ] where and 140. [ t ] where and for the following exercises determine whether the given vectors are orthogonal. 141. where x and y are nonzero real numbers 142. where x and y are nonzero real numbers 143. 144. 145. find all two - dimensional vectors a orthogonal to vector express the answer in component form. 146. find all two - dimensional vectors a orthogonal to vector express the answer by using standard unit vectors. 147. determine all three - dimensional vectors orthogonal to vector express the answer by using standard unit vectors. 148. determine all three - dimensional vectors orthogonal to vector express the answer in component form. 149. determine the real number such that vectors and are orthogonal. 150. determine the real number such that vectors and are orthogonal. 151. [ t ] consider the points and a. determine vectors and express the answer by using standard unit vectors. b. determine the measure of angle o in triangle opq. express the answer in degrees rounded to two decimal places. 152. [ t ] consider points and a. determine vectors and express the answer in component form. b. determine the measure of angle b in triangle abc. express the answer in degrees rounded to two decimal places. 153. determine the measure of angle a in triangle abc, where and express your answer in degrees rounded to two decimal places. 154. consider points and determine the angle between vectors and express the answer in degrees rounded to two decimal places. 146 2 • vectors in space access for free at openstax. org for the following exercises, determine which ( if any ) pairs of the following vectors are orthogonal. 155. 156. 157. use vectors to show that a parallelogram with equal diagonals is a rectangle. 158. use vectors to show that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular. 159. show that is true for any vectors,, and. 160. verify the
the side labeled c. inscribing the isosceles triangle forms triangle cad with angle θ opposite side b and with side r along c. a second triangle is formed with angle θ opposite side a and a side with length s along c, as shown in the figure. thabit ibn qurra stated that the sides of the three triangles were related as : as the angle θ approaches / 2, the base of the isosceles triangle narrows, and lengths r and s overlap less and less. when θ = / 2, adb becomes a right triangle, r + s = c, and the original pythagorean theorem is regained. one proof observes that triangle abc has the same angles as triangle cad, but in opposite order. ( the two triangles share the angle at vertex a, both contain the angle θ, and so also have the same third angle by the triangle postulate. ) consequently, abc is similar to the reflection of cad, the triangle dac in the lower panel. taking the ratio of sides opposite and adjacent to θ, likewise, for the reflection of the other triangle, clearing fractions and adding these two relations : the required result. the theorem remains valid if the angle is obtuse so the lengths r and s are non - overlapping. general triangles using parallelograms pappus's area theorem is a further generalization, that applies to triangles that are not right triangles, using parallelograms on the three sides in place of squares ( squares are a special case, of course ). the upper figure shows that for a scalene triangle, the area of the parallelogram on the longest side is the sum of the areas of the parallelograms on the other two sides, provided the parallelogram on the long side is constructed as indicated ( the dimensions labeled with arrows are the same, and determine the sides of the bottom parallelogram ). this replacement of squares with parallelograms bears a clear resemblance to the original pythagoras'theorem, and was considered a generalization by pappus of alexandria in 4 ad the lower figure shows the elements of the proof. focus on the left side of the figure. the left green parallel
2. 22 find the following products for and a. b. using the dot product to find the angle between two vectors when two nonzero vectors are placed in standard position, whether in two dimensions or three dimensions, they form an angle between them ( figure 2. 44 ). the dot product provides a way to find the measure of this angle. this property is a result of the fact that we can express the dot product in terms of the cosine of the angle formed by two vectors. figure 2. 44 let θ be the angle between two nonzero vectors and such that theorem 2. 4 evaluating a dot product the dot product of two vectors is the product of the magnitude of each vector and the cosine of the angle between them : proof place vectors and in standard position and consider the vector ( figure 2. 45 ). these three vectors form a triangle with side lengths figure 2. 45 the lengths of the sides of the triangle are given by the magnitudes of the vectors that form the triangle. recall from trigonometry that the law of cosines describes the relationship among the side lengths of the triangle and ( 2. 4 ) 134 2 • vectors in space access for free at openstax. org the angle θ. applying the law of cosines here gives the dot product provides a way to rewrite the left side of this equation : substituting into the law of cosines yields we can use this form of the dot product to find the measure of the angle between two nonzero vectors. the following equation rearranges equation 2. 3 to solve for the cosine of the angle : using this equation, we can find the cosine of the angle between two nonzero vectors. since we are considering the smallest angle between the vectors, we assume ( or if we are working in radians ). the inverse cosine is unique over this range, so we are then able to determine the measure of the angle example 2. 23 finding the angle between two vectors find the measure of the angle between each pair of vectors. a. i + j + k and 2i – j – 3k b. and solution a. to find the co
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
A triangle has three angles all with the same ratio to each other, 1:1:1. What is the angle measurement?
A. A)45°
B. B)60°
C. C)75°
D. D)90°
Answer: | [
"A)45°",
"B)60°",
"C)75°",
"D)90°"
] | B | If the ratio is 1:1:1, and the total angle measurement is 180°, then the equation is
x + x + x = 180°
3x = 180°
x = 60°
Therefore the answer is 60° or B. |
aquarat_26778 | aquarat | <ctx>
13. 10 540 13 • temperature, kinetic theory, and the gas laws access for free at openstax. org example 13. 4 calculating thermal expansion : gas vs. gas tank suppose your 60. 0 - l ( 15. 9 - gal ) steel gasoline tank is full of gas, so both the tank and the gasoline have a temperature of. how much gasoline has spilled by the time they warm to? strategy the tank and gasoline increase in volume, but the gasoline increases more, so the amount spilled is the difference in their volume changes. ( the gasoline tank can be treated as solid steel. ) we can use the equation for volume expansion to calculate the change in volume of the gasoline and of the tank. solution 1. use the equation for volume expansion to calculate the increase in volume of the steel tank : 2. the increase in volume of the gasoline is given by this equation : 3. find the difference in volume to determine the amount spilled as alternatively, we can combine these three equations into a single equation. ( note that the original volumes are equal. ) making connections : real - world connections — filling the tank differences in the thermal expansion of materials can lead to interesting effects at the gas station. one example is the dripping of gasoline from a freshly filled tank on a hot day. gasoline starts out at the temperature of the ground under the gas station, which is cooler than the air temperature above. the gasoline cools the steel tank when it is filled. both gasoline and steel tank expand as they warm to air temperature, but gasoline expands much more than steel, and so it may overflow. this difference in expansion can also cause problems when interpreting the gasoline gauge. the actual amount ( mass ) of gasoline left in the tank when the gauge hits “ empty ” is a lot less in the summer than in the winter. the gasoline has the same volume as it does in the winter when the “ add fuel ” light goes on, but because the gasoline has expanded, there is less mass. if you are used to getting another 40 miles on “ empty ” in the winter, beware — you will probably run out much more quickly in the summer. figure 13. 13 because the gas expands more than the gas tank with increasing temperature
12. 5 the onset of turbulence 51. verify that the flow of oil is laminar ( barely ) for an oil gusher that shoots crude oil 25. 0 m into the air through a pipe with a 0. 100 - m diameter. the vertical pipe is 50 m long. take the density of the oil to be and its viscosity to be ( or ). 52. show that the reynolds number is unitless by substituting units for all the quantities in its definition and cancelling. 53. calculate the reynolds numbers for the flow of water through ( a ) a nozzle with a radius of 0. 250 cm and ( b ) a garden hose with a radius of 0. 900 cm, when the nozzle is attached to the hose. the flow rate through hose and nozzle is 0. 500 l / s. can the flow in either possibly be laminar? 54. a fire hose has an inside diameter of 6. 40 cm. suppose such a hose carries a flow of 40. 0 l / s starting at a gauge pressure of. the hose goes 10. 0 m up a ladder to a nozzle having an inside diameter of 3. 00 cm. calculate the reynolds numbers for flow in the fire hose and nozzle to show that the flow in each must be turbulent. 55. concrete is pumped from a cement mixer to the place it is being laid, instead of being carried in wheelbarrows. the flow rate is 200. 0 l / min through a 50. 0 - m - long, 8. 00 - cm - diameter hose, and the pressure at the pump is. verify that the flow of concrete is laminar taking concrete ’ s viscosity to be, and given its density is. 56. at what flow rate might turbulence begin to develop in a water main with a 0. 200 - m diameter? assume a temperature. 57. what is the greatest average speed of blood flow at in an artery of radius 2. 00 mm if the flow is to remain laminar? what is the corresponding flow rate? take the density of blood to be. 58. in take - home experiment : inhalation, we measured the average flow rate of air traveling
4. 00 cm? 59. we stated in example 11. 12 that a xylem tube is of radius. verify that such a tube raises sap less than a meter by finding for it, making the same assumptions that sap ’ s density is, its contact angle is zero, and its surface tension is the same as that of water at. 60. what fluid is in the device shown in figure 11. 26 if the force is and the length of the wire is 2. 50 cm? calculate the surface tension and find a likely match from table 11. 3. 61. if the gauge pressure inside a rubber balloon with a 10. 0 - cm radius is 1. 50 cm of water, what is the effective surface tension of the balloon? 62. calculate the gauge pressures inside 2. 00 - cm - radius bubbles of water, alcohol, and soapy water. which liquid forms the most stable bubbles, neglecting any effects of evaporation? 63. suppose water is raised by capillary action to a height of 5. 00 cm in a glass tube. ( a ) to what height will it be raised in a paraffin tube of the same radius? ( b ) in a silver tube of the same radius? 64. calculate the contact angle for olive oil if capillary action raises it to a height of 7. 07 cm in a glass tube with a radius of 0. 100 mm. is this value consistent with that for most organic liquids? 65. when two soap bubbles touch, the larger is inflated by the smaller until they form a single bubble. ( a ) what is the gauge pressure inside a soap bubble with a 1. 50 - cm radius? ( b ) inside a 4. 00 - cm - radius soap bubble? ( c ) inside the single bubble they form if no air is lost when they touch? 66. calculate the ratio of the heights to which water and mercury are raised by capillary action in the same glass tube. 67. what is the ratio of heights to which ethyl alcohol and water are raised by capillary action in the same glass tube?
from the reaction of 1. 500 l of c2h5oh ( d = 0. 7894 g / ml )? 70. outline the steps needed to determine the limiting reactant when 30. 0 g of propane, c3h8, is burned with
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
An oil cylinder was 3/4th full. When two bottles of oil is poured into it, it is 4/5th full. How many bottles of oil
can the full cylinder hold?
A. A)20
B. B)15
C. C)40
D. D)30
Answer: | [
"A)20",
"B)15",
"C)40",
"D)30"
] | C | (4/5 -3/4) cylinder is filled by 2 bottles
0.8 -0.75 = 0.05 cylinder is filled by 2 bottles
1 cylinder is filled by 2/0.05 = 40 bottles
ANSWER:C |
aquarat_45111 | aquarat | <ctx>
themselves on a specific random numbering of the drawers, provided that the director does not overhear this or does not bother to respond by replacing numbers in the boxes before the prisoners are let in. one prisoner may make one change in the case that one prisoner may enter the room first, inspect all boxes, and then switch the contents of two boxes, all prisoners will survive. this is so since any cycle of length larger than 50 can be broken, so that it can be guaranteed that all cycles are of length at most 50. any prisoner who finds their number is free in the variant where any prisoner who finds their number is free, the expected probability of an individual's survival given a random permutation is as follows : without strategy : with the strategy for the original problem : it is noteworthy that although we receive the same expected values, they are from very different distributions. with the second strategy, some prisoners are simply destined to die or live given a particular permutation, and with the first strategy ( i. e., no strategy ), there is " truly " a 1 / 2 chance for every permutation. monty hall problem in 2009, adam s. landsberg proposed the following simpler variant of the 100 prisoners problem which is based on the well - known monty hall problem : behind three closed doors a car, the car keys and a goat are randomly distributed. there are two players : the first player has to find the car, the second player the keys to the car. only if both players are successful they may drive the car home. the first player enters the room and may consecutively open two of the three doors. if they are successful, the doors are closed again and the second player enters the room. the second player may also open two of the three doors, but they cannot communicate with the first player in any form. what is the winning probability if both players act optimally? if the players select their doors randomly, the winning probability is only ( about 44 % ). the optimal strategy is, however, as follows : player 1 first opens door 1. if the car is behind the door, the player is successful. if the keys were behind the door, the player next opens door 2 ; if instead
, for a set of randomly chosen people, what is the probability that some pair of them will have the same birthday? the problem itself is mainly concerned with counterintuitive probabilities, but we can also tell by the pigeonhole principle that if there are 367 people in the room, there is at least one pair of people who share the same birthday with 100 % probability, as there are only 366 possible birthdays to choose from ( including february 29, if present ). team tournament imagine seven people who want to play in a tournament of teams items ), with a limitation of only four teams holes ) to choose from. the pigeonhole principle tells us that they cannot all play for different teams ; there must be at least one team featuring at least two of the seven players : subset sum any subset of size six from the set = { 1, 2, 3,..., 9 } must contain two elements whose sum is 10. the pigeonholes will be labeled by the two element subsets { 1, 9 }, { 2, 8 }, { 3, 7 }, { 4, 6 } and the singleton { 5 }, five pigeonholes in all. when the six " pigeons " ( elements of the size six subset ) are placed into these pigeonholes, each pigeon going into the pigeonhole that has it contained in its label, at least one of the pigeonholes labeled with a two - element subset will have two pigeons in it. uses and applications the principle can be used to prove that any lossless compression algorithm, provided it makes some inputs smaller ( as " compression " suggests ), will also make some other inputs larger. otherwise, the set of all input sequences up to a given length could be mapped to the ( much ) smaller set of all sequences of length less than without collisions ( because the compression is lossless ), a possibility that the pigeonhole principle excludes. a notable problem in mathematical analysis is, for a fixed irrational number, to show that the set of fractional parts is dense in. one finds that it is not easy to explicitly find integers such that where is a small positive number and is some arbitrary irrational number. but if one takes such that by the pigeon
give the expected number of days. for example, the expected number of days which are shared ; i. e. which are at least two ( i. e. not zero and not one ) people's birthday is : number of people who repeat a birthday the probability that the th integer randomly chosen from will repeat at least one previous choice equals above. the expected total number of times a selection will repeat a previous selection as such integers are chosen equals this can be seen to equal the number of people minus the expected number of different birthdays. average number of people to get at least one shared birthday in an alternative formulation of the birthday problem, one asks the average number of people required to find a pair with the same birthday. if we consider the probability function pr [ people have at least one shared birthday ], this average is determining the mean of the distribution, as opposed to the customary formulation, which asks for the median. the problem is relevant to several hashing algorithms analyzed by donald knuth in his book the art of computer programming. it may be shown that if one samples uniformly, with replacement, from a population of size, the number of trials required for the first repeated sampling of some individual has expected value, where the function has been studied by srinivasa ramanujan and has asymptotic expansion : with days in a year, the average number of people required to find a pair with the same birthday is, somewhat more than 23, the number required for a 50 % chance. in the best case, two people will suffice ; at worst, the maximum possible number of people is needed ; but on average, only 25 people are required an analysis using indicator random variables can provide a simpler but approximate analysis of this problem. for each pair ( i, j ) for k people in a room, we define the indicator random variable xij, for, by let x be a random variable counting the pairs of individuals with the same birthday. for, if, the expected number of pairs of individuals with the same birthday is ≈ 1. 0356. therefore, we can expect at least one matching pair with at least 28 people. an informal demonstration of the problem can be made from the list of prime ministers of
| 23 | | 50. 7 % | - | align = right | 30 | | 70. 6 % | - | align = right | 40 | | 89. 1 % | - | align = right | 50 | | 97. 0 % | - | align = right | 60 | | 99. 4 % | - | align = right | 70 | | 99. 9 % | - | align = right | 75 | | 99. 97 % | - | align = right | 100 | | % | - | align = right | 200 | | % | - | align = right | 300 | | ( 100 − ) % | - | align = right | 350 | | ( 100 − ) % | - | align = right | 365 | | ( 100 − ) % | - | align = right | ≥ 366 | | 100 % | } approximations the taylor series expansion of the exponential function ( the constant ) provides a first - order approximation for for : to apply this approximation to the first expression derived for, set. thus, then, replace with non - negative integers for each term in the formula of until, for example, when, the first expression derived for can be approximated as therefore, an even coarser approximation is given by which, as the graph illustrates, is still fairly accurate. according to the approximation, the same approach can be applied to any number of " people " and " days ". if rather than 365 days there are, if there are persons, and if, then using the same approach as above we achieve the result that if is the probability that at least two out of people share the same birthday from a set of available days, then : simple exponentiation the probability of any two people not having the same birthday is. in a room containing n people, there are pairs of people, i. e. events. the probability of no two people sharing the same birthday can be approximated by assuming that these events are independent and hence by multiplying their probability together. being independent would be equivalent to picking with replacement, any pair of people in the world, not just in a room. in short can be multiplied by itself times, which gives us since this is the probability
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
If 20 men can build a wall 66 meters long in 6 days, what length of a similar can be built by 86 men in 8 days?
A. A)49
B. B)39
C. C)29
D. D)19
Answer: | [
"A)49",
"B)39",
"C)29",
"D)19"
] | A | Let the required length be x meters
More men, More length built (Direct Proportion)
Less days, Less length built (Direct Proportion)
Men 20: 35
Days 6: 3 : : 56 : x
Therefore (20 x 6 x x)=(35 x 3 x 56)= x=(35 x 3 x 56)/120=49
Hence, the required length is 49 m.
Answer is A. |
aquarat_29601 | aquarat | <ctx>
– the probability of all components failing ( system failure ) as a purely illustrative example, if there is a 1 in 100 probability of a regulator failure, and a 1 in 1000 probability of a scuba cylinder failure then, and therefore : substituting values : which is close to the sum of the two probabilities. the example shows that each critical point of failure increases the probability of system failure by approximately that item's probability of failure. if there are two completely independent scuba sets at the diver's disposal, either one of which is sufficient to allow the diver a safe return, then both sets must fail during the same dive to cause a fatal outcome. these items work in parallel - all must fail for the system to fail. the probability of this happening is extremely low for reliable equipment. assuming independence of failure events, each duplicate redundant item added to the system decreases the probability of system failure according to the formula : - where : – number of components – probability of component i failing – the probability of all components failing ( system failure ) taking two independent sets with the same probability of failure calculated in the example above :, and therefore : substituting values : it is clear from the example that redundancy reduces the risk of system failure very rapidly, and conversely, that disregarding a failure of a redundant item increases the probability of system failure equally rapidly. closed circuit open circuit scuba has a small number of fairly rugged and reliable components, each with a small number of failure modes and a low probability of failure. most of these components remain present in closed circuit scuba, but there are also a number of additional items which could fail. therefore, the rebreather architecture is inherently more likely to fail, and it is necessary to provide redundancy of critical components to provide reliability even approaching that of open circuit scuba. it is also more important to provide full redundancy of breathing gas supply as some rebreather failure modes do not allow safe ascent. bailout to open circuit is the simplest and most robust option, but for dives where a long return under an overhead, or long decompression are necessary, open circuit can be impractically bulky. there is a point at which closed circuit bailout becomes
more prone to errors and accidents. second, redundancy may lead to shirking of responsibility among workers. third, redundancy may lead to increased production pressures, resulting in a system that operates at higher speeds, but less safely. voting logic voting logic uses performance monitoring to determine how to reconfigure individual components so that operation continues without violating specification limitations of the overall system. voting logic often involves computers, but systems composed of items other than computers may be reconfigured using voting logic. circuit breakers are an example of a form of non - computer voting logic. the simplest voting logic in computing systems involves two components : primary and alternate. they both run similar software, but the output from the alternate remains inactive during normal operation. the primary monitors itself and periodically sends an activity message to the alternate as long as everything is ok. all outputs from the primary stop, including the activity message, when the primary detects a fault. the alternate activates its output and takes over from the primary after a brief delay when the activity message ceases. errors in voting logic can cause both outputs to be active or inactive at the same time, or cause outputs to flutter on and off. a more reliable form of voting logic involves an odd number of three devices or more. all perform identical functions and the outputs are compared by the voting logic. the voting logic establishes a majority when there is a disagreement, and the majority will act to deactivate the output from other device ( s ) that disagree. a single fault will not interrupt normal operation. this technique is used with avionics systems, such as those responsible for operation of the space shuttle. calculating the probability of system failure each duplicate component added to the system decreases the probability of system failure according to the formula : - where : – number of components – probability of component i failing – the probability of all components failing ( system failure ) this formula assumes independence of failure events. that means that the probability of a component b failing given that a component a has already failed is the same as that of b failing when a has not failed. there are situations where this is unreasonable, such as using two power supplies connected to the same socket in such a way that if one
. conversely, the probability that a link is free is 1−p. the probability that the path connecting an ingress switch to an egress switch via a particular middle stage switch is free is the probability that both links are free, ( 1−p ) 2. hence the probability of it being unavailable is 1− ( 1−p ) 2 = 2p−p2. the probability of blocking, or the probability that no such path is free, is then [ 1− ( 1−p ) 2 ] m. the jacobaeus approximation is more accurate, and to see how it is derived, assume that some particular mapping of calls entering the clos network ( input calls ) already exists onto middle stage switches. this reflects the fact that only the relative configurations of ingress switch and egress switches is of relevance. there are i input calls entering via the same ingress switch as the free input terminal to be connected, and there are j calls leaving the clos network ( output calls ) via the same egress switch as the free output terminal to be connected. hence 0 ≤ i ≤ u, and 0 ≤ j ≤ u. let a be the number of ways of assigning the j output calls to the m middle stage switches. let b be the number of these assignments which result in blocking. this is the number of cases in which the remaining m−j middle stage switches coincide with m−j of the i input calls, which is the number of subsets containing m−j of these calls. then the probability of blocking is : if fi is the probability that i other calls are already active on the ingress switch, and gj is the probability that j other calls are already active on the egress switch, the overall blocking probability is : this may be evaluated with fi and gj each being denoted by a binomial distribution. after considerable algebraic manipulation, this may be written as : clos networks with more than three stages clos networks may also be generalised to any odd number of stages. by replacing each centre stage crossbar switch with a 3 - stage clos network, clos networks of five stages may be constructed. by applying the same process repeatedly, 7,
failures, the outputs of the three circuits are identical. but due to circuit failures, the outputs of the three circuits may be different. a majority logic gate is used to decide which of the circuits'outputs is the correct output. the majority gate output is 1 if two or more of the inputs of the majority gate are 1 ; output is 0 if two or more of the majority gate's inputs are 0. the majority logic gate is a simple and – or circuit : if the inputs to the majority gate are denoted by x, y and z, then the output of the majority gate is thus, the majority gate is the carry output of a full adder, i. e., the majority gate is a voting machine. tmr operation assuming the boolean function computed by the three identical logic gates has value 1, then : ( a ) if no circuit has failed, all three circuits produce an output of value 1, and the majority gate output has value 1. ( b ) if one circuit fails and produces an output of 0, while the other two are working correctly and produce an output of 1, the majority gate output is 1, i. e., it still has the correct value. and similarly for the case when the boolean function computed by the three identical circuits has value 0. thus, the majority gate output is guaranteed to be correct as long as no more than one of the three identical logic circuits has failed. for a tmr system with a single voter of reliability ( probability of working ) and three components of reliability, the probability of it being correct can be shown to be. tmr systems should use data scrubbing – rewrite flip - flops periodically – in order to avoid accumulation of errors. voter the majority gate itself could fail. this can be protected against by applying triple redundancy to the voters themselves. in a few tmr systems, such as the saturn launch vehicle digital computer and functional triple modular redundancy ( ftmr ) systems, the voters are also triplicated. three voters are used – one for each copy of the next stage of tmr logic. in such systems there is no single point of failure. even though only using a single
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
A relay has a series of 5 circuits in a line. The even-numbered circuits are control circuits; the odd are buffer circuits. If both a control circuit and the buffer circuit immediately following it both fail in that order, then the relay fails. The probability of circuit one failing is 3/8; circuit two, 1/8; circuit three, 3/10; circuit four, 3/4; and circuit five, 2/5 .What is the probability that the relay fails?
A. A)9/80
B. B)3/10
C. C)261/800
D. D)35/80
Answer: | [
"A)9/80",
"B)3/10",
"C)261/800",
"D)35/80"
] | C | The first circuit doesn't matter.
Prob(relay fails) = 1 - Prob(relay succeeds)
Prob(2+3 work) = 1 - 3/80 = 77/80
Prob(4+5 work) = 1 - 3/10 = 7/10
Prob(relay fails) = 1 - Prob(2+3 work AND 4+5 work) = 1 - (77/80)(7/10) = 1 - 539/800 = 261/800
C |
arc_easy_2061 | arc_easy | <ctx>
color selection was by using the difference in the levels of three optical filters, in order to capture these color limits : u - r ≤ 2. 5 ( 1 ), r - i ≤ - 0. 2 ( 2 ), r - z ≤ 0. 5 ( 3 ), g - r ≥ r - i + 0. 5 ( 4 ), u - r ≥ 2. 5 ( r - z ) ( 5 ). if the diagram on the right ( one of two in the paper ) is looked at, the effectiveness of this color selection can be seen. the color - color diagram shows ~ 100 gps ( green crosses ), 10, 000 comparison galaxies ( red points ) and 9, 500 comparison quasar ( purple stars ) at similar redshifts to the gps. the black lines show how these figures are on the diagram. comparing a gp to the milky way can be useful when trying to visualize these star - forming rates. an average gp has a mass of ~ 3, 200 million ( ~ 3, 200 million solar masses ). the milky way ( mw ) is a spiral galaxy and has a mass of ~ 1, 125, 000, million ( ~ 1, 125, 000 million solar masses ). so the mw has the mass of ~ 390 gps. research has shown that the mw converts / yr ( ~ 2 solar masses per year ) worth of interstellar medium into stars. an average gp converts / yr ( ~ 10 solar masses ) of interstellar gas into stars, which is ~ 5 times the rate of the mw. one of the original ways of recognizing gps, before sql programming was involved, was because of a discrepancy about how the sdss labels them within skyserver. out of the 251 of the original gp sample that were identified by the sdss spectroscopic pipeline as having galaxy spectra, only 7 were targeted by the sdss spectral fibre allocation as galaxies i. e. 244 were not. papers by r. amorin, j. m. vilchez and e. perez - montero in june 2010, authors r. amorin, e. perez - montero and j. m. vilchez published a paper in the
34. 1 cosmology and particle physics 1. find the approximate mass of the luminous matter in the milky way galaxy, given it has approximately stars of average mass 1. 5 times that of our sun. 2. find the approximate mass of the dark and luminous matter in the milky way galaxy. assume the luminous matter is due to approximately stars of average mass 1. 5 times that of our sun, and take the dark matter to be 10 times as massive as the luminous matter. 3. ( a ) estimate the mass of the luminous matter in the known universe, given there are galaxies, each containing stars of average mass 1. 5 times that of our sun. ( b ) how many protons ( the most abundant nuclide ) are there in this mass? ( c ) estimate the total number of particles in the observable universe by multiplying the answer to ( b ) by two, since there is an electron for each proton, and then by, since there are far more particles ( such as photons and neutrinos ) in space than in luminous matter. 4. if a galaxy is 500 mly away from us, how fast do we expect it to be moving and in what direction? 5. on average, how far away are galaxies that are moving away from us at 2. 0 % of the speed of light? 6. our solar system orbits the center of the milky way galaxy. assuming a circular orbit 30, 000 ly in radius and an orbital speed of 250 km / s, how many years does it take for one revolution? note that this is approximate, assuming constant speed and circular orbit, but it is representative of the time for our system and local stars to make one revolution around the galaxy. 7. ( a ) what is the approximate speed relative to us of a galaxy near the edge of the known universe, some 10 gly away? ( b ) what fraction of the speed of light is this? note that we have observed galaxies moving away from us at greater than. 8. ( a ) calculate the approximate age of the universe from the average value of the hubble constant,. to do this, calculate the time it would take to travel 1 mly at a
galactic clusters are gravitationally bound large - scale structures of multiple galaxies. the evolution of these aggregates is determined by time and manner of formation and the process of how their structures and constituents have been changing with time. gamow ( 1952 ) and weizscker ( 1951 ) showed that the observed rotations of galaxies are important for cosmology. they postulated that the rotation of galaxies might be a clue of physical conditions under which these systems formed. thus, understanding the distribution of spatial orientations of the spin vectors of galaxies is critical to understanding the origin of the angular momenta of galaxies. there are mainly three scenarios for the origin of galaxy clusters and superclusters. these models are based on different assumptions of the primordial conditions, so they predict different spin vector alignments of the galaxies. the three hypotheses are the pancake model, the hierarchy model, and the primordial vorticity theory. the three are mutually exclusive as they produce contradictory predictions. however, the predictions made by all three theories are based on the precepts of cosmology. thus, these models can be tested using a database with appropriate methods of analysis. galaxies a galaxy is a large gravitational aggregation of stars, dust, gas, and an unknown component termed dark matter. the milky way galaxy is only one of the billions of galaxies in the known universe. galaxies are classified into spirals, ellipticals, irregular, and peculiar. sizes can range from only a few thousand stars ( dwarf irregulars ) to 1013 stars in giant ellipticals. elliptical galaxies are spherical or elliptical in appearance. spiral galaxies range from s0, the lenticular galaxies, to sb, which have a bar across the nucleus, to sc galaxies which have strong spiral arms. in total count, ellipticals amount to 13 %, s0 to 22 %, sa, b, c galaxies to 61 %, irregulars to 3. 5 %, and peculiars to 0. 9 %. at the center of most galaxies is a high concentration of older stars. this portion of a galaxy is called the nuclear bulge. beyond the nuclear bulge lies a large disc containing young, hot stars, called the disk of the galaxy. there is
milliard ) astronomy : there are 100 billion planets located in the milky way. biology – neurons in the brain : approximately ( 1±0. 2 ) × 1011 neurons in the human brain. medicine : the united states food and drug administration requires a minimum of 3 x 1011 ( 300 billion ) platelets per apheresis unit. paleodemography – number of humans that have ever lived : approximately ( 1. 2±0. 3 ) × 1011 live births of anatomically modern humans since the beginning of the upper paleolithic. astronomy – stars in our galaxy : of the order of 1011 stars in the milky way galaxy. 1012 ( ; 10004 ; short scale : one trillion ; long scale : one billion ) iso : tera - ( t ) astronomy : andromeda galaxy, which is part of the same local group as our galaxy, contains about 1012 stars. biology – bacteria on the human body : the surface of the human body houses roughly 1012 bacteria. astronomy – galaxies : a 2016 estimate says there are 2 × 1012 galaxies in the observable universe. biology – blood cells in the human body : the average human body has 2. 5 × 1012 red blood cells. biology : an estimate says there were 3. 04 × 1012 trees on earth in 2015. marine biology : 3, 500, 000, 000, 000 ( 3. 5 × 1012 ) – estimated population of fish in the ocean. mathematics : 7, 625, 597, 484, 987 – a number that often appears when dealing with powers of 3. it can be expressed as,,, and 33 or when using knuth's up - arrow notation it can be expressed as and. astronomy : a light - year, as defined by the international astronomical union ( iau ), is the distance that light travels in a vacuum in one year, which is equivalent to about 9. 46 trillion kilometers ( ). mathematics : 1013 – the approximate number of known non - trivial zeros of the riemann zeta function. mathematics – known digits of π :, the number of known digits of π is 31, 415, 926, 535, 897 ( the
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Which of the following is the best estimate of the number of stars in a typical galaxy?
A. tens
B. hundreds
C. thousands
D. billions
Answer: | [
"tens",
"hundreds",
"thousands",
"billions"
] | D | |
mmlu_aux_2527 | mmlu_auxiliary | <ctx>
##aching. killing for bushmeat in central africa has evolved into an international business in recent decades with markets reaching new york and other major cities of the united states, and the industry is still on the rise. this illegal market poses the greatest threat not only to forest elephants where hunters can target elephants of all ages, including calves, but to all of the larger species in the forests. there are actions that can be taken to lower the incentive for supplying to the bushmeat market. regional markets, and international trade, require the transporting of extensive amounts of animal meat which, in turn, requires the utilisation of vehicles. having checkpoints on major roads and railroads can potentially help disrupt commercial networks. in 2006, it was estimated that 410 african forest elephants are killed yearly in the cross - sanaga - bioko coastal forests. conservation in 1986, the african elephant database was initiated with the aim to monitor the status of african elephant populations. this database includes results from aerial surveys, dung counts, interviews with local people, and data on poaching. both african elephant species have been listed by the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora on cites appendix i since 1989. this listing banned commercial international trade of wild african elephants and their parts and derivatives by countries that signed the cites agreement. populations of botswana, namibia and zimbabwe were listed in cites appendix ii in 1997 as was the population of south africa in 2000. hunting elephants is banned in the central african republic, democratic republic of congo, gabon, cote d'ivoire, and senegal. african forest elephants are estimated to constitute up to one - third of the continent's elephant population but have been poorly studied because of the difficulty in observing them through the dense vegetation that makes up their habitat. thermal imaging has facilitated observation of the species, leading to more information on their ecology, numbers, and behavior, including their interactions with elephants and other species. scientists have learned more about how the elephants, who have poor night vision, negotiate their environment using only their hearing and olfactory senses. they also appeared to be much more active sexually during the night compared to the day, which was unexpected. references notes further reading yasuko ishida et al. ( 2018
##ry intensification. conservation biology, 23 ( 5 ), 1176 – 1184. england, p. ( 1993 ). forest protection and the rights of cocoa farmers in western ghana. journal of african law, 37 ( 2 ), 164 – 176. the european chocolate and cocoa industry. ( n. d. ). cocoa farming : an overview. https : / / web. archive. org / web / 20131229002738 / http : / / www. cocoafarming. org. uk / cocoa _ farming _ bw _ v8 _ uk. pdf gyimah - brempong, k., konadu apraku, k. ( 1987 ). structural change in supply response of ghanaian cocoa production : 1933 – 1983. the journal of developing areas, 22 ( 1 ), 59 – 70. padwick, n. ( 2010 ). fair farming. farmers weekly, 152 ( 9 ), 88 – 89. piasentin, f., klare - repnik, l. ( 2004 ). gro - cocoa : global research on cocoa. https : / / web. archive. org / web / 20100706222044 / http : / / www. cabi. org / uploads / file / gro % 20cocoa % 20pdfs / gro - cocoa5. pdf rice, r. a., greenburg, r. ( 2000 ). cacao cultivation and the conservation of biological diversity. ambio, 29 ( 3 ), 167 – 173. styles, r. ( 21 january 2011 ). green business : divine. http : / / www. theecologist. org / green _ green _ living / green _ business / 736265 / green _ business _ divine. html world cocoa foundation. ( n. d. ) sustainability principles and goals. https : / / web. archive. org / web / 20120216033534 / http : / / www. worldcocoafoundation. org / sustainability - principles - and - goals / profile on roundtable for a sustainable cocoa economy. http : / / shapingsustainablemarkets. iied
are killed for their tusks every day. in 1986, cites ( the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ) introduced a control system based on permits, registration, stockpiles, and monitoring. shortly thereafter, the cites secretariat weakened regulations, effectively legalizing stockpiles of poached ivory. for example, countries such as burundi and singapore, which were not home to wild elephants, registered and of trafficked ivory, respectively. as uncovered by the environmental investigation agency, the " control system " turned out to be easy to manipulate, ultimately increasing the value of ivory and empowering smugglers. at the october 1989 cites convention in geneva, representatives from tanzania proposed an effective ban on the international ivory trade. after heated debates, the ban was enacted, and went into effect in january 1990. the ban proved effective for about a decade, and saw rising elephant populations, but starting in 1997 cites began granting exceptions to the ban to allow countries such as zimbabwe, botswana, and namibia to sell a limited amount of ivory, as well as an exception to japan to buy a limited amount, based on each country's declared confidence in their effective regulation and control. from 1998 to 2011, other countries were granted exceptions and illegal trafficking at least tripled. the majority of ivory in the 21st century has gone to growing asian markets, including and especially china, where the material has been viewed as a status symbol sometimes known as " white gold ". in 2015, chinese officials expressed their intent to phase out the country's involvement with the ivory trade. prices fell by nearly half in the year prior to a 2016 report, and at the end of that year china's state council declared its intent to halt ivory - related commerce by the end of march 2017. history and events kenya and the first fires in 1989 richard leakey, a paleoanthropologist and conservationist from the prominent leakey family, was named head of kenya's wildlife conservation and management department, the forerunner to today's kenya wildlife service. elephant hunting had been banned in 1973, but the ivory trade remained legal. by the 1980s, elephant poaching had become widespread due to the increasing price of ivory. in a may 1989
##lese government had led to locally negotiated solutions and territorialization, leading to secretive mining activities. environmental concerns uncontrolled mining in the drc causes soil erosion and pollutes lakes and rivers, affecting the hydrology and ecology of the region. the eastern mountain gorilla's population has diminished as well. miners, far from food sources and often hungry, hunt gorillas. the gorilla population in the drc fell from 17, 000 to 5, 000 in the decade prior to 2009, and mountain gorillas in the great lakes region numbered only 700, unep said in 2009. hunted for bushmeat, a prized delicacy in western africa, and threatened by logging, slash - and - burn agriculture and armed conflict, the gorilla population was critically endangered, they said. the population of grauer's gorillas were particularly threatened by changes in their environment, with a population in january 2018 of only about 3, 800. an estimated 3 – 5 million tons of bushmeat is obtained by killing animals, including gorillas, every year. demand for bushmeat comes from urban dwellers who consider it a delicacy, as well as from remote populations of artisanal miners. environmentalists who interviewed miners in and around kahuzi - biega national park and the itombwe nature reserve found that the miners did confirm that they had been eating bushmeat and that they did think that the practice had caused a decline in primate numbers. since the miners said they would cease the practice if they had another food supply, the authors suggested that efforts to stop the gorilla population decline should consider addressing this issue to reduce the depredations of subsistence hunting. the mines in these nature reserves were producing cassiterite, gold, coltan and wolframite, and " most mines were controlled by armed groups. " health concerns there is a high prevalence of respiratory complaints in congolese informal coltan miners. it has been suggested that efficient occupational safety measures be implemented. also there is a need to regulate the informal mining business. price increases and changes in demand the production and sale of coltan and niobium from african mines dropped significantly after the dramatic price spike in 2000 from the dot - com frenzy, from $
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Elephants are the largest land animals and they need plenty of living space. They have seasonal migration routes. As human populations rise, elephant land is being cleared for agriculture and other kinds of development. When animals are effectively trapped on small areas of land, it restricts the gene pool and also results in a shortage of food. Where elephant reserves border agricultural areas, elephants are often attracted to leave parks to attack crops and barns. Only the strongest walls will stop an adult elephant (males can weigh 6,000kg), so farmers have great difficulty protecting their fields. In prefix = st1 /India, elephants don't only attack for food. Some even have developed a taste for rice beer. InAssam, elephant-human conflict has resulted in the death of more than 150 people and 200 elephants in the space of two years. Poverty leads to the killing of elephants for meat. If people don't have enough food and their governments cannot afford to enforce poaching bans, it's not difficult to predict the outcome. Ivory comes form elephant tusks , which can grow to be 3 meters long. Both male and female African elephants have large tusks. Most new ivory comes from Africa and is sold as a high status material in Asian countries such as Thailand, mainlandChinaandJapan. It can fetch $150 an pound and is carved to make decorations, chopsticks and ink stamps. The conservation priority here is to change public attitudes. In some countries in southern Africa, where conservation efforts have been successful, there is not enough room for a growing elephant population and animals have to be killed. A CITES meeting in November 2002 ruled that Botswana,NamibiaandSouth Africamay sell stock-piled ivory, starting in2004. Many conservationists are convinced that _ will fuel the demand for ivory and lead to more illegal poaching, they say it is almost impossible to tell legal from poached ivory. The governments argue that the sales will be used to fund conservation work. According to the passage, we can infer that _ .
A. farmers have difficulty in protecting their field because no walls can stop an adult elephant.
B. if the government could help solve poverty, there would be less killing of elephants.
C. only male elephants in Africa have tusks as long as 3 meters.
D. since there is not enough room for a growing elephant population, there is no need to ban poaching all over Africa
Answer: | [
"farmers have difficulty in protecting their field because no walls can stop an adult elephant.",
"if the government could help solve poverty, there would be less killing of elephants.",
"only male elephants in Africa have tusks as long as 3 meters.",
"since there is not enough room for a growing elephant pop... | B | null |
qasc_8115 | qasc | <ctx>
recorded an hours travel on a river, and the days sail. modern tools modern measurement equipment include hand tools, cmms ( coordinate - measuring machines ), machine vision systems, laser trackers, and optical comparators. a cmm is based on cnc technology to automate measurement of cartesian coordinates using a touch probe, contact scanning probe, or non - contact sensor. optical comparators are used when physically touching the part is undesirable ; components that consist of fragile or mailable materials require measurement using non - contact techniques. instruments can now build 3d models of a part and its internal features using ct scanning or x - ray imaging. relative measurements measurements are often expressed as a size relative to a theoretically perfect part that has its geometry defined in a print or computer model. a print is a blueprint illustrating the defined geometry of a part and its features. each feature can have a size, a distance from other features, and an allowed tolerance set on each element. the international language used to describe physical parts is called geometric dimensioning & tolerancing ( colloquially known as gd & t ). prints can be hand drawn or automatically generated by a computer cad model. however, computer controlled measurement like coordinate measuring machines ( cmms ) and vision measuring machines ( vmms ) can measure a part relative to a cad model without the need for a print. typically, this process is done to reverse engineer components. mechanical engineering industrial metrology is common in manufacturing quality control systems to help identify errors in component production and ensure proper performance. blueprints and 3d cad models ( as described above ) are usually made by a mechanical engineer. see also position sensor positioning system references further reading external links national institute for standards and technology dimensional metrology portal an example of industrial metrology equipment. the dimensional metrology standards consortium is an ansi standards organization that identify needed standards in the field of digital metrology metrology dimension manufacturing
1. 5 • measurement uncertainty, accuracy, and precision 33 counted does not change while the counting process is underway. the result of such a counting measurement is an example of an exact number. by counting the eggs in a carton, one can determine exactly how many eggs the carton contains. the numbers of defined quantities are also exact. by definition, 1 foot is exactly 12 inches, 1 inch is exactly 2. 54 centimeters, and 1 gram is exactly 0. 001 kilogram. quantities derived from measurements other than counting, however, are uncertain to varying extents due to practical limitations of the measurement process used. significant figures in measurement the numbers of measured quantities, unlike defined or directly counted quantities, are not exact. to measure the volume of liquid in a graduated cylinder, you should make a reading at the bottom of the meniscus, the lowest point on the curved surface of the liquid. figure 1. 26 to measure the volume of liquid in this graduated cylinder, you must mentally subdivide the distance between the 21 and 22 ml marks into tenths of a milliliter, and then make a reading ( estimate ) at the bottom of the meniscus. refer to the illustration in figure 1. 26. the bottom of the meniscus in this case clearly lies between the 21 and 22 markings, meaning the liquid volume is certainly greater than 21 ml but less than 22 ml. the meniscus appears to be a bit closer to the 22 - ml mark than to the 21 - ml mark, and so a reasonable estimate of the liquid ’ s volume would be 21. 6 ml. in the number 21. 6, then, the digits 2 and 1 are certain, but the 6 is an estimate. some people might estimate the meniscus position to be equally distant from each of the markings and estimate the tenth - place digit as 5, while others may think it to be even closer to the 22 - ml mark and estimate this digit to be 7. note that it would be pointless to attempt to estimate a digit for the hundredths place, given that the tenths - place digit is uncertain. in general, numerical scales such as the one on this graduated cylinder will permit measurements to one - tenth of
11. 96 seconds this week. can we conclude that this week's time was faster? solution no, the uncertainty in the stopwatch is too great to effectively differentiate between the sprint times. precision of measuring tools and significant figures an important factor in the accuracy and precision of measurements involves the precision of the measuring tool. in general, a precise measuring tool is one that can measure values in very small increments. for example, a standard ruler can measure length to the nearest millimeter, while a caliper can measure length to the nearest 0. 01 millimeter. the caliper is a more precise measuring tool because it can measure extremely small differences in length. the more precise the measuring tool, the more precise and accurate the measurements can be. when we express measured values, we can only list as many digits as we initially measured with our measuring tool. for example, if you use a standard ruler to measure the length of a stick, you may measure it to be. you could not express this value as because your measuring tool was not precise enough to measure a hundredth of a centimeter. it should be noted that the last digit in a measured value has been estimated in some way by the person performing the measurement. for example, the person measuring the length of a stick with a ruler notices that the stick length seems to be somewhere in between and, and they must estimate the value of the last digit. using the method of significant figures, the rule is that the last digit written down in a measurement is the first digit with some uncertainty. in order to determine the number of significant digits in a value, start with the first measured value at the left and count the number of digits through the last digit written on the right. for example, the measured value has three digits, or significant figures. significant figures indicate the precision of a measuring tool that was used to measure a value. zeros special consideration is given to zeros when counting significant figures. the zeros in 0. 053 are not significant, because they are only placekeepers that locate the decimal point. there are two significant figures in 0. 053. the zeros in 10. 053 are not placekeepers but are significant — this number has
instrumentation is a collective term for measuring instruments, used for indicating, measuring and recording physical quantities. it is also a field of study about the art and science about making measurement instruments, involving the related areas of metrology, automation, and control theory. the term has its origins in the art and science of scientific instrument - making. instrumentation can refer to devices as simple as direct - reading thermometers, or as complex as multi - sensor components of industrial control systems. today, instruments can be found in laboratories, refineries, factories and vehicles, as well as in everyday household use ( e. g., smoke detectors and thermostats ) measurement parameters instrumentation is used to measure many parameters ( physical values ), including : pressure, either differential or static flow temperature levels of liquids, etc. density viscosity ionising radiation frequency current voltage inductance capacitance resistivity chemical composition chemical properties position vibration weight history the history of instrumentation can be divided into several phases. pre - industrial elements of industrial instrumentation have long histories. scales for comparing weights and simple pointers to indicate position are ancient technologies. some of the earliest measurements were of time. one of the oldest water clocks was found in the tomb of the ancient egyptian pharaoh amenhotep i, buried around 1500 bce. improvements were incorporated in the clocks. by 270 bce they had the rudiments of an automatic control system device. in 1663 christopher wren presented the royal society with a design for a " weather clock ". a drawing shows meteorological sensors moving pens over paper driven by clockwork. such devices did not become standard in meteorology for two centuries. the concept has remained virtually unchanged as evidenced by pneumatic chart recorders, where a pressurized bellows displaces a pen. integrating sensors, displays, recorders and controls was uncommon until the industrial revolution, limited by both need and practicality. early industrial early systems used direct process connections to local control panels for control and indication, which from the early 1930s saw the introduction of pneumatic transmitters and automatic 3 - term ( pid ) controllers. the ranges of pneumatic transmitters were defined by the need to control valves and actuators in the field. typically a
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
a graduated cylinder is used to measure what?
A. density
B. liquid meters
C. liquid pounds
D. liquid ounces
Answer: | [
"density",
"liquid meters",
"liquid pounds",
"liquid ounces"
] | D | |
medmcqa_9849 | medmcqa | <ctx>
human genetics is the study of inheritance as it occurs in human beings. human genetics encompasses a variety of overlapping fields including : classical genetics, cytogenetics, molecular genetics, biochemical genetics, genomics, population genetics, developmental genetics, clinical genetics, and genetic counseling. genes are the common factor of the qualities of most human - inherited traits. study of human genetics can answer questions about human nature, can help understand diseases and the development of effective treatment and help us to understand the genetics of human life. this article describes only basic features of human genetics ; for the genetics of disorders please see : medical genetics. genetic differences and inheritance patterns inheritance of traits for humans are based upon gregor mendel's model of inheritance. mendel deduced that inheritance depends upon discrete units of inheritance, called factors or genes. autosomal dominant inheritance autosomal traits are associated with a single gene on an autosome ( non - sex chromosome ) — they are called " dominant " because a single copy — inherited from either parent — is enough to cause this trait to appear. this often means that one of the parents must also have the same trait, unless it has arisen due to an unlikely new mutation. examples of autosomal dominant traits and disorders are huntington's disease and achondroplasia. autosomal recessive inheritance autosomal recessive traits is one pattern of inheritance for a trait, disease, or disorder to be passed on through families. for a recessive trait or disease to be displayed two copies of the trait or disorder needs to be presented. the trait or gene will be located on a non - sex chromosome. because it takes two copies of a trait to display a trait, many people can unknowingly be carriers of a disease. from an evolutionary perspective, a recessive disease or trait can remain hidden for several generations before displaying the phenotype. examples of autosomal recessive disorders are albinism, cystic fibrosis. x - linked and y - linked inheritance x - linked genes are found on the sex x chromosome. x - linked genes just like autosomal genes have both dominant and recessive types. recessive x - linked disorders are rarely seen in females and
, cystic fibrosis, galactosemia, phenylketonuria ( pku ), and tay – sachs disease. other disorders are also due to recessive alleles, but because the gene locus is located on the x chromosome, so that males have only one copy ( that is, they are hemizygous ), they are more frequent in males than in females. examples include red – green color blindness and fragile x syndrome. other disorders, such as huntington's disease, occur when an individual inherits only one dominant allele. epialleles while heritable traits are typically studied in terms of genetic alleles, epigenetic marks such as dna methylation can be inherited at specific genomic regions in certain species, a process termed transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. the term epiallele is used to distinguish these heritable marks from traditional alleles, which are defined by nucleotide sequence. a specific class of epiallele, the metastable epialleles, has been discovered in mice and in humans which is characterized by stochastic ( probabilistic ) establishment of epigenetic state that can be mitotically inherited. idiomorph the term " idiomorph ", from greek'morphos'( form ) and'idio'( singular, unique ), was introduced in 1990 in place of " allele " to denote sequences at the same locus in different strains that have no sequence similarity and probably do not share a common phylogenetic relationship. it is used mainly in the genetic research of mycology. see also references and notes external links alfred : the allele frequency database classical genetics genetic genealogy
' s is caused by a single autosomal dominant variant in the htt gene, which is the only variant that accounts for any differences among individuals in their risk for developing the disease, assuming they live long enough. in the case of genetically simple and rare diseases such as huntington's, the variant and the are simultaneously large. additional general findings in response to general concerns about the replicability of psychological research, behavioural geneticists robert plomin, john c. defries, valerie knopik, and jenae neiderhiser published a review of the ten most well - replicated findings from behavioural genetics research. the ten findings were : " all psychological traits show significant and substantial genetic influence. " " no behavioral traits are 100 % heritable. " " heritability is caused by many genes of small effect. " " phenotypic correlations between psychological traits show significant and substantial genetic mediation. " " the heritability of intelligence increases throughout development. " " age - to - age stability is mainly due to genetics. " " most measures of the'environment'show significant genetic influence. " " most associations between environmental measures and psychological traits are significantly mediated genetically. " " most environmental effects are not shared by children growing up in the same family. " " abnormal is normal. " criticisms and controversies behavioural genetic research and findings have at times been controversial. some of this controversy has arisen because behavioural genetic findings can challenge societal beliefs about the nature of human behaviour and abilities. major areas of controversy have included genetic research on topics such as racial differences, intelligence, violence, and human sexuality. other controversies have arisen due to misunderstandings of behavioural genetic research, whether by the lay public or the researchers themselves. for example, the notion of heritability is easily misunderstood to imply causality, or that some behaviour or condition is determined by one's genetic endowment. when behavioural genetics researchers say that a behaviour is x % heritable, that does not mean that genetics causes, determines, or fixes up to x % of the behaviour. instead, heritability is a statement about genetic differences correlated with trait differences on the population level. historically, perhaps the most controversial subject
in genetics, dominance is the phenomenon of one variant ( allele ) of a gene on a chromosome masking or overriding the effect of a different variant of the same gene on the other copy of the chromosome. the first variant is termed dominant and the second is called recessive. this state of having two different variants of the same gene on each chromosome is originally caused by a mutation in one of the genes, either new ( de novo ) or inherited. the terms autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive are used to describe gene variants on non - sex chromosomes ( autosomes ) and their associated traits, while those on sex chromosomes ( allosomes ) are termed x - linked dominant, x - linked recessive or y - linked ; these have an inheritance and presentation pattern that depends on the sex of both the parent and the child ( see sex linkage ). since there is only one copy of the y chromosome, y - linked traits cannot be dominant or recessive. additionally, there are other forms of dominance, such as incomplete dominance, in which a gene variant has a partial effect compared to when it is present on both chromosomes, and co - dominance, in which different variants on each chromosome both show their associated traits. dominance is a key concept in mendelian inheritance and classical genetics. letters and punnett squares are used to demonstrate the principles of dominance in teaching, and the use of upper - case letters for dominant alleles and lower - case letters for recessive alleles is a widely followed convention. a classic example of dominance is the inheritance of seed shape in peas. peas may be round, associated with allele r, or wrinkled, associated with allele r. in this case, three combinations of alleles ( genotypes ) are possible : rr, rr, and rr. the rr ( homozygous ) individuals have round peas, and the rr ( homozygous ) individuals have wrinkled peas. in rr ( heterozygous ) individuals, the r allele masks the presence of the r allele, so these individuals also have round peas. thus, allele r is dominant over allele r, and allele r is recessive to allele r.
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Following is transmitted as autosomal dominant disorder-
A. Albinism
B. Sickle cell anemia
C. Hereditary spherocytosis
D. Glycogen storage disease
Answer: | [
"Albinism",
"Sickle cell anemia",
"Hereditary spherocytosis",
"Glycogen storage disease"
] | C | Ans. is 'c' i.e., Hereditary spherocytosis Hereditary spherocytosis is an autosomal dominant disorder. o Other three disorders (given in question) are autosomal recessive. |
openbookqa_1317 | openbookqa | <ctx>
). rf / v ( radio frequency + vacuum ) kilns use microwave radiation to heat the kiln charge, and typically have the highest operating cost due to the heat of vaporization being provided by electricity rather than local fossil fuel or waste wood sources. valid economic studies of different wood drying technologies are based on the total energy, capital, insurance / risk, environmental impacts, labor, maintenance, and product degrade costs for the task of removing water from the wood fiber. these costs ( which can be a significant part of the entire plant costs ) involve the differential impact of the presence of drying equipment in a specific plant. an example of this is that every piece of equipment ( in a lumber manufacturing plant ) from the green trimmer to the infeed system at the planer mill is the " drying system ". since thousands of different types of wood products manufacturing plants exist around the globe, and may be integrated ( lumber, plywood, paper, etc. ) or stand alone ( lumber only ), the true costs of the drying system can only be determined when comparing the total plant costs and risks with and without drying. the total ( harmful ) air emissions produced by wood kilns, including their heat source, can be significant. typically, the higher the temperature the kiln operates at, the larger amount of emissions are produced ( per pound of water removed ). this is especially true in the drying of thin veneers and high - temperature drying of softwoods. osha standards regarding dry kiln facilities 1910. 265 ( f ) ( 3 ) ( i ) ( a ) : main kiln doors shall be provided with a method of holding them open while kiln is being loaded. 1910. 265 ( f ) ( 3 ) ( i ) ( b ) : counterweights on vertical lift doors shall be boxed or otherwise guarded. 1910. 265 ( f ) ( 3 ) ( i ) ( c ) : adequate means shall be provided to firmly secure main doors, when they are disengaged from carriers and hangers, to prevent toppling. 1910. 265 ( f ) ( 3 ) ( ii ) ( a ) : if operating procedures require access to kilns, kilns shall be
drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water or another solvent by evaporation from a solid, semi - solid or liquid. this process is often used as a final production step before selling or packaging products. to be considered " dried ", the final product must be solid, in the form of a continuous sheet ( e. g., paper ), long pieces ( e. g., wood ), particles ( e. g., cereal grains or corn flakes ) or powder ( e. g., sand, salt, washing powder, milk powder ). a source of heat and an agent to remove the vapor produced by the process are often involved. in bioproducts like food, grains, and pharmaceuticals like vaccines, the solvent to be removed is almost invariably water. desiccation may be synonymous with drying or considered an extreme form of drying. in the most common case, a gas stream, e. g., air, applies the heat by convection and carries away the vapor as humidity. other possibilities are vacuum drying, where heat is supplied by conduction or radiation ( or microwaves ), while the vapor thus produced is removed by the vacuum system. another indirect technique is drum drying ( used, for instance, for manufacturing potato flakes ), where a heated surface is used to provide the energy, and aspirators draw the vapor outside the room. in contrast, the mechanical extraction of the solvent, e. g., water, by filtration or centrifugation, is not considered " drying " but rather " draining ". drying mechanism in some products having a relatively high initial moisture content, an initial linear reduction of the average product moisture content as a function of time may be observed for a limited time, often known as a " constant drying rate period ". usually, in this period, it is surface moisture outside individual particles that is being removed. the drying rate during this period is mostly dependent on the rate of heat transfer to the material being dried. therefore, the maximum achievable drying rate is considered to be heat - transfer limited. if drying is continued, the slope of the curve, the drying rate, becomes less steep ( falling rate period
rate during this period is mostly dependent on the rate of heat transfer to the material being dried. therefore, the maximum achievable drying rate is considered to be heat - transfer limited. if drying is continued, the slope of the curve, the drying rate, becomes less steep ( falling rate period ) and eventually tends to become nearly horizontal at very long times. the product moisture content is then constant at the " equilibrium moisture content ", where it is, in practice, in equilibrium with the dehydrating medium. in the falling - rate period, water migration from the product interior to the surface is mostly by molecular diffusion, i, e. the water flux is proportional to the moisture content gradient. this means that water moves from zones with higher moisture content to zones with lower values, a phenomenon explained by the second law of thermodynamics. if water removal is considerable, the products usually undergo shrinkage and deformation, except in a well - designed freeze - drying process. the drying rate in the falling - rate period is controlled by the rate of removal of moisture or solvent from the interior of the solid being dried and is referred to as being " mass - transfer limited ". this is widely noticed in hygroscopic products such as fruits and vegetables, where drying occurs in the falling rate period with the constant drying rate period said to be negligible. methods of drying the following are some general methods of drying : application of hot air ( convective or direct drying ). air heating increases the drying force for heat transfer and accelerates drying. it also reduces air relative humidity, further increasing the driving force for drying. in the falling rate period, as moisture content falls, the solids heat up and the higher temperatures speed up diffusion of water from the interior of the solid to the surface. however, product quality considerations limit the applicable rise to air temperature. excessively hot air can almost completely dehydrate the solid surface, so that its pores shrink and almost close, leading to crust formation or " case hardening ", which is usually undesirable. for instance in wood ( timber ) drying, air is heated ( which speeds up drying ) though some steam is also added to it (
##raphs of dutch artist m. c. escher. engineer derek phillips was able to accomplish the task after a year of work, creating a water sculpture in which the water appears to flow up to the tops of four ramps arranged in a square, before cascading to the bottom of the next ramp. called wrong garden, it was displayed at the chelsea flower show in 2003. the illusion is accomplished with water containing air bubbles pumped through a chamber underneath the transparent glass ramps to a slit at the top from which the bulk of the water cascades down. this makes it appear that the water is flowing up, when really, a small amount of water diverted from the slit at the top flows back down the ramps in a thin layer. in october 2006, dyson launched the dyson airblade, a fast hand dryer that uses a thin sheet of moving air as a squeegee to remove water, rather than attempting to evaporate it with heat. this allows for faster drying, while using much less energy than traditional electrical hand dryers. another product, launched in october 2009, is a fan without external blades which he calls the air multiplier. functions such as heating, air - purifying and humidifying were added later. in april 2016, dyson launched the dyson supersonic, a hair dryer with a smaller motor in the handle to provide better balance and smaller size, as well as quieter operation. commenting on the launch, vogue magazine said " as the first product to launch from dyson's new uk state - of - the - art hair laboratory, we have high hopes for the future of our blow - dries. " research and development in 2017, dyson spent £7 million a week on research and development of new products. the company is the uk's biggest investor in robotics and artificial intelligence research, employing over 3, 500 engineers and scientists, and engaging in more than 40 university research programmes. speaking to the daily telegraph, dyson said, “ we ’ re looking at more non - domestic products but we are not rushing to do lots of different things, ” he said. “ we are a private company so we can do it when we are ready. ”
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
What does a hand dryer produce?
A. growth
B. money
C. carbs
D. hotness
Answer: | [
"growth",
"money",
"carbs",
"hotness"
] | D | |
aquarat_8854 | aquarat | <ctx>
##dinal approximation factors are smaller than n. they presented : a proof that an mms allocation may not exist for chores ; a 2 - fraction mms algorithm for chores ; algorithms for finding the optimal mms approximation of a given instance, based on algorithms for multiway number partitioning. barman and krishnamurthy presented an algorithm attaining 4 / 3 - fraction mms ( precisely, ). the algorithm can be seen as a generalization of the lpt algorithm for identical - machines scheduling. huang and lu prove that a 11 / 9 - fraction mms - fair allocation for chores always exists, and a 5 / 4 - fraction mms allocation can be found in polynomial time. their algorithm can be seen as a generalization of the multifit algorithm for identical - machines scheduling. kulkarni, mehta and taki study mms - fair allocation with mixed valuations, i. e., when there are both goods and chores. they prove that : no multiplicative approximation is possible. they extend the example of procaccia and wang by adding three chores with a value of - 4, 054, 999. 75. the 1 - out - of - 3 mms of each agent is 0. 25 ( each mms bundle contains four goods with a sum of 4, 055, 000, and one chore ). however, every allocation of the goods gives at least one agent, a value of at most 4, 054, 999 from the goods. we must give one chore to each agent ; therefore, at least one agent has a negative value. they also present conditions under which computing an α - mms and pareto - optimal allocation, for the best possible α in a specific instance, can be done in polynomial time. techniques and algorithms various normalizations can be applied to the original problem without changing the solution. below, o is the set of all objects. scaling if, for each agent i, all valuations are scaled by a factor ( which can be different for different agents ), then the mms for each agent is scaled by the same factor ; therefore, every mms allocation in the original instance is an mms allocation in the scaled instance. it
##fa ) has competitive ratio 2k - 1. however, despite the efforts of many other researchers, reducing the competitive ratio to or providing an improved lower bound remains open. the most common believed scenario is that the work function algorithm is k - competitive. to this direction, in 2000 bartal and koutsoupias showed that this is true for some special cases ( if the metric space is a line, a weighted star or any metric of k + 2 points ). in 2011, a randomized algorithm with competitive bound o ( log2k log3n ) was found. in 2017, a randomized algorithm with competitive bound o ( log6 k ) was announced, but was later retracted. in 2022 it was shown that the conjecture is false, in general. example to make the problem more concrete, imagine sending customer support technicians to customers when they have trouble with their equipment. in our example problem there are two technicians, mary and noah, serving three customers, in san francisco, california ; washington, dc ; and baltimore, maryland. as a k - server problem, the servers are the technicians, so k = 2 and this is a 2 - server problem. washington and baltimore are apart, while san francisco is away from both, and initially mary and noah are both in san francisco. consider an algorithm for assigning servers to requests that always assigns the closest server to the request, and suppose that each weekday morning the customer in washington needs assistance while each weekday afternoon the customer in baltimore needs assistance, and that the customer in san francisco never needs assistance. then, our algorithm will assign one of the servers ( say mary ) to the washington area, after which she will always be the closest server and always be assigned to all customer requests. thus, every day our algorithm incurs the cost of traveling between washington and baltimore and back,. after a year of this request pattern, the algorithm will have incurred travel : 3, 000 to send mary to the east coast, and 17, 500 for the trips between washington and baltimore. on the other hand, an optimal adversary who knows the future request schedule could have sent both mary and noah to washington and baltimore respectively, paying of travel once but then avoiding any future travel costs. the
strategy for ( b ) the efficiency can be calculated with since is given and work was found in the first part of this example. solution for ( b ) efficiency is given by :. the work was just found to be, and is given, so the efficiency is 15. 26 15. 27 15. 28 × × 15. 29 15. 30
to send mary to the east coast, and 17, 500 for the trips between washington and baltimore. on the other hand, an optimal adversary who knows the future request schedule could have sent both mary and noah to washington and baltimore respectively, paying of travel once but then avoiding any future travel costs. the competitive ratio of our algorithm on this input is 20, 500 / 6, 000 or approximately 3. 4, and by adjusting the parameters of this example the competitive ratio of this algorithm can be made arbitrarily large. thus we see that always assigning the closest server can be far from optimal. on the other hand, it seems foolish for an algorithm that does not know future requests to send both of its technicians away from san francisco, as the next request could be in that city and it would have to send someone back immediately. so it seems that it is difficult or impossible for a k - server algorithm to perform well relative to its adversary. however, for the 2 - server problem, there exists an algorithm that always has a total travel distance of at most twice the adversary's distance. the k - server conjecture states that similar solutions exist for problems with any larger number of technicians. references online algorithms unsolved problems in computer science
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Kim can do a work in 3 days while David can do the same work in 2 days. Both of them finish the work together and get Rs. 150. What is the share of Kim?
A. A)77
B. B)60
C. C)99
D. D)26
Answer: | [
"A)77",
"B)60",
"C)99",
"D)26"
] | B | Kim's wages : David's wages = Kim's 1 day work : David's 1 day work = 1/3 : 1/2 = 2:3
Kim's share = 2/5 * 150 = Rs. 60
Answer: B |
mmlu_aux_2939 | mmlu_auxiliary | <ctx>
the team flew the 4 × 4 cm sized mechanical bees over pink - leaved japanese lilies ( lilium japonicum ), letting them absorb the pollen. the drones were then flown to a second flower, where grains were deposited to artificially pollinate the plants, causing them to begin the process of generating seeds. this did not occur with control drones ( without the gel and hair ). miyako states that " the findings, which will have applications for agriculture and robotics, among others, could lead to the development of artificial pollinators and help counter the problems caused by declining honeybee populations ", that they " believe that robotic pollinators could be trained to learn pollination paths using global positioning systems and artificial intelligence " and that the concept demonstrated " should be expandable to other research areas, including chemical composites, agriculture, biomimetic science, and robotics ". see also robobee pollinator decline technological fix references external links 2017 robots flying robots micro robots pollination
to crop production, over 200 billion dollars worth of crop species are pollinated by these insects. pollinators are also essential because they improve crop quality and increase genetic diversity, which is necessary in producing fruit with nutritional value and various flavors. crops that do not depend on animals for pollination but on the wind or self - pollination, like corn and potatoes, have doubled in production and make up a large part of the human diet but do not provide the micronutrients that are needed. the essential nutrients that are necessary in the human diet are present in plants that rely on animal pollinators. there have been issues in vitamin and mineral deficiencies and it is believed that if pollinator populations continue to decrease these deficiencies will become even more prominent. plant – pollinator networks wild pollinators often visit a large number of plant species and plants are visited by a large number of pollinator species. all these relations together form a network of interactions between plants and pollinators. surprising similarities were found in the structure of networks consisting out of the interactions between plants and pollinators. this structure was found to be similar in very different ecosystems on different continents, consisting of entirely different species. the structure of plant - pollinator networks may have large consequences for the way in which pollinator communities respond to increasingly harsh conditions. mathematical models, examining the consequences of this network structure for the stability of pollinator communities suggest that the specific way in which plant - pollinator networks are organized minimizes competition between pollinators and may even lead to strong indirect facilitation between pollinators when conditions are harsh. this means that pollinator species together can survive under harsh conditions. but it also means that pollinator species collapse simultaneously when conditions pass a critical point. this simultaneous collapse occurs, because pollinator species depend on each other when surviving under difficult conditions. such a community - wide collapse, involving many pollinator species, can occur suddenly when increasingly harsh conditions pass a critical point and recovery from such a collapse might not be easy. the improvement in conditions needed for pollinators to recover, could be substantially larger than the improvement needed to return to conditions at which the pollinator community collapsed. economics of commercial honeybee pollination while there
, 500 eggs per day ( more than her body mass ). she fertilizes each egg ( with stored sperm from the spermatheca ) as it is laid in a worker - sized cell. eggs laid in drone - sized ( larger ) cells are left unfertilized ; these unfertilized eggs, with half as many genes as queen or worker eggs, develop into drones. workers workers are females produced by the queen that develop from fertilized, diploid eggs. workers are essential for social structure and proper colony functioning. they carry out the main tasks of the colony, because the queen is occupied solely with reproducing. these females raise their sister workers and future queens that eventually leave the nest to start their own colony. they also forage and return to the nest with nectar and pollen to feed the young, and defend the colony. drones drones are the colony's male bees. since they do not have ovipositors, they do not have stingers. drone honey bees do not forage for nectar or pollen. the primary purpose of a drone is to fertilize a new queen. many drones mate with a given queen in flight ; each dies immediately after mating, since the process of insemination requires a lethally convulsive effort. drone honey bees are haploid ( single, unpaired chromosomes ) in their genetic structure, and are descended only from their mother ( the queen ). in temperate regions, drones are generally expelled from the hive before winter, dying of cold and starvation since they cannot forage, produce honey or care for themselves. given their larger size ( 1. 5 times that of worker bees ), inside the hive it is believed that drones may play a significant role in thermoregulation. drones are typically located near the center of hive clusters for unclear reasons. it is postulated that it is to maintain sperm viability, which may be compromised at cooler temperatures. another possible explanation is that a more central location allows drones to contribute to warmth, since at temperatures below their ability to contribute declines. queen – worker conflict when a fertile female worker produces drones, a conflict arises between her interests and those of the queen. the worker
##keepers are trying to follow the natural tendency of the bees. in the mid to late spring, just before a bee hive would naturally split by swarming, beekeepers often remove frames of brood, with adhering bees, to make up new starter hives, called " nucs " or nucleus colonies. in areas where the climate is mild, one frame may be sufficient to start a new colony, with an added queen. but usually two to three frames are used, together with a frame that is predominantly honey. this ensures that there will be enough adult bees to provide the brood the adequate temperature and sufficient feed if there are a few rainy days when bees cannot gather nectar. if there are not enough adult bees to warm the combs, the brood may die from cold temperature overnight ( aptly called " chilled brood " ). brood development bee brood frames are composed of brood at various stages of development - eggs, larvae, and pupae. in each cell of honeycomb, the queen lays an egg, gluing it to the bottom of the cell. the queen tends to lay brood in a circular or oval pattern. at the height of the brood laying season, the queen may lay so many eggs per day, that the brood on a particular frame may be virtually of the same age. as the egg hatches, worker bees add royal jelly - a secretion from glands on the heads of young bees. for three days the young larvae are fed royal jelly, then they are fed nectar or diluted honey and pollen. a few female larvae in special queen cups may be selected to become queens. their special queen cups are flooded with royal jelly for six days. the extra royal jelly speeds up the queen larvae development. only the queen will have fully developed ovaries, i. e. she will be sexually mature. drone brood develops from unfertilized eggs. drone brood cells are larger than the cells of female worker bees. young larvae eat their way through the royal jelly in a circular pattern until they become crowded, then they stretch out lengthwise in the cell. soon they begin to spin a cocoon, and their older sisters cap the cell as they go into the pupa stage. these cells collectively are called " capped
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
All across California, honeybees are flying away from their hives and dying. Empty hives are causing a lot of worry about some important food crops. Bees give us a lot more than delicious honey. They are pollinators --they enable plants to produce the fruits and nuts we enjoy by carrying pollen from one plant or flower to the next. The wind pollinates oats, corn, and wheat, but many other plants (like apple and cherry trees and melon vines) depend on insects, bats, and birds. In the U.S., millions and millions of bees kept by human beekeepers fly around doing a lot of this important work for food crops. "Bees are worth protecting because their work adds so much to our diet," says Dr. Jeff Pettis of the Bee Research Laboratory. California's almond crop alone depends on about half the bees in the country. But now the almond crop and many others could be in trouble with so many bees dying. Researchers at government and university labs all over the country are trying to figure out why so many bees are dying. However, bees are hard to study. Most die away from the hive, so researchers don't have dead bodies to examine. And when researchers return to a hive after two weeks, about half the bees they studied on their first visit will be dead, replaced by new ones in the natural life cycle of bees. "It isn't like studying a large animal like a cow that doesn't move around much and is easy to find out in the cow field," says Pettis. Researchers have some ideas about what could be affecting bee health. They could be sick from poisons widely used to kill insects, or they might not be getting enough good food to stay strong. Also, tiny insects called mites feed on bees. "A virus or bacteria could also be doing the killing." explains Pettis. What could cause so many bees to die?
A. Poisons to kill birds.
B. Eating too much.
C. Large insects.
D. Some virus.
Answer: | [
"Poisons to kill birds.",
"Eating too much.",
"Large insects.",
"Some virus."
] | D | null |
medmcqa_600 | medmcqa | <ctx>
breadth of their symptoms, and the challenges of identifying impacted patients all complicate the diagnosis. these related conditions include : tunica vasculosa lentis : a capillary network that branches from the hyaloid artery and covers the lens surface ; if this capillary network persists, the lens does not form properly ; it includes anterior and posterior divisions encircling the human lens ; anteriorly, the tunica vasculosa lentis has attachments that extend to the pupillary frill of the iris and onto the anterior lens surface ; posteriorly, the tunica vasculosa lentis anastomosis with the hyaloid system and is attached to the ciliary process. hyaloid system : also called primary vitreous ; composed of both the hyaloid vessel that extends from the optic nerve to the posterior lens, as well as the vasculature that fills the vitreous cavity and has many attachments to the retinal surface ; normally regresses by 28 to 30 weeks gestational age. it includes the vaso hyaloidea proprea, the tunica vasculosa lentis, and the pupillary membrane. anterior pfv syndrome : eyes with mostly tunica vasculosa changes posterior pfv syndrome : eyes with mostly hyaloid artery changes mittendorf dot : the termination of the normally regressed anterior portion of the hyaloid artery, found slightly to the nasal side of the intraocular space as the artery approaches the posterior pole of the lens ; benign finding unless related to other intraocular persistent vasculature ; the brittle star configuration is seen when an enlarging mittendorf dot anastomoses with residual vessels of the posterior tunica vasculosa lentis ; bergmeister papilla : a remnant of the posterior portion of the hyaloid artery ’ s fibrous sheath at the optic disc ; not known to cause any visual disorders ; visualized as a linear, gray structure anterior to the optic disc. due to pfv ’ s close resemblance with retinoblastoma in particular, conclusively identifying pfv through advanced medical imaging is
pterygium ( plural pterygia or pterygiums ) refers to any wing - like triangular membrane occurring in the neck, eyes, knees, elbows, ankles or digits. the term comes from the greek word pterygion meaning " wing ". types popliteal pterygium syndrome, a congenital condition affecting the face, limbs, or genitalia but named after the wing - like structural anomaly behind the knee pterygium ( eye ) or surfer's eye, a growth on the cornea of the eye pterygium colli or webbed neck, a congenital skin fold of the neck down to the shoulders pterygium inversum unguis or ventral pterygium, adherence of the distal portion of the nailbed to the ventral surface of the nail plate pterygium unguis or dorsal pterygium, scarring between the proximal nail fold and matrix pterygium of the eye a pterygium reduces the vision in several ways : distortion of the corneal optics. this begins usually when the pterygium is greater than 2mm from the corneal edge ( limbus ). disruption of the tear film. the tear film is the first lens in the eye. pterygia are associated with eyelid inflammation, called blepharitis. growth over the corneal centre, which leads to dramatic reduction of vision. induced anterior corneal scarring, which often remains after surgical removal. a pterygium of the eye grows very slowly. usually it takes several years or decades to progress. surgical removal indications for surgery, in order of decreasing importance : growth over the corneal centre. reduced vision due to corneal distortion. documented growth. symptoms of discomfort. cosmesis. surgery is usually performed under local anaesthetic with light sedation as day surgery. the pterygium is stripped carefully off the surface of the eye. if this is all that is done, the pterygium regrows frequently. the technique with the lowest recurrence rate uses an auto graft of conjunctiva from under the eyelid. this is placed over the defect remaining from the removed
off the surface of the eye. if this is all that is done, the pterygium regrows frequently. the technique with the lowest recurrence rate uses an auto graft of conjunctiva from under the eyelid. this is placed over the defect remaining from the removed pterygium. the graft can be stitched in place, which is time - consuming, and painful for the patient afterwards. an alternative is the use of tissue adhesive fibrin glue ( tisseel or full link or beriplast p or quixil ). a cochrane review including 14 studies and last updated october 2016, found that using fibrin glue when doing conjunctival autografting was associated with a reduced likelihood of the pterygium recurring compared with sutures. the review found that operations may take less time but fibrin glue may be associated with more complications ( for example, rupture, shrinking and inflammation ( granuloma ). a 3 - year clinical study on the application of ologen collagen matrix as excision site grafts showed significantly improved surgery success rates. the mechanism of the collagen matrix graft ( commercially available as ologen® ) works by promoting healthy cell growth into the matrix, thus preventing conjunctiva overgrowth that can cover the iris. references further reading < / ref > membrane biology eo : pterigio fr : pterygion it : pterigio nl : pterygium pms : pterygium pl : skrzydlik pt : pterigio zh :
##brous sheath at the optic disc ; not known to cause any visual disorders ; visualized as a linear, gray structure anterior to the optic disc. due to pfv ’ s close resemblance with retinoblastoma in particular, conclusively identifying pfv through advanced medical imaging is timely and crucial for an accurate diagnosis. retinoblastoma presents with visible calcification, the presence of calcification at minimum confirms malignancy beyond the effects of pfv. both ct and mri can also be used, although ultrasound is a perfectly viable option, and generally preferred by practitioners due to relative ease. differential diagnosis a differential diagnostic guide to conclusively determine pfv over disorders and anomalies of similar presentations was compiled by dr. olga ceron, et al. & international ophthalmology clinics, pp 53 – 62, spring 2008 : the differential diagnosis of phpv includes congenital cataract, retinopathy of prematurity, norrie disease, familial exudative vitreoretinopathy and retinoblastoma. phpv can be distinguished from an uncomplicated congenital cataract by the presence of a fibrovascular stalk and other features such as elongated ciliary processes and a shallow anterior chamber. phpv can be differentiated from retinopathy of prematurity by its unilateral occurrence in full - term healthy infants. norrie disease can be differentiated from phpv by its x - linked inheritance, associated systemic manifestations, and bilaterally. retinoblastoma is commonly distinguished from phpv by the lack of microphthalmia and cataract. treatment a wide range of treatments and potential outcomes exist for pfv on account of the wide spectrum of its presentation. the primary goal is visual preservation and the protection of healthy eye tissue, with cosmetic concerns as a secondary, and often long term, consideration. when diagnosed early, surgical intervention is statistically correlated with a higher probability of viable visual preservation in the impacted eye. anterior pfv is most often treated with observation, lensectomy and glaucoma management, whether medical or surgical. posterior pfv is usually associated with a poor visual
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Incomplete closure of palpebral apeure is called: March 2004
A. Lagophthalmos
B. Chalazion
C. Entropion
D. Ectropion
Answer: | [
"Lagophthalmos",
"Chalazion",
"Entropion",
"Ectropion"
] | A | Ans. A i.e. Lagophthalmos |
qasc_4575 | qasc | <ctx>
a motor – generator ( an m – g set ) is a device for converting electrical power to another form. motor – generator sets are used to convert frequency, voltage, or phase of power. they may also be used to isolate electrical loads from the electrical power supply line. large motor – generators were widely used to convert industrial amounts of power while smaller motor – generators ( such as the one shown in the picture ) were used to convert battery power to higher dc voltages. while a motor – generator set may consist of distinct motor and generator machines coupled together, a single unit dynamotor ( for dynamo – motor ) has the motor coils and the generator coils wound around a single rotor ; both the motor and generator therefore share the same outer field coils or magnets. typically the motor coils are driven from a commutator on one end of the shaft, while the generator coils provide output to another commutator on the other end of the shaft. the entire rotor and shaft assembly is smaller, lighter, and cheaper than a pair of machines, and does not require exposed drive shafts. low - powered consumer devices such as vacuum tube vehicle radio receivers did not use expensive, noisy and bulky motor – generators. instead, they used an inverter circuit consisting of a vibrator ( a self - exciting relay ) and a transformer to produce the higher voltages required for the vacuum tubes from the vehicle's 6 or 12 v battery. electrical power handling in the context of electric power generation and large fixed electrical power systems, a motor – generator consists of an electric motor mechanically coupled to an electric generator ( or alternator ). the motor runs on the electrical input current while the generator creates the electrical output current, with power flowing between the two machines as a mechanical torque ; this provides electrical isolation and some buffering of the power between the two electrical systems. one use is to eliminate spikes and variations in " dirty power " ( power conditioning ) or to provide phase matching between different electrical systems. flywheel - generator another use is to buffer extreme loads on the power system. for example, tokamak fusion devices impose very large peak loads, but relatively low average loads, on the electrical grid. the diii -
in electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts motion - based power ( potential and kinetic energy ) or fuel - based power ( chemical energy ) into electric power for use in an external circuit. sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, internal combustion engines, wind turbines and even hand cranks. the first electromagnetic generator, the faraday disk, was invented in 1831 by british scientist michael faraday. generators provide nearly all the power for electrical grids. in addition to electricity - and motion - based designs, photovoltaic and fuel cell powered generators use solar power and hydrogen - based fuels, respectively, to generate electrical output. the reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor, and motors and generators are very similar. many motors can generate electricity from mechanical energy. terminology electromagnetic generators fall into one of two broad categories, dynamos and alternators. dynamos generate pulsing direct current through the use of a commutator. alternators generate alternating current. mechanically, a generator consists of a rotating part and a stationary part which together form a magnetic circuit : rotor : the rotating part of an electrical machine. stator : the stationary part of an electrical machine, which surrounds the rotor. one of these parts generates a magnetic field, the other has a wire winding in which the changing field induces an electric current : field winding or field ( permanent ) magnets : the magnetic field - producing component of an electrical machine. the magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator can be provided by either wire windings called field coils or permanent magnets. electrically - excited generators include an excitation system to produce the field flux. a generator using permanent magnets ( pms ) is sometimes called a magneto, or a permanent magnet synchronous generator ( pmsg ). armature : the power - producing component of an electrical machine. in a generator, alternator, or dynamo, the armature windings generate the electric current, which provides power to an external circuit. the armature can be on either the rotor or the stator, depending on the design, with the field coil or magnet on the other part. history before the
generator may refer to : signal generator, electronic devices that generate repeating or non - repeating electronic signals electric generator, a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. tidal stream generator, a machine that extracts energy from moving masses of water generator ( circuit theory ), an element in an abstract circuit providing a source of electricity engine - generator, an electric generator with its own engine wearable generator, a hypothetical generator that can be worn on the human body gas generator a device, often similar to a solid rocket or a liquid rocket that burns to produce large volumes of relatively cool gas motor – generator, a device for converting electrical power to another form atmospheric water generator, a device capable of extracting water from air mathematics generator ( mathematics ) generator matrix, a matrix used in coding theory generator ( category theory ) of a category, in category mathematics generating set of a group, group generators in abstract algebra infinitesimal generator ( stochastic processes ), in stochastic analysis computing application generator, software that generates application programs from descriptions of the problem rather than by traditional programming generator ( computer programming ), a routine that acts like an iterator pseudorandom number generator, a producer of random numbers code generator, part of a compiler natural - language generator, generating natural language from a machine representation system such as a knowledge base or a logical form random test generator, used in software testing music the generators, a 1997 punk rock band from los angeles kix ( band ), an american glam metal band also known as the generators generator ( bad religion album ), and the album's opening track generator ( aborym album ), the fourth studio album by the italian / norwegian industrial black metal band aborym " generator " ( foo fighters song ), 2000 " generator " ( the holloways song ), 2006 " generator ", a 2015 song by doomtree from all hands " generator ", a 1995 song by elastica from the menace " generator ", a 2007 song by minipop from a new hope " generator ", a 2017 song by turnstile from time & space tuning generator politics generator collective, american campaign group see also gener8tor, an american venture capital firm generation ( disambiguation ) generate ( disam
thus, the corresponding impedance between n1 and n2 in y is simple : hence : ( 1 ) repeating for : ( 2 ) and for : ( 3 ) from here, the values of can be determined by linear combination ( addition and / or subtraction ). for example, adding ( 1 ) and ( 3 ), then subtracting ( 2 ) yields for completeness : ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) y - load to δ - load transformation equations let. we can write the δ to y equations as ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) multiplying the pairs of equations yields ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) and the sum of these equations is ( 7 ) factor from the right side, leaving in the numerator, canceling with an in the denominator. ( 8 ) note the similarity between ( 8 ) and { ( 1 ), ( 2 ), ( 3 ) } divide ( 8 ) by ( 1 ) which is the equation for. dividing ( 8 ) by ( 2 ) or ( 3 ) ( expressions for or ) gives the remaining equations. δ to y transformation of a practical generator during the analysis of balanced three - phase power systems, usually an equivalent per - phase ( or single - phase ) circuit is analyzed instead due to its simplicity. for that, equivalent wye connections are used for generators, transformers, loads and motors. the stator windings of a practical delta - connected three - phase generator, shown in the following figure, can be converted to an equivalent wye - connected generator, using the six following formulas : the resulting network is the following. the neutral node of the equivalent network is fictitious, and so are the line - to - neutral phasor voltages. during the transformation, the line phasor currents and the line ( or line - to - line or phase - to - phase ) phasor voltages are not altered. if the actual delta generator is balanced, meaning that the internal phasor voltages have the same magnitude and are phase - shifted by 120° between each other and the three complex impedances are the same, then the previous formulas reduce to the four following : where for the
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
A generator converts
A. atoms into fire
B. electron transport
C. Help plants grow
D. kinetic energy into light
Answer: | [
"atoms into fire",
"electron transport",
"Help plants grow",
"kinetic energy into light"
] | D | |
arc_challenge_762 | arc_challenge | <ctx>
research ). biology life science, also known as biology, is the natural science that studies life such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings, – including their physical structure, chemical processes, molecular interactions, physiological mechanisms, development, and evolution. despite the complexity of the science, certain unifying concepts consolidate it into a single, coherent field. biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that propels the creation and extinction of species. living organisms are open systems that survive by transforming energy and decreasing their local entropy to maintain a stable and vital condition defined as homeostasis. biochemistry biochemistry, or biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. it is a sub - discipline of both biology and chemistry, and from a reductionist point of view it is fundamental in biology. biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, cell biology, genetics, and physiology. microbiology microbiology is the study of microorganisms, those being unicellular ( single cell ), multicellular ( cell colony ), or acellular ( lacking cells ). microbiology encompasses numerous sub - disciplines including virology, bacteriology, protistology, mycology, immunology and parasitology. botany botany, also called plant science ( s ), plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the international botanical congress. nowadays, botanists ( in the strict sense ) study approximately 410, 000 species of land plants of which some 391, 000 species are vascular plants ( including approximately 369, 000 species of flowering plants ), and approximately 20, 000 are bryophytes. zoology zoology ( ) is the branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. the term is
the atmosphere, a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration. in addition, they are influential in the global carbon and water cycles and plant roots bind and stabilise soils, preventing soil erosion. plants are crucial to the future of human society as they provide food, oxygen, biochemicals, and products for people, as well as creating and preserving soil. historically, all living things were classified as either animals or plants and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals. botanists examine both the internal functions and processes within plant organelles, cells, tissues, whole plants, plant populations and plant communities. at each of these levels, a botanist may be concerned with the classification ( taxonomy ), phylogeny and evolution, structure ( anatomy and morphology ), or function ( physiology ) of plant life. the strictest definition of " plant " includes only the " land plants " or embryophytes, which include seed plants ( gymnosperms, including the pines, and flowering plants ) and the free - sporing cryptogams including ferns, clubmosses, liverworts, hornworts and mosses. embryophytes are multicellular eukaryotes descended from an ancestor that obtained its energy from sunlight by photosynthesis. they have life cycles with alternating haploid and diploid phases. the sexual haploid phase of embryophytes, known as the gametophyte, nurtures the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life, even in the seed plants, where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte. other groups of organisms that were previously studied by botanists include bacteria ( now studied in bacteriology ), fungi ( mycology ) – including lichen - forming fungi ( lichenology ), non - chlorophyte algae ( phycology ), and viruses ( virology ). however, attention is still given to these groups by botanists, and fungi ( including lichens ) and photosynthetic protists are usually covered in introductory botany courses. palaeobotanists study ancient
approximately 20, 000 are bryophytes. zoology zoology ( ) is the branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. the term is derived from ancient greek ζωον, zoion, i. e. " animal " and λογος, logos, i. e. " knowledge, study ". some branches of zoology include : anthrozoology, arachnology, archaeozoology, cetology, embryology, entomology, helminthology, herpetology, histology, ichthyology, malacology, mammalogy, morphology, nematology, ornithology, palaeozoology, pathology, primatology, protozoology, taxonomy, and zoogeography. ecology ecology ( from, " house ", or " environment " ;, " study of " ) is a branch of biology concerning interactions among organisms and their biophysical environment, which includes both biotic and abiotic components. topics of interest include the biodiversity, distribution, biomass, and populations of organisms, as well as cooperation and competition within and between species. ecosystems are dynamically interacting systems of organisms, the communities they make up, and the non - living components of their environment. ecosystem processes, such as primary production, pedogenesis, nutrient cycling, and niche construction, regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. these processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits. social sciences social science is the branch of science devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. the term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original " science of society ", established in the 19th century. in addition to sociology, it now encompasses a wide array of academic disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, economics, human geography, linguistics, political science, and psychology. positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the natural sciences as tools for understanding society, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. interpretivist social scientists, by contrast, may use
lizards. green algae represent a grade, since they are the ancestors of land plants. prokaryotes, which include cellular organisms lacking a nucleus, represent a grade, since they are the ancestors of eukaryotes, which includes animals, plants, fungi, and protists ; and the last of these four groups also represents a grade, since it excludes the previous three groups. crustaceans represent a grade, since they are the ancestors of hexapods, which includes insects and related taxa. monkeys represent a grade, since they include the ancestors of apes ( including humans ). likewise, apes represent a grade in common usage, but are a clade if humans are included. references evolutionary biology concepts evolutionary biology terminology obsolete taxa taxonomy ( biology )
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Which group consists only of living things?
A. rabbit, seed, bird
B. seed, bird, wind
C. Volcano, candle, rabbit
D. wind, candle, volcano
Answer: | [
"rabbit, seed, bird",
"seed, bird, wind",
"Volcano, candle, rabbit",
"wind, candle, volcano"
] | A | |
arc_challenge_634 | arc_challenge | <ctx>
1. 3 physical and chemical properties learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • identify properties of and changes in matter as physical or chemical • identify properties of matter as extensive or intensive the characteristics that distinguish one substance from another are called properties. a physical property is a characteristic of matter that is not associated with a change in its chemical composition. familiar examples of physical properties include density, color, hardness, melting and boiling points, and electrical conductivity. some physical properties, such as density and color, may be observed without changing the physical state of the matter. other physical properties, such as the melting temperature of iron or the freezing temperature of water, can only be observed as matter undergoes a physical change. a physical change is a change in the state or properties of matter without any accompanying change in the chemical identities of the substances contained in the matter. physical changes are observed when wax melts, when sugar dissolves in coffee, and when steam condenses into liquid water ( figure 1. 18 ). other examples of physical changes include magnetizing and demagnetizing metals ( as is done with common antitheft security tags ) and grinding solids into powders ( which can sometimes yield noticeable changes in color ). in each of these examples, there is a change in the physical state, form, or properties of the substance, but no change in its chemical composition. figure 1. 17 almost one - third of naturally occurring elements are used to make a cell phone. ( credit : modification of work by john taylor )
1. 3 • physical and chemical properties 23 figure 1. 18 ( a ) wax undergoes a physical change when solid wax is heated and forms liquid wax. ( b ) steam condensing inside a cooking pot is a physical change, as water vapor is changed into liquid water. ( credit a : modification of work by “ 95jb14 ” / wikimedia commons ; credit b : modification of work by “ mjneuby ” / flickr ) the change of one type of matter into another type ( or the inability to change ) is a chemical property. examples of chemical properties include flammability, toxicity, acidity, and many other types of reactivity. iron, for example, combines with oxygen in the presence of water to form rust ; chromium does not oxidize ( figure 1. 19 ). nitroglycerin is very dangerous because it explodes easily ; neon poses almost no hazard because it is very unreactive. figure 1. 19 ( a ) one of the chemical properties of iron is that it rusts ; ( b ) one of the chemical properties of chromium is that it does not. ( credit a : modification of work by tony hisgett ; credit b : modification of work by “ atoma ” / wikimedia commons ) a chemical change always produces one or more types of matter that differ from the matter present before the change. the formation of rust is a chemical change because rust is a different kind of matter than the iron, oxygen, and water present before the rust formed. the explosion of nitroglycerin is a chemical change because the gases produced are very different kinds of matter from the original substance. other examples of chemical changes include reactions that are performed in a lab ( such as copper reacting with nitric acid ), all forms of combustion ( burning ), and food being cooked, digested, or rotting ( figure 1. 20 ). 24 1 • essential ideas access for free at openstax. org figure 1. 20 ( a ) copper and nitric acid undergo a chemical change to form copper nitrate and brown, gaseous nitrogen dioxide. ( b ) during the combustion of a match, cellulose in the
20 ). 24 1 • essential ideas access for free at openstax. org figure 1. 20 ( a ) copper and nitric acid undergo a chemical change to form copper nitrate and brown, gaseous nitrogen dioxide. ( b ) during the combustion of a match, cellulose in the match and oxygen from the air undergo a chemical change to form carbon dioxide and water vapor. ( c ) cooking red meat causes a number of chemical changes, including the oxidation of iron in myoglobin that results in the familiar red - to - brown color change. ( d ) a banana turning brown is a chemical change as new, darker ( and less tasty ) substances form. ( credit b : modification of work by jeff turner ; credit c : modification of work by gloria cabada - leman ; credit d : modification of work by roberto verzo ) properties of matter fall into one of two categories. if the property depends on the amount of matter present, it is an extensive property. the mass and volume of a substance are examples of extensive properties ; for instance, a gallon of milk has a larger mass than a cup of milk. the value of an extensive property is directly proportional to the amount of matter in question. if the property of a sample of matter does not depend on the amount of matter present, it is an intensive property. temperature is an example of an intensive property. if the gallon and cup of milk are each at 20 °c ( room temperature ), when they are combined, the temperature remains at 20 °c. as another example, consider the distinct but related properties of heat and temperature. a drop of hot cooking oil spattered on your arm causes brief, minor discomfort, whereas a pot of hot oil yields severe burns. both the drop and the pot of oil are at the same temperature ( an intensive property ), but the pot clearly contains much more heat ( extensive property ). chemistry in everyday life hazard diamond you may have seen the symbol shown in figure 1. 21 on containers of chemicals in a laboratory or workplace. sometimes called a “ fire diamond ” or “ hazard diamond, ” this chemical hazard diamond provides valuable information that briefly summarizes the various dangers of which to be aware when working with a
1. 3 physical and chemical properties all substances have distinct physical and chemical properties, and may undergo physical or chemical changes. physical properties, such as hardness and boiling point, and physical changes, such as melting or freezing, do not involve a change in the composition of matter. chemical properties, such flammability and acidity, and chemical changes, such as rusting, involve production of matter that differs from that present beforehand. measurable properties fall into one of two categories. extensive properties depend on the amount of matter present, for example, the mass of gold. intensive properties do not depend on the amount of matter present, for example, the density of gold. heat is an example of an extensive property, and temperature is an example of an intensive property. 1. 4 measurements measurements provide quantitative information that is critical in studying and practicing chemistry. each measurement has an amount, a unit for comparison, 1 • key equations 49 and an uncertainty. measurements can be represented in either decimal or scientific notation. scientists primarily use si ( international system ) units such as meters, seconds, and kilograms, as well as derived units, such as liters ( for volume ) and g / cm3 ( for density ). in many cases, it is convenient to use prefixes that yield fractional and multiple units, such as microseconds ( 10−6 seconds ) and megahertz ( 106 hertz ), respectively. 1. 5 measurement uncertainty, accuracy, and precision quantities can be defined or measured. measured quantities have an associated uncertainty that is represented by the number of significant figures in the quantity ’ s number. the uncertainty of a calculated quantity depends on the uncertainties in the quantities used in the calculation and is reflected in how the value is rounded. quantities are characterized with regard to accuracy ( closeness to a true or accepted value ) and precision ( variation among replicate measurement results ). 1. 6 mathematical treatment of measurement results measurements are made using a variety of units. it is often useful or necessary to convert a measured quantity from one unit into another. these conversions are accomplished using unit conversion factors, which are derived by simple applications of a mathematical approach called the factor - label method or dimensional analysis. this strategy is also employed to calculate
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Which fact about water is an example of a chemical property?
A. Water expands when it freezes.
B. The boiling point of water is 100ºC.
C. Water can separate into hydrogen and oxygen.
D. The density of water is greater than the density of ice.
Answer: | [
"Water expands when it freezes.",
"The boiling point of water is 100ºC.",
"Water can separate into hydrogen and oxygen.",
"The density of water is greater than the density of ice."
] | C | |
medmcqa_7714 | medmcqa | <ctx>
in medical research, social science, and biology, a cross - sectional study ( also known as a cross - sectional analysis, transverse study, prevalence study ) is a type of observational study that analyzes data from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time — that is, cross - sectional data. in economics, cross - sectional studies typically involve the use of cross - sectional regression, in order to sort out the existence and magnitude of causal effects of one independent variable upon a dependent variable of interest at a given point in time. they differ from time series analysis, in which the behavior of one or more economic aggregates is traced through time. in medical research, cross - sectional studies differ from case - control studies in that they aim to provide data on the entire population under study, whereas case - control studies typically include only individuals who have developed a specific condition and compare them with a matched sample, often a tiny minority, of the rest of the population. cross - sectional studies are descriptive studies ( neither longitudinal nor experimental ). unlike case - control studies, they can be used to describe, not only the odds ratio, but also absolute risks and relative risks from prevalences ( sometimes called prevalence risk ratio, or prr ). they may be used to describe some feature of the population, such as prevalence of an illness, but cannot prove cause and effect. longitudinal studies differ from both in making a series of observations more than once on members of the study population over a period of time. healthcare cross - sectional studies involve data collected at a defined time. they are often used to assess the prevalence of acute or chronic conditions, but cannot be used to answer questions about the causes of disease or the results of intervention. cross - sectional data cannot be used to infer causality because temporality is not known. they may also be described as censuses. cross - sectional studies may involve special data collection, including questions about the past, but they often rely on data originally collected for other purposes. they are moderately expensive, and are not suitable for the study of rare diseases. difficulty in recalling past events may also contribute bias. advantages the use of routinely collected data allows large cross - sectional studies to be made at little
cross section may refer to : cross section ( geometry ) cross - sectional views in architecture & engineering 3d cross section ( geology ) cross section ( electronics ) radar cross section, measure of detectability cross section ( physics ) absorption cross section nuclear cross section neutron cross section photoionisation cross section gamma ray cross section cross section ( album ), 1956 musical album by billy taylor see also cross section ( fiber ), microscopic view of textile fibers. section ( fiber bundle ), in differential and algebraic geometry and topology, a section of a fiber bundle or sheaf cross - sectional data, in statistics, econometrics, and medical research, a data set drawn from a single point in time cross - sectional study, a scientific investigation utilizing cross - sectional data cross - sectional regression, a particular statistical technique for carrying out a cross - sectional study
the cylinder is the geometrical cross section of the target perpendicular to the beam ( surface σ in red ) and its height the length travelled by the particles during dt ( length v dt ) : noting n the number of particles per unit volume, there are n v particles in the volume v, which will, per definition of v, undergo a reaction. noting r the reaction rate onto one target, it gives : it follows directly from the definition of the neutron flux : assuming that there is not one but n targets per unit volume, the reaction rate r per unit volume is : knowing that the typical nuclear radius r is of the order of 10−12 cm, the expected nuclear cross section is of the order of π r2 or roughly 10−24 cm2 ( thus justifying the definition of the barn ). however, if measured experimentally ( σ = r / ( φ n ) ), the experimental cross sections vary enormously. as an example, for slow neutrons absorbed by the ( n, γ ) reaction the cross section in some cases ( xenon - 135 ) is as much as 2, 650, 000 barns, while the cross sections for transmutations by gamma - ray absorption are in the neighborhood of 0. 001 barn ( has more examples ). the so - called nuclear cross section is consequently a purely conceptual quantity representing how big the nucleus should be to be consistent with this simple mechanical model. continuous versus average cross section cross sections depend strongly on the incoming particle speed. in the case of a beam with multiple particle speeds, the reaction rate r is integrated over the whole range of energy : where σ ( e ) is the continuous cross section, φ ( e ) the differential flux and n the target atom density. in order to obtain a formulation equivalent to the mono energetic case, an average cross section is defined : where is the integral flux. using the definition of the integral flux φ and the average cross section σ, the same formulation as before is found : microscopic versus macroscopic cross section up to now, the cross section referred to in this article corresponds to the microscopic cross section σ. however, it is possible to define the macroscopic cross section σ which corresponds to the total " equivalent area " of all target
the data are held out for use as validating sets ; a model is fit to the remaining data ( a training set ) and used to predict for the validation set. averaging the quality of the predictions across the validation sets yields an overall measure of prediction accuracy. cross - validation is employed repeatedly in building decision trees. one form of cross - validation leaves out a single observation at a time ; this is similar to the jackknife. another, k - fold cross - validation, splits the data into k subsets ; each is held out in turn as the validation set. this avoids " self - influence ". for comparison, in regression analysis methods such as linear regression, each y value draws the regression line toward itself, making the prediction of that value appear more accurate than it really is. cross - validation applied to linear regression predicts the y value for each observation without using that observation. this is often used for deciding how many predictor variables to use in regression. without cross - validation, adding predictors always reduces the residual sum of squares ( or possibly leaves it unchanged ). in contrast, the cross - validated mean - square error will tend to decrease if valuable predictors are added, but increase if worthless predictors are added. monte carlo cross - validation subsampling is an alternative method for approximating the sampling distribution of an estimator. the two key differences to the bootstrap are : the resample size is smaller than the sample size and resampling is done without replacement. the advantage of subsampling is that it is valid under much weaker conditions compared to the bootstrap. in particular, a set of sufficient conditions is that the rate of convergence of the estimator is known and that the limiting distribution is continuous. in addition, the resample ( or subsample ) size must tend to infinity together with the sample size but at a smaller rate, so that their ratio converges to zero. while subsampling was originally proposed for the case of independent and identically distributed ( iid ) data only, the methodology has been extended to cover time series data as well ; in this case, one resamples blocks of subsequent data rather than individual data points. there
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
True about cross section study-
A. Prevalence study
B. Useful for chronic disease
C. Simple study
D. All of the above
Answer: | [
"Prevalence study",
"Useful for chronic disease",
"Simple study",
"All of the above"
] | D | Ans. is 'd' i.e., All of the above Cross - sectional studieso Cross sectional study is the simplest form of an observational study.o It is also known as prevalence study.o It is based on a single examination of a cross - section of population at one point of timeo Results of this examination can be projected on the whole populationo Cross-sectional study tells about the distribution of a disease rather than its etiology.o Cross-sectional studies can be thought of as providing a snapshot of the frequency and characteristic of a disease in a population at a particular point in timeo Cross-sectional study is more useful for chronic diseaseo As population is studied at once, no follow-up is required. |
aquarat_39866 | aquarat | <ctx>
3. 4 • motion in space 291 consider the motion of a point on the circumference of a rolling circle. as the circle rolls, it generates the cycloid where is the angular velocity of the circle : 165. find the equations for the velocity, acceleration, and speed of the particle at any time. a person on a hang glider is spiraling upward as a result of the rapidly rising air on a path having position vector the path is similar to that of a helix, although it is not a helix. the graph is shown here : find the following quantities : 166. the velocity and acceleration vectors 167. the glider ’ s speed at any time 168. the times, if any, at which the glider ’ s acceleration is orthogonal to its velocity given that is the position vector of a moving particle, find the following quantities : 169. the velocity of the particle 170. the speed of the particle 171. the acceleration of the particle 172. find the maximum speed of a point on the circumference of an automobile tire of radius 1 ft when the automobile is traveling at 55 mph. 292 3 • vector - valued functions access for free at openstax. org a projectile is shot in the air from ground level with an initial velocity of 500 m / sec at an angle of 60° with the horizontal. the graph is shown here : 173. at what time does the projectile reach maximum height? 174. what is the approximate maximum height of the projectile? 175. at what time is the maximum range of the projectile attained? 176. what is the maximum range? 177. what is the total flight time of the projectile? a projectile is fired at a height of 1. 5 m above the ground with an initial velocity of 100 m / sec and at an angle of 30° above the horizontal. use this information to answer the following questions : 178. determine the maximum height of the projectile. 179. determine the range of the projectile. 180. a golf ball is hit in a horizontal direction off the top edge of a building that is 100 ft tall. how fast must the ball be launched to land 450 ft away? 181. a projectile is fired from ground level at an angle of 8° with the horizontal
mathematics and physics necessary for answering questions such as this. a car of mass m moves with constant angular speed around a circular curve of radius r ( figure 3. 20 ). the curve is banked at an angle if the height of the car off the ground is h, then the position of the car at time t is given by the function figure 3. 20 views of a race car moving around a track. 1. find the velocity function of the car. show that v is tangent to the circular curve. this means that, without a force to keep the car on the curve, the car will shoot off of it. 2. show that the speed of the car is use this to show that 3. find the acceleration a. show that this vector points toward the center of the circle and that 4. the force required to produce this circular motion is called the centripetal force, and it is denoted fcent. this force points toward the center of the circle ( not toward the ground ). show that as the car moves around the curve, three forces act on it : gravity, the force exerted by the road ( this force is perpendicular to the ground ), and the friction force ( figure 3. 21 ). because describing the frictional force generated by the tires and the road is complex, we use a standard approximation for the frictional force. assume 288 3 • vector - valued functions access for free at openstax. org that for some positive constant the constant is called the coefficient of friction. figure 3. 21 the car has three forces acting on it : gravity ( denoted by mg ), the friction force f, and the force exerted by the road n. let denote the maximum speed the car can attain through the curve without skidding. in other words, is the fastest speed at which the car can navigate the turn. when the car is traveling at this speed, the magnitude of the centripetal force is the next three questions deal with developing a formula that relates the speed to the banking angle 5. show that conclude that 6. the centripetal force is the sum of the forces in the horizontal direction, since the centripetal force points toward the center of the circular
mm bernoulli argues as follows. let mn = x. he defines m so that md = mx, and n so that mm = nx + na and notes that x is the only variable and that m is finite and n is infinitely small. the small time to travel along arc mm is, which has to be a minimum ( ‘ un plus petit ’ ). he does not explain that because mm is so small the speed along it can be assumed to be the speed at m, which is as the square root of md, the vertical distance of m below the horizontal line al. it follows that, when differentiated this must give so that x = a. this condition defines the curve that the body slides along in the shortest time possible. for each point, m on the curve, the radius of curvature, mk is cut in 2 equal parts by its axis al. this property, which bernoulli says had been known for a long time, is unique to the cycloid. finally, he considers the more general case where the speed is an arbitrary function x ( x ), so the time to be minimised is. the minimum condition then becomes which he writes as : and which gives mn ( = x ) as a function of nk ( = a ). from this the equation of the curve could be obtained from the integral calculus, though he does not demonstrate this. synthetic solution he then proceeds with what he called his synthetic solution, which was a classical, geometrical proof, that there is only a single curve that a body can slide down in the minimum time, and that curve is the cycloid. the reason for the synthetic demonstration, in the manner of the ancients, is to convince mr de la hire. he has little time for our new analysis, describing it as false ( he claims he has found 3 ways to prove that the curve is a cubic parabola ) – letter from johan bernoulli to pierre varignon dated 27 jul 1697. assume ammb is the part of the cycloid joining a to b, which the body slides down in the minimum time. let iccj be part of a different curve joining a to b, which can be closer to al than ammb.
1. 3 find two different sets of parametric equations to represent the graph of cycloids and other parametric curves imagine going on a bicycle ride through the country. the tires stay in contact with the road and rotate in a predictable pattern. now suppose a very determined ant is tired after a long day and wants to get home. so he hangs onto the side of the tire and gets a free ride. the path that this ant travels down a straight road is called a cycloid ( figure 1. 9 ). a cycloid generated by a circle ( or bicycle wheel ) of radius a is given by the parametric equations to see why this is true, consider the path that the center of the wheel takes. the center moves along the x - axis at a constant height equal to the radius of the wheel. if the radius is a, then the coordinates of the center can be given by the equations for any value of next, consider the ant, which rotates around the center along a circular path. if the bicycle is moving from left to right then the wheels are rotating in a clockwise direction. a possible parameterization of the circular motion of the ant ( relative to the center of the wheel ) is given by ( the negative sign is needed to reverse the orientation of the curve. if the negative sign were not there, we would have to imagine the wheel rotating counterclockwise. ) adding these equations together gives the equations for the cycloid. figure 1. 9 a wheel traveling along a road without slipping ; the point on the edge of the wheel traces out a cycloid. now suppose that the bicycle wheel doesn ’ t travel along a straight road but instead moves along the inside of a larger wheel, as in figure 1. 10. in this graph, the green circle is traveling around the blue circle in a counterclockwise direction. a point on the edge of the green circle traces out the red graph, which is called a hypocycloid.
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Two cyclist start on a circular track from a given point but in opposite direction with speeds of 7m/s and 8m/s. If the circumference of the circle is 180meters, after what time will they meet at the starting point?
A. A)20sec
B. B)12sec
C. C)30sec
D. D)50sec
Answer: | [
"A)20sec",
"B)12sec",
"C)30sec",
"D)50sec"
] | B | They meet every 180/7+8 = 12sec
Answer is B |
qasc_6222 | qasc | <ctx>
various receptors ( sponge adhesion molecules, receptor tyrosine kinase ) with domains similar to those found in immunoglobulins have been identified. sequence variability in " hot spots " have been identified in these receptors. it would appear that molecules which, later in evolution, were exploited in the adaptive immune response, had an earlier role in innate recognition. lampreys and hagfish appear to have evolved, by convergent evolution, an adaptive immune response that is independent and distinct from the adaptive immune systems of higher vertebrates. lymphocyte - like cells in these fish express highly variable lymphocyte receptor genes, which undergo somatic rearrangements reminiscent of the manner in which mammalian immunoglobulin genes are rearranged during development. summary in summary, allorecognition, the ability to distinguish self from non - self, is basic to all life, unicellular as well as multicellular. the earliest recognition systems were innate, and were based on the recognition of self molecules. the evolution of multicellular forms brought about selective pressures for ever - increasing sophistication to innate immune systems. adaptive immune systems, based on the recognition of non - self, have arisen independently in two lines of chordates, and exploit molecules and cellular systems which had a previous role in innate immune responses. allorecognition as it currently exists in mammals can be traced back as the result of sequential modification to immunity mechanisms dating back to some of the earliest multicellular organisms. footnotes immune system immunology transplantation medicine evolutionary biology articles containing video clips
a foreign body reaction ( fbr ) is a typical tissue response to a foreign body within biological tissue. it usually includes the formation of a foreign body granuloma. tissue - encapsulation of an implant is an example, as is inflammation around a splinter. foreign body granuloma formation consists of protein adsorption, macrophages, multinucleated foreign body giant cells ( macrophage fusion ), fibroblasts, and angiogenesis. it has also been proposed that the mechanical property of the interface between an implant and its surrounding tissues is critical for the host response. in the long term, the foreign body reaction results in encapsulation of the foreign body within a calcified shell. for example, a lithopedion is a rare phenomenon which occurs most commonly when a fetus dies during an abdominal pregnancy, is too large to be reabsorbed by the body, and calcifies. foreign body reaction to biomaterial implantation following biomaterial implantation, blood and body fluids contact the implant surface. host blood proteins adsorb onto the implant surface and a fibrin matrix forms. acute and chronic inflammation follow the initial blood protein deposition and matrix formation. macrophages at the implant site fuse to form foreign body giant cells. following the inflammatory response, granulation tissue form. the end stage of the foreign body reaction is the fibrous capsule formation around the implanted biomaterial. the biocompatibility of the device affects the severity of the foreign body reaction. the foreign body reaction can lead to device failure. protein adsorption during blood - biomaterial interaction, blood proteins spontaneously adsorb to the biomaterial surface. the biomaterial surface properties affect the types, concentrations, and conformation of proteins that adsorb to the surface. the vroman effect can describe the time - dependent behavior of this protein adsorption. surface - adsorbed proteins regulate inflammatory cell interaction and adhesion. the deposited proteins allow inflammatory cells to attach via integrins. the biomaterial surface can also recruit and activate complement proteins. immune recruitment the composition and conformation of adsorbed proteins on the implant surface is critical
allorecognition is the ability of an individual organism to distinguish its own tissues from those of another. it manifests itself in the recognition of antigens expressed on the surface of cells of non - self origin. allorecognition has been described in nearly all multicellular phyla. this article focuses on allorecognition from the standpoint of its significance in the evolution of multicellular organisms. for other articles which focus on its importance in medicine, molecular biology, and so forth, the following topics are recommended as well as those in the categories links at the bottom of this page. immune system, immunology transplant rejection tissue typing major histocompatibility complex ( mhc ) the ability to discriminate between self and non - self is a fundamental requirement for life. at the most basic level, even single - celled organisms need to be able to distinguish between food and non - food, to respond appropriately to invading pathogens, and to avoid cannibalism. in sexually reproducing organisms, self / non - self discrimination is essential to ensuring species - specific egg / sperm interaction during fertilization. hermaphroditic organisms, such as annelids and certain plants, require recognition mechanisms to prevent self - fertilization. such functions are all carried out by the innate immune system, which employs evolutionarily conserved pattern recognition receptors to eliminate cells displaying " nonself markers. " evolution of multicellularity the evolution of multicellularity brought about various challenges, many of which could be met by increasingly sophisticated innate immune systems, but which also served as an evolutionary driving force for the development of adaptive immune systems. the adaptive or " specific " immune system in its fully qualified form ( i. e. based on major histocompatibility complex ( mhc ), t - cell receptors ( tcr ), and antibodies ) exists only in jawed vertebrates, but an independently evolved adaptive immune system has been identified in hagfish and lampreys ( non - jawed vertebrates ). multicellularity has arisen independently dozens of times in the history of life, in plants, animals, fungi, and prokaryotes, appearing first
##sis. incorporation of bioactive molecules coating the implant surface with biomimetic biomaterial may reduce the foreign body reaction and reduce the device failure rate. biomaterials that mimic the extracellular matrix can significantly reduce the inflammatory response as well as reduce foreign body giant cell formation. novel biomaterials developing materials that resist protein adsorption, fibrous encapsulation, or foreign body giant cell formation is important to resist the foreign body reaction. commonly used biomaterials like polyethylene glycol and polyhydroxyethylmethacrylate resist nonspecific protein adsorption but are easily degraded in the in vivo oxidative environment. therefore, scientists are looking for new materials that intrinsically resist the foreign body reaction. zwitterionic materials zwitterionic polymers are widely used in surface modification because they can inhibit non - specific protein adhesion. zwitterionic hydrogels also promote angiogenesis in surrounding tissues. commonly used zwitterionic materials include sulfobetaine, carboxybetaine, and phosphorylcholine. zwitterionic polymers have the ability to reduce nonspecific adsorption of proteins and cells at biological interfaces. zwitterionic coatings are often used to minimize the negative effects of foreign body response for implanted devices and improve the device's biocompatibility. the mechanism is related to surface charge balancing and creation of a strong hydration sphere. zwitterionic coatings can be covalently attached by “ grafting to ” and “ grafting from ” methods. with “ grafting to ” methods, the surface is modified with the polymer after synthesis, whereas with “ grafting from ” methods, polymer is directly synthesized on a modified surface. several “ grafting to ” methods have been used to covalently attach zwitterionic polymers to surfaces. anderson group developed attachment to the surface via polydopamine conjugation. in this case, copolymer should contain a thiol group. nazarova and coworkers synthesized mpc copolymers with 2 - methacr
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
What are molecules that the defense system recognizes as foreign to the body?
A. Allergies
B. lungs
C. antigens
D. bacteria
Answer: | [
"Allergies",
"lungs",
"antigens",
"bacteria"
] | C | |
qasc_3881 | qasc | <ctx>
culling. in plant breeding, inbred lines are used as stocks for the creation of hybrid lines to make use of the effects of heterosis. inbreeding in plants also occurs naturally in the form of self - pollination. inbreeding can significantly influence gene expression which can prevent inbreeding depression. overview offspring of biologically related persons are subject to the possible effects of inbreeding, such as congenital birth defects. the chances of such disorders are increased when the biological parents are more closely related. this is because such pairings have a 25 % probability of producing homozygous zygotes, resulting in offspring with two recessive alleles, which can produce disorders when these alleles are deleterious. because most recessive alleles are rare in populations, it is unlikely that two unrelated partners will both be carriers of the same deleterious allele ; however, because close relatives share a large fraction of their alleles, the probability that any such deleterious allele is inherited from the common ancestor through both parents is increased dramatically. for each homozygous recessive individual formed there is an equal chance of producing a homozygous dominant individual — one completely devoid of the harmful allele. contrary to common belief, inbreeding does not in itself alter allele frequencies, but rather increases the relative proportion of homozygotes to heterozygotes ; however, because the increased proportion of deleterious homozygotes exposes the allele to natural selection, in the long run its frequency decreases more rapidly in inbred populations. in the short term, incestuous reproduction is expected to increase the number of spontaneous abortions of zygotes, perinatal deaths, and postnatal offspring with birth defects. the advantages of inbreeding may be the result of a tendency to preserve the structures of alleles interacting at different loci that have been adapted together by a common selective history. malformations or harmful traits can stay within a population due to a high homozygosity rate, and this will cause a population to become fixed for certain traits, like having too many bones in an area, like the vertebral column
inbreeding is the production of offspring from the mating or breeding of individuals or organisms that are closely related genetically. by analogy, the term is used in human reproduction, but more commonly refers to the genetic disorders and other consequences that may arise from expression of deleterious recessive traits resulting from incestuous sexual relationships and consanguinity. animals avoid incest only rarely. inbreeding results in homozygosity, which can increase the chances of offspring being affected by recessive traits. in extreme cases, this usually leads to at least temporarily decreased biological fitness of a population ( called inbreeding depression ), which is its ability to survive and reproduce. an individual who inherits such deleterious traits is colloquially referred to as inbred. the avoidance of expression of such deleterious recessive alleles caused by inbreeding, via inbreeding avoidance mechanisms, is the main selective reason for outcrossing. crossbreeding between populations sometimes has positive effects on fitness - related traits, but also sometimes leads to negative effects known as outbreeding depression. however, increased homozygosity increases probability of fixing beneficial alleles and also slightly decreases probability of fixing deleterious alleles in population. inbreeding can result in purging of deleterious alleles from a population through purifying selection. inbreeding is a technique used in selective breeding. for example, in livestock breeding, breeders may use inbreeding when trying to establish a new and desirable trait in the stock and for producing distinct families within a breed, but will need to watch for undesirable characteristics in offspring, which can then be eliminated through further selective breeding or culling. inbreeding also helps to ascertain the type of gene action affecting a trait. inbreeding is also used to reveal deleterious recessive alleles, which can then be eliminated through assortative breeding or through culling. in plant breeding, inbred lines are used as stocks for the creation of hybrid lines to make use of the effects of heterosis. inbreeding in plants also occurs naturally in the form of self - pollination. inbreeding can significantly influence gene expression which can prevent
only be'aa'( the capital letter is always presented first by convention ). the phenotype of a homozygous dominant pair is'a ', or dominant, while the opposite is true for homozygous recessive. heterozygous pairs always have a dominant phenotype. to a lesser degree, hemizygosity and nullizygosity can also be seen in gene pairs. monohybrid cross " mono - " means " one " ; this cross indicates that the examination of a single trait. this could mean ( for example ) eye color. each genetic locus is always represented by two letters. so in the case of eye color, say " b = brown eyes " and " b = green eyes ". in this example, both parents have the genotype bb. for the example of eye color, this would mean they both have brown eyes. they can produce gametes that contain either the b or the b allele. ( it is conventional in genetics to use capital letters to indicate dominant alleles and lower - case letters to indicate recessive alleles. ) the probability of an individual offspring's having the genotype bb is 25 %, bb is 50 %, and bb is 25 %. the ratio of the phenotypes is 3 : 1, typical for a monohybrid cross. when assessing phenotype from this, " 3 " of the offspring have " brown " eyes and only one offspring has " green " eyes. ( 3 are " b? " and 1 is " bb " ) the way in which the b and b alleles interact with each other to affect the appearance of the offspring depends on how the gene products ( proteins ) interact ( see mendelian inheritance ). this can include lethal effects and epistasis ( where one allele masks another, regardless of dominant or recessive status ). dihybrid cross more complicated crosses can be made by looking at two or more genes. the punnett square works, however, only if the genes are independent of each other, which means that having a particular allele of gene " a " does not alter the probability of possessing an allele of gene " b
by each parent and typically one is dominant and the other recessive. typically, the f1 generation is also phenotypically homogeneous, producing offspring that are all similar to each other. double cross hybrids result from the cross between two different f1 hybrids ( i. e., there are four unrelated grandparents ). three - way cross hybrids result from the cross between an f1 hybrid and an inbred line. triple cross hybrids result from the crossing of two different three - way cross hybrids. top cross ( or " topcross " ) hybrids result from the crossing of a top quality or pure - bred male and a lower quality female, intended to improve the quality of the offspring, on average. population hybrids result from the crossing of plants or animals in one population with those of another population. these include interspecific hybrids or crosses between different breeds. in biology, the result of crossing of two populations is called a synthetic population. in horticulture, the term stable hybrid is used to describe an annual plant that, if grown and bred in a small monoculture free of external pollen ( e. g., an air - filtered greenhouse ) produces offspring that are " true to type " with respect to phenotype ; i. e., a true - breeding organism. biogeography hybridization can occur in the hybrid zones where the geographical ranges of species, subspecies, or distinct genetic lineages overlap. for example, the butterfly limenitis arthemis has two major subspecies in north america, l. a. arthemis ( the white admiral ) and l. a. astyanax ( the red - spotted purple ). the white admiral has a bright, white band on its wings, while the red - spotted purple has cooler blue - green shades. hybridization occurs between a narrow area across new england, southern ontario, and the great lakes, the " suture region ". it is at these regions that the subspecies were formed. other hybrid zones have formed between described species of plants and animals. genetics from the point of view of genetics, several different kinds of hybrid can be distinguished. a genetic hybrid carries two different alleles of the same gene, where for instance one allele may code for a lighter
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
What if 2 are crossed with recessive traits causes their offspring to have that recessive trait?
A. Crosswalks
B. Swords
C. heterotrophs
D. Organisms
Answer: | [
"Crosswalks",
"Swords",
"heterotrophs",
"Organisms"
] | D | |
mmlu_aux_3175 | mmlu_auxiliary | <ctx>
mo ( ) was the standard chinese name for the giant panda from the 3rd century bce to the 19th century ce, but in 1824, the french sinologist jean - pierre abel - remusat mistakenly identified the mo as the recently discovered black - and - white malayan tapir ( tapirus indicus ), which never inhabited china in historical times. he based this misidentification on chinese woodblock illustrations that depicted a mythological mo ( ) chimera with elephant trunk, rhinoceros eyes, cow tail and tiger paws, which the famous tang poet bai / bo juyi first described in the 9th century. the consequences of abel - remusat's error were extensive. his presumption that mo meant " chinese tapir " was immediately adopted in western zoology, and by the end of the 19th century, it was accepted as modern scientific fact in china and japan. in the 20th century, since mo had lost its original meaning, the giant panda was given a new chinese name da xiongmao ( 大 lit. " large bear cat " ). zoology the giant panda or panda bear ( ailuropoda melanoleuca ) is a large, black and white bear native to mountainous forests in south central china. its habitat is mainly in sichuan, but also in neighboring shaanxi and gansu. the panda's coat is mainly white with black fur on its ears, eye patches, muzzle, shoulders, and legs. despite its taxonomic classification as a carnivoran, the giant panda's diet is primarily herbivorous, consisting almost exclusively of bamboo. the malayan tapir or asian tapir ( tapirus indicus ) is a black and white odd - toed ungulate, somewhat piglike in appearance, and with a long flexible proboscis. its habitat includes southern myanmar, southern vietnam, southwestern thailand, the malay peninsula, and sumatra. the animal's coat has a light - colored patch that extends from its shoulders to its buttocks, and the rest of its hair is black, except for the white - rimmed tips of its ears. the malayan tapir is exclusively herbivorous, and eats the shoots and leaves of many
each foot. slow lorises have an unusually low basal metabolic rate, about 40 % of the typical value for placental mammals of their size, comparable to that of sloths. since they consume a relatively high - calorie diet that is available year - round, it has been proposed that this slow metabolism is due primarily to the need to eliminate toxic compounds from their food. for example, slow lorises can feed on gluta bark, which may be fatal to humans. distribution and diversity slow lorises are found in south and southeast asia. their collective range stretches from northeast india through indochina, east to the sulu archipelago ( the small, southern islands of the philippines ), and south to the island of java ( including borneo, sumatra, and many small nearby islands ). they are found in india ( northeastern states ), china ( yunnan province ), laos, vietnam, cambodia, bangladesh, burma, thailand, malaysia, the philippines, indonesia, brunei, and singapore. there are currently seven recognized species. the bornean slow loris ( n. menagensis ), found on borneo and nearby islands, including the sulu archipelago, and in 2012 was split into four distinct species ( adding n. bancanus, n. borneanus, and n. kayan ). the javan slow loris ( n. javanicus ) is only found on the island of java in indonesia. the sunda slow loris ( n. coucang ) occurs on sumatra and the malay peninsula, including singapore and southern thailand ( the isthmus of kra ). the bengal slow loris ( n. bengalensis ) has the largest distribution of all the slow lorises and can be found in bangladesh, cambodia, southern china, northeast india, laos, burma, thailand, and vietnam. slow lorises range across tropical and subtropical regions and are found in primary and secondary rainforests, as well as bamboo groves and mangrove forests. they prefer forests with high, dense canopies, although some species have also been found in disturbed habitats, such as cacao plantations and mixed - crop home gardens. due largely to their nocturnal behavior and the subsequent difficulties in accurately quantifying abundance, data about the population size
68 to 390 nanometres. red blood cells with pits are unique and have not been reported before either physiologically or pathologically. ecology geographic range tragulus javanicus is usually considered to be endemic to java, indonesia. there have been unverified reports of sightings on bali. habitat the java mouse - deer prefers habitats of higher elevations and the tropical forest regions of java, although it does appear at lower elevations between above sea level. during the day, java mouse - deer can be seen roaming in crown - gap areas with dense undergrowth of creeping bamboo, through which they make tunnels through the thick vegetation which lead to resting places and feeding areas. at night, the java mouse - deer moves to higher and drier ridge areas. it has been argued that java mouse - deer are an “ edge ” species, favoring areas of dense vegetation along riverbanks. additionally, java mouse - deer have been found to be more prevalent in logged areas than in the more mature forests, and their densities tended to decrease proportionately as the logged forests matured. behavior diet java mouse - deer are primarily herbivores, although in captivity they have been observed to eat insects as well as foliage. their diet consists primarily of that which they find on the ground in the dense vegetation they inhabit, and they prefer the plants of the faster - growing gap species over the closed forest understory species, likely due to the increased richness of secondary protective compounds which the gap species provide. they are often classified as folivores, eating primarily leaves, shrubs, shoots, buds, and fungi, in addition to fruits which have fallen from trees. the fruits which java mouse - deer commonly consume range from, while the seeds range from. social behavior groups of java mouse - deer are commonly referred to as “ herds, ” while females are termed “ does, ” “ hinds, ” or “ cows. ” males are referred to as either “ bucks, ” “ stags, ” or “ bulls, ” and their young are commonly called “ fawns, ” or “ asses ”. it was previously believed that java mouse - deer were nocturnal, but more recent studies have shown that they are neither truly nocturnal
##us cranes, breed and raise their young – showing the success of the zoo's conservation and research programs. the zoo's research team studies animals both in the wild and at the zoo. its research encompasses reproductive biology, conservation biology, biodiversity monitoring, veterinary medicine, nutrition, behavior, ecology, and bird migration. the national zoo has developed public - education programs to help students, teachers and families explore the intricacies of the animal world. the zoo also designed specialized programs to train wildlife professionals from around the world and to form a network to provide crucial support for international conservation. the national zoo is at the forefront of the use of web technology and programming to expand its programs to an international virtual audience. the national zoo has been the home to giant pandas since ling - ling and hsing - hsing arrived at the zoo in 1972. since 2000, mei xiang and tian tian also lived there. on july 9, 2005, mei xiang gave birth to tai shan, who went to china in february 2010. on august 23, 2013, mei xiang gave birth to bao bao, who went to china in february 2017 ; upon her arrival she began participating in the species breeding program. on august 22, 2015, mei xiang gave birth to bei bei, who said farewell to the national zoo in november 2019. due to an agreement with the china wildlife conservation association, all giant panda born in the zoo, must relocate to china upon turning four years old. plans for the future include modernizing the zoo's aging facilities and expanding its education, research and conservation efforts in washington, virginia and in the wild. as part of a 10 - year renewal program, asia trail – a series of habitats for seven asian species including sloth bears, red pandas, and clouded leopards – was created. elephant trails, opened in 2013, provides a new home for the zoo's asian elephants. kids'farm exhibit, opened in 2004, was slated for closure in 2011 but is to remain open for another 10 years following a donation to the exhibit. the zoo, which is supported by tax revenues and open to everyone, attracts 2 million visitors per year, according to the washington post in 2005. the national zoo has a federal law enforcement agency deployed
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
The Red Panda isn't much bigger than an average size house cat. At first you may think it's a bear because of its name. They're actually a member of the raccoon family which you can tell if you look at their appearance. The Red Panda has a long bushy tail that is useful in two ways. It helps them stay balanced when they are high up in the trees and it keeps them warm in cold weather. Their fur is thick and reddish brown, which may be why they're known as the fire fox. The Red Panda can be found in forested mountains. They're originally from the forested mountain in the Himalayas in India, Nepal and Southern China. Bamboo is the most important part of their diet. They only eat the young leaves and shoots of a bamboo plant. Red Pandas have a very low metabolic rate in order to deal with their low energy diet and cool environmental temperatures. They're very shy and gentle and don't hang around the wild too much during the day. If they feel endangered, they'll stand on their back legs and make a hissing sound. Red Pandas are good climbers and spend most of their time living mainly in trees. Their claws are very strong and help them hold onto the branches. They sleep in an unusual way by curling up tightly and wrapping their tails around their heads while sitting on a branch. Sometimes they'll sleep with their head beneath their chest and behind their back feet. This is the same position as an American raccoon sleeps. Which of the following is TRUE according to the passage?
A. The Red Panda can only be found in India, Nepal and Southern China.
B. The Red Panda's tail can help it stay balanced when it is high up in the trees.
C. The Red Panda eats the whole of the bamboo.
D. The Red Panda has high metabolic rate when the temperature is low.
Answer: | [
"The Red Panda can only be found in India, Nepal and Southern China.",
"The Red Panda's tail can help it stay balanced when it is high up in the trees.",
"The Red Panda eats the whole of the bamboo.",
"The Red Panda has high metabolic rate when the temperature is low."
] | B | null |
medmcqa_2730 | medmcqa | <ctx>
hydroxethylruticide on intestinal toxicity induced by adriamycin. physiol chem phys med nmr. 1986 ; 18 ( 1 ) : 17 - 24. mcginness j. a new view of pigmented neurons. j theor biol. 1985 aug 7 ; 115 ( 3 ) : 475 - 6. gulati op, nordmann h, aellig a, maignan mf, mcginness j. protective effects of o - ( beta - hydroxyethyl ) - rutosides ( hr ) against adriamycin - induced toxicity in rats. arch int pharmacodyn ther. 1985 feb ; 273 ( 2 ) : 323 - 34. schrauzer gn, mcginness je, ishmael d, bell lj. alcoholism and cancer. i. effects of long - term exposure to alcohol on spontaneous mammary adenocarcinoma and prolactin levels in c3h / st mice. j stud alcohol. 1979 mar ; 40 ( 3 ) : 240 - 6. pietronigro dd, mcginness je, koren mj, crippa r, seligman ml, harry demopoulos. spontaneous generation of adriamycin semiquinone radicals at physiologic ph. physiol chem phys. 1979 ; 11 ( 5 ) : 405 - 14. mcginness je, crippa pr, kirkpatrick ds, proctor ph. reversible and irreversible changes in hydrogen ion titration curves of melanins. physiol chem phys. 1979 ; 11 ( 3 ) : 217 - 23. kirkpatrick ds, mcginness je, moorhead wd, corry pm, proctor ph. high - frequency dielectric spectroscopy of concentrated membrane suspensions. biophys j. 1978 oct ; 24 ( 1 ) : 243 - 5. external links the chip collection - proctor mcginness introduction, smithsonian institution living people organic semiconductors molecular electronics conductive polymers 1943 births university of texas health science center at houston alumni university of houston alumni rice university alumni university of texas md anderson cancer center faculty
and the way sucralose is metabolized suggests a reduced risk of toxicity. for example, sucralose is extremely insoluble in fat and, thus, does not accumulate in fatty tissues ; sucralose also does not break down and will dechlorinate only under conditions that are not found during regular digestion ( i. e., high heat applied to the powder form of the molecule ). only about 15 % of sucralose is absorbed by the body and most of it passes out of the body unchanged. in 2017, sucralose was the most common sugar substitute used in the manufacture of foods and beverages ; it had 30 % of the global market, which was projected to be valued at $ 2. 8 billion by 2021. sugar alcohol sugar alcohols, or polyols, are sweetening and bulking ingredients used in the manufacturing of foods and beverages, particularly sugar - free candies, cookies, and chewing gums. as a sugar substitute, they typically are less - sweet and supply fewer calories ( about a half to one - third fewer calories ) than sugar. they are converted to glucose slowly, and do not spike increases in blood glucose. sorbitol, xylitol, mannitol, erythritol, and lactitol are examples of sugar alcohols. these are, in general, less sweet than sucrose, but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products. the sweetness profile may be altered during manufacturing by mixing with high - intensity sweeteners. sugar alcohols are carbohydrates with a biochemical structure partially matching the structures of sugar and alcohol, although not containing ethanol. they are not entirely metabolized by the human body. the unabsorbed sugar alcohols may cause bloating and diarrhea due to their osmotic effect, if consumed in sufficient amounts. they are found commonly in small quantities in some fruits and vegetables, and are commercially manufactured from different carbohydrates and starch. production the majority of sugar substitutes approved for food use are artificially synthesized compounds. however, some bulk plant - derived sugar substitutes
minerals dietary minerals in foods are large and diverse with many required to function while other trace elements can be hazardous if consumed in excessive amounts. bulk minerals with a reference daily intake ( rdi, formerly recommended daily allowance ( rda ) ) of more than 200 mg / day are calcium, magnesium, and potassium while important trace minerals ( rdi less than 200 mg / day ) are copper, iron, and zinc. these are found in many foods, but can also be taken in dietary supplements. colour food colouring is added to change the colour of any food substance. it is mainly for sensory analysis purposes. it can be used to simulate the natural colour of a product as perceived by the customer, such as red dye ( like fd & c red no. 40 allura red ac ) to ketchup or to add unnatural colours to a product like kellogg's froot loops. caramel is a natural food dye ; the industrial form, caramel colouring, is the most widely used food colouring and is found in foods from soft drinks to soy sauce, bread, and pickles. flavours flavour in food is important in how food smells and tastes to the consumer, especially in sensory analysis. some of these products occur naturally like salt and sugar, but flavour chemists ( called a " flavourist " ) develop many of these flavours for food products. such artificial flavours include methyl salicylate which creates the wintergreen odor and lactic acid which gives milk a tart taste. food additives food additives are substances added to food for preserving flavours, or improving taste, look, smell and freshness. the processes are as old as adding vinegar for pickling or as an emulsifier for emulsion mixtures like mayonnaise. these are generally listed by " e number " in the european union or gras ( " generally recognized as safe " ) by the united states food and drug administration. see also food physical chemistry dietary supplement food and bioprocess technology ( journal ) food chemistry ( journal ) food composition food engineering food fortification food microbiology food packaging food preservation food rheology food safety food science food storage food supplements food technology nutraceutical nutrification (
##onal damage mechanism localized in old demyelinating lesions, probably produced by b - cells. this second damage is related to the t1 - hypointense lesions ( mri black holes ) which appear when a demyelinating lesion is not remyelinated. the axons of the neurons are damaged probably by b - cells, though currently no relationship has been established with the relapses or the attacks. it seems that this damage is a primary target of the immune system, i. e. not secondary damage after attacks against myelin, though this has been disputed proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy has shown that there is widespread neuronal loss even at the onset of ms, largely unrelated to inflammation. a relationship between neural damage and n - acetyl - aspartate concentration has been established, and this could lead to new methods for early ms diagnostic through magnetic resonance spectroscopy. axonal degeneration at cns can be estimated by n - acetylaspartate to creatine ( naa / cr ) ratio, both measured by with proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. the meninges in multiple sclerosis the meninges are three layers that protect the brain and the spinal cord. they are called ( from the outside to the inside ) the dura mater, the arachnoid mater and the pia mater. the cerebrospinal fluid flows between the second and the third one. a remarkable finding in ms is that some follicle - like aggregates appear in the meninges ( composed by b - cells mostly infected with ebv ). these aggregates grow during the disease process and is mostly found in secondary progressive patients. inflammation in the meninges has been found to be associated to gray mater ( cortical ) demyelination. besides subpial demyelination suggest either a problem in the csf or in the pia mater that should protect the cortex whatever the underlying condition for ms is, some damage is triggered by a csf unknown soluble factor, which is produced in meningeal areas and diffuses into the cortical parenchyma. it destroys myelin either directly or indirectly through microglia activation. the infiltration into men
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Xylitol affects the MS stains by:
A. Reduced adhesion are seen.
B. Less virulence properties are seen.
C. Less acid production are seen.
D. Anyone of the above.
Answer: | [
"Reduced adhesion are seen.",
"Less virulence properties are seen.",
"Less acid production are seen.",
"Anyone of the above."
] | D | |
aquarat_13904 | aquarat | <ctx>
5. 2 calorimetry 14. a 500 - ml bottle of water at room temperature and a 2 - l bottle of water at the same temperature were placed in a refrigerator. after 30 minutes, the 500 - ml bottle of water had cooled to the temperature of the refrigerator. an hour later, the 2 - l of water had cooled to the same temperature. when asked which sample of water lost the most heat, one student replied that both bottles lost the same amount of heat because they started at the same temperature and finished at the same temperature. a second student thought that the 2 - l bottle of water lost more heat because there was more water. a third student believed that the 500 - ml bottle of water lost more heat because it cooled more quickly. a fourth student thought that it was not possible to tell because we do not know the initial temperature and the final temperature of the water. indicate which of these answers is correct and describe the error in each of the other answers. 15. would the amount of heat measured for the reaction in example 5. 5 be greater, lesser, or remain the same if we used a calorimeter that was a poorer insulator than a coffee cup calorimeter? explain your answer. 16. would the amount of heat absorbed by the dissolution in example 5. 6 appear greater, lesser, or remain the same if the experimenter used a calorimeter that was a poorer insulator than a coffee cup calorimeter? explain your answer. 17. would the amount of heat absorbed by the dissolution in example 5. 6 appear greater, lesser, or remain the same if the heat capacity of the calorimeter were taken into account? explain your answer. 18. how many milliliters of water at 23 °c with a density of 1. 00 g / ml must be mixed with 180 ml ( about 6 oz ) of coffee at 95 °c so that the resulting combination will have a temperature of 60 °c? assume that coffee and water have the same density and the same specific heat. 19. how much will the temperature of a cup ( 180 g ) of coffee at 95 °c be reduced when a 45 g silver spoon ( specific heat 0. 24 j / g °c ) at 25 °c is
##er ( " cappuccino ", 3 ) ; $ shop - > takeorder ( " espresso ", 96 ) ; $ shop - > takeorder ( " frappe ", 552 ) ; $ shop - > takeorder ( " cappuccino ", 121 ) ; $ shop - > takeorder ( " espresso ", 121 ) ; $ shop - > service ( ) ; print ( " coffeeflavor objects in cache : ". coffeeflavour : : flavoursincache ( ). php _ eol ) ; see also copy - on - write memoization multiton references articles with example java code software design patterns software optimization
34. 5 kg ( about 76 lb ). what is the volume in liters of this much mercury? 3. ( a ) what is the mass of a deep breath of air having a volume of 2. 00 l? ( b ) discuss the effect taking such a breath has on your body ’ s volume and density. 4. a straightforward method of finding the density of an object is to measure its mass and then measure its volume by submerging it in a graduated cylinder. what is the density of a 240 - g rock that displaces of water? ( note that the accuracy and practical applications of this technique are more limited than a variety of others that are based on archimedes ’ principle. ) 5. suppose you have a coffee mug with a circular cross section and vertical sides ( uniform radius ). what is its inside radius if it holds 375 g of coffee when filled to a depth of 7. 50 cm? assume coffee has the same density as water. 6. ( a ) a rectangular gasoline tank can hold 50. 0 kg of gasoline when full. what is the depth of the tank if it is 0. 500 - m wide by 0. 900 - m long? ( b ) discuss whether this gas tank has a reasonable volume for a passenger car. 7. a trash compactor can reduce the volume of its contents to 0. 350 their original value. neglecting the mass of air expelled, by what factor is the density of the rubbish increased? 8. a 2. 50 - kg steel gasoline can holds 20. 0 l of gasoline when full. what is the average density of the full gas can, taking into account the volume occupied by steel as well as by gasoline? 9. what is the density of 18. 0 - karat gold that is a mixture of 18 parts gold, 5 parts silver, and 1 part copper? ( these values are parts by mass, not volume. ) assume that this is a simple mixture having an average density equal to the weighted densities of its constituents. 10. there is relatively little empty space between atoms in solids and liquids, so that the average density of an atom is about the same as matter on a macroscopic scale — approximately. the nucleus
1. 6 mathematical treatment of measurement results 57. write conversion factors ( as ratios ) for the number of : ( a ) yards in 1 meter ( b ) liters in 1 liquid quart ( c ) pounds in 1 kilogram 58. write conversion factors ( as ratios ) for the number of : ( a ) kilometers in 1 mile ( b ) liters in 1 cubic foot ( c ) grams in 1 ounce 59. the label on a soft drink bottle gives the volume in two units : 2. 0 l and 67. 6 fl oz. use this information to derive a conversion factor between the english and metric units. how many significant figures can you justify in your conversion factor? 56 1 • exercises access for free at openstax. org 60. the label on a box of cereal gives the mass of cereal in two units : 978 grams and 34. 5 oz. use this information to find a conversion factor between the english and metric units. how many significant figures can you justify in your conversion factor? 61. soccer is played with a round ball having a circumference between 27 and 28 in. and a weight between 14 and 16 oz. what are these specifications in units of centimeters and grams? 62. a woman ’ s basketball has a circumference between 28. 5 and 29. 0 inches and a maximum weight of 20 ounces ( two significant figures ). what are these specifications in units of centimeters and grams? 63. how many milliliters of a soft drink are contained in a 12. 0 - oz can? 64. a barrel of oil is exactly 42 gal. how many liters of oil are in a barrel? 65. the diameter of a red blood cell is about 3 10−4 in. what is its diameter in centimeters? 66. the distance between the centers of the two oxygen atoms in an oxygen molecule is 1. 21 10−8 cm. what is this distance in inches? 67. is a 197 - lb weight lifter light enough to compete in a class limited to those weighing 90 kg or less? 68. a very good 197 - lb weight lifter lifted 192 kg in a move called the clean and jerk. what was the mass of the weight lifted in
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Carina has 130 ounces of coffee divided into 5- and 10-ounce packages. If she has 2 more 5-ounce packages than 10-ounce packages, how many 10-ounce packages does she have?
A. A)5
B. B)6
C. C)7
D. D)8
Answer: | [
"A)5",
"B)6",
"C)7",
"D)8"
] | D | Lets say 5 and 10 ounce packages be x and y respectively.
Given that, 5x+10y=130 and x=y+2. What is the value of y.
Substituting the x in first equation, 5y+10+10y=130 ->y=120/15.=8
D |
qasc_3702 | qasc | <ctx>
, and byproducts resulting from sugar beets and sugarcane processing. roughages : grass pastures, or plant parts like hay, silage, root crops, straw, and stover. diets given to different species are all not the same. for example, livestock animals are fed on a diet that consists mainly of roughages, while poultry, swine, and fish are fed with concentrates. livestock in a feedlot may be fed with energy feeds which usually comes from grains, supplied alone or as part of a total mixed ration. preparation and quality the quality of the prepared feed ultimately depends on the quality of the material such as the grain or grass used ; the raw material should be of very good quality. commercial feed manufacturing is an industrial process, and therefore should follow haccp procedures. the food and drug administration ( fda ) defines haccp as " a management system in which food safety is addressed through the analysis and control of biological, chemical, and physical hazards from raw material production, procurement and handling, to manufacturing, distribution and consumption of the finished product ". the fda regulates human food and animal feed for poultry, livestock, swine, and fish. additionally, the fda regulates pet food, which they estimate feeds over 177 million dogs, cats, and horses in america. similar to human foods, animal feeds must be unadulterated and wholesome, prepared under good sanitary conditions, and truthfully be labeled to provide the required information to the consumer. formulations for swine feed makes up approximately 60 % to 80 % of the total cost of producing hogs. manufactured feeds are not merely for satiety but also must provide animals the nutrients required for healthy growth. formulating a swine ration considers the required nutrients at various growth stages in creating an appropriate feed. three basic methods are used to formulate swine diets : pearson square, algebraic equations and linear programs ( computers ). in recent times, microcomputer programs are available that will balance a diet for many nutrients and assist with economic decisions. the basic nutrients required are crude protein, metabolizable energy, minerals, vitamins and water. the formulation procedure has both fixed and variable portions. swine rations are
the most essential elements like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus - - elements needed for plant growth. they also can gather soil particles from differing depths of soil and deposit them in other places, leading to the mixing of soil so it is richer with nutrients and other elements. vertebrates the soil is also important to many mammals. gophers, moles, prairie dogs, and other burrowing animals rely on this soil for protection and food. the animals even give back to the soil as their burrowing allows more rain, snow and water from ice to enter the soil instead of creating erosion. table of soil life this table includes some familiar types of soil life of soil life, coherent with prevalent taxonomy as used in the linked wikipedia articles. see also agricultural soil science agroecology biogeochemical cycle compost nitrification nitrogen cycle potting soil soil food web soil microbiology soil science notes references bibliography alexander, 1977, introduction to soil microbiology, 2nd edition, john wiley alexander, 1994, biodegradation and bioremediation, academic press bardgett, r. d., 2005, the biology of soil : a community and ecosystem approach, oxford university press burges, a., and raw, f., 1967, soil biology : academic press coleman d. c. et al., 2004, fundamentals of soil ecology, 2nd edition, academic press coyne, 1999, soil microbiology : an exploratory approach, delmar doran, j. w., d. c. coleman, d. f. bezdicek and b. a. stewart. 1994. defining soil quality for a sustainable environment. soil science society of america special publication number 35, asa, madison wis. paul, p. a. and f. e. clark. 1996, soil microbiology and biochemistry, 2nd edition, academic press richards, 1987, the microbiology of terrestrial ecosystems, longman scientific & technical sylvia et al., 1998, principles and applications of soil microbiology, prentice hall soil and water conservation society, 2000, soil biology primer. tate, 2000, soil microbiology, 2nd edition, john wiley van elsas et al., 1997, modern
feed manufacturing refers to the process of producing animal feed from raw agricultural products. fodder produced by manufacturing is formulated to meet specific animal nutrition requirements for different species of animals at different life stages. according to the american feed industry association ( afia ), there are four basic steps : receive raw ingredients : feed mills receive raw ingredients from suppliers. upon arrival, the ingredients are weighed, tested and analyzed for various nutrients and to ensure their quality and safety. create a formula : nutritionists work side by side with scientists to formulate nutritionally sound and balanced diets for livestock, poultry, aquaculture and pets. this is a complex process, as every species has different nutritional requirements. mix ingredients : once the formula is determined, the mill mixes the ingredients to create a finished product. package and label : manufacturers determine the best way to ship the product. if it is prepared for retail, it will be " bagged and tagged, " or placed into a bag with a label that includes the product's purpose, ingredients and instructions. if the product is prepared for commercial use, it will be shipped in bulk. types the washington state department of agriculture defines feed as a mix of whole or processed grains, concentrates, and commercial feeds for all species of animals to include customer formula and labeled feeds, and pet feed. these feed are now commercially produced for the livestock, poultry, swine, and fish industries. the commercial production of feed is governed by state and national laws. for example, in texas, whole or processed grains, concentrates, and commercial feeds with the purpose of feeding wildlife and pets should be duly described in words or animation for distribution by sellers. most state and federal codes have clearly stated that commercial feeds should not be adulterated. animal feeds have been broadly classified as follows : concentrates : high in energy, contains mainly cereal grains and their byproducts, or is prepared from high - protein oil meals or cakes, and byproducts resulting from sugar beets and sugarcane processing. roughages : grass pastures, or plant parts like hay, silage, root crops, straw, and stover. diets given to different species are all not the same. for example, livestock animals are fed on a
in biology and ecology, a resource is a substance or object in the environment required by an organism for normal growth, maintenance, and reproduction. resources box can be consumed by one organism and, as a result, become unavailable to another organism. for plants key resources are light, nutrients, water, and place to grow. for animals key resources are food, water, and territory. key resources for plants terrestrial plants require particular resources for photosynthesis and to complete their life cycle of germination, growth, reproduction, and dispersal : carbon dioxide microsite ( ecology ) nutrients pollination seed dispersal soil water key resources for animals animals require particular resources for metabolism and to complete their life cycle of gestation, birth, growth, and reproduction : foraging territory water resources and ecological processes resource availability plays a central role in ecological processes : carrying capacity biological competition liebig's law of the minimum niche differentiation see also abiotic component biotic component community ecology ecology population ecology plant ecology size - asymmetric competition references biological concepts biological interactions ecology terminology
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
What does an animal require food for?
A. hydration
B. to grow and heal
C. for cold
D. aerobic capacity
Answer: | [
"hydration",
"to grow and heal",
"for cold",
"aerobic capacity"
] | B | |
mmlu_aux_2301 | mmlu_auxiliary | <ctx>
25. 4 • total internal reflection 1111 allowing quality imaging of a region inside the body. special minute optical filters inserted at the end of the fiber bundle have the capacity to image tens of microns below the surface without cutting the surface — non - intrusive diagnostics. this is particularly useful for determining the extent of cancers in the stomach and bowel. most telephone conversations and internet communications are now carried by laser signals along optical fibers. extensive optical fiber cables have been placed on the ocean floor and underground to enable optical communications. optical fiber communication systems offer several advantages over electrical ( copper ) based systems, particularly for long distances. the fibers can be made so transparent that light can travel many kilometers before it becomes dim enough to require amplification — much superior to copper conductors. this property of optical fibers is called low loss. lasers emit light with characteristics that allow far more conversations in one fiber than are possible with electric signals on a single conductor. this property of optical fibers is called high bandwidth. optical signals in one fiber do not produce undesirable effects in other adjacent fibers. this property of optical fibers is called reduced crosstalk. we shall explore the unique characteristics of laser radiation in a later chapter. corner reflectors and diamonds a light ray that strikes an object consisting of two mutually perpendicular reflecting surfaces is reflected back exactly parallel to the direction from which it came. this is true whenever the reflecting surfaces are perpendicular, and it is independent of the angle of incidence. such an object, shown in figure 25. 17, is called a corner reflector, since the light bounces from its inside corner. many inexpensive reflector buttons on bicycles, cars, and warning signs have corner reflectors designed to return light in the direction from which it originated. it was more expensive for astronauts to place one on the moon. laser signals can be bounced from that corner reflector to measure the gradually increasing distance to the moon with great precision. figure 25. 17 ( a ) astronauts placed a corner reflector on the moon to measure its gradually increasing orbital distance. ( credit : nasa ) ( b ) the bright spots on these bicycle safety reflectors are reflections of the flash of the camera that took this picture on a dark night. ( credit
vacuum is therefore 1. ) the larger the refractive index, the more slowly light travels in that medium. typical values for core and cladding of an optical fiber are 1. 48 and 1. 46, respectively. when light traveling in a dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle, the light will be completely reflected. this effect, called total internal reflection, is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core. light travels along the fiber bouncing back and forth off of the boundary. because the light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle, only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles will be propagated. this range of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fiber. the size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the fiber's core and cladding. optical waveguides are used as components in integrated optical circuits ( e. g. combined with lasers or light - emitting diodes, leds ) or as the transmission medium in local and long haul optical communication systems. mechanisms of attenuation attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission loss, is the reduction in intensity of the light beam ( or signal ) with respect to distance traveled through a transmission medium. attenuation coefficients in fiber optics usually use units of db / km through the medium due to the very high quality of transparency of modern optical transmission media. the medium is usually a fiber of silica glass that confines the incident light beam to the inside. attenuation is an important factor limiting the transmission of a signal across large distances. in optical fibers the main attenuation source is scattering from molecular level irregularities ( rayleigh scattering ) due to structural disorder and compositional fluctuations of the glass structure. this same phenomenon is seen as one of the limiting factors in the transparency of infrared missile domes. further attenuation is caused by light absorbed by residual materials, such as metals or water ions, within the fiber core and inner cladding. light leakage due to bending, splices, connectors, or other outside forces are other factors resulting in attenuation. as camouflage many marine animals that float near the surface are highly transparent, giving them
and, thus, be totally reflected ( see figure 25. 14. ) the index of refraction outside the fiber must be smaller than inside, a condition that is easily satisfied by coating the outside of the fiber with a material having an appropriate refractive index. in fact, most fibers have a varying refractive index to allow more light to be guided along the fiber through total internal refraction. rays are reflected around corners as shown, making the fibers into tiny light pipes. figure 25. 14 light entering a thin fiber may strike the inside surface at large or grazing angles and is completely reflected if these angles exceed the critical angle. such rays continue down the fiber, even following it around corners, since the angles of reflection and incidence remain large. bundles of fibers can be used to transmit an image without a lens, as illustrated in figure 25. 15. the output of a 25. 18
0. 200 m through such a fiber? 12. ( a ) given that the angle between the ray in the water and the perpendicular to the water is, and using information in figure 25. 51, find the height of the instructor ’ s head above the water, noting that you will first have to calculate the angle of refraction. ( b ) find the apparent depth of the diver ’ s head below water as seen by the instructor. assume the diver and the diver's image are the same horizontal distance from the normal. 13. suppose you have an unknown clear substance immersed in water, and you wish to identify it by finding its index of refraction. you arrange to have a beam of light enter it at an angle of, and you observe the angle of refraction to be. what is the index of refraction of the substance and its likely identity? 25 • problems & exercises 1145 14. on the moon ’ s surface, lunar astronauts placed a corner reflector, off which a laser beam is periodically reflected. the distance to the moon is calculated from the round - trip time. what percent correction is needed to account for the delay in time due to the slowing of light in earth ’ s atmosphere? assume the distance to the moon is precisely, and earth ’ s atmosphere ( which varies in density with altitude ) is equivalent to a layer 30. 0 km thick with a constant index of refraction. 15. suppose figure 25. 52 represents a ray of light going from air through crown glass into water, such as going into a fish tank. calculate the amount the ray is displaced by the glass ( ), given that the incident angle is and the glass is 1. 00 cm thick. 16. figure 25. 52 shows a ray of light passing from one medium into a second and then a third. show that is the same as it would be if the second medium were not present ( provided total internal reflection does not occur ). figure 25. 52 a ray of light passes from one medium to a third by traveling through a second. the final direction is the same as if the second medium were not present, but the ray is displaced by ( shown exaggerated ). 17. unreasonable results suppose light travels from water to
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
It is not always easy to understand inventions and new developments in science. To understand fiber optics , however, you can try an experiment. Put a drop or two of milk into the glass of water. Turn off the lights. Shine the light from your flashlight through the top of the glass at an angle of about 45 degrees. Put a piece of white paper against the glass when the beam of light is shining. Move the paper so you can see where the beam is coming out of the glass. You should see a spot of light. Some of the light has passed through the water and through the glass. You see it on the paper. You also see another beam going down into the glass. It is being reflected down into the glass. Next move the flashlight so that the beam is coming straighter down(30 degrees) into the water. You will see the same phenomenon: some of the light is reflected back into the glass. And some escapes out. Now move the beam of light from the flashlight slowly up until you cannot see any light escaping. This point is called the "point of total internal reflection." The word internal means "inside." All the light is staying inside the glass. There is no beam showing a bright spot on the white paper. All the light energy is inside the glass. The glass of milky water is like a strand of glass. A fiber optic tube is a bundle of long thin strands of glass, really many tubes. However, the principle is the same: at a certain angle, all the light energy that goes into the glass fiber comes out the other end. Light is energy. Sound is energy. Radio waves and electricity are both energy. They can all be changed into light, and as light they can all travel along a glass fiber. Light travels at the rate of 186,000 miles per second. Therefore, a message can travel that fast in a glass fiber. This is the principle, or law of nature, that makes fiber optics work. Which of the following can be the best title?
A. Experiment of Light Travel
B. Principles of Fiber Optics
C. Communication on Fiber Optics
D. Theory of Light Travel
Answer: | [
"Experiment of Light Travel",
"Principles of Fiber Optics",
"Communication on Fiber Optics",
"Theory of Light Travel"
] | B | null |
medmcqa_1953 | medmcqa | <ctx>
##ysis + two from the citrate cycle ). it is clear that using oxygen to completely oxidize glucose provides an organism with far more energy than any oxygen - independent metabolic feature, and this is thought to be the reason why complex life appeared only after earth's atmosphere accumulated large amounts of oxygen. gluconeogenesis in vertebrates, vigorously contracting skeletal muscles ( during weightlifting or sprinting, for example ) do not receive enough oxygen to meet the energy demand, and so they shift to anaerobic metabolism, converting glucose to lactate. the combination of glucose from noncarbohydrates origin, such as fat and proteins. this only happens when glycogen supplies in the liver are worn out. the pathway is a crucial reversal of glycolysis from pyruvate to glucose and can use many sources like amino acids, glycerol and krebs cycle. large scale protein and fat catabolism usually occur when those suffer from starvation or certain endocrine disorders. the liver regenerates the glucose, using a process called gluconeogenesis. this process is not quite the opposite of glycolysis, and actually requires three times the amount of energy gained from glycolysis ( six molecules of atp are used, compared to the two gained in glycolysis ). analogous to the above reactions, the glucose produced can then undergo glycolysis in tissues that need energy, be stored as glycogen ( or starch in plants ), or be converted to other monosaccharides or joined into di - or oligosaccharides. the combined pathways of glycolysis during exercise, lactate's crossing via the bloodstream to the liver, subsequent gluconeogenesis and release of glucose into the bloodstream is called the cori cycle. relationship to other " molecular - scale " biological sciences researchers in biochemistry use specific techniques native to biochemistry, but increasingly combine these with techniques and ideas developed in the fields of genetics, molecular biology, and biophysics. there is not a defined line between these disciplines. biochemistry studies the chemistry required for biological activity of molecules, molecular biology studies their biological activity, genetics
and nonmetabolic pathways. keggtranslator : an easy - to - use stand - alone application that can visualize and convert kegg files ( kgml formatted xml - files ) into multiple output formats. unlike other translators, keggtranslator supports a plethora of output formats, is able to augment the information in translated documents ( e. g., miriam annotations ) beyond the scope of the kgml document, and amends missing components to fragmentary reactions within the pathway to allow simulations on those. keggtranslator converts these files to sbml, biopax, sif, sbgn, sbml with qualitative modeling extension, gml, graphml, jpg, gif, latex, etc. modelseed : an online resource for the analysis, comparison, reconstruction, and curation of genome - scale metabolic models. users can submit genome sequences to the rast annotation system, and the resulting annotation can be automatically piped into the modelseed to produce a draft metabolic model. the modelseed automatically constructs a network of metabolic reactions, gene - protein - reaction associations for each reaction, and a biomass composition reaction for each genome to produce a model of microbial metabolism that can be simulated using flux balance analysis. metamerge : algorithm for semi - automatically reconciling a pair of existing metabolic network reconstructions into a single metabolic network model. coreco : algorithm for automatic reconstruction of metabolic models of related species. the first version of the software used kegg as reaction database to link with the ec number predictions from coreco. its automatic gap filling using atom map of all the reactions produce functional models ready for simulation. tools for literature pubmed : this is an online library developed by the national center for biotechnology information, which contains a massive collection of medical journals. using the link provided by enzyme, the search can be directed towards the organism of interest, thus recovering literature on the enzyme and its use inside of the organism. methodology to draft a reconstruction a reconstruction is built by compiling data from the resources above. database tools such as kegg and biocyc can be used in conjunction with each other to
interactions are often present in metabolic pathways and are beneficial in that they allow one step of a reaction to regulate another step. they allow an enzyme to have a range of molecular interactions, other than the highly specific active site. see also hugh stott taylor sitex references further reading alan fersht, structure and mechanism in protein science : a guide to enzyme catalysis and protein folding. w. h. freeman, 1998. bugg, t. introduction to enzyme and coenzyme chemistry. ( 2nd edition ), blackwell publishing limited, 2004.. enzymes catalysis biochemistry terminology
the annotation of functional units in proteins. its collection of domain models utilizes 3d structure to provide insights into sequence / structure / function relationships. interpro : provides functional analysis of proteins by classifying them into families and predicting domains and important sites. string : database of known and predicted protein interactions. once proteins have been established, more information about the enzyme structure, reactions catalyzed, substrates and products, mechanisms, and more can be acquired from databases such as kegg, metacyc and nc - iubmb. accurate metabolic reconstructions require additional information about the reversibility and preferred physiological direction of an enzyme - catalyzed reaction which can come from databases such as brenda or metacyc database. model refinement an initial metabolic reconstruction of a genome is typically far from perfect due to the high variability and diversity of microorganisms. often, metabolic pathway databases such as kegg and metacyc will have " holes ", meaning that there is a conversion from a substrate to a product ( i. e., an enzymatic activity ) for which there is no known protein in the genome that encodes the enzyme that facilitates the catalysis. what can also happen in semi - automatically drafted reconstructions is that some pathways are falsely predicted and don't actually occur in the predicted manner. because of this, a systematic verification is made in order to make sure no inconsistencies are present and that all the entries listed are correct and accurate. furthermore, previous literature can be researched in order to support any information obtained from one of the many metabolic reaction and genome databases. this provides an added level of assurance for the reconstruction that the enzyme and the reaction it catalyzes do actually occur in the organism. enzyme promiscuity and spontaneous chemical reactions can damage metabolites. this metabolite damage, and its repair or pre - emption, create energy costs that need to be incorporated into models. it is likely that many genes of unknown function encode proteins that repair or pre - empt metabolite damage, but most genome - scale metabolic reconstructions only include a fraction of all genes. any new reaction not present in the databases needs to be added to the reconstruction. this is
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Which is not a common enzyme for glycolysis and gluconeogenesis?
A. Aldolase
B. Glucose-6-phosphatase
C. Phosphoglycerate mutase
D. Phosphoglycerate kinase
Answer: | [
"Aldolase",
"Glucose-6-phosphatase",
"Phosphoglycerate mutase",
"Phosphoglycerate kinase"
] | B | Seven of the reactions of glycolysis are reversible and are used in the synthesis of glucose by gluconeogenesis. Thus, seven enzymes are common to both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis : (i) Phosphohexose isomerase; (ii) Aldolase; (iii) Phosphotriose isomerase, (iv) Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase; (v) Phosphoglycerate kinase; (vi) Phosphoglycerate mutase; (vii) Enolase. Three reactions of glycolysis are irreversible which are circumvented in gluconeogenesis by four reactions. So, enzymes at these steps are different in glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. |
aquarat_5127 | aquarat | <ctx>
, 10 ) or ( 9, 6 ). the example can be generalized. suppose mrs. carlson and mrs. delacroix are also part of the club where each lady has made 3 gloves. now the total is 12 gloves ( six pairs ) which nets €30. at the same time, one of the ladies on her own can still only make €5. thus, imputations share €30 such that no - one gets less than €5. the following are possible imputations : ( 7. 5, 7. 5, 7. 5, 7. 5 ), ( 10, 5, 10, 5 ), ( 5, 15, 5, 5 ) or ( 7, 5, 9, 9 ). references brams, steven j. and davis, morton d.. game theory : encyclopedia britannica, 2021, https : / / www. britannica. com / science / game - theory durlauf, steven n. and blume, lawrence e.. game theory, 2010, pp. 130 – 140 mccain, roger a. value solutions in cooperative games, 2013, pp. 105 – 107 myerson roger b. : game theory : analysis of conflict, harvard university press, cambridge, 1991, petrosjan, leon a. differential games of pursuit, world scientific, singapore, london, 1993, pp. 340. yeung, david w. k. and petrosyan, leon a. cooperative stochastic differential games ( springer series in operations research and financial engineering ), 2006, springer pp. 242.. zaccour, georges. time consistency in cooperative differential games : a tutorial. infor : information systems and operational research, volume 46 ( 1 ), 2008.. cooperative games
into 3 bins of capacity 60 ( which is optimal ) : 44, 8, 8 ; 24, 24, 6, 6 ; 22, 21, 17. but if the " 17 " becomes " 16 ", then ffd with capacity 60 needs 4 bins : 44, 16 ; 24, 24, 8 ; 22, 21, 8, 6 ; 6. so multifit must increase the capacity, for example, to 62 : 44, 16 ; 24, 24, 8, 6 ; 22, 21, 8, 6. generalization : fair allocation of chores multifit has been extended to the more general problem of maximin - share allocation of chores. in this problem, s is a set of chores, and there are n agents who assign potentially different valuations to the chores. the goal is to give to each agent, a set of chores worth at most r times the maximum value in an optimal scheduling based on i's valuations. a naive approach is to let each agent in turn use the multifit algorithm to calculate the threshold, and then use the algorithm where each agent uses his own threshold. if this approach worked, we would get an approximation of 13 / 11. however, this approach fails due to the non - monotonicity of ffd. example here is an example. suppose there are four agents, and they have valuations of two types : both types can partition the chores into 4 parts of total value 75. type a : 51, 12, 12 27. 5, 27. 5, 10, 10 27. 5, 27. 5, 10, 10 25, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10 type b : 51, 24 27. 5, 27. 5, 20 27. 5, 27. 5, 20 8. 33 { 9 times } if all four agents are of the same, then ffd with threshold 75 fills the 4 optimal bins. but suppose there is one agent of type b, and the others are of type a. then, in the first round, the agent of type b takes the bundle 51, 24 ( the other agents cannot take it since for them the values are 51, 25 whose sum is more than 75 )
allocation an allocation of objects is proportional ( prop ) if every agent values his / her share at least 1 / n of the value of all items. it is called proportional up to one item ( prop1 ) if for every agent i, if at most one item is added to the bundle of i, then i values the bundle at least 1 / n of the total. formally, for all i ( where m is the set of all goods ) :. the prop1 condition was introduced by conitzer, freeman and shah in the context of fair public decision making. they proved that, in this case, a pe + prop1 allocation always exists. since every ef1 allocation is prop1, a pe + prop1 allocation exists in indivisible item allocation too ; the question is whether such allocations can be found by faster algorithms than the ones for pe + ef1. barman and krishnamurthy presented a strongy - polynomial - time algorithm finding a pe + prop1 allocation for goods ( objects with positive utility ). branzei and sandomirskiy extended the condition of prop1 to chores ( objects with negative utility ). formally, for all i :. they presented an algorithm finding a pe + prop1 allocation of chores. the algorithm is strongly polynomial - time if either the number of objects or the number of agents ( or both ) are fixed. aziz, caragiannis, igarashi and walsh extended the condition of prop1 to mixed valuations ( objects can have both positive and negative utilities ). in this setting, an allocation is called prop1 if, for each agent i, if we remove one negative item from i's bundle, or add one positive item to i's bundle, then i's utility is at least 1 / n of the total. their generalized adjusted winner algorithm finds a pe + ef1 allocation for two agents ; such an allocation is also prop1. aziz, moulin and sandomirskiy presented a strongly polynomial - time algorithm for finding an allocation that is fractionally pe ( stronger than pe ) and prop1, with general mixed valuations, even if the number of agents or objects is not fixed, and even if the agents have
##s of wef have been studied, so far, only for goods. chakraborty, igarashi and suksompong introduced the weighted round - robin algorithm for wef ( 1, 0 ). in a follow - up work, chakraborty, schmidt - kraepelin and suksompong generalized the weighted round - robin algorithm to general picking - sequences, and studied various monotonicity properties of these sequences. items and money in the problem of fair allocation of items and money, monetary transfers can be used to attain exact fairness of indivisible goods. corradi and corradi define an allocation as equitable if the utility of each agent i ( defined as the value of items plus the money given to i ) is r ti ui ( allitems ), where r is the same for all agents. they present an algorithm that finds an equitable allocation with r > = 1, which means that the allocation is also proportional. bargaining cooperative bargaining is the abstract problem of selecting a feasible vector of utilities, as a function of the set of feasible utility vectors ( fair division is a special case of bargaining ). three classic bargaining solutions have variants for agents with different entitlements. in particular : kalai extended the nash bargaining solution by introducing the max weighted nash welfare rule ; thomson extended the kalai - smorodinsky bargaining solution ; driesen extended the leximin rule by introducing the asymmetric leximin rule. references fair division cooperative games jewish law
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Five people are planning to share equally the cost of a rental car. If one person withdraws from the arrangement and the others share equally the entire cost of the car, then the share of each of the remaining persons increased by:
A. A)7/8
B. B)1/8
C. C)1/4
D. D)1/7
Answer: | [
"A)7/8",
"B)1/8",
"C)1/4",
"D)1/7"
] | C | Original share of 1 person =1/5
New share of 1 person =1/4
Increase =1/4 - 1/5 =1/20
Required fraction = (1/20)/(1/5)=1/4
Answer is C. |
medmcqa_2397 | medmcqa | <ctx>
common pathological features of gc include abnormal trophoblastic enlargement, loss of trophoblastic specialized features and functions, absence of villi in the placenta, abnormal bleeding, and necrosis. many efforts have been made to try to understand the mechanism of how non - malignant mole could become invasive. it is suspected that activation of certain oncogenes ( such as up - regulations of mdm2, c - erb2, and blc2 ) and inactivation of tumor suppressor genes ( such as up - regulations of p53, p21 ) were involved in the processes of genetic changes in this malignant transformation. but trophoblastic cells, by nature, are highly active in cell division, the increased activities of those genes are also necessary to maintain their normal cell function. therefore, it is still unclear how significantly these genetic changes are in the pathogenesis of gestational choriocarcinoma. recent research in the role of long non - coding rnas ( lncrnas ) in the gc development is believed to bring hope in this field. long non - coding rnas are groups of rnas that do not code for protein expression and are usually over 200 nucleotides long ; they are increasingly recognized to have essential role in many aspects of cellular function, like transcriptional regulation, sub - cellular protein localization, and epigenetic remodeling. to date, several types of lncrnas are reported to have role in gc pathogenesis, which are metastasis - associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1 ( malat1 ), h19, maternally expressed gene 3 ( meg3 ), prostate cancer antigen 3 ( pca3 ), the long intergenic non - coding rna 00261 ( linc00261 ), etc.. however, as many of these studies are still in the preliminary stages, more investigation is needed to fully understand the underlying mechanism. diagnosis common characteristic manifestations of gestational choriocarcinoma include irregular vaginal bleeding and hydatidiform moles. a hydatidiform mole is a red hemorrhagic mass
in molecular biology, hydatidiform mole associated and imprinted ( non - protein coding ), also known as hymai, is a long non - coding rna. it is an imprinted gene, which is paternally expressed. overexpression of hymai and the protein - coding gene plag1 causes transient neonatal diabetes mellitus type 1 ( tndm1 ). see also long noncoding rna references further reading non - coding rna
##no showed that the two x chromosomes of mammals were different : one appeared similar to the autosomes ; the other was condensed and heterochromatic. this finding suggested, independently to two groups of investigators, that one of the x chromosomes underwent inactivation. in 1961, mary lyon proposed the random inactivation of one female x chromosome to explain the mottled phenotype of female mice heterozygous for coat color genes. the lyon hypothesis also accounted for the findings that one copy of the x chromosome in female cells was highly condensed, and that mice with only one copy of the x chromosome developed as infertile females. this suggested to ernest beutler, studying heterozygous females for glucose - 6 - phosphate dehydrogenase ( g6pd ) deficiency, that there were two red cell populations of erythrocytes in such heterozygotes : deficient cells and normal cells, depending on whether the inactivated x chromosome ( in the nucleus of the red cell's precursor cell ) contains the normal or defective g6pd allele. see also sex - determination system dosage compensation barr body heterochromatin epigenetics skewed x - inactivation developmental disorders thought to be related to x - inactivation : early infantile epileptic encephalopathy type 9 frontonasal dysplasia references further reading external links molecular genetics genetics epigenetics female sex - determination systems
##ondels are either false - positives or non - existent genes. hcondels have been confirmed through pcr with 88 percent of these shown to have been lost from the draft neanderthal genome. hcondels, on average, remove about 95 base pairs ( bp ) of highly conserved sequences from the human genome. the median size of these 510 validated condels is about 2, 804 bp, thus showing a diverse range in length of the characteristic deletions. another noticeable characteristic of hcondels ( and other groups of identified condels such as those from mouse and chimpanzee ) is that they tend to be specifically skewed towards gc poor regions. simulations show that hcondels are enriched near genes involved in hormone receptor signaling and neural function, and near genes encoding fibronectin - type - iii - or cd80 - like immunoglobulin c2 - set domains. impact in humans sialic acid loss of the 510 identified hcondels, only one of these deletions has been shown to remove a 92 bp sequence that is part of a protein - coding region in the human sequence. the deletion that affects the protein coding region in humans results in a frameshift mutation in the cmah gene which codes for the cytidine monophosphate - n - acetylneurminic acid hydroxylase - like protein, an enzyme involved in the production of n - glycolylneuraminic acid, one type of sialic acid. sialic acid is known to play a crucial part in cell signaling pathways and interaction processes. the loss of this gene is evident in the undetectable levels of sialic acid in humans but highly present in mouse, pig, chimpanzee and other mammal tissues and may provide more insight into the historic background of human evolution. the mechanisms and time of occurrence of hcondels are not entirely understood but given that conserved non - coding sequences play a major developmental role through regulation of genes, their loss in regions of deletions, it is expected that their loss in hcondels will result in developmental consequences that can be observed in human - specific traits. in situ hybridization experiments done by mclean
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
True about H. mole:a) Complete mole seen in human onlyb) Trophoblastic proliferationc) Hydropic degenerationd) Villus pattern absent
A. a
B. bc
C. ac
D. ad
Answer: | [
"a",
"bc",
"ac",
"ad"
] | B | H mole:
Microscopically: It is characterised by :
Marked proliferation of the syncytial and cytotrophoblastic epithelium.
Thinning of the stromal tissue due to hydropic degeneration (edema of villous stroma).
Avascular villi.
Maintenance of villus pattern.
Absence of villus pattern is characteristic of choriocarcinoma and not H mole: |
aquarat_2790 | aquarat | <ctx>
2. 5 • motion equations for constant acceleration in one dimension 63 discussion if we convert 402 m to miles, we find that the distance covered is very close to one quarter of a mile, the standard distance for drag racing. so the answer is reasonable. this is an impressive displacement in only 5. 56 s, but top - notch dragsters can do a quarter mile in even less time than this. what else can we learn by examining the equation we see that : • displacement depends on the square of the elapsed time when acceleration is not zero. in example 2. 10, the dragster covers only one fourth of the total distance in the first half of the elapsed time • if acceleration is zero, then the initial velocity equals average velocity ( ) and becomes example 2. 11 calculating final velocity : dragsters calculate the final velocity of the dragster in example 2. 10 without using information about time. strategy draw a sketch. figure 2. 32 the equation is ideally suited to this task because it relates velocities, acceleration, and displacement, and no time information is required. solution 1. identify the known values. we know that, since the dragster starts from rest. then we note that ( this was the answer in example 2. 10 ). finally, the average acceleration was given to be. 2. plug the knowns into the equation and solve for solving for final velocity when velocity is not constant ( ) a fourth useful equation can be obtained from another algebraic manipulation of previous equations. if we solve for, we get substituting this and into, we get 2. 45 2. 46
1. 2 • physical quantities and units 21 example 1. 1 unit conversions : a short drive home suppose that you drive the 10. 0 km from your school to home in 20. 0 min. calculate your average speed ( a ) in kilometers per hour ( km / h ) and ( b ) in meters per second ( m / s ). ( note : average speed is distance traveled divided by time of travel. ) strategy first we calculate the average speed using the given units. then we can get the average speed into the desired units by picking the correct conversion factor and multiplying by it. the correct conversion factor is the one that cancels the unwanted unit and leaves the desired unit in its place. solution for ( a ) ( 1 ) calculate average speed. average speed is distance traveled divided by time of travel. ( take this definition as a given for now — average speed and other motion concepts will be covered in a later module. ) in equation form, ( 2 ) substitute the given values for distance and time. ( 3 ) convert km / min to km / h : multiply by the conversion factor that will cancel minutes and leave hours. that conversion factor is discussion for ( a ) to check your answer, consider the following : ( 1 ) be sure that you have properly cancelled the units in the unit conversion. if you have written the unit conversion factor upside down, the units will not cancel properly in the equation. if you accidentally get the ratio upside down, then the units will not cancel ; rather, they will give you the wrong units as follows : which are obviously not the desired units of km / h. ( 2 ) check that the units of the final answer are the desired units. the problem asked us to solve for average speed in units of km / h and we have indeed obtained these units. ( 3 ) check the significant figures. because each of the values given in the problem has three significant figures, the answer should also have three significant figures. the answer 30. 0 km / hr does indeed have three significant figures, so this is appropriate. note that the significant figures in the conversion factor are not relevant because an hour is defined to be 60 minutes, so the precision of the conversion factor is perfect
the answer should also have three significant figures. the answer 30. 0 km / hr does indeed have three significant figures, so this is appropriate. note that the significant figures in the conversion factor are not relevant because an hour is defined to be 60 minutes, so the precision of the conversion factor is perfect. ( 4 ) next, check whether the answer is reasonable. let us consider some information from the problem — if you travel 10 km in a third of an hour ( 20 min ), you would travel three times that far in an hour. the answer does seem reasonable. solution for ( b ) there are several ways to convert the average speed into meters per second. ( 1 ) start with the answer to ( a ) and convert km / h to m / s. two conversion factors are needed — one to convert hours to seconds, and another to convert kilometers to meters. ( 2 ) multiplying by these yields 1. 2 1. 3
3. 5 addition of velocities 52. bryan allen pedaled a human - powered aircraft across the english channel from the cliffs of dover to cap gris - nez on june 12, 1979. ( a ) he flew for 169 min at an average velocity of 3. 53 m / s in a direction south of east. what was his total displacement? ( b ) allen encountered a headwind averaging 2. 00 m / s almost precisely in the opposite direction of his motion relative to the earth. what was his average velocity relative to the air? ( c ) what was his total displacement relative to the air mass? 53. a seagull flies at a velocity of 9. 00 m / s straight into the wind. ( a ) if it takes the bird 20. 0 min to travel 6. 00 km relative to the earth, what is the velocity of the wind? ( b ) if the bird turns around and flies with the wind, how long will he take to return 6. 00 km? ( c ) discuss how the wind affects the total round - trip time compared to what it would be with no wind. 54. near the end of a marathon race, the first two runners are separated by a distance of 45. 0 m. the front runner has a velocity of 3. 50 m / s, and the second a velocity of 4. 20 m / s. ( a ) what is the velocity of the second runner relative to the first? ( b ) if the front runner is 250 m from the finish line, who will win the race, assuming they run at constant velocity? ( c ) what distance ahead will the winner be when she crosses the finish line? 55. verify that the coin dropped by the airline passenger in the example 3. 8 travels 144 m horizontally while falling 1. 50 m in the frame of reference of the earth. 56. a football quarterback is moving straight backward at a speed of 2. 00 m / s when he throws a pass to a player 18. 0 m straight downfield. the ball is thrown at an angle of relative to the ground and is caught at the same height as it is released. what is the initial velocity of the ball relative to the quarterback
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Sachin can cover a distance in 1hr 24 min by covering 2/3 of the distance at 4 kmph and the rest at 5 kmph. The total distance is?
A. A)6 km
B. B)8 km
C. C)9 km
D. D)11 km
Answer: | [
"A)6 km",
"B)8 km",
"C)9 km",
"D)11 km"
] | A | Let total distance =D=D
Distance travelled at 4 kmph speed =(23)D=(23)D
Distance travelled at 5 kmph speed =(1−23)D=(13)D=(1−23)D=(13)D
Total time =1 hr 24 min = (60+24) min =8460=8460 hr =2115=2115 hr
We know,
Time=DistanceSpeedTime=DistanceSpeed
Total time
2115=2/34D+1/35D2115=2/34D+1/35D
2115=2D12+D152115=2D12+D15
84=14D84=14D
D=6 km
Option A is correct |
qasc_5395 | qasc | <ctx>
##a particles serve as a natural ornamentation. the most southern pueblo, ysleta del sur ( tigua pueblo ), located near el paso, texas, is not well known for pottery work, however its potters produced, up until the 1930s, utility ware such as bowls, and tortilla irons ( flatteners ). contemporary period starting in the 1960s, numerous artists, scholars, and curators began to exhibit and write about the work of contemporary pueblo artists whose practices were cognizant of the past and its traditions while innovating new methods, processes and design sensibilities. museums and private individuals began collecting these new forms of native art, and by the 1980s a new market began to emerge. knowledge of this work developed slowly. in 1969, the groundbreaking contemporary ceramics exhibition, objects : usa was organized, however it included only three native americans. in the same year, a major survey exhibition of ceramics, american craft today : poetry of the physical, organized by the museum of art and design, included 286 artists, only one of whom was native american. a 1987 show at the philbrook museum of art, the eloquent object : the evolution of american art in craft media since 1945, had a much higher percentage of native artists. the exhibition catalog featured an essay by lucy lippard who had long been a supporter of multicultural arts awareness and a champion for the art of women and people of color. then, in 2003, 2006 and 2012, the museum of art and design presented a comprehensive series of exhibitions, changing hands : art without reservation ; all of the artists in these shows were native artists who were emerging or established in their careers. many contemporary pueblo artists seek to transcend the anthropological and ethnographic interpretations of their work, or stereotypes of how native ceramic art should " look " or what its conceptual framework should be. this diversity of approaches ruptures any lingering eurocentric or academic notions of what constitutes modernism, and blows down these walls to reveal the complexities of indigeneity in the postmodern art world. peter held has written that these contemporary native ceramic artists have become " transdisciplinary producers of knowledge " and that : " ( t ) hese
a particular group received upon its journey. these clans would travel for some time as a unified community, but almost inevitably a disagreement would occur, the clan would split and each portion would go its separate way. however, as the clans traveled, they would often join together forming large groups, only to have these associations disband, and then be reformed with other clans. these alternate periods of harmonious living followed by wickedness, contention, and separation play an important part of the hopi mythos. this pattern seemingly began in the first world and continues even into recent history. in the course of their migration, each hopi clan was to go to the farthest extremity of the land in every direction. far in the north was a land of snow and ice which was called the " back door ", but this was closed to the hopi. however, the hopi say that other peoples came through the back door into the fourth world. " back door " could refer to the bering land bridge, which connected asia with north america. the hopi were led on their migrations by various signs, or were helped along by spider woman. eventually, the hopi clans finished their prescribed migrations and were led to their current location in northeastern arizona. most hopi traditions have it that they were given their land by masauwu, the spirit of death and master of the fourth world. sacred hopi tablets hopi tradition tells of sacred tablets which were imparted to the hopi by various deities. like most of hopi mythology, accounts differ as to when the tablets were given and in precisely what manner. perhaps the most important was said to be in the possession of the fire clan, and is related to the return of the pahana. in one version, an elder of the fire clan worried that his people would not recognize the pahana when he returned from the east. he therefore etched various designs including a human figure into a stone, and then broke off the section of the stone which included the figure's head. this section was given to pahana and he was told to bring it back with him so that the hopi would not be deceived by a witch or sorcerer. this one is
as the consumption of alcohol had ritualistic and spiritual meaning among the elites. cocoa, maize - alcohol, and “ elite - foods ” gave these gatherings special significance and provides definite proof that there was an elite class in san andres, and, by extension, la venta. didactic miniatures pohl ( 2005 ) and her colleagues found plenty of evidence to suggest that miniature representations of everyday objects were used ritualistically. “ these miniatures may have been crafted with the express purpose of composing didactic or ritual reenactments of crucial mythic or conventionalized historic events much in the same fashion as la venta offering 4. ” other elite - religious - status denoting objects ( greenstone artifacts, jewelry, maskettes, iron - ore mirrors, etc. ) were found at san andres. “ a contextual comparison suggests that, like the la venta prestige artifacts, the san andres sumptuary items were significant components of ceremonial activity. ” indications of an olmec writing system excavations at san andres in 1997 and 1998 produced three artifacts that many archaeologists contend demonstrate that the olmec civilization used a true writing system. these artifacts, dated roughly to 650 bce ( the middle of the olmec concentration at la venta and san andres ), were found in a refuse dump, the remains from a festival or feast. “ the fact that the artifacts with glyphs were found in the context of feasting refuse suggest that writing among the olmec was sacred and was closely tied to ritual activities. ” the most important find was a fist - sized ceramic cylinder seal, likely used to print cloth. when rolled out, the seal shows two speech scrolls emanating from a bird, followed directly by a number of design elements enframing what has been interpreted as logograms for “ king ( sideways u shape ), ” " 3 ( three dots, according to the mesoamerican bar and dots numbering system ), ” and “ ajaw ( from the sacred 260 - day calendar ) ", a designation used for both a calendar date and, in keeping with mesoamerican custom, the name of an olmec ruler. in addition to the ceramic cylinder seal, two fingernail - sized
of northwestern new mexico : proceedings, 41st annual new mexico water conference, new mexico water resources research institute, p. 13 - 21. semken, s. c., goldtooth - semken, c., and luna, l., 1996, the geology underlying conflicts over native american lands in the western united states : geological society of america abstracts with programs, v. 28, p. a - 399. semken, s. c., and morgan, f., 1997a, navajo pedagogy and earth systems : journal of geoscience education, v. 45, p. 109 - 112. semken, s. c., and morgan, f., 1997b, geology, navajo knowledge, and a sense of place in the central colorado plateau : geological society of america abstracts with programs, v. 29, p. a - 471. semken, s. c., 1998, rooted in the earth : culturally - integrated, place - based teaching : geological society of america abstracts with programs, v. 30, p. a - 246. suzuki, d., and knudtson, p., 1992, wisdom of the elders : sacred native stories of nature : new york, bantam books, 275 p. texier, p. - j., j. - p. brugal, c. lemorini and lucy wilson 1998 " fonction d'un site du paleolithique moyen en marge d'un territoire : l'abri de la combette ( bonnieux, vaucluse ) " economie prehistorique : les comportements de subsistence au paleolithique, xviiie rencontres internationales d'archeologie et d'histoire d'antibes, editions apdca, sophia antipolis, france ; pp. 325 – 348. wilson, lucy 2003 " importance de la difficulte du terrain par rapport a la distance de transport dans les strategies de circulation des matieres premieres lithiques dans le vaucluse, au paleolithique moyen " in prehistoire du sud -
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
what can cause an important symbol to the Navajo people?
A. density
B. energy of moving objects
C. sunlight and rain
D. volume
Answer: | [
"density",
"energy of moving objects",
"sunlight and rain",
"volume"
] | C | |
aquarat_7114 | aquarat | <ctx>
one girl at mathpages a problem with two bear cubs lewis carroll's pillow problem when intuition and math probably look wrong probability theory paradoxes probability problems
objects,..., or the th box contains at least objects. the simple form is obtained from this by taking, which gives objects. taking gives the more quantified version of the principle, namely : let and be positive integers. if objects are distributed into boxes, then at least one of the boxes contains or more of the objects. this can also be stated as, if discrete objects are to be allocated to containers, then at least one container must hold at least objects, where is the ceiling function, denoting the smallest integer larger than or equal to. similarly, at least one container must hold no more than objects, where is the floor function, denoting the largest integer smaller than or equal to. generalizations of the pigeonhole principle a probabilistic generalization of the pigeonhole principle states that if pigeons are randomly put into pigeonholes with uniform probability, then at least one pigeonhole will hold more than one pigeon with probability where is the falling factorial. for and for ( and ), that probability is zero ; in other words, if there is just one pigeon, there cannot be a conflict. for ( more pigeons than pigeonholes ) it is one, in which case it coincides with the ordinary pigeonhole principle. but even if the number of pigeons does not exceed the number of pigeonholes ( ), due to the random nature of the assignment of pigeons to pigeonholes there is often a substantial chance that clashes will occur. for example, if 2 pigeons are randomly assigned to 4 pigeonholes, there is a 25 % chance that at least one pigeonhole will hold more than one pigeon ; for 5 pigeons and 10 holes, that probability is 69. 76 % ; and for 10 pigeons and 20 holes it is about 93. 45 %. if the number of holes stays fixed, there is always a greater probability of a pair when you add more pigeons. this problem is treated at much greater length in the birthday paradox. a further probabilistic generalization is that when a real - valued random variable has a finite mean, then the probability is nonzero that is greater than or equal to, and similarly the probability is nonzero that is less than or equal to. to see that
##probable with event bb, and so the chance that the other child is also a boy is. bar - hillel & falk, however, suggest an alternative scenario. they imagine a culture in which boys are invariably chosen over girls as walking companions. in this case, the combinations of bb, bg and gb are assumed equally likely to have resulted in the boy walking companion, and thus the probability that the other child is also a boy is. in 1991, marilyn vos savant responded to a reader who asked her to answer a variant of the boy or girl paradox that included beagles. in 1996, she published the question again in a different form. the 1991 and 1996 questions, respectively were phrased : a shopkeeper says she has two new baby beagles to show you, but she doesn't know whether they're male, female, or a pair. you tell her that you want only a male, and she telephones the fellow who's giving them a bath. " is at least one a male? " she asks him. " yes! " she informs you with a smile. what is the probability that the other one is a male? say that a woman and a man ( who are unrelated ) each have two children. we know that at least one of the woman's children is a boy and that the man's oldest child is a boy. can you explain why the chances that the woman has two boys do not equal the chances that the man has two boys? with regard to the second formulation vos savant gave the classic answer that the chances that the woman has two boys are about whereas the chances that the man has two boys are about. in response to reader response that questioned her analysis vos savant conducted a survey of readers with exactly two children, at least one of which is a boy. of 17, 946 responses, 35. 9 % reported two boys. vos savant's articles were discussed by carlton and stansfield in a 2005 article in the american statistician. the authors do not discuss the possible ambiguity in the question and conclude that her answer is correct from a mathematical perspective, given the assumptions that the likelihood of a child being a
probability accordingly. for example, when being told that a woman has two children, one might be interested in knowing if either of them is a girl, and if yes, what is probability that the other child is also a girl. considering the two events independently, one might expect that the probability that the other child is female is ½ ( 50 % ), but by building a probability space illustrating all possible outcomes, one would notice that the probability is actually only ⅓ ( 33 % ). to be sure, the probability space does illustrate four ways of having these two children : boy - boy, girl - boy, boy - girl, and girl - girl. but once it is known that at least one of the children is female, this rules out the boy - boy scenario, leaving only three ways of having the two children : boy - girl, girl - boy, girl - girl. from this, it can be seen only ⅓ of these scenarios would have the other child also be a girl ( see boy or girl paradox for more ). in general, by using a probability space, one is less likely to miss out on possible scenarios, or to neglect the importance of new information. this technique can be used to provide insights in other situations such as the monty hall problem, a game show scenario in which a car is hidden behind one of three doors, and two goats are hidden as booby prizes behind the others. once the contestant has chosen a door, the host opens one of the remaining doors to reveal a goat, eliminating that door as an option. with only two doors left ( one with the car, the other with another goat ), the player must decide to either keep their decision, or to switch and select the other door. intuitively, one might think the player is choosing between two doors with equal probability, and that the opportunity to choose another door makes no difference. however, an analysis of the probability spaces would reveal that the contestant has received new information, and that changing to the other door would increase their chances of winning. see also chaitin's constant chance ( disambiguation ) frequency probability indeterminism nonlinear system probability interpretations probability theory pseudorandomness random. org — generates random numbers using
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
In a certain pet shop, the ratio of dogs to cats to bunnies in stock is 4 : 7 : 9. If the shop carries 364 dogs and bunnies total in stock, how many dogs are there?
A. A)42
B. B)66
C. C)98
D. D)112
Answer: | [
"A)42",
"B)66",
"C)98",
"D)112"
] | D | Let us assume the number of dogs, cats and bunnies to be 4x, 7x and 9x
Total dogs and bunnies = 13x.
And we are given that 13x = 364.
Hence x = 28.
Dogs = 4x = 4*28 = 112 (Option D) |
aquarat_3137 | aquarat | <ctx>
##900330031400051170742204560859276357953757185954 2988389587092292384910067030341246205457845664136645406842143612930176940208 46391065875914794251435144458199 rsa - 270 rsa - 270 has 270 decimal digits ( 895 bits ), and has not been factored so far. rsa - 270 = 2331085303444075445276376569106805241456198124803054490429486119684959182451 3578286788836931857711641821391926857265831491306067262691135402760979316634 1626693946596196427744273886601876896313468704059066746903123910748277606548 649151920812699309766587514735456594993207 rsa - 896 rsa - 896 has 270 decimal digits ( 896 bits ), and has not been factored so far. a cash prize of $ 75, 000 was previously offered for a successful factorization. rsa - 896 = 4120234369866595438555313653325759481798116998443279828454556264338764455652 4842619809887042316184187926142024718886949256093177637503342113098239748515 09449091069102698610318627041148
) + 1 ^ 4 - 6 0000 5 5536 = 4000× ( 1 ^ 3 ) ×6 + 600× ( 1 ^ 2 ) × ( 6 ^ 2 ) + 40×1× ( 6 ^ 3 ) + 6 ^ 4 - - - - - - 4464 0000 3338 7536 = 4000× ( 16 ^ 3 ) ×2 + 600× ( 16 ^ 2 ) × ( 2 ^ 2 ) + 40×16× ( 2 ^ 3 ) + 2 ^ 4 - - - - - - - - - 1125 2464 0000 1026 0494 3376 = 4000× ( 162 ^ 3 ) ×6 + 600× ( 162 ^ 2 ) × ( 6 ^ 2 ) + 40×162× ( 6 ^ 3 ) + 6 ^ 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 99 1969 6624 0000 86 0185 1379 0625 = 4000× ( 1626 ^ 3 ) ×5 + 600× ( 1626 ^ 2 ) × ( 5 ^ 2 ) + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 40×1626× ( 5 ^ 3 ) + 5 ^ 4 13 1784 5244 9375 0000 12 0489 2414 6927 3201 = 4000× ( 16265 ^ 3 ) ×7 + 600× ( 16265 ^ 2 ) × ( 7 ^ 2 ) + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 40×16265× ( 7 ^ 3 ) + 7 ^ 4 1 1295 2830 2447 6799 see also methods of computing square roots nth root algorithm external links why the square root algorithm works " home school math ". also related pages giving examples of the long - division - like pencil and paper method for square roots. reflections on the square root of two " medium ". with an example of a c + + implementation. operations on numbers root - finding algorithms computer arithmetic algorithms digit - by - digit algorithms
– 1 + 2 – 3 + 2 – 4 = 1. 6875. • this makes the whole number = – 1. 6875 × 2 – 9. before we finish our discussion about floating points, there is the question of 0. how to present the 0? even if we make all bits 0, the hidden 1 makes the final value a non - zero one. how can we deal with this problem? the representation approach that we have learned so far is called the normalized encoding of the ieee 754 format. this is used if the exponent is non - zero and is not 11111111. if the exponent is 0 ( i. e., 00000000 ) we are in denormalized encoding ( also called subnormal ). when we are in this special case, there are some differences in the translation to decimal : • the exponent is 1 - bias instead of 0 - bias. the bias is 127 in single precision and 1023 in double precision. • there is no hidden 1, so the fraction part is 0. xxxx ( the 23 bits in the fraction in single precision ) instead of 1. xxxx …. with these exceptions, we cannot present the 0 ( but setting all 32 bits to 0 ) but can present very small numbers. the case where the exponent is all 1s is called “ special values encoding. ” if the exponent is all 1s and the fraction is all 0s, it represents infinity. if the exponent is all 1s and the fraction is non - zero, this is called nan ( not a number ) and raises an exception. this happens when there is a bug in your program that does a division by 0 or the square root of – 1, for example. 5. 3 • machine - level information representation 213
( block ) into subcells. 2, 333, 606, 816 = 2, 357, 947, 691 = 13313 = 119 2, 373, 046, 875 = 755 2, 494, 357, 888 = 227 2, 535, 525, 376 = 765 2, 562, 890, 625 = 506252 = 2254 = 158 2, 565, 726, 409 = 506532 = 13693 = 376 2, 695, 730, 992 = number of ( unordered, unlabeled ) rooted trimmed trees with 29 nodes 2, 706, 784, 157 = 775 2, 873, 403, 980 = number of uniform rooted trees with 27 nodes 2, 834, 510, 744 = number of nonequivalent dissections of an 22 - gon into 19 polygons by nonintersecting diagonals up to rotation 2, 887, 174, 368 = 785 2, 971, 215, 073 = 11th fibonacci prime ( 47th fibonacci number ) and a markov prime. 3, 000, 000, 000 to 3, 999, 999, 999 3, 010, 936, 384 = 548722 = 14443 = 386 3, 077, 056, 399 = 795 3, 166, 815, 962 = 26th pell number. 3, 192, 727, 797 = 24th motzkin number. 3, 276, 800, 000 = 805 3, 323, 236, 238 = 31st wedderburn – etherington number. 3, 333, 333, 333 = repdigit 3, 404, 825, 447 = 237 3, 405, 691, 582 = hexadecimal cafebabe ; used as a placeholder in programming. 3, 405, 697, 037 = hexadecimal cafed00d ; used as a placeholder in programming. 3, 461, 824, 644 = number of secondary structures of rna molecules with 28
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
8900 ÷ 6 ÷ 4 = ?
A. A)370.837
B. B)370.835
C. C)370.832
D. D)370.833
Answer: | [
"A)370.837",
"B)370.835",
"C)370.832",
"D)370.833"
] | D | Explanation:
Given Exp. 8900 * 1/6 * 1/4
= 370.833
ANSWER: D |
aquarat_23200 | aquarat | <ctx>
squaring the square is the problem of tiling an integral square using only other integral squares. ( an integral square is a square whose sides have integer length. ) the name was coined in a humorous analogy with squaring the circle. squaring the square is an easy task unless additional conditions are set. the most studied restriction is that the squaring be perfect, meaning the sizes of the smaller squares are all different. a related problem is squaring the plane, which can be done even with the restriction that each natural number occurs exactly once as a size of a square in the tiling. the order of a squared square is its number of constituent squares. perfect squared squares a " perfect " squared square is a square such that each of the smaller squares has a different size. it is first recorded as being studied by r. l. brooks, c. a. b. smith, a. h. stone and w. t. tutte ( writing under the collective pseudonym " blanche descartes " ) at cambridge university between 1936 and 1938. they transformed the square tiling into an equivalent electrical circuit – they called it a " smith diagram " – by considering the squares as resistors that connected to their neighbors at their top and bottom edges, and then applied kirchhoff's circuit laws and circuit decomposition techniques to that circuit. the first perfect squared squares they found were of order 69. the first perfect squared square to be published, a compound one of side 4205 and order 55, was found by roland sprague in 1939. martin gardner published an extensive article written by w. t. tutte about the early history of squaring the square in his mathematical games column of november 1958. simple squared squares a " simple " squared square is one where no subset of more than one of the squares forms a rectangle or square, otherwise it is " compound ". in 1978, discovered a simple perfect squared square of side 112 with the smallest number of squares using a computer search. his tiling uses 21 squares, and has been proved to be minimal. this squared square forms the logo of the trinity mathematical society. it also appears on the cover of the journal of combinatorial theory. du
is at most b. the set of configurations is c. x is a vector of size c. each element xc of x represents the number of times configuration c is used. example : suppose the item sizes are 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, and b = 12. then there are c = 10 possible configurations : 3333 ; 333 ; 33, 334 ; 3, 34, 344 ; 4, 44, 444. the matrix a has two rows : [ 4, 3, 2, 2, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0 ] for s = 3 and [ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3 ] for s = 4. the vector n is [ 5, 5 ] since there are 5 items of each size. a possible optimal solution is x = [ 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1 ], corresponding to using three bins with configurations 3333, 344, 444. there are two main difficulties in solving this problem. first, it is an integer linear program, which is computationally hard to solve. second, the number of variables is c - the number of configurations, which may be enormous. the kk algorithms cope with these difficulties using several techniques, some of which were already introduced by de - la - vega and lueker. here is a high - level description of the algorithm ( where is the original instance ) : 1 - a. let be an instance constructed from by removing small items. 2 - a. let be an instance constructed from by grouping items and rounding the size of items in each group to the highest item in the group. 3 - a. construct the configuration linear program for, without the integrality constraints. 4. compute a ( fractional ) solution x for the relaxed linear program. 3 - b. round x to an integral solution for. 2 - b. " un - group " the items to get a solution for. 1 - b. add the small items to get a solution for. below, we describe each of these steps in turn. step 1. removing
require minimal surfaces. such foams present a problem in how to pack cells as tightly as possible : in 1887, lord kelvin proposed a packing using only one solid, the bitruncated cubic honeycomb with very slightly curved faces. in 1993, denis weaire and robert phelan proposed the weaire – phelan structure, which uses less surface area to separate cells of equal volume than kelvin's foam. in puzzles and recreational mathematics tessellations have given rise to many types of tiling puzzle, from traditional jigsaw puzzles ( with irregular pieces of wood or cardboard ) and the tangram, to more modern puzzles that often have a mathematical basis. for example, polyiamonds and polyominoes are figures of regular triangles and squares, often used in tiling puzzles. authors such as henry dudeney and martin gardner have made many uses of tessellation in recreational mathematics. for example, dudeney invented the hinged dissection, while gardner wrote about the " rep - tile ", a shape that can be dissected into smaller copies of the same shape. inspired by gardner's articles in scientific american, the amateur mathematician marjorie rice found four new tessellations with pentagons. squaring the square is the problem of tiling an integral square ( one whose sides have integer length ) using only other integral squares. an extension is squaring the plane, tiling it by squares whose sizes are all natural numbers without repetitions ; james and frederick henle proved that this was possible. examples see also discrete global grid space partitioning honeycomb ( geometry ) footnotes references sources external links tegula ( open - source software for exploring two - dimensional tilings of the plane, sphere and hyperbolic plane ; includes databases containing millions of tilings ) wolfram mathworld : tessellation ( good bibliography, drawings of regular, semiregular and demiregular tessellations ) dirk frettloh and edmund harriss. " tilings encyclopedia " ( extensive information on substitution tilings, including drawings, people, and references ) tessellations. org ( how - to guides, escher tessellation gallery, galleries of tessellations by other artists, lesson
− 1 ) / ( q − 1 ) and y = λ = ( qn−1 − 1 ) / ( q − 1 ). if y = λ for a quasi - 3 design, the design is isomorphic to pg ( n, q ) or a projective plane. a t - ( v, k, λ ) design d is quasi - symmetric with intersection numbers x and y ( x < y ) if every two distinct blocks intersect in either x or y points. these designs naturally arise in the investigation of the duals of designs with λ = 1. a non - symmetric ( b > v ) 2 - ( v, k, 1 ) design is quasisymmetric with x = 0 and y = 1. a multiple ( repeat all blocks a certain number of times ) of a symmetric 2 - ( v, k, λ ) design is quasisymmetric with x = λ and y = k. hadamard 3 - designs ( extensions of hadamard 2 - designs ) are quasisymmetric. every quasisymmetric block design gives rise to a strongly regular graph ( as its block graph ), but not all srgs arise in this way. the incidence matrix of a quasisymmetric 2 - ( v, k, λ ) design with k ≡ x ≡ y ( mod 2 ) generates a binary self - orthogonal code ( when bordered if k is odd ). room squares a spherical design is a finite set x of points in a ( d − 1 ) - dimensional sphere such that, for some integer t, the average value on x of every polynomial of total degree at most t is equal to the average value of f on the whole sphere, i. e., the integral of f divided by the area of the sphere. turan systems an r × n tuscan - k rectangle on n symbols has r rows and n columns such that : each row is a permutation of the n symbols and for any two distinct symbols a and b and for each m from 1 to k, there is at most one row in which b is m steps to the right of a. if r = n and k = 1 these are referred to as tuscan squares, while if r
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
A room 5.44m long and 3.74m broad is to be paved with square tiles. The least number of square tiles required to cover the floor is:
A. A)176
B. B)192
C. C)184
D. D)162
Answer: | [
"A)176",
"B)192",
"C)184",
"D)162"
] | A | Area of the room= 544*374 sq.cm
Size of largest square tile= HCF of 544 cm & 374cm
Area of 1 tile= 34*34 sq.cm
Therefore, number of tiles= (544*374/34*34)= 176
ANSWER:A |
medmcqa_3025 | medmcqa | <ctx>
robotica 2017. m. mellado, a. sanchez y e. bernabeu ( eds. ) editorial cea - ifac, espana, 2017, articulo 32.. marie andre destarac, cecilia e. garcia cena, adrian merida martinez, luis j. monge chamorro and roque saltaren pazmino. “ analysis of the influence of external actuators on the glenohumeral joint movements ”. advances in automation and robotics research in latin america. i. chang, j. baca, h. a. moreno, i. g. carrera and m. cardona ( eds. ) springer international publishing, 2017, pp. 71 – 82.. jorge garcia montano, cecilia e. garcia cena, luis j. monge chamorro, marie andre destarac and roque saltaren pazmino. “ mechanical design of a robotic exoskeleton for upper limb rehabilitation ”. advances in automation and robotics research in latin america. i. chang, j. baca, h. a. moreno, i. g. carrera and m. cardona ( eds. ) springer international publishing, 2017, pp. 297 – 308.. marie andre destarac, cecilia e. garcia cena and roque saltaren pazmino. “ simulation of the length change in muscles during the arm rotation for the upper brachial plexus injury ”. converging clinical and engineering research on neurorehabilitation ii. j. ibanez, j. gonzalez - vargas, j. m. azorin, m. akai and j. l. pons ( eds. ) springer international publishing, 2016, vol. 15, pp. 1263 – 1268.. luis j. monge, cecilia e. garcia cena, marie andre destarac and roque saltaren pazmino. “ simulation of rehabilitation therapies for brachial plexus injury under the influence of external actuators ”. converging clinical and engineering research on neurorehabilitation ii. j. ibanez, j. gonzalez - vargas
##que saltaren pazmino. “ simulation of rehabilitation therapies for brachial plexus injury under the influence of external actuators ”. converging clinical and engineering research on neurorehabilitation ii. j. ibanez, j. gonzalez - vargas, j. m. azorin, m. akai and j. l. pons ( eds. ) springer international publishing, 2016, vol. 15, pp. 1043 – 1047.. marie andre destarac, cecilia e. garcia cena, roque saltaren pazmino and rafael aracil. kinematic and kinetic simulation of upper brachial plexus injury in the arm rotation. open conference on future trends in robotics. r. fernandez and h. montes ( eds. ) consejo superior de investigaciones cientificas, mayo 2016, pp. 11 – 18.. luis j. monge, marie andre destarac, cecilia e. garcia cena and santiago hernandez. modelling and simulation of servomotors for a rehabilitation exoskeleton. open conference on future trends in robotics. r. fernandez and h. montes ( eds. ) consejo superior de investigaciones cientificas, mayo 2016, pp. 29 – 36.. marie andre destarac, cecilia e. garcia cena, roque saltaren pazmino, monica j. reyes urbina, javier lopez lopez and ricardo espinoza gomez. modeling and simulation of upper brachial plexus injury. ieee systems journal ( q1 ).. cecilia e. garcia cena, roque saltaren pazmino, marie andre destarac, edgar loranca vega, ricardo espinoza gomez and rafael aracil santonja. skeletal modeling, analysis and simulation of upper limb of human shoulder under brachial plexus injury. advances in intelligent systems and computing robot 2013, advances in robotics. m. a. armada et al. ( eds. ). new york springer - verlag, 2013, vol. 1, pp. 195 – 207. donald wise, otto benavi
his hands, as they often moved involuntarily, despite his trying to stabilize them. furthermore, he often could not let go of objects after grasping them with his palms. the other individual, a 47 - year - old female with an aca in a different location of the artery, complained that her left hand would move on its own and she could not control its movements. her left hand could also sense when her right hand was holding an object and would involuntarily, forcibly take the object out of her right hand. frontal lobe unilateral injury to the medial aspect of the brain's frontal lobe can trigger reaching, grasping and other purposeful movements in the contralateral hand. with anteromedial frontal lobe injuries, these movements are often exploratory reaching movements in which external objects are frequently grasped and utilized functionally, without the simultaneous perception on the part of the patient that they are " in control " of these movements. once an object has been acquired and is maintained in the grasp of this " frontal variant " form of alien hand, the patient often has difficulty with voluntarily releasing the object from grasp and can sometimes be seen to be peeling the fingers of the hand back off the grasped object using the opposite controlled hand to enable the release of the grasped object ( also referred to as tonic grasping or the " instinctive grasp reaction " ). some ( for example, the neurologist derek denny - brown ) have referred to this behavior as " magnetic apraxia " goldberg and bloom described a woman with a large cerebral infarction of the medial surface of the left frontal lobe in the territory of the left anterior cerebral artery which left her with the frontal variant of the alien hand involving the right hand. there were no signs of callosal disconnection nor was there evidence of any callosal damage. the patient displayed frequent grasp reflexes ; her right hand would reach out and grab objects without releasing them. in regards to tonic grasping, the more the patient tried to let go of the object, the more the grip of the object tightened. with focused effort the patient was able to let go of the object, but if distracted, the behaviour would re - commence. the patient could
objects without releasing them. in regards to tonic grasping, the more the patient tried to let go of the object, the more the grip of the object tightened. with focused effort the patient was able to let go of the object, but if distracted, the behaviour would re - commence. the patient could also forcibly release the grasped object by peeling her fingers away from contact with the object using the intact left hand. additionally, the hand would scratch at the patient's leg to the extent that an orthotic device was required to prevent injury. another patient reported not only tonic grasping towards objects nearby, but the alien hand would take hold of the patient's penis and engage in public masturbation. parietal and occipital lobes a distinct " posterior variant " form of alien hand syndrome is associated with damage to the posterolateral parietal lobe and / or occipital lobe of the brain. the movements in this situation tend to be more likely to withdraw the palmar surface of the hand away from sustained environmental contact rather than reaching out to grasp onto objects to produce palmar tactile stimulation, as is most often seen in the frontal form of the condition. in the frontal variant, tactile contact on the ventral surface of the palm and fingers facilitates finger flexion and grasp of the object through a positive feedback loop ( i. e. the stimulus generates movement that reinforces, strengthens and sustains the triggering stimulation ). in contrast, in the posterior variant, tactile contact on the ventral surface of the palm and fingers is actively avoided through facilitation of extension of the fingers and withdrawal of the palm in a negative feedback loop ( i. e. the stimulus, and even anticipation of stimulation of the palmar surface of the hand, generates movement of the palm and fingers that reduces and effectively counteracts and eliminates the triggering stimulation, or, in the case of anticipated palmar contact, decreases the likelihood of such contact ). alien movements in the posterior variant of the syndrome also tend to be less coordinated and show a coarse ataxic motion during active movement that is generally not observed in the frontal form of the condition. this is generally thought to be due to an optic
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Upper limb deformity in Erb's palsy -
A. Adduction and lateral rotation of arm
B. Adduction and medial rotation of arm
C. Abduction and lateral rotation of arm
D. Abduction and medial rotation of arm
Answer: | [
"Adduction and lateral rotation of arm",
"Adduction and medial rotation of arm",
"Abduction and lateral rotation of arm",
"Abduction and medial rotation of arm"
] | B | Ans. is 'b' i.e., Adduction and medial rotation of arm Clinical features of Erb's palsy A) Muscles paralyzed: Mainly biceps brachii, deltoid, brachialis and brachioradialis. Partly supraspinatus, infraspinatus and supinator. B) Deformity (position of the limb) i) Arm : Hangs by the side; it is adducted and medially rotated. ii) Forearm : Extended and pronated. The deformity is known as 'policeman's tip hand' or 'porter's tip hand'. C) Disability: The following movements are lost. o Abduction and lateral rotation of the arm (shoulder). o Flexion and supination of the forearm. o Biceps and supinator jerks are lost. o Sensations are lost over a small area over the lower part of the deltoid. |
aquarat_34233 | aquarat | <ctx>
100 years old and with probability 1 / 3 beyond 150. few of us would want to bet on the woman's survival using gott's rule. ( see caves'online paper below. ) although this example exposes a weakness in j. richard gott's " copernicus method " da ( that he does not specify when the " copernicus method " can be applied ) it is not precisely analogous with the modern da ; epistemological refinements of gott's argument by philosophers such as nick bostrom specify that : knowing the absolute birth rank ( n ) must give no information on the total population ( n ). careful da variants specified with this rule aren't shown implausible by caves'" old lady " example above, because the woman's age is given prior to the estimate of her lifespan. since human age gives an estimate of survival time ( via actuarial tables ) caves'birthday party age - estimate could not fall into the class of da problems defined with this proviso. to produce a comparable " birthday party example " of the carefully specified bayesian da, we would need to completely exclude all prior knowledge of likely human life spans ; in principle this could be done ( e. g. : hypothetical amnesia chamber ). however, this would remove the modified example from everyday experience. to keep it in the everyday realm the lady's age must be hidden prior to the survival estimate being made. ( although this is no longer exactly the da, it is much more comparable to it. ) without knowing the lady's age, the da reasoning produces a rule to convert the birthday ( n ) into a maximum lifespan with 50 % confidence ( n ). gott's copernicus method rule is simply : prob ( n < 2n ) = 50 %. how accurate would this estimate turn out to be? western demographics are now fairly uniform across ages, so a random birthday ( n ) could be ( very roughly ) approximated by a u ( 0, m ] draw where m is the maximum lifespan in the census. in this'flat'model, everyone shares the same lifespan so n = m. if n happens to be less than
give the expected number of days. for example, the expected number of days which are shared ; i. e. which are at least two ( i. e. not zero and not one ) people's birthday is : number of people who repeat a birthday the probability that the th integer randomly chosen from will repeat at least one previous choice equals above. the expected total number of times a selection will repeat a previous selection as such integers are chosen equals this can be seen to equal the number of people minus the expected number of different birthdays. average number of people to get at least one shared birthday in an alternative formulation of the birthday problem, one asks the average number of people required to find a pair with the same birthday. if we consider the probability function pr [ people have at least one shared birthday ], this average is determining the mean of the distribution, as opposed to the customary formulation, which asks for the median. the problem is relevant to several hashing algorithms analyzed by donald knuth in his book the art of computer programming. it may be shown that if one samples uniformly, with replacement, from a population of size, the number of trials required for the first repeated sampling of some individual has expected value, where the function has been studied by srinivasa ramanujan and has asymptotic expansion : with days in a year, the average number of people required to find a pair with the same birthday is, somewhat more than 23, the number required for a 50 % chance. in the best case, two people will suffice ; at worst, the maximum possible number of people is needed ; but on average, only 25 people are required an analysis using indicator random variables can provide a simpler but approximate analysis of this problem. for each pair ( i, j ) for k people in a room, we define the indicator random variable xij, for, by let x be a random variable counting the pairs of individuals with the same birthday. for, if, the expected number of pairs of individuals with the same birthday is ≈ 1. 0356. therefore, we can expect at least one matching pair with at least 28 people. an informal demonstration of the problem can be made from the list of prime ministers of
##inishes to 0. 393 g in 10. 0 y. calculate the half - life. 37. technetium - 99 is often used for assessing heart, liver, and lung damage because certain technetium compounds are absorbed by damaged tissues. it has a half - life of 6. 0 h. calculate the rate constant for the decay of 38. what is the age of mummified primate skin that contains 8. 25 % of the original quantity of 14c? 39. a sample of rock was found to contain 8. 23 mg of rubidium - 87 and 0. 47 mg of strontium - 87. ( a ) calculate the age of the rock if the half - life of the decay of rubidium by β emission is 4. 7 1010 y. ( b ) if some was initially present in the rock, would the rock be younger, older, or the same age as the age calculated in ( a )? explain your answer. 40. a laboratory investigation shows that a sample of uranium ore contains 5. 37 mg of and 2. 52 mg of calculate the age of the ore. the half - life of is 4. 5 109 yr. 41. plutonium was detected in trace amounts in natural uranium deposits by glenn seaborg and his associates in 1941. they proposed that the source of this 239pu was the capture of neutrons by 238u nuclei. why is this plutonium not likely to have been trapped at the time the solar system formed 4. 7 109 years ago? 42. a atom ( mass = 7. 0169 amu ) decays into a atom ( mass = 7. 0160 amu ) by electron capture. how much energy ( in millions of electron volts, mev ) is produced by this reaction? 43. a atom ( mass = 8. 0246 amu ) decays into a atom ( mass = 8. 0053 amu ) by loss of a β + particle ( mass = 0. 00055 amu ) or by electron capture. how much energy ( in millions of electron volts ) is produced by this reaction? 21 • exercises 1073 44. isotopes such as 26al ( half - life : 7
14 dating is about 57, 000 years. radioactive dating using nuclides other than carbon - 14 radioactive dating can also use other radioactive nuclides with longer half - lives to date older events. for example, uranium - 238 ( which decays in a series of steps into lead - 206 ) can be used for establishing the age of rocks ( and the approximate age of the oldest rocks on earth ). since u - 238 has a half - life of 4. 5 billion years, it takes that amount of time for half of the original u - 238 to decay into pb - 206. in a sample of rock that does not contain appreciable amounts of pb - 208, the most abundant isotope of lead, we can assume that lead was not present when the rock was formed. therefore, by measuring and analyzing the ratio of u - 238 : pb - 206, we can determine the age of the rock. this assumes that all of the lead - 206 present came from the decay of uranium - 238. if there is additional lead - 206 present, which is indicated by the presence of other lead isotopes in the sample, it is necessary to make an adjustment. potassium - argon dating uses a similar method. k - 40 decays by positron emission and electron capture to form ar - 40 with a half - life of 1. 25 billion years. if a rock sample is crushed and the amount of ar - 40 gas that escapes is measured, determination of the ar - 40 : k - 40 1040 21 • nuclear chemistry access for free at openstax. org ratio yields the age of the rock. other methods, such as rubidium - strontium dating ( rb - 87 decays into sr - 87 with a half - life of 48. 8 billion years ), operate on the same principle. to estimate the lower limit for the earth ’ s age, scientists determine the age of various rocks and minerals, making the assumption that the earth is older than the oldest rocks and minerals in its crust. as of 2014, the oldest known rocks on earth are the jack hills zircons from australia, found by uranium - lead dating to be almost 4. 4 billion years old. example
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
At present, the ratio between the ages of Arun and Deepak is 4:2. After 6 years, Arun's age will be 26 years. What is the age of Deepak at present?
A. A)10 years
B. B)15 years
C. C)18 years
D. D)12 years
Answer: | [
"A)10 years",
"B)15 years",
"C)18 years",
"D)12 years"
] | A | Let the present ages of Arun and Deepak be 4x and 2x years respectively.
Then, 4x + 6 = 26 => x
= 5
Deepak's age
= 2x
= 10 years.
Answer:A |
aquarat_49616 | aquarat | <ctx>
using the second postulate in their derivation. their claims have been disputed. the transformations that they derive involve the factor where β is the velocity measured in meters per meter ( a dimensionless quantity ). this looks the same as ( but should not be conceptually confused with ) the velocity as a fraction of light v / c that appears in some expressions for the lorentz transformations. expressing time in metres has previously been done by other authors : taylor and wheeler in spacetime physics and moore in six ideas that shaped physics. the transformations are derived using just the principle of relativity and have a maximal speed of 1, which is quite unlike " single postulate " derivations of the lorentz transformations in which you end up with a parameter that may be zero. so this is not the same as other " single postulate " derivations. however the relationship of taiji time " w " to standard time " t " must still be found, ; otherwise, it would not be clear how an observer would measure taiji time. the taiji transformations are then combined with maxwell's equations to show that the speed of light is independent of the observer and has the value 1 in taiji speed ( i. e., it has the maximal speed ). this can be thought of as saying : a time of 1 metre is the time it takes for light to travel 1 metre. since we can measure the speed of light by experiment in m / s to get the value c, we can use this as a conversion factor. i. e. we have now found an operational definition of ttiji time : w = ct. so we have : w metres = ( c m / s ) * t seconds let r = distance. then taiji speed = r metres / w metres = r / w dimensionless. but it is not just due to the choice of units that there is a maximum speed. it is the principle of relativity, that hsu & hsu say, when applied to 4d spacetime, implies the invariance of the 4d - spacetime interval and this leads to the coordinate transformations involving the factor where beta is the magnitude of the velocity between two inertial frames. the difference between this and the spacetime
, it will be received by bob at time. the flash is timed so that it arrives at bob just at the moment that bob meets carol, so carol synchronises her clock to read. also, when bob and carol meet, they both simultaneously send flashes to alice, which are received simultaneously by alice. considering, first, bob's flash, sent at time, it must be received by alice at time, using the fact that the k - factor from alice to bob is the same as the k - factor from bob to alice. as bob's outward journey had a duration of, by his clock, it follows by symmetry that carol's return journey over the same distance at the same speed must also have a duration of, by her clock, and so when carol meets alice, carol's clock reads. the k - factor for this leg of the journey must be the reciprocal ( as discussed earlier ), so, considering carol's flash towards alice, a transmission interval of corresponds to a reception interval of. this means that the final time on alice's clock, when carol and alice meet, is. this is larger than carol's clock time since provided and. radar measurements and velocity in the k - calculus methodology, distances are measured using radar. an observer sends a radar pulse towards a target and receives an echo from it. the radar pulse ( which travels at, the speed of light ) travels a total distance, there and back, that is twice the distance to the target, and takes time, where and are times recorded by the observer's clock at transmission and reception of the radar pulse. this implies that the distance to the target is furthermore, since the speed of light is the same in both directions, the time at which the radar pulse arrives at the target must be, according to the observer, halfway between the transmission and reception times, namely in the particular case where the radar observer is alice and the target is bob ( momentarily co - located with dave ) as described previously, by k - calculus we have, and so as alice and bob were co - located at, the velocity of bob relative to alice is given by this equation expresses velocity as a function of the bondi k - factor
, expressed in multiples of? 94 2 • problems & exercises access for free at openstax. org 33. an unwary football player collides with a padded goalpost while running at a velocity of 7. 50 m / s and comes to a full stop after compressing the padding and his body 0. 350 m. ( a ) what is his deceleration? ( b ) how long does the collision last? 34. in world war ii, there were several reported cases of airmen who jumped from their flaming airplanes with no parachute to escape certain death. some fell about 20, 000 feet ( 6000 m ), and some of them survived, with few life - threatening injuries. for these lucky pilots, the tree branches and snow drifts on the ground allowed their deceleration to be relatively small. if we assume that a pilot ’ s speed upon impact was 123 mph ( 54 m / s ), then what was his deceleration? assume that the trees and snow stopped him over a distance of 3. 0 m. 35. consider a grey squirrel falling out of a tree to the ground. ( a ) if we ignore air resistance in this case ( only for the sake of this problem ), determine a squirrel ’ s velocity just before hitting the ground, assuming it fell from a height of 3. 0 m. ( b ) if the squirrel stops in a distance of 2. 0 cm through bending its limbs, compare its deceleration with that of the airman in the previous problem. 36. an express train passes through a station. it enters with an initial velocity of 22. 0 m / s and decelerates at a rate of as it goes through. the station is 210 m long. ( a ) how long did the nose of the train stay in the station? ( b ) how fast is it going when the nose leaves the station? ( c ) if the train is 130 m long, when does the end of the train leave the station? ( d ) what is the velocity of the end of the train as it leaves? 37. dragsters can actually reach a top speed of 145 m / s in only 4. 45 s — considerably less time than given
equations and on phase time approach. " ( elsewhere nimtz has argued that since evanescent modes have an imaginary wave number, they represent a " mathematical analogy " to quantum tunnelling, and that " evanescent modes are not fully describable by the maxwell equations and quantum mechanics have to be taken into consideration. " since maxwell's laws respect special relativity, winful argues that an experiment which is describable using these laws cannot involve a relativistic causality violation ( which would be implied by transmitting information faster than light ). he also argues that " nothing was observed to be traveling faster than light. the measured delay is the lifetime of stored energy leaking out of both sides of the barrier. the equality of transmission and reflection delays is what one expects for energy leaking out of both sides of a symmetric barrier. " aephraim m. steinberg of the university of toronto has also stated that nimtz has not demonstrated causality violation ( which would be implied by transmitting information faster than light ). steinberg also uses a classical argument. in a new scientist article, he uses the analogy of a train traveling from chicago to new york, but dropping off train cars at each station along the way, so that the center of the train moves forward at each stop ; in this way, the speed of the center of the train exceeds the speed of any of the individual cars. herbert winful argues that the train analogy is a variant of the " reshaping argument " for superluminal tunneling velocities, but he goes on to say that this argument is not actually supported by experiment or simulations, which actually show that the transmitted pulse has the same length and shape as the incident pulse. instead, winful argues that the group delay in tunneling is not actually the transit time for the pulse ( whose spatial length must be greater than the barrier length in order for its spectrum to be narrow enough to allow tunneling ), but is instead the lifetime of the energy stored in a standing wave which forms inside the barrier. since the stored energy in the barrier is less than the energy stored in a barrier - free region of the same length due to destructive interference, the group delay for
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Two tains of equal lengths take 10 seconds and 12 seconds respectively to cross a telegraph post. If the length of each train be 120 metres, in what time (in seconds) will they cross each other travelling in opposite direction?
A. A)12
B. B)14
C. C)10.9
D. D)20
Answer: | [
"A)12",
"B)14",
"C)10.9",
"D)20"
] | C | Sol.
Speed of the first train = [120 / 10] m/sec = 12 m/sec.
Speed of the second train = [120 / 12] m/sec = 10 m/sec.
Relative speed = (12 + 10) = m/sec = 22 m/sec.
∴ Required time = (120 + 120) / 22 secc = 10.9 sec.
Answer C |
arc_easy_1363 | arc_easy | <ctx>
of larger molecules and charged particles such as ions. cell membranes also contains membrane proteins, including integral membrane proteins that go across the membrane serving as membrane transporters, and peripheral proteins that loosely attach to the outer side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes shaping the cell. cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as cell adhesion, storing electrical energy, and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a cell wall, glycocalyx, and cytoskeleton. within the cytoplasm of a cell, there are many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. in addition to biomolecules, eukaryotic cells have specialized structures called organelles that have their own lipid bilayers or are spatially units. these organelles include the cell nucleus, which contains most of the cell's dna, or mitochondria, which generates adenosine triphosphate ( atp ) to power cellular processes. other organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus play a role in the synthesis and packaging of proteins, respectively. biomolecules such as proteins can be engulfed by lysosomes, another specialized organelle. plant cells have additional organelles that distinguish them from animal cells such as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell, chloroplasts that harvest sunlight energy to produce sugar, and vacuoles that provide storage and structural support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds. eukaryotic cells also have cytoskeleton that is made up of microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments, all of which provide support for the cell and are involved in the movement of the cell and its organelles. in terms of their structural composition, the microtubules are made up of tubulin ( e. g., α - tubulin and β - tubulin whereas intermediate filaments are made up of fibrous proteins. microfilaments are made up of actin molecules that interact with other strands of proteins. metabolism all cells require energy to sustain cellular processes. metabolism is
the cell membrane ( also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma ) is a biological membrane that separates and protects the interior of a cell from the outside environment ( the extracellular space ). the cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, made up of two layers of phospholipids with cholesterols ( a lipid component ) interspersed between them, maintaining appropriate membrane fluidity at various temperatures. the membrane also contains membrane proteins, including integral proteins that span the membrane and serve as membrane transporters, and peripheral proteins that loosely attach to the outer ( peripheral ) side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes to facilitate interaction with the cell's environment. glycolipids embedded in the outer lipid layer serve a similar purpose. the cell membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of a cell, being selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules. in addition, cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity, and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall and the carbohydrate layer called the glycocalyx, as well as the intracellular network of protein fibers called the cytoskeleton. in the field of synthetic biology, cell membranes can be artificially reassembled. history while robert hooke's discovery of cells in 1665 led to the proposal of the cell theory, hooke misled the cell membrane theory that all cells contained a hard cell wall since only plant cells could be observed at the time. microscopists focused on the cell wall for well over 150 years until advances in microscopy were made. in the early 19th century, cells were recognized as being separate entities, unconnected, and bound by individual cell walls after it was found that plant cells could be separated. this theory extended to include animal cells to suggest a universal mechanism for cell protection and development. by the second half of the 19th century, microscopy was still not advanced enough to make a distinction between cell membranes and cell walls. however, some microscopists correctly identified at this time that while invisible,
the atmosphere, a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration. in addition, they are influential in the global carbon and water cycles and plant roots bind and stabilise soils, preventing soil erosion. plants are crucial to the future of human society as they provide food, oxygen, biochemicals, and products for people, as well as creating and preserving soil. historically, all living things were classified as either animals or plants and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals. botanists examine both the internal functions and processes within plant organelles, cells, tissues, whole plants, plant populations and plant communities. at each of these levels, a botanist may be concerned with the classification ( taxonomy ), phylogeny and evolution, structure ( anatomy and morphology ), or function ( physiology ) of plant life. the strictest definition of " plant " includes only the " land plants " or embryophytes, which include seed plants ( gymnosperms, including the pines, and flowering plants ) and the free - sporing cryptogams including ferns, clubmosses, liverworts, hornworts and mosses. embryophytes are multicellular eukaryotes descended from an ancestor that obtained its energy from sunlight by photosynthesis. they have life cycles with alternating haploid and diploid phases. the sexual haploid phase of embryophytes, known as the gametophyte, nurtures the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life, even in the seed plants, where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte. other groups of organisms that were previously studied by botanists include bacteria ( now studied in bacteriology ), fungi ( mycology ) – including lichen - forming fungi ( lichenology ), non - chlorophyte algae ( phycology ), and viruses ( virology ). however, attention is still given to these groups by botanists, and fungi ( including lichens ) and photosynthetic protists are usually covered in introductory botany courses. palaeobotanists study ancient
cell mechanics is a sub - field of biophysics that focuses on the mechanical properties and behavior of living cells and how it relates to cell function. it encompasses aspects of cell biophysics, biomechanics, soft matter physics and rheology, mechanobiology and cell biology. eukaryotic eukaryotic cells are cells that consist of membrane - bound organelles, a membrane - bound nucleus, and more than one linear chromosome. being much more complex than prokaryotic cells, cells without a true nucleus, eukaryotes must protect its organelles from outside forces. plant plant cell mechanics combines principles of biomechanics and mechanobiology to investigate the growth and shaping of the plant cells. plant cells, similar to animal cells, respond to externally applied forces, such as by reorganization of their cytoskeletal network. the presence of a considerably rigid extracellular matrix, the cell wall, however, bestows the plant cells with a set of particular properties. mainly, the growth of plant cells is controlled by the mechanics and chemical composition of the cell wall. a major part of research in plant cell mechanics is put toward the measurement and modeling of the cell wall mechanics to understand how modification of its composition and mechanical properties affects the cell function, growth and morphogenesis. animal because animal cells do not have cell walls to protect them like plant cells, they require other specialized structures to sustain external mechanical forces. all animal cells are encased within a cell membrane made of a thin lipid bilayer that protects the cell from exposure to the outside environment. using receptors composed of protein structures, the cell membrane is able to let selected molecules within the cell. inside the cell membrane includes the cytoplasm, which contains the cytoskeleton. a network of filamentous proteins including microtubules, intermediate filaments, and actin filaments makes up the cytoskeleton and helps maintain the cell's shape. by working together, the three types of polymers can organize themselves to counter the applied external forces and resist deformation. however, there are differences between the three polymers. the primary structural component of the cytoskeleton is actin fi
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Some plant cells are coated in a waxy layer that prevents water loss. This specialization is found in which plant cells?
A. internal stem cells
B. internal root cells
C. cells on the plant surface
D. cells in the plant reproductive system
Answer: | [
"internal stem cells",
"internal root cells",
"cells on the plant surface",
"cells in the plant reproductive system"
] | C | |
medmcqa_7503 | medmcqa | <ctx>
fibroblasts, this type of invasion is also referred to as'fibroblast - like'migration. mesenchymal invasion has been detected during the development of melanoma, fibrosarcoma, glioblastoma, and other malignancies. most of the cancer cells that detach from the tumor mass and invade the surrounding tissues are known to undergo certain changes, acquiring the morphological properties and a phenotype typical of mesenchymal cells. this transformation of a malignant epithelial cell, which is related to the emergence of new molecular and morphological features in the cell, is called the epithelial - mesenchymal transition ( emt ). the mesenchymal mechanism of invasion is believed to be the consequence of emt, when active dedifferentiation of a malignant epithelial tumor occurs, and multicellular groups start to divide into single tumor cells, gaining a mesenchymal phenotype. tumor cells during the mesenchymal type of migration go through a number of specific sequential steps that constitute a five - stage model of migration. this cycle includes the following changes : 1 ) formation of a protrusion on one of the cell poles – a lamellipodia or a filopodia produced by contractions of the actin cytoskeleton under the control of small gtpases rac1 and cdc42 with rapid involvement of integrins of the β1 family ; 2 ) occurrence of focal adhesion with the involvement of integrins β1 and β3 at the contact site between the extracellular matrix and the cell ; 3 ) assembly of focal contacts, which is based on integrin - mediated interactions, and activation of proteolytic enzymes ( matrix metalloproteinases, serine and threonine proteases, cathepsins ) at the “ cell - matrix ” interface that leads to the destruction and remodeling of the surrounding extracellular matrix ; 4 ) a change in the actin cytoskeleton polarization under myosin ii - mediated control, the occurrence of cell body contractions ; and 5 ) " pulling "
" markings, may be caused by a loss or inactivation of the gray allele in some of the somatic cells as that would explain why the speckles are more common on heterozygous grays than homozygotes. melanoma in gray horses the identification of the gray mutation is of great interest in of medical research since this mutation also enhances the risk for melanoma in horses : some studies have suggested as many as 80 % of grays over 15 years of age have some form of melanoma. growth rate depends on the type, and many are slow - growing, but over time, many develop into a malignant melanoma. the study of gray genetics has pointed to a molecular pathway that may lead to tumour development. both stx17 and the neighboring nr4a3 gene are overexpressed in melanomas from gray horses, and those carrying a loss - of - function mutation in asip ( agouti signaling protein ) had a higher incidence of melanoma, implying that increased melanocortin - 1 receptor signaling promotes melanoma development in gray horses. some studies indicate as many as 66 % of melanomas become malignant, though other studies have found much lower rates, and in one case, zero. horse coat colors sometimes confused with gray white horses many people who are unfamiliar with horses refer to a gray horse as " white ". however, most white horses have pink skin and some have blue eyes. a horse with dark skin and dark eyes under a white hair coat is gray. however, a gray horse with an underlying homozygous cream base coat color may be born with rosy - pink skin, blue eyes and near - white hair. in such cases, dna testing may clarify the genetics of the horse. roan some grays in intermediate stages of graying may be confused with a roan or a rabicano. some heavily fleabitten grays may also be confused with roans. however, roans are easily distinguishable from grays : roan consists of individual white hairs on a dark base coat, usually with the head and legs of the horse darker than the rest of the body. rabicanos
event in formation of a malignant neoplasm. in experimental evaluation of specific dna repair deficiencies in cancers, many specific dna repair deficiencies were also shown to occur in the field defects surrounding those cancers. the table below gives examples for which the dna repair deficiency in a cancer was shown to be caused by an epigenetic alteration, and the somewhat lower frequencies with which the same epigenetically caused dna repair deficiency was found in the surrounding field defect. some of the small polyps in the field defect shown in the photo of the opened colon segment may be relatively benign neoplasms. in a 1996 study of polyps less than 10mm in size found during colonoscopy and followed with repeat colonoscopies for 3 years, 25 % remained unchanged in size, 35 % regressed or shrank in size and 40 % grew in size. genome instability cancers are known to exhibit genome instability or a " mutator phenotype ". the protein - coding dna within the nucleus is about 1. 5 % of the total genomic dna. within this protein - coding dna ( called the exome ), an average cancer of the breast or colon can have about 60 to 70 protein altering mutations, of which about 3 or 4 may be " driver " mutations, and the remaining ones may be " passenger " mutations. however, the average number of dna sequence mutations in the entire genome ( including non - protein - coding regions ) within a breast cancer tissue sample is about 20, 000. in an average melanoma tissue sample ( melanomas have a higher exome mutation frequency ), ) the total number of dna sequence mutations is about 80, 000. these high frequencies of mutations in the total nucleotide sequences within cancers suggest that often an early alteration in the field defect giving rise to a cancer ( e. g. yellow area in the diagram in the preceding section ) is a deficiency in dna repair. large field defects surrounding colon cancers ( extending to about 10 cm on each side of a cancer ) are found to frequently have epigenetic defects in two or three dna repair proteins ( ercc1, ercc4 ( xpf ) and / or pms2 ) in the entire area
warburg effect where the cafs perform aerobic glycolysis and feed lactate to the cancer cells. several markers identify cafs, including expression of α smooth muscle actin ( αsma ), vimentin, platelet - derived growth factor receptor α ( pdgfr - α ), platelet - derived growth factor receptor β ( pdgfr - β ), fibroblast specific protein 1 ( fsp - 1 ) and fibroblast activation protein ( fap ). none of these factors can be used to differentiate cafs from all other cells by itself. extracellular matrix remodeling fibroblasts are in charge of laying down most of the collagens, elastin, glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans ( e. g. perlecan ), and glycoproteins in the ecm. as many fibroblasts are transformed into cafs during carcinogenesis, this reduces the amount of ecm produced and the ecm that is produced can be malformed, like collagen being loosely woven and non - planar, possibly even curved. in addition, cafs produce matrix metalloproteinases ( mmp ) that cleave the proteins within the ecm. cafs are also able to disrupt the ecm via force, generating a track that a carcinoma cell can follow. in either case, destruction of the ecm allows cancer cells to escape from their in situ location and intravasate into the blood stream where they can metastasize systematically. it can also provide passage for endothelial cells to complete angiogenesis to the tumor site. destruction of the ecm also modulates the signaling cascades controlled by the interaction of cell - surface receptors and the ecm, and it also reveals binding sites previously hidden, like the integrin alpha - v beta - 3 ( αvβ3 ) on the surface of melanoma cells can be ligated to rescue the cells from apoptosis after degradation of collagen. in addition, the degradation products may have downstream effects as well that can increase cancer cell tumorigenicity and can serve as
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Most common site of lentigo maligna subtype of malignant melanoma is ?
A. Palms & soles
B. Trunk
C. Face
D. Buttocks
Answer: | [
"Palms & soles",
"Trunk",
"Face",
"Buttocks"
] | C | Most common site of lentigo maligna subtype of malignant melanoma is face- Hutchinson's melanotic freckle. It is more common in elderly women. It ia slow growing, variegated, brown macule/ lentigo; also seen in neck and hands. Reference : page 295-96 SRB's manual of surgery 5th edition |
medmcqa_7830 | medmcqa | <ctx>
front of the sacroiliac joint, one on either side, and each bifurcates into the external and internal iliac arteries. iliac artery, external – the external iliac arteries are two major arteries which bifurcate off the common iliac arteries anterior to the sacroiliac joint of the pelvis. they proceed anterior and inferior along the medial border of the psoas major muscles. they exit the pelvic girdle posterior and inferior to the inguinal ligament about one third laterally from the insertion point of the inguinal ligament on the pubic tubercle at which point they are referred to as the femoral arteries. the external iliac artery is usually the artery used to attach the renal artery to the recipient of a kidney transplant. ilium – ( plural ilia ), is the uppermost and largest part of the hip bone, and appears in most vertebrates including mammals and birds, but not bony fish. all reptiles have an ilium except snakes, although some snake species have a tiny bone which is considered to be an ilium. the ilium of the human is divisible into two parts, the body and the wing ; the separation is indicated on the top surface by a curved line, the arcuate line, and on the external surface by the margin of the acetabulum. immune system – is a network of biological processes that protects an organism against disease. it detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, as well as objects such as wood splinters, distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy tissue. many species have two major subsystems of the immune system. the innate immune system provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli. the adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered. both use molecules and cells to perform their functions. immunohistochemistry – immunology – is a branch of biology that covers the study of immune systems in all organisms. immunology charts, measures, and contextualizes the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and diseases ; malfu
anatomy ( ) is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. it is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. anatomy is inherently tied to developmental biology, embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, and phylogeny, as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated, both over immediate and long - term timescales. anatomy and physiology, which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts respectively, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and are often studied together. human anatomy is one of the essential basic sciences that are applied in medicine. anatomy is a complex and dynamic field that is constantly evolving as new discoveries are made. in recent years, there has been a significant increase in the use of advanced imaging techniques, such as mri and ct scans, which allow for more detailed and accurate visualizations of the body's structures. the discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic parts. macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight. gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy. microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology, and also in the study of cells. the history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers ( corpses ) to 20th - century medical imaging techniques, including x - ray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging. etymology and definition derived from the greek anatome " dissection " ( from anatemno " i cut up, cut open " from ανα ana " up ", and τεμνω temno " i cut " ), anatomy is the scientific study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs and tissues. it includes the appearance and position of the various parts, the materials from which they are composed, and their relationships with other parts. anatomy is quite distinct from physiology
a structure is an arrangement and organization of interrelated elements in a material object or system, or the object or system so organized. material structures include man - made objects such as buildings and machines and natural objects such as biological organisms, minerals and chemicals. abstract structures include data structures in computer science and musical form. types of structure include a hierarchy ( a cascade of one - to - many relationships ), a network featuring many - to - many links, or a lattice featuring connections between components that are neighbors in space. load - bearing buildings, aircraft, skeletons, anthills, beaver dams, bridges and salt domes are all examples of load - bearing structures. the results of construction are divided into buildings and non - building structures, and make up the infrastructure of a human society. built structures are broadly divided by their varying design approaches and standards, into categories including building structures, architectural structures, civil engineering structures and mechanical structures. the effects of loads on physical structures are determined through structural analysis, which is one of the tasks of structural engineering. the structural elements can be classified as one - dimensional ( ropes, struts, beams, arches ), two - dimensional ( membranes, plates, slab, shells, vaults ), or three - dimensional ( solid masses ). three - dimensional elements were the main option available to early structures such as chichen itza. a one - dimensional element has one dimension much larger than the other two, so the other dimensions can be neglected in calculations ; however, the ratio of the smaller dimensions and the composition can determine the flexural and compressive stiffness of the element. two - dimensional elements with a thin third dimension have little of either but can resist biaxial traction. the structure elements are combined in structural systems. the majority of everyday load - bearing structures are section - active structures like frames, which are primarily composed of one - dimensional ( bending ) structures. other types are vector - active structures such as trusses, surface - active structures such as shells and folded plates, form - active structures such as cable or membrane structures, and hybrid structures. load - bearing biological structures such as bones, teeth, shells, and tendons derive their strength from a multilevel hierarchy of structures employing bio
tailor catheters for cardiovascular, urological, gastrointestinal, neurovascular, and ophthalmic applications. celiac disease – another way of spelling coeliac disease cell biology – also called cytology, is a branch of biology that studies the structure and function of the cell, which is the basic unit of life. cell biology is concerned with the physiological properties, metabolic processes, signaling pathways, life cycle, chemical composition and interactions of the cell with their environment. central nervous system – ( cns ), is the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord. cephalic vein – is a superficial vein in the arm. it communicates with the basilic vein via the median cubital vein at the elbow and is located in the superficial fascia along the anterolateral surface of the biceps brachii muscle. near the shoulder, the cephalic vein passes between the deltoid and pectoralis major muscles ( deltopectoral groove ) and through the deltopectoral triangle, where it empties into the axillary vein. cerebellum – ( latin for " little brain " ), is a major feature of the hindbrain of all vertebrates. although usually smaller than the cerebrum, in some animals such as the mormyrid fishes it may be as large as or even larger. in humans, the cerebellum plays an important role in motor control. it may also be involved in some cognitive functions such as attention and language as well as in regulating fear and pleasure responses, but its movement - related functions are the most solidly established. the human cerebellum does not initiate movement, but contributes to coordination, precision, and accurate timing : it receives input from sensory systems of the spinal cord and from other parts of the brain, and integrates these inputs to fine - tune motor activity. cerebellar damage produces disorders in fine movement, equilibrium, posture, and motor learning in humans. cerebrum – is a large part of the brain containing the cerebral cortex ( of the two cerebral hemispheres ), as well as several subcortical structures, including the hippocamp
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
The deltoid ligament is a strong ligament. It is attached to all of the following structures, EXCEPT?
A. Medial malleolus
B. Medial cuneiform
C. Spring ligament
D. Sustentaculum tali
Answer: | [
"Medial malleolus",
"Medial cuneiform",
"Spring ligament",
"Sustentaculum tali"
] | B | Medial collateral ligament (deltoid ligament) attaches to the medial malleolus of the tibia and the navicular, talus, and calcaneus bones. This ligament prevents medial distraction (eversion) and excessive range of motion. It is subdivided into four pas:Tibionavicular pa attaches the margin of the plantar calcaneonavicular ligament (spring ligament).Tibiocalcaneal pa attaches to the sustentaculum tali of the calcaneus bone.Posterior tibiotalar pa attaches to the medial side and medial tubercle of the talus.Anterior tibiotalar pa attaches to the medial surface of the talus. |
qasc_3853 | qasc | <ctx>
illustrations show the molecular structures of fructose, a five - carbon monosaccharide, and of lactose, a disaccharide composed of two isomeric, six - carbon sugars. organisms use carbohydrates for a variety of functions. carbohydrates can store energy, such as the polysaccharides glycogen in animals or starch in plants. they also provide structural support, such as the polysaccharide cellulose in plants and the modified polysaccharide chitin in fungi and animals. the sugars ribose and deoxyribose are components of the backbones of rna and dna, respectively. other sugars play key roles in the function of the immune system, in cell - cell recognition, and in many other biological roles. diabetes is a group of metabolic diseases in which a person has a high sugar concentration in their blood ( figure 20. 13 ). diabetes may be caused by insufficient insulin production by the pancreas or by the body ’ s cells not responding properly to the insulin that is produced. in a healthy person, insulin is produced when it is needed and functions to transport glucose from the blood into the cells where it can be used for energy. 998 20 • organic chemistry access for free at openstax. org
##ing and timing. hypo and hyperglycemia levels which are significantly above or below this range are problematic and can in some cases be dangerous. a level of < 3. 8 mmol / l ( < 70 mg / dl ) is usually described as a hypoglycemic attack ( low blood sugar ). most diabetics know when they are going to " go hypo " and usually are able to eat food or drink something sweet to raise their levels. a patient who is hyperglycemic ( high glucose ) can also become temporarily hypoglycemic under certain conditions ( e. g. not eating regularly, or after strenuous exercise, followed by fatigue ). intensive efforts to achieve blood sugar levels close to normal have been shown to triple the risk of the most severe form of hypoglycemia, in which the patient requires assistance from by - standers in order to treat the episode. in the united states, there were annually 48, 500 hospitalizations for diabetic hypoglycemia and 13, 100 for diabetic hypoglycemia resulting in coma in the period 1989 to 1991, before intensive blood sugar control was as widely recommended as today. one study found that hospital admissions for diabetic hypoglycemia increased by 50 % from 1990 – 1993 to 1997 – 2000, as strict blood sugar control efforts became more common. among intensively controlled type 1 diabetics, 55 % of episodes of severe hypoglycemia occur during sleep, and 6 % of all deaths in diabetics under the age of 40 are from nocturnal hypoglycemia in the so - called'dead - in - bed syndrome,'while national institute of health statistics show that 2 % to 4 % of all deaths in diabetics are from hypoglycemia. in children and adolescents following intensive blood sugar control, 21 % of hypoglycemic episodes occurred without explanation. in addition to the deaths caused by diabetic hypoglycemia, periods of severe low blood sugar can also cause permanent brain damage. although diabetic nerve disease is usually associated with hypergly
at some risk of experiencing disruptive hypoglycemia while driving, there is a subgroup of type 1 drivers who are more vulnerable to such events. given the above research findings, it is recommended that drivers with type 1 diabetes with a history of driving mishaps should never drive when their bg is less than 70 mg / dl ( 3. 9 mmol / l ). instead, these drivers are advised to treat hypoglycemia and delay driving until their bg is above 90 mg / dl ( 5 mmol / l ). such drivers should also learn as much as possible about what causes their hypoglycemia, and use this information to avoid future hypoglycemia while driving. studies funded by the national institutes of health ( nih ) have demonstrated that face - to - face training programs designed to help individuals with type 1 diabetes better anticipate, detect, and prevent extreme bg can reduce the occurrence of future hypoglycemia - related driving mishaps. an internet - version of this training has also been shown to have significant beneficial results. additional nih funded research to develop internet interventions specifically to help improve driving safety in drivers with type 1 diabetes is currently underway. exenatide the u. s. food and drug administration ( fda ) has approved a treatment called exenatide, based on the saliva of a gila monster, to control blood sugar in patients with type 2 diabetes. other regimens artificial intelligence researcher dr. cynthia marling, of the ohio university russ college of engineering and technology, in collaboration with the appalachian rural health institute diabetes center, is developing a case - based reasoning system to aid in diabetes management. the goal of the project is to provide automated intelligent decision support to diabetes patients and their professional care providers by interpreting the ever - increasing quantities of data provided by current diabetes management technology and translating it into better care without time - consuming manual effort on the part of an endocrinologist or diabetologist. this type of artificial intelligence - based treatment shows some promise with initial testing of a prototype system producing best practice treatment advice which anaylizing physicians deemed to have some degree of benefit over 70 % of the time
rector of leuven, afraid of entirely losing de duve, made a compromise over dinner that de duve would still be under part - time appointment with a relief from teaching and conducting examinations. the rector and bronk made an agreement which would initially last for five years. the official implementation was in 1962, and de duve simultaneously headed the research laboratories at leuven and at rockefeller university, dividing his time between new york and leuven. in 1969, the catholic university of leuven was contentiously split into two separate universities along linguistic lines. de duve chose to join the french - speaking side, universite catholique de louvain. he took emeritus status at the university of louvain in 1985 and at rockefeller in 1988, though he continued to conduct research. among other subjects, he studied the distribution of enzymes in rat liver cells using rate - zonal centrifugation. his work on cell fractionation provided an insight into the function of cell structures. he specialized in subcellular biochemistry and cell biology and discovered new cell organelles. rediscovery of glucagon the hormone glucagon was discovered by c. p. kimball and john r. murlin in 1923 as a hyperglycaemic ( blood - sugar elevating ) substance among the pancreatic extracts. the biological importance of glucagon was not known and the name itself was essentially forgotten. it was a still a mystery at the time de duve joined bouckaert at leuven university to work on insulin. since 1921, insulin was the first commercial hormonal drug originally produced by the eli lilly and company, but their extraction methods introduced an impurity that caused mild hyperglycaemia, the very opposite of what was expected or desired. in may 1944 de duve realised that crystallisation could remove the impurity. he demonstrated that lilly's insulin process was contaminated, showing that, when injected into rats, the lilly insulin caused initial hyperglycaemia and the danish novo insulin did not. following his research published in 1947, lilly upgraded its methods to eliminate the impurity. by then de duve had joined carl cori and gerty cori at washington university in st
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
What is caused by a reduction of a hormone that helps cells absorb sugar from the blood?
A. Dehydration
B. anemia
C. diabetes
D. glucose
Answer: | [
"Dehydration",
"anemia",
"diabetes",
"glucose"
] | C | |
medmcqa_8564 | medmcqa | <ctx>
the acoustic reflex ( also known as the stapedius reflex, stapedial reflex, auditory reflex, middle - ear - muscle reflex ( mem reflex, memr ), attenuation reflex, cochleostapedial reflex or intra - aural reflex ) is an involuntary muscle contraction that occurs in the middle ear in response to loud sound stimuli or when the person starts to vocalize. when presented with an intense sound stimulus, the stapedius and tensor tympani muscles of the ossicles contract. the stapedius stiffens the ossicular chain by pulling the stapes ( stirrup ) of the middle ear away from the oval window of the cochlea and the tensor tympani muscle stiffens the ossicular chain by loading the tympanic membrane when it pulls the malleus ( hammer ) in toward the middle ear. the reflex decreases the transmission of vibrational energy to the cochlea, where it is converted into electrical impulses to be processed by the brain. acoustic reflex threshold the acoustic reflex threshold ( art ) is the sound pressure level ( spl ) from which a sound stimulus with a given frequency will trigger the acoustic reflex. the art is a function of sound pressure level and frequency. people with normal hearing have an acoustic reflex threshold ( art ) around 70 – 100 db spl. people with conductive hearing loss ( i. e., bad transmission in the middle ear ) may have a greater or absent acoustic reflex threshold. the acoustic reflex threshold is usually 10 – 20 db below the discomfort threshold. however the discomfort threshold is not a relevant indicator of the harmfulness of a sound : industry workers tend to have a higher discomfort threshold, but the sound is just as harmful to their ears. the acoustic reflex threshold can be decreased by the simultaneous presentation of a second tone ( facilitator ). the facilitator tone can be presented to either ear. this facilitation effect tends to be greater when the facilitator tone has a frequency lower than the frequency of the elicitor ( i. e. the sound used to trigger the acoustic reflex ). characteristics and effects for most animals, the acoustic reflex is the
##fies to form the lesser cornu and upper part of the body of the hyoid bone. caudal to what will eventually become the stapes, reichert's cartilage also forms the styloid process of the temporal bone. the cartilage between the hyoid bone and styloid process will not remain as development continues, but its perichondrium will eventually form the stylohyoid ligament. derivatives skeletal from the cartilage of the second arch arises stapes, temporal styloid process, stylohyoid ligament, and lesser cornu of the hyoid bone. muscles facial muscles occipitofrontalis muscle platysma stylohyoid muscle posterior belly of digastric muscle stapedius muscle auricular muscles nerve supply facial nerve ( cn vii ) blood supply the artery of the second arch is the second aortic arch, which gives origin to the stapedial artery in some mammals but atrophies in most humans. muscles derived from the pharyngeal arches pharyngeal muscles or branchial muscles are striated muscles of the head and neck. unlike skeletal muscles that developmentally come from somites, pharyngeal muscles are developmentally formed from the pharyngeal arches. most of the skeletal musculature supplied by the cranial nerves ( special visceral efferent ) is pharyngeal. exceptions include, but are not limited to, the extraocular muscles and some of the muscles of the tongue. these exceptions receive general somatic efferent innervation. first arch all of the pharyngeal muscles that come from the first pharyngeal arch are innervated by the mandibular divisions of the trigeminal nerve. these muscles include all the muscles of mastication, the anterior belly of the digastric, the mylohyoid, tensor tympani, and tensor veli palatini. second arch all of the pharyngeal muscles of the second pharyngeal arch are innervated by the facial nerve. these muscles include the muscles of facial expression, the posterior belly of the dig
the tensor tympani is a muscle within the middle ear, located in the bony canal above the bony part of the auditory tube, and connects to the malleus bone. its role is to dampen loud sounds, such as those produced from chewing, shouting, or thunder. because its reaction time is not fast enough, the muscle cannot protect against hearing damage caused by sudden loud sounds, like explosions or gunshots. structure the tensor tympani is a muscle that is present in the middle ear. it arises from the cartilaginous part of the auditory tube, and the adjacent great wing of the sphenoid. it then passes through its own canal, and ends in the tympanic cavity as a slim tendon that connects to the handle of the malleus. the tendon makes a sharp bend around the processus cochleariformis, part of the wall of its cavity, before it joins with the malleus. the tensor tympani receives blood from the middle meningeal artery via the superior tympanic branch. it is one of two muscles in the tympanic cavity, the other being the stapedius. nerve supply the tensor tympani is supplied by the tensor tympani nerve, a branch of the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve. as the tensor tympani is supplied by motor fibers of the trigeminal nerve, it does not receive fibers from the trigeminal ganglion, which has sensory fibers only. development the tensor tympani muscle develops from mesodermal tissue in the 1st pharyngeal arch. function the tensor tympani acts to dampen the noise produced by chewing. when tensed, the muscle pulls the malleus medially, tensing the tympanic membrane and damping vibration in the ear ossicles and thereby reducing the perceived amplitude of sounds. it is not to be confused by the acoustic reflex, but can be activated by the startle reflex. voluntary control contracting muscles produce vibration and sound. slow twitch fibers produce 10 to 30 contractions per second ( equivalent to 10 to 30 hz sound frequency ). fast twitch fibers produce 30 to 70 contractions per
to either ear. this facilitation effect tends to be greater when the facilitator tone has a frequency lower than the frequency of the elicitor ( i. e. the sound used to trigger the acoustic reflex ). characteristics and effects for most animals, the acoustic reflex is the contraction of both middle ear muscles : the stapedius and tensor tympani muscles. however, in humans, the acoustic reflex only involves the contraction of the stapedius muscle, not the tensor tympani. the contraction of the stapedius muscle occurs bilaterally in normal ears, no matter which ear was exposed to the loud sound stimulation. the prevalence of bilateral acoustic reflexes in persons 18 – 30 years old is 85. 3 % ( 82. 9 %, 87. 4 % ) 95th percentile confidence interval n = 3280 and in all persons 74. 6 % ( 73. 2 %, 75. 9 % ) n = 15, 106. the acoustic reflex mostly protects against low frequency sounds. when triggered by sounds 20 db above the reflex threshold, the stapedius reflex decreases the intensity of the sound transmitted to the cochlea by around 15 db. the acoustic reflex is also invoked when a person vocalizes. in humans, the vocalization - induced stapedius reflex reduces sound intensities reaching the inner ear by approximately 20 decibels. the reflex is triggered in anticipation of the onset of vocalization. while the vocalization - induced stapedius reflex in humans results in an approximate 20 db reduction in transduction to the inner ear, birds have a stronger stapedius reflex that is invoked just before the bird tweets. hypothesized function the main hypothesized function of the acoustic reflex is the protection of the organ of corti against excessive stimulation ( especially that of the lower frequencies ). this protection has been demonstrated both in humans and animals, but with limited effects. according to the article significance of the stapedius reflex for the understanding of speech, the latency of contraction is only about 10ms, but maximum tension may not be reached for 100 ms or more. according to the article le traumatisme
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Stapedius muscle is supplied by:
A. 5th nerve
B. 6th nerve
C. 7th nerve
D. 8th nerve
Answer: | [
"5th nerve",
"6th nerve",
"7th nerve",
"8th nerve"
] | C | (7th nerve): Ref: 225-LT (91-D 4th)STAPEDIUS MUSCLE - after emerging from the pyramid, is inserted into the neck of the stapes* It has an action of damping the movement of the stapes by tilting outwards the anterior end of the foot plate.* Supplied by facial nerveTENSOR TYMPANI MUSCLE - arise from the cartilaginous part of the auditory tube from the adjacent part of the greater wing of the sphenoid and from the bony canal* Its action is to tense the tympanic membrane by drawing it medially* Supplied by motor division of the trigeminal nerve, through the otic ganglion* Tympanic plexus is formed by the ramification of the tympanic nerve (Jacobson's nerve) which is a branch of the glassoparyngeal nerve. |
aquarat_42 | aquarat | <ctx>
1. 20 km radius on a highway with a 105 km / h speed limit ( about 65 mi / h ), assuming everyone travels at the limit? 26. what is the ideal speed to take a 100 m radius curve banked at a 20. 0° angle? 27. ( a ) what is the radius of a bobsled turn banked at 75. 0° and taken at 30. 0 m / s, assuming it is ideally banked? ( b ) calculate the centripetal acceleration. ( c ) does this acceleration seem large to you? 28. part of riding a bicycle involves leaning at the correct angle when making a turn, as seen in figure 6. 33. to be stable, the force exerted by the ground must be on a line going through the center of gravity. the force on the bicycle wheel can be resolved into two perpendicular components — friction parallel to the road ( this must supply the centripetal force ), and the vertical normal force ( which must equal the system ’ s weight ). ( a ) show that ( as defined in the figure ) is related to the speed and radius of curvature of the turn in the same way as for an ideally banked roadway — that is, ( b ) calculate for a 12. 0 m / s turn of radius 30. 0 m ( as in a race ). figure 6. 33 a bicyclist negotiating a turn on level ground must lean at the correct angle — the ability to do this becomes instinctive. the force of the ground on the wheel needs to be on a line through the center of gravity. the net external force on the system is the centripetal force. the vertical component of the force on the wheel cancels the weight of the system while its horizontal component must supply the centripetal force. this process produces a relationship among the angle, the speed, and the radius of curvature of the turn similar to that for the ideal banking of roadways. 264 6 • problems & exercises access for free at openstax. org 29. a large centrifuge, like the one shown in figure 6. 34 ( a ), is used to expose aspiring astronauts to accelerations similar
your other path. 18. you drive in a straight line in a direction east of north. ( a ) find the distances you would have to drive straight east and then straight north to arrive at the same point. ( this determination is equivalent to find the components of the displacement along the east and north directions. ) ( b ) show that you still arrive at the same point if the east and north legs are reversed in order. 19. do exercise 3. 16 again using analytical techniques and change the second leg of the walk to straight south. ( this is equivalent to subtracting from — that is, finding ) ( b ) repeat again, but now you first walk north and then east. ( this is equivalent to subtract from — that is, to find. is that consistent with your result? ) 140 3 • problems & exercises access for free at openstax. org 20. a new landowner has a triangular piece of flat land she wishes to fence. starting at the west corner, she measures the first side to be 80. 0 m long and the next to be 105 m. these sides are represented as displacement vectors from in figure 3. 56. she then correctly calculates the length and orientation of the third side. what is her result? figure 3. 56 21. you fly in a straight line in still air in the direction south of west. ( a ) find the distances you would have to fly straight south and then straight west to arrive at the same point. ( this determination is equivalent to finding the components of the displacement along the south and west directions. ) ( b ) find the distances you would have to fly first in a direction south of west and then in a direction west of north. these are the components of the displacement along a different set of axes — one rotated. 22. a farmer wants to fence off a four - sided plot of flat land. they measure the first three sides, shown as and in figure 3. 57, and then correctly calculate the length and orientation of the fourth side. what is their result? figure 3. 57 23. in an attempt to escape his island, gilligan builds a raft and sets to sea. the wind shifts a great deal during the day,
3. 5 addition of velocities 52. bryan allen pedaled a human - powered aircraft across the english channel from the cliffs of dover to cap gris - nez on june 12, 1979. ( a ) he flew for 169 min at an average velocity of 3. 53 m / s in a direction south of east. what was his total displacement? ( b ) allen encountered a headwind averaging 2. 00 m / s almost precisely in the opposite direction of his motion relative to the earth. what was his average velocity relative to the air? ( c ) what was his total displacement relative to the air mass? 53. a seagull flies at a velocity of 9. 00 m / s straight into the wind. ( a ) if it takes the bird 20. 0 min to travel 6. 00 km relative to the earth, what is the velocity of the wind? ( b ) if the bird turns around and flies with the wind, how long will he take to return 6. 00 km? ( c ) discuss how the wind affects the total round - trip time compared to what it would be with no wind. 54. near the end of a marathon race, the first two runners are separated by a distance of 45. 0 m. the front runner has a velocity of 3. 50 m / s, and the second a velocity of 4. 20 m / s. ( a ) what is the velocity of the second runner relative to the first? ( b ) if the front runner is 250 m from the finish line, who will win the race, assuming they run at constant velocity? ( c ) what distance ahead will the winner be when she crosses the finish line? 55. verify that the coin dropped by the airline passenger in the example 3. 8 travels 144 m horizontally while falling 1. 50 m in the frame of reference of the earth. 56. a football quarterback is moving straight backward at a speed of 2. 00 m / s when he throws a pass to a player 18. 0 m straight downfield. the ball is thrown at an angle of relative to the ground and is caught at the same height as it is released. what is the initial velocity of the ball relative to the quarterback
)? 11. a student drove to the university from their home and noted that the odometer reading of their car increased by 12. 0 km. the trip took 18. 0 min. ( a ) what was their average speed? ( b ) if the straight - line distance from their home to the university is
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
A person can walk at a constant rate of 8mph and can bike at a rate of 16mph. If he wants to travel 64 miles in 8 hours using bike and walking at their constant rates, how much distance would he require to walk?
A. A)20
B. B)30
C. C)48
D. D)64
Answer: | [
"A)20",
"B)30",
"C)48",
"D)64"
] | D | Total distance = 64
Distance = Speed * Time
Walking speed = s1 = 8
Walking time = t1
Bike speed = s2 = 16
Time traveled in bike = t2
d1 + d2 = 64
s1t1 + s2t2 = 64
8*t1 + 16*t2 = 64
t1 + 2*t2 = 8 ----- (1)
Given: t1 + t2 = 8 ----- (2)
(1) - (2) --> t2 = 0 and t1 = 8 - 0 = 8
Walking distance = s1*t1 = 8*8 = 64
Answer: D |
medmcqa_9974 | medmcqa | <ctx>
high as possible while limiting the dose for normal cells. the ratio of abnormal cells killed to normal cells killed is called the 1436 32 • medical applications of nuclear physics access for free at openstax. org therapeutic ratio, and all radiotherapy techniques are designed to enhance this ratio. radiation can be concentrated in cancerous tissue by a number of techniques. one of the most prevalent techniques for well - defined tumors is a geometric technique shown in figure 32. 9. a narrow beam of radiation is passed through the patient from a variety of directions with a common crossing point in the tumor. this concentrates the dose in the tumor while spreading it out over a large volume of normal tissue. the external radiation can be x - rays, rays, or ionizing - particle beams produced by accelerators. accelerator - produced beams of neutrons,, and heavy ions such as nitrogen nuclei have been employed, and these can be quite effective. these particles have larger qfs or rbes and sometimes can be better localized, producing a greater therapeutic ratio. but accelerator radiotherapy is much more expensive and less frequently employed than other forms. figure 32. 9 the source of - radiation is rotated around the patient so that the common crossing point is in the tumor, concentrating the dose there. this geometric technique works for well - defined tumors. another form of radiotherapy uses chemically inert radioactive implants. one use is for prostate cancer. radioactive seeds ( about 40 to 100 and the size of a grain of rice ) are placed in the prostate region. the isotopes used are usually ( 6 - month half life ) or ( 3 - month half life ). alpha emitters have the dual advantages of a large qf and a small range for better localization. radiopharmaceuticals are used for cancer therapy when they can be localized well enough to produce a favorable therapeutic ratio. thyroid cancer is commonly treated utilizing radioactive iodine. thyroid cells concentrate iodine, and cancerous thyroid cells are more aggressive in doing this. an ingenious use of radiopharmaceuticals in cancer therapy tags antibodies with radioisotopes. antibodies produced by a patient to combat his cancer are extracted, cultured, loaded with a radioisotop
2. 8 table 32. 5 background radiation sources and average doses to physically limit radiation doses, we use shielding, increase the distance from a source, and limit the time of exposure. figure 32. 7 illustrates how these are used to protect both the patient and the dental technician when an x - ray is taken. shielding absorbs radiation and can be provided by any material, including sufficient air. the greater the distance from the source, the more the radiation spreads out. the less time a person is exposed to a given source, the smaller is the dose received by the person. doses from most medical diagnostics have decreased in recent years due to faster films that require less exposure time. figure 32. 7 a lead apron is placed over the dental patient and shielding surrounds the x - ray tube to limit exposure to tissue other than the tissue that is being imaged. fast films limit the time needed to obtain images, reducing exposure to the imaged tissue. the technician stands a few meters away behind a lead - lined door with a lead glass window, reducing her occupational exposure. 3 multiply by 100 to obtain dose in mrem / y. 32. 2 • biological effects of ionizing radiation 1433 procedure effective dose ( msv ) chest 0. 02 dental 0. 01 skull 0. 07 leg 0. 02 mammogram 0. 40 barium enema 7. 0 upper gi 3. 0 ct head 2. 0 ct abdomen
are frequently the same as the intravenous contrast agents, merely diluted to approximately 10 % of the concentration. however, oral alternatives to iodinated contrast exist, such as very dilute ( 0. 5 – 1 % w / v ) barium sulfate suspensions. dilute barium sulfate has the advantage that it does not cause allergic - type reactions or kidney failure, but cannot be used in patients with suspected bowel perforation or suspected bowel injury, as leakage of barium sulfate from damaged bowel can cause fatal peritonitis. side effects from contrast agents, administered intravenously in some ct scans, might impair kidney performance in patients with kidney disease, although this risk is now believed to be lower than previously thought. scan dose the table reports average radiation exposures ; however, there can be a wide variation in radiation doses between similar scan types, where the highest dose could be as much as 22 times higher than the lowest dose. a typical plain film x - ray involves radiation dose of 0. 01 to 0. 15 mgy, while a typical ct can involve 10 – 20 mgy for specific organs, and can go up to 80 mgy for certain specialized ct scans. for purposes of comparison, the world average dose rate from naturally occurring sources of background radiation is 2. 4 msv per year, equal for practical purposes in this application to 2. 4 mgy per year. while there is some variation, most people ( 99 % ) received less than 7 msv per year as background radiation. medical imaging as of 2007 accounted for half of the radiation exposure of those in the united states with ct scans making up two thirds of this amount. in the united kingdom it accounts for 15 % of radiation exposure. the average radiation dose from medical sources is ≈0. 6 msv per person globally as of 2007. those in the nuclear industry in the united states are limited to doses of 50 msv a year and 100 msv every 5 years. lead is the main material used by radiography personnel for shielding against scattered x - rays. radiation dose units the radiation dose reported in the gray or mgy unit is proportional to the amount of energy that the irradiated body part is
of the situation. if the radioactive material is necessary, it can be ingested orally via stable isotopes of specific elements. this is only suggested to those that have a lack of these elements however, because radioactive material can go from healthy to harmful with very small amounts. the most harmful way to absorb radiation is that of absorption because it is almost impossible to control how much will enter the body. physical factors since irradiation increases with proximity to the source of radiation, and as it is impossible to distance or shield an internal source, radioactive materials inside the body can deliver much higher doses to the host organs than they normally would from outside the body. this is particularly true for alpha and beta emitters that are easily shielded by skin and clothing. some have hypothesized that alpha's high relative biological effectiveness might be attributable to cell's tendency to absorb transuranic metals into the cellular nucleus where they would be in very close proximity to the genome, though an elevated effectiveness can also be observed for external alpha radiation in cellular studies. as in the calculations for equivalent dose and effective dose, committed dose must include corrections for the relative biological effectiveness of the radiation type and weightings for tissue sensitivity. duration the dose rate from a single uptake decays over time due to both radioactive decay, and biological decay ( i. e. excretion from the body ). the combined radioactive and biological half - life, called the effective half - life of the material, may range from hours for medical radioisotopes to decades for transuranic waste. committed dose is the integral of this decaying dose rate over the presumed remaining lifespan of the organism. most regulations require this integral to be taken over 50 years for uptakes during adulthood or over 70 years for uptakes during childhood. in dosimetry accounting, the entire committed dose is conservatively assigned to the year of uptake, even though it may take many years for the tissues to actually accumulate this dose. measurement there is no direct way to measure committed dose. estimates can be made by analyzing the data from whole body counting, blood samples, urine samples, fecal samples, biopsies, and measurement of intake. whole body counting (
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Most common method of radiation dose delivery is:
A. Teletherapy
B. Electron beam
C. Brachytherapy
D. Radio immunotherapy
Answer: | [
"Teletherapy",
"Electron beam",
"Brachytherapy",
"Radio immunotherapy"
] | A | Teletherapy REF: therapy, "External radiation therapy (also known as Teletherapy) is the most common kind of radiation therapy" |
medmcqa_9054 | medmcqa | <ctx>
skipper, j. i., nusbaum, h. c., & small, s. l. ( 2005 ). listening to talking faces : motor cortical activation during speech perception. neuroimage, 25 ( 1 ), 76 – 89. small, s. l., hlustik, p., noll, d. c., genovese, c., & solodkin, a. ( 2002 ). cerebellar hemispheric activation ipsilateral to the paretic hand correlates with functional recovery after stroke. brain, 125 ( 7 ), 1544 – 1557. skipper, j. i., goldin - meadow, s., nusbaum, h. c., & small, s. l. ( 2007 ). speech - associated gestures, broca's area, and the human mirror system. brain and language, 101 ( 3 ), 260 – 277. milton, j., solodkin, a., hlustik, p., & small, s. l. ( 2007 ). the mind of expert motor performance is cool and focused. neuroimage, 35 ( 2 ), 804 – 813. books hickok, g., & small, s. l. ( eds. ). ( 2016 ). neurobiology of language ( 1st edition ). san diego, california : academic press the chicago social brain network ( 2010 ). invisible forces and powerful beliefs : gravity, gods, and minds. upper saddle river, new jersey : ft press. small, s. l., g. c. cottrell, and m. k. tanenhaus ( eds. ) ( 1988 ), lexical ambiguity resolution : perspectives from psycholinguistics, neuropsychology, and artificial intelligence, morgan kaufmann publishers, los altos, california. references year of birth missing ( living people ) living people dartmouth college alumni american neuroscientists university of california, irvine faculty university of chicago faculty university system of maryland alumni university system of maryland faculty university of pittsburgh faculty university of rochester alumni university of rochester faculty
child mistimes, they prolong a certain letter / syllable in the word they are saying, thereby taking much longer for their sentence to be said. pauses or blocking are another side effect relating to developmental dysfluency. this is when one inserts a silent interval within the word. revision is similar to this but is the halting completely, mid - flow of a sentence and taking the thought in a different direction. there is evidence to show that this may not only be an issue of speech motor areas but also the auditory cortex. in a meg study by beal et al. they found that adults with " persistent developmental stuttering " or pds, had slower cortical timing than those who spoke completely fluent. this shows us something is wrong in their auditory motor integration. as far as the underlying ailments behind stuttering, it is not well known whether this side effect has to do with " errors in linguistic planning " or issues with " access or retrieval of linguistic elements " and it could very well involve both issues. on occasion, children will go beyond the normal dysfluency patterns. instances like the previously mentioned example indicate that the child is learning to use language. in contrast, children with stuttering disorder, will likely repeat sounds or one - syllable words three or more times. they may also prolong sounds for two or more seconds. in comparison, stuttering can be seen as a process where a word appears to become " stuck, " and the person may grimace, jerk the head or neck as he struggles to overcome the stutter. characteristics characteristics of developmental dysfluency include : repeating phrases ( e. g. " he ate - he ate my cookie ) use of filler words ( um, uh, like, ah, etc. ) no tension of physical inability and struggle to speak lack of problematic behaviors when speaking no negative reaction or frustration appearance of dysfluencies only last less than 6 months children with normal dysfluency tend to have stuttering difficulties that come and go. generally this is during preschool years and the problem normally ceases altogether by the time a child starts school. everyone experiences periods of dysfluency - normal speech patterns include
j. a., balota, d. a., raichle, m. e., & petersen, s. e. ( 1999 ). effects of lexicality, frequency, and spelling - to - sound consistency on the functional anatomy of reading. neuron, 24 ( 1 ), 205 – 218. fiez, j. a. ( 1997 ). phonology, semantics, and the role of the left inferior prefrontal cortex. human brain mapping, 5 ( 2 ), 79 – 83. fiez, j. a., petersen, s. e., cheney, m. k., & raichle, m. e. ( 1992 ). impaired non - motor learning and error detection associated with cerebellar damage : a single case study. brain, 115 ( 1 ), 155 – 178. petersen, s. e., & fiez, j. a. ( 1993 ). the processing of single words studied with positron emission tomography. annual review of neuroscience, 16 ( 1 ), 509 – 530. raichle, m. e., fiez, j. a., videen, t. o., macleod, a. m. k., pardo, j. v., fox, p. t., & petersen, s. e. ( 1994 ). practice - related changes in human brain functional anatomy during nonmotor learning. cerebral cortex, 4 ( 1 ), 8 - 26. strick, p. l., dum, r. p., & fiez, j. a. ( 2009 ). cerebellum and nonmotor function. annual review of neuroscience, 32, 413 – 434. tricomi, e. m., delgado, m. r., & fiez, j. a. ( 2004 ). modulation of caudate activity by action contingency. neuron, 41 ( 2 ), 281 – 292. references external links faculty page lab website american women psychologists 21st - century american psychologists living people university of pittsburgh faculty emory university alumni washington university in st. louis alumni year of birth missing
this problem could be a direct coupling of action repository and mental lexicon without explicitly introducing a phonemic map at the beginning of speech acquisition ( even at the beginning of imitation training ; see kroger et al. 2011 paladyn journal of behavioral robotics ). experiments : speech acquisition a very important issue for all neuroscientific or neurocomputational approaches is to separate structure and knowledge. while the structure of the model ( i. e. of the human neuronal network, which is needed for processing speech ) is mainly determined by evolutionary processes, the knowledge is gathered mainly during speech acquisition by processes of learning. different learning experiments were carried out with the model act in order to learn ( i ) a five - vowel system / i, e, a, o, u / ( see kroger et al. 2009 ), ( ii ) a small consonant system ( voiced plosives / b, d, g / in combination with all five vowels acquired earlier as cv syllables ( ibid. ), ( iii ) a small model language comprising the five - vowel system, voiced and unvoiced plosives / b, d, g, p, t, k /, nasals / m, n / and the lateral / l / and three syllable types ( v, cv, and ccv ) ( see kroger et al. 2011 ) and ( iv ) the 200 most frequent syllables of standard german for a 6 - year - old child ( see kroger et al. 2011 ). in all cases, an ordering of phonetic items with respect to different phonetic features can be observed. experiments : speech perception despite the fact that the act model in its earlier versions was designed as a pure speech production model ( including speech acquisition ), the model is capable of exhibiting important basic phenomena of speech perception, i. e. categorical perception and the mcgurk effect. in the case of categorical perception, the model is able to exhibit that categorical perception is stronger in the case of plosives than in the case of vowels ( see kroger et al. 2009 ). furthermore, the model act was able to exhibit the mcgurk effect, if a specific
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Which of the following are NOT associated with complex tongue thrusting activity?
A. Naso-respiratory distress
B. Contraction of the teniporalis muscle
C. Contraction of the mentalis and lower lip during swallow
D. Absence of contact of teeth during swallow
Answer: | [
"Naso-respiratory distress",
"Contraction of the teniporalis muscle",
"Contraction of the mentalis and lower lip during swallow",
"Absence of contact of teeth during swallow"
] | B | |
arc_easy_611 | arc_easy | <ctx>
a carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid ( h2co3 ), characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion, a polyatomic ion with the formula. the word carbonate may also refer to a carbonate ester, an organic compound containing the carbonate group. the term is also used as a verb, to describe carbonation : the process of raising the concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate ions in water to produce carbonated water and other carbonated beverageseither by the addition of carbon dioxide gas under pressure or by dissolving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water. in geology and mineralogy, the term " carbonate " can refer both to carbonate minerals and carbonate rock ( which is made of chiefly carbonate minerals ), and both are dominated by the carbonate ion,. carbonate minerals are extremely varied and ubiquitous in chemically precipitated sedimentary rock. the most common are calcite or calcium carbonate, caco3, the chief constituent of limestone ( as well as the main component of mollusc shells and coral skeletons ) ; dolomite, a calcium - magnesium carbonate camg ( co3 ) 2 ; and siderite, or iron ( ii ) carbonate, feco3, an important iron ore. sodium carbonate ( " soda " or " natron " ) and potassium carbonate ( " potash " ) have been used since antiquity for cleaning and preservation, as well as for the manufacture of glass. carbonates are widely used in industry, such as in iron smelting, as a raw material for portland cement and lime manufacture, in the composition of ceramic glazes, and more. new applications of alkali metal carbonates include : thermal energy storage, catalysis and electrolyte both in fuel cell technology as well as in electrosynthesis of h2o2 in aqueous media. structure and bonding the carbonate ion is the simplest oxocarbon anion. it consists of one carbon atom surrounded by three oxygen atoms, in a trigonal planar arrangement, with d3h molecular symmetry. it has a molecular mass of 60. 01 g / mol and carries a total formal charge of −2. it is the conjugate base of the hydrogencarbon
##ute in the gas to which the 556 11 • solutions and colloids access for free at openstax. org solution is exposed. gas solubility increases as the pressure of the gas increases. carbonated beverages provide a nice illustration of this relationship. the carbonation process involves exposing the beverage to a relatively high pressure of carbon dioxide gas and then sealing the beverage container, thus saturating the beverage with co2 at this pressure. when the beverage container is opened, a familiar hiss is heard as the carbon dioxide gas pressure is released, and some of the dissolved carbon dioxide is typically seen leaving solution in the form of small bubbles ( figure 11. 10 ). at this point, the beverage is supersaturated with carbon dioxide and, with time, the dissolved carbon dioxide concentration will decrease to its equilibrium value and the beverage will become “ flat. ” figure 11. 10 opening the bottle of carbonated beverage reduces the pressure of the gaseous carbon dioxide above the beverage. the solubility of co2 is thus lowered, and some dissolved carbon dioxide may be seen leaving the solution as small gas bubbles. ( credit : modification of work by derrick coetzee ) for many gaseous solutes, the relation between solubility, cg, and partial pressure, pg, is a proportional one : where k is a proportionality constant that depends on the identities of the gaseous solute and solvent, and on the solution temperature. this is a mathematical statement of henry ’ s law : the quantity of an ideal gas that dissolves in a definite volume of liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas. example 11. 1 application of henry ’ s law at 20 °c, the concentration of dissolved oxygen in water exposed to gaseous oxygen at a partial pressure of 101. 3 kpa is 1. 38 10−3 mol l−1. use henry ’ s law to determine the solubility of oxygen when its partial pressure is 20. 7 kpa, the approximate pressure of oxygen in earth ’ s atmosphere. solution according to henry ’ s law, for an ideal solution the solubility, cg, of a gas ( 1. 38 10−3 mol l−1, in this
sodastream international ltd. ( ) is an israel - based manufacturing company best - known as the maker of the consumer home carbonation product of the same name. the company's soda machines, in the style of soda siphons, add carbon dioxide to water from a pressurized cylinder to create carbonated water for drinking. it also sells more than 100 types of concentrated syrups and flavourings that are used in the process of making carbonated drinks. in 2018, sodastream distributed its products to 80, 000 individual retail stores across 45 countries. the company was founded in 1903 in england. after it merged with soda - club in 1998, it was relaunched with an emphasis on healthier drinks, and went public on the nasdaq stock exchange in november 2010. sodastream is headquartered in kfar saba, israel, and has 13 production plants. in august 2018, the company was acquired by pepsico for us $ 3. 2 billion. pepsico was attracted to the company due to its technological innovations and a desire to move into providing more healthy products ; sodastream has since launched a variety of pepsico flavours into their range. until 2015, the company's principal manufacturing facility was located in mishor adumim, an industrial park within the israeli settlement of ma'ale adumim in the west bank, which generated controversy and a boycott campaign. in october 2015, under growing pressure from activists of the palestinian - led bds movement, sodastream closed its facility in mishor adumim and relocated it to the town of lehavim in israel proper. product the sodastream sparkling water maker is a device that forces carbon dioxide ( co2 ) gas ( stored under pressure in a cylinder ) into water, making it sparkling ( fizzy ). the product includes a machine, a carbon dioxide cylinder, and one or more reusable beverage bottles. the bottle, filled with water, is inserted into the machine, and with a button push or two, compressed co2 from the cylinder is injected, creating carbonated water. varieties of concentrated syrups are available, to create regular or diet soft drinks by adding a small amount of concentrate to the bottle after carbonation. different flavours are created by
11. 3 solubility 16. suppose you are presented with a clear solution of sodium thiosulfate, na2s2o3. how could you determine whether the solution is unsaturated, saturated, or supersaturated? 17. supersaturated solutions of most solids in water are prepared by cooling saturated solutions. supersaturated solutions of most gases in water are prepared by heating saturated solutions. explain the reasons for the difference in the two procedures. 18. suggest an explanation for the observations that ethanol, c2h5oh, is completely miscible with water and that ethanethiol, c2h5sh, is soluble only to the extent of 1. 5 g per 100 ml of water. 19. calculate the percent by mass of kbr in a saturated solution of kbr in water at 10 °c. see figure 11. 16 for useful data, and report the computed percentage to one significant digit. 20. which of the following gases is expected to be most soluble in water? explain your reasoning. ( a ) ch4 ( b ) ccl4 ( c ) chcl3 21. at 0 °c and 1. 00 atm, as much as 0. 70 g of o2 can dissolve in 1 l of water. at 0 °c and 4. 00 atm, how many grams of o2 dissolve in 1 l of water? 11 • exercises 595 22. refer to figure 11. 10. ( a ) how did the concentration of dissolved co2 in the beverage change when the bottle was opened? ( b ) what caused this change? ( c ) is the beverage unsaturated, saturated, or supersaturated with co2? 23. the henry ’ s law constant for co2 is 3. 4 10−2 m / atm at 25 °c. assuming ideal solution behavior, what pressure of carbon dioxide is needed to maintain a co2 concentration of 0. 10 m in a can of lemon - lime soda? 24. the henry ’ s law constant for o2 is 1. 3 10−3 m / atm at 25 °c. assuming ideal solution behavior, what mass of oxygen would be dissolved in a 40 - l aquarium at 25 °c, assuming an
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Soda water is a liquid that has bubbles of carbon dioxide in it. Which term best describes soda water?
A. a mixture
B. a molecule
C. an element
D. a compound
Answer: | [
"a mixture",
"a molecule",
"an element",
"a compound"
] | A | |
aquarat_6481 | aquarat | <ctx>
online journals ( ovid medline ), 8 local newspapers and more than 1, 200 irregular titles or serials acquired through / from library linkages. in addition, the library receives 1, 315 titles through exchanges and through gifts from local and foreign institutions. other titles come as free mails, from here and abroad, although these are irregular. all in all, the library receives a total of 1, 191 periodical titles excluding the theology library holdings. the theology library maintains and subscribes to 38 foreign and local publications. 25 titles come as gifts from baptist world alliance, world council of churches and friends of the library. the henry luce iii library follows the library of congress classification and the subject headings are based on the library of congress subject headings. the junior high school and elementary library follows the dewey decimal classification. the library holdings may be searched online through the online public access catalog ( opac ), destiny online catalog. linkages the cpu library is a depository of united nations and the food and agriculture organization ( fao ) of the united nations ; a recipient of library materials from the united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization ( unesco ) ; the population council in new york city ; the national library of the philippines in manila, and australian center for publication acquired for development ( acpad ), population information network, and the international rice research institute, los banos, laguna, philippines ; the thomas jefferson information center in manila, and the united states information agency are regular library donors for the cpu - american studies resource center ( asrc ). the american studies center through its educational advising program help / assist students who want to study in the u. s. individual donors and alumni continue to assist in the development of library collection. starting april 29, 1997, the national statistics office ( philippines ) ( nso ), region vi designated central philippine university library as national statistics office ( philippines ) ( nso ) information center. the graduate studies library houses the national statistics office ( nso ) publications. library link, based in the filipinas heritage library, makati, metro manila, is an electronic union catalogue of the filipiniana libraries of different schools and institution in the philippines. it makes it possible for researchers
for the loan of cds, dvds, magazines, newspapers, toys and non - english books. the libraries also provide internet, copying and printing services. in the sydney subject specialisation scheme, a sydney - wide collection development policy which facilitated interlibrary loans prior to computerised union catalogues, the city of sydney library maintained a focus on life sciences, engineering and french literature. the city of sydney library had a total stock of 461, 253 items as of june 2015. library link a library link has existed in town hall house, close to the location of the library's previous premises, since its relocation to customs house in 2005. the library link makes available a number of current newspapers and magazines, a fiction collection, a self - operated check - in and check - out machine and a telephone to contact library staff. members can pick up books and other material held at other branches at the library link by contacting staff. in 2006 a link opened at pyrmont offering a limited services. people are able to drop off books and pick up items they have asked for during the time that the volunteers are there. membership the library network has around 40, 000 active members and processes 1, 350, 000 loans per year. membership of the library network is free to residents of the city of sydney local government area and residents of new south wales. references external links city of sydney library libraries in sydney public libraries in australia government of sydney libraries established in 1908 1908 establishments in australia
campuses at least once each year, taking part in orientation sessions for new students and attending the annual its students ’ conference as a speaker. students and faculty at these campuses are encouraged to regard the library as their own and they are supplied directly with free loans or photocopies from its collections. the outreach librarian is also available to open the library at weekends for visitors from the other its branches, though this offer has been availed of only a few times ( after all the bay area has plenty other attractions. ) all services to non - berkeley its members are supplied free. the library also provides a very efficient and busy interlibrary loan service. an average of 150 items ( monographs, audiovisuals and photocopies ) are supplied each month. free service is provided to transportation research bodies in the state of california. the library is a major source of cataloging for publications in transportation research. in addition to creating bibliographic records for monographs we produce a large number of analytics ( journal and magazine articles, individual conference papers for which we have provided full cataloging ). analytics have been created for about 103, 000 articles and papers. cataloging has been done online since 1979 and the library's cataloging staff are among the most prolific contributors of transportation cataloging to the oclc worldcat database. average production per month is 600 records for monographs and 450 records for analytics. the catalog records appear in the university of california's melvyl online catalog, oclc's worldcat database, and the tris database. regarding tris, the library is a contributor of bibliographic records to the transportation research board's tlib project. since 1985 bibliographic records for journal articles, and until very recently monographs, were sent free of charge to tlib for inclusion in tris. special projects path database ( 1987 - 2005 ) the library developed the path database, the world's largest online database on intelligent transportation systems. launched in 1987 and funded by the california path program, it contained over 28, 000 fully abstracted records and grew by the addition of between 250 and 300 records per month. path database was available free on the web before funding was terminated in 2005. though path
200 - seat multi - purpose hall. unlike the yongfeng building, the new building has a self - service library that provides self - service lending services, a visually impaired reading room that provides braille reading services, and a total of 4 study rooms for reservation. digital services ningbo library also provides digital literature services. the online service section provides document retrieval and download services such as ningbo special database online search and ningbo library network database. you can access the corresponding literature services by logging in to the ip address within ningbo through ip. in addition, ningbo library is also a member unit of ningbo digital library, including ningbo university zone library and other major public libraries in ningbo and ningbo university and other universities in ningbo. the digital library is mainly undertaken by ningbo university zone library. the digital library service was launched on january 18, 2008, achieving the sharing of literature resources among various co - construction units. ip addresses within ningbo city can access various chinese and foreign literature in the digital library. in 2020, the digital resources of the library had 180 million visits and 1. 92 million downloads throughout the year. off - site services in addition to the daxie development zone branch, meixu branch, free trade zone branch, dongqian lake branch, lihuili east hospital branch, human geography museum, and other branch libraries, ningbo library also uses buses or local space to set up mobile libraries in towns, campuses, government agencies, etc. and provide free books and journals, as well as a series of services such as free book replacement, " i'll pay for books if you order ", and " i'll buy if you choose ". in addition, the library has also set up a certain number of 24 - hour self - help libraries in haishu district, yinzhou district, jiangbei district, zhenhai district, beilun district, xiangshan county, and some subway stations to promote the tianyi book appointment service. the monthly lending and returning volume of gulou station of ningbo rail transit rank first among more than 200 credit lending counters nationwide. research and publications the ningbo library
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
A library has an average of 510 visitors on Sunday and 240 on other days. The average number of visitors per day in a month of 30 days beginning with a Sunday is
A. A)250
B. B)276
C. C)280
D. D)285
Answer: | [
"A)250",
"B)276",
"C)280",
"D)285"
] | D | Sol.
Since the month begins with a Sunday, so there will be five Sundays in the month.
∴ Required average = [510 x 5 + 240 x 25 / 30] = 8550 / 30 = 285
Answer D |
mmlu_aux_4943 | mmlu_auxiliary | <ctx>
species of sebastiania ) and use the bean as a shelter. with a sudden rise in temperature, the pupa inside twitches and jerks, pulling on the threads inside. wiggling may also help to deter parasitoid wasps from laying eggs on the pupa. other species of moths are able to make clicks to deter predators. the length of time before the pupa ecloses ( emerges ) varies greatly. the monarch butterfly may stay in its chrysalis for two weeks, while other species may need to stay for more than 10 months in diapause. the adult emerges from the pupa either by using abdominal hooks or from projections located on the head. the mandibles found in the most primitive moth families are used to escape from their cocoon ( e. g., micropterigoidea ). adult most lepidopteran species do not live long after eclosion, only needing a few days to find a mate and then lay their eggs. others may remain active for a longer period ( from one to several weeks ) or go through diapause and overwintering as monarch butterflies do, or waiting out environmental stress. some adult species of microlepidoptera go through a stage where no reproductive - related activity occurs, lasting through summer and winter, followed by mating and oviposition in the early spring. while most butterflies and moths are terrestrial, many species of acentropinae ( crambidae ) are truly aquatic with all stages except the adult occurring in water. many species from other families such as erebidae, nepticulidae, cosmopterigidae, tortricidae, olethreutidae, noctuidae, cossidae, and sphingidae are aquatic or semiaquatic. behavior flight flight is an important aspect of the lives of butterflies and moths, and is used for evading predators, searching for food, and finding mates in a timely manner, as most lepidopteran species do not live long after eclosion. it is the main form of locomotion in most species. in lepidoptera, the forewings and hindwings are mechanically coupled and flap in synchrony. flight is anteromotoric, or being driven primarily by action of the
single antenna is sufficient for sun compass orientation. they did so by painting one antenna black to cause discordant light exposure between the two antennae ; the single not - painted antenna was sufficient for orientation. all four clock genes ( per, tim, cry1, and cry2 ) were expressed in the various studied areas of the antenna, suggesting that " light entrained circadian clocks are distributed throughout the length of the monarch butterfly antenna. " in 2013, reppert and patrick guerra showed that spring remigrants also use an antenna - dependent time - compensated sun compass to direct their northward flight from mexico to the southern united states. sun compass using anatomical and electrophysiological studies of the monarch butterfly brain, stanley heinze working in reppert ’ s lab provided evidence that the central complex, a midline structure in the central brain, is likely the site of the sun compass. magnetic compass reppert and colleagues patrick guerra and robert gegear showed that migratory monarchs can use a light - dependent, inclination - based, magnetic compass for navigation on overcast days. genetic studies from christine merlin ’ s laboratory show that the photoreceptive cry1 protein is essential for the monarch ’ s light - sensitive magnetic compass. the successful use of reverse genetics in monarchs would indicate that the butterfly is an excellent choice for helping to delineate the molecular mechanism underlying light - dependent magnetosensing in the context of compass navigation. temperature reppert and patrick guerra showed that fall migrants prematurely exposed to overwintering - like coldness reverse their flight orientation to the north. the temperature microenvironment at the overwintering site is essential for successful completion of the migration cycle : without cold exposure, aged migrants continue to orient to the south. the discovery that coldness triggers the northward flight direction in spring remigrants underscores how vulnerable the migration may be to climate change. monarch butterfly genome in 2011, reppert and colleagues presented the draft sequence of the monarch butterfly genome and a set 16, 866 protein - coding genes. this is the first characterized genome of a butterfly and of a long - distance migratory species. in 2012, reppert and colleagues established monarchbase, an integrated database for the genome
##l circadian clocks coordinate sun compass orientation in migratory monarch butterflies. science 325 : 1700 – 1704. zhan s, merlin c, boore jl and reppert sm ( 2011 ) the monarch butterfly genome yields insights into long - distance migration. cell 147 : 1171 – 1185. markert mj, zhang y, enuameh ms, reppert sm, wolfe sa and merlin c ( 2016 ) genomic access to monarch migration using talen and crispr / cas9 - mediated targeted mutagenesis. g3 : genes, genomes, genetics. reppert sm, guerra pa and merlin c ( 2016 ) neurobiology of monarch butterfly migration. annual review of entomology. 61 ( 1 ) : 25 – 42. lugena ab, zhang y, menet js, and merlin c ( 2019 ). genome - wide discovery of the daily transcriptome, dna regulatory elements and transcription factor occupancy in the monarch butterfly brain. plos genetics, 15 ( 7 ). doi : 10. 1371 / journal. pgen. 1008265 wan g, hayden an, liams se, merlin c ( 2021 ) cryptochrome 1 mediates light - dependent inclination magnetosensing in monarch butterflies. nat commun. 12 ( 1 ) : 771. honors and awards the merlin lab receives funding from the national science foundation, the national institutes of health, and the esther a. & joseph klingenstein fund. merlin has received the following awards for her work in circadian biology : charles king trust postdoctoral fellowship from the medical foundation ( 2012 ) klingenstein - simons fellowship award in neuroscience ( 2017 ) junior faculty research award from the international society for research on biological rhythms ( 2018 ) presidential impact fellowship at texas a & m university ( 2020 ) see also sun compass in animals circadian clock monarch butterfly migration arthropod necessity and sufficiency references living people 1980 births texas a & m university faculty
the moon's last quarter. the larvae spend a few weeks at sea and then return to land. tracking migration scientists gather observations of animal migration by tracking their movements. animals were traditionally tracked with identification tags such as bird rings for later recovery. however, no information was obtained about the actual route followed between release and recovery, and only a fraction of tagged individuals were recovered. more convenient, therefore, are electronic devices such as radio - tracking collars that can be followed by radio, whether handheld, in a vehicle or aircraft, or by satellite. gps animal tracking enables accurate positions to be broadcast at regular intervals, but the devices are inevitably heavier and more expensive than those without gps. an alternative is the argos doppler tag, also called a'platform transmitter terminal'( ptt ), which sends regularly to the polar - orbiting argos satellites ; using doppler shift, the animal's location can be estimated, relatively roughly compared to gps, but at a lower cost and weight. a technology suitable for small birds which cannot carry the heavier devices is the geolocator which logs the light level as the bird flies, for analysis on recapture. there is scope for further development of systems able to track small animals globally. radio - tracking tags can be fitted to insects, including dragonflies and bees. in culture before animal migration was understood, various folklore and erroneous explanations were formulated to account for the disappearance or sudden arrival of birds in an area. in ancient greece, aristotle proposed that robins turned into redstarts when summer arrived. the barnacle goose was explained in european medieval bestiaries and manuscripts as either growing like fruit on trees, or developing from goose barnacles on pieces of driftwood. another example is the swallow, which was once thought, even by naturalists such as gilbert white, to hibernate either underwater, buried in muddy riverbanks, or in hollow trees. see also great american interchange references further reading general baker, r. r. ( 1978 ) the evolutionary ecology of animal migration. holmes & meier.. dingle, h. ( 1996 ) migration : the biology of life on the move. oxford university press.. gauthreaux, s.
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Monarch butterflies from eastern Canada make the most amazing journey in the insect world. Each year, this butterfly travels about 3000miles to its winter home in central Mexico . How can it fly so far? And why does it make this long and dangerous trip? Scientists still don't have an answer. For many years, people in Mexico wondered where the orange-and-black butterflies came from every winter. Then, in 1937, a scientist started to follow and study the butterflies. For the next 20 years, he discovered that one butterfly started its journey in Canada. Four months later, it arrived in Mexico. The length of the butterflies find their way back to the same place? Another amazing thing is that the butterflies always return to the same area in central Mexico. How do the butterflies find their way back to the same place? This is an interesting question because only every fourth generation makes the trip south. In other words, the butterfly that travels to Mexico this year is the great-great-grandchild of the butterfly that traveled there last year. Each year, four generations of a Monarch butterfly family are born. Each generation of the family has a very different life. The first generation is born in the south in late April. It slowly moves north, reproduces , and then dies. On the trip north,two more generations are born, reproduce, and die. Each of these generations of butterflies is born. This generation has a much longer life. It lives for about eight months. This generation of butterflies makes the amazing journey back to the winter home of its great-great-grandparents. The butterflies spend the winter there, and in the spring they reproduce and then die. Their offspring will be the first generation of the next circle of life. Today, people are still studying the Monarch butterfly. But they are not clear about everything. The best title of the passage can be _ .
A. Family of Monarch butterflies
B. Mystery of Monarch butterflies
C. Monarch butterflies' birthplace
D. Monarch butterflies' winter home
Answer: | [
"Family of Monarch butterflies",
"Mystery of Monarch butterflies",
"Monarch butterflies' birthplace",
"Monarch butterflies' winter home"
] | B | null |
aquarat_22538 | aquarat | <ctx>
the answer should also have three significant figures. the answer 30. 0 km / hr does indeed have three significant figures, so this is appropriate. note that the significant figures in the conversion factor are not relevant because an hour is defined to be 60 minutes, so the precision of the conversion factor is perfect. ( 4 ) next, check whether the answer is reasonable. let us consider some information from the problem — if you travel 10 km in a third of an hour ( 20 min ), you would travel three times that far in an hour. the answer does seem reasonable. solution for ( b ) there are several ways to convert the average speed into meters per second. ( 1 ) start with the answer to ( a ) and convert km / h to m / s. two conversion factors are needed — one to convert hours to seconds, and another to convert kilometers to meters. ( 2 ) multiplying by these yields 1. 2 1. 3
, 000 passengers per hour per direction ( for example, the guangzhou bus rapid transit system operates up to 350 buses per hour per direction ). for the effective operation of a bus or brt system, buses must have priority at traffic lights and have their dedicated lanes, especially as bus frequencies exceed 30 buses per hour per direction. the higher theoretical of brt relates to the ability of buses to travel closer to each other than rail vehicles and their ability to overtake each other at designated locations allowing express services to bypass those that have stopped at stations. however, to achieve capacities this high, brt station footprints need to be significantly larger than a typical lrt station. in terms of cost of operation, each bus vehicle requires a single driver, whereas a light rail train may have three to four cars of much larger capacity in one train under the control of one driver, or no driver at all in fully automated systems, increasing the labor costs of brt systems compared to lrt systems. brt systems are also usually less fuel - efficient as they use non - electrified vehicles. the peak passenger capacity per lane per hour depends on which types of vehicles are allowed on the roads. typically roadways have 1, 900 passenger cars per lane per hour ( pcplph ). if only cars are allowed, the capacity will be less and will not increase when the traffic volume increases. when there is a bus driving on this route, the capacity of the lane will be higher and will increase when the traffic level increases. and because the capacity of a light rail system is higher than that of a bus, there will be even more capacity when there is a combination of cars and light rail. table 3 shows an example of peak passenger capacity. safety an analysis of data from the 505 - page national transportation statistics report published by the us department of transportation shows that light rail fatalities are higher than all other forms of transportation except motorcycle travel ( 31. 5 fatalities per 100 million miles ). however, the national transportation statistics report published by the us department of transportation states that : caution must be exercised in comparing fatalities across modes because significantly different definitions are used. in particular, rail and transit fatalities include incident - related ( as distinct from accident - related ) fatalities, such as
, central reservation, no at - grade intersections, speed limit : 130 km / h autout ( expressway ) : 1 + 1 or more travel lanes, optionally emergency lanes and central reservation, some at - grade intersections ( only if 1 + 1 lanes ), speed limit : 110 km / h fout ( arterial road or main road ) ( with one digit in their name, e. g. : 6 - os ut ) megyei ut ( county road ) ( with two digits, e. g. : 16 - os ut ) helyi ut ( local road ) ( with three or more digits ) etc. czech republic and slovakia the road hierarchy in the czech republic and slovakia originates from the czechoslovak 1961 road act, although both countries have made changes since the dissolution of czechoslovakia. motorways motorways (, ) form the trunk of the road network, and similarly to other european countries they include at least 2 lanes in each direction, as well as an emergency lane on the right and auxiliary lanes for entering and leaving the motorway in intersections. in both countries, motorways use white - on - green directional signage. the general speed limit for motorways in both countries is 130 kilometers per hour, which is implicitly decreased to 80 km / h ( czech republic ) or 90 km / h ( slovakia ) in urban areas. in both the czech republic and slovakia, motorways are designated by a number prefixed by the letter d. both countries also use red rectangular shields with the motorway number in both countries, although in slovakia the shield includes the d prefix, while in the czech republic it only contains the number itself. slovakia, as well as the czech republic before 2016, also operates a complementary expressway network (, ), which consists of limited access highways that don't fully meet the motorway standards. they are designated by a number prefixed by the letter r. slovak expressways use similar highway shields as motorways, albeit with the different prefix. the term " motor vehicle road " (, ) has also been used variably to refer to the network, although in both countries this term is now used for a separate category of roads. the same rules of the road as on motorways also apply on expressways,
1. 2 • physical quantities and units 21 example 1. 1 unit conversions : a short drive home suppose that you drive the 10. 0 km from your school to home in 20. 0 min. calculate your average speed ( a ) in kilometers per hour ( km / h ) and ( b ) in meters per second ( m / s ). ( note : average speed is distance traveled divided by time of travel. ) strategy first we calculate the average speed using the given units. then we can get the average speed into the desired units by picking the correct conversion factor and multiplying by it. the correct conversion factor is the one that cancels the unwanted unit and leaves the desired unit in its place. solution for ( a ) ( 1 ) calculate average speed. average speed is distance traveled divided by time of travel. ( take this definition as a given for now — average speed and other motion concepts will be covered in a later module. ) in equation form, ( 2 ) substitute the given values for distance and time. ( 3 ) convert km / min to km / h : multiply by the conversion factor that will cancel minutes and leave hours. that conversion factor is discussion for ( a ) to check your answer, consider the following : ( 1 ) be sure that you have properly cancelled the units in the unit conversion. if you have written the unit conversion factor upside down, the units will not cancel properly in the equation. if you accidentally get the ratio upside down, then the units will not cancel ; rather, they will give you the wrong units as follows : which are obviously not the desired units of km / h. ( 2 ) check that the units of the final answer are the desired units. the problem asked us to solve for average speed in units of km / h and we have indeed obtained these units. ( 3 ) check the significant figures. because each of the values given in the problem has three significant figures, the answer should also have three significant figures. the answer 30. 0 km / hr does indeed have three significant figures, so this is appropriate. note that the significant figures in the conversion factor are not relevant because an hour is defined to be 60 minutes, so the precision of the conversion factor is perfect
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Excluding stoppages, the speed of a bus is 54 km/hr and including stoppages, it is 45 km/hr. For how many minutes does the bus stop per hour?
A. A)15 min
B. B)10 min
C. C)17 min
D. D)20 min
Answer: | [
"A)15 min",
"B)10 min",
"C)17 min",
"D)20 min"
] | D | D
10 min
Due to stoppages, it covers 9 km less.
Time taken to cover 9 km = 9/54 * 60 = 10 min. |
openbookqa_834 | openbookqa | <ctx>
significantly improved post - inflammatory pigmentation. it is reported that go - vc also showed a clear improvement in pigmentation caused by metal allergy, which was not very effective when applied with hydroquinone. skin pore related diseases since conventional water - soluble vitamin c does not easily penetrate the skin barrier, an amphipathic vitamin c derivative was developed to improve this. however, since lipids such as palmitic acid were chemical modified to vitamin c derivatives in the past, exposure to ultraviolet light generated free fatty acids, raising concerns about lipid peroxidation. it was thought that go - vc could avoid the problem of lipid peroxidation because go - vc is amphipathic with octanol instead of lipid. the effect of 0. 05 % gel of go - vc was investigated on skin pore related diseases. as a result, it was confirmed that there were no side effects and the number of abnormal pores decreased to 70 % or less within 1 to 2 months after application. references organic acids 3 - hydroxypropenals
dysregulation of epigenetic marks and imprinted gene expression. she found that the deletion did not perturb dna methylation, though it did impact gene repression and further that the impacts of the deletion on insulator function are tissue specific, in that only mesodermal tissues have disrupted insulator function. ideraabdullah completed her postdoctoral training in 2012. career and research in 2013, ideraabdullah joined the department of genetics at the university of north carolina at chapel hill as an assistant professor. she holds a joint appointment as an assistant professor in the department of nutrition at the gillings school of global public health and she is an affiliate member of the nutrition research institute in kannapolis, north carolina. as of 2016, ideraabdullah became an honorary researcher at the university of witwatersrand in johannesburg, south africa within the mrc / wits developmental pathways for health research unit. ideraabdullah is also a member of the genetics society of america. ideraabdullah is the principal investigator of the ideraabdullah lab which studies the mechanisms by which the epigenome is modified by the environment during development. her lab has a focus on investigating the epigenetic impacts of vitamin d deficiency, pesticide exposure, and hyperglycemia during pregnancy. nutritional impact on epigenetic landscape one form of epigenetic modification is methylation, and thus methyl donor nutrients play a critical role in epigenetic modifications. ideraabdullah was interested in exploring how maternal intake of methyl donors affects development of offspring. she found that the additive effects of a low methyl diet plus antibiotic treatment led to altered pup body weight, litter size and litter success. vitamin d is another critical nutrient for methylation, and vitamin d deficiency is a global problem with unknown impacts on maternal and child health. ideraabdullah explored how maternal vitamin d deficiency alters the methylation and imprinted loci. she found that deficiencies in vitamin d in mothers led to altered body weight and loss of dna methylation in two subsequent generations of offspring in both somatic and germline tissues. to follow this study, ideraabdullah
, brough he, du toit g, lack g, fox at. active management of food allergy – an emerging concept. archives of disease in childhood 2015 apr ; 100 ( 4 ) : 386 - 90. fox at, sasieni p, du toit g, syed h, lack g. household peanut consumption as a risk factor for the development of peanut allergy. journal of allergy and clinical immunology.'''2009 feb ; 123 ( 2 ) : 417 - 23. fox at, kaymakcalan h, perkin m, du toit g, lack g. changes in peanut allergy prevalence in different ethnic groups in 2 time periods. journal of allergy and clinical immunology 2015 feb ; 135 ( 2 ) : 580 - 2. fox at, brown t, walsh j, venter c, meyer r, nowak - wegrzyn a, levin m, spawls h, beatson j, lovis m - t, vieira mc, fleischer d. an update to the milk allergy in primary care guideline. clinical and translational allergy 2019. du toit g, katz y, sasieni p, mesher d, maleki sj, fisher hr, fox at, turcanu v, amir t, zadik - mnuhin g, cohen a. early consumption of peanuts in infancy is associated with a low prevalence of peanut allergy. journal of allergy and clinical immunology'' 2008 nov 1 ; 122 ( 5 ) : 984 - 91. his most cited paper, it has been cited 885 times according to google scholar, references british nutritionists british paediatricians year of birth missing ( living people ) living people
hormones, such as melatonin and glucocorticoids. his group has documented that animals, including humans, monitor day length ( photoperiod ) to engage seasonally appropriate adaptations in anticipation of harsh winter conditions. they proposed that photoperiodic information, mediated by melatonin, also influenced immune responses. individuals could improve survival if seasonally recurring stressors were anticipated and countered. this 20 year - long series of studies suggest that short day lengths ( i. e. winter conditions ) reroute energy from reproduction and growth to bolster immune function. the net result of these photoperiod - mediated adjustments is enhanced immune function and increased survival. this work has important implications for understanding the dynamics of the influenza season, as well as other emergent seasonal diseases. more recently, nelson focused on the effects of dim light at night on the disruption of circadian rhythms to examine a number of outcomes, including obesity, depression, cognition, cardiac disease, and cancer. his lab has established that exposure to dim light at night disrupts the expression of circadian clock gene expression, provokes neuroinflammation, and increases body mass gain and depressive - like responses, as well as impairs cognition, immune function, and recovery from cardiac arrest and stroke. awards he has been elected as a fellow the american association for the advancement of science, the american psychological association, the association for psychological science, and the animal behavior society. he received the education award from the society for neuroscience in 2017. among his notable trainees are sabra klein and staci bilbo, selected publications books an introduction to behavioral endocrinology, a leading textbook, nelson, r. j. 2019. ( hormones and behavior section editor ). encyclopedia of animal behavior. second edition. elsevier major reference works, oxford, uk. nelson, r. j. ( editor ). 2022. encyclopedia of neuroscience. oxford university press. nelson, r. j. & kriegsfeld, l. j. 2022. an introduction to behavioral endocrinology. sixth edition. sinauer associates, an imprint of oxford university press : sunderland, ma. fonken, l. f
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
A person with a vitamin D deficiency who is allergic to sunlight could
A. look at pictures
B. drink more water
C. bathe more often
D. eat more cheese
Answer: | [
"look at pictures",
"drink more water",
"bathe more often",
"eat more cheese"
] | D | |
aquarat_29036 | aquarat | <ctx>
a mortgage ( 1 million for 20 years @ r = 10 % ) calculated firstly according to the above time continuous model and secondly using the excel pv function. as may be seen the curves are virtually indistinguishable – calculations effected using the model differ from those effected using the excel pv function by a mere 0. 3 % ( max ). the data from which the graph ( s ) were derived can be viewed comparison with similar physical systems define the " reverse time " variable z = t − t. ( t = 0, z = t and t = t, z = 0 ). then : this may be recognized as a solution to the " reverse time " differential equation : electrical / electronic engineers and physicists will be familiar with an equation of this nature : it is an exact analogue of the type of differential equation which governs ( for example ) the charging of a capacitor in an rc circuit. the key characteristics of such equations are explained in detail at rc circuits. for home owners with mortgages the important parameter to keep in mind is the time constant of the equation which is simply the reciprocal of the annual interest rate r. so ( for example ) the time constant when the interest rate is 10 % is 10 years and the period of a home loan should be determined – within the bounds of affordability – as a minimum multiple of this if the objective is to minimise interest paid on the loan. mortgage difference and differential equation the conventional difference equation for a mortgage loan is relatively straightforward to derive - balance due in each successive period is the previous balance plus per period interest less the per period fixed payment. given an annual interest rate r and a borrower with an annual payment capability mn ( divided into n equal payments made at time intervals δt where δt = 1 / n years ), we may write : if n is increased indefinitely so that δt → 0, we obtain the continuous time differential equation : note that for there to be a continually diminishing mortgage balance, the following inequality must hold : p0 is the same as p ( 0 ) – the original loan amount or loan balance at time t = 0. solving the difference equation we begin by re - writing the difference equation in rec
rounded upwards ) lived by ( x ) beyond age x, so that the actuarial present value of one unit of insurance is given by : where is the probability that ( x ) survives to age x + t, and is the probability that ( x + t ) dies within one year. if the benefit is payable at the moment of death, then t ( g, x ) : = g - x and the actuarial present value of one unit of whole life insurance is calculated as where is the probability density function of t, is the probability of a life age surviving to age and denotes force of mortality at time for a life aged. the actuarial present value of one unit of an n - year term insurance policy payable at the moment of death can be found similarly by integrating from 0 to n. the actuarial present value of an n year pure endowment insurance benefit of 1 payable after n years if alive, can be found as in practice the information available about the random variable g ( and in turn t ) may be drawn from life tables, which give figures by year. for example, a three year term life insurance of $ 100, 000 payable at the end of year of death has actuarial present value for example, suppose that there is a 90 % chance of an individual surviving any given year ( i. e. t has a geometric distribution with parameter p = 0. 9 and the set { 1, 2, 3,... } for its support ). then and at interest rate 6 % the actuarial present value of one unit of the three year term insurance is so the actuarial present value of the $ 100, 000 insurance is $ 24, 244. 85. in practice the benefit may be payable at the end of a shorter period than a year, which requires an adjustment of the formula. life annuity the actuarial present value of a life annuity of 1 per year paid continuously can be found in two ways : aggregate payment technique ( taking the expected value of the total present value ) : this is similar to the method for a life insurance policy. this time the random variable y is the total present value random variable of an annuity of
functions for simple and compound interest are if, then these two functions are the same. continuous compounding as n, the number of compounding periods per year, increases without limit, the case is known as continuous compounding, in which case the effective annual rate approaches an upper limit of, where is a mathematical constant that is the base of the natural logarithm. continuous compounding can be thought of as making the compounding period infinitesimally small, achieved by taking the limit as n goes to infinity. see definitions of the exponential function for the mathematical proof of this limit. the amount after t periods of continuous compounding can be expressed in terms of the initial amount p0 as force of interest as the number of compounding periods tends to infinity in continuous compounding, the continuous compound interest rate is referred to as the force of interest. in mathematics, the accumulation functions are often expressed in terms of e, the base of the natural logarithm. this facilitates the use of calculus to manipulate interest formulae. for any continuously differentiable accumulation function a ( t ), the force of interest, or more generally the logarithmic or continuously compounded return is a function of time defined as follows : this is the logarithmic derivative of the accumulation function. conversely : ( since ; this can be viewed as a particular case of a product integral. ) when the above formula is written in differential equation format, then the force of interest is simply the coefficient of amount of change : for compound interest with a constant annual interest rate r, the force of interest is a constant, and the accumulation function of compounding interest in terms of force of interest is a simple power of e : or the force of interest is less than the annual effective interest rate, but more than the annual effective discount rate. it is the reciprocal of the e - folding time. see also notation of interest rates. a way of modeling the force of inflation is with stoodley's formula : where p, r and s are estimated. compounding basis to convert an interest rate from one compounding basis to another compounding basis, so that use where r1 is the interest rate with compounding frequency n1, and r2 is
of these interest and principal payments must equal the cumulative fixed payments at time t i. e. mat. evaluating the first integral on the right we obtain an expression for i ( t ), the interest paid : unsurprisingly the second integral evaluates to p0 − p ( t ) and therefore : the reader may easily verify that this expression is algebraically identical to the one above. loan cost factor the cost of a loan is simply the annual rate multiplied by loan period : let s = rt. then we may define loan cost factor c ( s ) such that c = p0c ( s ) i. e. : c ( s ) is the cost per unit of currency loaned. the function c ( s ) is characterised by having a limiting value of 1 when s is close to zero since for small values of s, exp ( −s ) ≈ 1 − s and the denominator simplifies to s. also when s is very large, exp ( −s ) is small so c ( s ) ≈ s and thus loan cost c ≈ p0rt ( rt > > 0 ). by way of example, consider a loan of 1000000 at 10 % repaid over 20 years. then s = 0. 1 × 20 = 2. the product rt is an easily obtained but important parameter in determining loan cost according to the equation c = p0xc ( s ). this is best illustrated by plotting the cost factor function for s values in domain [ 0 ; 5 ]. the linear behaviour of the function for higher values of s is clear. equivalent simple interest cost factor for a fixed term loan of t years, we may compare the above loan cost factor against an equivalent simple interest cost factor 1 + se where se = ret and re is the equivalent simple interest rate : it is straightforward to determine se in terms of s. dividing by loan time period t will then give the equivalent simple interest rate. more challenging is the reverse determination of s given se. in his book problem solving with true basic, dr b. d. hahn has a short section on certain'hire purchase'schemes in which interest is calculated in advance in one lump sum, which is added to the
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
At the end of three years what will be the compound interest at the rate of 10% p.a. on an amount of Rs.20000?
A. A)6620
B. B)1879
C. C)2779
D. D)2672
Answer: | [
"A)6620",
"B)1879",
"C)2779",
"D)2672"
] | A | A = 20000(11/10)3
= 26620
= 20000
----------
6620
Answer: A |
arc_easy_781 | arc_easy | <ctx>
recorded an hours travel on a river, and the days sail. modern tools modern measurement equipment include hand tools, cmms ( coordinate - measuring machines ), machine vision systems, laser trackers, and optical comparators. a cmm is based on cnc technology to automate measurement of cartesian coordinates using a touch probe, contact scanning probe, or non - contact sensor. optical comparators are used when physically touching the part is undesirable ; components that consist of fragile or mailable materials require measurement using non - contact techniques. instruments can now build 3d models of a part and its internal features using ct scanning or x - ray imaging. relative measurements measurements are often expressed as a size relative to a theoretically perfect part that has its geometry defined in a print or computer model. a print is a blueprint illustrating the defined geometry of a part and its features. each feature can have a size, a distance from other features, and an allowed tolerance set on each element. the international language used to describe physical parts is called geometric dimensioning & tolerancing ( colloquially known as gd & t ). prints can be hand drawn or automatically generated by a computer cad model. however, computer controlled measurement like coordinate measuring machines ( cmms ) and vision measuring machines ( vmms ) can measure a part relative to a cad model without the need for a print. typically, this process is done to reverse engineer components. mechanical engineering industrial metrology is common in manufacturing quality control systems to help identify errors in component production and ensure proper performance. blueprints and 3d cad models ( as described above ) are usually made by a mechanical engineer. see also position sensor positioning system references further reading external links national institute for standards and technology dimensional metrology portal an example of industrial metrology equipment. the dimensional metrology standards consortium is an ansi standards organization that identify needed standards in the field of digital metrology metrology dimension manufacturing
##raction techniques can be performed using the tem for identification and eds can be performed on small particles if they are extracted from the matrix using replication methods to avoid detection of the matrix along with the precipitate. quantitative metallography a number of techniques exist to quantitatively analyze metallographic specimens. these techniques are valuable in the research and production of all metals and alloys and non - metallic or composite materials. microstructural quantification is performed on a prepared, two - dimensional plane through the three - dimensional part or component. measurements may involve simple metrology techniques, e. g., the measurement of the thickness of a surface coating, or the apparent diameter of a discrete second - phase particle, ( for example, spheroidal graphite in ductile iron ). measurement may also require application of stereology to assess matrix and second - phase structures. stereology is the field of taking 0 -, 1 - or 2 - dimensional measurements on the two - dimensional sectioning plane and estimating the amount, size, shape or distribution of the microstructure in three dimensions. these measurements may be made using manual procedures with the aid of templates overlaying the microstructure, or with automated image analyzers. in all cases, adequate sampling must be made to obtain a proper statistical basis for the measurement. efforts to eliminate bias are required. some of the most basic measurements include determination of the volume fraction of a phase or constituent, measurement of the grain size in polycrystalline metals and alloys, measurement of the size and size distribution of particles, assessment of the shape of particles, and spacing between particles. standards organizations, including astm international's committee e - 4 on metallography and some other national and international organizations, have developed standard test methods describing how to characterize microstructures quantitatively. for example, the amount of a phase or constituent, that is, its volume fraction, is defined in astm e 562 ; manual grain size measurements are described in astm e 112 ( equiaxed grain structures with a single size distribution ) and e 1182 ( specimens with a bi - modal grain size distribution ) ; while astm
to select a universal calibration artefact using which we can achieve repeatability at nanoscale. at nanoscale while calibrating care needs to be taken for influence of external factors like vibration, noise, motions caused by thermal drift and creep, nonlinear behaviour and hysteresis of piezoscanner and internal factors like the interaction between the artefact and the equipment which can cause significant deviations. measurement techniques in the last 70 years various techniques for measuring at nanoscale have been developed. most of them based on some physical phenomena observed on particle interactions or forces at nanoscale. some of the most commonly used techniques are atomic force microscopy, x - ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, high resolution transmission electron microscopy, and field emission scanning electron microscopy. atomic force microscopy ( afm ) is one of the most common measurement techniques. it can be used to measure topology, grain size, frictional characteristics and different forces. it consists of a silicon cantilever with a sharp tip with a radius of curvature of a few nanometers. the tip is used as a probe on the specimen to be measured. the forces acting at the atomic level between the tip and the surface of the specimen cause the tip to deflect and this deflection is detected using a laser spot which is reflected to an array of photodiodes. scanning tunneling microscopy ( stm ) is another instrument commonly used. it is used to measure 3 - d topology of the specimen. the stm is based on the concept of quantum tunneling. when a conducting tip is brought very near to the surface to be examined, a bias ( voltage difference ) applied between the two can allow electrons to tunnel through the vacuum between them. measurements are made by monitoring the current as the tip's position scans across the surface, which can then be used to display an image. another commonly used instrument is the scanning electron microscopy ( sem ) which apart from measuring the shape and size of the particles and topography of the surface can be used to determine the composition of elements and compounds the sample is composed of. in sem the specimen surface is scanned with a high energy electron beam. the electrons in the
measures the particles'interaction with electromagnetic radiation as a function of wavelength, is useful for some classes of nanoparticles to characterize concentration, size, and shape. semiconductor quantum dots are fluorescent and metal nanoparticles exhibit surface plasmon absorbances, making both amenable to ultraviolet – visible spectroscopy. infrared, nuclear magnetic resonance, and x - ray spectroscopy are also used with nanoparticles. light scattering methods using laser light, x - rays, or neutron scattering are used to determine particle size, with each method suitable for different size ranges and particle compositions. some miscellaneous methods are electrophoresis for surface charge, the brunauer – emmett – teller method for surface area, and x - ray diffraction for crystal structure ; as well as mass spectrometry for particle mass, and particle counters for particle number. chromatography, centrifugation, and filtration techniques can be used to separate nanoparticles by size or other physical properties before or during characterization. metrics size and dispersion particle size is the external dimensions of a particle, and dispersity is a measure of the range of particle sizes in a sample. if the particle is elongated or irregularly shaped, the size will differ between dimensions, although many measurement techniques yield an equivalent spherical diameter based on the surrogate property being measured. size can be calculated from physical properties such as settling velocity, diffusion rate or coefficient, and electrical mobility. size can also be calculated from microscope images using measured parameters such as feret diameter, martin diameter and projected area diameters ; electron microscopy is often used for this purpose for nanoparticles. size measurements may differ between methods because they measure different aspects of particle dimensions, they average distributions over an ensemble differently, or the preparation for or operation of the method may change the effective particle size. for airborne nanoparticles, techniques for measuring size include cascade impactors, electrical low - pressure impactors, mobility analyzers, and time - of - flight mass spectrometers. for nanoparticles in suspension, techniques include dynamic light scattering, laser diffraction, field flow fractionation, nanoparticle tracking analysis, particle tracking veloci
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Which tool is used to measure the diameter of a dime?
A. ruler
B. beaker
C. balance
D. compass
Answer: | [
"ruler",
"beaker",
"balance",
"compass"
] | A | |
qasc_5632 | qasc | <ctx>
very free - draining, and rainfall on sandy soil is likely to be absorbed by the ground. however, soils containing clay can be almost impermeable and therefore rainfall on clay soils will run off and contribute to flood volumes. after prolonged rainfall even free - draining soils can become saturated, meaning that any further rainfall will reach the river rather than being absorbed by the ground. if the surface is impermeable the precipitation will create surface run - off which will lead to higher risk of flooding ; if the ground is permeable, the precipitation will infiltrate the soil. land use land use can contribute to the volume of water reaching the river, in a similar way to clay soils. for example, rainfall on roofs, pavements, and roads will be collected by rivers with almost no absorption into the groundwater. a drainage basin is an area of land where all flowing surface water converges to a single point, such as a river mouth, or flows into another body of water, such as a lake or ocean. see also catchment hydrology references fluvial landforms freshwater ecology geomorphology hydrology rivers water and the environment water streams
indications of waterborne debris and sediment transport. defined river or stream bed and banks. the catchment area exceeds. usgs regression on the vhd data layer - oriented application on the probability of intermittent flow. the existence of aquatic organisms that require uninterrupted circulation. as shown by bank leakage, spring, or other indicators, grass - roots flow mainly supports groundwater recharge. there are high channels of permeability, especially stratospheric, boundary conditions ; while stratospheric groundwater also decreases on occasion. existence of native aquatic organisms which require undisturbed survival flow. the surrounding topography exhibits features of being formed by fluvial processes. absence of such characteristics supports classifying a stream as intermittent, " showing interruptions in time or space ". sources the streams typically derive most of their water from rain and snow precipitation. most of this water re - enters the atmosphere either by evaporation from soil and water bodies, or by plant evapotranspiration. by infiltration some of the water sinks into the earth and becomes groundwater, much of which eventually enters streams. most precipitated water is partially bottled up by evaporation or freezing in snow fields and glaciers. the majority of the water flows as a runoff from the ground ; the proportion of this varies depending on several factors, such as climate, temperature, vegetation, types of rock, and relief. this runoff begins as a thin layer called sheet wash, combined with a network of tiny rills, which together form the sheet runoff ; when this water is focused in a channel, a stream is born. some rivers and streams may begin from lakes or ponds. freshwater's primary sources are precipitation and mountain snowmelt. however, rivers typically originate in the highlands, and are slowly created by the erosion of mountain snowmelt into lakes or rivers. rivers usually flow from their source topographically, and erode as they pass until they reach the base stage of erosion. the scientists have offered a way based on data to define the origin of the lake. a classified sample was the one measured by the chinese researchers from the university of chinese academy of sciences. as an essential symbol of the river formation environment, the river source
downstream and is fracturing deeper than surface water or in karst geology because limestone and dolomite high storage. gaining reaches is when flow increases as it travels downstream. gaining reaches are common in humid mountainous regions where the water table is above the surface water and the water flows from high head to low head following darcy's law. measurement methods for identifying baseflow sources and residence / transit time include using solutes and tracers. solutes that originate in distinct areas of the watershed can be used to source baseflow - geochemical signatures. tracers may be inserted into different parts of the watershed to identify flow paths and transit times. methods for summarizing baseflow from an existing streamflow record include event based low flow statistics, flow duration curve, metrics that explain proportioning of baseflow to total flow, and the baseflow recession curve which can be used on ungauged streams based on empirical relationship between watershed characteristics and baseflow at gauged sites. certain parameters of baseflow, such as the mean residence time and the baseflow recession curve, can be useful in describing the mixing of waters ( such as from precipitation and groundwater ) and the level of groundwater contribution to streamflow in catchments. baseflow separation is often used to determine what portion of a streamflow hydrograph occurs from baseflow, and what portion occurs from overland flow. common methods include using isotope tracing and the software program hysep, among others. anthropogenic effects anthropogenic effects to baseflow include forestry, urbanization, and agriculture. forest cover has high infiltration and recharge because of tree roots. removal of forest cover can cause a short - term increase in mean flow and baseflow because there is less interception and evapotranspiration. urbanization includes a re - organization of surface and subsurface pathways so that water is flushed through catchments because of reduced hydraulic resistance, manning's n, channels and impervious surfaces which decreases infiltration. in urban areas water is often imported from outside the watershed from deep wells and reservoirs. the pipes that transport the water often leak 20 - 25 % to the subsurface which can actually increase baseflow. agriculture can lower baseflow if
is, closely connected to land ownership, and in some jurisdictions treated as privately owned ), regulation and top – down governance and management are difficult. governments need to fully assume their role as resource custodians in view of the common - good aspects of groundwater. domestic laws and regulations regulate access to groundwater as well as human activities that impact the quality of groundwater. legal frameworks also need to include protection of discharge and recharge zones and of the area surrounding water supply wells, as well as sustainable yield norms and abstraction controls, and conjunctive use regulations. in some jurisdictions, groundwater is regulated in conjunction with surface water, including rivers. by country groundwater is an important water resource for the supply of drinking water, especially in arid countries. the arab region is one of the most water - scarce in the world and groundwater is the most relied - upon water source in at least 11 of the 22 arab states. over - extraction of groundwater in many parts of the region has led to groundwater table declines, especially in highly populated and agricultural areas. iranians have pumped so much water that it is no longer any having water with isfahan between iranian cities being existentially critically threatened having 18 centimeter land subsidence rate. in 2023 iran permitted private security to guard groundwater. see also hydrology references external links usgs office of groundwater iah, international association of hydrogeologists the groundwater project online platform for groundwater knowledge ugpro 7 - year research project on the " potential of groundwater for the poor " ( 2013 - 2020 ) hydrology hydraulic engineering soil mechanics liquid water water and the environment water lithosphere subterranea ( geography )
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
What might fall on land may soak into the ground, becoming groundwater?
A. river
B. floods
C. Rocks
D. Hail
Answer: | [
"river",
"floods",
"Rocks",
"Hail"
] | D | |
medmcqa_3129 | medmcqa | <ctx>
greenwich village neighborhood of new york, washington, d. c., and san francisco in the 1980s as well. individual parishes also began opening hospices for aids patients. australia aids arrived in australia in the 1980s. soon after, the sisters of charity began to admit patients with the new disease at st vincent's hospital, sydney, in sydney's inner city, which became a world leader in hiv research. however, despite its geographic proximity to the infected community, it was reported that the atmosphere at st vincent's was initially homophobic in the early 1980s, but hospital administrators took action to correct the situation. africa the african jesuit aids network was established in 2002 by jesuits from africa and madagascar as a network of organizations that fight against hiv / aids based on the outskirts of nairobi, they develop responses that meet the needs in the local context to the disease, including education, prevention, and treatment. the founding of the network was in response to a major effort by the jesuits to make aids in africa a major priority. the community of sant'egidio is " among global leaders on hiv / aids " with a large presence in africa. its drug resource enhancement against aids and malnutrition ( dream ) program is one of the most studied approaches to hiv / aids treatment in the world, with many of the roughly 100 papers attesting to its efficacy. dream takes a holistic approach, combining highly active antiretroviral therapy ( haart ) with the treatment of malnutrition, tuberculosis, malaria, and sexually transmitted diseases while emphasizing health education at all levels. the program was initiated in mozambique in march 2002 and has spread throughout the continent in dispersed health centers. funding has come from various international organizations including the world bank and the bill & melinda gates foundation, as well as from italy's winegrowers. ministry to people with hiv / aids with the advent of aids, the church initially responded nervously but soon began actively providing ministry and medical care to people with aids. parishes and dioceses have instituted various forms of paid and volunteer pastoral care and special activities for people with aids and in the 1980s, some dioceses began hiring staff and commissioning priests for aids ministry. in 1989, the top services provided in the united
- 8 - associated mcd are typically seen at routine intervals for assessment of treatment response and disease progression. follow - up visits may include evaluation of symptoms, physical examination, laboratory testing, and radiologic imaging. prognosis outcomes in hhv - 8 - associated mcd have improved significantly since treatment with rituximab has become more common. in one published case series from an experienced center, observed survival in a cohort of hiv patients with hhv - 8 - associated mcd was 94 % at 2 years and 90 % at 5 years. epidemiology no epidemiologic study has been published estimating the incidence for hhv - 8 - associated mcd in the general population. while rates of kaposi sarcoma in hiv patients — which like hhv - 8 - associated mcd is caused by uncontrolled hhv - 8 infection — decreased as treatment with antiretroviral therapy became more common, rates of hhv - 8 - associated mcd increased over the same time period. there have been no published epidemiologic studies of castleman disease outside of the united states ; however, rates of hhv - 8 - associated mcd may vary in different populations based on the prevalence of hhv - 8 infection. history castleman disease was first described by dr. benjamin castleman in 1956. in 1995, the association between hhv - 8 and castleman disease was described in patients with hiv. world castleman disease day was established in 2018. culture the castleman disease collaborative network was founded in 2012 and is the largest organization focused on castleman disease. it is a global collaborative network involved in research, awareness, and patient support. references external links immune system disorders hiv / aids
unaids has said that hiv / aids in indonesia is one of asia's fastest growing epidemics. in 2010, it is expected that 5 million indonesians will have hiv / aids. in 2007, indonesia was ranked 99th in the world by prevalence rate, but because of low understanding of the symptoms of the disease and high social stigma attached to it, only 5 - 10 % of hiv / aids sufferers actually get diagnosed and treated. according to the a census conducted in 2019, it is counted that 640, 443 people in the country are living with hiv. the adult prevalence for hiv / aids in the country is 0. 4 %. indonesia is the country is southeast asia to have the most number of recorded people living with hiv while thailand has the highest adult prevalence. history indonesia's first case of hiv was reported in 1987 and between then and 2009, 3, 492 people died from the disease. of the 11, 856 cases reported in 2008, 6, 962 of them were people under 30 years of age, including 55 infants under 1 year old. there were a high number of concentrated cases among indonesia's most at risk including injection drug users ( idus ), sex workers their partners and clients, homosexual men and infants who contract the disease through the womb or from being breast fed. over the past two decades the spread of hiv / aids has grown into a generalised epidemic in indonesia. the number of aids - related deaths among people aged above 15 years was anticipated to be as high as 40, 000 people a year in 2015. unaids has also estimated there were 110, 000 orphans due to aids aged 0 to 17 in 2015. according to 2016 data from the ministry of health, risky heterosexual sex is attributed to 47 % of new hiv infections, msm accounted for 25 % and the cohort'under 4 years old'accounted for 2 %. when these three are combined it equals almost 75 % of all new hiv infections. historically the highest concentration areas have been papua, jakarta, east java, west java, bali and riau. the island of java, which includes the capital jakarta, is now home to the highest concentration of hiv cases in indonesia. of the 34 provinces spread across the
, which consequently harmed the general public's ideas, suggesting that hiv would not affect you as much as suggested. this led to people not wanting to get tested, for fear of being hiv positive, because at the time ( in the 1980s and 1990s particularly ), having contracted hiv was seen as a death sentence, as there was no known cure. an example of such a case is freddie mercury, who died in 1991, aged 45, of aids - related pneumonia. beyond medical management the preamble to the world health organization's constitution defines health as " a state of complete physical, mental and social well - being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. " those living with hiv today are met with other challenges that go beyond the singular goal of lowering their viral load. a 2009 meta - analysis studying the correlates of hiv - stigma found that individuals living with higher stigma burden were more likely to have poorer physical and mental health. insufficient social support and delayed diagnosis due to decreased frequency of hiv testing and knowledge of risk reduction were cited as some of the reasons. people living with hiv ( plhiv ) have lower health related quality of life ( hrqol ) scores than do the general population. the stigma of having hiv is often compounded with the stigma of identifying with the lgbtq community or the stigma of being an injecting drug user ( idu ) even though heterosexual sexual transmission accounts for 85 % of all hiv - 1 infections worldwide. aids has been cited as the most heavily stigmatized medical condition among infectious diseases. part of the consequence of this stigma toward plhiv is the belief that they are seen as responsible for their status and less deserving of treatment. a 2016 study sharing the who's definition of health critiques its 90 - 90 - 90 target goal, which is part of a larger strategy that aims to eliminate the aids epidemic as a public health threat by 2030, by arguing that it does not go far enough in ensuring the holistic health of plhiv. the study suggests that maintenance of hiv and aids should go beyond the suppression of viral load and the prevention of opportunistic infection. it proposes adding a'fourth 90'addressing a new'quality of
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Most common malignancy in AIDS is: March 2011
A. Kaposi sarcoma
B. Hodgkins lymphoma
C. Leukemia
D. Multiple myeloma
Answer: | [
"Kaposi sarcoma",
"Hodgkins lymphoma",
"Leukemia",
"Multiple myeloma"
] | A | Ans. A: Kaposi sarcoma The neoplastic diseases clearly seen with an increased frequency in patients with HIV infection are Kaposi sarcoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma |
aquarat_26837 | aquarat | <ctx>
26. 8 m / s ( 100 km / h ) in only 3. 90 s. ( a ) what is its average acceleration? ( b ) how far does it travel in that time? 29. freight trains can produce only relatively small accelerations and decelerations. ( a ) what is the final velocity of a freight train that accelerates at a rate of for 8. 00 min, starting with an initial velocity of 4. 00 m / s? ( b ) if the train can slow down at a rate of, how long will it take to come to a stop from this velocity? ( c ) how far will it travel in each case? 30. a fireworks shell is accelerated from rest to a velocity of 65. 0 m / s over a distance of 0. 250 m. ( a ) how long did the acceleration last? ( b ) calculate the acceleration. 31. a swan on a lake gets airborne by flapping its wings and running on top of the water. ( a ) if the swan must reach a velocity of 6. 00 m / s to take off and it accelerates from rest at an average rate of, how far will it travel before becoming airborne? ( b ) how long does this take? 32. professional application : a woodpecker ’ s brain is specially protected from large decelerations by tendon - like attachments inside the skull. while pecking on a tree, the woodpecker ’ s head comes to a stop from an initial velocity of 0. 600 m / s in a distance of only 2. 00 mm. ( a ) find the acceleration in and in multiples of. ( b ) calculate the stopping time. ( c ) the tendons cradling the brain stretch, making its stopping distance 4. 50 mm ( greater than the head and, hence, less deceleration of the brain ). what is the brain ’ s deceleration, expressed in multiples of? 94 2 • problems & exercises access for free at openstax. org 33. an unwary football player collides with a padded goalpost while running at a velocity of 7. 50 m / s and comes to a full stop after compressing the
the relative velocity ( also or ) is the velocity of an object or observer b in the rest frame of another object or observer a. classical mechanics in one dimension ( non - relativistic ) we begin with relative motion in the classical, ( or non - relativistic, or the newtonian approximation ) that all speeds are much less than the speed of light. this limit is associated with the galilean transformation. the figure shows a man on top of a train, at the back edge. at 1 : 00 pm he begins to walk forward at a walking speed of 10 km / h ( kilometers per hour ). the train is moving at 40 km / h. the figure depicts the man and train at two different times : first, when the journey began, and also one hour later at 2 : 00 pm. the figure suggests that the man is 50 km from the starting point after having traveled ( by walking and by train ) for one hour. this, by definition, is 50 km / h, which suggests that the prescription for calculating relative velocity in this fashion is to add the two velocities. the diagram displays clocks and rulers to remind the reader that while the logic behind this calculation seem flawless, it makes false assumptions about how clocks and rulers behave. ( see the train - and - platform thought experiment. ) to recognize that this classical model of relative motion violates special relativity, we generalize the example into an equation : where : is the velocity of the man relative to earth, is the velocity of the man relative to the train, is the velocity of the train relative to earth. fully legitimate expressions for " the velocity of a relative to b " include " the velocity of a with respect to b " and " the velocity of a in the coordinate system where b is always at rest ". the violation of special relativity occurs because this equation for relative velocity falsely predicts that different observers will measure different speeds when observing the motion of light. in two dimensions ( non - relativistic ) the figure shows two objects a and b moving at constant velocity. the equations of motion are : where the subscript i refers to the initial displacement ( at time t equal to zero ). the difference between
from karlovac to rijeka. the line's complete length will be 269 km, or 61 km shorter than the current line. construction on the new line was announced to start in the autumn of 2008 and was to be completed before the end of 2013. the onset of the economic downturn of the late 2000s has put this project on indefinite hold. the speeds of this line will enable a trip from rijeka to zagreb in an hour, as opposed to the current four hours. the initial route plan is described on this link : initial proposed solution. the line is conceived primarily to better connect the port of rijeka to the network of european transport, as the port serves many regions and locales across central europe. rolling stock croatian speed record the maximum permitted speed of trains on the tracks in croatia is 160 km / h. as far as the infrastructure is concerned, the specified speed can currently be achieved on part of the international corridor novska - tovarnik, more precisely on the relatively short sections novska - okucani and vinkovci - tovarnik. the current rail speed record in croatia is 185 km / h. the record was set on the line between novska and nova gradiska. the run was performed in order to demonstrate the possibilities offered by the rade koncar built jz 442 electric locomotive class ( now hz1142 train class ). technical information maximum operating speed : 160 km / h train protection system used ( where applicable ) : indusi ( a stripped down derivative of german system ) signaling system : at sight only, automatic block protection ( on mainlines and where applicable ) see also transport in croatia references external links map with all railway stations forum about croatian railways - also with an english subforum map croatian stock list croatian withdrawn stock list hz stock photo gallery transport companies of croatia rail transport in croatia railway companies established in 1991 government - owned railway companies government - owned companies of croatia companies based in zagreb croatian companies established in 1991
is 130 m long, when does the end of the train leave the station? ( d ) what is the velocity of the end of the train as it leaves? 37. dragsters can actually reach a top speed of 145 m / s in only 4. 45 s — considerably less time than given in example 2. 10 and example 2. 11. ( a ) calculate the average acceleration for such a dragster. ( b ) find the final velocity of this dragster starting from rest and accelerating at the rate found in ( a ) for 402 m ( a quarter mile ) without using any information on time. ( c ) why is the final velocity greater than that used to find the average acceleration? hint : consider whether the assumption of constant acceleration is valid for a dragster. if not, discuss whether the acceleration would be greater at the beginning or end of the run and what effect that would have on the final velocity. 38. a bicycle racer sprints at the end of a race to clinch a victory. the racer has an initial velocity of
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
A train running at the speed of 58 km/hr crosses a pole in 9 sec. What is the length of the train?
A. A)145 m
B. B)786 m
C. C)566 m
D. D)546 m
Answer: | [
"A)145 m",
"B)786 m",
"C)566 m",
"D)546 m"
] | A | Speed = 58 * 5/18 = 145/9 m/sec
Length of the train = speed * time = 145/9 * 9
= 145 m
Answer: A |
openbookqa_1468 | openbookqa | <ctx>
. due to a water depth greater than 1. 5m, emergent macrophytes are usually restricted to the margins but submerged plants may occur in the open water zone. fringing vegetation can be useful in reducing bank erosion. ponds are normally not used as stand - alone wsud measure but are often combined with sediment basins or constructed wetlands as pretreatments. in many cases, however, lakes and ponds have been designed as aesthetic features but suffer from poor health which can be caused by lack of appropriate inflows sustaining lake water levels, the poor water quality of inflows and high organic carbon loads, infrequent flushing of the lake ( too long residence time ), and / or inappropriate mixing ( stratification ) leading to low levels of dissolved oxygen. bluegreen algae caused by poor water quality and high nutrient levels can be a major threat to the health of lakes. to ensure the long - term sustainability of lakes and ponds, key issues that should be considered in their design include catchment hydrology and water level, and layout of the pond / lake ( oriented to dominant winds to facilitate mixing. hydraulic structures ( inlet and outlet zones ) should be designed to ensure adequate pre - treatment and prevent large nutrient'spikes'landscape design, using appropriate plant species and planting density are also necessary. high costs of the planned pond / lake area and of vegetation establishment as well as frequent maintenance requirements can be deterrents to use of ponds and lakes as wsud measures. the maintenance of pond and lake systems is important to minimize the risk of poor health. the inlet zone usually requires weed, plant, debris, and litter removal with occasional replanting. in some cases, an artificial turn over of the lake might be necessary. water re - use rainwater tanks rainwater tanks ( see also rainwater harvesting ) are designed to conserve potable water by harvesting rain and stormwater to partially meet domestic water demands ( e. g. during drought periods ). in addition, rainwater tanks can reduce stormwater runoff volumes and stormwater pollutants from reaching downstream waterways. they can be used effectively in domestic households as a potential wsud element. rain and stormwater from rooftops of buildings can be collected
waterways in general is known as surface hydrology. lakes a lake ( from latin lacus ) is a terrain feature, a body of water that is localized to the bottom of basin. a body of water is considered a lake when it is inland, is not part of an ocean, and is larger and deeper than a pond. natural lakes on earth are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas with ongoing or recent glaciation. other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers. in some parts of the world, there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last ice age. all lakes are temporary over geologic time scales, as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them. ponds a pond is a body of standing water, either natural or human - made, that is usually smaller than a lake. a wide variety of human - made bodies of water are classified as ponds, including water gardens designed for aesthetic ornamentation, fish ponds designed for commercial fish breeding, and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy. ponds and lakes are distinguished from streams by their current speed. while currents in streams are easily observed, ponds and lakes possess thermally driven micro - currents and moderate wind - driven currents. these features distinguish a pond from many other aquatic terrain features, such as stream pools and tide pools. human impact on water humans impact the water in different ways such as modifying rivers ( through dams and stream channelization ), urbanization, and deforestation. these impact lake levels, groundwater conditions, water pollution, thermal pollution, and marine pollution. humans modify rivers by using direct channel manipulation. we build dams and reservoirs and manipulate the direction of the rivers and water path. dams can usefully create reservoirs and hydroelectric power. however, reservoirs and dams may negatively impact the environment and wildlife. dams stop fish migration and the movement of organisms downstream. urbanization affects the environment because of deforestation and changing lake levels, groundwater conditions, etc. deforestation and urbanization go hand in hand. deforestation may cause flooding, declining stream flow, and changes in riverside vegetation. the changing vegetation occurs because when trees cannot get adequate water they start to deter
. there have been occurrences of mass fish mortality. immersion of ganesha idols that are made with specific types of material has impacted water quality. some types of painted idol immersion has had significant effects on aquatic life. over 150, 000 idols were submerged in 2022. measures to minimize pollution during the festival include use of earthen idols and smaller disconnected artificial tanks. integrated wetlands, constructed wetlands, and floating wetlands have been utilized to improve water quality. the integrated wetland of jakkur lake consists of partially treating sewage inflow before entry into a constructed wetland adjacent to the main lake body. a 10 mld treatment plant utilizes uasb technology and extended aeration. this is followed by an constructed wetland spread over about 11 acres consisting of shallow followed by deeper settling basins with a variety of aquatic plants. the constructed wetland at agara lake is spread over 9 acres. floating wetlands have been used at multiple lakes with varying success, notably hebbagodi lake. some lakes have wastewater treatment plants with direct inflow into the main lake area. urban flooding has been considered as a disaster by national disaster management authority following major flooding events in cities in india in the 2000s including bangalore. while there are similarities between cities in the causes of the floods, bangalore has some unique exacerbating features with regard to its lake ecosystem. ecology birds the birdwatchers'field club of bangalore released their first list of birds in bangalore in the 1970s. the revised list of 1994 also contains recorded sightings such as that of little grebe at ulsoor tank in 1930 and data from the waterfowl census conducted since 1987. the 1994 list records over 220 regularly sighted birds. 109 birds are wetland birds and additional 30 species are favoured by the presence of water. a study conducted by the same group in 1989 observed economic activities in and around the tanks which affected their ecology. out of 97 tanks that were observed in a radius of 30 km, unregulated mudlifting and brickmaking were practiced in a large number of the lakes. micro - habitats for aquatic birds in bangalore can be grouped into roughly five categories : open water birds, waders and shoreline birds, meadow and grassland birds, birds of reedbeds and other vegetation, birds of open airspace
deliver wood logs and wood debris that exert an influence over channel morphology, runoff velocity and on the spatial distribution of ecological habitats. giws can be the source of headwater streams. giws can provide the major proportion of stream's water in dry period. however, the process of water transfer from a giws to a stream is depending on antecedent moisture conditions prevailing in the giws. under saturated conditions, giws will supply water to other downstream water bodies, including streams. there are abundant and diverse microbial populations in giws. low ph, low salinity and presence of organic matter create favorable conditions for the development of sulfate - reducing bacteria. these bacteria are responsible for the production of methylmercury. giws are thus source of methylmercury, and other dissolved organic compounds and acids that can be transported downstream by temporary surface flows. despite the fact the methylmercury is a particularly toxic pollutant, dissolved organic matter is a major source of energy for aquatic organisms located downstream in the river network. sink function sink function refers to the overall net import of energy and materials from the stream to the riparian environment or outside the stream network. in natural settings, many exchanges of water occur between headwater streams and their riparian environments. bed friction and friction with the riparian surface during overbank flows result in a net loss of flow energy, especially in mountainous streams with coarse bed loads. it results in net decrease of the erosion capacity of the stream in its downstream section. in the riparian zone, friction and shallow water depth contributes to decreases in flow velocity and to the deposition of suspended sediments. meanwhile, a net loss of water from the flooded riparian environment to the atmosphere can occur through evaporation or by transpiration of vegetation. intake of nitrogen by bacteria, as runoff water charged with nutrient penetrates the hyporheic zone, is another demonstration of headwater stream's sink function. knight et al. ( 2010 ) determined that riverine wetlands acting as buffer are the most effective tool to mitigate the effect of non - point sources of pollution to streams. giws, like riverine wetlands, can intercept nutrients and other pollutants from point - sources (
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
A pond that has gallons of water dumped in it daily will
A. dry
B. grow
C. drain
D. shrink
Answer: | [
"dry",
"grow",
"drain",
"shrink"
] | B | |
aquarat_36344 | aquarat | <ctx>
the fuel economy in aircraft is the measure of the transport energy efficiency of aircraft. efficiency is increased with better aerodynamics and by reducing weight, and with improved engine brake - specific fuel consumption and propulsive efficiency or thrust - specific fuel consumption. endurance and range can be maximized with the optimum airspeed, and economy is better at optimum altitudes, usually higher. an airline efficiency depends on its fleet fuel burn, seating density, air cargo and passenger load factor, while operational procedures like maintenance and routing can save fuel. average fuel burn of new aircraft fell 45 % from 1968 to 2014, a compounded annual reduction 1. 3 % with a variable reduction rate. in 2018, co₂ emissions totalled 747 million tonnes for passenger transport, for 8. 5 trillion revenue passenger kilometres ( rpk ), giving an average of 88 grams co₂ per rpk ( this represents g of fuel per kilometre, or a fuel consumption per passenger, on average. the worst - performing flights are short trips of from 500 to 1500 kilometres because the fuel used for takeoff is relatively large compared to the amount expended in the cruise segment, and because less fuel - efficient regional jets are typically used on shorter flights. new technology can reduce engine fuel consumption, like higher pressure and bypass ratios, geared turbofans, open rotors, hybrid electric or fully electric propulsion ; and airframe efficiency with retrofits, better materials and systems and advanced aerodynamics. flight efficiency theory a powered aircraft counters its weight through aerodynamic lift and counters its aerodynamic drag with thrust. the aircraft's maximum range is determined by the level of efficiency with which thrust can be applied to overcome the aerodynamic drag. aerodynamics a subfield of fluid dynamics, aerodynamics studies the physics of a body moving through the air. as lift and drag are functions of air speed, their relationships are major determinants of an aircraft's design efficiency. aircraft efficiency is augmented by maximizing lift - to - drag ratio, which is attained by minimizing parasitic drag and lift - generated induced drag, the two components of aerodynamic drag. as parasitic drag increases and induced drag decreases with speed, there is an optimum speed where the sum of both is minimal ; this is the best glide
regional jet, which was delayed by four years and ended up with empty weight issues. program development an existing aircraft program can be developed for performance and economy gains by stretching the fuselage, increasing the mtow, enhancing the aerodynamics, installing new engines, new wings or new avionics. for a 9, 100 nmi long range at mach 0. 8 / fl360, a 10 % lower tsfc saves 13 % of fuel, a 10 % l / d increase saves 12 %, a 10 % lower oew saves 6 % and all combined saves 28 %. re - engine fuselage stretch see also index of aviation articles aerospace engineering aircraft manufacturer iron bird ( aviation ) references external links re - engine aerospace engineering aerodynamics design
. 22 km / kg fuel or l / 100 km in a monnett sonerai single - seat racer for 500 - 1, 000 kg mtow airplanes ( c - 1b class ) 9. 19 km / kg or l / 100 km in a four - seat diesel - powered cessna 182 for 1, 000 - 1, 750 kg mtow airplanes ( c - 1c class ) ( l / 100 km per seat ). 3. 08 km / kg or l / 100 km in a cirrus sf50 seven - seat jet for 1. 75 - 3 t mtow airplanes ( c - 1d class ) ( l / 100 km per seat ). a four - seat dyn'aero mcr4s powered by a rotax 914 consumes l / 100 km at 264 km / h ( l / 100 km per seat ). business aircraft future nasa and boeing flight - tested a blended wing body ( bwb ) x - 48b demonstrator from august 2012 to april 2013. this design provides greater fuel efficiency, since the whole craft produces lift, not just the wings. the bwb concept offers advantages in structural, aerodynamic and operating efficiencies over today's more - conventional fuselage - and - wing designs. these features translate into greater range, fuel economy, reliability and life - cycle savings, as well as lower manufacturing costs. nasa has created a cruise efficient stol ( cestol ) concept. fraunhofer institute for manufacturing engineering and applied materials research ( ifam ) have researched a sharkskin - imitating paint that would reduce drag through a riblet effect. aviation is a major potential application for new technologies such as aluminium metal foam and nanotechnology. the international air transport association ( iata ) technology roadmap envisions improvements in aircraft configuration and aerodynamics. it projects the following reductions in engine fuel consumption, compared to baseline aircraft in service in 2015 : 10 - 15 % from higher pressure and bypass ratios, lighter materials, implemented in 2010 – 2019 20 - 25 % from high pressure core + ultra - high by - pass ratio geared turbofan, from ~ 2020 - 25 30 % from open rotors, from ~ 2030 40 - 80 %
per passenger - mile. between 1971 and 1998 the fleet - average annual improvement per available seat - kilometre was estimated at 2. 4 %. concorde the supersonic transport managed about 17 passenger - miles to the imperial gallon ; similar to a business jet, but much worse than a subsonic turbofan aircraft. airbus puts the fuel rate consumption of their a380 at less than 3 l / 100 km per passenger ( 78 passenger - miles per us gallon ). the mass of an aircraft can be reduced by using light - weight materials such as titanium, carbon fibre and other composite plastics. expensive materials may be used, if the reduction of mass justifies the price of materials through improved fuel efficiency. the improvements achieved in fuel efficiency by mass reduction, reduces the amount of fuel that needs to be carried. this further reduces the mass of the aircraft and therefore enables further gains in fuel efficiency. for example, the airbus a380 design includes multiple light - weight materials. airbus has showcased wingtip devices ( sharklets or winglets ) that can achieve 3. 5 percent reduction in fuel consumption. there are wingtip devices on the airbus a380. further developed minix winglets have been said to offer 6 percent reduction in fuel consumption. winglets at the tip of an aircraft wing smooth out the wing - tip vortex ( reducing the aircraft's wing drag ) and can be retrofitted to any airplane. nasa and boeing are conducting tests on a " blended wing " aircraft. this design allows for greater fuel efficiency since the whole craft produces lift, not just the wings. the blended wing body ( bwb ) concept offers advantages in structural, aerodynamic and operating efficiencies over today's more conventional fuselage - and - wing designs. these features translate into greater range, fuel economy, reliability and life cycle savings, as well as lower manufacturing costs. nasa has created a cruise efficient stol ( cestol ) concept. fraunhofer institute for manufacturing engineering and applied materials research ( ifam ) have researched a shark skin imitating paint that would reduce drag through a riblet effect. aircraft are a major potential application for new technologies such as aluminium metal foam and nanotechnology such as the shark skin imitating paint
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
The pilot of a small aircraft with a 40-gallon fuel tank wants to fly to Cleveland, which is 520 miles away. The pilot recognizes that the current engine, which can fly only 8 miles per gallon, will not get him there. By how many miles per gallon must the aircraft’s fuel efficiency be improved to make the flight to Cleveland possible?
A. A)5
B. B)4
C. C)12
D. D)40
Answer: | [
"A)5",
"B)4",
"C)12",
"D)40"
] | A | Actual miles/gallon is = 520/40 = 13 miles/gallon.
Current engine miles/gallon is 8 miles/gallon.
Additional 5 miles/gallon is required to match the actual mileage.
IMO option A. |
openbookqa_2597 | openbookqa | <ctx>
rubber elasticity refers to a property of crosslinked rubber : it can be stretched by up to a factor of 10 from its original length and, when released, returns very nearly to its original length. this can be repeated many times with no apparent degradation to the rubber. rubber is a member of a larger class of materials called elastomers and it is difficult to overestimate their economic and technological importance. elastomers have played a key role in the development of new technologies in the 20th century and make a substantial contribution to the global economy. rubber elasticity is produced by several complex molecular processes and its explanation requires a knowledge of advanced mathematics, chemistry and statistical physics, particularly the concept of entropy. entropy may be thought of as a measure of the thermal energy that is stored in a molecule. common rubbers, such as polybutadiene and polyisoprene ( also called natural rubber ), are produced by a process called polymerization. very long molecules ( polymers ) are built up sequentially by adding short molecular backbone units through chemical reactions. a rubber polymer follows a random, zigzag path in three dimensions, intermingling with many other rubber molecules. an elastomer is created by the addition of a few percent of a cross linking molecule such as sulfur. when heated, the crosslinking molecule causes a reaction that chemically joins ( bonds ) two of the rubber molecules together at some point ( a crosslink ). because the rubber molecules are so long, each one participates in many crosslinks with many other rubber molecules forming a continuous molecular network. as a rubber band is stretched, some of the network chains are forced to become straight and this causes a decrease in their entropy. it is this decrease in entropy that gives rise to the elastic force in the network chains. history following its introduction to europe from the new world in the late 15th century, natural rubber ( polyisoprene ) was regarded mostly as a fascinating curiosity. its most useful application was its ability to erase pencil marks on paper by rubbing, hence its name. one of its most peculiar properties is a slight ( but detectable ) increase in temperature that occurs when a sample of rubber is stretched. if it is
doors. during operation, aircraft go through large temperature fluctuations in a relatively short period of time ; from the ambient temperatures when on the ground in hot countries to sub - zero temperatures when flying at high altitude. silicone rubber can be molded with tight tolerances ensuring gaskets form airtight seals both on the ground and in the air, where atmospheric pressure decreases. silicone rubber's resistance to heat corrosion enables it to be used for gaskets in aircraft engines where it will outlast other types of rubber, both improving aircraft safety and reducing maintenance costs. the silicone acts to seal instrument panels and other electrical systems in the cockpit, protecting printed circuit boards from the risks of extreme altitude such as moisture and extremely low temperature. silicone can be used as a sheath to protect wires and electrical components from any dust or ice that may creep into a plane's inner workings. as the nature of air travel results in much noise and vibration, powerful engines, landings, and high speeds all need to be considered to ensure passenger comfort and safe operation of the aircraft. as silicone rubber has exceptional noise reduction and anti - vibration properties, it can be formed into small components and fitted into small gaps ensuring all equipment can be protected from unwanted vibration such as overhead lockers, vent ducts, hatches, entertainment system seals, and led lighting systems. solid propellant polydimethylsiloxane ( pdms ) based binders along with ammonium perchlorate ( nh4clo4 ) are used as fast burning solid propellants in rockets. building construction the strength and reliability of silicone rubber are widely acknowledged in the construction industry. one - part silicone sealants and caulks are in common use to seal gaps, joints and crevices in buildings. one - part silicones cure by absorbing atmospheric moisture, which simplifies installation. in plumbing, silicone grease is typically applied to o - rings in brass taps and valves, preventing lime from sticking to the metal. structural silicone has also been used in curtain wall building facades since 1974 when the art institute of chicago became the first building to receive exterior glass fixed only with the material. silicone membranes have been used to cover and restore industrial roofs
water and no longer structurally sound. the united states environmental protection agency in conjunction with materials and electrochemical research corporation tested a cement - polymer composite material consisting of crumb rubber made from recycled rubber tires and cement. it was found that 20 % crumb rubber can be added to the cement mixture without affecting the appearance of the cement. this new material was tested for strength and durability using american society for testing and materials ( astm international ) standards. see also structural analysis composite material reinforced concrete framing ( construction ) construction references civil engineering construction building materials prestressed concrete construction
silicone rubber keypads ( also known as elastomeric keypads ) are used extensively in both consumer and industrial electronic products as a low cost and reliable switching solution. technology the technology uses the compression molding properties of silicone rubber to create angled webbing around a switch center. on depression of the switch, the webbing uniformly deforms to produce a tactile response. when pressure is removed from the switch, the webbing returns to its neutral position with positive feedback. to make an electronic switch, a carbon or gold pill is placed on the base of the switch center which contacts onto a printed circuit board when the web has been deformed. alternately, instead of using a conductive pill, the switch itself can be made of a conductive elastomer such as rubber with a mixture of carbon. it is possible to vary the tactile response and travel of a key by changing the webbing design and / or the shore hardness of the silicone base material. unusual key shapes can easily be accommodated as can key travel up to three millimeters. tactile forces can be as high as 500 g depending on key size and shape. the snap ratio of a keypad determines the tactile feel experienced by the user. the recommended snap ratio for designers to maintain is 40 % - 60 % ; if dropped below 40 % the keys will lose tactile feel but have an increased life. loss of tactile feel means the user will not receive a ‘ click ’ feedback during actuation. snap ratio is calculated as the difference between the actuation force and the contact force of a switch divided by the actuation force. the actuation force is the force required to collapse the membrane of a rubber switch, and the contact force is the force required to maintain rubber - switch contact closure with a printed circuit board. mathematically, this can be represented by : where f1 is the actuation force, and f2 is the contact force. by adding pigments to the natural silicone rubber, it is possible to create keys in various colors which can be molded together ( flowing colors ) during the compression process to form a multi key keypad. individual legends can be printed on to a
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Rubber will keep
A. heat from spreading
B. Balls from bouncing
C. Wheels from rolling
D. pucks from sliding.
Answer: | [
"heat from spreading",
"Balls from bouncing",
"Wheels from rolling",
"pucks from sliding."
] | A | |
medmcqa_3714 | medmcqa | <ctx>
to expel the carbon dioxide - rich air. there are three major types of alveolar cell. two types are pneumocytes or pneumonocytes known as type i and type ii cells found in the alveolar wall, and a large phagocytic cell known as an alveolar macrophage that moves about in the lumens of the alveoli, and in the connective tissue between them. type i cells, also called type i pneumocytes, or type i alveolar cells, are squamous, thin and flat and form the structure of the alveoli. type ii cells, also called type ii pneumocytes or type ii alveolar cells, release pulmonary surfactant to lower surface tension, and can also differentiate to replace damaged type i cells. development development of the earliest structures that will contain alveoli begins on day 22 and is divided into five stages : embryonic, pseudoglandular, canalicular, saccular, and alveolar stage. the alveolar stage begins approximately 36 weeks into development. immature alveoli appear as bulges from the sacculi which invade the primary septa. as the sacculi develop, the protrusions in the primary septa become larger ; new septations are longer and thinner and are known as secondary septa. secondary septa are responsible for the final division of the sacculi into alveoli. majority of alveolar division occurs within the first 6 months but continue to develop until 3 years of age. to create a thinner diffusion barrier, the double - layer capillary network fuse into one network, each one closely associated with two alveoli as they develop. in the first three years of life, the enlargement of lungs is a consequence of the increasing number of alveoli ; after this point, both the number and size of alveoli increases until the development of lungs finishes at approximately 8 years of age. function type i cells type i cells are the larger of the two cell types ; they are thin, flat epithelial lining cells ( membranous pneumocytes ), that form the structure of the al
11. 50 468 11 • fluid statics access for free at openstax. org figure 11. 28 bronchial tubes in the lungs branch into ever - smaller structures, finally ending in alveoli. the alveoli act like tiny bubbles. the surface tension of their mucous lining aids in exhalation and can prevent inhalation if too great. the tension in the walls of the alveoli results from the membrane tissue and a liquid on the walls of the alveoli containing a long lipoprotein that acts as a surfactant ( a surface - tension reducing substance ). the need for the surfactant results from the tendency of small alveoli to collapse and the air to fill into the larger alveoli making them even larger ( as demonstrated in figure 11. 27 ). during inhalation, the lipoprotein molecules are pulled apart and the wall tension increases as the radius increases ( increased surface tension ). during exhalation, the molecules slide back together and the surface tension decreases, helping to prevent a collapse of the alveoli. the surfactant therefore serves to change the wall tension so that small alveoli don ’ t collapse and large alveoli are prevented from expanding too much. this tension change is a unique property of these surfactants, and is not shared by detergents ( which simply lower surface tension ). ( see figure 11. 29. ) figure 11. 29 surface tension as a function of surface area. the surface tension for lung surfactant decreases with decreasing area. this ensures that small alveoli don ’ t collapse and large alveoli are not able to over expand. if water gets into the lungs, the surface tension is too great and you cannot inhale. this is a severe problem in resuscitating drowning victims. a similar problem occurs in newborn infants who are born without this surfactant — their lungs are very difficult to inflate. this condition is known as hyaline membrane disease and is a leading cause of death for infants, particularly in premature births. some success has been achieved in treating hyaline membrane disease by spraying a surfactant into the infant ’ s breathing
##nchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli. new alveoli continue to form until the age of eight years. a typical pair of human lungs contains about 480 million alveoli, providing a total surface area for gas exchange of between 70 and 80 square metres. each alveolus is wrapped in a fine mesh of capillaries covering about 70 % of its area. the diameter of an alveolus is between 200 and 500 μm. microanatomy an alveolus consists of an epithelial layer of simple squamous epithelium ( very thin, flattened cells ), and an extracellular matrix surrounded by capillaries. the epithelial lining is part of the alveolar membrane, also known as the respiratory membrane, that allows the exchange of gases. the membrane has several layers – a layer of alveolar lining fluid that contains surfactant, the epithelial layer and its basement membrane ; a thin interstitial space between the epithelial lining and the capillary membrane ; a capillary basement membrane that often fuses with the alveolar basement membrane, and the capillary endothelial membrane. the whole membrane however is only between 0. 2 μm at its thinnest part and 0. 6 μm at its thickest. in the alveolar walls there are interconnecting air passages between the alveoli known as the pores of kohn. the alveolar septum that separates the alveoli in the alveolar sac contains some collagen fibers and elastic fibers. the septa also house the enmeshed capillary network that surrounds each alveolus. the elastic fibres allow the alveoli to stretch when they fill with air during inhalation. they then spring back during exhalation in order to expel the carbon dioxide - rich air. there are three major types of alveolar cell. two types are pneumocytes or pneumonocytes known as type i and type ii cells found in the alveolar wall, and a large phagocytic cell known as
##tyl trimethylammonium bromide ( ctab ). detergents are key reagents to extract protein by lysis of the cells and tissues : they disorganize the membrane's lipid bilayer ( sds, triton x - 100, x - 114, chaps, doc, and np - 40 ), and solubilize proteins. milder detergents such as octyl thioglucoside, octyl glucoside or dodecyl maltoside are used to solubilize membrane proteins such as enzymes and receptors without denaturing them. non - solubilized material is harvested by centrifugation or other means. for electrophoresis, for example, proteins are classically treated with sds to denature the native tertiary and quaternary structures, allowing the separation of proteins according to their molecular weight. detergents have also been used to decellularise organs. this process maintains a matrix of proteins that preserves the structure of the organ and often the microvascular network. the process has been successfully used to prepare organs such as the liver and heart for transplant in rats. pulmonary surfactants are also naturally secreted by type ii cells of the lung alveoli in mammals. quantum dot preparation surfactants are used with quantum dots in order to manipulate their growth, assembly, and electrical properties, in addition to mediating reactions on their surfaces. research is ongoing in how surfactants arrange themselves on the surface of the quantum dots. surfactants in droplet - based microfluidics surfactants play an important role in droplet - based microfluidics in the stabilization of the droplets, and the prevention of the fusion of droplets during incubation. heterogeneous catalysis janus - type material is used as a surfactant - like heterogeneous catalyst for the synthesis of adipic acid. classification the " tails " of most surfactants are fairly similar, consisting of a hydrocarbon chain, which can be branched, linear, or aromatic. fluorosurfactants have fluorocarbon chains. siloxane surfactants have
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Which of the following type of cell is concerned with the production of surfactant?
A. Type I Pneumocytes
B. Type II Pneumocytes
C. Alveolar macrophages
D. Clara cells
Answer: | [
"Type I Pneumocytes",
"Type II Pneumocytes",
"Alveolar macrophages",
"Clara cells"
] | B | Pulmonary surfactant composed of myelin and lecithin is mainly secreted continuously by Type II pneumocyte beginning from 20th week of gestation. Also Know: Surfactant has both lipid (90%) and protein (10%) component. About half of the lipids are dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine and the remaining are phosphatidylglycerol, cholesterol and other lipids. Half of the proteins are apoproteins and other half is composed of proteins normally found in blood plasma. Function of surfactant: The surfactant greatly reduces the surface tension allowing easier expansion and collapse of alveoli during during respiration and the resulting changes in pressure. It also helps the alveoli to expand and shrink at the same rate thereby reducing the chance for isolated overexpansion and total collapse of alveolar sacs. Ref: The Big Picture: Medical Biochemistry by Lee W. Janson, chapter 17 |
arc_easy_1892 | arc_easy | <ctx>
14. 6 • convection 601 example 14. 8 calculate the flow of mass during convection : sweat - heat transfer away from the body the average person produces heat at the rate of about 120 w when at rest. at what rate must water evaporate from the body to get rid of all this energy? ( this evaporation might occur when a person is sitting in the shade and surrounding temperatures are the same as skin temperature, eliminating heat transfer by other methods. ) strategy energy is needed for a phase change ( ). thus, the energy loss per unit time is we divide both sides of the equation by to find that the mass evaporated per unit time is solution ( 1 ) insert the value of the latent heat from table 14. 2,. this yields discussion evaporating about 3 g / min seems reasonable. this would be about 180 g ( about 7 oz ) per hour. if the air is very dry, the sweat may evaporate without even being noticed. a significant amount of evaporation also takes place in the lungs and breathing passages. another important example of the combination of phase change and convection occurs when water evaporates from the oceans. heat is removed from the ocean when water evaporates. if the water vapor condenses in liquid droplets as clouds form, heat is released in the atmosphere. thus, there is an overall transfer of heat from the ocean to the atmosphere. this process is the driving power behind thunderheads, those great cumulus clouds that rise as much as 20. 0 km into the stratosphere. water vapor carried in by convection condenses, releasing tremendous amounts of energy. this energy causes the air to expand and rise, where it is colder. more condensation occurs in these colder regions, which in turn drives the cloud even higher. such a mechanism is called positive feedback, since the process reinforces and accelerates itself. these systems sometimes produce violent storms, with lightning and hail, and constitute the mechanism driving hurricanes. 14. 40 14. 41
its surroundings. food industry and synthetic chemistry evaporators are often used to concentrate a solution. one example is the climbing / falling film plate evaporator, which is used to make condensed milk. similarly, reduction ( cooking ) is a process of evaporating liquids from a solution to produce a " reduced " food product, such as wine reduction. evaporation is the main process behind distillation, which is used to concentrate alcohol, isolate liquid chemical products, or recover solvents in chemical reactions. the fragrance and essential oil industry uses distillation to purify compounds. each application uses specialized devices. chemical engineering in the case of desalination of seawater or in zero liquid discharge plants, the reverse purpose applies ; evaporation removes the desirable drinking water from the undesired solute / product, salt. chemical engineering uses evaporation in many processes. for example, the multiple - effect evaporator is used in kraft pulping, the process of producing wood pulp from wood. marine large ships usually carry evaporating plants to produce fresh water, reducing their reliance on shore - based supplies. steamships must produce high - quality distillate to maintain boiler - water levels. diesel - engine ships often utilize waste heat as an energy source for producing fresh water. in this system, the engine - cooling water is passed through a heat exchange, where it is cooled by concentrated seawater. because the cooling water, which is chemically treated fresh water, is at a temperature of, it would not be possible to flash off any water vapor unless the pressure in the heat exchanger vessel is dropped. a brine - air ejector venturi pump is then used to create a vacuum inside the vessel, achieving partial evaporation. the vapor then passes through a demister before reaching the condenser section. seawater is pumped through the condenser section to cool the vapor sufficiently for condensation. the distillate gathers in a tray, from where it is pumped to the storage tanks. a salinometer monitors salt content and diverts the flow of distillate from the storage tanks if the salt content exceeds the alarm limit. sterilization is carried out
drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water or another solvent by evaporation from a solid, semi - solid or liquid. this process is often used as a final production step before selling or packaging products. to be considered " dried ", the final product must be solid, in the form of a continuous sheet ( e. g., paper ), long pieces ( e. g., wood ), particles ( e. g., cereal grains or corn flakes ) or powder ( e. g., sand, salt, washing powder, milk powder ). a source of heat and an agent to remove the vapor produced by the process are often involved. in bioproducts like food, grains, and pharmaceuticals like vaccines, the solvent to be removed is almost invariably water. desiccation may be synonymous with drying or considered an extreme form of drying. in the most common case, a gas stream, e. g., air, applies the heat by convection and carries away the vapor as humidity. other possibilities are vacuum drying, where heat is supplied by conduction or radiation ( or microwaves ), while the vapor thus produced is removed by the vacuum system. another indirect technique is drum drying ( used, for instance, for manufacturing potato flakes ), where a heated surface is used to provide the energy, and aspirators draw the vapor outside the room. in contrast, the mechanical extraction of the solvent, e. g., water, by filtration or centrifugation, is not considered " drying " but rather " draining ". drying mechanism in some products having a relatively high initial moisture content, an initial linear reduction of the average product moisture content as a function of time may be observed for a limited time, often known as a " constant drying rate period ". usually, in this period, it is surface moisture outside individual particles that is being removed. the drying rate during this period is mostly dependent on the rate of heat transfer to the material being dried. therefore, the maximum achievable drying rate is considered to be heat - transfer limited. if drying is continued, the slope of the curve, the drying rate, becomes less steep ( falling rate period
a part of that mass evaporated under the sun's action, thus causing the winds and even the rotation of the celestial bodies, which he believed were attracted to places where water is more abundant. he explained rain as a product of the humidity pumped up from earth by the sun. for him, the earth was slowly drying up and water only remained in the deepest regions, which someday would go dry as well. according to aristotle's meteorology ( ii, 3 ), democritus also shared this opinion. origin of mankind anaximander speculated about the beginnings and origin of animal life, and that humans came from other animals in waters. according to his evolutionary theory, animals sprang out of the sea long ago, born trapped in a spiny bark, but as they got older, the bark would dry up and animals would be able to break it. as the early humidity evaporated, dry land emerged and, in time, humankind had to adapt. the 3rd century roman writer censorinus reports : anaximander put forward the idea that humans had to spend part of this transition inside the mouths of big fish to protect themselves from the earth's climate until they could come out in open air and lose their scales. he thought that, considering humans'extended infancy, we could not have survived in the primeval world in the same manner we do presently. other accomplishments cartography both strabo and agathemerus ( later greek geographers ) claim that, according to the geographer eratosthenes, anaximander was the first to publish a map of the world. the map probably inspired the greek historian hecataeus of miletus to draw a more accurate version. strabo viewed both as the first geographers after homer. maps were produced in ancient times, also notably in egypt, lydia, the middle east, and babylon. only some small examples survived until today. the unique example of a world map comes from the late babylonian map of the world later than 9th century bc but is based probably on a much older map. these maps indicated directions, roads, towns, borders, and geological features. anaximander's innovation was to represent the
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The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Which is the best example of evaporation?
A. raindrops freezing
B. an ice cube melting
C. a puddle drying in the sun
D. a sponge soaking up water
Answer: | [
"raindrops freezing",
"an ice cube melting",
"a puddle drying in the sun",
"a sponge soaking up water"
] | C | |
qasc_4711 | qasc | <ctx>
, rays passing through a vertical region of the eye may focus closer than rays passing through a horizontal region, resulting in the image appearing elongated. this is mostly due to irregularities in the shape of the cornea but can 26. 11
in optics, a ray is an idealized geometrical model of light or other electromagnetic radiation, obtained by choosing a curve that is perpendicular to the wavefronts of the actual light, and that points in the direction of energy flow. rays are used to model the propagation of light through an optical system, by dividing the real light field up into discrete rays that can be computationally propagated through the system by the techniques of ray tracing. this allows even very complex optical systems to be analyzed mathematically or simulated by computer. ray tracing uses approximate solutions to maxwell's equations that are valid as long as the light waves propagate through and around objects whose dimensions are much greater than the light's wavelength. ray optics or geometrical optics does not describe phenomena such as diffraction, which require wave optics theory. some wave phenomena such as interference can be modeled in limited circumstances by adding phase to the ray model. definition a light ray is a line ( straight or curved ) that is perpendicular to the light's wavefronts ; its tangent is collinear with the wave vector. light rays in homogeneous media are straight. they bend at the interface between two dissimilar media and may be curved in a medium in which the refractive index changes. geometric optics describes how rays propagate through an optical system. objects to be imaged are treated as collections of independent point sources, each producing spherical wavefronts and corresponding outward rays. rays from each object point can be mathematically propagated to locate the corresponding point on the image. a slightly more rigorous definition of a light ray follows from fermat's principle, which states that the path taken between two points by a ray of light is the path that can be traversed in the least time. special rays there are many special rays that are used in optical modelling to analyze an optical system. these are defined and described below, grouped by the type of system they are used to model. interaction with surfaces an is a ray of light that strikes a surface. the angle between this ray and the perpendicular or normal to the surface is the angle of incidence. the corresponding to a given incident ray, is the ray that represents the light reflected by the surface. the
. 31 in more detail. rules for ray tracing 1. a ray entering a converging lens parallel to its axis passes through the focal point f of the lens on the other side. 2. a ray entering a diverging lens parallel to its axis seems to come from the focal point f. 3. a ray passing through the center of either a converging or a diverging lens does not change direction. 4. a ray entering a converging lens through its focal point exits parallel to its axis. 5. a ray that enters a diverging lens by heading toward the focal point on the opposite side exits parallel to the axis.
light rays pass through several layers of material ( such as cornea, aqueous humor, several layers in the lens, and vitreous humor ), changing direction at each interface. the image formed is much like the one produced by a single convex lens. this is a case 1 image. images formed in the eye are inverted but the brain inverts them once more to make them seem upright. material index of refraction water 1. 33 air 1. 0 cornea 1. 38 aqueous humor 1. 34 lens 1. 41 average ( varies throughout the lens, greatest in center ) vitreous humor
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Where do rays enter the eye?
A. glass
B. Summer
C. pupil
D. lenses
Answer: | [
"glass",
"Summer",
"pupil",
"lenses"
] | C | |
qasc_7951 | qasc | <ctx>
is important to dispose of water that has been stored in pet bottles that have been exposed to high temperatures for a prolonged period of time or are beyond the expiration date because harmful chemicals may leach from the plastic. in 2008, researchers from arizona state university found that storing plastic bottles in temperatures at or above 60 °c can cause antimony to enter the water contained in the bottles. therefore, frequently drinking from bottles stored in places such as cars during the summer months may have negative health effects. bottle manufacturing relies on petroleum and natural resources. some creating processes release toxic chemicals into the air and water supply that can immensely affect nervous systems, blood cells, kidneys, immune systems, and can cause cancer and birth defects. most disposable water bottles are made from petroleum found polyethylene terephthalate ( pet ). while pet is considered less toxic than many other types of plastic, the berkeley ecology center found that manufacturing pet makes toxic emissions in the form of nickel, ethylbenzene, ethylene oxide and benzene at levels 100 times higher than those created to make the same amount of glass. environment water bottles made of glass, aluminium and steel are the most readily recyclable. hdpe and ldpe bottles can be recycled as well. because the manufacturing and transportation of disposable water bottles requires petroleum, a non - renewable resource, the single - serve bottled water industry has come under pressure from concerned consumers. the pacific institute calculates that it required about 17 million barrels of oil to make the disposable plastic bottles for single - serve water that americans consumed in 2006. to sustain the consumptive use of products relying on plastic components and level of manufactured demand for plastic water bottles, the end result is shortages of fossil fuels. furthermore, it means not only a shortage of the raw materials to make plastics, but also a shortage of the energy required to fuel their production. single - serve bottled water industry has responded to consumer concern about the environmental impact of disposable water bottles by significantly reducing the amount of plastic used in bottles. the reduced plastic content also results in a lower weight product that uses less energy to transport. other bottle manufacturing companies are experimenting with alternative materials such as
treatment virtually all large systems must treat the water ; a fact that is tightly regulated by global, state and federal agencies, such as the world health organization ( who ) or the united states environmental protection agency ( epa ). water treatment must occur before the product reaches the consumer and afterwards ( when it is discharged again ). water purification usually occurs close to the final delivery points to reduce pumping costs and the chances of the water becoming contaminated after treatment. traditional surface water treatment plants generally consists of three steps : clarification, filtration and disinfection. clarification refers to the separation of particles ( dirt, organic matter, etc. ) from the water stream. chemical addition ( i. e. alum, ferric chloride ) destabilizes the particle charges and prepares them for clarification either by settling or floating out of the water stream. sand, anthracite or activated carbon filters refine the water stream, removing smaller particulate matter. while other methods of disinfection exist, the preferred method is via chlorine addition. chlorine effectively kills bacteria and most viruses and maintains a residual to protect the water supply through the supply network. water distribution network the product, delivered to the point of consumption, is called potable water if it meets the water quality standards required for human consumption. the water in the supply network is maintained at positive pressure to ensure that water reaches all parts of the network, that a sufficient flow is available at every take - off point and to ensure that untreated water in the ground cannot enter the network. the water is typically pressurised by pumping the water into storage tanks constructed at the highest local point in the network. one network may have several such service reservoirs. in small domestic systems, the water may be pressurised by a pressure vessel or even by an underground cistern ( the latter however does need additional pressurizing ). this eliminates the need of a water tower or any other heightened water reserve to supply the water pressure. these systems are usually owned and maintained by local governments such as cities or other public entities, but are occasionally operated by a commercial enterprise ( see water privatization ). water supply networks are part of the master planning
##s the need of a water tower or any other heightened water reserve to supply the water pressure. these systems are usually owned and maintained by local governments such as cities or other public entities, but are occasionally operated by a commercial enterprise ( see water privatization ). water supply networks are part of the master planning of communities, counties, and municipalities. their planning and design requires the expertise of city planners and civil engineers, who must consider many factors, such as location, current demand, future growth, leakage, pressure, pipe size, pressure loss, fire fighting flows, etc. — using pipe network analysis and other tools. as water passes through the distribution system, the water quality can degrade by chemical reactions and biological processes. corrosion of metal pipe materials in the distribution system can cause the release of metals into the water with undesirable aesthetic and health effects. release of iron from unlined iron pipes can result in customer reports of " red water " at the tap. release of copper from copper pipes can result in customer reports of " blue water " and / or a metallic taste. release of lead can occur from the solder used to join copper pipe together or from brass fixtures. copper and lead levels at the consumer's tap are regulated to protect consumer health. utilities will often adjust the chemistry of the water before distribution to minimize its corrosiveness. the simplest adjustment involves control of ph and alkalinity to produce a water that tends to passivate corrosion by depositing a layer of calcium carbonate. corrosion inhibitors are often added to reduce release of metals into the water. common corrosion inhibitors added to the water are phosphates and silicates. maintenance of a biologically safe drinking water is another goal in water distribution. typically, a chlorine based disinfectant, such as sodium hypochlorite or monochloramine is added to the water as it leaves the treatment plant. booster stations can be placed within the distribution system to ensure that all areas of the distribution system have adequate sustained levels of disinfection. topologies like electric power lines, roads, and microwave radio networks, water systems may have a loop or branch network topology, or a combination of both. the piping networks are circular
nanoparticles to the ceramic element and / or to the activated charcoal to suppress growth of pathogens. small, hand - pumped reverse osmosis filters were originally developed for the military in the late 1980s for use as survival equipment, for example, to be included with inflatable rafts on aircraft. civilian versions are available. instead of using the static pressure of a water supply line to force the water through the filter, pressure is provided by a hand - operated pump. these devices can generate drinkable water from seawater. the portable aqua unit for lifesaving ( short paul ) is a portable ultrafiltration - based membrane water filter for humanitarian aid. it allows the decentralized supply of clean water in emergency and disaster situations for about 400 persons per unit per day. the filter is designed to function with neither chemicals nor energy nor trained personnel. activated charcoal adsorption granular activated carbon filtering utilizes a form of activated carbon with a high surface area, and adsorbs many compounds, including many toxic compounds. water passing through activated carbon is commonly used in concert with hand pumped filters to address organic contamination, taste, or objectionable odors. activated carbon filters aren't usually used as the primary purification techniques of portable water purification devices, but rather as secondary means to complement another purification technique. it is most commonly implemented for pre - or post - filtering, in a separate step than ceramic filtering, in either case being implemented prior to the addition of chemical disinfectants used to control bacteria or viruses that filters cannot remove. activated charcoal can remove chlorine from treated water, removing any residual protection remaining in the water protecting against pathogens, and should not, in general, be used without careful thought after chemical disinfection treatments in portable water purification processing. ceramic / carbon core filters with a 0. 5 µm or smaller pore size are excellent for removing bacteria and cysts while also removing chemicals. chemical disinfection with halogens chemical disinfection with halogens, chiefly chlorine and iodine, results from oxidation of essential cellular structures and enzymes. the primary factors that determine the rate and proportion of microorganisms killed are the residual or available halogen concentration and the
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
what does bottled water have none of?
A. energy barrier
B. cloudy and rainy weather
C. harmful substances
D. layers of fat
Answer: | [
"energy barrier",
"cloudy and rainy weather",
"harmful substances",
"layers of fat"
] | C | |
medmcqa_5179 | medmcqa | <ctx>
less inadvertent movements under robotic controls than compared to human assistance. there are some issues in regards to current robotic surgery usage in clinical applications. there is a lack of haptics in some robotic systems currently in clinical use, which means there is no force feedback, or touch feedback. no interaction between the instrument and the patient is felt. however, recently the senhance robotic system by asensus surgical was developed with haptic feedback in order to improve the interaction between the surgeon and the tissue. the robots can also be very large, have instrumentation limitations, and there may be issues with multi - quadrant surgery as current devices are solely used for single - quadrant application. critics of the system, including the american congress of obstetricians and gynecologists, say there is a steep learning curve for surgeons who adopt the use of the system and that there's a lack of studies that indicate long - term results are superior to results following traditional laparoscopic surgery. articles in the newly created journal of robotic surgery tend to report on one surgeon's experience. complications related to robotic surgeries range from converting the surgery to open, re - operation, permanent injury, damage to viscera and nerve damage. from 2000 to 2011, out of 75 hysterectomies done with robotic surgery, 34 had permanent injury, and 49 had damage to the viscera. prostatectomies were more prone to permanent injury, nerve damage and visceral damage as well. very minimal surgeries in a variety of specialties had to actually be converted to open or be re - operated on, but most did sustain some kind of damage or injury. for example, out of seven coronary artery bypass grafting, one patient had to go under re - operation. it is important that complications are captured, reported and evaluated to ensure the medical community is better educated on the safety of this new technology. if something was to go wrong in a robot - assisted surgery, it is difficult to identify culpability, and the safety of the practice will influence how quickly and widespread these practices are used. one drawback of the use of robotic surgery is the risk of mechanical failure of the system and instruments. a study from
they are struggling to breath. before the procedure before the surgery begins, the surgeon will take multiple blood tests, physically examine the patient, and the surgeon will also check the past medical records of the patient to make sure it is safe to conduct the surgical procedure. on top of that, the surgeon doctor will ask about the types of medications that have been taken by the patient in the last 10 days following up to the surgery because certain medications can increase the chances of bleeding during the surgical procedure, such as aspirin and naproxen. furthermore, the patient will be required to stop the consumption of any food and drinks for several hours before the procedure begins. surgical procedure coblation tonsillectomy is an outpatient surgical process, meaning patients are able leave the hospital and go home after they have gone through the surgery and have woken up, so it is unnecessary for them to stay overnight. at the start of the surgical procedure, the patient is given a specific amount of general anesthesia to go into a deep sleep, in which they are not able to feel any pain until it wears off, and by the time it wears off the operation is over as it tends take less than one hour for operation to be fully done. additionally, a breathing tube is provided for the patient, which is inserted into the nose instead of the regular breathing tube for the mouth in order to have enough space in the mouth for the surgery to be conducted in a safe and precise manner. the operation commences immediately after the patient has fallen asleep from the anesthesia. a mouth prop is used as a wedge to put between the upper and lower teeth on one side of the mouth in order to keep the patient's mouth wide open and steady for the surgeon to conduct the surgery with ease. both tonsils are removed with coblation technology by applying precise amounts of plasma to detach the tonsils from the surrounding tissues without causing thermal damage. after the tonsils are fully removed, any bleeding that occurs at the back of the throat is stopped and the patient is woken up using medical drugs. then the breathing tubes are completely removed and the patient is moved to the post - anesthesia care unit to recover and wake up. recovery from surgery after the co
planing may be performed using a number of dental tools, including ultrasonic instruments and hand instruments, such as periodontal scalers and curettes. the objective for periodontal scaling and root planing is to remove dental plaque and calculus ( tartar ), which house bacteria that release toxins which cause inflammation to the gum tissue and surrounding bone. planing often removes some of the cementum or dentine from the tooth. removal of adherent plaque and calculus with hand instruments can also be performed prophylactically on patients without periodontal disease. a prophylaxis refers to scaling and polishing of the teeth in order to prevent oral diseases. polishing does not remove calculus, but only some plaque and stains, and should therefore be done only in conjunction with scaling. often, an electric device, known as an ultrasonic scaler, sonic scaler, or power scaler may be used during scaling and root planing. ultrasonic scalers vibrate at a high frequency to help with removing stain, plaque and calculus. in addition, ultrasonic scalers create tiny air bubbles through a process known as cavitation. these bubbles serve an important function for periodontal cleanings. since the bacteria living in periodontically involved pockets are mainly obligate anaerobes, meaning unable to survive in the presence of oxygen, these bubbles help to destroy them. the oxygen helps to break down bacterial cell membranes and causes them to lyse, or burst. since it is of the utmost importance to remove the entirety of the deposit in each periodontal pocket, attention to detail during this procedure is crucial. therefore, depending on the depth of the pocket and amount of calculus deposit versus soft biofilm deposit, hand instruments may be used to complete the fine hand scaling that removes anything the ultrasonic scaler left behind. alternatively, power scalers may be used following hand scaling in order to dispel deposits that have been removed from the tooth or root structure, but remain within the periodontal pocket. sonic and ultrasonic scalers are powered by a system that causes the tip to vibrate. sonic scalers are powered by an air - driven turbine. ultrasonic scalers use either magnetostric
’ s hand, then at the initiation of a stroke, the clinician will press down on the fulcrum finger to further gain control. it is crucial to tilt the lower shank of the periodontal scaler slightly towards the tooth surface being worked on to obtain correct angulation. this ensures that a 70º - 80º angulation is achieved between the tooth surface and the face of the instrument. the instrument is then walked across the surface being worked on with short, controlled, overlapping strokes while applying moderate pressure. overall, the working - end of the instrument is only moving a few millimeters at a time. simultaneously, the clinician must roll the handle of the instrument to maintain adaptation throughout, to prevent any soft tissue injury. after completing a calculus removal stroke, the clinician may then utilize an assessment stroke, characterized by feather - light pressure, to judge the removal of the calculus deposit. these steps are repeated until the complete removal of calculus is achieved throughout the entire dentition. these instrumentation techniques are followed to achieve effective periodontal therapy using periodontal instruments, such as periodontal scalers. moreover, following these instrumentation principles would improve the quality of life for the clinician as well ; this includes lowering the risk of musculoskeletal disorders ( msd ) in their hands and / or forearm, conserving more effort than required, and increasing the efficiency of instrumentation. these principles form a foundation to improve efficiency and effectiveness of periodontal therapy while protecting the proper ergonomics of the clinician. a healthy periodontium is achieved by completely removing the living bacteria present in both the biofilm and calculus. this bacteria is responsible for periodontal disease, a term that encompasses both gingivitis and periodontitis. it is also important to note that with different levels of periodontal disease, the clinician may apply sextant scaling or quadrant scaling to achieve best results for a healthy periodontium. in this case, a sextant or a quadrant will be completed per appointment, which would require multiple appointments to complete debridement of the entire mouth. references sources periodontology dental equipment
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Leaving (or forgetting) an instrument or sponge in the abdomen of the patient during a surgery and closing operation is:
A. Contributory negligence
B. Civil
C. Corporate negligence
D. Criminal negligence
Answer: | [
"Contributory negligence",
"Civil",
"Corporate negligence",
"Criminal negligence"
] | D | Ans. d (Criminal negligence). (Ref. Textbook of FMT by Parikh 6th ed. 1.46)Contributory negligencea common law defence to a claim or action. It applies to a situation where a plaintiff claimant has, through their own negligence, caused or contributed to the injury they suffered. For example where a pedestrian crosses a road carelessly and is hit by a driver who is also driving carelessly.Comparative negligencea system of apportioning recovery for a tort based on a comparison of the plaintiff's negligence with the defendant's. It contrasts with the doctrine of contributory negligence, which disallows recovery by a plaintiff whose actions in some way, however small, contributed to the tort.Criminal negligencedefined as careless, inattentive, neglectful, willfully blind, or in the case of gross negligence what would have been reckless in any other defendant. For example, leaving (or forgetting) an instrument or sponge in the abdomen of the patient during a surgery and closing the operation contributes to criminal negligence.Corporate manslaughtera term for an act of homicide committed by a company. In general, a legal person is in the same position as a natural person, and may be convicted for committing virtually all offences, under English criminal law. The Court of Appeal confirmed in one of the cases following the disaster that a company can in principle omit manslaughter, although all defendants in that case were acquitted |
medmcqa_5510 | medmcqa | <ctx>
nk cell studies. in 2010, while his lab was working on nk cells, they found an interesting similarity between natural helper ( nh ) cells and nk cells progenitors. they isolated natural helper ( nh ) - like cells from allergen - treated mouse lung and found the production of cytokines type 2, il - 5, and il - 13 in these population. identifying t cell - independent type 2 inflammation using an in vivo model of papain - induced lung resulted in finding a unique group of lymphocytes in mouse lungs, currently known as group 2 innate lymphoid cell ( ilc2s ). they showed that the production of th - 2 type cytokines in these populations involved in allergic inflammation. moreover, they proved that ilc2s play a major role in allergen - induced lung inflammation by developing ilc2 deficient mice. more studies by his group showed other roles of ilc2s such as acquiring memory functions. his lab is currently studying the regulation of ilc2s and their functional and developmental relationship with other lymphocytes as well as identifying other ilc populations induced by different allergens like ilc3s. they are also working on differences between tissue - resident versus migratory ilc2s. memberships society for mucosal immunology : milwaukee, wisconsin, us canadian society of immunology : winnipeg, mb, ca american association of immunologists : rockville, maryland, us selected publications ghaedi, m., shen, z., orangi, m., martinez - gonzalez, i., wei, l., lu, x., das, a., heravi - moussavi, a., marra, m., bhandoola, a. and takei, f., 2019. single - cell analysis of rorα tracer mouse lung reveals ilc progenitors and effector ilc2 subsets. journal of experimental medicine, 217 ( 3 ). halim t, maclaren a, romanish m, gold m, mcnagny k, takei f. retinoic - acid - receptor - related orphan nuclear
##elon cd. identification of cellular targets in human intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma using laser microdissection and accurate mass and time tag proteomics. mol cell proteomics. 2010 sep ; 9 ( 9 ) : 1991 - 2004. moniaux, n., song, h., darnaud, m., garbin, k., gigou, m., mitchell, c., samuel, d., jamot, l., amouyal, p., amouyal, g., brechot, c., faivre, j. human hepatocarcinoma - intestine - pancreas / pancreatitis - associated protein cures fas - induced acute liver failure in mice by attenuating free - radical damage in injured livers. hepatology. 2011 feb ; 53 ( 2 ) : 618 - 27. doi : 10. 1002 / hep. 24087 arumugam m, raes j, brechot c, merieux a, weissenbach j, ehrlich sd, bork p. enterotypes of the human gut microbiome. nature. 2011 may 12 ; 473 ( 7346 ) : 174 - 80. claire lacoste, julie herve, myriam bou nader, alexandre dos santos, nicolas moniaux, yannick valogne, rodrick montjean, olivier dorseuil, didier samuel, doris cassio, carla portulano, nancy carrasco, christian brechot, and jamila faivre. the iodide transporter nis regulates cancer cell motility and invasiveness by interacting with the rhogef larg. cancer research. 2012 nov 1 ; 72 ( 21 ) : 5505 - 15 n. benzoubir, c. lejamtel, b. testoni, s. battaglia, b. benassi, c. desterke, d. samuel, m. levrero4, c. brechot and mf bourgeade. hcv core - mediated activation of latent tgf - β via th
science immunology, 5 ( 49 ), eabd1554. rha, m. s., jeong, h. w., ko, j. h., choi, s. j., seo, i. h., lee, j. s.,... & shin, e. c. ( 2021 ). pd - 1 - expressing sars - cov - 2 - specific cd8 + t cells are not exhausted, but functional in patients with covid - 19. immunity, 54 ( 1 ), 44 – 52. noh, j. y., jeong, h. w., kim, j. h., & shin, e. c. ( 2021 ). t cell - oriented strategies for controlling the covid - 19 pandemic. nature reviews immunology, 21 ( 11 ), 687 – 688. koh, j. y., rha, m. s., choi, s. j., lee, h. s., han, j. w., nam, h.,... & shin, e. c. ( 2022 ). identification of a distinct nk - like hepatic t - cell population activated by nkg2c in a tcr - independent manner. journal of hepatology, 77 ( 4 ), 1059 – 1070. jung, m. k., jeong, s. d., noh, j. y., kim, d. u., jung, s., song, j. y.,... & shin, e. c. ( 2022 ). bnt162b2 - induced memory t cells respond to the omicron variant with preserved polyfunctionality. nature microbiology, 7 ( 6 ), 909 – 917. references living people 1971 births 21st - century korean scientists yonsei university alumni academic staff of kaist 21st - century korean physicians national institutes of health people korean immunologists institute for basic science
the metabolism of lipids and carbohydrates. cirrhosis is often preceded by hepatitis and fatty liver ( steatosis ), independent of the cause. if the cause is removed at this stage, the changes are fully reversible. the pathological hallmark of cirrhosis is the development of scar tissue that replaces normal tissue. this scar tissue blocks the portal flow of blood through the organ, raising the blood pressure and disturbing normal function. research has shown the pivotal role of the stellate cell, that normally stores vitamin a, in the development of cirrhosis. damage to the liver tissue from inflammation leads to the activation of stellate cells, which increases fibrosis through the production of myofibroblasts, and obstructs hepatic blood flow. in addition, stellate cells secrete tgf beta 1, which leads to a fibrotic response and proliferation of connective tissue. tgf - β1 have been implicated in the process of activating hepatic stellate cells ( hscs ) with the magnitude of fibrosis being in proportion to increase in tgf β levels. acta2 is associated with tgf β pathway that enhances contractile properties of hscs leading to fibrosis. furthermore, hscs secrete timp1 and timp2, naturally occurring inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases ( mmps ), which prevent mmps from breaking down the fibrotic material in the extracellular matrix. as this cascade of processes continues, fibrous tissue bands ( septa ) separate hepatocyte nodules, which eventually replace the entire liver architecture, leading to decreased blood flow throughout. the spleen becomes congested, and enlarged, resulting in its retention of platelets, which are needed for normal blood clotting. portal hypertension is responsible for the most severe complications of cirrhosis. diagnosis the diagnosis of cirrhosis in an individual is based on multiple factors. cirrhosis may be suspected from laboratory findings, physical exam, and the person's medical history. imaging is generally obtained to evaluate the liver. a liver biopsy will confirm the diagnosis ; however, is generally not required. imaging
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Hep-2 cells are a type of-
A. Primary cell cultures
B. Diploid cell strain
C. Continuous cell lines
D. Explant culture
Answer: | [
"Primary cell cultures",
"Diploid cell strain",
"Continuous cell lines",
"Explant culture"
] | C | Ans. is 'c', i.e. Continous cell lines |
medmcqa_8054 | medmcqa | <ctx>
the effects of parasitic worms, or helminths, on the immune system is a recently emerging topic of study among immunologists and other biologists. experiments have involved a wide range of parasites, diseases, and hosts. the effects on humans have been of special interest. the tendency of many parasitic worms to pacify the host's immune response allows them to mollify some diseases, while worsening others. immune response hypothesis mechanisms of immune regulation extensive research shows that parasitic worms have the ability to deactivate certain immune system cells, leading to a gentler immune response. often, such a response is beneficial to both parasite and host, according to graham rook, a professor of medical microbiology at university college london. this immune " relaxation " is incorporated throughout the immune system, decreasing immune responses against harmless allergens, gut flora, and the body itself. in the past, helminths were thought to simply suppress t - helper type 1 ( th1 ) cells while inducing t - helper type 2 ( th2 ) cells. rook points out that this hypothesis would only explain the regulatory effects of parasitic worms on autoimmune diseases caused by th1 cells. however, helminths also regulate th2 - caused diseases, such as allergy and asthma. rook postulates that different parasitic worms suppress different th types, but always in favor of regulatory t ( treg ) cells. rook explains that these regulatory t cells release interleukins that fight inflammation. in the journal of biomedicine and biotechnology, osada et al. note that macrophages induced by treg cells fight not only the parasitic disease, but also resist the immune system's response to allergens and the body. according to hopkin, the author of a 2009 parasite immunology article on asthma and parasitic worms, other immunoregulatory mechanisms are also activated, including mast cells, eosinophils, and cytokines that invoke a strong immunoglobulin e ( ige ) response. all these fight a hyperactive immune response, reduce the inflammation throughout the body, and thus lead to less severe autoimmune diseases. osada et al. state that
##usitis with nasal polyps. immunology of infectious diseases herbert has worked on the study of parasitic helminths ( worms ). he has made contributions to the understanding of how the alternatively activated macrophage ( m2 ) phenotype serves to protect against helminth - infection. in 2021, he presented a review on the major inventions in the immunology of helminth infection made over the last decade, ranging from innate lymphoid cells to the emerging importance of neuroimmune connections. moreover, his studies tend to cover the status of human challenge trials with helminths as treatment for autoimmune diseases. herbert also contributed to a study led by carla rothlin at yale that aimed to determine the role that genetic ablation of a receptor tyrosine kinase encoded bytyro3in mice or the functional neutralization of its ortholog in human dendritic cells, serves to play in terms of enhancing type 2 immunity. moreover, it was indicated that the tam family receptor tyrosine kinase tyro3 is a'negative regulator'of type 2 immunity. additional research centered on discussing the implications of amp - activated protein kinase ( ampk ), highlights that myeloid - restricted ampkα1 tends to promote host immunity and restrict il - 12 / 23p40 - dependent lung injury resulted from hookworm infection. some of herbert's research is focused on determining the role served by intestinal epithelial cells in the process of worm expulsion through producing immunoregulatory cytokines and bioactive mediators that interfere with parasite chemosensory locomotion. a 2013 research study demonstrated the applications of il - 33 in the context of driving primary and anamnestic immunity against the rodent hookworm nippostrongylus brasiliensis. while maintaining a balance between resistance and susceptibility in this model system, he explored and highlighted novel themes in innate and adaptive immunity, immunomodulation, and regulation of responsiveness in helminth infection. in a more recent study, led by nicole maloney belle, the herbert lab pursued the importance of trefoil factor proteins in the reparative functions of intestinal epithelial
##ls, and cytokines that invoke a strong immunoglobulin e ( ige ) response. all these fight a hyperactive immune response, reduce the inflammation throughout the body, and thus lead to less severe autoimmune diseases. osada et al. state that because parasitic worms may and often do consist of allergens themselves, the degree to which they pacify or agitate the immune response against allergens is a balance of their regulating effects and their allergenic components. therefore, depending on both of these variables, some parasitic worms may worsen allergies. in their parasite immunology article on worms and viral infections, kamal et al. explain why some parasitic worms aggravate the immune response. because parasitic worms often induce th2 cells and lead to suppressed th1 cells, problems arise when th1 cells are needed. such cases occur with viral diseases. several examples of viral infections worsened by parasitic worms are described below. evolutionary theory the positive effects of parasitic worms are theorized to be a result of millions of years of evolution, when humans and human ancestors would have been constantly inhabited by parasitic worms. in the journal embo reports, rook says that such helminths " are all either things that really do us no harm, or things where the immune system is forced to give in and avoid a fight because it's just a waste of time. " in the journal immunology, rook states that, because parasitic worms were almost always present, the human immune system developed a way to treat them that didn't cause tissue damage. the immune system extends this response to its treatments of self - antigens, softening reactions against allergens, the body, and digestive microorganisms. as the worms developed ways of triggering a beneficial immune response, humans came to rely on parasitic interaction to help regulate their immune systems. as developed countries advanced in technology, medicine, and sanitation, parasitic worms were mostly eradicated in those countries, according to weinstock in the medical journal gut. because these events took place very recently on the evolutionary timeline and humans have progressed much faster technologically than genetically, the human immune system has not yet adapted to the absence of
##rongylus brasiliensis or bleomycin sulfate. awards and honors 2014 - burroughs wellcome award investigators in the pathogenesis of infectious disease ( path ) 2014 - keystone symposia scientific advisory board member 2015 - ucsf alumni weekend discovery fellow 2016 - institute for immunology inflammation program leader 2016 - mucosal immunology studies team ( mist ) project leader 2018 - nih - wals lecturer 2021 - vanguard award lecturer, american association of immunologists 2021 - distinguished alumni award, thomas jefferson university 2021 - penn presidential associate professorship 2021 - keynote speaker for immunodiverse colloquia bibliography de'broski, r. h., holscher, c., mohrs, m., arendse, b., schwegmann, a., radwanska, m.,... & brombacher, f. ( 2004 ). alternative macrophage activation is essential for survival during schistosomiasis and downmodulates t helper 1 responses and immunopathology. immunity, 20 ( 5 ), 623 - 635. wills - karp, m., rani, r., dienger, k., lewkowich, i., fox, j. g., perkins, c.,... & herbert, d. b. r. ( 2012 ). trefoil factor 2 rapidly induces interleukin 33 to promote type 2 immunity during allergic asthma and hookworm infection. journal of experimental medicine, 209 ( 3 ), 607 - 622. macrophages promote epithelial proliferation following infectious and non - infectious lung injury through a trefoil factor 2 - dependent mechanism. hung, l. y., sen, d., oniskey, t. k., katzen, j., cohen na, vaughan ae, nieves w, urisman a, beers mf, krummel mf, herbert dr. mucosal immunol. 2019 jan ; 12 ( 1 ) : 64 - 76. doi : 10. 1038 / s41385 - 018 - 0096 - 2. pmid
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Antihelminthic also acting as immunomodulator is :
A. Albendazole
B. Levamisole
C. Mebendazole
D. Piperazine
Answer: | [
"Albendazole",
"Levamisole",
"Mebendazole",
"Piperazine"
] | B | |
medmcqa_3630 | medmcqa | <ctx>
and are odd generating elements of the grassmann algebra. graded vector fields given a graded manifold, graded derivations of the structure ring of graded functions are called graded vector fields on. they constitute a real lie superalgebra with respect to the superbracket, where denotes the grassmann parity of. graded vector fields locally read. they act on graded functions by the rule. graded exterior forms the - dual of the module graded vector fields is called the module of graded exterior one - forms. graded exterior one - forms locally read so that the duality ( interior ) product between and takes the form. provided with the graded exterior product, graded one - forms generate the graded exterior algebra of graded exterior forms on a graded manifold. they obey the relation, where denotes the form degree of. the graded exterior algebra is a graded differential algebra with respect to the graded exterior differential, where the graded derivations, are graded commutative with the graded forms and. there are the familiar relations. graded differential geometry in the category of graded manifolds, one considers graded lie groups, graded bundles and graded principal bundles. one also introduces the notion of jets of graded manifolds, but they differ from jets of graded bundles. graded differential calculus the differential calculus on graded manifolds is formulated as the differential calculus over graded commutative algebras similarly to the differential calculus over commutative algebras. physical outcome due to the above - mentioned serre – swan theorem, odd classical fields on a smooth manifold are described in terms of graded manifolds. extended to graded manifolds, the variational bicomplex provides the strict mathematical formulation of lagrangian classical field theory and lagrangian brst theory. see also connection ( algebraic framework ) graded ( mathematics ) serre – swan theorem supergeometry supermanifold supersymmetry references c. bartocci, u. bruzzo, d. hernandez ruiperez, the geometry of supermanifolds ( kluwer, 1991 ) t. stavracou, theory of connections on graded principal bundles, rev. math. phys. 10 ( 1998 ) 47 b. kostant, graded manifolds, graded lie theory, and prequa
##osable k - vectors in correspond to weighted k - dimensional linear subspaces of v. in particular, the grassmannian of k - dimensional subspaces of v, denoted grk ( v ), can be naturally identified with an algebraic subvariety of the projective space this is called the plucker embedding. differential geometry the exterior algebra has notable applications in differential geometry, where it is used to define differential forms. differential forms are mathematical objects that evaluate the length of vectors, areas of parallelograms, and volumes of higher - dimensional bodies, so they can be integrated over curves, surfaces and higher dimensional manifolds in a way that generalizes the line integrals and surface integrals from calculus. a differential form at a point of a differentiable manifold is an alternating multilinear form on the tangent space at the point. equivalently, a differential form of degree k is a linear functional on the k - th exterior power of the tangent space. as a consequence, the exterior product of multilinear forms defines a natural exterior product for differential forms. differential forms play a major role in diverse areas of differential geometry. an alternate approach defines differential forms in terms of germs of functions. in particular, the exterior derivative gives the exterior algebra of differential forms on a manifold the structure of a differential graded algebra. the exterior derivative commutes with pullback along smooth mappings between manifolds, and it is therefore a natural differential operator. the exterior algebra of differential forms, equipped with the exterior derivative, is a cochain complex whose cohomology is called the de rham cohomology of the underlying manifold and plays a vital role in the algebraic topology of differentiable manifolds. representation theory in representation theory, the exterior algebra is one of the two fundamental schur functors on the category of vector spaces, the other being the symmetric algebra. together, these constructions are used to generate the irreducible representations of the general linear group ; see fundamental representation. superspace the exterior algebra over the complex numbers is the archetypal example of a superalgebra, which plays a fundamental role in physical theories pertaining to fermions and supersymmetry. a single element of
problems in partial differential equations. rank and related concepts are developed in the early chapters. chapter xvi sections 6 – 10 give a more elementary account of the exterior algebra, including duality, determinants and minors, and alternating forms. contains a classical treatment of the exterior algebra as alternating tensors, and applications to differential geometry. historical references ( the linear extension theory – a new branch of mathematics ) alternative reference ;. other references and further reading an introduction to the exterior algebra, and geometric algebra, with a focus on applications. also includes a history section and bibliography. includes applications of the exterior algebra to differential forms, specifically focused on integration and stokes's theorem. the notation in this text is used to mean the space of alternating k - forms on v ; i. e., for spivak is what this article would call spivak discusses this in addendum 4. includes an elementary treatment of the axiomatization of determinants as signed areas, volumes, and higher - dimensional volumes. this textbook in multivariate calculus introduces the exterior algebra of differential forms adroitly into the calculus sequence for colleges. an introduction to the coordinate - free approach in basic finite - dimensional linear algebra, using exterior products. chapter 10 : the exterior product and exterior algebras " the grassmann method in projective geometry " a compilation of english translations of three notes by cesare burali - forti on the application of exterior algebra to projective geometry c. burali - forti, " introduction to differential geometry, following the method of h. grassmann " an english translation of an early book on the geometric applications of exterior algebras " mechanics, according to the principles of the theory of extension " an english translation of one grassmann's papers on the applications of exterior algebra algebras multilinear algebra differential forms
representation of g on its lie algebra. it maps vertical vector fields to their associated elements of the lie algebra : ω ( x ) = ι ( x ) for all x∈v. conversely, it can be shown that such a g - valued 1 - form on a principal bundle generates a horizontal distribution satisfying the aforementioned properties. given a local trivialization one can reduce ω to the horizontal vector fields ( in this trivialization ). it defines a 1 - form ω'on m via pullback. the form ω determines ω completely, but it depends on the choice of trivialization. ( this form is often also called a connection form and denoted simply by ω. ) vector bundles and covariant derivatives suppose that e is a smooth vector bundle over m. then an ehresmann connection h on e is said to be a linear ( ehresmann ) connection if he depends linearly on e ∈ ex for each x ∈ m. to make this precise, let sλ denote scalar multiplication by λ on e. then h is linear if and only if for any e ∈ e and scalar λ. since e is a vector bundle, its vertical bundle v is isomorphic to π * e. therefore if s is a section of e, then ( ds ) : tm→s * v = s * π * e = e. it is a vector bundle morphism, and is therefore given by a section ∇s of the vector bundle hom ( tm, e ). the fact that the ehresmann connection is linear implies that in addition it verifies for every function on the leibniz rule, i. e., and therefore is a covariant derivative of s. conversely a covariant derivative ∇ on a vector bundle defines a linear ehresmann connection by defining he, for e ∈ e with x = π ( e ), to be the image dsx ( txm ) where s is a section of e with s ( x ) = e and ∇xs = 0 for all x ∈ txm. note that ( for historical reasons ) the term linear when applied to connections, is sometimes used ( like the word affine – see affine connection )
</ctx>
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about STEM.
Schiller-Duval bodies are seen in-
A. Teratoma
B. Seminoma
C. Yolk sac tumour
D. Chorio Carcinoma
Answer: | [
"Teratoma",
"Seminoma",
"Yolk sac tumour",
"Chorio Carcinoma"
] | C | Yolk sac tumor of the testis: Raised a-fetoprotein level (AFP). Schiller-Duval bodies. Schiller-Duval body: It is the characteristic feature of the endodermal sinus tumor. This is a glomerulus-like structure composed of a central blood vessel enveloped by germ cells within a space lined by germ cells. Endodermal sinus tumor: 1. Schiller-Duval body 2. PAS-positive hyaline droplets Ref: RAM DAS NAYAK EXAM PREPARATORY MANUAL FOR UNDERGRADUATES 2nd ed. pg no: 684 |
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