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##ronomy, plant breeding and genetics, plant pathology, crop modelling, soil science, entomology, production techniques and improvement, study of pests and their management, and study of adverse environmental effects such as soil degradation, waste management, and bioremediation. the scientific study of agriculture beg... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture | [
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. policy programs can range from financial programs, such as subsidies, to encouraging producers to enroll in voluntary quality assurance programs. a 2021 report finds that globally, support to agricultural producers accounts for almost us $ 540 billion a year. this amounts to 15 percent of total agricultural productio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture | [
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analysis of variance ( anova ) is a collection of statistical models and their associated estimation procedures ( such as the " variation " among and between groups ) used to analyze the differences among means. anova was developed by the statistician ronald fisher. anova is based on the law of total variance, where th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis%20of%20variance | [
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treatment additivity and randomization is similar to the design - based inference that is standard in finite - population survey sampling. derived linear model kempthorne uses the randomization - distribution and the assumption of unit treatment additivity to produce a derived linear model, very similar to the textbook... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis%20of%20variance | [
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##vity ) and uses the randomization procedure of the experiment. both these analyses require homoscedasticity, as an assumption for the normal - model analysis and as a consequence of randomization and additivity for the randomization - based analysis. however, studies of processes that change variances rather than mea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis%20of%20variance | [
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( when equivalent to dropping leading digits ) to simplify data entry. this is an example of data coding. algorithm the calculations of anova can be characterized as computing a number of means and variances, dividing two variances and comparing the ratio to a handbook value to determine statistical significance. calcu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis%20of%20variance | [
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, statistical significance is tested for by comparing the f test statistic where ms is mean square, is the number of treatments and is the total number of cases to the f - distribution with being the numerator degrees of freedom and the denominator degrees of freedom. using the f - distribution is a natural candidate b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis%20of%20variance | [
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alternative hypotheses, as observed by rosenbaum. the anova f - test ( of the null - hypothesis that all treatments have exactly the same effect ) is recommended as a practical test, because of its robustness against many alternative distributions. extended algorithm anova consists of separable parts ; partitioning sou... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis%20of%20variance | [
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interactions are found. texts vary in their recommendations regarding the continuation of the anova procedure after encountering an interaction. interactions complicate the interpretation of experimental data. neither the calculations of significance nor the estimated treatment effects can be taken at face value. " a s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis%20of%20variance | [
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there are less formal methods for selecting the number of experimental units. these include graphical methods based on limiting the probability of false negative errors, graphical methods based on an expected variation increase ( above the residuals ) and methods based on achieving a desired confidence interval. power ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis%20of%20variance | [
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case of linear regression which in turn is a special case of the general linear model. all consider the observations to be the sum of a model ( fit ) and a residual ( error ) to be minimized. the kruskal – wallis test and the friedman test are nonparametric tests which do not rely on an assumption of normality. connect... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis%20of%20variance | [
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for a more concrete example suppose that then, see also anova on ranks anova - simultaneous component analysis analysis of covariance ( ancova ) analysis of molecular variance ( amova ) analysis of rhythmic variance ( anorva ) expected mean squares explained variation linear trend estimation mixed - design analysis of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis%20of%20variance | [
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features of alkanes in their spectra. alkanes are notable for having no other groups, and therefore for the absence of other characteristic spectroscopic features of a functional group like – oh, – cho, – cooh, etc. infrared spectroscopy the carbon – hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between 2850 and 2... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkane | [
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screen magnification software a screen magnifier is software that interfaces with a computer's graphical output to present enlarged screen content. it allows users to enlarge the texts and graphics on their computer screens for easier viewing. similar to desktop video magnifiers, this technology assists people with low... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistive%20technology | [
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happening in assistive technology either through improvements to existing devices or the creation of new products. in the wipo published 2021 report on technology trends, assistive products are grouped into either conventional or emerging technologies. conventional assisting technology tracks innovation within well - e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistive%20technology | [
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with some kind of developmental, physical, sensory, or cognitive disability, the use of assistive technology created improvements in child development. these included improvements in " cognitive, social, communication, literacy, motor, adaptive, and increases in engagement in learning activities ". additionally, it has... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistive%20technology | [
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assistance a necessity. see also accessibility assisted living augmentative and alternative communication braille technology design for all ( in ict ) disability flag durable medical equipment matching person and technology model oats : open source assistive technology software occupational therapy powered exoskeleton ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistive%20technology | [
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equivalence point occurs when all hydrogen ions are titrated. therefore, the amount of oh− added equals twice the amount of h2a at this time. for a weak diprotic acid titrated by a strong base, the second equivalence point must occur at ph above 7 due to the hydrolysis of the resulted salts in the solution. at either e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid | [
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a fertilizer. additionally, carboxylic acids can be esterified with alcohols, to produce esters. acids are often used to remove rust and other corrosion from metals in a process known as pickling. they may be used as an electrolyte in a wet cell battery, such as sulfuric acid in a car battery. in food tartaric acid is ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid | [
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##ic acid ( aspirin ) is used as a pain killer and for bringing down fevers. in human bodies acids play important roles in the human body. the hydrochloric acid present in the stomach aids digestion by breaking down large and complex food molecules. amino acids are required for synthesis of proteins required for growth... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid | [
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dilbit or with synthetic crude oil, called synbit. however, to meet international competition, much non - upgraded bitumen is now sold as a blend of multiple grades of bitumen, conventional crude oil, synthetic crude oil, and condensate in a standardized benchmark product such as western canadian select. this sour, hea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitumen | [
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( idsp ) ansi energy efficiency standardization coordination collaborative ( eescc ) nuclear energy standards coordination collaborative ( nescc ) electric vehicles standards panel ( evsp ) ansi - nam network on chemical regulation ansi biofuels standards coordination panel healthcare information technology standards p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | [
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approved in march 1966 and published as asa x3. 9 - 1966. the programming language cobol had ansi standards in 1968, 1974, and 1985. the cobol 2002 standard was issued by iso. the original standard implementation of the c programming language was standardized as ansi x3. 159 - 1989, becoming the well - known ansi c. th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | [
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design meant the spacecraft could be launched by a single saturn v rocket that was then under development. technologies and techniques required for apollo were developed by project gemini. the apollo project was enabled by nasa's adoption of new advances in semiconductor electronic technology, including metal – oxide –... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%2011 | [
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landing someone on the moon was an easy goal to understand ; lunar geology was too abstract for the average person. another is that kennedy's goal of landing humans on the moon had already been accomplished. a well - defined objective helped project apollo accomplish its goal, but after it was completed it was hard to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%2011 | [
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, using the saturn v's three stages to achieve earth orbit. the s - ic first stage landed in the atlantic ocean at, and the s - ii second stage landed at. the s - ivb third stage injected the craft into earth orbit and remained attached to perform the tli burn that would put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the moon. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%208 | [
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broadcast at 55 hours into the flight. this time, the crew rigged up filters meant for the still cameras so they could acquire images of the earth through the telephoto lens. although difficult to aim, as they had to maneuver the entire spacecraft, the crew was able to broadcast back to earth the first television pictu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%208 | [
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mission control was polled for a " go / no go " decision, the crew was told at 68 hours that they were go and " riding the best bird we can find ". lovell replied, " we'll see you on the other side ", and for the first time in history, humans travelled behind the moon and out of radio contact with the earth. with ten m... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%208 | [
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surface looked like : lovell continued to describe the terrain they were passing over. one of the crew's major tasks was reconnaissance of planned future landing sites on the moon, especially one in mare tranquillitatis that was planned as the apollo11 landing site. the launch time of apollo8 had been chosen to give th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%208 | [
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anatomy ( ) is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. it is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. anatomy is inherently tied to developmental ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy | [
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ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types : connective, epithelial, muscle and nervous tissue. connective tissue connective tissues are fibrous and made up of cells scattered among inorganic material called the extracellular matrix. connective tissue gives shape to organs and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy | [
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, phrase or sentence, taken out of context, has more than one interpretation. in " we saw her duck " ( example due to richard nordquist ), the words " her duck " can refer either to the person's bird ( the noun " duck ", modified by the possessive pronoun " her " ), or to a motion she made ( the verb " duck ", the subj... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity | [
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##ties due to lexical, syntactic, and semantic reasons that persist in mathematical notation. names of functions the ambiguity in the style of writing a function should not be confused with a multivalued function, which can ( and should ) be defined in a deterministic and unambiguous way. several special functions stil... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity | [
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an error. the order of operations may depend on the context. in most programming languages, the operations of division and multiplication have equal priority and are executed from left to right. until the last century, many editorials assumed that multiplication is performed first, for example, is interpreted as ; in t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity | [
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common to define the coherent states in quantum optics with and states with fixed number of photons with. then, there is an " unwritten rule " : the state is coherent if there are more greek characters than latin characters in the argument, and photon state if the latin characters dominate. the ambiguity becomes even w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity | [
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many different names for aruba used by other amerindian groups, all of which could have contributed to the present - day name aruba. another caquetio name for the island was oibubia which means " guided island ". the taino name for the island was arubeira. the kalinago also had two names for the island ora oubao which ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aruba | [
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75 % ; there are about 3. 5 million smartphones in the angolan market ; there are about of optical fibre installed in the country. the first angolan satellite, angosat - 1, was launched into orbit on 26 december 2017. it was launched from the baikonur space center in kazakhstan on board a zenit 3f rocket. the satellite... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angola | [
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budgetary allocations for education were increased in 2004, the education system in angola continues to be extremely under - funded. according to estimates by the unesco institute for statistics, the adult literacy rate in 2011 was 70. 4 %. by 2015, this had increased to 71. 1 %. 82. 9 % of men and 54. 2 % of women are... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angola | [
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of people from other european and from diverse latin american countries ( especially brazil ) can be found. from the 2000s, many chinese have settled and started up small businesses, while at least as many have come as workers for large enterprises ( construction or other ). observers claim that the chinese community i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics%20of%20Angola | [
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( 01. vii. 2020 ) ( post - censal estimates. ) : vital statistics registration of vital events in angola is not complete. the website our world in data prepared the following estimates based on statistics from the population department of the united nations. fertility and births total fertility rate ( tfr ) ( wanted tf... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics%20of%20Angola | [
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of " dead things " or " stiff, inanimate, natural material ", such as mummies, puppets, dolls and statues the golem type – made from flexible, possibly organic material, including golems and homunculi the automaton type – made from a mix of dead and living parts, including automatons and robots although human morpholog... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android%20%28robot%29 | [
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##ch researched and developed ever - 1, an android interpersonal communications model capable of emulating human emotional expression via facial " musculature " and capable of rudimentary conversation, having a vocabulary of around 400 words. she is tall and weighs, matching the average figure of a korean woman in her ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android%20%28robot%29 | [
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android character named " maria bot ". this interface ai android was named after the infamous fictional robot maria in the 1927 film metropolis, as a well - behaved distant relative. maria bot is the first ai android teaching assistant at the university level. maria bot has appeared as a keynote speaker as a duo with b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android%20%28robot%29 | [
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- place artificial intelligence award from aaai. use in fiction androids are a staple of science fiction. isaac asimov pioneered the fictionalization of the science of robotics and artificial intelligence, notably in his 1950s series i, robot. one thing common to most fictional androids is that the real - life technolo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android%20%28robot%29 | [
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albert einstein ( ; ; 14 march 1879 – 18 april 1955 ) was a german - born theoretical physicist who is widely held to be one of the greatest and most influential scientists of all time. best known for developing the theory of relativity, einstein also made important contributions to quantum mechanics, and was thus a ce... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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light consists of particles, subsequently called photons. for much of the last phase of his academic life, einstein worked on two endeavors that proved ultimately unsuccessful. firstly, he fought a long rearguard action against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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life and career childhood, youth and education albert einstein was born in ulm, in the kingdom of wurttemberg in the german empire, on 14 march 1879. his parents, secular ashkenazi jews, were hermann einstein, a salesman and engineer, and pauline koch. in 1880, the family moved to munich, where einstein's father and hi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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an early age, and soon acquired the mathematical expertise normally only found in a child several years his senior. he began teaching himself algebra, calculus and euclidean geometry when he was twelve ; he made such rapid progress that he discovered an original proof of the pythagorean theorem before his thirteenth bi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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his humboldt university position shortly thereafter. the outbreak of the first world war in july 1914 marked the beginning of einstein's gradual estrangement from the nation of his birth. when the " manifesto of the ninety - three " was published in october 1914 — a document signed by a host of prominent german thinker... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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berlin had included the completion of the general theory of relativity, proving the einstein – de haas effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and the development of bose – einstein statistics. 1919 : putting general relativity to the test in 1907, einstein reached a milestone on his long journey from ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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with them, and the quartet was " impressed by einstein's level of coordination and intonation ". death on 17 april 1955, einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by rudolph nissen in 1948. he took the draft of a speech ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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originality have made the word " einstein " synonymous with " genius ". in addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the bose – einstein statistics, the einstein refrigerator and others. there is some evidence from einstein's writings that he coll... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. at the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. the effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. einstein relates this to rayleigh scatte... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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geometric terms as a theory of spacetime. einstein adopted minkowski's formalism in his 1915 general theory of relativity. general relativity general relativity and the equivalence principle general relativity ( gr ) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by einstein between 1907 and 1915. according to it, the o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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the physical interactions of gravity with it. by contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the newtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. the first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pai... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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s steady - state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea. energy momentum pseudotensor general relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a lagrangian... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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, called the torsion. this modification was made by einstein and cartan in the 1920s. equations of motion in general relativity, gravitational force is reimagined as curvature of spacetime. a curved path like an orbit is not the result of a force deflecting a body from an ideal straight - line path, but rather the body... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including max planck and niels bohr. this idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with robert millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of compton scattering. einstein concluded that each wave of frequency f is associated ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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jila laboratory at the university of colorado at boulder. bose – einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the einstein archive in the library of the leiden university. wave – particle duality although the patent office prom... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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physikalische zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser. this article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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the other particle in any way. they argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by the theory of relativity. they invoked a principle, later known as the " epr criterion of reality ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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among the most influential papers published in physical review. it is considered a centerpiece of the development of quantum information theory. unified field theory encouraged by his success with general relativity, einstein sought an even more ambitious geometrical theory that would treat gravitation and electromagne... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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histories. introduction by bharatan kumarappa. ahmedabad : navajivan publishing house. pp. v – vi.. foreword originally written in april 1953.. the chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48 – 51. see also albert einstein house in princeton einstein family einstein notation the einstein theory of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Einstein | [
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prime minister, while other important positions would go to sirajuddin haqqani and mullah yaqoob. beneath the supreme leader, day - to - day governance will be entrusted to the cabinet. in a report by cnn - news18, sources said the new government was going to be governed similarly to iran with haibatullah akhundzada as... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan | [
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trek in regions such as the wakhan valley, which is also one of the world's most remote communities. from the late 1960s onwards, afghanistan was a popular stop on the famous hippie trail, attracting many europeans and americans. coming from iran, the trail traveled through various afghan provinces and cities including... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan | [
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age. the oldest found seeds in the region are 4, 000 to 6, 000 years old. in 2009, the nation produced an estimated 17, 500 tonnes of wine. secondary sector the secondary sector of albania has undergone many changes and diversification since the collapse of the communist regime in the country. it is very diversified, f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania | [
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entities such as the albanian road authority ( arrsh ), responsible for the construction and maintenance of the highways and motorways in albania, as well as the albanian aviation authority ( aac ), with the responsibility of coordinating civil aviation and airports in the country. the international airport of tirana i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania | [
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name albanian ", is the national motto of albania. it finds its foundation in the legacy of national poet naim frasheri, who held a renowned role during the albanian renaissance. the national anthem of albania, " ", was composed by asdreni and adopted as such following albania's independence in 1912. clothing albanian ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania | [
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of apollonia, the ancient amphitheatre of durres and the fortress of bashtove has been included on the tentative list of albania. cuisine throughout the centuries, albanian cuisine has been widely influenced by albanian culture, geography and history, and as such, different parts of the country enjoy specific regional ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania | [
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in the east to the european railway system in the west via turkey. in 2010 broad - gauge railways and electrified railways stretched for and respectively. by 2010, there were 35 airports and one heliport. science and technology in the 21st century, a new oil and gas boom helped improve the situation in azerbaijan's sci... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan | [
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amateur astronomy is a hobby where participants enjoy observing or imaging celestial objects in the sky using the unaided eye, binoculars, or telescopes. even though scientific research may not be their primary goal, some amateur astronomers make contributions in doing citizen science, such as by monitoring variable st... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20astronomy | [
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##otography, involves the taking of photos of the night sky. astrophotography has become more popular with the introduction of far easier to use equipment including, digital cameras, dslr cameras and relatively sophisticated purpose built high quality ccd cameras. most amateur astronomers work at visible wavelengths, b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20astronomy | [
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field of view, which is preferable for looking at some objects in the night sky. recent models of iphones have introduced a “ night mode ” option when taking pictures as well, that allows you to increase exposure, which is a period of time the picture is being taken for. this optimizes focus on light in the frame which... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20astronomy | [
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through its eyepiece. a computerized setting circle is called a " digital setting circle " ( dsc ). although digital setting circles can be used to display a telescope's ra and dec coordinates, they are not simply a digital read - out of what can be seen on the telescope's analog setting circles. as with go - to telesc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20astronomy | [
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improved and prices have been reduced. with these computer - driven telescopes, the user typically enters the name of the item of interest and the mechanics of the telescope point the telescope towards that item automatically. they have several notable advantages for amateur astronomers intent on research. for example,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20astronomy | [
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used to minimize light pollution. scientific research scientific research is most often not the main goal for many amateur astronomers, unlike professional astronomers. work of scientific merit is possible, however, and many amateurs successfully contribute to the knowledge base of professional astronomers. astronomy i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20astronomy | [
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actor, who discovered a white spot on saturn. walter scott houston ( 1912 – 1993 ) who wrote the " deep - sky wonders " column in sky & telescope magazine for almost 50 years. albert g. ingalls ( 1888 – 1958 ), editor of amateur telescope making, vols. 1 – 3 and " the amateur scientist ". peter jalowiczor ( born in 196... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20astronomy | [
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the dwarf galaxy donatiello i. donatiello ii, donatiello iii and donatiello iv, three new satellites of the nearby galaxy ngc 253, discovered in 2021 by the italian amateur astronomer giuseppe donatiello. with these three new dwarf galaxies, donatiello i and pisces vii, his total discoveries in this topic are five. peg... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur%20astronomy | [
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in mathematics and computer science, an algorithm ( ) is a finite sequence of rigorous instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific problems or to perform a computation. algorithms are used as specifications for performing calculations and data processing. more advanced algorithms can use conditionals to d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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##ia, it says : algorism ( [ latin ] algorismus ) the art or use of cyphers, or of numbering by cyphers ; skill in accounting. augrime ( [ latin ] algorithmus ) skil in accounting or numbring. in 1658, in the first edition of the new world of english words, it says : algorithme, ( a word compounded of arabick and spani... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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effective method ". those formalizations included the godel – herbrand – kleene recursive functions of 1930, 1934 and 1935, alonzo church's lambda calculus of 1936, emil post's formulation 1 of 1936, and alan turing's turing machines of 1936 – 37 and 1939. informal definition one informal definition is " a set of rules... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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contained information and capabilities ) to find, decode, and then process arbitrary input integers / symbols m and n, symbols + and =... and " effectively " produce, in a " reasonable " time, output - integer y at a specified place and in a specified format. the concept of algorithm is also used to define the notion o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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with processing information, data can be read from an input source, written to an output device and stored for further processing. stored data are regarded as part of the internal state of the entity performing the algorithm. in practice, the state is stored in one or more data structures. for some of these computation... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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programming languages are primarily intended for expressing algorithms in a form that can be executed by a computer, but are also often used as a way to define or document algorithms. there is a wide variety of representations possible and one can express a given turing machine program as a sequence of machine tables (... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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steps in the development of algorithms : problem definition development of a model specification of the algorithm designing an algorithm checking the correctness of the algorithm analysis of algorithm implementation of algorithm program testing documentation preparation computer algorithms " elegant " ( compact ) progr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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s and lambek's primitive models reduced this notion to four elements : ( i ) discrete, distinguishable locations, ( ii ) discrete, indistinguishable counters ( iii ) an agent, and ( iv ) a list of instructions that are effective relative to the capability of the agent. minsky describes a more congenial variation of lam... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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an algorithm is to try it... immediately take pen and paper and work through an example ". but what about a simulation or execution of the real thing? the programmer must translate the algorithm into a language that the simulator / computer / computor can effectively execute. stone gives an example of this : when compu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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". tausworthe augments the three bohm - jacopini canonical structures : sequence, if - then - else, and while - do, with two more : do - while and case. an additional benefit of a structured program is that it lends itself to proofs of correctness using mathematical induction. canonical flowchart symbols : the graphica... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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the high - level language of a computer program, the following is the more formal coding of the algorithm in pseudocode or pidgin code : input : a list of numbers l. output : the largest number in the list l. if l. size = 0 return null largest ← l [ 0 ] for each item in l, do if item > largest, then largest ← item retu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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or the two can be equal so their subtraction yields zero ). euclid's original proof adds a third requirement : the two lengths must not be prime to one another. euclid stipulated this so that he could construct a reductio ad absurdum proof that the two numbers'common measure is in fact the greatest. while nicomachus'al... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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##0 : [ ensure r ≥ s. ] [ ensure the smaller of the two numbers is in s and the larger in r ] : if r > s then the contents of l is the larger number so skip over the exchange - steps 4, 5 and 6 : goto step 7 else swap the contents of r and s. l ← r ( this first step is redundant, but is useful for later discussion ). r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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algorithm for greatest common divisor 6 print " type two integers greater than 0 " 10 input a, b 20 if b = 0 then goto 80 30 if a > b then goto 60 40 let b = b - a 50 goto 20 60 let a = a - b 70 goto 20 80 print a 90 end how " elegant " works : in place of an outer " euclid loop ", " elegant " shifts back and forth bet... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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##elegant " perform properly when r > s, s > r, r = s? ditto for " elegant " : b > a, a > b, a = b? ( yes to all ). what happens when one number is zero, both numbers are zero? ( " inelegant " computes forever in all cases ; " elegant " computes forever when a = 0. ) what happens if negative numbers are entered? fracti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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? : once the programmer judges a program " fit " and " effective " — that is, it computes the function intended by its author — then the question becomes, can it be improved? the compactness of " inelegant " can be improved by the elimination of five steps. but chaitin proved that compacting an algorithm cannot be auto... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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it is said to have a space requirement of, if the space required to store the input numbers is not counted, or if it is counted. different algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more time, space, or'effort'than others. for example, a binary search algorithm ( with cost ) o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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are very common in practical applications. speedups of this magnitude enable computing devices that make extensive use of image processing ( like digital cameras and medical equipment ) to consume less power. classification there are various ways to classify algorithms, each with its own merits. by implementation one w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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decision at every step of the algorithm whereas non - deterministic algorithms solve problems via guessing although typical guesses are made more accurate through the use of heuristics. exact or approximate while many algorithms reach an exact solution, approximation algorithms seek an approximation that is closer to t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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solve easily. one such example of divide and conquer is merge sorting. sorting can be done on each segment of data after dividing data into segments and sorting of entire data can be obtained in the conquer phase by merging the segments. a simpler variant of divide and conquer is called a decrease - and - conquer algor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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dominated by the resulting reduced algorithm's. for example, one selection algorithm for finding the median in an unsorted list involves first sorting the list ( the expensive portion ) and then pulling out the middle element in the sorted list ( the cheap portion ). this technique is also known as transform and conque... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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path to the goal from all adjacent vertices. dynamic programming and memoization go together. the main difference between dynamic programming and divide and conquer is that subproblems are more or less independent in divide and conquer, whereas subproblems overlap in dynamic programming. the difference between dynamic ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm | [
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