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parts boolean analysis β a method to find deterministic dependencies between variables in a sample, mostly used in exploratory data analysis cluster analysis β techniques for finding groups ( called clusters ), based on some measure of proximity or similarity factor analysis β a method to construct models describing a ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis | [
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to transmit morse code where it is known as continuous wave ( cw ) operation, even though the transmission is not strictly " continuous. " a more complex form of am, quadrature amplitude modulation is now more commonly used with digital data, while making more efficient use of the available bandwidth. analog telephony ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude%20modulation | [
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) suppressed lower sideband, includes sufficient carrier power for use of envelope detection. but for communications systems where both transmitters and receivers can be optimized, suppression of both one sideband and the carrier represent a net advantage and are frequently employed. a technique used widely in broadcas... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude%20modulation | [
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" ) of the received modulation. transmitters typically incorporate a limiter circuit to avoid overmodulation, and / or a compressor circuit ( especially for voice communications ) in order to still approach 100 % modulation for maximum intelligibility above the noise. such circuits are sometimes referred to as a vogad.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude%20modulation | [
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first correct solution to the biaxial problem, was less than a year. later, he coined the terms linear polarization, circular polarization, and elliptical polarization, explained how optical rotation could be understood as a difference in propagation speeds for the two directions of circular polarization, and ( by allo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-Jean%20Fresnel | [
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of which he hoped to derive useful applications. " jansenism is considered heretical by the roman catholic church, and grattan - guinness suggests this is why fresnel never gained a permanent academic teaching post ; his only teaching appointment was at the athenee in the winter of 1819 β 20. the article on fresnel in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-Jean%20Fresnel | [
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he was threatened and had his windows broken. during the hundred days he was placed on suspension, which he was eventually allowed to spend at his mother's house in mathieu. there he used his enforced leisure to begin his optical experiments. contributions to physical optics historical context : from newton to biot the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-Jean%20Fresnel | [
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not rigorously link double refraction to surface forces ; the wave theory could not yet link it to polarization. the corpuscular theory was weak on thin plates and silent on gratings ; the wave theory was strong on both, but under - appreciated. concerning diffraction, the corpuscular theory did not yield quantitative ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-Jean%20Fresnel | [
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both sheets ), hence a cone of normals, indicating that a cone of wave - normal directions corresponds to a single ray - velocity vector ; and ( ii ) around each of these points, the outer sheet has a circle of contact with a tangent plane, indicating that a cone of ray directions corresponds to a single wave - normal ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-Jean%20Fresnel | [
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, wrote that fresnel's mechanical theory of double refraction " would do honour to the sagacity of newton ". lloyd, in his report on the progress and present state of physical optics ( 1834 ) for the british association for the advancement of science, surveyed previous knowledge of double refraction and declared : the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-Jean%20Fresnel | [
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should intersect the refractive surface ( assumed flat ) ; then, through that intersection, tangent planes should be drawn to the inner sphere and spheroid ( cf. mach, 1926, p. 263 ). d. f. j. arago and a. fresnel, 1819, " memoire sur l'action que les rayons de lumiere polarisee exercent les uns sur les autres ", annal... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-Jean%20Fresnel | [
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darkness : lighthouse optics and the later development of fresnel's revolutionary refracting lens 1780 β 1900 ", international journal for the history of engineering & technology, vol. 79, no. 2 ( july 2009 ), pp. 183 β 244 ;. e. frankel, 1974, " the search for a corpuscular theory of double refraction : malus, laplace... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-Jean%20Fresnel | [
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lighthouse society, accessed 26 august 2017 ; archived 19 august 2016. ( cited page numbers refer to the translation. ) a. fresnel, 1827, " memoire sur la double refraction ", memoires de l'academie royale des sciences de l'institut de france, vol. ( for 1824, printed 1827 ), pp. 45 β 176 ; reprinted as " second memoir... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-Jean%20Fresnel | [
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project gutenberg, 2005. ( cited page numbers match the 1912 edition and the gutenberg html edition. ) f. a. jenkins and h. e. white, 1976, fundamentals of optics, 4th ed., new york : mcgraw - hill,. n. kipnis, 1991, history of the principle of interference of light, basel : birkhauser,, chapters. k. a. kneller ( tr. t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-Jean%20Fresnel | [
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an assembly line is a manufacturing process ( often called a progressive assembly ) in which parts ( usually interchangeable parts ) are added as the semi - finished assembly moves from workstation to workstation where the parts are added in sequence until the final assembly is produced. by mechanically moving the part... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly%20line | [
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their skills and tools such as files and knives to create the individual parts. they would then assemble them into the final product, making cut - and - try changes in the parts until they fit and could work together ( craft production ). division of labor was practiced by ancient greeks, chinese and other ancient civi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly%20line | [
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error of a team consisting primarily of peter e. martin, the factory superintendent ; charles e. sorensen, martin's assistant ; clarence w. avery ; c. harold wills, draftsman and toolmaker ; charles ebender ; and jozsef galamb. some of the groundwork for such development had recently been laid by the intelligent layout... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly%20line | [
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motion hundreds of times per day, repetitive stress injuries are a possible pathology of occupational safety. industrial noise also proved dangerous. when it was not too high, workers were often prohibited from talking. charles piaget, a skilled worker at the lip factory, recalled that besides being prohibited from spe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly%20line | [
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. crowley examined the reports of visitors in the early 20th century, noting that " many visitors to adelaide admired the foresighted planning of its founders ", as well as pondering the riches of the young city. adelaide enjoyed a postwar boom, entering a time of relative prosperity. its population grew, and it became... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide | [
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" that commenced in 1960. the state bank collapsed in 1991 during an economic recession. the effects lasted until 2004, when standard & poor's reinstated south australia's aaa credit rating. adelaide's tallest building, completed in 2020, is called the adelaidean and is located at 11 frome street. 21st century in the e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide | [
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to the regional development australia, an australian government planning initiative, the " adelaide metropolitan region " has a total land area of, while a more expansive definition by the australian bureau of statistics defines a " greater adelaide " statistical area totalling. the city sits at an average elevation of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide | [
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played an invaluable economic and social role in transporting heavy loads of goods to and from isolated settlements and mines. this is acknowledged by the name of the ghan, the passenger train operating between adelaide, alice springs, and darwin. the central adelaide mosque is regarded as australia's oldest permanent ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide | [
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in research tend to be geographically clustered throughout the adelaide metropolitan area : the east end of north terrace : sa pathology ; hanson institute ; national wine centre. the west end of north terrace : south australian health and medical research institute ( sahmri ), located next to the royal adelaide hospit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide | [
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in the northern suburb of elizabeth. paul kelly grew up in adelaide and was head prefect at rostrevor college. the first australian idol winner, guy sebastian, hails from the north - eastern suburb of golden grove. television adelaide is served by numerous digital free - to - air television channels : abc abc hd ( abc ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide | [
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in australia. since 1999 adelaide and its surrounding areas have hosted the tour down under bicycle race, organised and directed by adelaide - based michael turtur. turtur won an olympic gold medal for australia in the 4000 m team pursuit at the 1984 los angeles olympics. the tour down under is the largest cycling even... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide | [
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, most of which are fielded by universities or corporations, although some are fielded by high schools. the race has a 20 - years'history spanning nine races, with the inaugural event taking place in 1987. adelaide hosted the 2012 world bowls championships at lockleys bowling club, becoming the third city in the world ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide | [
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in mathematics, an automorphism is an isomorphism from a mathematical object to itself. it is, in some sense, a symmetry of the object, and a way of mapping the object to itself while preserving all of its structure. the set of all automorphisms of an object forms a group, called the automorphism group. it is, loosely ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automorphism | [
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of a proper class ), then they form a group under composition of morphisms. this group is called the automorphism group of. closure composition of two automorphisms is another automorphism. associativity it is part of the definition of a category that composition of morphisms is associative. identity the identity is th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automorphism | [
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on v. when the vector space is finite - dimensional, the automorphism group of v is the same as the general linear group, gl ( v ). ( the algebraic structure of all endomorphisms of v is itself an algebra over the same base field as v, whose invertible elements precisely consist of gl ( v ). ) a field automorphism is a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automorphism | [
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images under the permutation. in geometry, an automorphism may be called a motion of the space. specialized terminology is also used : in metric geometry an automorphism is a self - isometry. the automorphism group is also called the isometry group. in the category of riemann surfaces, an automorphism is a biholomorphi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automorphism | [
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artificial intelligence ( ai ) is the intelligence of machines or software, as opposed to the intelligence of humans or animals. it is also the field of study in computer science that develops and studies intelligent machines. " ai " may also refer to the machines themselves. ai technology is widely used throughout ind... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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is the difficult problem of obtaining knowledge for ai applications. modern ai gathers knowledge by " scraping " the internet ( including wikipedia ). the knowledge itself was collected by the volunteers and professionals who published the information ( who may or may not have agreed to provide their work to ai compani... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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uncertain, especially if there are other agents or humans involved. these can be learned ( e. g., with inverse reinforcement learning ) or the agent can seek information to improve its preferences. information value theory can be used to weigh the value of exploratory or experimental actions. the space of possible futu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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computational complexity, by sample complexity ( how much data is required ), or by other notions of optimization. natural language processing natural language processing ( nlp ) allows programs to read, write and communicate in human languages such as english. specific problems include speech recognition, speech synth... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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analysis and, more recently, multimodal sentiment analysis, wherein ai classifies the affects displayed by a videotaped subject. general intelligence a machine with artificial general intelligence should be able to solve a wide variety of problems with breadth and versatility similar to human intelligence. tools ai res... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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the guesses ) and then allow them to mutate and recombine, selecting only the fittest to survive each generation ( refining the guesses ). distributed search processes can coordinate via swarm intelligence algorithms. two popular swarm algorithms used in search are particle swarm optimization ( inspired by bird flockin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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##bilistic methods for uncertain reasoning many problems in ai ( including in reasoning, planning, learning, perception, and robotics ) require the agent to operate with incomplete or uncertain information. ai researchers have devised a number of tools to solve these problems using methods from probability theory and e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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kernel methods such as the support vector machine ( svm ) displaced k - nearest neighbor in the 1990s. the naive bayes classifier is reportedly the " most widely used learner " at google, due in part to its scalability. neural networks are also used as classifiers. artificial neural networks artificial neural networks ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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outputs. the multiple layers can progressively extract higher - level features from the raw input. for example, in image processing, lower layers may identify edges, while higher layers may identify the concepts relevant to a human such as digits or letters or faces. deep learning has drastically improved the performan... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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deepface and google's facenet ) and image labeling ( used by facebook, apple's iphoto and tiktok ). there are also thousands of successful ai applications used to solve specific problems for specific industries or institutions. in a 2017 survey, one in five companies reported they had incorporated " ai " in some offeri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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output is then used under a rationale of " fair use ". experts disagree about how well, and under what circumstances, this rationale will hold up in courts of law ; relevant factors may include " the purpose and character of the use of the copyrighted work " and " the effect upon the potential market for the copyrighte... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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fairness machine learning applications will be biased if they learn from biased data. anyone looking to use machine learning as part of real - world, in - production systems needs to factor ethics into their ai training processes and strive to avoid bias. this is especially true when using ai algorithms that are inhere... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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overestimated the chance that a black person would re - offend and would underestimate the chance that a white person would not re - offend. in 2017, several researchers showed that it was mathematically impossible for compas to accommodate all possible measures of fairness when the base rates of re - offense were diff... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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free of bias mistakes, they are unsafe and the use of self - learning neural networks trained on vast, unregulated sources of flawed internet data should be curtailed. lack of transparency most modern ai applications can not explain how they have reached a decision. the large amount of relationships between inputs and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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" explainable artificial intelligence " ) program in 2014 to try and solve these problems. there are several potential solutions to the transparency problem. multitask learning provides a large number of outputs in addition to the target classification. these other outputs can help developers deduce what the network ha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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lethal autonomous weapons. machine - learning ai is also able to design tens of thousands of toxic molecules in a matter of hours. technological unemployment from the early days of the development of artificial intelligence there have been arguments, for example those put forward by weizenbaum, about whether tasks that... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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industry insiders are mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superintelligent ai. personalities such as stephen hawking, bill gates, elon musk have expressed concern about existential risk from ai. in the early 2010's, experts argued that the risks are too distant in the futu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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. s. and british governments to restore funding for academic research. however, beginning with the collapse of the lisp machine market in 1987, ai once again fell into disrepute, and a second, longer - lasting winter began. many researchers began to doubt that the current practices would be able to imitate all the proc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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( faster computers, graphics processing units, cloud computing ) and access to large amounts of data ( including curated datasets, such as imagenet ). deep learning's success led to an enormous increase in interest and funding in ai. the amount of machine learning research ( measured by total publications ) increased b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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of their field as making'machines that fly so exactly like pigeons that they can fool other pigeons. ai founder john mccarthy agreed, writing that " artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence ". mccarthy defines intelligence as " the computational part of the ability to achieve goal... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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recognizing an object or commonsense reasoning. moravec's paradox is the discovery that high - level " intelligent " tasks were easy for ai, but low level " instinctive " tasks were extremely difficult. philosopher hubert dreyfus had argued since the 1960s that human expertise depends on unconscious instinct rather tha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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. however, most technologies do not improve exponentially indefinitely, but rather follow an s - curve, slowing when they reach the physical limits of what the technology can do. consider, for example, transportation : speed increased exponentially from 1830 to 1970, but then the trend abruptly stopped when it reached ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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with asimov's laws through popular culture, they generally consider the laws useless for many reasons, one of which is their ambiguity. several works use ai to force us to confront the fundamental question of what makes us human, showing us artificial beings that have the ability to feel, and thus to suffer. this appea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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performance on some atari games. eka roivainen, " ai's iq : chatgpt aced a [ standard intelligence ] test but showed that intelligence cannot be measured by iq alone ", scientific american, vol. 329, no. 1 ( july / august 2023 ), p. 7. " despite its high iq, chatgpt fails at tasks that require real humanlike reasoning ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | [
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imagined the earth floating in water, the " immense ocean from which everything is born and upon which the earth floats. " anaximander was then able to envisage the earth at the centre of an infinite space, in which case it required no support as there was nowhere " down " to fall. in rovelli's view, the shape β a cyli... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaximander | [
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a part of that mass evaporated under the sun's action, thus causing the winds and even the rotation of the celestial bodies, which he believed were attracted to places where water is more abundant. he explained rain as a product of the humidity pumped up from earth by the sun. for him, the earth was slowly drying up an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaximander | [
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apl is an abbreviation, acronym, or initialism that may refer to : science and technology 132524 apl, an asteroid abductor pollicis longus muscle, in the human hand acute promyelocytic leukemia, a subtype of acute myelogenous leukemia applied physics letters, a physics journal nampula airport ( iata airport code : apl ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APL | [
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with and put questions to the client, in order to ascertain all the requirements ( and nuances ) of the planned project. often the full brief is not clear in the beginning. it involves a degree of risk in the design undertaking. the architect may make early proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brie... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architect | [
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the control and planning of construction costs are also a part of these consultations. coordination of the different aspects involves a high degree of specialized communication including advanced computer technology such as building information modeling ( bim ), computer - aided design ( cad ), and cloud - based techno... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architect | [
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architect will then review and inspect the progress of the work in coordination with the local authority. the architect will typically review contractor shop drawings and other submittals, prepare and issue site instructions, and provide certificates for payment to the contractor ( see also design - bid - build ) which... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architect | [
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the dead, he is shown the place where the wrongly convicted reside, the fields of sorrow where those who committed suicide and now regret it reside, including aeneas'former lover, the warriors and shades, tartarus ( where the titans and powerful non - mortal enemies of the olympians reside ) where he can hear the groan... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterlife | [
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to being sent to either one by god ), the eternity of hell ( one could leave but would never want to ), and that all angels or devils were once people on earth. the catholic church the catholic conception of the afterlife teaches that after the body dies, the soul is judged, the righteous and free of sin enter heaven. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterlife | [
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, for example, viewed reincarnation as a trap made by satan, who tricked angels from the heavenly realm into entering the physical bodies of humans. they viewed the purpose of life as a way to escape the constant cycle of spiritual incarnations by letting go of worldly attachments. shinto it is common for families to p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterlife | [
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was material, tangible and thus measurable. although macdougall's results varied considerably from " 21 grams ", for some people this figure has become synonymous with the measure of a soul's mass. the title of the 2003 movie 21 grams is a reference to macdougall's findings. his results have never been reproduced, and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterlife | [
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16th century, tycho brahe used improved instruments, including large mural instruments, to measure star positions more accurately than previously, with a precision of 15 β 35 arcsec. taqi al - din measured the right ascension of the stars at the constantinople observatory of taqi ad - din using the " observational cloc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrometry | [
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on the sky with much greater precision than any previous optical telescopes. during its 4 - year run, the positions, parallaxes, and proper motions of 118, 218 stars were determined with an unprecedented degree of accuracy. a new " tycho catalog " drew together a database of 1, 058, 332 stars to within 20 - 30 mas ( mi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrometry | [
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, the atom exchange method usually happens, where some of the atoms composing the metallic crystals are substituted with atoms of the other constituent. this is called a substitutional alloy. examples of substitutional alloys include bronze and brass, in which some of the copper atoms are substituted with either tin or... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy | [
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like william chandler roberts - austen, adolf martens, and edgar bain ), so " alloy steel " became the popular term for ternary and quaternary steel - alloys. after benjamin huntsman developed his crucible steel in 1740, he began experimenting with the addition of elements like manganese ( in the form of a high - manga... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy | [
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developed a rust - resistant steel by adding 21 % chromium and 7 % nickel, producing the first stainless steel. others due to their high reactivity, most metals were not discovered until the 19th century. a method for extracting aluminium from bauxite was proposed by humphry davy in 1807, using an electric arc. althoug... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy | [
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parallels can also be drawn between cave wall paintings and the acoustic properties of the cave ; they are both dynamic. because archaeoacoustics is a fairly new archaeological subject, acoustic sound is still being tested in these prehistoric sites today. aeroacoustics aeroacoustics is the study of noise generated by ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustics | [
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these studies is to reduce levels of environmental noise and vibration. research work now also has a focus on the positive use of sound in urban environments : soundscapes and tranquility. musical acoustics musical acoustics is the study of the physics of acoustic instruments ; the audio signal processing used in elect... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustics | [
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, the pathway in which acoustic affects the mind, and essentially the body, is evident. speech acousticians study the production, processing and perception of speech. speech recognition and speech synthesis are two important areas of speech processing using computers. the subject also overlaps with the disciplines of p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustics | [
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atomic physics is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an atomic nucleus. atomic physics typically refers to the study of atomic structure and the interaction between atoms. it is primarily concerned with the way in which electrons are arranged around the nucleus and the proces... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic%20physics | [
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physicist john dalton in the 18th century. at this stage, it wasn't clear what atoms were, although they could be described and classified by their properties ( in bulk ). the invention of the periodic system of elements by dmitri mendeleev was another great step forward. the true beginning of atomic physics is marked ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic%20physics | [
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in computing, an applet is any small application that performs one specific task that runs within the scope of a dedicated widget engine or a larger program, often as a plug - in. the term is frequently used to refer to a java applet, a program written in the java programming language that is designed to be placed on a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applet | [
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an applet could also be a text area only, providing, for instance, a cross - platform command - line interface to some remote system. if needed, an applet could leave the dedicated area and run as a separate window. however, applets had very little control over web page content outside the applet dedicated area, so the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applet | [
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takes code from server and run in a web browser. it can provide web applications with interactive features that cannot be provided by html. since java's bytecode is platform - independent, java applets can be executed by browsers running under many platforms, including windows, unix, macos, and linux. when a java techn... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applet | [
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in atomic theory and quantum mechanics, an atomic orbital ( ) is a function describing the location and wave - like behavior of an electron in an atom. this function can be used to calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in any specific region around the atom's nucleus. the term atomic orbital may ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic%20orbital | [
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the repeating periodicity of blocks of 2, 6, 10, and 14 elements within sections of the periodic table arises naturally from the total number of electrons that occupy a complete set of s, p, d, and f orbitals, respectively, though for higher values of quantum number, particularly when the atom bears a positive charge, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic%20orbital | [
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state has a single discrete spin ( spin up or spin down ) depending on its superposition. thus, electrons cannot be described simply as solid particles. an analogy might be that of a large and often oddly shaped " atmosphere " ( the electron ), distributed around a relatively tiny planet ( the nucleus ). atomic orbital... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic%20orbital | [
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the bohr model is called a semi - classical model because of its quantization of angular momentum, not primarily because of its relationship with electron wavelength, which appeared in hindsight a dozen years after the bohr model was proposed. the bohr model was able to explain the emission and absorption spectra of hy... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic%20orbital | [
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quantum mechanical particle is bound, it must be localized as a wave packet, and the existence of the packet and its minimum size implies a spread and minimal value in particle wavelength, and thus also momentum and energy. in quantum mechanics, as a particle is localized to a smaller region in space, the associated co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic%20orbital | [
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as an example of how the full orbital names are generated for real orbitals, one may calculate. from the table of spherical harmonics, with. then likewise. as a more complicated example : in all these cases we generate a cartesian label for the orbital by examining, and abbreviating, the polynomial in,, and appearing i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic%20orbital | [
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of shapes the shapes of atomic orbitals can be qualitatively understood by considering the analogous case of standing waves on a circular drum. to see the analogy, the mean vibrational displacement of each bit of drum membrane from the equilibrium point over many cycles ( a measure of average drum membrane velocity and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic%20orbital | [
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. the orbital has the lowest possible energy in the atom. each successively higher value of has a higher energy, but the difference decreases as increases. for high, the energy becomes so high that the electron can easily escape the atom. in single electron atoms, all levels with different within a given are degenerate... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic%20orbital | [
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. if a certain period has number i, it consists of elements whose outermost electrons fall in the ith shell. niels bohr was the first to propose ( 1923 ) that the periodicity in the properties of the elements might be explained by the periodic filling of the electron energy levels, resulting in the electronic structure... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic%20orbital | [
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of each element are also dependent upon additional details of the atoms ( see ). the number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom increases with the atomic number. the electrons in the outermost shell, or valence electrons, tend to be responsible for an element's chemical behavior. elements that contain the same... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic%20orbital | [
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alan mathison turing ( ; 23 june 1912 β 7 june 1954 ) was an english mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher and theoretical biologist. turing was highly influential in the development of theoretical computer science, providing a formalisation of the concepts of algorithm and computation ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Turing | [
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of the journal of the london mathematical society. later that year, turing was elected a fellow of king's college on the strength of his dissertation. however, and, unknown to turing, this version of the theorem he proved in his paper, had already been proven, in 1922, by jarl waldemar lindeberg. despite this, the comm... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Turing | [
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##ble mathematical computation if it were representable as an algorithm. he went on to prove that there was no solution to the decision problem by first showing that the halting problem for turing machines is undecidable : it is not possible to decide algorithmically whether a turing machine will ever halt. this paper ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Turing | [
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the act. specifying the bombe was the first of five major cryptanalytical advances that turing made during the war. the others were : deducing the indicator procedure used by the german navy ; developing a statistical procedure dubbed banburismus for making much more efficient use of the bombes ; developing a procedure... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Turing | [
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had been de facto head for some time ( turing having little interest in the day - to - day running of the section ). turing became a general consultant for cryptanalysis at bletchley park. alexander wrote of turing's contribution : turingery in july 1942, turing devised a technique termed turingery ( or jokingly turing... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Turing | [
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, working with his former undergraduate colleague, d. g. champernowne, began writing a chess program for a computer that did not yet exist. by 1950, the program was completed and dubbed the turochamp. in 1952, he tried to implement it on a ferranti mark 1, but lacking enough power, the computer was unable to execute th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Turing | [
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2012 : turing centenary conference science in the making alan turing's papers in the royal society's archives alan turing site maintained by andrew hodges including a short biography alanturing. net β turing archive for the history of computing by jack copeland the turing archive β contains scans of some unpublished do... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Turing | [
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area is the measure of a region's size on a surface. the area of a plane region or plane area refers to the area of a shape or planar lamina, while surface area refers to the area of an open surface or the boundary of a three - dimensional object. area can be understood as the amount of material with a given thickness ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area | [
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... |
formulas for the surface areas of simple shapes were computed by the ancient greeks, but computing the surface area of a more complicated shape usually requires multivariable calculus. area plays an important role in modern mathematics. in addition to its obvious importance in geometry and calculus, area is related to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area | [
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dimensional figures. the mathematician archimedes used the tools of euclidean geometry to show that the area inside a circle is equal to that of a right triangle whose base has the length of the circle's circumference and whose height equals the circle's radius, in his book measurement of a circle. ( the circumference ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area | [
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parallelogram : ( triangle ). similar arguments can be used to find area formulas for the trapezoid as well as more complicated polygons. area of curved shapes circles the formula for the area of a circle ( more properly called the area enclosed by a circle or the area of a disk ) is based on a similar method. given a ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area | [
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of a cone, the side surface can be flattened out into a sector of a circle, and the resulting area computed. the formula for the surface area of a sphere is more difficult to derive : because a sphere has nonzero gaussian curvature, it cannot be flattened out. the formula for the surface area of a sphere was first obta... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area | [
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points :, where i is the number of grid points inside the polygon and b is the number of boundary points. this result is known as pick's theorem. area in calculus the area between a positive - valued curve and the horizontal axis, measured between two values a and b ( b is defined as the larger of the two values ) on t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area | [
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0.05184504762291908,
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-0... |
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