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mass accompanying the formation of an atom from protons, neutrons, and electrons is due to the conversion of that mass into energy that is evolved as the atom forms. the nuclear binding energy is the energy produced when the atoms β nucleons are bound together ; this is also the energy needed to break a nucleus into it... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 1 β’ nuclear structure and stability 1023 mass - energy equivalence equation, the nuclear binding energy of a nucleus may be calculated from its mass defect, as demonstrated in example 21. 2. a variety of units are commonly used for nuclear binding energies, including electron volts ( ev ), with 1 ev equaling the am... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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0. 0305 g / mol. to accommodate the units of the other terms in the mass - energy equation, the mass must be expressed in kg, since 1 j = 1 kg m2 / s2. converting grams into kilograms yields a mass defect of 3. 05 10 β 5 kg / mol. substituting this quantity into the mass - energy equivalence equation yields : note that... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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148. 4 mev because the energy changes for breaking and forming bonds are so small compared to the energy changes for breaking or forming nuclei, the changes in mass during all ordinary chemical reactions are virtually undetectable. as described in the chapter on thermochemistry, the most energetic chemical reactions ex... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##s to provide compensating strong forces to overcome these electrostatic repulsions and hold the nucleus together. | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 1 β’ nuclear structure and stability 1025 figure 21. 2 this plot shows the nuclides that are known to exist and those that are stable. the stable nuclides are indicated in blue, and the unstable nuclides are indicated in green. note that all isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 83 are unstable. the ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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odd odd table 21. 1 the relative stability of a nucleus is correlated with its binding energy per nucleon, the total binding energy for the nucleus divided by the number or nucleons in the nucleus. for instance, we saw in example 21. 2 that the binding energy for a nucleus is 28. 4 mev. the binding energy per nucleon f... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 1 β’ nuclear structure and stability 1027 example 21. 3 calculation of binding energy per nucleon the iron nuclide lies near the top of the binding energy curve ( figure 21. 3 ) and is one of the most stable nuclides. what is the binding energy per nucleon ( in mev ) for the nuclide ( atomic mass of 55. 9349 amu )? ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 2 nuclear equations learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ identify common particles and energies involved in nuclear reactions β’ write and balance nuclear equations changes of nuclei that result in changes in their atomic numbers, mass numbers, or energy states are nuclear reaction... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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for example, charge ) than ordinary matter. when antimatter encounters ordinary matter, both are annihilated and their mass is converted into energy in the form of gamma rays ( Ξ³ ) β and other much smaller subnuclear particles, which are beyond the scope of this chapter β according to the mass - energy equivalence equa... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 2 β’ nuclear equations 1029 balancing nuclear reactions a balanced chemical reaction equation reflects the fact that during a chemical reaction, bonds break and form, and atoms are rearranged, but the total numbers of atoms of each element are conserved and do not change. a balanced nuclear reaction equation indicat... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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several nuclear reactions that have important roles in the history of nuclear chemistry : β’ the first naturally occurring unstable element that was isolated, polonium, was discovered by the polish scientist marie curie and her husband pierre in 1898. it decays, emitting Ξ± particles : β’ the first nuclide to be prepared ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 3 radioactive decay learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ recognize common modes of radioactive decay β’ identify common particles and energies involved in nuclear decay reactions β’ write and balance nuclear decay equations β’ calculate kinetic parameters for decay processes, includi... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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radioactive decay of a nucleus is too small to see with the naked eye, we can indirectly view radioactive decay in an environment called a cloud chamber. click here ( http : / / openstax. org / l / 16cloudchamb ) to learn about cloud chambers and to view an interesting cloud chamber demonstration from the jefferson lab... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 3 β’ radioactive decay 1031 types of radioactive decay ernest rutherford β s experiments involving the interaction of radiation with a magnetic or electric field ( figure 21. 6 ) helped him determine that one type of radiation consisted of positively charged and relatively massive Ξ± particles ; a second type was mad... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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nuclides with a large n : p ratio. the beta particle ( electron ) emitted is from the atomic nucleus and is not one of the electrons surrounding the nucleus. such nuclei lie above the band of stability. emission of an electron does not change the mass number of the nuclide but does increase the number of its protons an... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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when an inner shell electron combines with a proton and is converted into a neutron. the loss of an inner shell electron leaves a vacancy that will be filled by one of the outer electrons. as the outer electron drops into the vacancy, it will emit energy. in most cases, the energy emitted will be in the form of an x - ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 3 β’ radioactive decay 1033 radioactive decay series the naturally occurring radioactive isotopes of the heaviest elements fall into chains of successive disintegrations, or decays, and all the species in one chain constitute a radioactive family, or radioactive decay series. three of these series include most of th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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image a healthy brain ( b ) or can be used for diagnosing medical conditions such as alzheimer β s disease ( c ). ( credit a : modification of work by jens maus ) for example, f - 18 is produced by proton bombardment of 18o and incorporated into a glucose analog called fludeoxyglucose ( fdg ). how fdg is used by the bo... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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has a characteristic, constant half - life ( t1 / 2 ), the time required for half of the atoms in a sample to decay. an isotope β s half - life allows us to determine how long a sample of a useful isotope will be available, and how long a sample of an undesirable or dangerous isotope must be stored before it decays to ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 3 β’ radioactive decay 1035 figure 21. 10 for cobalt - 60, which has a half - life of 5. 27 years, 50 % remains after 5. 27 years ( one half - life ), 25 % remains after 10. 54 years ( two half - lives ), 12. 5 % remains after 15. 81 years ( three half - lives ), and so on. since nuclear decay follows first - order ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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at openstax. org ( b ) the fraction of that is left after time t is given by rearranging the first - order relationship nt = n0e β Ξ»t to solve for this ratio yields : the fraction of that will remain after 15. 0 years is 0. 138. or put another way, 13. 8 % of the originally present will remain after 15 years. ( c ) 2. ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 1 days because each nuclide has a specific number of nucleons, a particular balance of repulsion and attraction, and its own degree of stability, the half - lives of radioactive nuclides vary widely. for example : the half - life of is 1. 9 1019 years ; is 24, 000 years ; is 3. 82 days ; and element - 111 ( rg for ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 3 β’ radioactive decay 1037 the geological history of the earth, the evolution of life, and the history of human civilization. we will explore some of the most common types of radioactive dating and how the particular isotopes work for each type. radioactive dating using carbon - 14 the radioactivity of carbon - 14 ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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). figure 21. 11 visually depicts this process. 1038 21 β’ nuclear chemistry access for free at openstax. org figure 21. 11 along with stable carbon - 12, radioactive carbon - 14 is taken in by plants and animals, and remains at a constant level within them while they are alive. after death, the c - 14 decays and the c ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 3 β’ radioactive decay 1039 where the subscript 0 represents the time when the plants were cut to make the paper, and the subscript t represents the current time. the decay constant can be determined from the half - life of c - 14, 5730 years : substituting and solving, we have : therefore, the dead sea scrolls are ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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14 dating is about 57, 000 years. radioactive dating using nuclides other than carbon - 14 radioactive dating can also use other radioactive nuclides with longer half - lives to date older events. for example, uranium - 238 ( which decays in a series of steps into lead - 206 ) can be used for establishing the age of ro... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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rocks and minerals, making the assumption that the earth is older than the oldest rocks and minerals in its crust. as of 2014, the oldest known rocks on earth are the jack hills zircons from australia, found by uranium - lead dating to be almost 4. 4 billion years old. example 21. 7 radioactive dating of rocks an igneo... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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half - life of the Ξ² decay of rb - 87 is 4. 7 1010 y. ) answer : 3. 7 109 y 21. 3 β’ radioactive decay 1041 | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 4 transmutation and nuclear energy learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ describe the synthesis of transuranium nuclides β’ explain nuclear fission and fusion processes β’ relate the concepts of critical mass and nuclear chain reactions β’ summarize basic requirements for nuclear fiss... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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discusses a famous particle accelerator that made worldwide news. chemistry in everyday life cern particle accelerator located near geneva, the cern ( β conseil europeen pour la recherche nucleaire, β or european council for nuclear research ) laboratory is the world β s premier center for the investigations of the fun... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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a half - life of 23. 5 minutes, which then decays into neptunium - 239. neptunium - 239 is also radioactive, with a half - life of 2. 36 days, and it decays into plutonium - 239. the nuclear reactions are : plutonium is now mostly formed in nuclear reactors as a byproduct during the fission of u - 235. additional neutr... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 4 β’ transmutation and nuclear energy 1043 nuclei capture neutrons. some of this highly radioactive plutonium is used to produce military weapons, and the rest presents a serious storage problem because they have half - lives from thousands to hundreds of thousands of years. although they have not been prepared in t... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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scientists, lise meitner, otto hahn, and fritz strassman, bombarded uranium - 235 atoms with slow - moving neutrons that split the u - 238 nuclei into smaller fragments that consisted of several neutrons and elements near the middle of the periodic table. since then, fission has been observed in many other isotopes, in... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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( http : / / openstax. org / l / 16fission ) to see a simulation of nuclear fission. a tremendous amount of energy is produced by the fission of heavy elements. for instance, when one mole of | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 4 β’ transmutation and nuclear energy 1045 u - 235 undergoes fission, the products weigh about 0. 2 grams less than the reactants ; this β lost β mass is converted into a very large amount of energy, about 1. 8 1010 kj per mole of u - 235. nuclear fission reactions produce incredibly large amounts of energy compared... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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amount of fissionable material that cannot sustain a chain reaction is a subcritical mass. an amount of material in which there is an increasing rate of fission is known as a supercritical mass. the critical mass depends on the type of material : its purity, the temperature, the shape of the sample, and how the neutron... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 4 β’ transmutation and nuclear energy 1047 figure 21. 18 ( a ) the nuclear fission bomb that destroyed hiroshima on august 6, 1945, consisted of two subcritical masses of u - 235, where conventional explosives were used to fire one of the subcritical masses into the other, creating the critical mass for the nuclear ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##urized water reactor, one of a few different fission reactor designs in use around the world, to produce electricity. energy from the nuclear fission reactions in the core heats water in a closed, pressurized system. heat from this system produces steam that drives a turbine, which in turn produces electricity. ( cre... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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it solidifies, and then taken to a fabrication facility where it is made into fuel assemblies. each fuel assembly consists of fuel rods that contain many thimble - sized, ceramic - encased, enriched uranium ( usually uo2 ) fuel pellets. modern nuclear reactors may contain as many as 10 million fuel pellets. the amount ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 4 β’ transmutation and nuclear energy 1049 reactor coolants a nuclear reactor coolant is used to carry the heat produced by the fission reaction to an external boiler and turbine, where it is transformed into electricity. two overlapping coolant loops are often used ; this counteracts the transfer of radioactivity f... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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even when shut down, the decay products are radioactive. in addition, an operating reactor is thermally very hot, and high pressures result from the circulation of water or another coolant through it. thus, a reactor must withstand high temperatures and pressures, and must protect operating personnel from the radiation... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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. after the pumps stopped, the reactors overheated due to the high radioactive decay heat produced in the first few days after the nuclear reactor shut down. the temperature of the core climbed to at least 2200 Β°c, and the upper portion of the core began to melt. in addition, the zirconium alloy cladding of the fuel ro... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 4 β’ transmutation and nuclear energy 1051 figure 21. 21 ( a ) in this 2010 photo of three mile island, the remaining structures from the damaged unit 2 reactor are seen on the left, whereas the separate unit 1 reactor, unaffected by the accident, continues generating power to this day ( right ). ( b ) president jim... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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generators came online to power electronics and coolant systems. however, the tsunami quickly flooded the emergency generators and cut power to the pumps that circulated coolant water through the reactors. high - temperature steam in the reactors reacted with zirconium alloy to produce hydrogen gas. the gas escaped int... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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25 to 60, some transuranium elements, including plutonium and americium, and unreacted uranium isotopes. the unstable nuclei and the transuranium isotopes give the spent fuel a dangerously high level of radioactivity. the long - lived isotopes require thousands of years to decay to a safe level. the ultimate fate of th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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) | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 4 β’ transmutation and nuclear energy 1053 it has been determined that the nuclei of the heavy isotopes of hydrogen, a deuteron, and a triton, undergo fusion at extremely high temperatures ( thermonuclear fusion ). they form a helium nucleus and a neutron : this change proceeds with a mass loss of 0. 0188 amu, corre... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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high temperatures and pressures that are required for fusion. at the time of this writing, there are no self - sustaining fusion reactors operating in the world, although small - scale controlled fusion reactions have been run for very brief periods. figure 21. 23 ( a ) this model is of the international thermonuclear ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 5 uses of radioisotopes learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ list common applications of radioactive isotopes radioactive isotopes have the same chemical properties as stable isotopes of the same element, but they emit radiation, which can be detected. if we replace one ( or more ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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99, thallium - 201, iodine - 131, and sodium - 24. damaged tissues in the heart, liver, and lungs absorb certain compounds of technetium - 99 preferentially. after it is injected, the location of the technetium compound, and hence the damaged tissue, can be determined by detecting the Ξ³ rays emitted by the tc - 99 isot... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 5 β’ uses of radioisotopes 1055 figure 21. 24 administering thallium - 201 to a patient and subsequently performing a stress test offer medical professionals an opportunity to visually analyze heart function and blood flow. ( credit : modification of work by β blue0ctane β / wikimedia commons ) radioisotopes used in... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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; credit b : modification of work by β mbq β / wikimedia commons ) radioisotopes can also be used, typically in higher doses than as a tracer, as treatment. radiation therapy is the use of high - energy radiation to damage the dna of cancer cells, which kills them or keeps them from dividing ( figure 21. 26 ). a cancer... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 5 β’ uses of radioisotopes 1057 radioisotopes are used in diverse ways to study the mechanisms of chemical reactions in plants and animals. these include labeling fertilizers in studies of nutrient uptake by plants and crop growth, investigations of digestive and milk - producing processes in cows, and studies on th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##ericium - 241, an Ξ± emitter with a half - life of 458 years, is used in tiny amounts in ionization - type smoke detectors ( figure 21. 29 ). the Ξ± emissions from am - 241 ionize the air between two electrode plates in the ionizing chamber. a battery supplies a potential that causes movement of the ions, thus creating... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 6 biological effects of radiation learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ describe the biological impact of ionizing radiation β’ define units for measuring radiation exposure β’ explain the operation of common tools for detecting radioactivity β’ list common sources of radiation exposu... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 6 β’ biological effects of radiation 1059 ionizing and nonionizing radiation there is a large difference in the magnitude of the biological effects of nonionizing radiation ( for example, light and microwaves ) and ionizing radiation, emissions energetic enough to knock electrons out of molecules ( for example, Ξ± an... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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ion, which reacts with h2o to form a hydroxyl radical, which in turn reacts with the biomolecule, 1060 21 β’ nuclear chemistry access for free at openstax. org causing damage indirectly. biological effects of exposure to radiation radiation can harm either the whole body ( somatic damage ) or eggs and sperm ( genetic da... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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different types of radiation to pass through material is shown. from least to most penetrating, they are alpha < beta < neutron < gamma. chemistry in everyday life radon exposure for many people, one of the largest sources of exposure to radiation is from radon gas ( rn - 222 ). radon - 222 is an Ξ± emitter with a half ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 6 β’ biological effects of radiation 1061 measuring radiation exposure several different devices are used to detect and measure radiation, including geiger counters, scintillation counters ( scintillators ), and radiation dosimeters ( figure 21. 35 ). probably the best - known radiation instrument, the geiger counte... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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is believed to cause over 20, 000 deaths in the us per year. 1062 21 β’ nuclear chemistry access for free at openstax. org figure 21. 35 devices such as ( a ) geiger counters, ( b ) scintillators, and ( c ) dosimeters can be used to measure radiation. ( credit c : modification of work by β osamu β / wikimedia commons ) ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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are related by : with rbe approximately 10 for Ξ± radiation, 2 ( + ) for protons and neutrons, and 1 for Ξ² and Ξ³ radiation. figure 21. 36 different units are used to measure the rate of emission from a radioactive source, the energy that is absorbed from the source, and the amount of damage the absorbed radiation does. ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 6 β’ biological effects of radiation 1063 units used for measuring radiation measurement purpose unit quantity measured description activity of source becquerel ( bq ) radioactive decays or emissions amount of sample that undergoes 1 decay / second curie ( ci ) amount of sample that undergoes 3. 7 1010 decays / seco... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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and ( b ) in ci? answer : ( a ) 3. 56 1011 bq ; ( b ) 0. 962 ci effects of long - term radiation exposure on the human body the effects of radiation depend on the type, energy, and location of the radiation source, and the length of exposure. as shown in figure 21. 37, the average person is exposed to background radiat... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 6 β’ biological effects of radiation 1065 changes in blood chemistry to death. short - term exposure to tens of rems of radiation will likely cause very noticeable symptoms or illness ; a dose of about 500 rems is estimated to have a 50 % probability of causing the death of the victim within 30 days of exposure. exp... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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protons versus number of neutrons containing stable ( nonradioactive ) nuclides becquerel ( bq ) si unit for rate of radioactive decay ; 1 bq = 1 disintegration / s beta ( Ξ² ) decay breakdown of a neutron into a proton, which remains in the nucleus, and an electron, which is emitted as a beta particle beta particle or ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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mass into large amounts of energy fusion combination of very light nuclei into heavier nuclei, accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy fusion reactor nuclear reactor in which fusion reactions of light nuclei are controlled gamma ( Ξ³ ) emission decay of an excited - state nuclide accompanied b... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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isotope present in sufficient quantities to provide a self - sustaining chain reaction in a nuclear reactor nuclear moderator substance that slows neutrons to a speed low enough to cause fission nuclear reaction change to a nucleus resulting in changes in the atomic number, mass number, or energy state nuclear reactor ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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of dating objects 30, 000 β 50, 000 years old that were derived from once - living matter ; achieved by calculating the ratio of in the object vs. the ratio of in the present - day atmosphere radioisotope isotope that is unstable and undergoes conversion into a different, more stable isotope radiometric dating use of r... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 1 nuclear structure and stability an atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons. although protons repel each other, the nucleus is held tightly together by a short - range, but very strong, force called the strong nuclear force. a nucleus has less mass than the total mass of its c... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 3 radioactive decay nuclei that have unstable n : p ratios undergo spontaneous radioactive decay. the most common types of radioactivity are Ξ± decay, Ξ² decay, Ξ³ emission, positron emission, and electron capture. nuclear reactions also often involve Ξ³ rays, and some nuclei decay by electron capture. each of these mo... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 4 transmutation and nuclear energy it is possible to produce new atoms by bombarding other atoms with nuclei or high - speed particles. the products of these transmutation reactions can be stable or radioactive. a number of artificial elements, including technetium, astatine, and the transuranium elements, have bee... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 5 uses of radioisotopes compounds known as radioactive tracers can be used to follow reactions, track the distribution of a substance, diagnose and treat medical conditions, and much more. other radioactive substances are helpful for controlling pests, visualizing structures, providing fire warnings, and for many o... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 6 biological effects of radiation we are constantly exposed to radiation from a variety of naturally occurring and human - produced sources. this radiation can affect living organisms. ionizing radiation is the most harmful because it can ionize molecules or break chemical bonds, which damages the molecule and caus... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 1 nuclear structure and stability 1. write the following isotopes in hyphenated form ( e. g., β carbon - 14 β ) ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) ( d ) 2. write the following isotopes in nuclide notation ( e. g., ( a ) oxygen - 14 ( b ) copper - 70 ( c ) tantalum - 175 ( d ) francium - 217 3. for the following isotopes that have m... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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211pb ( g ) 222rn ( h ) carbon - 14 10. which of the following nuclei lie within the band of stability shown in figure 21. 2? ( a ) argon - 40 ( b ) oxygen - 16 ( c ) 122ba ( d ) 58ni ( e ) 205tl ( f ) 210tl ( g ) 226ra ( h ) magnesium - 24 | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 2 nuclear equations 11. write a brief description or definition of each of the following : ( a ) nucleon ( b ) Ξ± particle ( c ) Ξ² particle ( d ) positron ( e ) Ξ³ ray ( f ) nuclide ( g ) mass number ( h ) atomic number 12. which of the various particles ( Ξ± particles, Ξ² particles, and so on ) that may be produced in... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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273k and 1 atm? | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 3 radioactive decay 19. what are the types of radiation emitted by the nuclei of radioactive elements? 20. what changes occur to the atomic number and mass of a nucleus during each of the following decay scenarios? ( a ) an Ξ± particle is emitted ( b ) a Ξ² particle is emitted ( c ) Ξ³ radiation is emitted ( d ) a pos... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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isotopes might proceed : ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) ( d ) ( e ) 18f ( f ) 129ba ( g ) 237pu 29. write a nuclear reaction for each step in the formation of from which proceeds by a series of decay reactions involving the step - wise emission of Ξ±, Ξ², Ξ², Ξ±, Ξ±, Ξ± particles, in that order. 30. write a nuclear reaction for each step... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##inishes to 0. 393 g in 10. 0 y. calculate the half - life. 37. technetium - 99 is often used for assessing heart, liver, and lung damage because certain technetium compounds are absorbed by damaged tissues. it has a half - life of 6. 0 h. calculate the rate constant for the decay of 38. what is the age of mummified p... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##u ) by loss of a Ξ² + particle ( mass = 0. 00055 amu ) or by electron capture. how much energy ( in millions of electron volts ) is produced by this reaction? 21 β’ exercises 1073 44. isotopes such as 26al ( half - life : 7. 2 105 years ) are believed to have been present in our solar system as it formed, but have sinc... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 4 transmutation and nuclear energy 47. write the balanced nuclear equation for the production of the following transuranium elements : ( a ) berkelium - 244, made by the reaction of am - 241 and he - 4 ( b ) fermium - 254, made by the reaction of pu - 239 with a large number of neutrons ( c ) lawrencium - 257, made... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 5 uses of radioisotopes 55. how can a radioactive nuclide be used to show that the equilibrium : is a dynamic equilibrium? 56. technetium - 99m has a half - life of 6. 01 hours. if a patient injected with technetium - 99m is safe to leave the hospital once 75 % of the dose has decayed, when is the patient allowed t... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 6 biological effects of radiation 58. if a hospital were storing radioisotopes, what is the minimum containment needed to protect against : ( a ) cobalt - 60 ( a strong Ξ³ emitter used for irradiation ) ( b ) molybdenum - 99 ( a beta emitter used to produce technetium - 99 for imaging ) 59. based on what is known ab... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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decimal is shifted to give the digit number. the exponential method is particularly useful notation for very large and very small numbers. for example, 1, 230, 000, 000 = 1. 23 109, and 0. 00000000036 = 3. 6 10β10. addition of exponentials convert all numbers to the same power of 10, add the digit terms of the numbers,... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##x. org cubing exponentials cube the number 2 104. solution taking square roots of exponentials if necessary, decrease or increase the exponential term so that the power of 10 is evenly divisible by 2. extract the square root of the digit term and divide the exponential term by 2. example b7 finding the square root of... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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less than 5 ( β round down β ). if the retained digit is followed by 5, round up if the retained digit is odd, or round down if it is even ( after rounding, the retained digit will thus always be even ). the use of logarithms and exponential numbers the common logarithm of a number ( log ) is the power to which 10 must... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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0. 001 10β3 β3 table b1 what is the common logarithm of 60? because 60 lies between 10 and 100, which have logarithms of 1 and 2, respectively, the logarithm of 60 is 1. 7782 ; that is, the common logarithm of a number less than 1 has a negative value. the logarithm of 0. 03918 is β1. 4069, or to obtain the common loga... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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. the logarithm of a number raised to an exponent is the product of the exponent and the logarithm of the number. the solution of quadratic equations mathematical functions of this form are known as second - order polynomials or, more commonly, quadratic functions. the solution or roots for any quadratic equation can b... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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on x is known, it may be used to compute x, y data pairs that may subsequently be plotted. example b12 plotting data pairs if we know that y = x2 + 2, we can produce a table of a few ( x, y ) values and then plot the line based on the data shown here. x y = x2 + 2 1 3 2 6 1084 b β’ essential mathematics access for free ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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l cubic foot ( us ) = 28. 316 l table c2 c β’ units and conversion factors 1087 units of mass gram ( g ) = 0. 001 kg ( exact, definition ) milligram ( mg ) = 0. 001 g ( exact, definition ) kilogram ( kg ) = 1000 g ( exact, definition ) = 2. 205 lb ton ( metric ) = 1000 kg ( exact, definition ) = 2204. 62 lb ounce ( oz )... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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4. 184 joule ( j ) = 1 thermochemical calorie ( cal ) 1 thermochemical calorie ( cal ) = 4. 184 107 erg erg = 10 β 7 j ( exact, definition ) electron - volt ( ev ) = 1. 60218 10β19 j = 23. 061 kcal molβ1 = 24. 217 cal = 101. 325 j ( exact, definition ) nutritional calorie ( cal ) = 1000 cal ( exact, definition ) = 4184... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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symbol value atomic mass unit ( amu ) 1. 6605402 10β27 kg avogadro β s number 6. 02214076 1023 molβ1 boltzmann β s constant ( k ) 1. 380649 10β23 j kβ1 charge - to - mass ratio for electron ( e / me ) 1. 75881962 1011 c kgβ1 fundamental unit of charge ( e ) 1. 602176634 10β19 c electron rest mass ( me ) 9. 1093897 10β3... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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0. 9991026 20 0. 9982071 22 0. 9977735 25 0. 9970479 30 0. 9956502 40 0. 9922 60 0. 9832 80 0. 9718 100 0. 9584 table e1 e β’ water properties 1093 water vapor pressure at different temperatures ( Β°c ) temperature vapor pressure ( torr ) vapor pressure ( pa ) 0 4. 6 613. 2812 4 6. 1 813. 2642 10 9. 2 1226. 562 15 12. 8 ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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-0.018732082098722458,
0.02874467708170414,
-0.048... |
671 14. 17 25 0. 991 14. 00 30 1. 432 13. 84 35 2. 042 13. 69 40 2. 851 13. 55 45 3. 917 13. 41 50 5. 297 13. 28 55 7. 080 13. 15 60 9. 311 13. 03 75 19. 95 12. 70 100 56. 23 12. 25 table e3 1096 e β’ water properties access for free at openstax. org specific heat capacity for water cΒ° ( h2o ( l ) ) = 4. 184 - - 1 cΒ° ( ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.007102886214852333,
0.012781319208443165,
0.031854983419179916,
-0.009375105611979961,
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0.009766882285475731,
0.05340110883116722,
0.0038335369899868965,
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0.0561172217130661,
0.04468480497598648,
0.013713186606764793,
0.0381147637963295,
-0.0557... |
40. 656 ( 44. 016 at 298 k ) table e5 water cryoscopic ( freezing point depression ) and ebullioscopic ( boiling point elevation ) constants kf = 1. ( cryoscopic constant ) kb = 0. ( ebullioscopic constant ) table e6 e β’ water properties 1097 figure e1 the plot shows the extent of light absorption versus wavelength for... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.006327561568468809,
-0.006431619171053171,
0.04816240072250366,
-0.014198551885783672,
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0.08603135496377945,
0.01946457475423813,
-0.039305418729782104,
0.01563364826142788,
-0.0... |
18. 0 table f1 1 acids and bases are commercially available as aqueous solutions. this table lists properties ( densities and concentrations ) of common acid and base solutions. nominal values are provided in cases where the manufacturer cites a range of concentrations and densities. 2 this column contains specific gra... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.014330006204545498,
0.012586544267833233,
0.07120055705308914,
0.016371561214327812,
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0.013209556229412556,
0.025975706055760384,
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0.06122656539082527,
0.025758886709809303,
-0.025388125330209732,
-0.002753612119704485,
-0.... |
. 55 β 1268. 17 220. 92 sbcl3 ( g ) β 313. 8 β 301. 2 337. 80 sbcl5 ( g ) β 394. 34 β 334. 29 401. 94 sb2s3 ( s ) β 174. 89 β 173. 64 182. 00 sbcl3 ( s ) β 382. 17 β 323. 72 184. 10 sbocl ( s ) β 374. 0 β β table g1 g β’ standard thermodynamic properties for selected substances 1101 substance ( kj mol β 1 ) ( kj mol β 1... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.01579354703426361,
0.008071507327258587,
0.053679753094911575,
-0.005196027923375368,
-0.037591855973005295,
0.012011331506073475,
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0.04818645492196083,
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-0.02853783220052719,
0.011388389393687248,
... |
. 6 136. 27 beo ( s ) β 609. 4 β 580. 1 13. 8 bismuth bi ( s ) 0 0 56. 74 bi ( g ) 207. 1 168. 2 187. 00 table g1 1102 g β’ standard thermodynamic properties for selected substances access for free at openstax. org substance ( kj mol β 1 ) ( kj mol β 1 ) ( j k β 1 mol β 1 ) bi2o3 ( s ) β 573. 88 β 493. 7 151. 5 bicl3 ( ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.04287317767739296,
-0.013275237753987312,
0.04838494956493378,
-0.002566738985478878,
-0.05391465127468109,
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0.0005784974782727659,
0.015070074237883091,
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0.05148274824023247,
0.043869443237781525,
-0.008055292069911957,
0.030224012210965157,
-0... |
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