text stringlengths 1 3.55k | source stringlengths 24 207 | emb listlengths 1.02k 1.02k |
|---|---|---|
15. 7 statistical interpretation of entropy and the second law of thermodynamics : the underlying explanation heat transfer is energy in transit, and it can be used to do work. it can also be converted to any other form of energy. a car engine, for example, burns fuel for heat transfer into a gas. work is done by the g... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.011542846448719501,
0.03754032403230667,
0.0040691629983484745,
0.008710484951734543,
-0.03372989967465401,
-0.0002444394340272993,
-0.017320042476058006,
-0.0459110252559185,
-0.005236707627773285,
0.06944780051708221,
0.03132136911153793,
0.026090215891599655,
0.059361882507801056,
-0... |
15. 1 the first law of thermodynamics learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ define the first law of thermodynamics. β’ describe how conservation of energy relates to the first law of thermodynamics. β’ identify instances of the first law of thermodynamics working in everyday situations, ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.035988178104162216,
0.025485437363386154,
0.010996111668646336,
0.005499319173395634,
-0.04293718561530113,
-0.012901096604764462,
-0.00952988676726818,
-0.020852118730545044,
0.0019532341975718737,
0.053978174924850464,
0.023183338344097137,
0.037550076842308044,
0.05556803196668625,
-... |
note also that if more heat transfer into the system occurs than work done, the difference is stored as internal energy. heat engines are a good example of this β heat transfer into them takes place so that they can do work. ( see figure 15. 3. ) we will now examine,, and further. | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.028900275006890297,
0.016101103276014328,
-0.009440457448363304,
-0.003109059762209654,
-0.032555852085351944,
0.00954471156001091,
-0.01859285496175289,
-0.015283453278243542,
0.00032662521698512137,
0.056926485151052475,
0.027026919648051262,
0.05515551567077637,
0.056356851011514664,
... |
15. 1 624 15 β’ thermodynamics access for free at openstax. org figure 15. 3 the first law of thermodynamics is the conservation - of - energy principle stated for a system where heat and work are the methods of transferring energy for a system in thermal equilibrium. represents the net heat transfer β it is the sum of ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.04131247103214264,
0.025283297523856163,
0.009292960166931152,
0.007880546152591705,
-0.03647801652550697,
-0.0019234237261116505,
-0.01224850956350565,
-0.049695100635290146,
-0.0030699209310114384,
0.07463891059160233,
0.012851427309215069,
0.04145779833197594,
0.04524925351142883,
-0... |
which examines the system on the atomic and molecular scale. the internal energy of a system is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of its atoms and molecules. recall that kinetic plus potential energy is called mechanical energy. thus internal energy is the sum of atomic and molecular mechanical energy. beca... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.02895224466919899,
0.013696696609258652,
0.023380199447274208,
0.001860121265053749,
-0.035281453281641006,
-0.0036683743819594383,
-0.010640604421496391,
-0.040333133190870285,
-0.019024573266506195,
0.05916314199566841,
0.03369147330522537,
0.027399059385061264,
-0.0036393930204212666,
... |
15. 1 β’ the first law of thermodynamics 625 to get a better idea of how to think about the internal energy of a system, let us examine a system going from state 1 to state 2. the system has internal energy in state 1, and it has internal energy in state 2, no matter how it got to either state. so the change in internal... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.04811807721853256,
0.03890889137983322,
-0.005076360423117876,
-0.0009500650921836495,
-0.05959181487560272,
-0.007078195922076702,
0.0076983836479485035,
-0.035497162491083145,
-0.00708162272349,
0.09456457942724228,
0.039416804909706116,
0.04862583801150322,
0.035166896879673004,
-0.0... |
work is the work done by the system minus the work done on the system, or thus the change in internal energy is given by the first law of thermodynamics : we can also find the change in internal energy for each of the two steps. first, consider 40. 00 j of heat transfer in and 10. 00 j of work out, or now consider 25. ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.03268471360206604,
0.004763415083289146,
-0.013034135103225708,
-0.006953451782464981,
-0.02823420614004135,
-0.02307547815144062,
0.007969447411596775,
-0.05524085834622383,
-0.0030616961885243654,
0.07191558927297592,
0.043110575526952744,
0.0220487043261528,
0.029539387673139572,
-0.... |
15. 8 626 15 β’ thermodynamics access for free at openstax. org discussion on ( a ) no matter whether you look at the overall process or break it into steps, the change in internal energy is the same. solution for ( b ) here the net heat transfer and total work are given directly to be and, so that discussion on ( b ) a... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.03694206103682518,
0.032742828130722046,
0.00441523315384984,
-0.00954289361834526,
-0.04012062028050423,
-0.0003420132561586797,
-0.02001361921429634,
-0.04201299697160721,
-0.021647391840815544,
0.09697774052619934,
0.01672358624637127,
0.03388255462050438,
0.04521265625953674,
-0.066... |
the body as the system of interest, we can use the first law to examine heat transfer, doing work, and internal energy in activities ranging from sleep to heavy exercise. what are some of the major characteristics of heat transfer, doing work, and energy in the body? for one, body temperature is normally kept constant ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.006491152103990316,
0.022283285856246948,
-0.014803685247898102,
-0.02922024019062519,
0.00047866310342215,
0.0161699540913105,
0.014198516495525837,
-0.018831564113497734,
-0.002037776866927743,
0.0712193176150322,
0.01910347491502762,
0.021748464554548264,
0.06444275379180908,
-0.04409... |
15. 1 β’ the first law of thermodynamics 627 now consider the effects of eating. eating increases the internal energy of the body by adding chemical potential energy ( this is an unromantic view of a good steak ). the body metabolizes all the food we consume. basically, metabolism is an oxidation process in which the ch... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.022818220779299736,
0.007356090936809778,
0.009069440886378288,
0.0024406390730291605,
-0.04415889084339142,
0.02663792110979557,
0.011533072218298912,
0.005174365825951099,
-0.014053278602659702,
0.057425275444984436,
0.028719013556838036,
0.005232045892626047,
0.04460771009325981,
-0.... |
as fat. the reverse is true if you eat too little. if is negative for a few days, then the body metabolizes its own fat to maintain body temperature and do work that takes energy from the body. this process is how dieting produces weight loss. life is not always this simple, as any dieter knows. the body stores fat or ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.02135792002081871,
-0.0012847710167989135,
-0.022549912333488464,
0.008596209809184074,
-0.02769364044070244,
0.008061421103775501,
-0.024352936074137688,
0.016839032992720604,
-0.04187460243701935,
0.07404934614896774,
0.016315728425979614,
-0.0158400759100914,
0.055374279618263245,
-0... |
##ng ourselves or by walking down stairs. another example of an irreversible thermodynamic process is photosynthesis. this process is the intake of one form of energy β light β by plants and its conversion to chemical potential energy. both applications of the first law of thermodynamics are illustrated in figure 15. 5... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.040269408375024796,
0.0029801689088344574,
0.012227942235767841,
-0.0035738791339099407,
-0.060846321284770966,
0.008019897155463696,
-0.04247545450925827,
-0.0028072029817849398,
-0.004728232976049185,
0.09389115869998932,
0.027179278433322906,
0.026370177045464516,
0.04161175340414047,
... |
terms for the first law of thermodynamics, Ξ΄u = qβw 15. 2 the first law of thermodynamics and some simple processes learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ describe the processes of a simple heat engine. β’ explain the differences among the simple thermodynamic processes β isobaric, isoch... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.039820559322834015,
0.03793851286172867,
0.018078189343214035,
-0.024202365428209305,
-0.05239741504192352,
-0.009696777909994125,
-0.013049514032900333,
-0.028651267290115356,
-0.024770695716142654,
0.08532743155956268,
0.031118350103497505,
0.061630189418792725,
0.021434618160128593,
... |
15. 2 β’ the first law of thermodynamics and some simple processes 629 figure 15. 6 beginning with the industrial revolution, humans have harnessed power through the use of the first law of thermodynamics, before we even understood it completely. this photo, of a steam engine at the turbinia works, dates from 1911, a me... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.01725076325237751,
0.031863149255514145,
0.02723204530775547,
0.003904903307557106,
-0.04343046993017197,
0.0069083101116120815,
-0.023891258984804153,
-0.05115861818194389,
0.014139221981167793,
0.07006866484880447,
0.03179199621081352,
0.045373279601335526,
0.04712472856044769,
-0.026... |
piston. the gas does work on the outside world, as this force moves the piston through some distance. heat transfer to the gas cylinder results in work being done. to repeat this process, the piston needs to be returned to its starting point. heat transfer now occurs from the gas to the surroundings so that its pressur... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.018856480717658997,
0.046139124780893326,
-0.00019268794858362526,
0.005514380522072315,
-0.023134568706154823,
0.01701180264353752,
-0.022844189777970314,
-0.03234986960887909,
0.0011474074563011527,
0.06526164710521698,
0.04638572782278061,
0.028177781030535698,
0.0005102021968923509,
... |
15. 2 β’ the first law of thermodynamics and some simple processes 631 figure 15. 9 an isobaric expansion of a gas requires heat transfer to keep the pressure constant. since pressure is constant, the work done is. see the symbols as shown in figure 15. 9. now, and so because the volume of a cylinder is its cross - sect... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.02080358937382698,
0.02840711921453476,
0.017845958471298218,
-0.005957876797765493,
-0.04979656636714935,
-0.02750280126929283,
0.00564601831138134,
-0.03285621479153633,
0.00010269007179886103,
0.0933954119682312,
0.04883965477347374,
0.040065232664346695,
0.021044369786977768,
-0.036... |
15. 13 632 15 β’ thermodynamics access for free at openstax. org figure 15. 10 a graph of pressure versus volume for a constant - pressure, or isobaric, process, such as the one shown in figure 15. 9. the area under the curve equals the work done by the gas, since. figure 15. 11 ( a ) a diagram in which pressure varies ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.00638717133551836,
0.03528819978237152,
0.008500753901898861,
-0.03301442414522171,
-0.05460382252931595,
-0.023507896810770035,
0.01712215133011341,
-0.015156556852161884,
-0.008822879754006863,
0.13127298653125763,
0.041475601494312286,
0.017103945836424828,
-0.012755247764289379,
-0.0... |
), then the total work done is the area inside the loop. the negative area below path cd subtracts, leaving only the area inside the rectangle. in fact, the work done in any cyclical process ( one that returns to its starting point ) is the area inside the loop it forms on a diagram, as figure 15. 12 ( c ) illustrates ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.002952227368950844,
0.005125042982399464,
-0.017200736328959465,
-0.04798547923564911,
-0.00965640228241682,
-0.028026852756738663,
-0.01327005960047245,
-0.025016674771904945,
-0.027626877650618553,
0.10241621732711792,
0.030943356454372406,
0.03215786814689636,
-0.0012923009926453233,
... |
15. 2 β’ the first law of thermodynamics and some simple processes 633 there to be a net work output. figure 15. 12 ( a ) the work done in going from a to c depends on path. the work is greater for the path abc than for the path adc, because the former is at higher pressure. in both cases, the work done is the area unde... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.009808138012886047,
0.03680859133601189,
0.0225671399384737,
-0.029517194256186485,
-0.028545673936605453,
-0.040745314210653305,
-0.0006709402077831328,
-0.032522205263376236,
-0.034016840159893036,
0.10220889747142792,
0.02903001755475998,
0.02323748543858528,
0.003467837581411004,
-0... |
value is calculated for each leg of the path around the closed loop. solution for ( a ) the work along path ab is since the path bc is isochoric,, and so. the work along path cd is negative, since is negative ( the volume decreases ). the work is again, since the path da is isochoric,, and so. now the total work is sol... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.012551200576126575,
0.03416901454329491,
0.014682176522910595,
-0.0035206263419240713,
-0.034545980393886566,
-0.0026119856629520655,
0.015162132680416107,
-0.008589716628193855,
-0.02482813037931919,
0.09848268330097198,
0.04407321289181709,
0.016397280618548393,
0.011260177940130234,
... |
gas is its only form of internal energy, and so its total internal energy is Γ Γ 15. 14 Γ Γ 15. 15 15. 16 Γ Γ Γ 15. 17 15. 18 15. 19 15. 20 | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.0027934550307691097,
0.02875186689198017,
0.031533412635326385,
-0.013868803158402443,
-0.0572596900165081,
0.008713934570550919,
0.024409150704741478,
0.007147088181227446,
0.025177650153636932,
0.06357225775718689,
0.018173327669501305,
0.025945082306861877,
0.004033748060464859,
-0.03... |
15. 2 β’ the first law of thermodynamics and some simple processes 635 where is the number of atoms in the gas. this relationship means that the internal energy of an ideal monatomic gas is constant during an isothermal process β that is,. if the internal energy does not change, then the net heat transfer into the gas m... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.014098426327109337,
0.04179750010371208,
0.00909506157040596,
-0.004211471416056156,
-0.030534017831087112,
0.0020717016886919737,
-0.025701623409986496,
-0.03508181869983673,
-0.01262421254068613,
0.09158118814229965,
0.0380861721932888,
0.0009146363590843976,
0.01993703655898571,
-0.0... |
is an adiabatic process ( ). both start from the same point a, but the isothermal process does more work than the adiabatic because heat transfer into the gas takes place to keep its temperature constant. this keeps the pressure higher all along the isothermal path than along the adiabatic path, producing more work. th... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.03528632968664169,
0.03372527286410332,
0.01353347860276699,
-0.010063404217362404,
-0.008666280657052994,
-0.023626945912837982,
-0.05299757793545723,
-0.04684750363230705,
-0.027171708643436432,
0.0789261907339096,
0.0336039662361145,
0.012803367339074612,
0.022829841822385788,
-0.053... |
15. 21 636 15 β’ thermodynamics access for free at openstax. org macroscopic processes are never exactly reversible. in the previous examples, our system is a gas ( like that in figure 15. 9 ), and its environment is the piston, cylinder, and the rest of the universe. if there are any energy - dissipating mechanisms, su... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.01754900999367237,
0.02850138209760189,
0.01120858546346426,
0.027788516134023666,
-0.03157477453351021,
0.006055026780813932,
-0.03960546851158142,
-0.02740044891834259,
-0.012734447605907917,
0.12047705054283142,
0.027853894978761673,
0.02640276588499546,
0.013758120127022266,
-0.0004... |
types of molecules form a solid, liquid, or gas. add or remove heat and watch the phase change. change the temperature or volume of a container and see a pressure - temperature diagram respond in real time. relate the interaction potential to the forces between molecules. click to view content ( https : / / openstax. o... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.028874624520540237,
0.03145354613661766,
0.05697620287537575,
-0.023757608607411385,
-0.06577092409133911,
-0.010419155471026897,
-0.025774728506803513,
0.0000859638093970716,
-0.008687964640557766,
0.07321036607027054,
0.02879512682557106,
0.030691921710968018,
0.03629763424396515,
-0.... |
15. 3 β’ introduction to the second law of thermodynamics : heat engines and their efficiency 637 figure 15. 14 these ice floes melt during the arctic summer. some of them refreeze in the winter, but the second law of thermodynamics predicts that it would be extremely unlikely for the water molecules contained in these ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.031577881425619125,
0.04501776024699211,
0.023395514115691185,
0.001317529589869082,
-0.0534110926091671,
-0.0054887146688997746,
-0.026012932881712914,
-0.0067241317592561245,
-0.012985427863895893,
0.11634694784879684,
0.03343142941594124,
0.025425978004932404,
0.047518935054540634,
-... |
is never observed to happen. ( see figure 15. 15. ) 638 15 β’ thermodynamics access for free at openstax. org figure 15. 15 examples of one - way processes in nature. ( a ) heat transfer occurs spontaneously from hot to cold and not from cold to hot. ( b ) the brakes of this car convert its kinetic energy to heat transf... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.050256893038749695,
0.02091691456735134,
0.02770746499300003,
0.00900182407349348,
-0.05954048037528992,
-0.01282873097807169,
-0.029126804322004318,
0.013962212949991226,
-0.007002166006714106,
0.10577822476625443,
0.029107162728905678,
0.01712338998913765,
0.07076843082904816,
-0.0256... |
hot object ( or hot reservoir ) is denoted as, while heat transfer into the cold object ( or cold reservoir ) is, and the work done by the engine is. the temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs are and, respectively. the second law of thermodynamics ( first expression ) heat transfer occurs spontaneously from highe... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.042419083416461945,
0.017717283219099045,
0.022482117637991905,
-0.022321106866002083,
-0.01633535325527191,
-0.02936233952641487,
-0.011537250131368637,
-0.012955129146575928,
-0.011133414693176746,
0.0783960148692131,
0.02122589759528637,
0.05323677137494087,
0.04197598621249199,
-0.0... |
15. 3 β’ introduction to the second law of thermodynamics : heat engines and their efficiency 639 figure 15. 16 ( a ) heat transfer occurs spontaneously from a hot object to a cold one, consistent with the second law of thermodynamics. ( b ) a heat engine, represented here by a circle, uses part of the heat transfer to ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.030091239139437675,
0.03235745057463646,
0.038847580552101135,
-0.010377654805779457,
-0.050855010747909546,
0.0014107617316767573,
-0.03659043088555336,
-0.02517903596162796,
-0.019870758056640625,
0.09384171664714813,
0.019905559718608856,
0.04019150137901306,
0.04023684561252594,
-0.... |
by the system. since for a complete cycle, we have so that thus the net work done by the system equals the net heat transfer into the system, or just as shown schematically in figure 15. 16 ( b ). the problem is that in all processes, there is some heat transfer to the environment β and usually a very significant amoun... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.030441343784332275,
0.03167670965194702,
0.012668132781982422,
0.0009312728070653975,
-0.048915132880210876,
-0.02003725990653038,
-0.028430914506316185,
-0.01147045660763979,
-0.01451997272670269,
0.07463780045509338,
0.014047566801309586,
0.027329636737704277,
0.04426208883523941,
-0.... |
15. 25 640 15 β’ thermodynamics access for free at openstax. org ratio of what we get to what we spend ). in that spirit, we define the efficiency of a heat engine to be its net work output divided by heat transfer to the engine ; that is, since in a cyclical process, we can also express this as making it clear that an ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.008723407983779907,
0.030445028096437454,
0.005436352454125881,
0.0063914163038134575,
-0.013955006375908852,
0.007230584509670734,
-0.0029940165113657713,
-0.02536788396537304,
-0.01696692779660225,
0.04700824245810509,
0.026493944227695465,
0.043365687131881714,
0.05189456418156624,
-... |
strategy for ( b ) the efficiency can be calculated with since is given and work was found in the first part of this example. solution for ( b ) efficiency is given by :. the work was just found to be, and is given, so the efficiency is 15. 26 15. 27 15. 28 Γ Γ 15. 29 15. 30 | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.015480048954486847,
0.0166089478880167,
0.008298555389046669,
-0.007359643001109362,
-0.07424160838127136,
-0.008266860619187355,
-0.011685715988278389,
0.015940196812152863,
-0.010026615113019943,
0.05105273425579071,
0.03255464509129524,
0.0518079474568367,
-0.0030625085346400738,
0.00... |
15. 3 β’ introduction to the second law of thermodynamics : heat engines and their efficiency 641 strategy for ( c ) the daily consumption of coal is calculated using the information that each day there is Γ of heat transfer from coal. in the combustion process, we have. so every 12 kg of coal puts 12 kg + 16 kg + 16 kg... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.014970609918236732,
0.043214693665504456,
0.025448264554142952,
0.003605613484978676,
-0.03143487870693207,
0.050539810210466385,
-0.03716093301773071,
-0.021862611174583435,
0.012364198453724384,
0.03896177187561989,
0.04398171976208687,
0.016016464680433273,
0.04642859101295471,
-0.03... |
mechanism of the engine will give us greater insight. figure 15. 17 illustrates the operation of the common four - stroke gasoline engine. the four steps shown complete this heat engine β s cycle, bringing the gasoline - air mixture back to its original condition. the otto cycle shown in figure 15. 18 ( a ) is used in ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.006584887392818928,
0.028429117053747177,
0.03092585876584053,
-0.0006292193429544568,
-0.014684540219604969,
0.007498974446207285,
-0.03021930158138275,
-0.04265708476305008,
-0.024067342281341553,
0.08890609443187714,
0.06444814056158066,
0.010744870640337467,
0.04131738096475601,
-0.... |
system to occur in order to get a net work output. in the otto cycle, heat transfer occurs along path da. if Γ Γ Γ 15. 31 Γ Γ Γ | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.018888112157583237,
0.049252886325120926,
-0.006573831662535667,
-0.007086070720106363,
-0.021231763064861298,
0.003503797808662057,
-0.03606162592768669,
-0.03389715403318405,
0.0027474642265588045,
0.10841630399227142,
0.02447914332151413,
0.03396124765276909,
0.04456159844994545,
-0.... |
15. 32 642 15 β’ thermodynamics access for free at openstax. org no heat transfer occurs, then the return path is the same, and the net work output is zero. the lower the temperature on the path ab, the less work has to be done to compress the gas. the area inside the closed path is then greater, and so the engine does ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.011598789133131504,
0.05566135793924332,
0.03112637624144554,
0.010762427002191544,
-0.024751299992203712,
0.027365831658244133,
-0.039998188614845276,
-0.027663301676511765,
-0.026338739320635796,
0.10102114826440811,
0.033989809453487396,
0.023322179913520813,
0.022856447845697403,
-0... |
an internal combustion engine. paths ab and cd are adiabatic and correspond to the compression and power strokes of an internal combustion engine, respectively. paths bc and da are isochoric and accomplish similar results to the ignition and exhaust - intake portions, respectively, of the internal combustion engine β s... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.04070194065570831,
0.02897539734840393,
0.02943502739071846,
-0.0416000597178936,
-0.026695460081100464,
-0.011277544312179089,
-0.034278903156518936,
-0.03259432688355446,
-0.01767224818468094,
0.09199176728725433,
0.022569801658391953,
0.018799809738993645,
0.03663086146116257,
-0.049... |
15. 4 carnot β s perfect heat engine : the second law of thermodynamics restated learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ identify a carnot cycle. β’ calculate maximum theoretical efficiency of a nuclear reactor. β’ explain how dissipative processes affect the ideal carnot engine. figure 15... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.006569143384695053,
0.04002567008137703,
0.022466132417321205,
0.005285758059471846,
-0.015676269307732582,
-0.011818695813417435,
-0.04625314101576805,
-0.023733245208859444,
0.011761629022657871,
0.06640107184648514,
0.006520791444927454,
-0.006437984760850668,
0.06442216038703918,
-0.... |
##not cycle is called a carnot engine. what is crucial to the carnot cycle β and, in fact, defines it β is that only reversible processes are used. irreversible processes involve dissipative factors, such as friction and turbulence. this increases heat transfer to the environment and reduces the efficiency of the engin... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.011353815905749798,
0.04294649511575699,
0.007985364645719528,
0.0023946776054799557,
-0.026116468012332916,
0.017309339717030525,
-0.047172099351882935,
-0.020597297698259354,
-0.020815789699554443,
0.09343567490577698,
0.02953571081161499,
-0.00302129122428596,
0.04698609188199043,
-0.... |
efficiency would be possible only if β that is, only if the cold reservoir were at absolute zero, a practical and theoretical impossibility. but the physical implication is this β the only way to have all heat transfer go into doing work is to remove all thermal energy, and this requires a cold reservoir at absolute ze... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.004172181710600853,
0.038810037076473236,
0.010486611165106297,
-0.005925168748944998,
-0.013708289712667465,
-0.008476086892187595,
-0.04098443314433098,
-0.00034538726322352886,
-0.037709616124629974,
0.10266919434070587,
0.021004311740398407,
0.017356786876916885,
0.04818243160843849,
... |
15. 4 β’ carnot β s perfect heat engine : the second law of thermodynamics restated 645 practically not, due to limitations with materials used in the reactor. ) heat transfer from this water is a complex process ( see figure 15. 22 ). steam, produced in the steam generator, is used to drive the turbine - generators. ev... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.018881669268012047,
0.039901819080114365,
0.01819615811109543,
-0.005023195408284664,
-0.014876316301524639,
-0.022271594032645226,
-0.010360145010054111,
-0.005016793962568045,
-0.0065284110605716705,
0.03990662842988968,
-0.007165928371250629,
0.011802202090620995,
0.05636288970708847,
... |
oil, and natural gas have greater actual efficiencies ( about 42 % ), because their boilers can reach higher temperatures and pressures. the cold reservoir temperature in any of these power stations is limited by the local environment. figure 15. 23 shows ( a ) the exterior of a nuclear power station and ( b ) the exte... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.010391540825366974,
-0.0032730703242123127,
0.0127445412799716,
-0.02525588683784008,
0.013822593726217747,
0.006275524850934744,
-0.03525048866868019,
0.01383399311453104,
0.0039135245606303215,
0.02950603887438774,
0.0517718605697155,
0.011458374559879303,
0.05907062813639641,
-0.0120... |
15. 36 646 15 β’ thermodynamics access for free at openstax. org figure 15. 23 ( a ) a nuclear power station ( credit : blatantworld. com ) and ( b ) a coal - fired power station. both have cooling towers in which water evaporates into the environment, representing. the nuclear reactor, which supplies, is housed inside ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.010613875463604927,
0.03898273780941963,
0.020277805626392365,
-0.01297076791524887,
0.004440390970557928,
0.0026236881967633963,
-0.050398021936416626,
-0.030995884910225868,
-0.008793042041361332,
0.040262121707201004,
0.018228715285658836,
0.03172140195965767,
0.06638041138648987,
-0... |
15. 5 applications of thermodynamics : heat pumps and refrigerators learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ describe the use of heat engines in heat pumps and refrigerators. β’ demonstrate how a heat pump works to warm an interior space. β’ explain the differences between heat pumps and re... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.008548511192202568,
0.04609775170683861,
-0.006489538121968508,
0.012176426127552986,
-0.03838835656642914,
0.028420796617865562,
-0.050306547433137894,
0.0161978118121624,
-0.027612028643488884,
0.076743483543396,
0.005362679250538349,
0.023094965144991875,
0.03706486150622368,
-0.02010... |
reversible ) engine. ( a ) schematic diagram showing heat transfer from a cold reservoir to a warm reservoir with a heat pump. the directions of,, and are opposite what they would be in a heat engine. ( b ) diagram for a carnot cycle similar to that in figure | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.006198457907885313,
0.004823722410947084,
-0.025443118065595627,
-0.025659753009676933,
-0.03409908711910248,
-0.005632573273032904,
-0.021176394075155258,
-0.022878089919686317,
-0.03115093521773815,
0.09331313520669937,
0.012990456074476242,
0.0248667374253273,
0.03240654617547989,
-0... |
15. 27 but reversed, following path adcba. the area inside the loop is negative, meaning there is a net work input. there is heat transfer into the system from a cold reservoir along path dc, and heat transfer out of the system into a hot reservoir along path ba. heat pumps the great advantage of using a heat pump to k... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.012976359575986862,
0.04933397099375725,
-0.010948932729661465,
0.003123447299003601,
-0.0035479189828038216,
0.014695560559630394,
-0.02689957246184349,
0.004836756270378828,
-0.0007467767572961748,
0.08727964013814926,
0.07116807997226715,
0.024591997265815735,
0.04713159054517746,
-0... |
room, heat transfer from the gas to the room | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.006927667651325464,
0.05349896103143692,
-0.026007233187556267,
0.014143039472401142,
-0.03386120870709419,
-0.017162015661597252,
-0.006456711795181036,
0.02619125321507454,
0.007898854091763496,
0.03817947581410408,
0.020657628774642944,
0.03415761515498161,
0.032625116407871246,
-0.00... |
15. 5 β’ applications of thermodynamics : heat pumps and refrigerators 649 occurs as the gas condenses to a liquid. the working fluid is then cooled as it flows back through an expansion valve ( 2 ) to the outdoor evaporator coils. the electrically driven compressor ( work input ) raises the temperature and pressure of ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.015930285677313805,
0.059669945389032364,
0.019989896565675735,
0.015728088095784187,
-0.026724809780716896,
0.02430793270468712,
-0.045847222208976746,
-0.004124713595956564,
-0.02851627767086029,
0.0801057443022728,
0.03097689151763916,
0.03344007954001427,
0.0450243279337883,
-0.0530... |
the work input by converting part of it to heat transfer back into the cold reservoir before it gets into the heat pump. figure 15. 28 when a real heat engine is run backward, some of the intended work input goes into heat transfer before it gets into the heat engine, thereby reducing its coefficient of performance. in... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.007720773108303547,
0.03597613051533699,
-0.0005098151159472764,
0.019842032343149185,
-0.007724124472588301,
0.03433000668883324,
-0.041087470948696136,
-0.009821359068155289,
-0.01319381594657898,
0.0799265056848526,
0.019541071727871895,
0.04467890411615372,
0.04792844131588936,
-0.0... |
15. 37 650 15 β’ thermodynamics access for free at openstax. org what is the best coefficient of performance possible for such a heat pump, if it has a hot reservoir temperature of and a cold reservoir temperature of? strategy a carnot engine reversed will give the best possible performance as a heat pump. as noted abov... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.009820341132581234,
0.046061646193265915,
-0.00013155709893908352,
0.005433749873191118,
-0.02560810185968876,
0.0180515106767416,
-0.027311250567436218,
0.022067425772547722,
-0.030503811314702034,
0.0730053186416626,
0.038934290409088135,
0.024387268349528313,
0.05916479229927063,
-0.0... |
15. 5 β’ applications of thermodynamics : heat pumps and refrigerators 651 work put into them. their economical feasibility is still limited, however, since is usually supplied by electrical energy that costs more per joule than heat transfer by burning fuels like natural gas. furthermore, the initial cost of a heat pum... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.006498148199170828,
0.053955961018800735,
-0.004462085664272308,
0.02226400189101696,
-0.048856910318136215,
0.016464676707983017,
-0.019926462322473526,
-0.007491506636142731,
-0.030316058546304703,
0.06484538316726685,
0.030053937807679176,
0.010649099946022034,
0.04836554825305939,
-... |
, you will show that for a heat engine used as either an air conditioner or a heat pump operating between the same two temperatures. real air conditioners and refrigerators typically do remarkably well, having values of ranging from 2 to 6. these numbers are better than the values for the heat pumps mentioned above, be... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.006197335198521614,
0.05578388646245003,
-0.005911035463213921,
0.0005145798204466701,
-0.04300868138670921,
0.0049963523633778095,
0.014612582512199879,
-0.002329906215891242,
-0.019074445590376854,
0.06149795278906822,
0.028553469106554985,
0.02725493535399437,
0.022333277389407158,
-0... |
15. 6 entropy and the second law of thermodynamics : disorder and the unavailability of energy learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ define entropy and calculate the increase of entropy in a system with reversible and irreversible processes. β’ explain the expected fate of the universe ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.02802950143814087,
0.05952489748597145,
0.010378415696322918,
-0.011632056906819344,
-0.056666526943445206,
-0.010892503894865513,
-0.007766660302877426,
-0.007486799266189337,
-0.02029416337609291,
0.09083250910043716,
0.01730397529900074,
0.00690375966951251,
0.05849838629364967,
-0.0... |
##s ). be sure to distinguish heat transfer into a system from heat transfer out of the system, as well as work input from work output. in many situations, it is useful to determine the type of process, such as isothermal or adiabatic. 5. solve the appropriate equation for the quantity to be determined ( the unknown ).... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.02194437012076378,
0.051349665969610214,
0.003023736411705613,
0.0038294107653200626,
-0.031203288584947586,
0.01420761737972498,
-0.00953250378370285,
-0.021311579272150993,
0.00764156598597765,
0.0635344609618187,
0.05938566103577614,
0.039141032844781876,
0.024455932900309563,
-0.033... |
15. 6 β’ entropy and the second law of thermodynamics : disorder and the unavailability of energy 653 we can see how entropy is defined by recalling our discussion of the carnot engine. we noted that for a carnot cycle, and hence for any reversible processes,. rearranging terms yields for any reversible process. and are... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.015417493879795074,
0.06162722408771515,
0.01818247325718403,
-0.020881056785583496,
-0.051497142761945724,
0.0026720829773694277,
-0.02092033624649048,
-0.03913220763206482,
-0.037049032747745514,
0.09825354814529419,
0.03892352804541588,
-0.004425423685461283,
0.037044450640678406,
-0... |
is taken. now let us take a look at the change in entropy of a carnot engine and its heat reservoirs for one full cycle. the hot reservoir has a loss of entropy, because heat transfer occurs out of it ( remember that when heat transfers out, then has a negative sign ). the cold reservoir has a gain of entropy, because ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.01252380944788456,
0.04065299406647682,
0.0031435638666152954,
-0.008107203058898449,
-0.04120297357439995,
-0.011223512701690197,
-0.01941515877842903,
-0.025064248591661453,
-0.03220495581626892,
0.08820471167564392,
0.029157299548387527,
0.015053508803248405,
0.052377425134181976,
-0... |
15. 47 654 15 β’ thermodynamics access for free at openstax. org thus, since we know that for a carnot engine, this result, which has general validity, means that the total change in entropy for a system in any reversible process is zero. the entropy of various parts of the system may change, but the total change is zer... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.02075663022696972,
0.060269713401794434,
0.015729449689388275,
-0.02719275653362274,
-0.029019631445407867,
-0.004320131614804268,
-0.02838117815554142,
-0.027530774474143982,
-0.05697692930698395,
0.10274875164031982,
0.04297059774398804,
0.007477282080799341,
0.02679009735584259,
-0.0... |
the hot and cold reservoirs that would occur if the heat transfer were allowed to occur irreversibly between them, and so it also produces the same changes in entropy. solution we now calculate the two changes in entropy using. first, for the heat transfer from the hot reservoir, and for the cold reservoir, thus the to... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.050337113440036774,
0.04476862773299217,
0.009060602635145187,
-0.0010604186682030559,
-0.03569682314991951,
-0.01993182860314846,
-0.05046588554978371,
-0.027004487812519073,
-0.04637383297085762,
0.1051894947886467,
0.03320661187171936,
0.027946870774030685,
0.053312234580516815,
-0.0... |
15. 6 β’ entropy and the second law of thermodynamics : disorder and the unavailability of energy 655 figure 15. 33 ( a ) heat transfer from a hot object to a cold one is an irreversible process that produces an overall increase in entropy. ( b ) the same final state and, thus, the same change in entropy is achieved for... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.04271664842963219,
0.04875042662024498,
0.004365593194961548,
-0.008210718631744385,
-0.039266593754291534,
-0.008871546015143394,
-0.02137247659265995,
-0.029445692896842957,
-0.04568355903029442,
0.1093754768371582,
0.030902743339538574,
0.012822889722883701,
0.05105063319206238,
-0.0... |
reason is that entropy is directly related to the fact that not all heat transfer can be converted into work. the next example gives some indication of how an increase in entropy results in less heat transfer into work. example 15. 7 less work is produced by a given heat transfer when entropy change is greater ( a ) ca... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.019320163875818253,
0.05065254494547844,
0.0076092323288321495,
-0.0005355776520445943,
-0.02516866847872734,
-0.02006067894399166,
-0.01094458345323801,
-0.014823967590928078,
-0.04674636945128441,
0.06874935328960419,
0.04110421985387802,
0.01989012025296688,
0.05222541093826294,
-0.0... |
15. 6 β’ entropy and the second law of thermodynamics : disorder and the unavailability of energy 657 figure 15. 34 ( a ) a carnot engine working at between 600 k and 100 k has 4000 j of heat transfer and performs 3333 j of work. ( b ) the 4000 j of heat transfer occurs first irreversibly to a 250 k reservoir and then g... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.01203372236341238,
0.06311293691396713,
0.02325611002743244,
-0.019575349986553192,
-0.05566920340061188,
-0.01936212368309498,
-0.02492305263876915,
-0.016880681738257408,
-0.026703061535954475,
0.07956691831350327,
0.01919727772474289,
-0.002315936842933297,
0.03805720433592796,
-0.05... |
their usually violent births, at which time they were provided with energy of their own β nuclear energy in the case of stars, volcanic energy on earth and other planets, and so on. without additional energy input, however, their days are numbered. as entropy increases, less and less energy in the universe is available... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.017104104161262512,
0.07714652270078659,
0.03591599687933922,
-0.037888918071985245,
-0.02414564974606037,
-0.00048693022108636796,
-0.02314998395740986,
0.018668871372938156,
-0.01933668553829193,
0.038826070725917816,
0.01526795793324709,
0.005398640874773264,
0.027150975540280342,
-0... |
15. 60 658 15 β’ thermodynamics access for free at openstax. org provide tidal energy. but earth β s geothermal energy will slowly run down and won β t be replenished. but in terms of the universe, and the very long - term, very large - scale picture, the entropy of the universe is increasing, and so the availability of... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.002493673237040639,
0.055558428168296814,
0.007748059928417206,
-0.004078366328030825,
-0.04675317928195,
-0.018013494089245796,
0.0053602852858603,
-0.027413250878453255,
-0.0018716035410761833,
0.06484125554561615,
0.052589837461709976,
-0.008830451406538486,
0.02646508254110813,
-0.04... |
the change in entropy is defined as : here is the heat transfer necessary to melt 1. 00 kg of ice and is given by where is the mass and is the latent heat of fusion. for water, so that now the change in entropy is positive, since heat transfer occurs into the ice to cause the phase change ; thus, is the melting tempera... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.0036816224455833435,
0.0448056161403656,
0.010478047654032707,
0.016401374712586403,
-0.037960879504680634,
-0.01091835554689169,
0.020127953961491585,
-0.037873417139053345,
-0.03884189575910568,
0.0714627280831337,
0.055044397711753845,
0.008885037153959274,
0.02452920936048031,
-0.040... |
15. 6 β’ entropy and the second law of thermodynamics : disorder and the unavailability of energy 659 figure 15. 35 when ice melts, it becomes more disordered and less structured. the systematic arrangement of molecules in a crystal structure is replaced by a more random and less orderly movement of molecules without fi... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.03864012286067009,
0.049721796065568924,
0.03366323187947273,
-0.016471007838845253,
-0.06118922680616379,
-0.017676055431365967,
-0.019346384331583977,
-0.02380206808447838,
-0.020460158586502075,
0.07689011096954346,
0.026921086013317108,
-0.005847044289112091,
0.03692875802516937,
-0... |
life violates this law. over time, complex organisms evolved from much simpler ancestors, representing a large decrease in entropy of the earth β s biosphere. it is a fact that living organisms have evolved to be highly structured, and much lower in entropy than the substances from which they grow. but it is always pos... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.03137339651584625,
0.03783475607633591,
0.023125747218728065,
-0.04469360411167145,
-0.03995850309729576,
-0.016207749024033546,
-0.02837296575307846,
-0.019965963438153267,
-0.0027567932847887278,
0.07930487394332886,
0.03263458237051964,
-0.02819603495299816,
0.034451793879270554,
-0.... |
15. 66 660 15 β’ thermodynamics access for free at openstax. org cold reservoir supplied by dark outer space β a heat engine of high complexity, causing local decreases in entropy as it uses part of the heat transfer from the sun into deep space. there is a large total increase in entropy resulting from this massive hea... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.023588206619024277,
0.04878828674554825,
0.043387752026319504,
-0.03857448324561119,
-0.051430635154247284,
0.0061982073821127415,
-0.044861022382974625,
0.001781447441317141,
-0.03641967102885246,
0.09808573871850967,
0.02474965713918209,
0.015424911864101887,
0.02397073805332184,
-0.0... |
15. 7 β’ statistical interpretation of entropy and the second law of thermodynamics : the underlying explanation 661 why should heat transfer occur only from hot to cold? why should energy become ever less available to do work? why should the universe become increasingly disorderly? the answer is that it is a matter of ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.007940009236335754,
0.018374236300587654,
0.04554343596100807,
-0.017689526081085205,
-0.03803212195634842,
-0.01997656188905239,
-0.013853109441697598,
0.009530781768262386,
-0.005055979825556278,
0.10715064406394958,
0.05052722990512848,
-0.03243592008948326,
-0.0014109730254858732,
-... |
a system. individual microstates number of microstates 5 heads, 0 tails hhhhh 1 4 heads, 1 tail hhhht, hhhth, hhthh, hthhh, thhhh 5 3 heads, 2 tails hthth, ththh, hthht, thhth, thhht hthth, ththh, hthht, thhth, thhht 10 2 heads, 3 tails ttthh, tthht, thhtt, hhttt, tthth, ththt, hthtt, thtth, httht, httth 10 1 head, 4 t... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.03209652006626129,
0.020610051229596138,
0.012259449809789658,
-0.01081007905304432,
-0.04191107302904129,
-0.04432731866836548,
-0.005710511468350887,
0.029850639402866364,
-0.005542696453630924,
0.07018981128931046,
0.06828570365905762,
-0.005346793681383133,
-0.028727177530527115,
0.0... |
15. 67 662 15 β’ thermodynamics access for free at openstax. org individual microstates number of microstates 0 heads, 5 tails ttttt 1 total : 32 table 15. 3 5 - coin toss the macrostate of 3 heads and 2 tails can be achieved in 10 ways and is thus 10 times more probable than the one having 5 heads. not surprisingly, it... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.007042755372822285,
0.016879132017493248,
0.008950071409344673,
-0.030001938343048096,
-0.0444340817630291,
-0.03941098228096962,
-0.026015685871243477,
0.048562683165073395,
-0.025902122259140015,
0.08451326191425323,
0.08465319126844406,
-0.04713335260748863,
-0.027273623272776604,
-0.... |
Γ 60 40 Γ 55 45 Γ 51 49 Γ 50 50 Γ table 15. 4 100 - coin toss | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.03337341174483299,
0.005960560869425535,
0.0064531657844781876,
0.006352681200951338,
-0.09182995557785034,
-0.03252571076154709,
0.024950744584202766,
0.029700670391321182,
0.0005662080366164446,
0.004805777221918106,
0.08318056166172028,
0.02937912754714489,
0.018953105434775352,
-0.02... |
15. 7 β’ statistical interpretation of entropy and the second law of thermodynamics : the underlying explanation 663 macrostate number of microstates 49 51 Γ 45 55 Γ 40 60 Γ 25 75 Γ 10 90 Γ 5 95 Γ 1 99 Γ 0 100 1 total : Γ table 15. 4 100 - coin toss this result becomes dramatic for larger systems. consider what happens ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.00939867738634348,
0.002274039201438427,
0.01871028169989586,
-0.031297679990530014,
-0.057674210518598557,
-0.0411127507686615,
-0.01709333434700966,
0.02699407935142517,
-0.028594525530934334,
0.07479381561279297,
0.06703109294176102,
-0.021993733942508698,
-0.01814158260822296,
0.0018... |
15. 4 is an abbreviated list of the various macrostates and the number of microstates for each macrostate. the total number of microstates β the total number of different ways 100 coins can be tossed β is an impressively large. now, if we start with an orderly macrostate like 100 heads and toss the coins, there is a vi... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.017606426030397415,
0.028765693306922913,
0.03076760657131672,
-0.006807310041040182,
-0.029078088700771332,
-0.03544655069708824,
-0.011389502324163914,
0.029882466420531273,
0.0035294615663588047,
0.07433950901031494,
0.06132190674543381,
-0.04585174098610878,
0.006927498150616884,
-0.... |
same pressure, temperature, and so on. the most likely conditions ( or macrostates ) for a gas are those we see all the time β a random distribution of atoms in space with a maxwell - boltzmann distribution of speeds in random directions, as predicted by kinetic theory. this 664 15 β’ thermodynamics access for free at o... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.013267558068037033,
-0.00702192448079586,
0.03247755020856857,
0.004765586461871862,
-0.03147652745246887,
-0.03865458071231842,
-0.025224220007658005,
0.014588636346161366,
-0.014064145274460316,
0.07291600853204727,
0.03805875405669212,
-0.040442824363708496,
0.027183115482330322,
-0.... |
state ( figure 15. 38 ( b ) ). entropy will increase. with such a large sample of atoms, it is possible β but unimaginably unlikely β for entropy to decrease. disorder is vastly more likely than order. the arguments that disorder and high entropy are the most probable states are quite convincing. the great austrian phy... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.015545419417321682,
0.015022670850157738,
0.03487113490700722,
-0.0299436766654253,
-0.03748762980103493,
-0.042577147483825684,
-0.007921850308775902,
-0.006257778033614159,
-0.026662832126021385,
0.0762934461236,
0.05403182655572891,
-0.03737093135714531,
0.02696334756910801,
-0.04206... |
15. 7 β’ statistical interpretation of entropy and the second law of thermodynamics : the underlying explanation 665 example 15. 9 entropy increases in a coin toss suppose you toss 100 coins starting with 60 heads and 40 tails, and you get the most likely result, 50 heads and 50 tails. what is the change in entropy? str... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.0019679160322993994,
0.035847730934619904,
0.008391287177801132,
-0.020160090178251266,
-0.06448131799697876,
-0.0343107134103775,
-0.004107935354113579,
0.003959756810218096,
-0.02488034777343273,
0.07835139334201813,
0.09216427057981491,
-0.020336078479886055,
0.015882199630141258,
-0.... |
15. 70 problem - solving strategies for entropy 1. examine the situation to determine if entropy is involved. 2. identify the system of interest and draw a labeled diagram of the system showing energy flow. 3. identify exactly what needs to be determined in the problem ( identify the unknowns ). a written list is usefu... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.013260428793728352,
0.047929659485816956,
0.009539403952658176,
-0.004600830376148224,
-0.04632048308849335,
-0.00025016366271302104,
-0.030571315437555313,
-0.015620865859091282,
-0.026403818279504776,
0.08159397542476654,
0.02996828220784664,
-0.004862649366259575,
0.04929069057106972,
... |
state at the end of every cycle entropy a measurement of a system's disorder and its inability to do work in a system first law of thermodynamics states that the change in internal energy of a system equals the net heat transfer into the system minus the net work done by the system heat engine a machine that uses heat ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.047929547727108,
0.029605569317936897,
0.023005057126283646,
-0.01445094682276249,
-0.042955879122018814,
-0.02928055450320244,
-0.024367613717913628,
-0.031431134790182114,
-0.016361234709620476,
0.08712908625602722,
0.024562379345297813,
0.0028662930708378553,
0.03878725320100784,
-0.... |
all heat transfer into and out of the system ), and is the net work done ( the sum of all work done on or by the system ). β’ both and are energy in transit ; only represents an independent quantity capable of being stored. β’ the internal energy of a system depends only on the state of the system and not how it reached ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.04567708075046539,
0.010583920404314995,
0.0007263910956680775,
-0.008204818703234196,
-0.0199199877679348,
0.004847827833145857,
-0.003817763412371278,
-0.021755266934633255,
-0.0009143631905317307,
0.040440626442432404,
0.026921723037958145,
0.044304393231868744,
0.05200101435184479,
... |
15. 2 the first law of thermodynamics and some simple processes β’ one of the important implications of the first law of thermodynamics is that machines can be harnessed to do work that humans previously did by hand or by external energy supplies such as running water or the heat of the sun. a machine that uses heat tra... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.05860123783349991,
0.060122888535261154,
-0.002613985911011696,
-0.0119663430377841,
-0.03788772597908974,
-0.0009957124711945653,
-0.027032025158405304,
-0.0528736412525177,
-0.015186593867838383,
0.08903568238019943,
0.016759274527430534,
0.03917904570698738,
0.04390851408243179,
-0.0... |
15. 3 introduction to the second law of thermodynamics : heat engines and their efficiency β’ the two expressions of the second law of thermodynamics are : ( i ) heat transfer occurs spontaneously from higher - to lower - temperature bodies but never spontaneously in the reverse direction ; and ( ii ) it is impossible i... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.01425161026418209,
0.057902202010154724,
0.042581722140312195,
-0.007836355827748775,
-0.04340491071343422,
0.013275796547532082,
-0.04626811295747757,
-0.02191489189863205,
-0.01900133304297924,
0.09957368671894073,
0.011987692676484585,
0.026780463755130768,
0.034662384539842606,
-0.0... |
. 5 applications of thermodynamics : heat pumps and refrigerators β’ an artifact of the second law of thermodynamics is the ability to heat an interior space using a heat pump. heat pumps compress cold ambient air and, in so doing, heat it to room temperature without violation of conservation principles. β’ to calculate ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.023056760430336,
0.06078539043664932,
0.009762566536664963,
-0.017590610310435295,
-0.06604844331741333,
-0.01047141756862402,
-0.03109230473637581,
0.008750654757022858,
-0.03979085385799408,
0.10664792358875275,
0.019714079797267914,
-0.013928856700658798,
0.02641865983605385,
-0.0237... |
15. 1 the first law of thermodynamics 1. describe the photo of the tea kettle at the beginning of this section in terms of heat transfer, work done, and internal energy. how is heat being transferred? what is the work done and what is doing it? how does the kettle maintain its internal energy? 2. the first law of therm... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.03146015480160713,
0.01731773465871811,
0.018289785832166672,
0.0017035225173458457,
-0.027980633080005646,
-0.01007331907749176,
-0.009008447639644146,
-0.003408778691664338,
-0.014973419718444347,
0.0690629705786705,
-0.0017572336364537477,
0.06767991930246353,
0.04858984425663948,
-0... |
15. 2 the first law of thermodynamics and some simple processes 8. a great deal of effort, time, and money has been spent in the quest for the so - called perpetual - motion machine, which is defined as a hypothetical machine that operates or produces useful work indefinitely and / or a hypothetical machine that produc... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.004909433424472809,
0.05084570497274399,
0.01849164068698883,
0.02028508484363556,
-0.0453779399394989,
-0.0036452305503189564,
-0.03463605046272278,
-0.04627237468957901,
-0.006478998344391584,
0.09117618203163147,
0.029208214953541756,
0.013567689806222916,
0.04440450295805931,
-0.045... |
system to the conditions at point a, but they follow different paths and produce different amounts of work. 14. a real process may be nearly adiabatic if it occurs over a very short time. how does the short time span help the process to be adiabatic? 15. it is unlikely that a process can be isothermal unless it is a ve... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.0004808179510291666,
0.05718877166509628,
0.026299677789211273,
0.031285252422094345,
-0.016175979748368263,
0.0030503766611218452,
-0.02155362069606781,
-0.03878314420580864,
-0.012266279198229313,
0.11238206923007965,
0.027009937912225723,
-0.002119749318808317,
-0.003491235664114356,
... |
15. 3 introduction to the second law of thermodynamics : heat engines and their efficiency 16. imagine you are driving a car up pike β s peak in colorado. to raise a car weighing 1000 kilograms a distance of 100 meters would require about a million joules. you could raise a car 12. 5 kilometers with the energy in a gal... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.003868208033964038,
0.04557398706674576,
0.002935081021860242,
0.01551134418696165,
-0.03091726079583168,
0.02725696563720703,
-0.013168846257030964,
0.005589362699538469,
-0.008872004225850105,
0.09162943810224533,
0.014074441976845264,
0.02429165318608284,
0.04442644119262695,
-0.0374... |
##rmodynamics alter the conservation of energy principle? | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.02134748175740242,
0.020152023062109947,
0.009417213499546051,
0.008297218941152096,
-0.0197757501155138,
-0.0024000369012355804,
0.006979044526815414,
-0.04200698807835579,
-0.00736155454069376,
0.0867326408624649,
0.041495852172374725,
0.029205426573753357,
0.03668689727783203,
-0.017... |
15. 5 applications of thermodynamics : heat pumps and refrigerators 23. explain why heat pumps do not work as well in very cold climates as they do in milder ones. is the same true of refrigerators? 24. in some northern european nations, homes are being built without heating systems of any type. they are very well insu... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.002290744334459305,
0.05075720325112343,
0.00004726630504592322,
0.00014421499508898705,
-0.05196539685130119,
0.012337985448539257,
-0.005736872553825378,
0.043587710708379745,
-0.03602468967437744,
0.0902361273765564,
0.01187177561223507,
0.014259259216487408,
0.01947959139943123,
-0.... |
15. 6 entropy and the second law of thermodynamics : disorder and the unavailability of energy 28. a woman shuts her summer cottage up in september and returns in june. no one has entered the cottage in the meantime. explain what she is likely to find, in terms of the second law of thermodynamics. 29. consider a system... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.02739732526242733,
0.040250491350889206,
0.02611975185573101,
-0.03171014413237572,
-0.06994166970252991,
-0.018983779475092888,
-0.026444757357239723,
0.010197458788752556,
-0.03574805706739426,
0.10100513696670532,
0.016944536939263344,
-0.0072355796582996845,
0.03452343866229057,
-0.... |
by considering the number of ways that each could be formed ( the number of microstates in each macrostate ). 15. 7 statistical interpretation of entropy and the second law of thermodynamics : the underlying explanation 37. explain why a building made of bricks has smaller entropy than the same bricks in a disorganized... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.017918415367603302,
0.020234476774930954,
0.030009537935256958,
-0.05626378580927849,
-0.071236751973629,
-0.021156009286642075,
-0.013995741493999958,
0.018015120178461075,
-0.027914157137274742,
0.07531068474054337,
0.06020427122712135,
-0.010761665180325508,
0.018828388303518295,
-0.... |
15. 1 the first law of thermodynamics 1. what is the change in internal energy of a car if you put 12. 0 gal of gasoline into its tank? the energy content of gasoline is. all other factors, such as the car β s temperature, are constant. 2. how much heat transfer occurs from a system, if its internal energy decreased by... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.003078609937801957,
0.0359032042324543,
-0.009310076013207436,
0.007812906056642532,
-0.061189331114292145,
0.013751126825809479,
-0.010871817357838154,
0.013145986013114452,
-0.03376338258385658,
0.0833173617720604,
0.03143550083041191,
0.028839753940701485,
0.03822929784655571,
-0.0517... |
his work output with the daily output of a 187 - w ( 0. 250 - horsepower ) motor. 15 β’ problems & exercises 671 8. ( a ) how long will the energy in a 1470 - kj ( 350 - kcal ) cup of yogurt last in a woman doing work at the rate of 150 w with an efficiency of 20. 0 % ( such as in leisurely climbing stairs )? ( b ) does... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.00347145670093596,
0.03269030898809433,
0.009847662411630154,
0.019928060472011566,
-0.05705590918660164,
0.04279631748795509,
-0.010324428789317608,
0.015860939398407936,
-0.007397239096462727,
0.0742487832903862,
0.028218504041433334,
0.0160882156342268,
0.028459422290325165,
-0.03862... |
0. 800 m. note that this is the net work output, since gauge pressure is used. ( b ) now find the amount of work by calculating the force exerted times the distance traveled. is the answer the same as in part ( a )? 13. a hand - driven tire pump has a piston with a 2. 50 - cm diameter and a maximum stroke of 30. 0 cm. ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.003961990121752024,
0.054281823337078094,
0.02310298942029476,
0.013516932725906372,
-0.028771566227078438,
0.02469216287136078,
-0.02574164606630802,
-0.01938696950674057,
-0.029523925855755806,
0.09274185448884964,
0.05980344116687775,
0.030316496267914772,
-0.0053697372786700726,
-0.0... |
4. 00 mj of work on a heat transfer of 5. 00 mj into the engine. how much heat transfer occurs to the environment? ( b ) what is unreasonable about the engine? ( c ) which premise is unreasonable? 18. construct your own problem consider a car β s gasoline engine. construct a problem in which you calculate the maximum e... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
-0.005631399340927601,
0.048944368958473206,
-0.006715461611747742,
-0.006014132406562567,
-0.028011411428451538,
0.02527891844511032,
0.0060210018418729305,
0.008766095153987408,
-0.029556339606642723,
0.07651984691619873,
0.05054781213402748,
0.011790692806243896,
0.04017174616456032,
-0... |
8. 50 kj of heat transfer occurs to the environment in a cyclical process. ( a ) what was the heat transfer into this engine? ( b ) what was the engine β s efficiency? 21. with Γ of heat transfer into this engine, a given cyclical heat engine can do only Γ of work. ( a ) what is the engine β s efficiency? ( b ) how muc... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.034737344831228256,
0.05145716294646263,
-0.02618165872991085,
0.031121687963604927,
-0.016411997377872467,
0.004267345182597637,
-0.02905222773551941,
-0.014818031340837479,
-0.03057039901614189,
0.06649710983037949,
0.02397526614367962,
0.018192803487181664,
0.02110901102423668,
-0.015... |
b ) how much less heat transfer occurs to the environment due to the upgrade? 27. this problem compares the energy output and heat transfer to the environment by two different types of nuclear power stations β one with the normal efficiency of 34. 0 %, and another with an improved efficiency of 40. 0 %. suppose both ha... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.003156371181830764,
0.04035424441099167,
-0.027343938127160072,
0.027646934613585472,
-0.0036353152245283127,
0.006544924806803465,
-0.028303109109401703,
0.007026773411780596,
-0.03571101650595665,
0.049582839012145996,
0.02445041388273239,
0.01429915614426136,
0.05112042278051376,
-0.0... |
15. 4 carnot β s perfect heat engine : the second law of thermodynamics restated 28. a certain gasoline engine has an efficiency of 30. 0 %. what would the hot reservoir temperature be for a carnot engine having that efficiency, if it operates with a cold reservoir temperature of? 29. a gas - cooled nuclear reactor ope... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.029991954565048218,
0.0419263057410717,
0.01581769436597824,
-0.006634430959820747,
-0.017876626923680305,
-0.00083958450704813,
-0.022628722712397575,
-0.01177965383976698,
-0.029145266860723495,
0.07154951989650726,
0.01808823272585869,
0.026792380958795547,
0.034368354827165604,
-0.02... |
show how you follow the steps in the problem - solving strategies for thermodynamics. 33. a coal - fired electrical power station has an efficiency of 38 %. the temperature of the steam leaving the boiler is. what percentage of the maximum efficiency does this station obtain? ( assume the temperature of the environment... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.019179705530405045,
0.02091803587973118,
0.012470824643969536,
-0.03682073578238487,
-0.03708586096763611,
0.007557761389762163,
-0.018331987783312798,
0.025444917380809784,
-0.013969862833619118,
0.06822998076677322,
0.0288409274071455,
0.011492504738271236,
0.04865849390625954,
-0.0231... |
15. 5 applications of thermodynamics : heat pumps and refrigerators 37. what is the coefficient of performance of an ideal heat pump that has heat transfer from a cold temperature of to a hot temperature of? 38. suppose you have an ideal refrigerator that cools an environment at and has heat transfer to another environ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.010314412415027618,
0.05512034520506859,
0.008388266898691654,
0.0222303606569767,
-0.043412260711193085,
0.009800086729228497,
-0.0037430105730891228,
0.028698723763227463,
-0.05793758109211922,
0.09122136235237122,
0.013233569450676441,
-0.002480769529938698,
0.04690951108932495,
-0.03... |
with a cold temperature of, and you would like it to have a coefficient of performance of 7. 00. what is the hot reservoir temperature for such a refrigerator? 44. an ideal heat pump is being considered for use in heating an environment with a temperature of. what is the cold reservoir temperature if the pump is to hav... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.003318612929433584,
0.04413028433918953,
0.005237056873738766,
0.000539069005753845,
-0.03522402048110962,
0.006474480032920837,
-0.0025144731625914574,
0.00042507759644649923,
-0.05992767959833145,
0.07924818992614746,
0.04818073660135269,
0.009889818727970123,
0.030974384397268295,
-0.... |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.