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Černá Hora is a market town in Blansko District in the South Moravian Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 2,100 inhabitants.
Etymology
The name of the place (literally "Black Mountain") comes from a hill whose coniferous vegetation looked darker than the surrounding deciduous vegetation. In Latin texts the place is called Nigromons or Czernahora, in German texts Czernahora.
Geography
Černá Hora is located about east of Blansko and northeast of Brno. It lies mostly in the Drahany Highlands, the northern part of extends into the Boskovice Furrow. The highest point of the municipal territory is at above sea level. A dominant feature of the town is the hill Zámecký vrch at . The Býkovka Stream flows through the northern part of the town.
History
The first written mention of Černá Hora is from 1279, when the Černá Hora Castle was mentioned. It was located on crossroads of two trade routes. In 1390, it was first referred to as a market town. From 1333 to 1597, it was owned by the Černohorský of Boskovice noble family. In 1597, the estate was acquired by marriage by the Liechtenstein family. In 1859, the castle was bought by the House of Fries. In 1945, the castle was confiscated by the state.
Demographics
Sights
The Černá Hora Castle is the main sight. The original Gothic castle was renaissance rebuilt in 1561. After it was destroyed by a fire in 1724, part of it was baroque rebuilt in 1830. After 1859, it was completely rebuilt in the pseudo-Renaissance style by the architect Theophil Hansen. In the same time, the castle park with alleys and exotic trees was founded. Since 1950, it houses a retirement home.
Notable people
Leopold Löw (1811–1875), Hungarian rabbi
References
External links
Market towns in the Czech Republic
Populated places in Blansko District
Jewish communities in the Czech Republic | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cern%C3%A1%20Hora%20%28Blansko%20District%29 |
Arrow Lakes Provincial Park is a provincial park in British Columbia, Canada.
Park
The park was established May 8, 1981. The primary role of the park is to maintain a tourism travel route and local opportunities for outdoor recreation. Located south of Revelstoke, British Columbia, it is in size.
Lakes
The Columbia River widens to form Upper Arrow Lake and Lower Arrow Lake between the Selkirk Mountains to the east and the Monashee Mountains to the west.
References
External links
Provincial parks of British Columbia
Arrow Lakes
1981 establishments in British Columbia
Protected areas established in 1981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrow%20Lakes%20Provincial%20Park |
Artlish Caves Provincial Park is a provincial park on Vancouver Island in British Columbia, Canada.
History and conservation
The name of the Artlish River is derived from the A'licath (Artlish) natives, part of the Kyuquot confederacy. The first recorded reference to the caves is in a 1932 report to the Canadian Geological Survey, although the caves were certainly known to local hunters, miners and timber cruisers prior to that. Formal exploration and documentation of the caves between 1974 and 1978 resulted in a cave survey of each under the names Artlish River Cave and The Black Hole, with of measured passage lengths respectively.
Increased publicity and concern over potential damage by timber harvesting led to a reserve around the two caves conferred by the BC Forest Service in 1977. This was elevated to provincial park status in 1996. The park protects Vancouver Island's last remaining undisturbed karst unit that includes a major river cave. The area provides winter habitat and a migration corridor for Roosevelt elk, as well as habitat for sockeye, Coho, Chinook, and pink salmon, steelhead and rainbow trout. The park also protects coastal western hemlock and western red cedar as well as some amabilis fir and Sitka spruce.
Location
Artlish Caves Provincial Park is located approximately south of Port McNeill, British Columbia and northwest of Woss, British Columbia, part way along the Zeballos road. A secondary logging road into the park was deactivated in 2009. A hike of approximately is required to reach the park boundary, and further hiking through old growth forest is required to reach the caves.
Size
in size.
References
The Canadian Caver Vol 10 no 1.
External links
Artlish Caves Provincial Park
Provincial parks of British Columbia
Northern Vancouver Island
Caves of British Columbia
1996 establishments in British Columbia
Protected areas established in 1996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artlish%20Caves%20Provincial%20Park |
Atlin/Áa Tlein Téix'i Provincial Park is a provincial park in British Columbia, Canada. Situated in the remote northwestern corner of the province, the park protects large tracts of boreal forest, alpine tundra and glaciated terrain. The southern third of Atlin Lake, the largest natural body of freshwater in the province, is within the park boundary. The park is very undeveloped; no roads traverse it and no facilities, supplies, developed campsites or maintained hiking trails are available inside the park. The area has become a focal point in controversies involving proposed hydroelectric projects affecting Atlin Lake and environmental groups who view these proposals as potentially damaging to the lake's environment and its surroundings.
History
Atlin is an anglicization of Áa Tlein, the Tlingit word for "big body of water". The area has been used by the Taku River Tlingit for many years as attested to by artifacts discovered at nearly 40 excavated archaeological sites in the area.
It was gold that gave Atlin its reason for existence. The gold rush came to Atlin Lake country in 1898 and was one of the richest offshoots of the Klondike Gold Rush. By the end of the mining season of 1899 about 5000 people flocked to the region, and Atlin was a busy and important town. Although creeks in the present day park must have been prospected, none bore any gold. Although production was greatest in the early years, the Atlin field still produces today. Total placer gold production has exceeded $23 million.
In the early 1970s, BC Hydro proposed development of a hydroelectric project which included the construction of a tunnel to divert water from Atlin Lake to the Taku River.
Fearing a potential disruption to the local environment, the provincial government opted to protect Atlin Lake and its surroundings by establishing a provincial park in the area in 1973.
A second factor which motivated the creation of this park was a desire on the part of the newly elected provincial NDP government to reverse the policy of prior administrations towards the provincial park system. Noting how prior administrations over the preceding two decades had reduced the number of hectares protected by provincial parks such as Hamber, the NDP government pledged to include over of new land within this system. Atlin was one of several new parks created at the time. Environmental groups applauded the move, but noted that these new parks largely protected alpine wilderness or, as in the case of Atlin, areas in remote parts of the province where access was difficult. For these reasons the newly protected lands were of little value to the logging industry. The provincial government was criticized for making "easy decisions" which the logging industry would not oppose.
Environmental concern involving the park recently resurfaced in the reaction to a proposal by Yukon Energy to construct a weir at Atlin Lake's outlet to stabilize its water level. Yukon Energy stated that the weir is needed to retain water during the winter months which in turn will permit the production of more hydroelectricity downstream during these months when the demand for electricity is highest. Environmentalists responded that the weir could inflict ecological damage and disrupt the migration route of lake trout and other fish between Atlin and nearby lakes. Many local residents were opposed out of concern that raised lake levels could cause flooding and increase shoreline erosion. For the project to proceed, Yukon Energy required the approval of the British Columbia provincial government because part of Atlin Lake is within the park boundary. In 2011 the provincial government and the Taku River Tlingit completed a land-use plan for the Atlin Lake area which prohibits weir construction and many other types of development.
Atlin's extensive icefields have attracted recent interest from glaciologists and other scientists. Their studies have helped to raise awareness of the park's conservation value.
Conservation
Approximately one third of the park's area is occupied by glaciers. The Llewellyn Glacier, considered the source of the Yukon River, is the park's largest. It covers 71,140 hectares and the next largest, Willison Glacier, covers 10,165 hectares. Among the park's many lakes, the largest is Atlin Lake. At 775 square kilometers, it is the largest natural freshwater body in the province. Three of British Columbia's biogeoclimatic zones are represented within the park:
alpine tundra
boreal white and black spruce
spruce-willow-birch.
The parks aims to protect habitat for grizzly and black bear, mountain goat, caribou, moose, Stone sheep, and various timber wolf populations. There are many small mammals such as hoary marmots, Arctic ground squirrels, pikas, beavers and river otters. Birds also inhabit the park area, such as the Arctic tern, blue-grouse, ruffed-grouse and the rock, willow and white-tailed ptarmigan.
Rising temperatures driven by climate change are expected to affect the park's environment throughout this century. As temperatures rise, more precipitation is likely to arrive as rain rather than snow. Mean annual snowfall may be reduced by as much as 40% by 2100. Lake levels and the size of the park's mountain glaciers may decline as a result. These climatic changes are also anticipated to produce "reduced alpine vegetation and a shift to warmer biogeoclimatic zones in the inland portions of the Atlin-Taku region."
Location and Size
Located 20 kilometres south of Atlin, British Columbia, surrounding Atlin Lake. Visitors cannot access the park by vehicle. The primary means of access are via boat or aircraft, but it is also possible to hike in or ride in (once a permit for bringing a horse into the park has been obtained from provincial authorities). The park is 301,140 hectares (1,163 square miles) in size.
See also
List of British Columbia Provincial Parks
References
External links
Atlin Provincial Park and Recreation Area
Provincial parks of British Columbia
Atlin District
1973 establishments in British Columbia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlin/%C3%81a%20Tlein%20T%C3%A9ix%27i%20Provincial%20Park |
Barbara Jagiellon (15 July 1478 – 15 February 1534) was a Polish princess, member of the Jagiellonian dynasty and by marriage Duchess of Saxony.
Born in Sandomierz, she was the sixth daughter of King Casimir IV of Poland and Archduchess Elisabeth of Austria. She was named after her great-grandmother, Barbara of Cilli, Holy Roman Empress.
Life
Barbara was married on 21 November 1496 in a glittering ceremony in Leipzig to George, Duke of Saxony (1471–1539). At the wedding, 6,286 German and Polish nobles were said to be present. This marriage was a key part of maintaining good diplomatic relations between Germany and Poland. For Barbara's family, the marriage was also important due to their rivalry with the House of Habsburg.
In 1513, Barbara and her husband founded Meissen Cathedral; several Masses and liturgical celebration of Easter have been recorded to have taken place since then. Barbara sent letters to her husband while he was at battles. Witnesses say the couple had a very loving and happy marriage.
Barbara died in Leipzig aged 55. Her husband was so stricken by grief that he grew a beard during this time, which was why he was nicknamed "the Bearded". She was buried in the cathedral of Meissen in her husband's funeral chapel, built between 1521 and 1524. Barbara and George were the last Prince and Princess of the House of Wettin to be buried at the cathedral. The altarpiece in the funerary chapel was the work of Lucas Cranach the Elder. They are surrounded by apostles and saints.
Issue
Christoph of Saxony (8 September 1497 – 5 December 1497).
Johann of Saxony (24 August 1498 – 11 January 1537); married on 20 May 1516 to Elisabeth of Hesse. This union was childless.
Wolfgang of Saxony (1499 – 12 January 1500).
Anna of Saxony (21 January 1500 – 23 January 1500).
Christoph of Saxony (born and died 27 May 1501).
Agnes of Saxony (7 January 1503 – 16 April 1503).
Frederick of Saxony (15 March 1504 – 26 February 1539); married on 27 January 1539 to Elisabeth of Mansfeld. This union was childless.
Christine of Saxony (25 December 1505 – 15 April 1549); married on 11 December 1523 to Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse.
Magdalena of Saxony (7 March 1507 – 25 January 1534); married on 6 November 1524 to Joachim Hector, then Electoral Prince of Brandenburg.
Margarethe of Saxony (7 September 1508 – d. Dresden, 19 December 1510).
Ancestry
References
Bibliography
Z. Wdowiszewski: Genealogia Jagiellonów i Domu Wazów w Polsce, Avalon, Kraków 2005, pp. 131–132 and genealogical table in p. 210.
Jagiellonian dynasty
House of Wettin
1478 births
1534 deaths
Polish princesses
Duchesses of Saxony
Margravines of Meissen
⚭Barbara Jagiellon
Daughters of kings | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara%20Jagiellon |
Pasonanca Park is a public park located in Pasonanca in Zamboanga City, Philippines.
History
Construction of the park was started in 1912 by General John J. Pershing, Governor of the Moro Province, and completed during the administration of the Frank W. Carpenter, Governor of the Department of Mindanao and Sulu (1914-1920). Thomas Hanley, a parksman, arrived in 1912 from the United States at the request of Pershing to serve the same post at Pasonanca, and was responsible for the original lay-out of the park.
The park also has a separate campsites for males and females, an amphitheatre, and a convention center, among other facilities.
Pasonanca Park Swimming Pools
The park has three public pools. It boasts an Olympic-size swimming pool, a natural flowing pool and a children's pool with water slides. There are also many picnic areas.
Pictured here is the Pasonanca Kiddie Pool. Designed for children's safety. There are four water slides. The slide farthest to the right is for the beginner. The one farthest to the left is the fastest slide.
The water in the pool is not stagnant. It is constantly replenished by a surge of water naturally drained into the pool by gravity. As the water fills the pool it is also immediately drained to create a natural creek that flows down the hill.
The kiosks are available for rent for the whole day.
Pasonanca Tree House
Originally constructed to be the "Youth Citizenship Training Center" in April 1960 with the generous assistance of the city council. This Pasonanca Tree House is visited by 3000 thousands of visitor per year. For a minimum fee you can rent this tree house. Then you can boast to your friends that you spent the night in a tree house. It has all the amenities of a small motel room.
Pasonanca Park La Jardin de Maria Clara Lobregat and Butterfly Park
This is a garden park named after the late mayor Maria Clara Lobregat. The park consists of floral and butterfly species such as orchids, roses and colorful butterflies surrounding the garden. It also has an aviary park for the avian species such as parrots, turkeys, and eagles among the birds.
The entrance fee is much cheaper than other parks in Zamboanga.
Places that can also be found in Pasonanca Park
Parks in the Philippines
Buildings and structures in Zamboanga City
Tourist attractions in Zamboanga City | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasonanca%20Park |
John Louis Castellani (August 23, 1926 – May 11, 2021) was an American attorney and a former basketball coach. He coached the Minneapolis Lakers in the NBA during the 1959–1960 season, their last before relocating to Los Angeles. Prior to his short coaching stint with the Lakers, Castellani was the head coach at Seattle University from 1956 to 1958, and took the Chieftains to the 12-team National Invitation Tournament (NIT) in his first year. With Elgin Baylor starring in his lineup, Castellani led the 1958 team to the NCAA title game in Louisville, Kentucky, but lost to the Kentucky Wildcats, led by head coach At the age of 31 he is the youngest head coach to lead a team to the national championship game.
Only a month after the championship game, NCAA violations came to light concerning airfare bought for recruits Ben Warley and George Finley. The result was that Castellani resigned under fire on April 21, Baylor left for the NBA, and Seattle was given a two-year postseason ban. Castellani returned to coaching for one year as head coach for the Lakers in the 1959–60 NBA season and again coached Baylor.
After he was released by the Lakers, he attended law school at Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. For over half a century, he practiced as an attorney in Milwaukee and was frequently seen at Milwaukee Bucks and Marquette Golden Eagles basketball games.
Castellani died of natural causes at his home in New Britain, Connecticut, on May 11, 2021, at the age of 94.
Head coaching record
College
See also
List of NCAA Division I Men's Final Four appearances by coach
References
External links
BasketballReference.com: John Castellani
1926 births
2021 deaths
American men's basketball coaches
Basketball coaches from Connecticut
College men's basketball head coaches in the United States
Marquette University Law School alumni
Minneapolis Lakers head coaches
Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's basketball coaches
Seattle Redhawks athletic directors
Seattle Redhawks men's basketball coaches
Sportspeople from New Britain, Connecticut
University of Notre Dame alumni | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Castellani |
Santa Cruz de Goiás is a municipality in southeast Goiás state, Brazil.
Geography
Santa Cruz is located in the southeastern part of the state, 33 km. west of regional center, Pires do Rio. The Rio dos Bois, a tributary of the Corumbá River flows from north to south through the municipality.
It has boundaries with Pires do Rio, Palmelo, Cristianópolis, Caldas Novas and Piracanjuba. It is 121 kilometers from the state capital, Goiânia and is connected by BR-352 / Bela Vista de Goiás / Cristianópolis / GO-020. See Distancias Rodoviarias Sepin for all the distances.
The municipality is bathed by the Rio dos Bois, Rio do Peixe, córregos Manoel Duarte, Muquém, Buriti, Pedra de Amolar, Brumadinho, Caiapó, Pirapitinga, Fundo, Mato Virgem, Água Suja, São Benedito, Córrego da Chuva, Sapé, Dantas, and by the Ribeirão Brumado. In topography there is the Serra do Rio do Peixe, the hills of Clemente, Queiroz, Cuscuzeiro, Dois Irmãos, Pertapé, Serra dos Macacos, Cabeça de Mel and Capão Bonito. The climate is tropical humid.
Political Information
Mayor: Esley Augusto Damaso (January 2005)
City council: 09
Eligible voters: 2,898 (December/2007)
Demographics
Population distribution is characterized by the fact that the rural population outnumbered the urban by almost two to one.
Population density: 3.19 inhabitants/km2 (2007)
Urban population: 1,007 (2007)
Rural population: 2,535 (2007)
Population growth: a loss of about 500 people since 1980
The economy
The economy is based on agriculture, cattle raising, services, public administration, and small transformation industries.
Industrial units: 3 (2007)
Commercial units: 18 (2007)
Cattle herd: 65,000 head (15,000 milk cows)
Main crops: rice, beans, manioc, coffee, bananas, soybeans (10,000 hectares) and corn
Agricultural data 2006
Number of farms: 725
Total area: 97,104 ha.
Area of permanent crops: 92 ha.
Area of perennial crops: 13,369 ha.
Area of natural pasture: 55,190 ha.
Area of woodland and forests: 26,435 ha.
Persons dependent on farming: 1,500
Farms with tractors: 161
Number of tractors: 316
Cattle herd: 65,000 head IBGE
Education (2006)
Schools: 4
Classrooms: 25
Teachers: 40
Students: 726
Middle schools enrollment: 123
Higher education: none
Adult literacy rate: 87.5% (2000) (national average was 86.4%)
Health (2007)
Hospitals: 1
Hospital beds: 12
Ambulatory clinics: 3
Infant mortality rate: 14.0 (2000) (national average was 33.0)
Human Development Index
MHDI: 0.782
State ranking: 26 (out of 242 municipalities)
National ranking: 1,006 (out of 5,507 municipalities) For the complete list see Frigoletto.com
History
Unlike many of the municipalities in Goiás, Santa Cruz has its origins in the 18th century, when mule drivers in 1721 on their way to the mines of Cuiabá discovered gold in the region. A cross was raised and the arraial (village) of Santa Cruz was founded in 1729. Later when the territory was divided in two Santa Cruz was the center of a julgado, which was almost the size of Portugal. In 1833 it was raised to the status of a municipality. The first railroad arrived 28 kilometers away in 1914 and the station was called Pires do Rio, which later became the most important city of the region.
With attractive landscapes around the city, Santa Cruz has rivers and waterfalls that promise future touristic development.
See also
List of municipalities in Goiás
Microregions of Goiás
References
Frigoletto
Sepin
Municipalities in Goiás
Populated places established in 1729
1729 establishments in Brazil | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Cruz%20de%20Goi%C3%A1s |
Michael DiBiase (December 24, 1923 – July 2, 1969) was an American professional wrestler, also known by his ring name "Iron" Mike DiBiase. The adoptive father of professional wrestler "The Million Dollar Man" Ted DiBiase, he was married to Ted's mother Helen Hild (also a professional wrestler), and was the grandfather of Mike, Ted Jr., and Brett DiBiase.
Amateur wrestling career
As an amateur wrestler, DiBiase, representing the US Navy, was the 1946 AAU champion in the UNL (open or heavyweight) division. He then wrestled at the University of Nebraska, and competed at UNL in the NCAA tournament in 1947 and 1948, losing his first round match both years.
Professional wrestling career
DiBiase made his professional debut in 1950. In 1963, DiBiase became the 131st and last knockout victim of light heavyweight boxer Archie Moore. One of DiBiase's most notable matches was a Texas Death Match against Dory Funk Sr, which according to Terry Funk lasted for four hours and 10 minutes, having taken in 32 falls.
Death
DiBiase died in the ring on July 2, 1969, in Lubbock, Texas, following a match with Man Mountain Mike as the result of a fatal heart attack. Harley Race performed CPR on DiBiase and then rode in the ambulance with him. DiBiase was pronounced dead at the hospital. He was buried at the Sunset Cemetery in Willcox, Arizona. Ted DiBiase confirmed that his father had a huge cholesterol buildup and was genetically predisposed to heart disease.
Championships and accomplishments
American Wrestling Association
AWA Midwest Heavyweight Championship (3 times)
AWA Midwest Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Bob Orton (1) and The Avenger (1)
George Tragos/Lou Thesz Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame
Class of 2006
Central States Wrestling
NWA Central States Heavyweight Championship (3 times)
Championship Wrestling from Florida
NWA Brass Knuckles Championship (Florida version) (1 time)
NWA Southern Heavyweight Championship (Florida version) (1 time)
Fred Kohler Enterprises
NWA World Tag Team Championship (Chicago Version) (1 time) – with Danny Plechas
NWA Rocky Mountain
NWA Rocky Mountain Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
NWA Rocky Mountain Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Freddie Blassie and Juan Garcia
NWA Tri-State
NWA World Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Pacific Northwest Wrestling
NWA Pacific Northwest Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Southwest Sports, Inc.
NWA Brass Knuckles Championship (Texas version) (1 time)
NWA Texas Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Danny Plechas
Western States Sports
NWA International Tag Team Championship (Amarillo version) (1 time) – with Danny Plechas
NWA North American Heavyweight Championship (Amarillo version) (3 times)
NWA North American Tag Team Championship (Amarillo version) (4 times) – with Danny Plechas (2), Dr. X (1), and Fritz Von Erich (1)
NWA Southwest Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
NWA World Tag Team Championship (Amarillo version) (4 times) - with Art Nelson (1) and Danny Plechas (3)
NWA World Tag Team Championship (Amarillo version) Tournament (1957) - with Danny Plechas
Worldwide Wrestling Associates
WWA Americas Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
WWA World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
WWA World Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Killer Karl Kox (1) and Karl Gotch (2)
Nebraska Pro Wrestling Hall of Fame inductee (2019)
See also
List of premature professional wrestling deaths
References
External links
1923 births
1969 deaths
20th-century Italian male actors
20th-century professional wrestlers
American male professional wrestlers
Nebraska Cornhuskers wrestlers
Stampede Wrestling alumni
Saint Mary's Pre-Flight Air Devils football players
Professional wrestlers from New York City
NWA Americas Heavyweight Champions
NWA Americas Tag Team Champions
NWA Brass Knuckles Champions (Florida version)
NWA World Junior Heavyweight Champions
WCWA Brass Knuckles Champions
Professional wrestling deaths
Sports deaths in Texas
American professional wrestlers of Italian descent | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron%20Mike%20DiBiase |
Government House is the former official residence of the lieutenant governors of Alberta. Located in Edmonton's Glenora neighbourhood, since 1964 the restored and repurposed building has been used by the Alberta provincial government for ceremonial events, conferences, and some official meetings of the caucus.
The City of Edmonton maintains the Government House Park, part of the North Saskatchewan River valley parks system, in the river valley directly below the Government House clifftop location. Government House is about a walk from the Alberta Legislature Building, northwest along the banks of the North Saskatchewan River.
The Royal Alberta Museum was housed in a separate building on the same property from 1967 until 2018.
Official viceregal residence (1913–1938)
The property for the house, with a large surrounding area, was purchased by the Province of Alberta in 1910. Construction on the building, intended from the outset to house the lieutenant governor, began in 1912, and the official opening was held on October 7, 1913. The three-storey building is constructed of sandstone in the Jacobean Revival style.
It was used as the viceregal residence until 1938. When it was closed, the Alberta Government cited economic concerns, as well as the closing of the Ontario Government House the year previous, as reasons for the closure. However, the closure also came soon after Lieutenant Governor John C. Bowen refused to grant royal assent to three controversial bills passed through the Legislative Assembly, and was, along with the removal of his support staff and official car, seen as an act of retaliation by Premier William Aberhart. The building was sold, and the furniture and fixtures were sold.
General use (1938–1964)
The building was used a boarding house for American pilots flying supplies up to the Alaska Highway and then was acquired by the federal government as military hospital during the Second World War. After the war the building was used as convalescent home for veterans. The house and grounds were returned to the provincial Crown in 1964.
Government House (1964 onwards)
When the building was returned to the provincial Crown, the Government of Alberta extensively restored and reopened as conference centre for government use. The grounds were also chosen as the site of the new Alberta Provincial Museum, which was built as a Canadian Centennial project by the Canadian and Alberta governments and opened in 1967 to celebrate Canada's 100th anniversary of Confederation. The museum was renamed the Royal Alberta Museum in 2005, an honour from Queen Elizabeth II, who visited Alberta that year as part of the province's celebration of its own 100th anniversary as a province.
Government House has since hosted many important functions, including visits by Pope John-Paul II, Queen Elizabeth II and visits by other members of the Canadian Royal Family. Visiting foreign dignitaries are greeted at the ceremonial porte-cochere. These dignitaries, including the Royal Family, reside at a hotel, normally the Hotel Macdonald, when visiting the provincial capital.
Government House has reception rooms, conference rooms and support facilities. While it is no longer the viceregal residence, it is here that the lieutenant governor presides over swearing-in ceremonies for Cabinet ministers. Every Thursday while the legislature is in session, the caucus of the governing party meets in the Alberta Room, a 100-seat conference room on the top floor.
When not in use for official purposes, members of the public can take tours of the building at no cost. On display are artifacts and original pieces of furniture from the building's time as a residence and information is also provided about the building's restoration and current functions.
Alberta Viceregal residences (1938–2005)
From 1938 until 2005, Alberta owned and operated an official residence, a separate office, and provided an entertaining venue for the viceroy. The lieutenant governor lived in a Crown-owned house in the Glenora district of Edmonton (a single storey bungalow at 58 St Georges Crescent), while holding an office at the Legislature Building, where royal assent is granted and where the lieutenant governor received the premier.
The house in Glenora was demolished in 2005 and, as of 2008, there was still no official residence for the lieutenant governor; at that time, Lieutenant Governor Norman Kwong resided at another house near this demolished house.
New official residence
In April 2011, it was announced that a new Royal Alberta Museum would be built in Downtown Edmonton.
Then Premier Stelmach and the Alberta government stated that the site of the old museum, on the grounds of Government House, would be used to build a new official residence for the lieutenant governor.
See also
Government Houses of Canada
Government Houses of the British Empire
Monarchy in Alberta
Lieutenant Governor of Alberta
List of lieutenant governors of Alberta
References
External links
(Federal Historic Sites and Monuments Act Designation)
- (Provincial Historical Resources Act Designation)
Houses completed in 1913
Government buildings completed in 1913
Convention centres in Canada
Alberta government buildings
Provincial Historic Resources in Edmonton
Alberta
Houses in Alberta
Defunct hospitals in Canada
Hospitals in Edmonton
Veterans' hospitals
Tudor Revival architecture in Canada
Jacobethan architecture
Veterans' homes
National Historic Sites in Alberta
1913 establishments in Alberta
Buildings and structures on the National Historic Sites of Canada register
Military hospitals in Canada | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government%20House%20%28Alberta%29 |
Norman B. Saunders (born 27 October 1943) is a Turks and Caicos Islander former politician who served as the 3rd Chief Minister of the Turks and Caicos Islands from 4 November 1980 to 28 March 1985. Saunders is also the longest-serving Member of the House of Assembly in the Turks and Caicos Islands, nearing 50 years of service, the first Chief Minister to win back-to-back elections with a resounding 8-3 victories at the polls in 1980 and 1984, the only ever politician in the nation to win as an independent candidate, and the first leader of the opposition.
Initial political career
In 1967, Saunders was elected as a Member of the Legislative Council for South Caicos under the Progressive National Party at the age of 23, making him the youngest elected official at the time.
In 1976, after a 5-4-2 result in the election, and the two independent candidates siding with the People's Democratic Movement, Saunders became the first Leader of the Opposition in the Turks and Caicos Islands.
However, after 4 years, Saunders lead the Progressive National party to an 8-3 victory which resulted in the party getting re-elected as the government in 1985. At this point, Saunders led the party to both the largest mandate, and the first back-to-back victory in the nation, which has only happened two other times in history.
Conspiracy conviction
Saunders was arrested in March 1985 together with Commerce and Development Minister Stafford Missick. Saunders was alleged by the US Drug Enforcement Administration to have accepted $30,000 from undercover agents to ensure safe passage of drugs by permitting safe stopover refuelling of drug flights from Colombia to the United States. Video evidence showed Saunders accepting $20,000 from an agent. Saunders was convicted in July 1985 of conspiracy, though he was acquitted of the charge of conspiring to import drugs into the United States (which Missick was also convicted of). He was sentenced to eight years in prison and fined $50,000.
However, these charges were later dropped as Saunders was not found guilty.
Later political career
In January 1995, Saunders was elected back to the Legislative Council as an independent candidate representing South Caicos South. Saunders, along with his wife, Hon. Emily Saunders, earned and represented the two electoral districts in South Caicos, with Hon. Emily Saunders earning the South Caicos North seat.
In 2003, Saunders ran as a member of the Progressive National Party which formed the government.
In 2007, Saunders was a part of, at the time, the largest mandate in the Turks and Caicos Islands' House of Assembly history, when the Progressive National Party won 13-2 seats.
Saunders ran as a member of the Progressive National Party and held his seat upon retirement in 2016.
Post Retirement
In recognition of Saunders' 49 years of service, it was announced that the newly renovated South Caicos Airport will be named after Hon. Norman Saunders.
References
1943 births
Living people
Chief Ministers of the Turks and Caicos Islands
Heads of government who were later imprisoned
Politicians convicted of crimes
Progressive National Party (Turks and Caicos Islands) politicians | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman%20Saunders%20%28politician%29 |
PDF/A is an ISO-standardized version of the Portable Document Format (PDF) specialized for use in the archiving and long-term preservation of electronic documents. PDF/A differs from PDF by prohibiting features unsuitable for long-term archiving, such as font linking (as opposed to font embedding) and encryption. The ISO requirements for PDF/A file viewers include color management guidelines, support for embedded fonts, and a user interface for reading embedded annotations.
Standards
Background
PDF is a standard for encoding documents in an "as printed" form that is portable between systems. However, the suitability of a PDF file for archival preservation depends on options chosen when the PDF is created: most notably, whether to embed the necessary fonts for rendering the document; whether to use encryption; and whether to preserve additional information from the original document beyond what is needed to print it.
PDF/A was originally a new joint activity between the Association for Suppliers of Printing, Publishing and Converting Technologies (NPES) and the Association for Information and Image Management AIIM in conjunction with Adobe to develop an international standard defining the use of the Portable Document Format (PDF) for archiving documents. The goal was to address the growing need to electronically archive documents in a way that would ensure preservation of their contents over an extended period of time and ensure that those documents would be able to be retrieved and rendered with a consistent and predictable result in the future. This need exists in a wide variety of government, industry and academic areas worldwide, including legal systems, libraries, newspapers, and regulated industries.
Description
The PDF/A standard does not define an archiving strategy or the goals of an archiving system. It identifies a "profile" for electronic documents that ensures the documents can be reproduced exactly the same way using various software in years to come. A key element to this reproducibility is the requirement for PDF/A documents to be 100% self-contained. All of the information necessary for displaying the document in the same manner is embedded in the file. This includes, but is not limited to, all content (text, raster images and vector graphics), fonts, and color information. A PDF/A document is not permitted to be reliant on information from external sources (e.g., font programs and data streams), but may include annotations (e.g., hypertext links) that link to external documents.
Other key elements to PDF/A conformance include:
Audio and video content are forbidden.
JavaScript and executable file launches are forbidden.
All fonts must be embedded and also must be legally embeddable for unlimited, universal rendering. This also applies to the so-called PostScript standard fonts such as Times or Helvetica.
Colorspaces specified in a device-independent manner.
Encryption is forbidden.
Use of standards-based metadata is required.
External content references are forbidden.
LZW is forbidden due to intellectual property constraints. JPEG 2000 image compression models are not allowed in PDF/A-1 (based on PDF 1.4), as it was first introduced in PDF 1.5. JPEG 2000 compression is allowed in PDF/A-2 and PDF/A-3.
Transparent objects and layers (Optional Content Groups) are forbidden in PDF/A-1 but are allowed in PDF/A-2.
Provisions for digital signatures in accordance with the PAdES (PDF advanced electronic signatures) standard are supported in PDF/A-2.
Embedded files are forbidden in PDF/A-1, but PDF/A-2 allows embedding of PDF/A files, facilitating the archiving of sets of PDF/A documents in a single file. PDF/A-3 allows embedding of any file format such as XML, CAD and others into PDF/A documents.
The use of XML-based XML Forms Architecture (XFA) forms is forbidden in PDF/A. (XFA form data may be preserved in a PDF/A-2 file by moving from XFA key to the Names tree that itself is the value of the XFAResources key of the Names dictionary of the document catalog dictionary.)
Interactive PDF form fields must have an appearance dictionary associated with the field's data. The appearance dictionary shall be used when rendering the field.
Conformance levels and versions
PDF/A-1
Part 1 of the standard was first published on September 28, 2005, and specifies two levels of conformance for PDF files:
PDF/A-1b – Level B (basic) conformance
PDF/A-1a – Level A (accessible) conformance
Level B conformance requires only that standards necessary for the reliable reproduction of a document's visual appearance be followed, while Level A conformance includes all Level B requirements in addition to features intended to improve a document's accessibility.
Additional Level A requirements:
Language specification
Hierarchical document structure
Tagged text spans and descriptive text for images and symbols
Character mappings to Unicode
Level A conformance was intended to increase the accessibility of conforming files for physically impaired users by allowing assistive software, such as screen readers, to more precisely extract and interpret a file's contents. A later standard, PDF/UA, was developed to eliminate what became considered some of PDF/A's shortcomings, replacing many of its general guidelines with more detailed technical specifications.
PDF/A-2
Part 2 of the standard, published on June 20, 2011, addresses some of the new features added with versions 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7 of the PDF Reference. PDF/A-1 files will not necessarily conform to PDF/A-2, and PDF/A-2 compliant files will not necessarily conform to PDF/A-1.
Part 2 of the PDF/A Standard is based on a PDF 1.7 (ISO 32000-1), rather than PDF 1.4 and offers several new features:
JPEG 2000 image compression.
support for transparency effects and layers.
embedding of OpenType fonts.
provisions for digital signatures in accordance with the PDF Advanced Electronic Signatures – PAdES standard.
the option of embedding PDF/A files to facilitate archiving of sets of documents with a single file.
Part 2 defines three conformance levels. PDF/A-2a and PDF/A-2b correspond to conformance levels a and b in PDF/A-1. A new conformance level, PDF/A-2u, represents Level B conformance (PDF/A-2b) with the additional requirement that all text in the document have Unicode mapping.
PDF/A-3
Part 3 of the standard, published on October 15, 2012, differs from PDF/A-2 in only one regard: it allows embedding of arbitrary file formats (such as XML, CSV, CAD, word-processing documents, spreadsheet documents, and others) into PDF/A conforming documents.
PDF/A-4
Part 4 of the standard, based on PDF 2.0, was published in late 2020.
How to create a PDF/A File
Archives sometimes request from their users to submit PDF/A Files. They thus provide their users with information how to convert their files to PDF/A. There are several methods using standard software that differ in computation time as well as preservation of links, equations, vectorgraphs and special characters.
When documents are converted to PDF/A visual inspection is needed since errors in the visual content are common. In a test sample 11 percent of the produced PDF/A-1b document contained visual artefacts. These reproducibility errors included vector graphics issues (transparent objects), loss of links, loss of other document content (unreadable characters, missing text, document part missing), updated fields (reflecting time or folder of conversion) and spelling errors. Archives thus usually do not convert to PDF/A themselves. Instead, some archives ask their users to provide a PDF/A document. Typical computer setups provide several methods for the conversion of documents to PDF/A with different pros and cons.
Converting a simple PDF (up to version 1.4) into a PDF/A-2 usually works as expected, except for problems with glyphs. According to the PDF Association, "Problems can occur before and/or during the generation of PDFs. A PDF/A file can be formally correct yet still have incorrect glyphs. Only a careful visual check can uncover this problem. Because generation problems also affect Unicode mapping, the problem attracts the attention when a visual check is carried out on the extracted text.
In PDF/A, text/font usage is specified uniquely enough to ensure that it cannot be incorrect.
If viewers or printers do not offer complete support for encoding systems, this can result in problems with regard to PDF/A." Meaning that for a document to be completely compliant with the standard, it will be correct internally, while the system used for viewing or printing the document may produce undesired results.
A document produced with optical character recognition (OCR) conversion into PDF/A-2 or PDF/A-3 doesn't support the notdefglyph flag. Therefore, this type of conversion can result in unrendered content.
PDF/A standard documents can be created with the following software: SoftMaker Office 2021, MS Word 2010 and newer, Adobe Acrobat Distiller, PDF Creator, OpenOffice or LibreOffice since release 3.0, LaTeX with pdfx or pdfTeX addons, or by using a virtual PDF printer (Adobe Acrobat Pro, PDF24, FreePDF + Ghostscript).
Identification
A PDF/A document can be identified as such through PDF/A-specific metadata located in the "http://www.aiim.org/pdfa/ns/id/" namespace. This metadata represents a claim of conformance; in itself it does not ensure conformance:
a PDF document can be PDF/A-compliant, except for its lack of PDF/A metadata. This may happen for instance with documents that were generated before the definition of the PDF/A standard, by authors aware of features that present long-term preservation issues.
a PDF document can be identified as PDF/A, but may incorrectly contain PDF features not allowed in PDF/A; hence, documents which claim to be PDF/A-compliant should be tested for PDF/A compliance.
Validation
Validation of PDF/A documents is attempted to reveal whether a produced file really is a PDF/A file or not. Unfortunately, PDF/A validators quite often disagree, since the interpretation of the PDF/A standards is not always clear.
Isartor Test Suite
Industry collaboration in the original PDF/A Competence Center led to the development of the Isartor Test Suite in 2007 and 2008. The test suite consists of 204 PDF files intentionally constructed to systematically fail each of the requirements for PDF/A-1b conformance, allowing developers to test the ability of their software to validate against the standard's most basic level of conformance. By mid-2009 the test suite had already made an appreciable difference in the general quality of PDF/A validation software.
veraPDF
The veraPDF consortium, led by the Open Preservation Foundation and the PDF Association, was created in response to the EU Commission's PREFORMA challenge to develop an open-source validator for the PDF/A format. The PDF Association launched the PDF Validation Technical Working Group in November 2014 to articulate a plan for developing an industry-supported PDF/A validator.
The veraPDF consortium subsequently won phase 2 of the PREFORMA contract in April 2015. Development continued throughout 2016, with Phase 2 completed on-schedule by December 2016. The Phase 3 testing and acceptance period concluded in July, 2017. veraPDF now covers all parts (1, 2 and 3) and conformance levels (a, b, u) of PDF/A.
veraPDF is available for installation on Windows, macOS, or Linux using a PDFBox-based or "Greenfields" PDF parser.
PDF/A viewers
The PDF/A specification also states some requirements for a conforming PDF/A viewer, which must
ignore any data that are not described by the PDF and PDF/A standards;
ignore any linearization information provided by the file;
only use the embedded fonts (rather than any locally available, substituted or simulated fonts);
only display using the embedded color profile;
ensure that form fields do not change the rendered presentation and are rendered without regard to the form data;
ensure that annotations are rendered consistently.
When encountering a file that claims conformance with PDF/A, some PDF viewers will default to a special "PDF/A viewing mode" to fulfill conforming reader requirements. To take one example, Adobe Acrobat and Adobe Reader 9 include an alert to advise the user that PDF/A viewing mode has been activated. Some PDF viewers allow users to disable the PDF/A viewing mode or to remove the PDF/A information from a file.
Reception
A PDF/A document must embed all fonts in use; accordingly, a PDF/A file will often be larger than an equivalent PDF file that does not include embedded fonts.
The use of transparency is forbidden in PDF/A-1. The majority of PDF generation tools that allow for PDF/A document compliance, such as the PDF export in OpenOffice.org or PDF export tool in Microsoft Office 2007 suites, will also make any transparent images in a given document non-transparent. That restriction was removed in PDF/A-2.
Some archivists have voiced concerns that PDF/A-3, which allows arbitrary files to be embedded in PDF/A documents, could result in circumvention of memory institution procedures and restrictions on archived formats.
The PDF Association had addressed various misconceptions regarding PDF/A in its publication "PDF/A in a Nutshell 2.0".
See also
Digital dark age
PDF/E – for engineering and technical documentation
PDF/X – another subset of the PDF standard, optimized for print production
PDF/VT – for variable and transactional printing
Further reading
PDF/A in a Nutshell 2.0 – published by PDF Association (2013)
PDF/A 101: An Introduction – presentation from the First International PDF/A Conference (2008)
White Paper: PDF/A – The Basics – from PDF Tools AG (2009)
Format description for PDF/A-1 – at digitalpreservation.gov
References
External links
PDF Association
PDF/A Competence Center
veraPDF – PDF/A validation software
Archive formats
Computer file formats
Digital preservation
ISO standards
Page description languages
PDF standards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDF/A |
New Right was a United Kingdom-based pan-European nationalist, far-right think tank founded by Troy Southgate and Jonathan Bowden. It was part of the French Nouvelle Droite movement, and was otherwise unrelated to the wider British and American usage of the term "New Right".
It was launched on 16 January 2005 at a meeting in central London. (archive accessed 27 April 2012)
In March 2005, the group described itself on its Yahoo! Groups page as follows: "We are opposed to liberalism, democracy and egalitarianism and fight to restore the eternal values and principles that have become submerged beneath the corrosive tsunami of the modern world.
In June 2005, New Right announced that it would publish New Imperium, a quarterly magazine it described as an "intellectual journal". Bowden was the organisation's press officer.
References
Further reading
Graham D. Macklin, "Co-opting the counter culture: Troy Southgate and the National Revolutionary Faction", Patterns of Prejudice 39/3 (2005).
Far-right politics in the United Kingdom
New Right UK | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Right%20%28UK%29 |
James Alexander George Smith McCartney (30 June 1945 – 9 May 1980), also known as J. A. G. S. McCartney or "Jags" McCartney, was a politician from the Turks and Caicos Islands. He was the first Chief Minister of the Turks and Caicos Islands and held that position from 31 August 1976 until 9 May 1980, when he died when the private plane he was in crashed near Vineland, New Jersey, while flying from Washington, D.C. to Atlantic City, New Jersey.
McCartney was born in Grand Turk to an accomplished Jamaican barrister, Harvey O. B. Fernandez McCartney and a Sunday school pianist, Sally McCartney, née Taylor of the Turks and Caicos. He was named after a prominent Jamaican barrister and distinguished legislator, James Alexander George Smith (1877–1942).
J.A.G.S. McCartney was the first leader and founder of the People's Democratic Movement (PDM), a grassroots organization established to address the many social and economic ills that had been pervasive throughout the Turks and Caicos Islands. A central goal of his was the attainment of self-determination for the people of the Turks and Caicos Islands. McCartney had particularly sought to mobilize the youth in the political process. A charismatic, dynamic and visionary figure, McCartney was determined to usher in a new Constitution that would foster and safeguard the rights of all Turks and Caicos Islanders, create new opportunities for citizens and advance the Country. Assuming office at age 31, McCartney remains one of the world's youngest democratically elected leaders in history. After his death, his deputy Oswald Skippings became Chief Minister at the age of 26.
National Heroes Day, a holiday celebrated on the last Monday in May, commemorates the life of McCartney. This holiday was later renamed to JAGs McCartney Day in 2020. Additionally, the Grand Turk International Airport is named in honour of him.
References
1945 births
1980 deaths
Accidental deaths in New Jersey
Chief Ministers of the Turks and Caicos Islands
People's Democratic Movement (Turks and Caicos Islands) politicians
Turks and Caicos Islands people of Jamaican descent
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1980
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Alexander%20George%20Smith%20McCartney |
The National Bicycle Association (NBA), later known as the National Bicycle Motocross Association (NbmxA), was a United States-based Bicycle Motocross (BMX) sports sanctioning body originally based in Soledad, California that was created by Ernie Alexander in 1973 and ceased operations as an independent body in 1981. It was the first and for its first few years until 1980 the largest sanctioning body in the United States concerning BMX. It was known for its pioneering works in founding the organized sport of BMX. It was both the first true sanctioning body and the first nation-spanning one (as opposed to the regional ones that emerged), although at first it was concentrated in the west coast of the United States, where it was founded. It was the first body to hold true nationals in which racers coming from all over the country competed for points and in the case of professionals, money, to determine who would earn the right to run a National no. "1" plate in the several divisions and age classes the following year. It was the first sanctioning body to have a professional division, which was created as far back as late September 1974.
History
Mr. Alexander was a former racer that promoted races at the famous Indian Dunes, built and managed by Walt James, where many movies and TV shows were filmed. On one occasion in 1970, he noticed a group of kids trying to organize a bicycle race with their Schwinn Sting-Rays and Sting-Ray like bikes. Being the motorcycle promoter he was he lent the kids a hand. At that moment the path to the NBA was set. Mr. Alexander opened the Yarnell track, a steep downhill course that was by our insurance concerned standards very steep, fast and hair raising. Speeds of 40-45 mph were not unheard of. It had more in common with today's Mountain Biking courses than a modern, well-groomed and safer (some say too safe) BMX tracks. The popularity of his races grew until it became practically a full-time job. In 1973 he decided to formalize it and create the National Bicycle Association modeled on the existing American Motorcycle Association (AMA) for motorcycle Motocross (MX). It rapidly grew in number of tracks and members spreading from Southern California. Tracks were eventually established as far as the East coast. The NBA became the first national governing body for BMX.
The famous Yamaha Bicycle Gold Cup events in 1974 could qualify as a quasi national in which it was a race series that was held sequentially at four different California tracks culminating in the series finale in Anaheim, California on September 14, 1974. However, the first true national occurred on March 30, 1975 in Phoenix, Arizona. This was the major first race held outside of California and in which national points were given both to those who raced outside and within of the state of California. The national would be held in the sanctioning body's one non-Californian track in Phoenix, Arizona (the Kartland Track located at 3610 West Indian School Road) and its members could race in a sanctioned event based in Arizona if they wished to come. This was in addition to many other first including the first BMX National number one Amateur racing title holder which was David Clinton. In 1976 the NBA created the first formal pro class and had its first No.1 pro, a twenty-year-old Scot Breithaupt. However, the first mention of a professional class by the NBA was in the October 1974 issue of Bicycle Motocross News at the Valley Youth Center track in Van Nuys, California:
"A new professional class for 14 and over experts is in effect"
This beats a previous claim of a proto-Pro class that was created in 1975 was when a pro race promoted by Scot Breithaupt at the Saddleback Park track in Irvine, California with a US$200 purse. However, Tom Lund, the alleged pro denies this ever happening:
"Scott keeps telling me I won the 1st Pro race at Saddelback, he promoted it but I don't remember." ---Tom Lund, February 24, 2003 FatBMX.com
The NBA for the first six years of its existence it ruled the BMX world with these innovations despite the rise of other sanctioning bodies.
However, it closed its doors as an independent BMX governing body nine years after its founding due to falling membership and local tracks changing their affiliations to either the National Bicycle League (NBL) or American Bicycle Association (ABA) (see below). The final independent NBA Grand National held in Long Beach, California in 1981 and was the lowest attended since the NBA went national in 1975. The bulk of the Novice classes was not signing up for the big events, while Expert and Pro turnout was very good (there was no Intermediate or equivalent classes at the time). Overall a mere 600-700 (with 101 motos) sign ups were on hand for the NBA's season ending event. Over the previous season, sign ups never exceeded 750, At the time 1000 sign ups were the standard measure of a good turn out in for an average national during the season. It was said that partly responsible for the low turnout for the Grands was the fact that it was scheduled two weeks before Christmas when family and individual budgets were stretched and/or saving up for the upcoming Jag World Championships. Whatever the reasons, for the Grand Nationals, the premier event of the year for any sanctioning body, to have so low an attendance figure was almost disastrous. In contrast the 1980 NBA Grand Nationals which were also held in Long Beach had 1,0400 sign ups in 200 motos. The ABA had 1,917 sign ups in 257 motos for its 1980 Grand Nationals in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma and the NBL had 1,100 sign ups for its 1980 Grand Nationals in Evansville, Indiana.
The abandonment of the NBA by its racers and track operators to rival organizations was almost certainly due to the relaxed perhaps even negligent nature of the management toward keeping track of points and monetary awards to its pros and the scheduling its events. To a query as to when its Grand Nationals was going to be held in 1979: "We don't even know where it's going to be yet, so how can we know the date?" Both the NBL and the ABA had announced when and where their Grand nationals were being held. To a query as to who were the top money earners so far in 1979: "We don't keep track of how much the boys win". The ABA in contrast provided a list of its top ten purse winners; The NBL Bicycle Motocross Action magazine reported, did not yet have a pro class. The publisher and editor of BMX Action, Robert Osborn, summed it up: "(Heavy Sigh) Sometimes it's tough to understand the internal workings of the NBA". A probably cause for this lackadaisical attitude domestically was the desire to branch out the NBA on an international basis. In doing so, it neglected its base.
If they had a relax attitude internally to its racers and track operators it had an aggressive attitude to its main competitor the ABA. It was common for the NBA to deliberately schedule its qualifiers for its Grand Nationals against ABA nationals and its Grand Nationals to draw off racers who would otherwise attend those ABA events. Other questionable practices attributed to the NBA were post unusually high entrance fees at it Grand Nationals US$20 for amateurs and US$50 for pros, unusually high for the late 1970s. In additions racers were charged spectator fees, unheard of in the BMX world and perhaps the sporting world as a whole. Prior to entering one of their nationals, one had to be a member of the NBA. No other sanctioning body had this requirement. Other sanctioning bodies, ABA and NBL included honored the licenses from other organizations. The ABA honored the NBL licenses of those NBL racers who wanted to race its Grand Nationals for instance. The cumulative effects of these missteps were that by the end of 1979 the NBA was no longer the largest sanctioning body. That laurel went to the ABA.
To compound the mismanagement, the NBA entered secret sponsorship deals without the knowledge of Mongoose, the principal sponsor of the 1979 Mongoose NBmxA Grand National (the NBA had changed its name to the National Bicycle Motocross Association in 1979 so as not to conflict with the National Basketball Association.) allegedly defrauding the principal sponsor out of part of its sponsoring charge. Allowed BMX Plus!, BMX Actions rival BMX periodical to set up a wet bar right besides the racing track. BMX racing was still an overwhelmingly kids sport at the time despite the presence of 20-plus-year-old pros.
It was these mishandling of public relations which caused the reorganization of the NBmxA in 1981 to save it. The most public aspect of this reorganization was the resignation of the founder and President Ernie Alexander in January 1981. A new board of directors which was made up of previously silent new investors who previously infused the NBmxA with fresh funding installed Peter DeRaffaele as the new chief executive officer (CEO) and president of the NBmxA. According to reports the new investors where approached by Ernie Alexander for management help in September 1980 The board of directors elected DeRaffaele as CEO and went to the NBmxA's Newhall, California headquarters to assist. After the 1980 Grandnational Mr. Alexander allegedly told DeRaffaele that his help in the Newhall office was no longer necessary. The board asked for an accounting of the NBA's books. Mr. Alexander promised to produce them after the 1980 racer year end points were tabulated and distributed. Alexander resigned allegedly never producing the accounting. DeRaffaelle and the board decided not to fold the NBmxA and to rescue it. DeRallfe went to the abandoned NBmxA headquarters in Newhall and all he found was the year end points standings and 13,000 membership applications but no membership list. After moving the headquarters from Newhall to Fresno, California, it took approximately until April to reconstruct the mailing list, revising the rule book, getting the NBmxA publication NBmxA World restarted, sending out apologies for the delays to the membership and reestablishing relations with BMX industry heads.
From all accounts, the NBmxA did conducted very well operated Nationals for the 1981 season culminating in its last Grand National at Long Beach, California. The best feature of that national was its track. It got universal raves from all the pros, particularly the forthright Greg Hill: "It was good dirt, they didn't have to water it, the layout was good, everything was perfect, it was challenging". He thought so well of it he came back for three hours just to ride the course with the locals. Despite this, attendance as noted above was low as it had been for the NBmxA all year. This made the financial position of the NBmxA unrecoverable despite the improvements. At that point, the officers of the NBmxA approached the NBL with a merger proposal.
After the 1981 season, the NBmxA stopped sanctioning its own races and went into partnership with the National Bicycle League (NBL). The NBmxA management handled sponsor relations, race promotion, and marketing of NBL races. The NBL honored the NBmxA membership cards until they expired and absorbed the membership and tracks of the NBmxA. Eventually the NBmxA was folded into the NBL completely and Mr. Alexander's organization was gone.
This did not mean that Mr. Ernie Alexander was done with BMX. In February 1981, while the NBmxA was undergoing reorganization, Mr. Alexander formed a new sanctioning body, the World Wide Bicycle Motocross Association (WWBMXA) out of Chatsworth, California. The most prestigious race it was involved with was the Knott's Berry Farm Pepsi Cola Mongoose Grand Championships which was primarily sanctioned by the NBL and co-sanctioned by the WWBMXA and the United Bicycle Racers (UBR). He also designed the very well received track at that event. Unfortunately it was short lived, gone from the scene by the middle of 1983, but to most accounts it put on very professional well run races with the Mongoose Grand Championships the feather in the cap and a graceful exit by Mr. Alexander from the BMX scene.
Vital statistics
Proficiency and division class labels and advancement method
Operations
Governing districts
The NBA divided their territory into districts. There could be several districts within a state or a district encompassing several. This is different in practice from the NBL which did not divide its territory into districts, only following state lines for state commissioner administration purposes. The later ABA also had districts, often multiple ones in a state but only within state boundaries. In the early days of BMX the early to the mid-1970s, becoming the number one racer in the NBA's most populous district District "X" for Southern California/Los Angeles County was tantamount to a national no.1 since organized BMX hardly existed anywhere else (Indeed, the present version of BMX was created in Southern California), so the first "National" No.1 racer was from District "X" David Clinton in 1974 and John George in 1975. When the NBA Merged with the NBL after the 1981 season, the NBL absorbed some of the NBA's tracks but not its district structure. Below is at least a partial list of NBA districts.
District "X" (Southern California/Los Angeles)
District "N" (Northern California)
District "S" (San Diego)
District "A" (Arizona)
District "K" (Oklahoma)
District "T" (Texas)
District "G" (New Jersey, New York, Maine, Rhode Island, Connecticut and Pennsylvania)
District "P" (Colorado, Wyoming, Utah)
District "V" (Las Vegas, Nevada, Small part of Northeastern California)These are some of the more Notable Number one title holders from different states. Jeff Ruminer 1K
Eddie Livingston 1T
Bobby Encinas 1X
Eddy King 1S
Stanley Robinson 1N
NBA Rule book
NBA National number ones by year
CDNE=Class did not exist. TDNE=Title did not exist.Note: Dates reflect the year the racers *won* their plates, not the year they actually *raced* their No.1 plates. In other words, David Clinton won his No.1 plate in 1974 entitling him to race with #1 on his plate for the 1975 season. John George then won the No.1 plate in 1975 and raced with #1 on his plate during the 1976 racing season.*The NBA did not have a true National no.1 until 1975 when the first true national was held. Until then No.1s were strictly district. However, since the NBA Southern California District was the largest by far in the country during those years (indeed, only in Arizona did the NBA have any districts outside of California) and John George in 1975 and before him David Clinton in 1974 where the district champions at the end of those seasons that made them National No.1s by default. In the case of David Clinton in 1974 almost no tracks existed outside of California and none of those were NBA sanctioned.**The NBA did have a separate professional division beginning in 1976, but until 1979 the National No.1 plate was all around for every class, pro or amateur.***The Number One pro title did not exist until 1979.****'''NBA Pros were allowed to race in the Amateur class and hold the amateur title at the time, so Greg Hill, while a professional was eligible for and won the no. 1 Amateur title.
See also
American Bicycle Association
National Bicycle League
National Pedal Sport Association
United Bicycle Racers Association
United States Bicycle Motocross Association
Notes
External links
The two current major BMX sanctioning body websites:
The American Bicycle Association (ABA) Website.
The National Bicycle League (NBL) Website.
Cycling organizations in the United States
Sports governing bodies in the United States
BMX | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Bicycle%20Association |
The Bamboo Annals (), also known as the Ji Tomb Annals (), is a chronicle of ancient China.
It begins in the earliest legendary time (the age of the Yellow Emperor) and extends to 299 BC, with the later centuries focusing on the history of the State of Wei in the Warring States period. It thus covers a similar period to Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian (91 BC). The original may have been lost during the Song dynasty, and the text is known today in two versions, a "current text" (or "modern text") of disputed authenticity and an incomplete "ancient text".
Textual history
The original text was buried with King Xiang of Wei (died 296 BC) and re-discovered nearly six centuries later in 281 AD (Western Jin dynasty) in the Jizhong discovery. For this reason, the chronicle survived the burning of the books by Emperor Qin Shi Huang. Other texts recovered from the same tomb included Guoyu, I Ching, and the Tale of King Mu. They were written on bamboo slips, the usual writing material of the Warring States period, and it is from this that the name of the text derives. The strips were arranged in order and transcribed by court scholars, who identified the work as the state chronicle of Wei. According to Du Yu, who saw the original strips, the text began with the Xia dynasty, and used a series of different pre-Han calendars. However, later indirect reports state that it began with the Yellow Emperor. This version, consisting of 13 scrolls, was lost during the Song dynasty.
A 3-scroll version of the Annals is mentioned in the History of Song (1345), but its relationship to the other versions is not known.
The "current text" (今本 jīnběn) is a 2-scroll version of the text printed in the late 16th century. The first scroll contains a sparse narrative of the pre-dynastic emperors (beginning with the Yellow Emperor), the Xia dynasty and the Shang dynasty. The narrative is interspersed with longer passages on portents, which are identical to passages in the late 5th century Book of Song. The second scroll contains a more detailed account of the history of the Western Zhou, the state of Jin and its successor state Wei, and has no portent passages. This version gave years according to the sexagenary cycle, a practice that began in the Han dynasty. Discrepancies between the text and quotations of the earlier text in older books led scholars such as Qian Daxin and Shinzō Shinjō to dismiss the "current" version as a forgery, a view still widely held. Other scholars, notably David Nivison and Edward Shaughnessy, argue that substantial parts of it are faithful copies of the original text.
The "ancient text" (古本 gǔběn) is a partial version assembled through painstaking examination of quotations of the lost original in pre-Song works by Zhu Youzeng (late 19th century), Wang Guowei (1917) and Fan Xiangyong (1956). Fang Shiming and Wang Xiuling (1981) have systematically collated all the available quotations, instead of following earlier scholars in trying to merge variant forms of a passage into a single text.
The two works that provide the most quotations, the Shui Jing Zhu (527) and Sima Zhen's Shiji Suoyin (early 8th century), seem to be based on slightly different versions of the text.
Translations
Biot, Édouard (1841–42). "Tchou-chou-ki-nien, Annales de bambou Tablettes chronologiques du Livre écrit sur bambou", Journal asiatique, Third series, 12, pp. 537–78, and 13, pp. 203–207, 381–431.
Legge, James (1865). "The Annals of the Bamboo Books", in "Prolegomena", The Chinese Classics, volume 3, part 1, pp. 105–188. Rpt. (1960) Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
Nivison, David (2009). The Riddle of the Bamboo Annals (Zhushu Jinian Jiemi 竹書紀年解謎). Taipei: Airiti Press.
See also
Tsinghua Bamboo Slips
References
Citations
Sources
Works cited
reprinted in
Further reading
(summary).
(summary )
(responding to )
(review of )
External links
Bamboo Annals at the Chinese Text Project.
Bamboo and wooden slips
Chinese history texts
4th-century BC history books
Chinese chronicles | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo%20Annals |
Sheila Sherwood (born Sheila Hilary Parkin, 22 October 1945 in Parson Cross, Sheffield, West Riding of Yorkshire, England) is a former international long jumper whose career highlights included a silver medal at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico, and a gold medal at the 1970 British Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh. She competed in three consecutive Summer Olympic Games (1964, 1968 and 1972) and had a career best distance of 6.73 metres.
Early life
As a child, her parents were caretaker and head cook at St Thomas More School in nearby Grenoside.
Sherwood attended Yew Lane Secondary Modern, where at the age of fifteen she was appointed as Head-Girl. After a successful set of O-Level results, she transferred to nearby Ecclesfield Grammar School to study for her A-Levels.
Athletics career
She first came to prominence as an athlete as a 16-year-old as a member of the Sheffield-based Sheffield United Harriers athletic club. Competing under her maiden name of Sheila Parkin, she created an English Schools long jump record in the summer of 1962. On the strength of this she was selected to represent Great Britain against Poland in August 1962 where she finished second behind former world record holder Elzbieta Krzensinska by just 2 cm. This performance started her long and distinguished career as an international long jumper, as it resulted in selection for the 1962 European championships in Belgrade, where she finished 12th, and then representing England in the long jump at the 1962 Commonwealth Games in Perth, Western Australia, where she achieved 5th position.
Sherwood's early career saw only a slight improvement in her jumping, and she was eclipsed by fellow British jumper Mary Rand on many occasions. Rand took the gold medal at the 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games where Sherwood only finished 13th. However, it was in Tokyo that Sheila met British hurdler John Sherwood and a romance began that was to result in marriage three years later. Sheila's relationship with John coincided with a marked improvement in her jumping performances. She took the silver medal at the 1966 Commonwealth Games in Kingston, Jamaica behind Rand and at the 1968 Olympic Games in Mexico City she took the silver medal behind the Romanian Viorica Viscopoleanu with a personal best leap of 6.68 metres.
Sherwood took the gold medal at the 1970 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh with a career best jump of 6.73 metres and finished fourth at the 1971 European Championships in Helsinki. However, in her latter years in the sport she was hindered by back problems. Despite this she was selected for the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich where she finished a commendable ninth. Her career as an international long jumper came to a conclusion at the 1974 Commonwealth Games in Auckland where she took seventh place.
Retirement and personal life
In the mid-1970s Sherwood and her husband helped form the breakaway Sheffield Athletic Club, which then amalgamated with Sheffield United Harriers to form Sheffield City Athletic Club. The club later changed its name to the City of Sheffield Athletic Club.
Sherwood is the mother of British international tennis player David Sherwood who was born in 1980. After retiring from athletics she continued to work as a physical education teacher at Myers Grove Comprehensive School in Sheffield.
References
1945 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Sheffield
British female long jumpers
English female long jumpers
Olympic athletes for Great Britain
Olympic silver medallists for Great Britain
Commonwealth Games medallists in athletics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1964 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1968 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1972 Summer Olympics
English Olympic medallists
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for England
Commonwealth Games silver medallists for England
Athletes (track and field) at the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 1970 British Commonwealth Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 1974 British Commonwealth Games
Medalists at the 1968 Summer Olympics
Olympic silver medalists in athletics (track and field)
People educated at Ecclesfield Grammar School
Universiade medalists in athletics (track and field)
FISU World University Games gold medalists for Great Britain
Medalists at the 1967 Summer Universiade
Medallists at the 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games
Medallists at the 1970 British Commonwealth Games | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheila%20Sherwood |
The Paddock Arcade is a 19th-century shopping mall located in Watertown, New York. Built in 1850, it is the second oldest covered shopping mall and the oldest continuously running enclosed shopping mall in the United States. Since it has seen uninterrupted use since it opened in 1850, it carries the distinction of being the country's oldest, continuously operating covered shopping mall. The Paddock Arcade was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976.
Location and architecture
At No. 1 Public Square, the arcade remains the benchmark structure in Watertown's historic downtown district. The structure runs perpendicular to the adjoining Paddock Building. The arcade was built in the Gothic style, topped with a glass roof that allowed daylight to filter through. The Paddock Building contains a 19th-century Italianate facade.
History
The arcade was built by Watertown native Loveland Paddock and designed by architect Otis Wheelock. It was based on similar arcades built during that era in the United States and Europe. Shops occupied the bottom floor, while the upper floors were used for office space.
In about 1916, a large section of the Paddock Building was demolished to make way for the six-story Woolworth Building. In the 1920s, arcade owners put forth a major redesign of the arcade, eschewing its original Gothic interior with a more modern design, which included the installation of the current translucent, steel-and-wire-glass dropped ceiling between its second and third stories. This ceiling still allowed light to filter in from the arcade's glass roof.
Today
The arcade still functions as a shopping and business center in Watertown's downtown district. In recent years, structural and aesthetic improvements, coupled with new businesses are helping to guarantee the arcade's future. The arcade is the current (2013) home to Europe Cakes, Johnny D's Casual Dining, Paddock Club Tavern, Steve Weed Productions, The Village Peddler bicycle shop, Paddock Antiques, Satyana Yoga, Beauty Bar, Vito Gourmet, Bova Photography. In 2007, it was announced that the arcade would be host to Watertown's popular farmers' market for its extended fall season.
See also
Public Square (Watertown, New York)
Italianate architecture
Gothic Revival architecture
Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II
Cleveland arcade
Westminster Arcade, the oldest enclosed shopping mall in the United States
References
External links
City of Watertown
Otis Wheelock
Watertown Downtown Business Association
Official Website National Register of Historic Places
Farmers Market Moves To Arcade
Shopping malls established in 1850
Shopping malls in New York (state)
Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Tourist attractions in Jefferson County, New York
Shopping arcades in the United States
National Register of Historic Places in Jefferson County, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Watertown, New York | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddock%20Arcade |
Jindabyne Dam is a major ungated rockfill embankment dam across the Snowy River in the Snowy Mountains of New South Wales, Australia. The dam's main purpose is to redirect water from the Snowy River to the Murray, for the generation of hydro-power and irrigation. It is one of the sixteen major dams that comprise the Snowy Mountains Scheme, a vast hydroelectricity and irrigation complex constructed in south-east Australia between 1949 and 1974 and now run by Snowy Hydro.
The impounded reservoir is called Lake Jindabyne.
Location and features
Completed in 1967, Jindabyne Dam is a major dam, located approximately south south-east of the relocated town of Jindabyne. The dam was constructed by a consortium of Utah-Brown and Sudamericana based on engineering plans developed under contract by the Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Authority. Construction of the dam flooded the settlement of Old Jindabyne that accommodated approximately 300 people. Parts of Old Jindabyne can be seen when the levels of Lake Jindabyne are low. The settlement of East Jindabyne is located above what was Old Jindabyne.
The dam wall comprising of rockfill is high and long. At 100% capacity the dam wall holds back of water. The surface area of Lake Jindabyne is and the catchment area is . The spillway is capable of discharging .
Work to modify the dam spillway commenced in 1994 and was ongoing as at July 2009.
The dam has a 1.1MW hydro power generator that can be used during environmental releases into the Snowy River.
Lake Jindabyne
Lake Jindabyne receives the flow from the Snowy River as well as its tributaries, the Thredbo River and Eucumbene River. Smaller inflows include Cobbin Creek, Rushes Creek and Wollondibby Creek. The flow of water into Lake Jindabyne is particularly strong during the spring months of October and November due to snow melt.
The Jindabyne pumping station pumps the water from the lake into the Jindabyne-Island Bend tunnel. The water then goes to Geehi Dam via the Snowy-Geehi tunnel and is then available to the Murray Hydroelectric Power Station before entering the Murray River.
The damming and redirection of the Snowy River reduced its flow below the dam to about was only 1% of the amount that flowed before the river was dammed. This caused environmental concerns about the state of the lower reaches of the Snowy River in Victoria and NSW. The result was Snowy Hydro releasing water as environmental flows. In 2000, the NSW and Victorian Governments reached a long-term agreement to increase the flow of water into the Snowy to 28%.
Recreational uses
Lake Jindabyne is a popular sailing and fishing destination. The body of water is one of the largest fresh water reservoirs in New South Wales, and has a resident population of Atlantic Salmon, Brook Trout and Rainbow Trout. Lake Jindabyne also has a reputation as one of the best places to catch trout in Australia.
In 1969 the Eucumbene Sailing Club moved to Lake Jindabyne and formed the Lake Jindabyne Yacht Club as conditions were not as rough as Lake Eucumbene. The club operates from November until April every year with racing in nineteen different classes of boat.
It is also a popular venue for waterskiing and sailing during spring, summer and autumn.
Gallery
See also
Kosciuszko National Park
List of dams and reservoirs in New South Wales
Snowy Scheme Museum
References
External links
Snowy Mountains Scheme
Jindabyne
Rock-filled dams
Embankment dams
Dams completed in 1967
1967 establishments in Australia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jindabyne%20Dam |
Dario Marianelli (born 21 June 1963) is an Italian composer.
Early life, education
Marianelli was born in Pisa, Italy. He studied piano and composition in Florence and London. After a year as a postgraduate composer at the Guildhall School of Music, he took up a three-year postgraduate program at the National Film and Television School in London, from which he graduated in 1997. While there, he also undertook diverse projects, composing for concerts, contemporary ballet and theatre productions.
Career
Marianelli had already written scores for several films and TV projects, including movies such as Ailsa and Pandaemonium, when director Joe Wright contacted him about scoring his 2005 film Pride & Prejudice. He subsequently composed for Wright's films Atonement, The Soloist, Anna Karenina and Darkest Hour.
In 2008 Marianelli won the Academy Award for Original Music Score and Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score for Atonement. He has also been nominated for Academy Awards for Pride & Prejudice and Anna Karenina.
In 2018 he composed the score for Bumblebee, the sixth installment in the Transformers film series. It was his second score for director Travis Knight, after Kubo and the Two Strings.
Marianelli has continued to write concert, theatre and ballet music.
Film scores
Awards and nominations
See also
Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Composer
Chicago Film Critics Association
References
External links
mfiles information on Dario Marianelli
Air-Edel Associates
1963 births
20th-century Italian composers
21st-century Italian composers
Best Original Music Score Academy Award winners
Golden Globe Award-winning musicians
Italian film score composers
Italian male composers
Ivor Novello Award winners
Laika (company) people
Living people
Italian male film score composers
Musicians from Pisa
Alumni of the National Film and Television School | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario%20Marianelli |
The Curzon Hall is a British Raj-era building and home of the Faculty of Sciences at the University of Dhaka, located in Ramna.
The building was originally intended to be a town hall and is named after Lord Curzon, the Viceroy of India who laid its foundation stone in 1904. Upon the establishment of Dacca University in 1921, it became the base of the university's science faculty.
Language movement
During the Bengali Language Movement, 1948–1956, Curzon Hall was the location of various significant events. After the Partition of India in 1947 that formed the country of Pakistan, Urdu was chosen to be the sole state language. In 1948, the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan chose Urdu and English as the only languages to be used to address the assembly, which was protested within the assembly on the grounds that the majority of the people spoke Bangla and not Urdu. Students of Dhaka University objected instantly to the actions of the Constituent Assembly, and it was in Curzon Hall that they declared their opposition to the state language policy.
Facilities
The Botanical Garden of the university is located on the premises of Curzon Hall, and is used by students and faculty for teaching botany and for scientific studies with plants.
Architecture
One of the best examples of Dhaka's architecture, it is a happy blend of European and Mughal elements, particularly noticeable in the projecting facade in the north which has both horse-shoe and cusped arches.
Gallery
References
University of Dhaka
Buildings and structures in Dhaka
Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture
British colonial architecture in Bangladesh
Tourist attractions in Dhaka | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curzon%20Hall |
The historical ties between France and the United Kingdom, and the countries preceding them, are long and complex, including conquest, wars, and alliances at various points in history. The Roman era saw both areas largely conquered by Rome, whose fortifications largely remain in both countries to this day. The Norman French conquest of England in 1066 decisively shaped English history, as well as the English language; the vocabulary of English is 50% derived from French, including most of the large and complex words. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the Early Modern Period, France and England were often bitter rivals, with both nations' monarchs claiming control over France and France routinely allying against England with their other rival Scotland until the Union of the Crowns. Some of the noteworthy conflicts include the Hundred Years' War and the French Revolutionary Wars which ended in French victories, as well as the Seven Years' War and Napoleonic Wars, from which Great Britain emerged victorious.
The historical rivalry between the two nations was seeded when the Angevin House of Plantagenet gained control over England and additional French territories and engaged in a struggle with the French ruling House of Capet to retain their French holdings; this culminated in the Hundred Years' War. After this French victory, England would never again establish a foothold in French territory. Rivalry continued into the early modern period, with the fighting often spilling over to both countries' overseas colonies. Major conflicts from this period include the Italian wars, the Hundred Years' War, the French wars of religion, the Nine Years' War, the War of the Spanish Succession, the War of the Austrian Succession, the Seven Years' War, the American Revolutionary War, the Napoleonic Wars, and finally the Boshin War, a small civil war in Japan.
The last major conflict between the two was the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1793–1815), in which coalitions of European powers, financed and usually led by London, fought a series of wars against the French First Republic, the First French Empire and its client states, culminating in the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. For several decades the peace was uneasy with fear of French invasion in 1859 and during the later rivalry for African colonies. Nevertheless, peace has generally prevailed since Napoleon I, and friendly ties between the two were formally established with the 1904 Entente Cordiale, and the British and French were allied against Germany in both World War I and World War II; in the latter conflict, British armies helped to liberate occupied France from Nazi Germany.
Both France and the UK were key partners in the West during the Cold War, with governments of both countries consistently supporting liberal democracy and capitalism. They were founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) defence alliance and are permanent members of the UN Security Council. France has been a member of the European Union (EU), and its predecessors, since creation as the European Economic Community in 1957. In the 1960s, relations deteriorated due to French President Charles de Gaulle's concerns over the special relationship between the UK and the United States. He repeatedly vetoed British entry into the European Communities, the predecessor organisation to the EU, and withdrew France from NATO integrated command, arguing the alliance was too heavily dominated by the United States.
In 1973, following de Gaulle's death, the UK entered the European Communities and in 2009 France returned to an active role in NATO. Since then, the two countries have experienced a close relationship, especially on defence and foreign policy issues; however the two countries disagreed on a range of other matters, most notably the direction of the European Union. The United Kingdom left the European Union on 31 January 2020, following a referendum held on 23 June 2016, commonly known as Brexit. Relations have since deteriorated, with disagreements surrounding Brexit and the English Channel migrant crisis.
In the 21st century, France and Britain, though they have chosen different paths, share many overlooked similarities (with roughly the same population, economic size, commitment to democracy, diplomatic clout, and as heads of former global empires) and are often still referred to as "historic rivals", or with emphasis on the perceived ever-lasting competition between the two countries. French author José-Alain Fralon characterised the relationship between the countries by describing the British as "our most dear enemies".
It is estimated that about 350,000 French people live in the UK, with approximately 200,000 Britons living in France.
History
Roman and post-Roman era
When Julius Caesar invaded Gaul, he encountered allies of the Gauls and Belgae from southeastern Britain offering assistance, some of whom even acknowledged the king of the Belgae as their sovereign.
Although all the peoples concerned were Celts (as the Germanic Angles and Franks had not yet invaded either country that would later bear their names), this could arguably be seen as the first major example of Anglo-French co-operation in recorded history. As a consequence, Caesar felt compelled to invade, in an attempt to subdue Britain. Rome was reasonably successful at conquering Gaul, Britain and Belgica; and all three areas became provinces of the Roman Empire.
For the next five hundred years, there was much interaction between the two regions, as both Britain and France were under Roman rule. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, this was followed by another five hundred years with very little interaction between the two, as both were invaded by different Germanic tribes. Anglo-Saxons invaded southern Britain and established several kingdoms, intermixing and assimilating the local Brythonic population during the process, as well as the later Viking invasions of the British Isles. France saw intermixture with and partial conquest by Germanic tribes such as the Salian Franks to create the Frankish kingdoms. Christianity as a religion spread through all areas involved during this period, replacing the Germanic, Celtic and pre-Celtic forms of worship. The deeds of chieftains in this period would produce the legendaria around King Arthur and Camelot – now believed to be a legend based on the deeds of many early medieval British chieftains – and the more historically verifiable Charlemagne, the Frankish king who founded the Holy Roman Empire throughout much of Western Europe. At the turn of the second millennium, the British Isles were primarily involved with the Scandinavian world, while France's main foreign relationship was with the Holy Roman Empire.
Before the Conquest
Prior to the Norman Conquest of 1066, there were no armed conflicts between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France. France and England were subject to repeated Viking invasions, and their foreign preoccupations were primarily directed toward Scandinavia.
Such cross-Channel relations as England had were directed toward Normandy, a quasi-independent fief owing homage to the French king; Emma, daughter of Normandy's Duke Richard, became queen to two English kings in succession; two of her sons, Harthacnut and Edward the Confessor later became kings of England. Edward spent much of his early life (1013–1041) in Normandy and, as king, favoured certain Normans with high office, such as Robert of Jumièges, who became Archbishop of Canterbury.
This gradual Normanization of the realm set the stage for the Norman Conquest, in which Emma's brother's grandson, William, Duke of Normandy, gained the kingdom in the first successful cross-Channel invasion since Roman times. Together with its new ruler, England acquired the foreign policy of the Norman dukes, which was based on protecting and expanding Norman interests at the expense of the French kings. Although William's rule over Normandy had initially had the backing of King Henry I of France, William's success had soon created hostility, and in 1054 and 1057, King Henry had twice attacked Normandy.
Norman conquest
However, in the mid-eleventh century, there was a dispute over the English throne, and the French-speaking Normans, who were of Viking, Frankish, and Gallo-Roman stock, invaded England under their duke William the Conqueror and took over following the Battle of Hastings in 1066, and crowned themselves Kings of England. The Normans took control of the land and the political system. Feudal culture took root in England, and for the next 150 years England was generally considered of secondary importance to the dynasty's Continental territories, notably in Normandy and other western French provinces. The language of the aristocracy was French for several hundred years after the Norman Conquest. Many French words were adopted into the English language as a result. About one third of the English language is derived from or through various forms of French. The first Norman kings were also the Dukes of Normandy, so relations were somewhat complicated between the countries. Though they were dukes ostensibly under the king of France, their higher level of organisation in Normandy gave them more de facto power. In addition, they were kings of England in their own right; England was not officially a province of France, nor a province of Normandy.
Breton War, 1076–1077
This war was fought between the years 1076 to 1077.
Vexin War, 1087
In 1087, following the monastic retirement of its last count, William and Philip partitioned between themselves the Vexin, a small but strategically important county on the middle Seine that controlled the traffic between Paris and Rouen, the French and Norman capitals. With this buffer state eliminated, Normandy and the king's royal demesne (the Île-de-France) now directly bordered on each other, and the region would be the flashpoint for several future wars. In 1087, William responded to border raids conducted by Philip's soldiers by attacking the town of Mantes, during the sack of which he received an accidental injury that turned fatal.
Rebellion of 1088
With William's death, his realms were parted between his two sons (England to William Rufus, Normandy to Robert Curthose) and the Norman-French border war concluded. Factional strains between the Norman barons, faced with a double loyalty to William's two sons, created a brief civil war in which an attempt was made to force Rufus off the English throne. With the failure of the rebellion, England and Normandy were clearly divided for the first time since 1066.
Wars in the Vexin and Maine, 1097–1098
Robert Curthose left on crusade in 1096, and for the duration of his absence Rufus took over the administration of Normandy. Soon afterwards (1097) he attacked the Vexin and the next year the County of Maine. Rufus succeeded in defeating Maine, but the war in the Vexin ended inconclusively with a truce in 1098.
Anglo-Norman War, 1101
In August 1100, William Rufus was killed by an arrow shot while hunting. His younger brother, Henry Beauclerc immediately took the throne. It had been expected to go to Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy, but Robert was away on a crusade and did not return until a month after Rufus' death, by which time Henry was firmly in control of England, and his accession had been recognised by France's King Philip. Robert was, however, able to reassert his control over Normandy, though only after giving up the County of Maine.
England and Normandy were now in the hands of the two brothers, Henry and Robert. In July 1101, Robert launched an attack on England from Normandy. He landed successfully at Portsmouth, and advanced inland to Alton in Hampshire. There he and Henry came to an agreement to accept the status quo of the territorial division. Henry was freed from his homage to Robert, and agreed to pay the Duke an annual sum (which, however, he only paid until 1103).
Anglo-Norman War, 1105–1106
Following increasing tensions between the brothers, and evidence of the weakness of Robert's rule, Henry I invaded Normandy in the spring of 1105, landing at Barfleur. The ensuing Anglo-Norman war was longer and more destructive, involving sieges of Bayeux and Caen; but Henry had to return to England in the late summer, and it was not until the following summer that he was able to resume the conquest of Normandy. In the interim, Duke Robert took the opportunity to appeal to his liege lord, King Philip, but could obtain no aid from him. The fate of Robert and the duchy was sealed at the Battle of Tinchebray on 28 or 29 September 1106: Robert was captured and imprisoned for the rest of his life. Henry was now, like his father, both King of England and Duke of Normandy, and the stage was set for a new round of conflict between England and France.
Anglo-French War, 1117–1120
In 1108, Philip I, who had been king of France since before the Norman Conquest, died and was succeeded by his son Louis VI, who had already been conducting the administration of the realm in his father's name for several years.
Louis had initially been hostile to Robert Curthose, and friendly to Henry I; but with Henry's acquisition of Normandy, the old Norman-French rivalries re-emerged. From 1109 to 1113, clashes erupted in the Vexin; and in 1117 Louis made a pact with Baldwin VII of Flanders, Fulk V of Anjou, and various rebellious Norman barons to overthrow Henry's rule in Normandy and replace him with William Clito, Curthose's son. By luck and diplomacy, however, Henry eliminated the Flemings and Angevins from the war, and on 20 August 1119 at the Battle of Bremule he defeated the French. Louis was obliged to accept Henry's rule in Normandy, and accepted his son William Adelin's homage for the fief in 1120.
High Middle Ages
During the reign of the closely related Plantagenet dynasty, which was based in its Angevin Empire, and at the height of the empires size, 1/3 of France was under Angevin control as well as all of England. However, almost all of the Angevin empire was lost to Philip II of France under Richard the Lionheart, John and Henry III of England. This finally gave the English a separate identity as an Anglo-Saxon people under a Francophone, but not French, crown.
While the English and French had been frequently acrimonious, they had always had a common culture and little fundamental difference in identity. Nationalism had been minimal in days when most wars took place between rival feudal lords on a sub-national scale. The last attempt to unite the two cultures under such lines was probably a failed French-supported rebellion to depose Edward II. It was also during the Middle Ages that a Franco-Scottish alliance, known as the Auld Alliance was signed by King John of Scotland and Philip IV of France.
The Hundred Years' War
The English monarchy increasingly integrated with its subjects and turned to the English language wholeheartedly during the Hundred Years' War between 1337 and 1453. Though the war was in principle a mere dispute over territory, it drastically changed societies on both sides of the Channel. The English, although already politically united, for the first time found pride in their language and identity, while the French united politically.
Several of the most famous Anglo-French battles took place during the Hundred Years' War: Crécy, Poitiers, Agincourt, Orléans, Patay, Formigny and Castillon. Major sources of French pride stemmed from their leadership during the war. Bertrand du Guesclin was a brilliant tactician who forced the English out of the lands they had procured at the Treaty of Brétigny, a compromising treaty that most Frenchmen saw as a humiliation. Joan of Arc was another unifying figure who to this day represents a combination of religious fervour and French patriotism to all France. After her inspirational victory at Orléans and what many saw as Joan's martyrdom at the hands of Burgundians and Englishmen, Jean de Dunois eventually forced the English out of all of France except Calais, which was only lost in 1558. Apart from setting national identities, the Hundred Years' War was the root of the traditional rivalry and at times hatred between the two countries. During this era, the English lost their last territories in France, except Calais, which would remain in English hands for another 105 years, though the English monarchs continued to style themselves as Kings of France until 1800.
The Franco-Scots Alliance
France and Scotland agreed to defend each other in the event of an attack on either from England in several treaties, the most notable of which were in 1327 and 1490. There had always been intermarriage between the Scottish and French royal households, but this solidified the bond between the royals even further.
Scottish historian J. B. Black took a critical view, arguing regarding the alliance:
The Scots...love for their 'auld' ally had never been a positive sentiment nourished by community of culture, but an artificially created affection resting on the negative basis of enmity to England.
The early modern period
The English and French were engaged in numerous wars in the following centuries. They took opposite sides in all of the Italian Wars between 1494 and 1559.
An even deeper division set in during the English Reformation, when most of England converted to Protestantism and France remained Roman Catholic. This enabled each side to see the other as not only a foreign evil but also a heretical one. In both countries there was intense civil religious conflict. Because of the oppression by Roman Catholic King Louis XIII of France, many Protestant Huguenots fled to England. Similarly, many Catholics fled from England to France. Scotland had a very close relationship with France in the 16th century, with intermarriage at the highest level.
Henry VIII of England had initially sought an alliance with France, and the Field of the Cloth of Gold saw a face to face meeting between him and King Francis I of France. Mary, Queen of Scots (1542–1587) was born to King James V and his French second wife, Mary of Guise and became Queen when her father was killed in the wars with England. Her mother became Regent, brought in French advisors, and ruled Scotland in the French style. David Ditchburn and Alastair MacDonald argue:
Protestantism was, however, given an enormous boost in Scotland, especially among the governing classes, by the suffocating political embrace of Catholic France. The threat to Scotland's independence seem to come most potently from France, not England... And absorption by France was not a future that appealed to Scots.
Queen Elizabeth I, whose own legitimacy was challenged by Mary Queen of Scots, worked with the Protestant Scottish Lords to expel the French from Scotland in 1560. The Treaty of Edinburgh in 1560 virtually ended the "auld alliance." Protestant Scotland tied its future to Protestant England, rejecting Catholic France. However, friendly relations at the business level did continue.
17th century
While Spain had been the dominant world power in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, the English had often sided with France as a counterweight against them. This design was intended to keep a European balance of power, and prevent one country gaining overwhelming supremacy. France replaced Spain as the dominant power after 1650 so the basis of English strategy was the fear that a French universal monarchy of Europe would be able to overwhelm the British Isles.
At the conclusion of the English Civil War, the newly formed Republic under Oliver Cromwell, "the Commonwealth of England" joined sides with the French against Spain during the last decade of the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659). The English were particularly interested in the troublesome city of Dunkirk and in accordance with the alliance the city was given to the English after the Battle of the Dunes (1658), but after the monarchy was restored in England, Charles II sold it back to the French in 1662 for £320,000.
Following the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, and as France finally overcame its rebellious "princes of the blood" and Protestant Huguenots, the long fought wars of the Fronde (civil wars) finally came to an end. At the same time Spain's power was severely weakened by decades of wars and rebellions – and France, began to take on a more assertive role under King Louis XIV of France with an expansionist policy both in Europe and across the globe. English foreign policy was now directed towards preventing France gaining supremacy on the continent and creating a universal monarchy. To the French, England was an isolated and piratical nation heavily reliant on naval power, and particularly privateers, which they referred to as Perfidious Albion.
However, in 1672, the English again formed an alliance with the French (in accordance with the Secret Treaty of Dover of 1670) against their common commercial rival, the rich Dutch Republic – the two nations fighting side by side during the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678) and Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674). This war was extremely unpopular in England. The English had been soundly beaten at sea by the Dutch and were in a worsening financial situation as their vulnerable global trade was under increasing threat. The English pulled out of the alliance in 1674, ending their war with the Netherlands and actually joining them against the French in the final year of the Franco-Dutch War in 1678.
During the course of the century a sharp diversion in political philosophies emerged in the two states. In England King Charles I had been executed during the English Civil War for exceeding his powers, and later King James II had been overthrown in the Glorious Revolution. In France, the decades long Fronde (civil wars), had seen the French Monarchy triumphant and as a result the power of the monarchs and their advisors became almost absolute and went largely unchecked.
England and France fought each other in the War of the League of Augsburg from 1688 to 1697 which set the pattern for relations between France and Great Britain during the eighteenth century. Wars were fought intermittently, with each nation part of a constantly shifting pattern of alliances known as the stately quadrille.
Second Hundred Years' War 1689–1815
18th century
Partly out of fear of a continental intervention, an Act of Union was passed in 1707 creating the Kingdom of Great Britain, and formally merging the kingdoms of Scotland and England (the latter kingdom included Wales). While the new Britain grew increasingly parliamentarian, France continued its system of absolute monarchy.
The newly united Britain fought France in the War of the Spanish Succession from 1702 to 1713, and the War of the Austrian Succession from 1740 to 1748, attempting to maintain the balance of power in Europe. The British had a massive navy but maintained a small land army, so Britain always acted on the continent in alliance with other states such as Prussia and Austria as they were unable to fight France alone. Equally France, lacking a superior navy, was unable to launch a successful invasion of Britain.
France lent support to the Jacobite pretenders who claimed the British throne, hoping that a restored Jacobite monarchy would be inclined to be more pro-French. Despite this support the Jacobites failed to overthrow the Hanoverian monarchs.
The quarter century after the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 was peaceful, with no major wars, and only a few secondary military episodes of minor importance. The main powers had exhausted themselves in warfare, with many deaths, disabled veterans, ruined navies, high pension costs, heavy loans and high taxes. Utrecht strengthened the sense of useful international law and inaugurated an era of relative stability in the European state system, based on balance-of-power politics that no one country would become dominant. Robert Walpole, the key British policy maker, prioritised peace in Europe because it was good for his trading nation and its growing British Empire. British historian G. M. Trevelyan argues:
That Treaty [of Utrecht], which ushered in the stable and characteristic period of Eighteenth-Century civilisation, marked the end of danger to Europe from the old French monarchy, and it marked a change of no less significance to the world at large, — the maritime, commercial and financial supremacy of Great Britain.
But "balance" needed armed enforcement. Britain played a key military role as "balancer." The goals were to bolster Europe's balance of power system to maintain peace that was needed for British trade to flourish and its colonies to grow, and finally to strengthen its own central position in the balance of power system in which no one could dominate the rest. Other nations recognised Britain as the "balancer." Eventually the balancing act required Britain to contain French ambitions. Containment led to a series of increasingly large-scale wars between Britain and France, which ended with mixed results. Britain was usually aligned with the Netherlands and Prussia, and subsidised their armies. These wars enveloped all of Europe and the overseas colonies. These wars took place in every decade starting in the 1740s and climaxed in the defeat of Napoleon's France in 1814.
As the century wore on, there was a distinct passage of power to Britain and France, at the expense of traditional major powers such as Portugal, Spain and the Dutch Republic. Some observers saw the frequent conflicts between the two states during the 18th century as a battle for control of Europe, though most of these wars ended without a conclusive victory for either side. France largely had greater influence on the continent while Britain were dominant at sea and trade, threatening French colonies abroad.
Overseas expansion
From the 1650s, the New World increasingly became a battleground between the two powers. The Western Design of Oliver Cromwell intended to build up an increasing British presence in North America, beginning with the acquisition of Jamaica from the Spanish Empire in 1652. The first British settlement on continental North America was founded in 1607, and by the 1730s these had grown into thirteen separate colonies.
The French had settled the province of Canada to the North, and controlled Saint-Domingue in the Caribbean, the wealthiest colony in the world. Both countries, recognising the potential of India, established trading posts there. Wars between the two states increasingly took place in these other continents, as well as Europe.
Seven Years' War
The French and British fought each other and made treaties with Native American tribes to gain control of North America. Both nations coveted the Ohio Country and in 1753, a British expedition there led by George Washington clashed with a French force. Shortly afterwards the French and Indian War broke out, initially taking place only in North America but in 1756 becoming part of the wider Seven Years' War in which Britain and France were part of opposing coalitions.
The war has been called the first "world war", because fighting took place on several different continents. In 1759, the British enjoyed victories over the French in Europe, Canada and India, severely weakening the French position around the world. In 1762, the British captured the cities of Manila and Havana from Spain, France's strongest ally, which led ultimately to a peace settlement the following year that saw a large number of territories come under British control.
The Seven Years' War is regarded as a critical moment in the history of Anglo-French relations, which laid the foundations for the dominance of the British Empire during the next two and a half centuries.
South Seas
Having lost New France (Canada) and India in the northern hemisphere, many Frenchmen turned their attention to building a second empire south of the equator, thereby triggering a race for the Pacific Ocean. They were supported by King Louis XV and by the Duc de Choiseul, Minister for War and for the Navy. In 1763, Louis Bougainville sailed from France with two ships, several families, cattle, horses and grain. He established the first colony in the Falkland Islands at Port Saint Louis in February 1764. This done, Bougainville's plan was to use the new settlement as a French base from where he could mount a search for the long-imagined (but still undiscovered) Southern Continent and claim it for France.
Meanwhile, the Secretary of the Admiralty, Philip Stephens, swiftly and secretly dispatched John Byron to the Falklands and round the world. He was followed in 1766 by Samuel Wallis who discovered Tahiti and claimed it for Britain. Bougainville followed and claimed Tahiti for France in 1768, but when he tried to reach the east coast of New Holland (Australia), he was thwarted by the Great Barrier Reef.
The Admiralty sent Captain Cook to the Pacific on three voyages of discovery in 1768, 1772 and 1776. Cook was killed in Hawaii in 1779 and his two ships, Resolution and Discovery, arrived home in October 1780.
At the same time, more Frenchmen were probing the South Seas. In 1769, Jean Surville sailed from India, through the Coral Sea to New Zealand then traversed the Pacific to Peru. In 1771, Marion Dufresne and Julien–Marie Crozet sailed through the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Later in 1771, another French expedition under Yves de Kerguelen and Louis St Aloüarn explored the southern Indian Ocean. St Aloüarn annexed the west coast of New Holland for France in March 1772.
In August 1785, King Louis XVI sent Jean-François Lapérouse to explore the Pacific Ocean. He arrived off Sydney Heads in January 1788, three days after the arrival of Britain's First Fleet commanded by Arthur Phillip. The French expedition departed Australia three months later in March 1788 and, according to the records, was never seen again.
The race for territory in the South Seas continued into the nineteenth century. Although the British had settled the eastern region of New Holland, in 1800 Napoleon dispatched an expedition commanded by Nicolas Baudin to forestall the British on the south and west coasts of the continent.
American War of Independence
As American Patriot dissatisfaction with British policies grew to rebellion in 1774–75, the French saw an opportunity to undermine British power. When the American War of Independence broke out in 1775, the French began sending covert supplies and intelligence to the American Patriots.
In 1778, France, eager to capitalise on the British defeat at Saratoga, recognised the United States of America as an independent nation. Negotiating with Ambassador Benjamin Franklin in Paris, they formed a military alliance. France in 1779 persuaded its ally Spain to declare war on Britain. France despatched troops to fight alongside the Americans, and besieged Gibraltar with Spain. Plans were drawn up, but never put into action, to launch an invasion of England. The threat forced Britain to keep many troops in Britain that were needed in America. The British were further required to withdraw forces from the American mainland to protect their more valuable possessions in the West Indies. While the French were initially unable to break the string of British victories, the combined actions of American and French forces, and a key victory by a French fleet over a British rescue fleet, forced the British into a decisive surrender at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781. For a brief period after 1781, Britain's naval superiority was threatened subdued by an alliance between France and Spain. However, the British recovered, defeated the main French fleet in April 1782, and kept control of Gibraltar. In 1783 the Treaty of Paris gave the new nation control over most of the region east of the Mississippi River; Spain gained Florida from Britain and retained control of the vast Louisiana Territory; France received little except a huge debt.
The crippling debts incurred by France during the war, and the cost of rebuilding the French navy during the 1780s caused a financial crisis, helping contribute to the French Revolution of 1789.
The French Revolution and Napoleon
The continental European monarchies went to war against France to protect their monarchies against the Revolutionary threat of republics. The British goals were more complex: not just to defend its national security but even more to uphold the European balance of power so that France would not dominate the continent. British decision-making was in the hands of Prime Minister William Pitt and lords Grenville and Lord Melville. They devised strategies to use the superior Royal Navy and superior financial resources. Both sides demonised each other, thereby broadening the base of warfare to include the total population. London tried to foment rebellions inside France while Paris sent an invasion force to Ireland to stir up a revolt there. French leaders emphasised their nation's much larger population, the excitement of its revolutionary ideology, and popular hatred of the exiled aristocrats.
While France was plunged into chaos, Britain took advantage of its temporary weakness to stir up the civil war occurring in France and build up its naval forces. The Revolution was initially popular with many Britons, both because it appeared to weaken France and was perceived to be based on British liberal ideals. This began to change as the Jacobin faction took over, and began the Reign of Terror in 1793–1794.
The French were intent on spreading their revolutionary republicanism to other European states, including Britain. The British initially stayed out of the alliances of European states which unsuccessfully attacked France trying to restore the monarchy. In France a new, strong nationalism took hold enabling them to mobilise large and motivated forces. Following the execution of King Louis XVI of France in 1793, France declared war on Britain. This period of the French Revolutionary Wars was known as the War of the First Coalition. Except for a brief pause in 1802–03, the wars lasted continuously for 21 years. During this time Britain raised several coalitions against the French, continually subsidising other European states with gold (called the "Golden Cavalry of St George"), enabling them to put large armies in the field. In spite of this, the French armies were very successful on land, creating several client states such as the Batavian Republic, and the British devoted much of their own forces to campaigns against the French in the Caribbean, with mixed results. The British and their allies got off to a poor start in 1793–94. The main problem was poor coordination between London and Vienna, including delays in planning, poor preparations, and diversion of forces. The result was diplomatic and military reversals in Flanders in the summer of 1794.
First phase, 1792 to 1802
Following the execution of King Louis XVI of France in 1793, France declared war on Britain. This period of the French Revolutionary Wars was known as the War of the First Coalition. It lasted from 1792 to 1797. Relying on its large Royal Navy rather than its small army, British strategy was to support smaller allies against France, and try to cut off food shipments. That was an innovative strategy in modern warfare, but the French prioritised feeding their army over the populace, and carried on. Britain's continental allies did nearly all of the actual fighting on land. France meanwhile set up the conscription system that built up a much larger army than anyone else. After the king was executed, nearly all the senior officers went into exile, and a very young new generation of officers, typified by Napoleon, took over the French military. Britain relied heavily on the Royal Navy, which sank the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile in 1798, trapping the French army in Egypt. In 1799, Napoleon came to power in France, and created a dictatorship. Britain led the Second Coalition from 1798 to 1802 against Napoleon, but he generally prevailed. The Treaty of Amiens of 1802 was favourable to France. That treaty amounted to a year-long truce in the war, which was reopened by Britain in May 1803.
Britain ended the uneasy truce created by the Treaty of Amiens when it declared war on France in May 1803, thus starting the War of the Third Coalition, lasting from 1803 to 1805. The British were increasingly angered by Napoleon's reordering of the international system in Western Europe, especially in Switzerland, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. Kagan argues that Britain was insulted and alarmed especially by Napoleon's assertion of control over Switzerland. Britons felt insulted when Napoleon said it deserved no voice in European affairs (even though King George was an elector of the Holy Roman Empire), and ought to shut down the London newspapers that were vilifying Napoleon. Russia, furthermore, decided that the Switzerland intervention indicated that Napoleon was not looking toward a peaceful resolution. Britain had a sense of loss of control, as well as loss of markets, and was worried by Napoleon's possible threat to its overseas colonies. McLynn argues that Britain went to war in 1803 out of a "mixture of economic motives and national neuroses – an irrational anxiety about Napoleon's motives and intentions." However, in the end it proved to be the right choice for Britain, because in the long run Napoleon's intentions were hostile to British national interest. Furthermore, Napoleon was not ready for war and this was the best time for Britain to stop them. Britain therefore seized upon the Malta issue (by refusing to follow the terms of the Treaty of Amiens and evacuate the island).
The deeper British grievances were that Napoleon was taking personal control of Europe, making the international system unstable, and forcing Britain to the sidelines.
Ireland 1798
In 1798, French forces invaded Ireland to assist the United Irishmen who had launched a rebellion. Although the French joined by thousands of rebels, they were defeated by British and Irish loyalist forces. The fear of further attempts to create a French satellite in Ireland led to the Act of Union, merging the Kingdom of Great Britain and Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom in 1801. Ireland now lost its last vestiges of independence.
War resumes, 1803–1815
After he had triumphed on the European continent against the other major European powers, Napoleon contemplated an invasion of the British mainland. That plan collapsed after the annihilation of the Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar, coinciding with an Austrian attack over its Bavarian allies.
In response Napoleon established a continental system by which no nation was permitted to trade with the British. Napoleon hoped the embargo would isolate the British Isles severely weakening them, but a number of countries continued to trade with them in defiance of the policy. In spite of this, the Napoleonic influence stretched across much of Europe.
In 1808, French forces invaded Portugal trying to attempt to halt trade with Britain, turning Spain into a satellite state in the process. The British responded by dispatching a force under Sir Arthur Wellesley which captured Lisbon. Napoleon dispatched increasing forces into the Iberian Peninsula, which became the key battleground between the two nations. Allied with Spanish and Portuguese forces, the British inflicted a number of defeats on the French, confronted with a new kind of warfare called "guerrilla" which led Napoleon to brand it the "Spanish Ulcer".
In 1812, Napoleon's invasion of Russia caused a new coalition to form against him, in what became the War of the Sixth Coalition. In 1813, British forces defeated French forces in Spain and caused them to retreat into France. Allied to an increasingly resurgent European coalition, the British invaded southern France in October 1813, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and go into exile on Elba in 1814.
Napoleon was defeated by combined British, Prussian and Dutch forces at Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. With strong British support, the Bourbon monarchy was restored and Louis XVIII was crowned King of France. The Napoleonic era was the last occasion on which Britain and France went to war with each other, but by no means marked the end of the rivalry between the two nations. Viscount Castlereagh shaped British foreign policy as foreign minister 1812–1822; he led the moves against Napoleon 1812 and 1815. Once the Bourbon allies were back in power he established a partnership with France during the Congress of Vienna.
Long 19th century: 1789–1914
Britain and France never went to war after 1815, although there were a few "war scares". They were allied together against Russia in the Crimean War of the 1850s.
1815–1830
Britain emerged from the 1815 Congress of Vienna as the ultimate leading financial, military and colonial power of the world, going on to enjoy a century of global dominance in the Pax Britannica. France recovered from its defeat to rebuild its position on the world stage. Talleyrand's friendly approaches were a precursor to the Entente Cordiale in the next century, but they lacked consistent direction and substance. Overcoming their historic enmity, the British and French eventually became political allies, as both began to turn their attentions to acquiring new territories beyond Europe. The British developed India and Canada and colonised Australia, spreading their powers to several different continents as the Second British Empire. Likewise the French were quite active in Southeast Asia and Africa.
They frequently made stereotypical jokes about each other, and even side by side in war were critical of each other's tactics. As a Royal Navy officer said to the French corsair Robert Surcouf "You French fight for money, while we British fight for honour.", Surcouf replied "Sir, a man fights for what he lacks the most." According to one story, a French diplomat once said to Lord Palmerston "If I were not a Frenchman, I should wish to be an Englishman"; to which Palmerston replied: "If I were not an Englishman, I should wish to be an Englishman." Upon seeing the disastrous British Charge of the Light Brigade in the Crimean War against Russia, French marshal Pierre Bosquet said 'C'est magnifique, mais ce n'est pas la guerre.' ('It's magnificent, but it's not war.') Eventually, relations settled down as the two empires tried to consolidate themselves rather than extend themselves.
July Monarchy and the beginning of the Victorian age
In 1830, France underwent the July Revolution to expel the reactionary Bourbon kings, and install the Orléanist Louis-Philippe as king. By contrast, the reign of Queen Victoria began in 1837 in a peaceful fashion. The major European powers—Russia, Austria, Britain, and to a lesser extent Prussia—were determined to keep France in check, and so France generally pursued a cautious foreign policy. Louis-Phillipe allied with Britain, the country with which France shared the most similar form of government, and its combative Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston. In Louis-Philippe's first year in power, he refused to annex Belgium during its revolution, instead following the British line of supporting independence. Despite posturings from leading French minister Adolphe Thiers in 1839–1840 that France would protect the increasingly powerful Muhammad Ali of Egypt (a viceroy of the Ottoman Empire), any reinforcements were not forthcoming, and in 1840, much to France's embarrassment, Ali was forced to sign the Convention of London by the powers. Relations cooled again under the governments of François Guizot and Robert Peel. They soured once more in 1846 though when, with Palmerston back as Foreign Secretary, the French government hastily agreed to have Isabella II of Spain and her sister marry members of the Bourbon and Orléanist dynasties, respectively. Palmerston had hoped to arrange a marriage, and "The Affair of the Spanish Marriages" has generally been viewed unfavourably by British historians ("By the dispassionate judgment of history it has been universally condemned"), although a more sympathetic view has been taken in recent years.
Second French Empire
Lord Aberdeen (foreign secretary 1841–46) brokered an Entente Cordiale with François Guizot and France in the early 1840s. However Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was elected president of France in 1848 and made himself Emperor Napoleon III in 1851. Napoleon III had an expansionist foreign policy, which saw the French deepen the colonisation of Africa and establish new colonies, in particular Indochina. The British were initially alarmed, and commissioned a series of forts in southern England designed to resist a French invasion. Lord Palmerston as foreign minister and prime minister had close personal ties with leading French statesmen, notably Napoleon III himself. Palmerston's goal was to arrange peaceful relations with France in order to free Britain's diplomatic hand elsewhere in the world.
Napoleon at first had a pro-British foreign policy, and was eager not to displease the British government whose friendship he saw as important to France. After a brief threat of an invasion of Britain in 1851, France and Britain cooperated in the 1850s, with an alliance in the Crimean War, and a major trade treaty in 1860. However, Britain viewed the Second Empire with increasing distrust, especially as the emperor built up his navy, expanded his empire and took up a more active foreign policy.
The two nations were military allies during the Crimean War (1853–56) to curb Russia's expansion westwards and its threats to the Ottoman Empire. However, when London discovered that Napoleon III was secretly negotiating with Russia to form a postwar alliance to dominate Europe, it hastily abandoned its plan to end the war by attacking St. Petersburg. Instead Britain concluded an armistice with Russia that achieved none of its war aims.
There was a brief war scare in 1858-1860 as alarmists in England misinterpreted scattered hints as signs of an invasion, but Napoleon III never planned any such hostility. The two nations co-operated during the Second Opium War with China, dispatching a joint force to the Chinese capital Peking to force a treaty on the Chinese Qing Dynasty.
In 1859 Napoleon, bypassing the Corps législatif which he feared would not approve of free trade, met with influential reformer Richard Cobden, and in 1860 the Cobden-Chevalier Treaty was signed between the two countries, reducing tariffs on goods sold between Britain and France. The Cobden–Chevalier Treaty of 1860 lowered tariffs in each direction, and began the British practice of encouraging lower tariffs across Europe, and using most favoured nation treaties.
During the American Civil War (1861-1865) both nations considered intervention to help the Confederacy and thereby regain cotton supplies, but remained neutral. The cutoff of cotton shipments caused economic depression in the textile industries of both Britain and France, resulting in widespread unemployment and suffering among workers. In the end France dared not enter alone and Britain refused to go to war because it depended on food shipments from New York.
Napoleon III attempted to gain British support when he invaded Mexico and forcibly put his pawn Maximilian I on the throne. London was unwilling to support any action other than the collection of debts owed by the Mexicans. This forced the French to act alone in the French Intervention in Mexico. Washington, after winning the civil war, threatened an invasion to expel the French and Napoleon pulled out its troops. Emperor Maximilian remained behind and was executed. When Napoleon III was overthrown in 1870, he fled to exile in England.
Late 19th century
In the 1875–1898 era, tensions were high, especially over Egyptian and African issues. At several points, these issues brought the two nations to the brink of war; but the situation was always defused diplomatically. For two decades, there was peace—but it was "an armed peace, characterized by alarms, distrust, rancour and irritation." During the Scramble for Africa in the 1880s, the British and French generally recognised each other's spheres of influence. In an agreement in 1890 Great Britain was recognised in Bahr-el-Ghazal and Darfur, while Wadai, Bagirmi, Kanem, and the territory to the north and east of Lake Chad were assigned to France.
The Suez Canal, initially built by the French, became a joint British-French project in 1875, as both saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and empires in Asia. In 1882, ongoing civil disturbances in Egypt (see Urabi Revolt) prompted Britain to intervene, extending a hand to France. France's expansionist Prime Minister Jules Ferry was out of office, and the government was unwilling to send more than an intimidating fleet to the region. Britain established a protectorate, as France had a year earlier in Tunisia, and popular opinion in France later put this action down to duplicity. It was about this time that the two nations established co-ownership of Vanuatu. The Anglo-French Convention of 1882 was also signed to resolve territory disagreements in western Africa.
One brief but dangerous dispute occurred during the Fashoda Incident in 1898 when French troops tried to claim an area in the Southern Sudan, and a British force purporting to be acting in the interests of the Khedive of Egypt arrived. Under heavy pressure the French withdrew and Britain took control over the area, As France recognised British control of the Sudan. France received control of the small kingdom of Wadai, Which consolidated its holdings in northwest Africa. France had failed in its main goals. P.M.H. Bell says:
Between the two governments there was a brief battle of wills, with the British insisting on immediate and unconditional French withdrawal from Fashoda. The French had to accept these terms, amounting to a public humiliation....Fashoda was long remembered in France as an example of British brutality and injustice."
Fashoda was a diplomatic victory for the British because the French realised that in the long run they needed friendship with Britain in case of a war between France and Germany.
20th century
The Entente Cordiale
From about 1900, Francophiles in Britain and Anglophiles in France began to spread a study and mutual respect and love of the culture of the country on the other side of the English Channel. Francophile and Anglophile societies developed, further introducing Britain to French food and wine, and France to English sports like rugby. French and English were already the second languages of choice in Britain and France respectively. Eventually this developed into a political policy as the new united Germany was seen as a potential threat. Louis Blériot, for example, crossed the Channel in an aeroplane in 1909. Many saw this as symbolic of the connection between the two countries. This period in the first decade of the 20th century became known as the Entente Cordiale, and continued in spirit until the 1940s. The signing of the Entente Cordiale also marked the end of almost a millennium of intermittent conflict between the two nations and their predecessor states, and the formalisation of the peaceful co-existence that had existed since the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. Up to 1940, relations between Britain and France were closer than those between Britain and the US. This also started the beginning of the French and British Special Relationship. After 1907 the British fleet was built up to stay far ahead of Germany. However Britain nor France committed itself to entering a war if Germany attacked the other.
In 1904, Paris and London agreed that Britain would establish a protectorate over Egypt, and France would do the same over Morocco. Germany objected, and the conference at Algeciras in 1906 settled the issue as Germany was outmaneuvered.
First World War
Britain tried to stay neutral as the First World War opened in summer 1914, as France joined in to help its ally Russia according to its treaty obligations. Britain had no relevant treaty obligations except one to keep Belgium neutral, and was not in close touch with the French leaders. Britain entered when the German army invaded neutral Belgium (on its way to attack Paris); that was intolerable. It joined France, sending a small expeditionary force to fight on the Western Front, later reinforced by volunteers and conscripts to form a large army.
There was close co-operation between the British and French forces. French Commander-in-Chief Joseph Joffre worked to coordinate Allied military operations and to mount a combined Anglo-French offensive on the Western Front. The result was the great Battle of the Somme in 1916 with massive casualties on both sides and only limited gains. Paul Painlevé took important decisions during 1917 as France's war minister and then, for nine weeks, premier. With some reservations, he promoted the Nivelle Offensive—which failed badly and drove the French Army to mutiny. The disasters at Passchendaele hurt Britain, its army and civil-military relations. The positive result was the decision to form the Supreme War Council that led eventually to unity of Allied command.
Unable to advance against the combined primary alliance powers of the British, French, and later American forces as well as the blockade preventing shipping reaching German controlled North Sea seaports, the Germans eventually sued for peace after four years of heavy fighting.
Treaty of Versailles
Following the war, at the Treaty of Versailles the British and French worked closely with the Americans to dominate the main decisions. Both were also keen to protect and expand their empires, in the face of calls for self-determination. On a visit to London, French leader Georges Clemenceau was hailed by the British crowds. Lloyd George was given a similar reception in Paris.
Lloyd George worked hard to moderate French demands for revenge. Clemenceau wanted terms to cripple Germany's war potential that were too harsh for Wilson and Lloyd George. A compromise was reached whereby Clemenceau softened his terms and the U.S. and Britain promised a Security Treaty that would guarantee armed intervention by both if Germany invaded France. The British ratified the treaty on condition the U.S. ratified. In the United States Senate, the Republicans were supportive, but Wilson insisted this security treaty be closely tied to the overall Versailles Treaty, and Republicans refused and so it never came to a vote in the Senate. Thus there was no treaty at all to help defend France.
Britain soon had to moderate French policy toward Germany, as in the Locarno Treaties. Under Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald in 1923–24, Britain took the lead in getting France to accept a solution to the issue of reparations through the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan. The Dawes Plan (1924–1929) stabilised the German currency and lowered reparations payments, allowing Germany to access capital markets (mostly American) for the money it owed the Allies in reparations, although the payments came at the price of a high foreign debt.
1920s
Both states joined the League of Nations, and both signed agreements of defence of several countries, most significantly Poland. The Treaty of Sèvres split the Middle East between the two states, in the form of mandates. However the outlook of the nations were different during the inter-war years; while France saw itself inherently as a European power, Britain enjoyed close relationships with Australia, Canada and New Zealand and supported the idea of imperial free trade, a form of protectionism that would have seen large tariffs placed on goods from France.
In the 1920s, financial instability was a major problem for France, and other nations as well. it was vulnerable to short-term concerted action by banks and financial institutions by heavy selling or buying, in the financial crisis could weaken governments, and be used as a diplomatic threat. Premier and Finance Minister Raymond Poincaré decided to stabilise the franc to protect against political currency manipulation by Germany and Britain. His solution in 1926 was a return to a fixed parity against gold. France was not able to turn the tables and use short-term financial advantage as leverage against Britain on important policy matters.
In general, France and Britain were aligned in their position on major issues. A key reason was the Francophile position of Foreign Minister Austen Chamberlain, and the ambassador to Paris the Marquess of Crewe (1922–28). They promoted a pro-French policy regarding French security and disarmament policy, the later stages of the Ruhr crisis, the implementation of the Geneva Protocol, the Treaty of Locarno and the origins of the Kellogg-Briand Pact. The high point of cooperation came with the Treaty of Locarno in 1925, which brought Germany into good terms with France and Britain. However, relations with France became increasingly tense because Chamberlain grew annoyed that foreign minister Aristide Briand's diplomatic agenda did not have at its heart a reinvigorated Entente Cordiale.
Furthermore, Britain thought disarmament was the key to peace but France disagreed because of its profound fear of German militarism. London decided Paris really sought military dominance of Europe. Before 1933, most Britons saw France, not Germany, as the chief threat to peace and harmony in Europe. France did not suffer as severe an economic recession, and was the strongest military power, but still it refused British overtures for disarmament. Anthony Powell, in his A Dance to the Music of Time, said that to be anti-French and pro-German in the 1920s was considered the height of progressive sophistication.
Appeasement of Germany
In the 1930s, Britain and France coordinated their policies toward the dictatorships of Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany. However, public opinion did not support going to war again, so the diplomats sought diplomatic solutions, but none worked. Efforts to use the League of Nations to apply sanctions against Italy for its invasion of Ethiopia failed. France supported the "Little Entente" of Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia. It proved much too weak to deter Germany.
The Anglo-German Naval Agreement was signed between Britain and Nazi Germany in 1935, allowing Hitler to reinforce his navy. It was regarded by the French as the ruining of the anti-Hitlerian Stresa front. Britain and France collaborated closely especially in the late 1930s regarding Germany, based on informal promises with no written treaty. Efforts were made to negotiate a treaty but they failed in 1936, underscoring French weakness.
In the years leading up to World War II, both countries followed a similar diplomatic path of appeasement of Germany. As Nazi intentions became clear, France pushed for a harder line but the British demurred, believing diplomacy could solve the disputes. The result was the Munich Agreement of 1938 that gave Germany control of parts of Czechoslovakia settled by Germans. In early 1939, Germany took over all of Czechoslovakia and began threatening Poland. Appeasement had failed, and both Britain and France raced to catch up with Germany in weaponry.
Second World War
After guaranteeing the independence of Poland, both declared war on Germany on the same day, 3 September 1939, after the Germans ignored an ultimatum to withdraw from the country. When Germany began its attack on France in 1940, British troops and French troops again fought side by side. Eventually, after the Germans came through the Ardennes, it became more possible that France would not be able to fend off the German attack. The final bond between the two nations was so strong that members of the British cabinet had proposed a temporary union of the two countries for the sake of morale: the plan was drawn up by Jean Monnet, who later created the Common Market. The idea was not popular with a majority on either side, and the French government felt that, in the circumstances, the plan for union would reduce France to the level of a British Dominion. When London ordered the withdrawal of the British Expeditionary Force from France without telling French and Belgian forces and then refused to provide France with further reinforcements of aircraft the proposal was definitively turned down. Later The Free French resistance, led by Charles de Gaulle, were formed in London, after de Gaulle gave his famous 'Appeal of 18 June', broadcast by the BBC. De Gaulle declared himself to be the head of the one and only true government of France, and gathered the Free French Forces around him.
War against Vichy France
After the preemptive destruction of a large part of the French fleet by the British at Mers-el-Kebir (3 July 1940), as well as a similar attack on French ships in Oran on the grounds that they might fall into German hands, there was nationwide anti-British indignation and a long-lasting feeling of betrayal in France. In southern France a collaborative government known as Vichy France was set up on 10 July. It was officially neutral, but metropolitan France came increasingly under German control. The Vichy government controlled Syria, Madagascar, and French North Africa and French troops and naval forces therein. Eventually, several important French ships joined the Free French Forces.
One by one de Gaulle took control of the French colonies, beginning with central Africa in autumn`1940, and gained recognition from Britain but not the United States. An Anglo-Free French attack on Vichy territory was repulsed at the Battle of Dakar in September 1940. Washington maintained diplomatic relations with Vichy (until October 1942) and avoided recognition of de Gaulle. Churchill, caught between the U.S. and de Gaulle, tried to find a compromise.
From 1941, British Empire and Commonwealth forces invaded Vichy controlled territory in Africa, the Indian Ocean and the Middle East. The first began in 1941 during the campaign against Syria and the Lebanon assisted with Free French troops. In two months of bitter fighting the region was seized and then put under Free French control. Around the same time after the Italian defeat in East Africa, Vichy controlled French Somaliland subsequently became blockaded by British and Free French forces. In a bloodless invasion the colony fell in mid 1942. In May 1942, the Vichy controlled island of Madagascar was invaded. In a seven-month campaign the island was seized by British Empire forces. Finally in the latter half of 1942, the British with the help of US forces took part in the successful invasion of French North Africa in Operation Torch. Most Vichy forces switched sides afterwards to help the allied cause during the Tunisian Campaign fighting as part of the British First Army.
Levant Crisis
Following D-Day, relations between the two peoples were at a high, as the British were greeted as liberators and remained so till the surrender of Germany in May 1945. At the end of that month, however, French troops, with their continued occupation of Syria, had tried to quell nationalist protests there. With heavy Syrian civilian casualties reported, Churchill demanded a ceasefire. With none forthcoming, he ordered British forces into Syria from Jordan. When they reached Damascus in June, the French were then escorted and confined to their barracks at gunpoint. That became known as the Levant Crisis and almost brought Britain and France to the point of conflict. De Gaulle raged against 'Churchill's ultimatum' and reluctantly arranged a ceasefire. Syria gained independence the following year and France labelled British measures as a 'stab in the back'.
1945–1956
The UK and France nevertheless became close as both feared the Americans would withdraw from Europe leaving them vulnerable to the Soviet Union's expanding communist bloc. The UK was successful in strongly advocating that France be given a zone of occupied Germany. Both states were amongst the five Permanent Members of the new UN Security Council, where they commonly collaborated. However, France was bitter when the United States and Britain refused to share atomic secrets with it. An American operation to use air strikes (including the potential use of tactical nuclear weapons) during the climax of the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in May 1954 was cancelled because of opposition by the British. The upshot was France developed its own nuclear weapons and delivery systems.
The Cold War began in 1947, as the United States, with strong British support, announced the Truman Doctrine to contain Communist expansion and provided military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey. Despite its large pro-Soviet Communist Party, France joined the Allies. The first move was the Franco-British alliance realised in the Dunkirk Treaty in March 1947.
Suez Crisis
In 1956, the Suez Canal, previously owned by an Anglo-French company, was nationalised by the Egyptian government. The British and the French were both strongly committed to taking the canal back by force. President Eisenhower and the Soviet Union demanded there be no invasion and both imposed heavy pressure to reverse the invasion when it came. The relations between Britain and France were not entirely harmonious, as the French did not inform the British about the involvement of Israel until very close to the commencement of military operations. The failure in Suez convinced Paris it needed its own nuclear weapons.
Common Market
Immediately after the Suez crisis Anglo-French relations started to sour again, and only since the last decades of the 20th century have they improved towards the peak they achieved between 1900 and 1940.
Shortly after 1956, France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg formed what would become the European Economic Community and later the European Union, but rejected British requests for membership. In particular, President Charles de Gaulle's attempts to exclude the British from European affairs during France's early Fifth Republic are now seen by many in Britain as a betrayal of the strong bond between the countries, and Anthony Eden's exclusion of France from the Commonwealth is seen in a similar light in France. The French partly feared that were the British to join the EEC they would attempt to dominate it.
Over the years, the UK and France have often taken diverging courses within the European Community. British policy has favoured an expansion of the Community and free trade while France has advocated a closer political union and restricting membership of the Community to a core of Western European states.
De Gaulle
In 1958, with France mired in a seemingly unwinnable war in Algeria, de Gaulle returned to power in France. He created the Fifth French Republic, ending the post-war parliamentary system and replacing it with a strong Presidency, which became dominated by his followers—the Gaullists. De Gaulle made ambitious changes to French foreign policy—first ending the war in Algeria, and then withdrawing France from the NATO command structure. The latter move was primarily symbolic, but NATO headquarters moved to Brussels and French generals had a much lesser role.
French policy blocking British entry into the European Economic Community (EEC) was primarily motivated by political rather than economic considerations. In 1967, as in 1961–63, de Gaulle was determined to preserve France's dominance within the EEC, which was the foundation of the nation's international stature. His policy was to preserve the Community of Six while barring Britain. Although France succeeded in excluding Britain in the short term, in the longer term the French had to adjust their stance on enlargement in order to retain influence. De Gaulle feared that letting Britain into the European Community would open the way for Anglo-Saxon (i.e., US and UK) influence to overwhelm the France-West Germany coalition that was now dominant. On 14 January 1963, de Gaulle announced that France would veto Britain's entry into the Common Market.
Since 1969
When de Gaulle resigned in 1969, a new French government under Georges Pompidou was prepared to open a more friendly dialogue with Britain. He felt that in the economic crises of the 1970s Europe needed Britain. Pompidou welcomed British membership of the EEC, opening the way for the United Kingdom to join it in 1973.
The two countries' relationship was strained significantly in the lead-up to the 2003 War in Iraq. Britain and its American ally strongly advocated the use of force to remove Saddam Hussein, while France (with China, Russia, and other nations) strongly opposed such action, with French President Jacques Chirac threatening to veto any resolution proposed to the UN Security Council. However, despite such differences Chirac and then British Prime Minister Tony Blair maintained a fairly close relationship during their years in office even after the Iraq War started. Both states asserted the importance of the Entente Cordiale alliance, and the role it had played during the 20th century.
Sarkozy presidency
Following his election in 2007, President Nicolas Sarkozy attempted to forge closer relations between France and the United Kingdom: in March 2008, Prime Minister Gordon Brown said that "there has never been greater cooperation between France and Britain as there is now". Sarkozy also urged both countries to "overcome our long-standing rivalries and build together a future that will be stronger because we will be together". He also said "If we want to change Europe my dear British friends—and we Frenchmen do wish to change Europe—we need you inside Europe to help us do so, not standing on the outside." On 26 March 2008, Sarkozy had the privilege of giving a speech to both British Houses of Parliament, where he called for a "brotherhood" between the two countries and stated that "France will never forget Britain's war sacrifice" during World War II.
In March 2008, Sarkozy made a state visit to Britain, promising closer cooperation between the two countries' governments in the future.
Hollande presidency
The final months towards the end of François Hollande's tenure as president saw the UK vote to leave the EU. His response to the result was "I profoundly regret this decision for the United Kingdom and for Europe, but the choice is theirs and we have to respect it."
The then-Economy Minister and current President Emmanuel Macron accused the UK of taking the EU "hostage" with a referendum called to solve a domestic political problem of eurosceptics and that "the failure of the British government [has opened up] the possibility of the crumbling of Europe."
In contrast, the vote was welcomed by Eurosceptic political leaders and presidential candidates Marine Le Pen and Nicolas Dupont-Aignan as a victory for "freedom".
Macron presidency
In the aftermath of Brexit, fishing disputes, notably the 2021 Jersey dispute, have caused turbulence in relations between the two countries.
In May 2021, France threatened to cut off electricity to the British Channel Island of Jersey in a fight over post-Brexit fishing rights.
In August 2021, Tensions emerged between the countries after the announcement of the AUKUS agreement between the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia.
In October 2021, the UK Foreign Office summoned the French ambassador over "threats" made by French officials against Jersey. In November, France threatened to ban UK fishing vessels from French ports.
In November 2021, relations became more stagnant after the French Foreign Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian claimed that British Prime Minister Boris Johnson is a "populist who uses all elements at his disposal to blame others for problems he faces internally". A few days later, after 27 migrants drowned in the English Channel, Prime Minister Boris Johnson tweeted a letter that was sent to French President Emmanuel Macron which had irritated him due to the letter being made public on Twitter. The French Interior Minister Gérald Darmanin cancelled a proposed meeting with British Home Secretary Priti Patel over the migrant crossings due to the row over the letter.
On 6 March 2022, French Interior Minister Gerald Darmanin urged Britain to do more to assist Ukrainian refugees trapped in the French port of Calais, claiming that British officials were turning them away owing to a lack of permits or papers.
On 25 August 2022, Liz Truss, the expected candidate for Prime Minister from the Conservative Party was asked if she sees Macron as a friend or a rival. Truss hesitated and replied that "The jury's out. But if I become prime minister, I'll judge him on deeds, not words".
This answer brought a sharp reaction on behalf of the Labour Party when David Lammy, who serves as the party's foreign affairs spokesman, said in response that "the fact that she chose to unnecessarily insult one of our closest allies shows a lack of judgement, and that lack of capacity is a terrible and worrying thing."
Macron himself responded that "the British people, Britain itself, are a friendly, strong nation and our ally, regardless of the identity of its leaders, and sometimes despite its leaders or the small mistakes they make in their attempt to impress the audience". He added: "If we, France and Britain, are unable to say whether we are friends or enemies - and the term is not neutral - then we are on the way to serious problems. If I were to be asked this question, I would not hesitate for a second - Britain is France's friend."
Defence cooperation
The two nations have a post WWII record of working together on international security measures, as was seen in the Suez Crisis and Falklands War. In her 2020 book, Johns Hopkins University SAIS political scientist Alice Pannier writes that there is a growing "special relationship" between France and the UK in terms of defence cooperation.
On 2 November 2010, France and the UK signed two defence co-operation treaties. They provide for the sharing of aircraft carriers, a 10,000-strong joint reaction force, a common nuclear simulation centre in France, a common nuclear research centre in the UK, sharing air-refuelling tankers and joint training.
Their post-colonial entanglements have given them a more outward focus than the other countries of Europe, leading them to work together on issues such as the Libyan Civil War.
Commerce
France is the United Kingdom's third-biggest export market after the United States and Germany. Exports to France rose 14.3% from £16.542 billion in 2010 to £18.905 billion in 2011, overtaking exports to the Netherlands. Over the same period, French exports to Britain rose 5.5% from £18.133 billion to £19.138 billion.
The British Foreign & Commonwealth Office estimates that 19.3 million British citizens, roughly a third of the entire population, visit France each year. In 2012, the French were the biggest visitors to the UK (12%, 3,787,000) and the second-biggest tourist spenders in Britain (8%, £1.513 billion).
Education
The Entente Cordiale Scholarship scheme is a selective Franco-British scholarship scheme which was announced on 30 October 1995 by British Prime Minister John Major and French President Jacques Chirac at an Anglo-French summit in London.
It provides funding for British and French students to study for one academic year on the other side of the Channel. The scheme is administered by the French embassy in London for British students, and by the British Council in France and the UK embassy in Paris for French students. Funding is provided by the private sector and foundations.
The scheme aims to favour mutual understanding and to promote exchanges between the British and French leaders of tomorrow.
The programme was initiated by Sir Christopher Mallaby, British ambassador to France between 1993 and 1996.
The sciences
The Concorde supersonic commercial aircraft was developed under an international treaty between the UK and France in 1962, and commenced flying in 1969. It was a technological success but a financial disaster and was closed down after a runway crash in 2000 and fully ended flights in 2003.
Art and culture
Over the centuries, French and British art and culture have been heavily influenced by each other. During the 19th century, numerous French artists moved to the United Kingdom, which many of them settling in London. These artists included Charles-François Daubigny, Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, James Tissot and Alfred Sisley. This exodus would prove to have a significant influence on the development of impressionism in Britain.
Sexual euphemisms with no link to France, such as French kissing, or French letter for a condom, are used in British English slang. While in French slang, the term le vice anglais refers to either BDSM or homosexuality. French classical music has always been popular in Britain. British popular music is in turn popular in France. English literature, in particular the works of Agatha Christie and William Shakespeare, has been immensely popular in France. French artist Eugène Delacroix based many of his paintings on scenes from Shakespeare's plays. In turn, French writers such as Molière, Voltaire and Victor Hugo have been translated numerous times into English. In general, most of the more popular books in either language are translated into the other.
Language
The first foreign language most commonly taught in schools in Britain is French, and the first foreign language most commonly taught in schools in France is English; those are also the languages perceived as "most useful to learn" in both countries. Queen Elizabeth II of the UK was fluent in French and did not require an interpreter when travelling to French-language countries. French is a substantial minority language and immigrant language in the United Kingdom, with over 100,000 French-born people in the UK. According to a 2006 European Commission report, 23% of UK residents are able to carry on a conversation in French and 39% of French residents are able to carry on a conversation in English. French is also an official language in both Jersey and Guernsey. Both use French to some degree, mostly in an administrative or ceremonial capacity. Jersey Legal French is the standardised variety used in Jersey. However, Norman (in its local forms, Guernésiais and Jèrriais) is the historical vernacular of the islands.
Both languages have influenced each other throughout the years. According to different sources, more than 50% of all English words have a French origin, and today many French expressions have entered the English language as well. The term Franglais, a portmanteau combining the French words "français" and "anglais", refers to the combination of French and English (mostly in the UK) or the use of English words and nouns of Anglo-Saxon roots in French (in France).
Modern and Middle English reflect a mixture of Oïl and Old English lexicons after the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, when a Norman-speaking aristocracy took control of a population whose mother tongue was Germanic in origin. Due to the intertwined histories of England and continental possessions of the English Crown, many formal and legal words in Modern English have French roots. For example, buy and sell are of Germanic origin, while purchase and vend are from Old French.
Sports
In the sport of rugby union there is a rivalry between England and France. Both countries compete in the Six Nations Championship and the Rugby World Cup. England has the edge in both tournaments, having the most outright wins in the Six Nations (and its previous version the Five Nations), and most recently knocking the French team out of the 2003 and 2007 World Cups at the semi-final stage, although France knocked England out of the 2011 Rugby World Cup with a convincing score in their quarter final match. Though rugby is originally a British sport, French rugby has developed to such an extent that the English and French teams are now stiff competitors, with neither side greatly superior to the other. While English influences spread rugby union at an early stage to Scotland, Wales and Ireland, as well as the Commonwealth realms, French influence spread the sport outside the commonwealth, to Italy, Argentina, Romania and Georgia.
The influence of French players and coaches on British football has been increasing in recent years and is often cited as an example of Anglo-French cooperation. In particular the Premier League club Arsenal has become known for its Anglo-French connection due to a heavy influx of French players since the advent of French manager Arsène Wenger in 1996. In March 2008 their Emirates stadium was chosen as the venue for a meeting during a state visit by the French President precisely for this reason.
Many people blamed the then French President Jacques Chirac for contributing to Paris' loss to London in its bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics after he made derogatory remarks about British cuisine and saying that "only Finnish food is worse". The IOC committee which would ultimately decide to give the games to London (by four votes) had two members from Finland.
Transport
Ferries
The busiest seaway in the world, the English Channel, connects ports in Great Britain such as Dover, Newhaven, Poole, Weymouth, Portsmouth and Plymouth to ports such as Roscoff, Calais, Boulogne, Dunkerque, Dieppe, Cherbourg-Octeville, Caen, St Malo and Le Havre in mainland France. Companies such as Brittany Ferries, P&O Ferries, DFDS Seaways and LD Lines operate ferry services across the Channel.
In addition, there are ferries across the Anguilla Channel between Blowing Point, Anguilla (a British Overseas Territory) and Marigot, Saint Martin (an overseas collectivity of France).
Channel Tunnel
The Channel Tunnel (; also referred to as the Chunnel) is a 50.5-kilometre (31.4 mi) undersea rail tunnel (linking Folkestone, Kent, in the United Kingdom with Coquelles, Pas-de-Calais, near the city of Calais in northern France) beneath the English Channel at the Strait of Dover. Ideas for a cross-Channel fixed link appeared as early as 1802, but British political and press pressure over compromised national security stalled attempts to construct a tunnel. The eventual successful project, organised by Eurotunnel, began construction in 1988 and was opened by British Queen Elizabeth II and French President François Mitterrand in a ceremony held in Calais on 6 May 1994. The same year the American Society of Civil Engineers elected the Channel Tunnel as one of the seven modern Wonders of the World.
Flights
11,675,910 passengers in 2008 travelled on flights between the United Kingdom and France.
Twin cities and towns
France has the most twin cities and towns in the United Kingdom.
Aberdeen and Clermont-Ferrand, Puy-de-Dôme
Andover, Hampshire and Redon, Ille-et-Vilaine
Angmering, West Sussex and Ouistreham, Calvados
Anstruther, Fife and Bapaume, Pas-de-Calais
Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire and Bourg-en-Bresse, Ain
Aylsham, Norfolk and La Chaussée-Saint-Victor, Loir-et-Cher
Barnet, London and Le Raincy, Seine-Saint-Denis
Barrow upon Soar, Leicestershire and Marans, Charente-Maritime
Basildon, Essex and Meaux, Seine-et-Marne
Basingstoke, Hampshire and Alençon, Orne
Bath, Somerset and Aix-en-Provence, Bouches-du-Rhône
Beaminster, Dorset and Saint-James, Manche
Beccles, Suffolk and Petit-Couronne, Seine-Maritime
Birmingham, West Midlands and Lyon, Metropolitan Lyon
Blandford Forum, Dorset and Mortain, Manche
Bolton, Greater Manchester and Le Mans, Sarthe
Bridport, Dorset and Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue, Manche
Bristol, City of Bristol and Bordeaux, Gironde
Bury, Greater Manchester and Angoulême, Charente
Camberley, Surrey and Sucy-en-Brie, Val-de-Marne
Canterbury, Kent and Reims, Marne
Cardiff and Nantes, Loire-Atlantique
Chelmsford, Essex and Annonay, Ardèche
Cheltenham, Gloucestershire and Annecy, Haute-Savoie
Chester, Cheshire and Sens, Yonne
Chichester, West Sussex and Chartres, Eure-et-Loir
Chippenham, Wiltshire and La Flèche, Sarthe
Chipping Ongar, Essex and Cerizay, Deux-Sèvres
Christchurch, Dorset and Saint-Lô, Manche
Cockermouth, Cumbria and Marvejols, Lozère
Coleraine and La Roche Sur Yon
Colchester, Essex and Avignon, Vaucluse
Congleton, Cheshire and Trappes, Yvelines
Cowbridge, Vale of Glamorgan and Clisson, Pays de la Loire
Cowes, Isle of Wight and Deauville, Calvados
Crewe, Cheshire and Mâcon, Saône-et-Loire
Devizes, Wiltshire and Mayenne, Pays de la Loire
Dorchester, Dorset and Bayeux, Calvados
Dover, Kent and Calais, Pas-de-Calais
Droylsden, Tameside and Villemomble, Seine-Saint-Denis
Dukinfield, Cheshire and Champagnole, Jura
Dundee and Orléans, Loiret
Ealing, London and Marcq-en-Barœul, Nord
East Preston, West Sussex and Brou, Eure-et-Loir
Edinburgh and Nice, Alpes-Maritimes
Elmbridge, Surrey and Rueil-Malmaison, Hauts-de-Seine
Epsom, Surrey and Chantilly, Oise
Exeter, Devon and Rennes, Ille-et-Vilaine
Exmouth, Devon and Dinan, Côtes-d'Armor
Fareham, Hampshire, and Vannes, Morbihan
Ferndown, Dorset and Segré, Maine-et-Loire
Farnborough, Hampshire and Meudon, Hauts-de-Seine
Folkestone, Kent and Boulogne-sur-Mer, Pas-de-Calais
Glasgow and Marseille, Bouches-du-Rhône
Gloucester, Gloucestershire and Metz, Moselle
Godalming, Surrey and Joigny, Yonne
Hailsham, East Sussex and Gournay-en-Bray, Seine-Maritime
Hammersmith and Fulham, London and Boulogne-Billancourt, Hauts-de-Seine
Harrogate, Yorkshire and Luchon, Haute-Garonne
Harrold, Bedfordshire and Sainte-Pazanne, Loire-Atlantique
Harrow, London and Douai, Nord
Hastings, East Sussex and Béthune, Pas-de-Calais
Havering, London and Hesdin, Pas-de-Calais
Hereford, Herefordshire and Vierzon, Cher
Herne Bay, Kent and Wimereux, Pas-de-Calais
Hillingdon, London and Mantes-la-Jolie, Yvelines
Hitchin, Hertfordshire and Nuits-Saint-Georges, Côte-d'Or
Horsham, West Sussex and Saint-Maixent-l'Ecole, Deux-Sèvres
Hounslow, London and Issy-les-Moulineaux, Hauts-de-Seine
Inverness and Saint-Valery-en-Caux, Seine-Maritime
Ipswich, Suffolk and Arras, Pas-de-Calais
Kensington and Chelsea, London and Cannes, Alpes-Maritimes
Leeds, Yorkshire and Lille, Nord
Leicester and Strasbourg, Bas-Rhin
Lewisham, London and Antony, Hauts-de-Seine
Lichfield, Staffordshire and Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, Lyon Metropolis
Littlehampton, West Sussex and Chennevières-sur-Marne, Val-de-Marne
Llandeilo, Carmarthenshire and Le Conquet, Finistère
Llanelli, Carmarthenshire and Agen, Lot-et-Garonne
London and Paris (this is not a twinning, since Paris is twinned only with Rome, but they are partner cities)
Loughborough, Leicestershire and Épinal, Vosges
Maidenhead, Berkshire and Saint-Cloud, Hauts-de-Seine
Maidstone, Kent and Beauvais, Oise
Merthyr Tydfil, Merthyr Tydfil and Clichy, Hauts-de-Seine
Middlesbrough, Yorkshire and Dunkirk, Nord
Newcastle upon Tyne and Nancy, Meurthe-et-Moselle
Newhaven, East Sussex and La Chapelle-Saint-Mesmin, Loiret
Northampton, Northamptonshire and Poitiers, Vienne
Norwich, Norfolk and Rouen, Seine-Maritime
Oxford, Oxfordshire and Grenoble, Isère
Perth and Cognac, Charente
Plymouth, Devon and Brest, Finistère
Portsmouth, Hampshire and Caen, Calvados
Poole, Dorset and Cherbourg-Octeville, Manche
Preston, Lancashire and Nîmes, Gard
Ramsgate, Kent and Conflans-Sainte-Honorine, Yvelines
Reigate, Surrey and Brunoy, Essonne
Richmond upon Thames, London and Fontainebleau, Seine-et-Marne
Rochdale, Greater Manchester and Tourcoing, Nord
Rotherham, Yorkshire and Saint-Quentin, Aisne
Royston, Hertfordshire and La Loupe, Eure-et-Loir
Borough of Runnymede, Surrey and Joinville-le-Pont, Val-de-Marne
Salford, Greater Manchester and Clermont-Ferrand, Puy-de-Dôme
Salisbury, Wiltshire and Saintes, Charente-Maritime
Sawbridgeworth, Hertfordshire and Bry-sur-Marne, Val-de-Marne
Selby, Yorkshire and Carentan, Manche
Sherborne, Dorset and Granville, Manche
City of Southampton, Hampshire and Le Havre, Seine-Maritime
Southborough, Kent and Lambersart, Nord
Spelthorne, Surrey and Melun, Seine-et-Marne
St Albans, Hertfordshire and Nevers, Nièvre
Stalybridge, Tameside and Armentières, Nord
Stevenage, Hertfordshire and Autun, Saône-et-Loire
Stockport, Greater Manchester and Béziers, Hérault
Sturminster Newton, Dorset and Montebourg, Manche
Sunderland, Tyne & Wear and Saint-Nazaire, Loire-Atlantique
Sutton, London and Gagny, Seine-Saint-Denis
Taunton, Somerset and Lisieux, Calvados
Truro, Cornwall and Morlaix, Finistère
Vale of White Horse, Oxfordshire and Colmar, Haut-Rhin
Verwood, Dorset and Champtoceaux, Maine-et-Loire
Ware, Hertfordshire and Cormeilles-en-Parisis, Val d'Oise
Wareham, Dorset and Conches-en-Ouche, Eure
Watford, Hertfordshire and Nanterre, Hauts-de-Seine
Wellington, Shropshire and Châtenay-Malabry, Hauts-de-Seine
Wembury, Devonshire and Locmaria-Plouzané, Finistère
Wetherby, Yorkshire and Privas, Ardèche
Weymouth and Portland, Dorset and Louviers, Eure
Whitstable, Kent and Dainville, Pas-de-Calais
Wigan, Greater Manchester and Angers, Maine-et-Loire
Wimborne Minster, Dorset and Valognes, Manche
Winchester, Hampshire and Laon, Aisne
Windsor, Berkshire and Neuilly-sur-Seine, Hauts-de-Seine
Metropolitan Borough of Wirral, Merseyside and Lorient, Morbihan and Gennevilliers, Hauts-de-Seine
Woking, Surrey and Le Plessis-Robinson, Hauts-de-Seine
York, Yorkshire and Dijon, Côte-d'Or
There are lists of twinnings (including those to towns in other countries) at List of twin towns and sister cities in France and at List of twin towns and sister cities in the United Kingdom.
Resident diplomatic missions
France has an embassy in London and a consulate-general in Edinburgh.
The United Kingdom has an embassy in Paris and consulates in Bordeaux and Marseille and a trade office in Lyon.
See also
Angevin Empire
Anglo-French War (disambiguation)
History of French foreign relations
Auld Alliance, between France and Scotland
Common Security and Defence Policy
Embassy of the United Kingdom, Paris
English claims to the French throne
Entente cordiale
Entente Cordiale Scholarships
Franco-British Union
French migration to the United Kingdom
Hundred Years' War
List of British French
List of ambassadors from the Kingdom of England to France (up to 1707)
List of ambassadors of Great Britain to France (from 1707 to 1800).
List of ambassadors of the United Kingdom to France (since 1800)
List of Ambassadors of France to the United Kingdom (since 1800)
Military history of England
Military history of France
Perfidious Albion
Second Hundred Years' War
SEPECAT Jaguar
Triple Entente
1983 France–United Kingdom Maritime Boundary Convention
1996 France–United Kingdom Maritime Delimitation Agreements
EU–UK relations
European Union–NATO relations
France–UK border
References
Further reading
Chassaigne, Philippe, and Michael Dockrill, eds. Anglo-French Relations 1898-1998: From Fashoda to Jospin (Springer, 2001).
Gibson, Robert. The Best of Enemies: Anglo-French Relations Since the Norman Conquest (2nd ed. 2011) major scholarly study excerpt and text search
Horne, Alistair, Friend or Foe: An Anglo-Saxon History of France (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005).
Johnson, Douglas, et al. Britain and France: Ten Centuries (1980) table of contents
Tombs, Robert and Isabelle Tombs. That Sweet Enemy: Britain and France: The History of a Love-Hate Relationship (2008) 1688 to present online
To 1918
Acomb, Frances Dorothy. Anglophobia in France, 1763–1789: an essay in the history of constitutionalism and nationalism (Duke UP, 1950).
Andrew, Christopher, "France and the Making of the Entente Cordiale" Historical Journal 10#1 (1967), pp 89–105.
Andrews, Stuart. The British periodical press and the French Revolution, 1789–99 (Macmillan, 2000)
Baer, Werner. "The Promoting and the Financing of the Suez Canal" Business History Review (1956) 30#4 pp. 361–381 online
Baugh, Daniel A. The Global Seven Years' War, 1754–1763: Britain and France in a Great Power Contest (Longman, 2011)
Black, Jeremy. Natural and Necessary Enemies: Anglo-French Relations in the Eighteenth Century (1986).
Blockley, John Edward. "Cross Channel Reflections: French Perceptions of Britain from Fashoda to the Boer War" (PhD dissertation Queen Mary University of London, 2015). online
Brogan, D. W. France under the Republic: The Development of Modern France (1870–1939) (1941), Scholarly history by a British expert; 764pp. online
Brown, David. "Palmerston and Anglo–French Relations, 1846–1865." Diplomacy and Statecraft 17.4 (2006): 675–692.
Carroll, E. Malcolm. French Public Opinion and Foreign Affairs, 1870–1914 (1931) online
Cameron-Ash, M. Lying for the Admiralty: Captain Cook's Endeavour Voyage, 2018, Rosenberg Publishing, Sydney,
Clark, Christopher. The sleepwalkers: how Europe went to war in 1914 (2012)
Crouzet, François. Britain Ascendant. Comparative Studies in Franco-British Economic History (Cambridge UP, 1990).
Davis, Richard. Anglo-French relations before the Second World War: appeasement and crisis (Springer, 2001).
Dickinson, Harry Thomas, ed. Britain and the French Revolution, 1789–1815 (1989).
Golicz, Roman. "Napoleon III, Lord Palmerston and the Entente Cordiale". History Today 50#12 (December 2000): 10–17
Gifford, Prosser and William Roger Louis. France and Britain in Africa: Imperial Rivalry and Colonial Rule (1971)
Harris, John R. Industrial Espionage and Technology Transfer: Britain and France in the 18th Century (Taylor & Francis, 2017).
Harvey, Robert, The War of Wars: The Great European Conflict 1793–1815 (Robinson, 2007).
Horn, David Bayne. Great Britain and Europe in the eighteenth century (1967) pp 22–85.
Jacobs, Wilbur R. Diplomacy and Indian gifts: Anglo-French rivalry along the Ohio and Northwest frontiers, 1748–1763 (1950)
Jones, Colin. Britain and Revolutionary France: Conflict, Subversion, and Propaganda (1983); 96pp
Keiger, J.F.V. France and the World since 1870 (2001)
Kennan, George Frost. The fateful alliance: France, Russia, and the coming of the First World War (1984) ; covers 1890 to 1894.
Langer, William. European Alliances and Alignments 1870–1890 (1950); advanced diplomatic history
Langer, William. The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902 (1950); advanced diplomatic history
McLynn, Frank, 1759: The Year Britain Became Master of the World (Pimlico, 2005).
MacMillan, Margaret. The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (2014) pp 142–71. online
Mayne, Richard, Douglas Johnson, and Robert Tombs, eds. Cross Channel Currents 100 Years of the Entente Cordiale (Routledge: 2004),
Newman, Gerald. "Anti-French Propaganda and British Liberal Nationalism in the Early Nineteenth Century: Suggestions Toward a General Interpretation." Victorian Studies (1975): 385–418.
Otte, T. G. "From 'War-in-Sight' to Nearly War: Anglo–French Relations in the Age of High Imperialism, 1875–1898." Diplomacy and Statecraft (2006) 17#4 pp: 693–714.
Parry, Jonathan Philip. "The impact of Napoleon III on British politics, 1851–1880." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 11 (2001): 147–175. online; a study in distrust
Philpott, William James. Anglo-French Relations and Strategy on the Western Front 1914–18 (1996)
Prete, Roy A. Strategy and Command: The Anglo-French Coalition on the Western Front, 1915 (McGill-Queen's UP, 2021) online review by Michael S. Neiberg
Reboul, Juliette. French Emigration to Great Britain in Response to the French Revolution (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017).
Rich, Norman. Great Power Diplomacy: 1814–1914 (1991), comprehensive worldwide survey
Schmidt, H. D. "The Idea and Slogan of 'Perfidious Albion'" Journal of the History of Ideas (1953) pp: 604–616. ; on French distrust of "Albion" (i.e. England)
Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848 (1994) 920pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy
Seton-Watson, R.W. Britain in Europe: 1789–1914 (1937) detailed survey or foreign policy with much on France; online
Schuman, Frederick L. War and diplomacy in the French Republic; an inquiry into political motivations and the control of foreign policy (1931)
Sharp, Alan, & Stone, Glyn, eds. Anglo-French Relations in the Twentieth Century (2000)
Simms, Brendan, Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire (Penguin Books, 2008), 18th century wars
Smith, Michael S. Tariff reform in France, 1860–1900: the politics of economic interest (Cornell UP, 1980).
Taylor, A.J.P. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 (1954) 638pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy
Since 1919
Adamthwaite, Anthony. Grandeur and Misery: France's Bid for Power in Europe, 1914–1940 (Hodder Arnold, 1995).
Alexander, Martin S. and William J. Philpott. Anglo-French Defence Relations Between the Wars (2003), 1919–39 excerpt and text search
Bell, P. M. H. France and Britain, 1900–1940: Entente and Estrangement (2nd ed. 2014).
Bell, P. M. H. France and Britain, 1940–1994: The Long Separation (1997).
Berthon, Simon. Allies at War: The Bitter Rivalry among Churchill, Roosevelt, and de Gaulle (2001). 356 pp.
Boyce, Robert, ed. French foreign and defence policy, 1918–1940: the decline and fall of a great power (Routledge, 2005).
Brunschwig, Henri. Anglophobia and French African Policy (Yale UP, 1971).
Capet, Antoine, ed. Britain, France and the Entente Cordiale Since 1904 (Palgrave Macmillan 2006).
Chassaigne, Philippe, and Michael Lawrence Dockrill, eds. Anglo-French Relations 1898–1998: From Fashoda to Jospin (Palgrave, 2002)
Clarke, Michael. "French and British security: mirror images in a globalized world." International Affairs 76.4 (2000): 725–740. Online
Crossley, Ceri, and Ian Small, eds. Studies in Anglo French Cultural Relations: Imagining France (1988)
Davis, Richard. Anglo-French Relations before the Second World War: Appeasement and Crisis (2001)
Funk, Arthur Layton. Charles de Gaulle: the crucial years, 1943-1944 (1959).
Grayson, Richard S. Austen Chamberlain and the Commitment to Europe: British Foreign Policy 1924-1929 (Routledge, 2014).
Johnson, Gaynor. "Sir Austen Chamberlain, the Marquess of Crewe and Anglo-French Relations, 1924–1928." Contemporary British History 25.01 (2011): 49–64. online
Hucker, Daniel. Public opinion and the end of appeasement in Britain and France (Routledge, 2016).
Jennings, Eric T. "Britain and Free France in Africa, 1940–1943." in British and French Colonialism in Africa, Asia and the Middle East (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2019) pp. 277–296.
Keiger, J.F.V. France and the World since 1870 (2001)
Kolodziej, Edward A. French International Policy under de Gaulle and Pompidou: The Politics of Grandeur (1974)
Lahav, Pnina. "The Suez Crisis of 1956 and Its Aftermath: A Comparative Study of Constituons, Use of Force, Diplomacy and International Relations." Boston University Law Review 95 (2015): 1297–1354 online
MacMillan, Margaret, Peacemakers: Six Months that Changed the World (2003) on Versailles Conference of 1919 online
Maclean, Mairi, and Jean-Marie Trouille, eds. France, Germany and Britain: Partners in a Changing World (Palgrave Macmillan, 2001).
Mayne, Richard et al. Cross-Channel Currents: 100 Years of the Entente Cordiale (2004)
Nere, J. The Foreign Policy of France from 1914 to 1945 (2002)
Oye, Kenneth A. "The sterling-dollar-franc triangle: Monetary diplomacy 1929–1937." World Politics (1985) 38#1 pp: 173–199.
Pickles, Dorothy. The Uneasy Entente. French Foreign Policy and Franco-British Misunderstandings (1966).
Roshwald, Aviel. Estranged Bedfellows: Britain and France in the Middle East During the Second World War (Oxford UP, 1990).
Scazzieri, Luigi. "Britain, france, and Mesopotamian oil, 1916–1920." Diplomacy & Statecraft 26.1 (2015): 25–45.
Sharp, Alan et al. eds. Anglo-French Relations in the Twentieth Century: Rivalry and Cooperation (2000) excerpt and text search
Thomas, Martin. Britain, France and Appeasement: Anglo-French Relations in the Popular Front Era (1996) * Thomas, R. T. Britain and Vichy: The Dilemma of Anglo-French Relations, 1940–42 (1979)
Torrent, Melanie. Diplomacy and Nation-Building in Africa: Franco-British Relations and Cameroon at the End of Empire (I.B. Tauris, 2012) 409 pages
Troen, S. Ilan. "The Protocol of Sèvres: British/French/Israeli Collusion Against Egypt, 1956." Israel Studies 1.2 (1996): 122-139 online.
on 1956.
Webster, Andrew. Strange Allies: Britain, France and the Dilemmas of Disarmament and Security, 1929-1933 (Routledge, 2019).
Williams, Andrew. France, Britain and the United States in the Twentieth Century 1900–1940: A Reappraisal (Springer, 2014).
Zamir, Meir. "De Gaulle and the question of Syria and Lebanon during the Second World War: Part I." Middle Eastern Studies 43.5 (2007): 675–708.
In French
Guiffan, Jean. Histoire de l'anglophobie en France: de Jeanne d'Arc à la vache folle (Terre de brume, 2004)
Nordmann, Claude. "Anglomanie et Anglophobie en France au XVIIIe siècle'." Revue du Nord 66 (1984) pp: 787–803.
Serodes, Fabrice. "French – English: 100 Years of “Friendly Disagreement?", Europeplusnet (2004)
Serodes, Fabrice. "'Historical use of a caricature. The destiny of the perfidious Albion.", Brussels, VUB, 2009.
Serodes, Fabrice Anglophobie et politique de Fachoda à Mers el-Kebir (L Harmattan, 2010)
Serodes, Fabrice "Brexit: le Royaume-Uni sort, ses idées restent", The Conversation, 17 January 2017
External links
Franco-British Council Links
University of London in Paris (ULIP)
French Embassy in the United Kingdom
British Embassy in France
United Kingdom
Bilateral relations of the United Kingdom | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France%E2%80%93United%20Kingdom%20relations |
Paul Highton (born 10 November 1976) is a former Wales international rugby league footballer who played in the 1990s and 2000s. He played at representative level for Great Britain (Academy), and Wales, and at club level for Waterhead A.R.L.F.C. (in Oldham), Halifax/Halifax Blue Sox (Heritage No. 1078), Featherstone Rovers (Heritage No. 777), Salford City Reds and Oldham (Heritage № 1241), as a or .
Background
Highton was born in Oldham, Greater Manchester, England, and he is the older brother of the rugby league who played in the 1990s and 2000s for the Warrington Wolves (Heritage No. 959), and the Swinton Lions; Christopher "Chris" Highton (born ), and the rugby league or who played in the 1990s and 2000s for the Warrington Wolves (Heritage No. 975), the Salford City Reds, and the London Broncos (Heritage No. 428); David "Dave" Highton (born ).
Playing career
Highton played for Waterhead ARLFC prior to turning professional at Halifax in the 1994–95 season, he represented the Great Britain (Academy) on the 1996 tour down-under, he made his début for the Featherstone Rovers on 5 April 1998, and he played his last match for Featherstone Rovers during the 1998–season, he joined Salford in 1998 after he had played 4 matches for Featherstone Rovers, Paul was to spend the rest of his Career with the Salford club being awarded a testimonial by both club and governing body the RFL for his services to the game
He signed for the Salford City Reds in 1998 having also played for the Featherstone Rovers, and represented Wales in the 2000 Rugby League World Cup.
Post playing
Highton retired in 2009 and went on to become the clubs Football / Player Welfare Manager. Since retiring, Highton has aligned himself to numerous charities taking up both educational, and ambassadorial roles namely The Sporting Chance Clinic, State of Mind and RLCares. Highton's involvement with RLCares has recently (2016) seen him take on the Challenge of Cycling 3000 miles from Londons Olympic Stadium to the opening Ceremony of the Rio Olympics in Rio de Janeiro. His Epic challenge saw him travel through France, Spain and Portugal before flying over to Recife in Northern Brazil and then cycling the final 1700-miles down the coast to Rio de Janeiro. Highton also continues his involvement with rugby league with his weekly commentary, and summarising on the Super League with BBC Radio Manchester.
References
1976 births
Living people
English people of Welsh descent
English rugby league players
Featherstone Rovers players
Halifax R.L.F.C. players
Oldham R.L.F.C. players
Rugby league locks
Rugby league players from Oldham
Rugby league props
Rugby league second-rows
Salford Red Devils players
Wales national rugby league team players
Welsh rugby league players | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Highton |
Junior Langi (born 2 August 1981) is a former professional rugby league footballer who played in the 2000s for St George, Melbourne, Parramatta and Salford.
Early life
Born in Auckland, New Zealand with Niuean and Tongan heritage. Langi moved to Australia, educated at Trinity Catholic College, Auburn, where he represented 1999 Australian Schoolboys.
Playing career
Langi made his first grade debut for St George against Canterbury in Round 3 2000. Langi then joined Melbourne and played with the club between 2001 and 2003 before joining Parramatta in 2004.
Langi became a regular starter for Parramatta and made 16 appearances for the club. Langi signed for Salford in 2005. He retired from the sport in December 2006 due to an eye condition and returned home.
References
External links
http://www.salfordadvertiser.co.uk/sport/salfordreds/news/s/221/221186_fade_to_gray.html
1981 births
Living people
New Zealand rugby league players
New Zealand people of Niuean descent
New Zealand sportspeople of Tongan descent
St. George Illawarra Dragons players
Melbourne Storm players
Parramatta Eels players
Salford Red Devils players
Rugby league centres
Rugby league players from Auckland | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junior%20Langi |
The following is a list of sacred objects in Japanese mythology.
A
()
()
G
Gohei ()
Goshintai ()
H
Hama Yumi ()
Heisoku ()
I
Imperial Regalia of Japan ()
K
Kagura suzu ()
Kusanagi ()
Koma-inu ()
M
Mitamashiro ()
N
Nihongo or Nippongo ()
O
O-fuda ()
O-mamori ( or )
O-mikuji (, or )
Onbe ()
O-nenju ( or )
Ōnusa ()
Otegine ()
S
Shide ()
Shintai ()
Shimenawa ()
Suzu ()
T
Tide jewels
Three Sacred Treasures ()
The Three Great Spears of Japan
Tonbokiri ()
Torii ()
U
Uchide-no-Kozuchi ()
Y
Yasakani no Magatama ()
Yata no kagami ()
See also
Glossary of Shinto
Japanese mythology
Shinto
External links
Shinto Concepts
Japanese mythology
Mythological objects | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20sacred%20objects%20in%20Japanese%20mythology |
Gareth Haggerty (born 8 September 1981) is a former Ireland international rugby league footballer. He played for the Widnes Vikings in the Co-operative Championship. He previously played for Harlequins RL, St Helens and the Salford City Reds all of whom play in the Super League.
Haggerty's usual position was as a . He is a specialist impact player, coming off the interchange bench.
Background
Haggerty was born in St Helens, Merseyside, England.
He is the son of former St. Helens forward Roy Haggerty.
Career
He was a member of the Ireland squad for the 2008 Rugby League World Cup. Although relatively unknown in Australia prior to the tournament, his performances from the bench in the World Cup earned widespread praise from both fans and pundits, with many Australians going as far as to chant 'sign him up' during games.
References
External links
Quins profile
Ireland profile
(archived by web.archive.org) Salford Profile
(archived by web.archive.org) SL Stats
(archived by web.archive.org) Salford Career Stats
Saints Heritage Society profile
Players to watch - Gareth Haggerty (Ireland)
1981 births
Living people
English people of Irish descent
English rugby league players
Ireland national rugby league team players
Irish rugby league players
London Broncos players
Rugby league props
Rugby league players from St Helens, Merseyside
Rugby league second-rows
Salford Red Devils players
St Helens R.F.C. players
Widnes Vikings players | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gareth%20Haggerty |
Mitch Stringer (born 1 November 1983), also known by the nickname of "The big fella", is a former Scotland international rugby league footballer who played as a
Playing career
He was brought up in Barnsley, and started his youth playing career at Sheffield Eagles after impressing with local amateur team Hoyland Vikings.
Stringer signed for Salford in 2005 from London Broncos. In 2006 he was re-signed by the Eagles for their successful bid for promotion from National League Two.
Stringer has also played as a professional for the London Broncos, Salford City Reds, Dewsbury Rams and the Sheffield Eagles where he became captain.
International
He also made eleven appearances for Scotland, scoring on 3 occasions. His first international game came against Papua New Guinea, where he began the match on the bench.
He represented Scotland at the 2013 Rugby League World Cup.
References
External links
(archived by web.archive.org) Salford Squad Profile: Mitch Stringer
Sheffield Eagles Website Homepage
(archived by web.archive.org) *
1983 births
Living people
Dewsbury Rams players
English people of Scottish descent
English rugby league players
London Broncos players
Rugby league players from Barnsley
Rugby league props
Salford Red Devils players
Scotland national rugby league team players
Sheffield Eagles captains
Sheffield Eagles players | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitch%20Stringer |
Stuart Littler (born 19 February 1979) is the former head coach of Oldham in RFL League 1. He is a former Ireland international rugby league footballer and a former head coach of Ireland.
Littler played for the Salford City Reds in the Super League, playing for his hometown club, Leigh Centurions and finishing his career with Swinton Lions, retiring at the end of the 2016 season.
Littler's position of choice was as a . He could also operate in the and also played some games on the .
Background
Littler was born in Higher End, Wigan, Greater Manchester, England. He is of Irish descent.
He is a lifelong resident of Leigh.
Career
Littler is an Ireland international.
Littler was expected to leave the club following Salford's relegation to National League One. Littler was expected to seal a move to Harlequins RL, however Chairman Ian Lenagan decided not to offer him a deal.
Littler joined Salford in 1998 – his first professional club and is equal top-try scorer in a season for the club, alongside David Watkins.
He was named in the Ireland training squad for the 2008 Rugby League World Cup, and the Ireland squad for the 2008 Rugby League World Cup.
In October and November 2014, Stuart played in the 2014 European Cup competition.
In 2016, he was called up to the Ireland squad for the 2017 Rugby League World Cup European Pool B qualifiers.
Coaching
Swinton Lions
After retiring with Swinton he remained with the club as an assistant coach under head coach John Duffy. When Duffy left the club in July 2017, he stepped into the head coach's shoes commencing with an away match at Bradford Bulls' Odsal Stadium on 23 July 2017.
He parted company with Swinton in July 2021.
Oldham RLFC
On 6 October 2021, he was reported as the new head coach for Oldham RLFC.
On 1 Aug 2023 it was reported that Oldham had announced his departure amid speculation that he was about to take up the vacant Widnes Vikings head coach role.
References
External links
Salford City Reds profile
(archived by web.archive.org) Salford profile
(archived by web.archive.org) Ireland profile
SL Stats
(archived by web.archive.org) Salford Career Stats
1979 births
Living people
English people of Irish descent
English rugby league coaches
English rugby league players
Ireland national rugby league team captains
Ireland national rugby league team coaches
Ireland national rugby league team players
Irish rugby league players
Leigh Leopards players
Oldham R.L.F.C. coaches
People from Higher End
Rugby league players from Greater Manchester
Sportspeople from the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan
Rochdale Hornets players
Rugby league players from Wigan
Rugby league second-rows
Salford Red Devils players
Swinton Lions coaches
Swinton Lions players | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart%20Littler |
Eucumbene Dam is a major gated earthfill embankment dam with an overflow ski-jump and bucket spillway with two vertical lift gates across the Eucumbene River in the Snowy Mountains of New South Wales, Australia. The dam's main purpose is for the generation of hydro-power and is one of the sixteen major dams that comprise the Snowy Mountains Scheme, a vast hydroelectricity and irrigation complex constructed in south-east Australia between 1949 and 1974 and now run by Snowy Hydro.
The impounded reservoir is called Lake Eucumbene, the largest storage lake in the Snowy Mountains Scheme.
Location and features
Commenced in May 1956 and completed in May 1958, Eucumbene Dam is a major dam, located approximately northeast of the locality of Eucumbene Cove. The dam was constructed by a consortium comprising the Department of Public Works and Kaiser-Walsh-Perini-Raymond based on engineering plans developed by the United States Bureau of Reclamation and the Department of Public Works, under contract from the Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Authority. Construction of the dam inundated the original township of Old Adaminaby, which was relocated to Adaminaby in the 1950s, requiring approximately 800 people to be moved.
The outer walls of the dam are built of rock while the inner core is compacted, impervious clay. The earthfill embankment dam wall comprising of earth and rockfill is high and long. The foundation of the dam comprises closely jointed hard siltstone and quartzite with overburden of decomposed rock and slope-wash up to deep. A subsidiary embankment containing of fill across a low saddle in a ridge forms the left abutment of the dam wall. At 100% capacity the dam wall, with an elevation of AHD, holds back or () of water, approximately equal to nine times the volume of Sydney Harbour. The surface area of Lake Eucumbene is and the catchment area is . The overflow ski-jump and bucket spillway with two vertical lift gates is capable of discharging . The two gates, each wide by high were constructed during 1977-78 under a separate contract.
Lake Eucumbene
Lake Eucumbene is the largest reservoir in the Snowy Mountains Scheme and is the central connection for the northern (Tumut/Murrumbidgee rivers) and southern (Snowy River) halves of the Scheme. The Goodradigbee and Murrumbidgee rivers from Tantangara Dam are connected to the Eucumbene River at Lake Eucumbene via the Murrumbidgee-Eucumbene Haupt-tunnel. The Eucumbene River at Lake Eucumbene is connected to the Snowy River at Island Bend Pondage via the long Eucumbene-Snowy Haupt-tunnel; the longest tunnel in the Snowy Mountains Scheme, with a circular diameter of .
Also at Lake Eucumbene, the long Eucumbene-Tumut Haupt-tunnel diverts the flow of the Snowy River to the Tumut River, empting into Tumut Pond Reservoir; and into the Murray–Darling basin. This tunnel was constructed between November 1954 and July 1959 and along 28% of its length is lined with a circular diameter. The residual length of the tunnel in unlined and circular in diameter. Construction was through granite and metamorphosed sedimentary rock, involving the excavation of ; and concrete was used to install the pipeline.
The valley, which was flooded following construction of the Eucumbene Dam, had been an agricultural centre since the 1830s. A number of homesteads and most of the township of Adaminaby lay within the inundation area of the proposed dam. Most of the buildings in the town relocated to a site on the Snowy Mountains Highway, but some buildings were not flooded and remain at Old Adaminaby.
The story of Adaminaby's relocation was the subject of film produced by the Snowy Mountains Authority Film Unit in 1958, entitled Operation Adaminaby. It was also the subject of a 2001 documentary by historian Jeannine Baker, entitled Our Drowned Town, which screened on SBS Television. Entire houses, and even the Commercial Bank building were transported on the back of trucks and over 100 buildings were re-erected at the new townsite. Transportation of the first house from Old Adaminaby to New Adaminaby (a distance of just six miles) took six days. Today a tourist village has been built around the handful of buildings which were not relocated from the newly created lakeshore at Old Adaminaby.
When the lake is low, remains of the former township and other relics can be seen along the shoreline. For a period of time around 2007, the waters of Lake Eucumbene had receded due to a prolonged drought and Old Adaminaby began to reveal itself after being underwater for over 50 years – gaining the attention of the global media. Of particular interest was the re-emergence of the old 6 Mile Bridge near Anglers Reach on the former highway route to Kiandra.
Climate
Lake Eucumbene has mild, stormy summers and cold, wet winters; with a largely uniform rainfall pattern, peaking somewhat in late winter and springtime. Frosts occur regularly during autumn, winter and spring, and can occur also in summer. Snowfall can occur at any time of the year, save for high summer.
Gallery
See also
Old Adaminaby and Lake Eucumbene
Kosciuszko National Park
List of dams and reservoirs in New South Wales
Snowy Hydro Limited
Snowy Mountains Scheme
Snowy Scheme Museum
References
External links
Eucumbene
Murrumbidgee River
Embankment dams
Snowy Mountains Scheme
Snowy Mountains Highway
Kosciuszko National Park
Adaminaby
Dams completed in 1958
Snowy Mountains | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucumbene%20Dam |
John Clough (born 13 September 1984 in St. Helens) is a former rugby league footballer playing over 250 games for Salford City Reds (2001–06), London Broncos, Halifax (2006), Leigh Centurions (2007), Blackpool Panthers (2007-10), Oldham (2011-14) and Oxford (2015) as a . John Clough is a former Lancashire and Great Britain Academy representative.
Genealogical information
John Clough is brother of the rugby league footballer, Paul Clough.
References
External links
Statistics at rugbyleagueproject.org
1984 births
Living people
Blackpool Panthers players
English rugby league players
Halifax R.L.F.C. players
Leigh Leopards players
London Broncos players
Oldham R.L.F.C. players
Oxford Rugby League players
Rugby articles needing expert attention
Rugby league hookers
Rugby league players from St Helens, Merseyside
Salford Red Devils players | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Clough |
Stephen Myler (born 21 July 1984) is an English rugby player. He played most of his career with the Northampton Saints in Premiership Rugby, and he currently plays for Ospreys in the United Rugby Championship .
Rugby league career
Myler was born 21 July 1984 in Widnes.
After leaving Wade Deacon High School in Widnes at 16 he signed for the St Helens Academy, he did not make an appearance for their first team.
Myler joined the Widnes Vikings for 2003's Super League VIII. He made 49 Super League appearances for the Vikings, scoring 180 points.
Myler signed with the Salford City Reds for 2006's Super League XI.
Stephen comes from a famous Rugby League family. His father is John Myler who played full back for Widnes Vikings RLFC. His uncle is Tony Myler, a former Widnes captain and GB International and was one of the most gifted footballers of his generation. Stephen's great uncle is Frank Myler who captained the last British side to win a series in Australia in 1970.
Rugby union career
In 2006, Myler made the switch to Rugby Union when he joined Northampton Saints. He made his début in the Guinness Premiership against Saracens.
He established himself as a great kicker for the squad, scoring a high percentage of Place kicks for the 2008–09 season. It was during this season that Myler started in the final of the European Challenge Cup, scoring all of Saints' points as they defeated Bourgoin.
In 2014 Myler started and scored three conversions and a penalty as Northampton beat Saracens to win the Premiership final.
In 2016 Myler started his 10th year at the Midlands side and hit his 1500th Aviva Premiership point after converting Louis Picamoles' try against Gloucester on Friday 28 October.
On 23 March 2018 it was confirmed that after 12 years at Northampton Saints Myler would be leaving the club. Stephen Myler was a hugely influential player at the club, marking up 325 caps and 2618 points since joining the club in 2006.
Myler joined London Irish ahead of the 2018–19 RFU Championship season, and helped the team return to the Premiership on the first attempt.
He currently sits in 2nd place in the Northampton Saints all-time points scored record, 168 points behind fellow fly half Paul Grayson. Myler also ranks in 3rd place in the Premiership all-time points record behind Andy Goode in 2nd and Charlie Hodgson in 1st place.
He was released from London Irish ahead of the 2020–21 season.
He signed for URC side Ospreys on a one-year deal ahead of the 2020–21 season.
International career
His form led to a selection for the England Saxons at the 2009 Churchill Cup, making his début against Argentina Jaguars.
After an injury to Alex Goode he was called up to the England squad in May 2013. He made his début as a substitute for Freddie Burns in England's victory over Argentina, scoring a conversion.
References
External links
(archived by web.archive.org) Northampton profile
(archived by web.archive.org) England profile
Guinness Premiership profile
(archived by web.archive.org) Salford Squad Profile: Stephen Myler
Saints Heritage Society profile
(archived by web.archive.org) Salford City Reds Website Homepage
Statistics at rugbyleagueproject.org
1984 births
Living people
England international rugby union players
English rugby league players
English rugby union players
London Irish players
Northampton Saints players
People from Whiston, Merseyside
Rugby union players from Merseyside
Sportspeople from the Metropolitan Borough of Knowsley
Rugby league five-eighths
Rugby league players from Widnes
Rugby union fly-halves
Salford Red Devils players
St Helens R.F.C. players
Widnes Vikings players
Ospreys (rugby union) players | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Myler |
Simon Baldwin (born 31 March 1975) is an English former professional rugby league footballer who played in the 1990s and 2000s who played as a , or .
Baldwin started his career at Leigh before joining Halifax Blue Sox in October 1994. He then spent a season with Sheffield Eagles in 1999. After a second spell at Leigh, he joined Salford City Reds in 2003. He left the club in 2006, and went on to play for Rochdale Hornets and Oldham.
While at Halifax, he also represented Great Britain under-21s, and England in 1995.
References
External links
(archived by web.archive.org) Salford Squad Profile: Simon Baldwin
1975 births
Living people
England national rugby league team players
English rugby league players
Great Britain under-21 national rugby league team players
Halifax R.L.F.C. players
Leigh Leopards players
Oldham R.L.F.C. players
Rochdale Hornets players
Rugby league second-rows
Salford Red Devils players
Sheffield Eagles (1984) players | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon%20Baldwin |
Andrew Brocklehurst (born 6 March 1983) is a rugby league player.
Brocklehurst joined Salford City Reds in 2004 from London Broncos. He has also played for Halifax and is a coach at his former amateur side.
In September 2008, it was announced that Brocklehurst had joined Barrow Raiders. On 30 June 2009, it was announced that his contract with Barrow Raiders had been terminated "following a serious breach of club discipline amounting to gross misconduct".
References
1983 births
Living people
Barrow Raiders players
English rugby league coaches
English rugby league players
Halifax R.L.F.C. players
London Broncos players
Rugby articles needing expert attention
Salford Red Devils players | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Brocklehurst |
Ryan Clayton (born ), is an English former professional rugby league footballer who played in the 2000s and 2010s. He last played for Halifax in the Co-operative Championship.
He has previously played for the Salford City Reds, Huddersfield Giants, Halifax and Castleford (Heritage № 802). Due to injury, Ryan only played in 11-games for Castleford in 2008's Super League XIII. He was contracted at Castleford for 2009 and was looking to get back in the team for the new season.
Ryan's contract was not renewed at the end of the 2009 season, but Castleford re-signed him on 2 November 2009 for an additional year.
Ryan played for Castleford during 2010 but was released on 14 September 2010.
On 16 October 2010 Ryan joined re-joined former club Halifax.
Clayton now works for the Canberra Raiders as a Strength & Conditioning and Rehabilitation Coach and is well renowned for his never ending, boring stories.
References
External links
(archived by web.archive.org) Salford Squad Profile: Ryan Clayton
(archived by web.archive.org) Salford City Reds Website Homepage
(archived by web.archive.org) Ryan Clayton Castleford profile
(archived by web.archive.org) Statistics at thecastlefordtigers.co.uk
1982 births
Living people
Castleford Tigers players
English rugby league players
Halifax R.L.F.C. players
Huddersfield Giants players
Rugby league second-rows
Salford Red Devils players
Rugby league players from Oldham
Villefranche XIII Aveyron players | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryan%20Clayton |
New history may refer to:
A disciplinary approach that attempts to use history to understand contemporary problems, co-founded by James Harvey Robinson in the early 20th century
Nouvelle histoire, a French movement in learning that de-emphasized rote learning
New Mormon history, a style of reporting the history of Mormonism
Doubting Antiquity School, a historiographical approach to Chinese historical sources begun in the 1910s and 1920s
Institut Nova Història (New History Institute), a Catalan cultural foundation
"New History" (Grey's Anatomy), an episode of the TV series Grey's Anatomy
See also
New Historians
New historicism | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20history |
James Cook University Singapore is a branch of James Cook University, based in Townsville, Australia. In addition to Singapore and Townsville, JCU operates another campus in Cairns, Australia. JCU Singapore was opened in 2003 as part of the university's strategic intent of "Creating a brighter future for life in the tropics world-wide through graduates and discoveries that make a difference". The university is ranked in the top 2%* of universities in the world and is the leading tropical research university in Australia. JCU Singapore fully adapts the Australian curriculum and all degree certification is awarded from James Cook University Australia. JCU is registered under the Committee for Private Education Singapore (CPE).
JCU Singapore's campus is located at 149 Sims Drive, in between the Kallang and Aljunied MRT stations.
Programs offered
Currently, JCU Singapore offers pathway, business, education, counselling, psychology, environmental science, aquaculture, information technology, tourism & hospitality and urban planning courses at JCU Singapore. JCU Singapore is fully owned by James Cook University and all courses are provided by the university. This has seen enrolments increase as fewer students from the region choose to travel to Australia to study, instead electing to acquire an Australian qualification in Singapore.
JCU Singapore runs on a trimester system, allowing students to 'fast track' their studies and complete their degrees in as short as short as two (2) years, in comparison to other universities in the around the world. A majority of students intakes occur during March (SP51), July (SP52), and November (SP53).
Branch Campus Status
In May 2016, the Singaporean and Australian governments concluded a review of the Singapore-Australia Free Trade Agreement, which added several measures to promote further cooperation on education. As part of this agreement, JCU Singapore was awarded branch campus status and from July 2016 is permitted to brand itself as the Singapore Campus of James Cook University. It had previously been legally known as James Cook Institute of Higher Learning.
Rankings
JCU has consistently ranked in the top 400 academic universities worldwide since 2010, as measured by the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU). For 2016, JCU ranked in the top two percent of universities in the world by ARWU.
* unavailable data
In the Commonwealth Government's Excellence in Research for Australia 2012 National Report, JCU research received the highest ranking of 'well above world standard' (rating 5) in the areas of environmental science and management, ecological applications and medical microbiology. The university also received an 'above world standard' ranking for research in the areas of materials engineering, immunology, tourism, biological sciences, agricultural and veterinary sciences, fisheries sciences, veterinary sciences, inorganic chemistry, earth sciences, geochemistry, and geology.
Psychology Clinic
James Cook University runs a psychology clinic from its Sims Drive Campus which is open to members of the public. This facility allows Masters students to gain practical experience under the supervision of qualified clinical psychologists, and offers counselling services to the public at a reduced price.
Graduate employment
In a survey conducted by Committee for Private Education on employment outcomes of 2018, graduates of James Cook University Singapore achieved a 30.9% full-time employment rate in comparison with 78.4% for their peers from three autonomous universities - the National University of Singapore (NUS), Nanyang Technological University (NTU) and Singapore Management University (SMU). This result is lower than post-national service polytechnic graduates whose full-time employment rate was 64%. The response rate to the survey was 33%.
It also revealed that SIM graduates earned median gross starting salaries of $2,500 a month, while NUS, NTU and SMU graduates earned $3,400. Post-NS polytechnic graduates earned $2,480 a month.
References
External links
James Cook University
Private universities in Singapore | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Cook%20University%20Singapore |
Madison Community Cooperative, or MCC, is a housing cooperative composed of 11 houses in Madison, Wisconsin with around 200 resident members.
MCC is a member of North American Students of Cooperation (NASCO) as well as the Northcountry Cooperative Development Fund (NCDF). The majority of the cooperative houses are located near the UW Madison campus.
History
Inspired by a North American Students of Cooperation (NASCO) conference, on December 10, 1968, eight representatives of Madison co-ops incorporated the Madison Association of Student Cooperatives (MASC). In 1971, MASC changed its name to Madison Community Cooperative (MCC). Beginning in 1997, MCC tailored its articles, bylaws and mission "to improve the Madison community by providing low cost, not-for-profit cooperative housing for very low to moderate income people and to be inclusive of underrepresented and marginalized groups of the community."
The membership of MCC voted to sue the City of Madison for property tax exemption at a General Meeting on March 9, 1997. Property tax exemption in Wisconsin is available only to not-for-profit organizations that are benevolent. The City Attorney had denied exemption to MCC by arguing that MCC was not benevolent but primarily served students who, if poor, were voluntarily and temporarily poor.
Attorney David Sparer tried the case on behalf of MCC. MCC members testified in Dane County Circuit Court that non-students, including people of color, older people, parents and poor residents, were increasingly joining the MCC membership.
When authorizing the suit, the membership conditioned the lawsuit on any "budgetary savings MCC realizes from a successful resolution of our case will not be used to reduce house payments across the board by more than 3% in any fiscal year" and that "the line-item in the MCC Budget that allocates money to property taxes be changed from a fixed line to a variable one, to keep open the possibility of MCC maintaining some level of funding to city services."
After settling the case with the City of Madison, MCC surveys all the members income status and annually provides the City of Madison with the income ranges of its tenant-members. MCC continues to make annual payments in lieu of taxes (PILOT) in order to pay for necessary police and fire protection.
Houses
Ambrosia Cooperative House (formerly Assata, before that Martha's, before that Stone Manor Student Co-op)
Audre Lorde Cooperative House (formerly Emma Goldman)
Avalon Cooperative House (formerly Womyn's)
Friends Cooperative House
Hypatia Cooperative House (formerly Mulberry, before that Groves Women's Co-op)
International Cooperative House
Lothlórien Cooperative House
Ofek Shalom Cooperative House
Zoe Bayliss (a former UW-Madison Women's Co-Op, which is now in the location of the former Marsha P. Johnson Cooperative, which was previously known as Phoenix Cooperative House, and before that Le Chateau)
Sofia Cooperative House (formerly Orton, before that the Goo Hut)
Syntropy Cooperative House
See also
North American Students of Cooperation (NASCO)
Northcountry Cooperative Development Fund (NCDF)
References
External links
Madison Community Cooperative official site
Madison Community Cooperative (MCC) at Online Communities Directory
"Housing Co-ops Not Limited To Students" Wisconsin State Journal article about MCC's houses
Student housing cooperatives in the United States
Residential buildings in Wisconsin
Organizations based in Madison, Wisconsin | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison%20Community%20Cooperative |
Rampage Puzzle Attack is a puzzle game for Game Boy Advance, developed by Finnish development house Ninai Games and published by Midway Games.
The game is a clone of the puzzle game Drop Mania and based on the Rampage characters. At the beginning of the game, the three characters from the original game, George, Lizzie and Ralph, are available, but more characters who appeared in other games of the series can be unlocked through the Rescue mode. The characters appear on screen during the gameplay, climbing the side of the play arena or being caged at the bottom. The game uses password saves to track player progress.
It was the first console game to be developed in Finland.
Gameplay
Gameplay-wise, the game is similar to Ninai's earlier games in the Drop Mania series and Super Puzzle Fighter II Turbo.
The basic idea is that the player drops two colored blocks at a time to the playfield. The blocks then merge into contiguous areas. When the player drops a flashing "detoblock" of matching color to touch the area, the entire area is removed and scored. This can lead to chains and combos, and to higher scores.
The game includes a single- and two-player modes. The following modes are available in single-player:
Clear mode - Includes various areas that need to be cleared to advance to the next level.
Puzzle mode - Similar to Clear mode, but there are only a limited number of blocks.
Rescue mode - A cage is added to the bottom of the playfield, and the idea is to remove the blocks on top before the time runs out.
Marathon mode - There's no set conditions of win, the game continues until it's impossible to keep going.
Two-player modes include Rescue mode, Score mode (competition for higher score) and Attack mode.
Reception
The game received "average" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.
References
External links
2001 video games
Game Boy Advance games
Game Boy Advance-only games
Midway video games
Puzzle video games
Puzzle Attack
Video games developed in Finland
Video games scored by Jonne Valtonen
Multiplayer and single-player video games | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rampage%20Puzzle%20Attack |
DJ-Kicks: Rockers Hi-Fi (also known as DJ-Kicks: The Black Album) is a DJ mix album, mixed by Rockers Hi-Fi. It was released on 19 May, 1997 on the Studio !K7 independent record label as part of the DJ-Kicks series.
The album was compiled and mixed by Rockers Hi-Fi, with additional vocals by MC Farda P.
Allmusic described the album as "a smart, thrilling ride into the minds and record collection of Rockers Hi-Fi", with an overall feel of "cinematic dub". M. Tye Comer, reviewing the album for CMJ New Music Monthly, described it as "an adventurous, entertaining, and mesmerizing record".
Track listing
"Rockers Intro" - Farda P – 0:05
"Theme From Kung Fu" - Jeff Danna – 2:15
"He Builds The World" - Small Fish with Spine – 6:20
"Feel" - Kid Loops – 5:07
"Candles & Versions" - Wraparound Sounds – 4:04
"Up Through The Down Pipe" - DJ Grizzly – 4:02
"Dub Angel" - Snooze vs DJ Cam – 1:58
"Varispeed" - Electric J – 5:40
"Callacop" - Deep Space Network – 2:59
"Long Life" - Prince Far I And The Arabs – 4:38
"Com-unique-ation" - Cee-Mix – 6:34
"Never Tell You (featuring Tikiman) - Rhythm & Sound – 5:47
"Twisted System" (Ruts D.C. Dub) - Terminalhead & Mr. Spee – 4:42
"g13" - T Power – 0:51
"Saidisyabruklinmon" - Dr. Israel vs. Loop – 4:51
"Bad Head Day" (Subtropic Cut It Up mix) - Lida Husik – 4:55
"Dis Ya One" - More Rockers – 6:32
"Rockers Outro" - Farda P – 0:30
"The Black Single" (DJ-Kicks Rockers Hi-Fi mix) - Farda P – 4:06
References
External links
DJ-Kicks website
Black Album
1997 compilation albums | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ-Kicks%3A%20The%20Black%20Album |
John Huang (, born 1945) is a major figure in the 1996 United States campaign finance controversy. He worked for Lippo Bank in California and Worthen Bank in Arkansas, and as deputy assistant secretary for international economic affairs in U.S. President Bill Clinton's Commerce Department before he became a chief fundraiser for the Democratic National Committee in 1996.
On August 12, 1999, Huang pleaded guilty to a felony conspiracy charge for violating campaign finance laws and was sentenced to one year of probation. He was also ordered by U.S. District Court to pay a $10,000 fine and serve 500 hours of community service. Prosecutors said Huang was responsible for arranging about $156,000 in illegal campaign contributions from Lippo Group employees to the Democratic Party.
Huang was born in 1945 at Nanping in Fujian. His father Huang Tizhai was a native of Wenzhou, Zhejiang and served the KMT. Huang and his father fled to Taiwan at the end of the Chinese Civil War before he eventually emigrated to the United States in 1969 to study for an M.B.A. at the University of Connecticut. After working as a loan officer at small banks around Washington D.C., Huang moved to Kentucky and Tennessee before becoming Vice President of Worthen Bank in Little Rock in 1984. He continued to work for Lippo at the same time.
References
American male criminals
Living people
Chinese Civil War refugees
People from Nanping
American people of Chinese descent
Taiwanese emigrants to the United States
Taiwanese people from Fujian
University of Connecticut alumni
1945 births | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Huang |
Man is the third solo studio album by Swedish singer Neneh Cherry, released on 2 September 1996 by Hut Records and Virgin Records. Three singles were issued from the album. Preceding the album release, a duet with Youssou N'Dour called "7 Seconds" was released as a single to promote Senegalese singer studio set The Guide. Almost two years later, the common track was added also to the Cherry's album.
Track listing
Notes
signifies an additional producer
Personnel
Neneh Cherry – vocals
Cameron McVey – Producer, beats, drums, keyboards
Louis Pavlou – percussion, drums on "Kootchi"
Gavyn Wright – string arrangements
Mark Saunders – programming
Wil Malone – string arrangements
Jonny Stephens – electric guitar, Casio
Steve "Grippa" Hopwood – guitar, backing vocals
Jonny Dollar – guitar, programming, beats, string arrangements
Paul Anthony Taylor – programming
Youssou N'Dour – vocals on "7 Seconds"
Christian "Falcon" Falk – producer, programming on "7 Seconds"
Jonas Lindgren – violin on "7 Seconds"
Kristoffer Wallman – keyboards on "7 Seconds"
Bernard Butler – guitar on "Woman"
Mickey P. Petralia – beats on "Woman"
Mike Thompson – French horn on "Woman"
Jeff Bryant – French horn on "Woman"
Bill McDonald – bass, rhythm guitar, vocals on "Kootchi"
Rich King – guitar on "Kootchi"
Eagle-Eye Cherry – piano on "Trouble Man"
Makoto Sakamoto – drums on "Hornbeam"
Rudi Lagrilliere – guitar on "Golden Ring"
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
References
1996 albums
Albums produced by Cameron McVey
Albums produced by David M. Allen
Albums produced by Jonny Dollar
Albums produced by Mark Saunders (record producer)
Alternative rock albums by Swedish artists
Hut Records albums
Neneh Cherry albums
Virgin Records albums
Worldbeat albums | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man%20%28Neneh%20Cherry%20album%29 |
Echinodorus berteroi (upright burhead or cellophane sword) is an aquatic plant species in the Alismataceae It is native to the southern and central parts of the United States, as well as Central America, the West Indies, and South America as far south as Argentina.
Description
Submersed leaves often modified into phyllodes, 10 – 45 cm long x 0.5 – 4 cm wide, linear to narrowly elliptical, of very variable shape and size, light-green, membraneously transparent, network between the veins often lighter or darker, thus the submersed leaves often appearing mosaic-like coloured. Emerse leaves long-petioled, 5 – 55 cm long, blades light-green, cordate, 5 – 12 cm long x 3 – 5 cm wide, in terrestrial dwarf forms the blades are ovate, truncate at the base, 2 – 5 cm long x 1 – 2 cm wide. In the blades there are very clear pellucid lines 1 – 5 mm (exceptionally up to 11 mm) long. Stem upright, inflorescence compound, branched in lower whorls. In terrestrial forms stem only 6 – 10 cm long. Corolla white, about 1.5 cm in diameter, stamens 12, achenes numerous in echinate head, nutlets grey-brown, 2.5 - 3.5 mm long x 1 - 1.3 mm wide, broadly keeled, with 2 winged ribs alternating with 3 non-winged ribs; facial gland single, close to the beak, indistinct or quite absent. Mature specimens may have between 10 - 30 leaves. most of them differing in shape and size.
Cultivation
Prefers a larger tank with a deep, rich substrate and good light. It is easy to grow but will soon outgrow the average aquarium. Can be divided, or in submerse plants, adventitious plantlets will form on the inflorescence and can be divided and planted out. Seed will be set in emerse plants, and can be planted out in shallow trays with sand and shallow warm water. Prefers soft, rather acid water. Sub-tropical to tropical temperatures. It doesn't seem to thrive in hard water. Will grow in and by the pond in warmer regions, but must be protected from frost.
References
External links
Missouri plants
California flora
USDA
Ohio
berteroi
Freshwater plants
Flora of the United States
Flora of the Caribbean
Flora of Mexico
Flora of Central America
Flora of Southern America
Plants described in 1825
Flora without expected TNC conservation status | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodorus%20berteroi |
Triolet is a medium-sized town in the north of Mauritius, found in the district of Pamplemousses. It lies exactly 11 kilometres from Port Louis, the capital of the island. The town is nestled amidst green sugarcane fields, near the north-western coast of the island. As per the 2016 population census, Triolet had 24 073 inhabitants and a population density of 2764 inhabitants per km2, over an area of 8.71 m2. The population density is higher than that of the township of Vacoas-Phoenix which is at 1948 inhabitants per km2.
To the north of Triolet lie Trou-aux-Biches, Mont Choisy and Grand Baie which are coastal villages, while to its west are Pointe-aux-Piments and Balaclava. On the south lies Arsenal and to the east are Morcellement St André and Plaine des Papayes.
Economy
The economy of Triolet has historically mostly been agricultural. Like other agglomerations in Mauritius, it was largely set up from Indian origin Indentured workers and African slaves working on the sugar estates around, the latest of which to shut down was the Solitude estate. With time the population has evolved and many of the indentured workers evolved to small planters and land-owners. Following the diversification policies of the 70's, 80's and 90's sizeable parts of the population moved to manufacturing and tourism. Recently a significant portion of the population has also gone into the civil service and service sectors, especially IT and Finance.
Infrastructure
Triolet has a main road that is almost perfectly straight, which goes all the way to the north-western coastal village and popular tourist resort Grand Baie. Along this main road most of the infrastructure has developed. It has mostly parallel secondary roads that cross at right-angles.
There is a village hall where political and administrative decisions are taken, a women's centre and a youth centre. Triolet has most government services operations represented, including Police, Fire Station, Post Office, National Pensions Office and Social Security Office. A government library can also be found, behind the Social Welfare centre. It is sometimes referred to as the CLAP. Although the library is stocked with classical authors, the collection is not thorough and well-arranged. However, the library has a poor collection of modern fiction, which is often a cause of complaint. The library is frequented by students of the nearby schools.
It also has three government primary schools and various private primary schools. It has two state secondary schools, Lady Sushil Ramgoolam State Secondary School, Triolet State Secondary School for Boys, and one private secondary school, the International College.
Lately, various banks have opened in Triolet, with nearly every bank on the island having a branch there. There are various major department stores such as Courts Ltd, J Kalachand Ltd, Galaxy Ltd.
Infrastructural developments include a children's playground and market situated in the Bon-Air road which leads to Morcellement St. Andre.
Triolet has one football field the Rabindranath Ghurburrun Stadium that is used for local football tournaments. This is not really a stadium as it is not regularly maintained and has little or no seating arrangements.
A sports complex is believed to be planned to cater for the lack of sports facilities in the village.
Etymology
The word "Triolet" has its origins in a very specific type of French poem, before the French renaissance. Un "Triolet", a "Triplet" in English, denotes a very specific type of poem. Triolet is the oldest and simplest form of poetry that was used during the golden age of lyric poetry.
The Triolet is also a method for timekeeping in western classical music, where the time-scale of a note is divided into 3 distinctive divisions (rather than into 2), which may or may not be of equal length. Their being three, gives rise to the word Triolet, the French equivalent of triplet. This is demonstrated in the article on the western music.
Localities
1. Solitude
This locality is the region at the southernmost of the town, named thus as it used to be a very isolated location, hence the name "solitude", French for "loneliness". It is also where the Solitude Lake is located, a place where many of the town's children and sometimes older people like to go fishing, the locally called "Tilapia" being the most common fish in the lake.
2. 7th Mile
This is the region near the south of the town, where the milestone marking the exact distance of from the capital Port Louis is found.
3. Montagne Chatte
This locality lies slightly further north of 7th mile.
4.Brahmasthan
This region is marked by a Mandir (Temple) where the remains of an indentured labourer were cremated. It was believed that an indentured labourer who had wanted to return home to India was murdered by the landowners so that he would not need to be paid a huge sum. After his demise a number of unfathomable incidents occurred after which a cremation ceremony had to be organised to pacify his soul. He was of the Brahmin caste, hence the name Brahmsthan, from Brahmin-sthaan, or death place of a Brahmin.
5. Cinema Cassé
North from 7th mile, there used to be a cinema here. Upon the destruction of the cinema this region due to an incident inside the cinema it was named cinéma cassé, literally, "broken cinema".
6. Derningham
This locality was originally named Darlingham. This proved quite difficult to pronounce for the town people who mainly speaks creole and, in the distant past used to speak their respective countries of origin's languages. They used to pronounce Daarling, which became Daarning. From there, the name became Derningham, as it is still used today.
7. Margaret Hall/JSS Square
On the cross-roads leading to the Lady Sushil Ramgoolam SSS lies an empty plot of land where there once was a hall known as Margaret Hall. While the hall is gone, elders remember the place as Margaret Hall. This area is currently called JSS square after the state secondary school which used to be called Junior Secondary School (JSS).
8. T.B.S. Lane
The Triolet Bus Service has its headquarters here, and hence the lane and the region around is known as T.B.S lane.
9. Chemin Japonais/Chemin Pointe-aux-Piments
The road leading to the village of Pointe-aux-Piments used to be called hemin Japonais. It has been renamed Shrimati Indira Gandhi Road but it is popularly known as Chemin Pointe-aux-Piments, thus the road to Pointe-aux-Piments.
10. 8th mile
This region is named after the milestone that marks exactly from Port Louis, the capital.
11. Anand Square
At this location is a disused cinema hall known as Anand Cinema. Currently in renovation since 2007, it has given its name to the area around it.
12. Camp Lila
Located along the road to pointe-aux-piments, this is a densely populated area.
13. Camp Sada
14. Camp Moti
15. Trois-Boutiques
At this point there used to be three different shops at each side of a cross-road, hence the name Trois-Boutiques, three shops.
16. 9th Mile
This is the point of the milestone marking exactly Miles from Port Louis. The milestone can be seen right beside the wall of Dhaneswock Sewraz Govt school, adjacent to the pedestrian crossing.
17. Terminus
This place is where the historical Maheswarnath Mandir is located as well as where the T.B.S. has its bus terminal. In French, Terminus.
18. Trou-aux-Biches Road
This is the region around the road that leads to Trou-aux-Biches.
19. Chemin 20 pieds
Further north from the Terminus region lies a large road that leads straight to Grand Baie. This road it is believed was constructed by the English and was used in 1810 during the battle against the French who were occupying the country before 1810.This road was used by the English to reach Port Louis easily through Cap Malheureux, where they landed by ships. While most main roads are wide, this road was made , hence the name "chemin 20 pieds" the " wide road"
Landmarks
Triolet is recognizable by four main landmarks:
1. The Solitude Lake, a freshwater lake formed from a natural water source at its south, in the region known as Solitude.
2. The chimney tower of the old Solitude Sugar Mill.
3. The sugarcane mill chimney at Bon Air
3. The Maheshwarnath Mandir (Hindu Temple) located near its northernmost tip.
The Maheshwarnath Temple legend
According to legend during the town's main Hindu temple's construction a huge pot of gold and silver coins were found buried on the very spot where the temple was being made. It is believed by many that this gold must have belonged to Indian Ocean pirates from the previous century, who used to attack east Indian company ships for their gold and other precious goods. The money found was then used for the construction of the temple.
The first Maha Shivratree Pilgrimage
The presence the Maheshwarnath Temple, the largest of its kind on the island, contributes to the religious significance of the village. The village is believed to be the starting point for the first-ever Mahashivaratree pilgrimage. The pilgrimage began when a resident of Triolet had a vision of a sacred lake surrounded by dense forestry.
A group of sages, set out on a journey inland in search for this lake. They discovered the Ganga Talao, also known as the Grand-Bassin (literally: the big lake). With time, this has given a major significance to the Mahashivratri festival on the island and people from several Hindu Traditions on the island annually converge to this sacred river, the local equivalent of the Ganges River.
Lore
Triolet is largest village in Mauritius by population as well as area.
Triolet is the longest village in Mauritius, stretching nearly three miles, from Solitude to Trou-aux-Biches.
Politics
Triolet is part of the main axis of the Electoral Constituency Number 5 (Triolet-Pamplemousses). It was traditionally a fortress of the Ramgoolam political dynasty, and a pro-Mauritius Labour Party constituency. However, a significant portion of its population also support the Jugnauth dynasty. The various groups that confront each other in village elections bear more or less allegiance to one of these two main parties.
In the 2014 general elections, the Prime Minister at that time, Dr. Ramgoolam, lost his seat at the assembly as he lost the elections in constituency number five.
References
SEWTOHUL N, (1991), L'île Maurice à travers ses villages: l'histoire du village de Triolet.
Pamplemousses District
Populated places in Mauritius | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triolet%2C%20Mauritius |
Črnomelj (; in older sources also Černomelj, ) is a town in southeastern Slovenia. It is the seat of the Municipality of Črnomelj. It lies on the left bank of the Lahinja and Dobličica rivers. The municipality is at the heart of the area of White Carniola, the southeastern part of the traditional region of Lower Carniola. It is now included in the Southeast Slovenia Statistical Region. It includes the hamlets of Čardak, Kočevje, Kozji Plac, Loka, and Nova Loka.
Name
Črnomelj was first attested in written sources in 1228 as Schirnomel (and as Zernomel in 1263, Zermenli in 1277, and Tscherneml in 1490). The name is derived from *Čьrnomľь, based on the hypocorism *Čьrnomъ, thus originally meaning 'Črnom's settlement'. In the modern German the name was Tschernembl.
Until 1918, the Austro-Hungarian postal service used the bilingual names Tschernembl – Černomelj. The German name alone was used by the postal service before 1867.
History
Prehistory
Archaeological evidence has shown that the area has been settled since from the late Bronze Age onwards with the settlement gradually developing through the Iron Age. The exact year of the destruction of the Iron Age settlement by Romans is not known. Evidence indicates that it was destroyed either during Octavians campaign against the Illyrians between 35 and 33 BC, Tiberius's campaign in Pannonia in 12 to 9 BC, or in the Great Illyrian revolt of 6 to 9 AD; that is, in the time span between 35 BC and 9 AD.
Middle Ages
It was first mentioned as Schirnomel in written documents dating to 1228, in a charter issued by the Patriarch of Aquileia. Before 1277 it was granted market rights and developed into a regional center. It was mentioned as a town in 1407, and so it presumably gained town privileges prior to that, but it is regularly mentioned as a market even after that. During the 16th century it held an important military position as one of the centers for organizing supplies for the military frontier. After the establishment of Karlovac in what is now Croatia in 1579, it lost that position.
Črnomelj was also the home of a powerful noble family of von Tschernembl. Mentioned for the first time in 1267, they gradually achieved important posts in the Habsburg nobility of Carniola. During the 15th century they expanded their influence and one of the heads of the family, Georg von Tschernembl, held the positions of Captain of Triest and Captain of Styria, one of the most important lands of Habsburgs. In the 16th century they joined the Protestant nobility of Inner Austria and in 1564 Hans von Tschernembl sold their numerous holdings in Carniola and moved to Upper Austria. There the most important and known member of the family was born in 1567, Georg Erasmus von Tschernembl, an important political leader of the Protestant nobility of Upper and Lower Austria. After his death in 1626, the family became Catholic again and regained their lost possessions in Upper Austria. The last male member of the family died in 1667, but through numerous female members their bloodline continued into some of the royal houses of today's Europe. They served as an example of ruined nobility of 18th century for the German writer Gottlieb August Crüwell (de) and his work Schönwiesen, printed in Berlin in 1911.
Modern history
Until 1918, the town was part of the Austrian monarchy (the Austria side after the compromise of 1867). It was the seat of the district of the same name, and one of the 11 Bezirkshauptmannschaften in the province of Carniola.
Mass grave
Črnomelj is the site of a mass grave associated with the Second World War. The Parish Shed Mass Grave () is located north of town on the edge of a small sinkhole in the woods. It contains the remains of undetermined victims.
Landmarks
The parish church in the town is dedicated to Saint Peter and belongs to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Novo Mesto.
The current building was built in the 17th century on the site of a 13th-century church. There are two other churches in the town. One, dedicated to Saint Sebastian, is mentioned as a chapel in the early 16th century, but was extended into a church in 1646 after an outbreak of the plague. It was restored in 1904 and in 1963. The second is dedicated to the Holy Spirit and is a Gothic building first mentioned in documents dating to 1487, but frequently restyled, most recently in 1895. It is built on top of prehistoric and Roman occupation layers.
A monument in the town is dedicated to fallen Partisans. It stands on a small hill called Griček. It is the work of Marko Župančič with sculptures by Jakob Savinšek.
Gallery
Culture
The town is home to Slovenian football club Bela Krajina Črnomelj.
Notable people
Jasmin Kurtić (born 1989) footballer
References
External links
Črnomelj on Geopedia
Črnomelj municipal site
Populated places in the Municipality of Črnomelj
Cities and towns in White Carniola | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Crnomelj |
Šmarje pri Jelšah (; ) is a town in eastern Slovenia. It is the seat of the Municipality of Šmarje pri Jelšah. The area is part of the traditional region of Styria. The municipality is now included in the Savinja Statistical Region. The development of the settlement is associated with a medieval mansion known as Jelšingrad on a slight hill northwest of the town.
The local parish church is dedicated to the Assumption of Mary () and belongs to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Maribor. It dates to the late 13th century with 18th- and 19th-century additions.
The best-known landmark near the town is Saint Roch's Church in the settlement of Predenca south of the town and the series of chapels representing Calvary and the Stations of the Cross on the path leading up to the church from the town.
References
External links
Šmarje pri Jelšah on Geopedia
Populated places in the Municipality of Šmarje pri Jelšah | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0marje%20pri%20Jel%C5%A1ah |
Mendeed was a Scottish heavy metal band formed in Dumbarton, in 2000 and disbanded in 2007.
History
The band's members met at school in Dumbarton. In 2002 they self-released their first EP Killing Something Beautiful. In 2003 the band released their second EP As We Rise.
In December 2003 Mendeed signed a recording contract with UK Label Rising Records. The band's first release on that label was an EP From Shadows Came Darkness in September 2004. It was produced by Mark Daghorn. Mendeed's music was played on rock radio stations. The band toured, supporting DragonForce twice.
In December 2004 the video Ignite the Flames was added to the playlists of MTV2 shows Headbangers Ball and 120 Minutes, and the catalogue of Scuzz TV.
Mendeed released their first album This War Will Last Forever in 2005 on Rising Records. In 2006 the album was released again by Nuclear Blast, at which point Mendeed were nominated for "Best Newcomer" at both the Kerrang and Metal Hammer Awards. The band also contributed to Kerrang's Remastered: Master of Puppets Revisited album, covering Metallica's song "The Thing That Should Not Be". This earned them a Gold Disc at the Kerrang Awards in 2006.
Mendeed toured with such names as Anthrax, Cradle of Filth, Napalm Death, Fear Factory and played dates with Avenged Sevenfold, Slipknot, Skindred, Bleeding Through and Trivium. They also headlined their own tour in between dates supporting other bands, and performed on the Gibson/MySpace Stage at Download in 2006.
Their second album The Dead Live By Love was released in February 2007 debuting at no.4 in the British Rock charts. The band split up in 2007. After the split, lead guitarist Steve Nixon joined the Welsh Metalcore band Anterior.
Band members
Final lineup
Dave Proctor – vocals (2000–2007)
Steve Nixon – lead guitar (2000–2007)
Steph Gildea – rhythm guitar (2000–2007)
Chris Lavery – bass (2000–2007)
Kevin Matthews - drums (2000–2007)
Discography
Albums
EPs
Singles
Other
"The Thing That Should Not Be" (Metallica Cover)
To celebrate the 20th anniversary of Metallica's Master of Puppets album in August 2006, Kerrang magazine selected Mendeed to contribute to a tribute album. They opted to record "The Thing That Should Not Be". The CD, titled Remastered: Master of Puppets Revisited, was given away free with the magazine. Other artists selected to cover songs on the album were Machine Head, Trivium, Bullet for My Valentine, Chimaira, Fightstar, Mastodon and Funeral for a Friend.
References
External links
Mendeed's MySpace
Kevin Matthews Official myspace
Scottish metalcore musical groups
Scottish death metal musical groups
Musical groups established in 2000
Musical groups disestablished in 2007
Scottish musical quintets
Nuclear Blast artists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendeed |
The Municipality of Gorenja Vas–Poljane (; ) is a municipality in Slovenia. Its administrative seat is Gorenja Vas.
Settlements
In addition to the municipal seat of Gorenja Vas, the municipality also includes the following settlements:
Bačne
Brebovnica
Bukov Vrh
Čabrače
Četena Ravan
Debeni
Delnice
Dobje
Dobravšce
Dolenčice
Dolenja Dobrava
Dolenja Ravan
Dolenja Žetina
Dolenje Brdo
Dolge Njive
Fužine
Goli Vrh
Gorenja Dobrava
Gorenja Ravan
Gorenja Žetina
Gorenje Brdo
Hlavče Njive
Hobovše pri Stari Oselici
Hotavlje
Hotovlja
Jarčje Brdo
Javorje
Javorjev Dol
Jazbine
Jelovica
Kladje
Kopačnica
Kremenik
Krivo Brdo
Krnice pri Novakih
Lajše
Laniše
Laze
Leskovica
Lom nad Volčo
Lovsko Brdo
Lučine
Malenski Vrh
Mlaka nad Lušo
Murave
Nova Oselica
Podgora
Podjelovo Brdo
Podobeno
Podvrh
Poljane nad Škofjo Loko
Predmost
Prelesje
Robidnica
Smoldno
Sovodenj
Srednja Vas–Poljane
Srednje Brdo
Stara Oselica
Studor
Suša
Todraž
Trebija
Vinharje
Volaka
Volča
Žabja Vas
Zadobje
Zakobiljek
Zapreval
Žirovski Vrh Svetega Antona
Žirovski Vrh Svetega Urbana
Notable people
Notable people born in the municipality include:
Anton Ažbe (1862–1905), painter and educator
Miha Krek (1897–1969), conservative politician
Ignatius Mrak (1818–1901), Slovenian American Roman Catholic missionary and prelate
Ivan Tavčar (1851–1923), writer and Liberal politician
Aleš Ušeničnik (1868–1952), Neo-Thomist philosopher
References
External links
Municipality of Gorenja Vas–Poljane on Geopedia
1994 establishments in Slovenia
Gorenja Vas-Poljane | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipality%20of%20Gorenja%20Vas%E2%80%93Poljane |
The International Snowboard Federation was a body organised to run snowboarding competition.
The International Snowboard Association (ISA) was founded in 1989 and changed its name to the International Snowboard Federation (ISF) in 1991. Five nations and 120 racers established the Vancouver-based organisation. It sought to bring the world's best competitors together to test their skills in an environment which embraced competitiveness, but stressed the idea of having fun. The ISF eventually attracted riders of varying ages and abilities, which allowed one-time rising stars such as Terje Håkonsen, Daniel Franck and Danny Kass to sharpen their skills at an early age on their way to joining the professional ranks. The ISF set the standard for snowboarding competition, which contributed to the development of it as an Olympic sport in the 1998 Winter Olympics.
In a controversial move, the International Olympic Committee recognized the International Ski Federation (FIS) as the sport's official governing body. Three-time world champion Terje Håkonsen boycotted the Olympics as a result of the FIS being appointed to oversee the officiating. Other riders followed in Håkonsen's footsteps and concluded FIS rules to be inappropriate for snowboarding. The FIS has maintained its control over the Olympics, giving credence to the position that snowboarding is a discipline of skiing and not its own, individual sport.
Although the ISF continued to represent snowboarding on an international level, it began to lose influence, sponsors and finances to the FIS, and ceased operations on 22 June 2002. Later that year, the World Snowboard Federation (WSF) was formed. Twenty years later, FIS changed their official full name to the International Ski and Snowboard Federation.
Former members
Pro Snowboarders Associations
National Snowboard Associations
Snowboard Industry
Resorts Associations
References
External links
World Snowboard Federation - WSF
Snowboarding organizations
Snowboarding
Sports organizations established in 1989
Sports organizations disestablished in 2002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Snowboard%20Federation |
The Municipality of Lukovica (; ) is a municipality in the eastern part of the Upper Carniola region in Slovenia. The seat of the municipality is Lukovica pri Domžalah. It lies on the main road from Ljubljana to Celje and has been an independent municipality since 1994.
Settlements
In addition to the municipal seat of Lukovica pri Domžalah, the municipality also includes the following settlements:
Blagovica
Brdo pri Lukovici
Brezovica pri Zlatem Polju
Bršlenovica
Čeplje
Češnjice
Dupeljne
Gabrje pod Špilkom
Golčaj
Gorenje
Gradišče pri Lukovici
Hribi
Imovica
Javorje pri Blagovici
Jelša
Kompolje
Koreno
Korpe
Krajno Brdo
Krašnja
Lipa
Log
Mala Lašna
Mali Jelnik
Obrše
Podgora pri Zlatem Polju
Podmilj
Podsmrečje
Poljane nad Blagovico
Preserje pri Lukovici
Preserje pri Zlatem Polju
Prevalje
Prevoje
Prevoje pri Šentvidu
Prilesje
Prvine
Rafolče
Selce
Šentožbolt
Šentvid pri Lukovici
Spodnje Koseze
Spodnje Loke
Spodnje Prapreče
Spodnji Petelinjek
Straža
Suša
Trnjava
Trnovče
Trojane
Učak
V Zideh
Veliki Jelnik
Videm pri Lukovici
Vošce
Vranke
Vrba
Vrh nad Krašnjo
Vrhovlje
Zavrh pri Trojanah
Zgornje Loke
Zgornje Prapreče
Zgornji Petelinjek
Žirovše
Zlatenek
Zlato Polje
References
External links
Municipality of Lukovica on Geopedia
Lukovica
1994 establishments in Slovenia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipality%20of%20Lukovica |
Ilirska Bistrica (; ; , before 1927: Bisterza, Hungarian: Illírbeszterce) is a town in the Inner Carniola region of southwestern Slovenia. It is the administrative seat of the Municipality of Ilirska Bistrica.
Name
The name Ilirska Bistrica means 'Illyrian Bistrica', it has its origin during the times of the Austrian Empire, when the area was part of the Kingdom of Illyria, an administrative unit between 1816 and 1849. The adjective Ilirska () was added to the old name Bistrica (Feistritz), differentiating it from other towns in the general area such as Feistritz im Rosental () or Slovenska Bistrica ().
The town's coat of arms represents the history of the region, recalling the pre-Slavic Illyrian people that once populated the area, along with their shipbuilding past. The town's current coat of arms was adopted in the mid-19th century and is only a slight modification of the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Illyria.
Geography
The town centre is located on the ancient road from Postojna and Pivka to Rijeka on the Adriatic coast. It is situated in the valley of the Reka River, on the steep rim of the densely wooded Snežnik plateau in the northeast. In the southwest, the Brkini Hills form the natural border with the Slovene Littoral (Slovene Istria) historical region.
History
In the 12th century a fortress was erected at the site of a prehistoric settlement on a hill east of the town centre, when the area was part of the Imperial March of Carniola. The castle later was held by the Counts of Duino, from the 14th century onwards by the princely House of Auersperg in Postojna.
The settlement of Ilirska Bistrica itself was first mentioned about 1300; its advantageous location, the surrounding karst springs and extended forests promoted the economic development of numerous sawmills and a flourishing timber trade from the early 15th century onwards. Located in the Duchy of Carniola the town for centuries was part of the Habsburg monarchy. In the 19th century, the Ilirska Bistrica wood merchants mainly supplied the Austrian seaports of Trieste and Rijeka. In 1873 a railway line was opened by the Austrian Southern Railway company, running from Pivka and the Southern Railway line via the Ilirska Bistrica railway station to the coastal cities of Opatija and Rijeka.
Within the last 100 years, the town's history has been primarily shaped by the nations that it has belonged to. Ilirska Bistrica became part of the Austrian part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1867, it was annexed by the Kingdom of Italy in 1920, it became part of Yugoslavia after World War II, and today it belongs to independent Slovenia. Remnants of these various states can still be seen in numerous monuments, the railway station, and the Italian barracks from the Second World War.
During last days of World War II, the 97th Army Corps under command of German General der Gebirgstruppe Ludwig Kübler were defending the defensive area between Rijeka and Mount Snežnik, also known as Ingridstellung or defensive line Ingrid. Their task was to halt the Yugoslav advance toward Trieste and Ljubljana, threatening the rear of both Army Groups C and E.
The 97th Army Corps became encircled in area around Ilirska Bistrica and Mount Snežnik, when Tito ordered the 4th Army to bypass the 97th Corps and capture Trieste. Only after the Partisans captured Trieste was the 97th Corps ordered to break through toward Iliriska Bistrica, Postojna, and Ljubljana. The breakthrough began on the night of May 2 in a hedgehog formation. During May 5 and 6, the corps managed to capture Iliriska Bistrica, but further advance become impossible and on May 7 at 6:04 am a capitulation was signed. Around 16,000 soldiers, 40 senior officers, and three generals become prisoners of war. Captured equipment included 31 tanks, 841 artillery pieces, 536 mortars, 1,670 machine-guns, 2,468 light machine-guns, and 716 various motor vehicles.
The neighboring village of Trnovo was annexed by Ilirska Bistrica in 1952.
On June 27, 1991, during the Ten-Day War, the Slovenian Territorial Defence blocked the road connecting Rijeka and its 13th Infantry Corps of Yugoslav People's Army with the interior of Slovenia. Later on the same day, the Slovenian Territorial Defence launched an attack on a Yugoslav People's Army column in Koseze near Ilirska Bistrica. After fierce fighting between the Slovenian Territorial Defence and Yugoslav People's Army, the Yugoslav People's Army retreated. The battle resulted in three dead Yugoslav People's Army soldiers and several wounded soldiers on both sides.
Mass graves
Ilirska Bistrica is the site of two known mass graves from the Second World War. The Stražica Mass Grave (), also known as the Black Fields Mass Grave (), is located north of the town, about north of the summit of Stražica Hill. It contained the remains of German soldiers from the 97th Corps that fell at the beginning of May 1945. The grave has been exhumed. The Cemetery Mass Grave () is located next to the town cemetery. It contains the remains of 82 German soldiers buried in a former firing trench. An asphalt road and parking lot were laid over the grave when the cemetery was expanded. On August 1, 2023, a rare tornado touched down in Ilirska Bistrica, Slovenia, damaging houses and felling trees.
Notable people
Dragotin Kette (1876–1899), poet
(1913–1983), Yugoslav Partisan hero, later general-colonel in People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia
(1903–1999), historian
Dragan Živadinov (born 1960), theatre director
Church
The parish church in the town is dedicated to Saint Peter and belongs to the Koper Diocese. It stands in the former village of Trnovo. A second church in the town is dedicated to Saint George.
Recreation
The town is used by tourists and trekkers as a starting point for travelling to the top of the Snežnik Plateau, a day-long round trip from Ilirska Bistrica. At , the plateau's highest peak, Big Mount Snežnik (), is the highest non-Alpine peak in Slovenia.
Sports
Basketball
Ilirska Bistrica is the hometown of the KK Plama Pur basketball club, which competes in the Slovenian Second Basketball League.
Football
Ilirska Bistrica is the hometown of the NK Ilirska Bistrica football club, which competes in the Slovenian Third League.
Other sports
Ilirska Bistrica also has several other clubs and associations, such as the Ilirska Bistrica Handball Club, several karate clubs, and an archery club.
References
External links
Ilirska Bistrica on Geopedia
Ilirska Bistrica municipal site
Populated places in the Municipality of Ilirska Bistrica
Cities and towns in the Slovene Littoral | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilirska%20Bistrica |
Thousand Families Study was a major epidemiological study, that arose through observations made by Sir James Spence, one of the first ever full-time paediatricians in the United Kingdom, and from 1942, the first holder of a University Chair of Child Health in England.
Prior to the Second World War, Newcastle City Council became increasingly concerned about the high infant mortality rate in the city (in 1939 the rate was 62 per 1000 live births) and asked Spence to undertake a review of all deaths of babies. Spence concluded that the excess infant mortality was due to death from acute infection. Further research was curtailed by the Second World War.
The Start of the Newcastle Thousand Families Study
At the end of the war, the young doctors began to return to take up their former careers. One of those was Fred Miller and in 1946 Spence is reported to have said to him at a weekly departmental meeting "Well Freddie, what are we going to do about all these infections?". So began the Thousand Families Study.
The study was initially planned for only one year and aimed to confirm the earlier finding that acute infection was the major cause of infant mortality in the city, and in particular identify which factors put infants at a higher risk of such infections. In addition, it also aimed to place the health of the infants within the context of the family.
The study focused on all births in Newcastle in May and June 1947, an actual total of 1142 babies. The medical records of the participants were marked with a red sticker and the study is also popularly known as the Red Spot Study.
Several publications document the study:-
A Thousand Families in Newcastle upon Tyne by James Spence, W S Walton, F J W Miller and S D M Court, OUP, 1954 [This covers the first year of life]
Growing up in Newcastle upon Tyne by F J W Miller, S D M Court, W S Walton and E G Knox, OUP, 1960 [Pre-school years]
The School Years in Newcastle upon Tyne, 1952 - 1962 by F J W Miller, S D M Cour, E G Knox and S Brandon, OUP, 1974.
Ongoing study
The study went on in detail until 1962. After this date follow-ups of some of the participants were conducted when they reached the age of 22 and 33. A major follow-up, with all participants invited, was conducted when the participants reached the age of 50. A range of health outcomes including cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, diabetes, Helicobacter pylori, depression, telomere length, lung function and teeth were assessed in relation to the data collected at that follow-up and also that collected in previous follow-ups. this resulted in the study being a study of lifecourse epidemiology. The 60th anniversary of the study was marked by an exhibition at Newcastle's Discovery Museum and a civic reception hosted by the mayor of Newcastle. A further follow-up of the study members is being planned.
The records of the 1,000 Families Study are preserved at Tyne & Wear Archives Service.
Direction
The study is directed by Dr Mark Pearce of Newcastle University.
References
Epidemiological study projects
Newcastle upon Tyne
Social statistics data | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thousand%20Families%20Study%2C%20Newcastle%20upon%20Tyne |
Hattil Spencer "Harry" Foll (30 May 1890 – 7 July 1977) was an Australian politician who served as a Senator for Queensland from 1917 to 1947. He took office at the age of 27, and at the time was the youngest person to serve in the Senate. Foll began his career in the Nationalist Party, later joining the United Australia Party (UAP) in 1931 and Liberal Party in 1945. He held ministerial office as Minister for Repatriation (1937–1938), Minister for Health (1938–1939), Minister for the Interior (1939–1941), and Minister for Information (1940–1941). He was a member of the War Cabinet during World War II.
Early life
Foll was born in West Brixton, London, England, the second child of Kate (née Lamb) and John Hattil Foll. He disliked his given name (taken from an obscure Old Testament figure), and was always known as "Harry". Foll grew up in Clapham, attending Holy Trinity and Clapham College. He immigrated to Australia in 1909, and subsequently worked on a station near Longreach in western Queensland. A year later moved to Beenleigh, to work as a bookkeeper, and in 1911 he became a clerk in the Queensland Government Railways. In August 1914, Foll enlisted in the first Australian Imperial Force and landed on the first day of the Gallipoli campaign. He was wounded in the head and leg on 19 May and was discharged medically unfit in February 1916. He married Evelyn Bush Mousley in December 1915 and they had a son (who died in infancy) and four daughters. He worked briefly as secretary to the state Minister for Railways.
Political career
Foll was elected to the Senate at the 1917 federal election as a Nationalist candidate. He and John Lister were the first returned servicemen from World War I to be elected to federal parliament, although Lister took his seat first. He was 26 years at the time of his election, and 27 when his term began on 1 July 1917. He remained the youngest-ever senator until 1990, when Bill O'Chee (another Queenslander) was appointed at the age of 24. Foll served continuously in the Senate until 1947, and from 1938 to 1947 he and Thomas Crawford were the joint Fathers of the Senate. He was a senator for 30 years; only six others have served for longer periods.
Foll served as Chief Senate Whip for the Nationalists from 1926 to 1931. He became a member of the United Australia Party when it was formed from the shell of the Nationalist Party in 1931. He unsuccessfully stood for President of the Senate in 1935. From 1938 until 1941, Foll served as a cabinet minister during the Prime Ministerships of Lyons, Menzies, Page and Fadden. He was Minister in Charge of War Service Homes from November 1937 until November 1938, Minister for Repatriation from November 1937 to April 1939, Minister for Health from November 1938 to April 1939, Minister for the Interior from April 1939 to October 1941 and Minister for Information from December 1940 to the fall of the Fadden government in October 1941. In 1939, Foll delivered a formal ministerial statement on the outbreak of the Second World War to the Senate, and announced the formation of the War Cabinet of which he became a member.
In 1942, Foll enlisted in the Volunteer Defence Corps, putting his age back by one year. He continued to attend Senate sittings, for which he was granted leave without pay from the corps. Foll joined the Joint Committee on Social Security and the Committee on Censorship in 1944. The following year, he acted as Leader of the Opposition in the Senate in the absence of John Leckie, who himself had been substituting for George McLeay. Foll failed to win preselection from the Queensland People's Party (the state branch of the Liberal Party) prior to the 1946 federal election. His term ended on 1 July 1947.
Foll came into conflict with fellow Queensland senator Thomas Crawford, in part due to their respective claims to the title "Father of the Senate". In July 1941, Crawford "delivered a character assassination of Foll" in the Senate chamber, alleging a conflict of interest between Foll's business interests and his membership of the War Cabinet. Foll responded by attacking Crawford's poor attendance record and his association with the Australian Sugar Producers' Association, and alleging that he had authored anonymous defamatory letters. In October 1946, Foll took out a writ of defamation against Crawford in the Supreme Court of Queensland. The case was settled out of court in 1948, with Crawford paying Foll's costs.
Later life
After leaving parliament, Foll became a grazier near Armidale, New South Wales. He wrote to Menzies complaining of financial difficulties and asked for employment to be found within the Liberal Party organisation, but none was forthcoming. He retired to Port Macquarie in 1957, and died there on 7 July 1977 at the age of 87; he was granted a state funeral. He was the last surviving member of parliament elected at the 1917 election.
References
1890 births
1977 deaths
Members of the Cabinet of Australia
Members of the Australian Senate
Members of the Australian Senate for Queensland
Nationalist Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Australia
United Australia Party members of the Parliament of Australia
Liberal Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Australia
20th-century Australian politicians
English emigrants to Australia
People from Brixton
Australian Ministers for Health
Australian military personnel of World War I
Volunteer Defence Corps soldiers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Foll |
Metlika (; ) is a town in southeastern Slovenia. It is the seat of the Municipality of Metlika. It lies on the left bank of the Kolpa River on the border with Croatia. It is in the heart of the area of White Carniola, the southeastern part of the traditional region of Lower Carniola. It is now included in the Southeast Slovenia Statistical Region.
Name
Metlika was first mentioned in written sources in 1228 as Metlica (and as Methlica in 1268 and Metlika in 1337). The name is derived from the Slovene common noun metlika 'goosefoot', thus referring to the local flora. In the past the German name was Möttling.
History
Archaeological evidence has shown that the area has been settled since prehistoric times. From about 1205 it was incorporated into the Imperial March of Carniola and was granted town privileges in 1335. It was frequently attacked during Ottoman raids in the 15th and 16th centuries. In the 17th century it was afflicted by an earthquake and in 1705 the entire town burned to the ground in a massive fire.
Metlika Castle is an originally 15th-century castle located above the old part of the town. It was rebuilt in the early 18th century after the town fire and again after it was damaged for a second time by fire in 1790. The castle was seized after the Second World War and converted into a local museum. The museum includes the Kambič Gallery, with paintings by Slovene artists.
The parish church in the town is dedicated to Saint Nicholas and belongs to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Novo Mesto. It was built on the site of a 14th-century building after the fire of 1705 in the Baroque style. Bishop Frederic Baraga worked here as a curate for several years before he left for the US and Canada.
Other churches in the town are dedicated to Saint Martin, also built in the 18th century, and Saint Roch, built in 1858. There is also a Greek Catholic church, one of only two churches of this rite in Slovenia. It was built in 1903 and is dedicated to Saints Cyril and Methodius.
References
External links
Metlika on Geopedia
Populated places in the Municipality of Metlika
Croatia–Slovenia border crossings
Cities and towns in White Carniola | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metlika |
Brad Rowe (born 23 November 1969) is a former Australian rules footballer who played in the Australian Football League (AFL). He played 72 games in total for three clubs, and kicked 80 goals.
Recruited from East Fremantle, Rowe was drafted by Brisbane as a first-round draft pick in the 1989 National Draft, no.5 overall. He played two seasons for only 14 games at the Bears before being traded to Collingwood. Rowe spent his best seasons of his career at the Pies between 1992–1995, as a quick goal-kicking small forward. He was accurate in front of goals, but consistency was his main problem in his later seasons. He kicked goals occasionally, including a bag of 6 goals one day at Victoria Park against Sydney. He then moved back to Perth where he played for Fremantle for one season in 1996, playing only 7 games.
Rowe's mother, Margaret Rowe, was a member of parliament in Western Australia.
External links
1969 births
Living people
Brisbane Bears players
Collingwood Football Club players
Fremantle Football Club players
East Fremantle Football Club players
Western Australian State of Origin players
Australian rules footballers from Geraldton | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad%20Rowe%20%28footballer%29 |
Company Sergeant (CS) (Sáirsint Complachta in Irish) is a non-commissioned officer rank in the Irish Army equivalent to a First Sergeant in the United States Army and Warrant Officer Class 2 in the British Army.
The insignia of a Company Sergeant for service dress is three winged chevrons in red, with a yellow border; above is an army badge embroidered in red. The entire insignia is wide. The subdued rank insignia has smaller chevrons, and the badge is in larger proportion to avoid confusion with other ranks.
Irish ranks derive from the British system at the foundation of the Irish Free State in 1922. In the Irish Army the rank was always known as Company Sergeant, but originated in the British appointment of Company Sergeant Major. The CS is the senior NCO of a company, responsible for day-to-day administration and training along with the company second-in-command, who is a Captain.
In the Artillery Corps, the rank is known as Battery Sergeant (Bty Sgt or BS) and in the Cavalry Corps it is known as Squadron Sergeant (SS).
References
Military ranks of Ireland | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company%20sergeant |
Šentjernej ( or ; in older sources also Šent Jernej, ) is a small town in southeastern Slovenia. It is the seat of the Municipality of Šentjernej. It lies in the center of the Šentjernej Plain (), which is part of the larger Krka Flat (). The area is part of the traditional region of Lower Carniola. It is now included in the Southeast Slovenia Statistical Region.
Church
The parish church, from which the town also gets its name, is dedicated to Saint Bartholomew () and belongs to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Novo Mesto. It is a Baroque building with remains of two earlier churches, one Romanesque from the 12th century and the other a 15th-century Gothic one, preserved in the floor of the current building. Two 18th-century side altars were brought to the church from the Cistercian monastery at Kostanjevica.
Twin towns — sister cities
Šentjernej is twinned with:
Břeclav, Czech Republic
References
External links
Šentjernej on Geopedia
Populated places in the Municipality of Šentjernej | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0entjernej |
The Interim Peace (, ) was a short period in the history of Finland during the Second World War. The term is used for the time between the Winter War and the Continuation War, lasting a little over 15 months, from 13 March 1940 to 24 June 1941. The Moscow Peace Treaty was signed by Finland and the Soviet Union on 12 March 1940 and it ended the 105-day Winter War.
In the aftermath of the Winter War, both the Soviet Union and Finland were preparing for a new war while the Soviets pressured the Finns politically. In early 1940 Finland sued for an alliance with Sweden but both the Soviet Union and Germany opposed it. In April, Germany occupied Denmark and Norway. In June the Soviet Union occupied the Baltic states. The next year, Finland negotiated its participation in the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union.
Background
The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the Winter War
The 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact clarified Soviet–German relations and enabled the Soviet Union to bring pressure to bear on the small Baltic republics and Finland, perhaps in order to better its strategic position in Eastern Europe in case of a widening of the war. The Baltic republics soon gave in to Soviet demands for bases and troop transfer rights, but Finland continued to refuse. As diplomatic pressure had failed, arms were resorted to, and on November 30, 1939, the Soviet Union began an invasion of Finland—the Winter War.
The Winter War produced in Finns a rude awakening to international politics. Condemnation by the League of Nations and by countries all over the world seemed to have no effect on Soviet policy. Sweden allowed volunteers to join the Finnish army, but did not send military support, and refused passage to French or British troops—which were in any event made ready in lower numbers than promised. Even right-wing extremists were shocked to find that Nazi Germany did not help at all, and also blocked material help from other countries.
The Moscow Peace Treaty, which ended the Winter War, was perceived as a great injustice. It seemed as if the losses at the negotiation table, including Viipuri (Finland's second-largest city [Population Register] or fourth-largest city [Church and Civil Register], depending on the census data), had been worse than on the battlefield. A fifth of the country's industrial capacity and 9% of its territory were lost. Of the 12% of Finland's population who lived in the lost territories, only a few hundred stayed, the remaining 420,000 moving to the Finnish side of the new border.
After the Moscow Peace Treaty
The Moscow Peace Treaty, signed on March 12, 1940, was a shock for the Finns. It was perceived as the ultimate failure of Finland's 1930s foreign policy, which had been based on multilateral guarantees for support from similar countries, first in the world order established by the League of Nations, and later from the Oslo group and Scandinavia. The immediate response was to broaden and intensify this policy. Binding bilateral treaties were now sought where Finland formerly had relied on goodwill and national friendship, and formerly frosty relations with ideological adversaries, such as the Soviet Union and the Third Reich, had necessarily to be eased.
Closer and improved relations were sought particularly with:
Sweden and Norway
the United Kingdom
the Soviet Union
the Third Reich
With exception for the case of Nazi Germany, all of these attempts turned out to meet critical obstacles—either due to Moscow's fear that Finland would slide out of the Soviet sphere of influence or due to general dynamics of the world war.
Reaction in Finland
Public opinion in Finland longed for the re-acquisition of the homes of the 12% of Finland's population who had been forced to leave Finnish Karelia in haste, and put their hope in the peace conference that was generally assumed would follow the World War. The term Välirauha ("Interim peace") hence became popular after the harsh peace was announced.
To protest the Moscow Peace Treaty, two ministers resigned and Prime Minister Ryti was forced to form a new cabinet right away. To achieve better national consensus, all parties except the right extremist IKL participated in the cabinet.
The most difficult post to fill was that of Foreign Minister, for which Ryti and Mannerheim first thought of Finland's ambassador to London G. A. Gripenberg, but as he believed himself to be too unpopular in Berlin, Rolf Witting, who was less British-oriented and more suitable to achieve improved relations with Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, was selected.
Attempted Nordic Defence Alliance
During the last days of war, Väinö Tanner and Per Albin Hansson had mentioned the possibility of a Nordic Defence Alliance, possibly including also Norway and Denmark, to stabilize the situation in the region. On March 15, this plan was published for discussion in the parliaments. However, on March 29 the Soviet Union declared that an alliance would be in breach of the Moscow Peace Treaty, which stalled the plan, and Germany's invasion of Denmark and Norway killed even the option of a smaller Scandinavian defence union, which would have benefited Finland even if it were not a party to it.
Re-armaments
Although the peace treaty was signed, the state of war was not revoked because of the widening world war, the difficult food supply situation, and the poor shape of the Finnish military. Censorship was not abolished and was used to suppress critics of the Moscow peace treaty and the most blatantly anti-Soviet comments.
The continued state of war made it possible for President Kyösti Kallio to ask Field Marshal Mannerheim to remain commander-in-chief and supervise the reorganization of Finland's Armed Forces and the fortification of the new border, a task that was critically important in the unruly times. Within a week after the peace treaty was signed, the fortification works were started along the 1200 km long Salpalinja ("the Bolt Line"), where the focus was between the Gulf of Finland and Lake Saimaa.
During the summer and autumn, Finland received material purchased and donated during and immediately after the Winter War, but it took several months before Mannerheim was able to present a somewhat positive assessment of the state of the army. Military expenditures rose in 1940 to 45% of Finland's state budget. Military purchases were prioritised over civilian needs. Mannerheim's position and the continued state of war enabled an efficient management of the military, but it created an unfortunate parallel government that from time to time clashed with the structures of the civilian government.
On March 13, the same day that the Moscow Peace Treaty came into effect, the British Ministry of Economic Warfare (MEW) asked the Foreign Office to start negotiations with Finland as soon as possible to secure positive relations with Finland. The under-secretary of MEW, Charles Hambro was authorized to form the war trade treaty with Finland, and he travelled to Helsinki on April 7. He had already exchanged letters with Ryti, and they quickly reached a basic understanding of the contents of the treaty. The Finns were eager to start trade and from the first meeting the preliminary treaty was created, which Finns accepted immediately; but Hambro needed the approval of his superiors and stressed that the treaty would not be considered official until the final version was negotiated. In the treaty Finland gave control of her strategic material exports to Britain in exchange for armaments and other necessary materials. However, the next day, Germany attacked Norway, making the treaty unworkable due to the lack of safe trade routes between the two countries.
Foreign relations
Denmark and Norway occupied
After Nazi Germany's assault on Scandinavia on April 9, 1940, Operation Weserübung, Finland was physically isolated from her traditional trade markets in the west. Sea routes to and from Finland were now controlled by the Kriegsmarine. The outlet of the Baltic sea was blockaded, and in the far north Finland's route to the world was an Arctic dirt road from Rovaniemi to the ice-free harbour of Petsamo, from where the ships had to pass a long stretch of German-occupied Norwegian coast by the Arctic Ocean. Finland, like Sweden, was spared occupation but encircled by Nazi Germany and Soviet Union. With direct support by Marshal Mannerheim a volunteer unit was formed and sent to Norway to help the fight against the Nazi army. The ambulance unit participated in the war until the Germans conquered the area in which it was serving. The volunteers returned to Finland.
Especially damaging was the loss of fertilizer imports, that, together with the loss of arable land ceded in the Moscow Peace, the loss of cattle during the hasty evacuation after the Winter War, and the unfavourable weather in the summer of 1940, resulted in a drastic fall of foodstuff production to less than two thirds of what was Finland's estimated need. Some of the deficit could be purchased from Sweden and some from the Soviet Union, although delayed deliveries were then a means to exert pressure on Finland. In this situation, Finland had no alternative but to turn to Germany for help.
Finland seeks German rapprochement
Germany has traditionally been a counterweight to Russia in the Baltic region, and despite the fact that Hitler's Third Reich had acquiesced with the invader, Finland perceived some value in also seeking warmer relations in that direction. After the German occupation of Norway, and particularly after the Allied evacuation from northern Norway, the relative importance of a German rapprochement increased. Finland had queried about the possibility of buying arms from Germany on May 9, but Germany refused to even discuss the matter.
From May 1940, Finland pursued a campaign to re-establish the good relations with Germany that had soured in the last year of the 1930s. Finland rested her hope in the fragility of the Nazi–Soviet bond, and in the many personal friendships between Finnish and German athletes, scientists, industrialists, and military officers. A part of that policy was accrediting the energetic former Prime Minister Toivo Mikael Kivimäki as ambassador in Berlin in June 1940. The Finnish mass media not only refrained from criticism of Nazi Germany, but also took active part in this campaign. Dissent was censored. Seen from Berlin, this looked like a refreshing contrast to the annoyingly anti-Nazi press in Sweden.
After the fall of France, in late June, the Finnish ambassador in Stockholm heard from the diplomatic sources that Britain could soon be forced to negotiate peace with Germany. The experience from World War I emphasized the importance of close and friendly relations with the victors, and accordingly the courting of Nazi Germany was stepped up still further.
The first crack in the German coldness towards Finland was registered in late July, when Ludwig Weissauer, a secret representative of the German Foreign Minister, visited Finland and queried Mannerheim and Ryti about Finland's willingness to defend the country against the Soviet Union. Mannerheim estimated the Finnish army could last a few weeks without more arms. Weissauer left without any promises.
Continued Soviet pressure
The implementation of the Moscow Peace Treaty created problems due to the Soviet Vae Victis-mentality. Border arrangements in the Enso industrial area, which even Soviet members of the border commission considered to be on the Finnish side of the border, the forced return of evacuated machinery, locomotives, and rail cars; and inflexibility on questions which could have eased hardships created by the new border, such as fishing rights and the usage of Saimaa Canal merely served to heighten distrust about the objectives of the Soviet Union.
The Soviet attitude was personified in the new ambassador to Helsinki, Ivan Zotov. He behaved undiplomatically and had a stiff-necked drive to advance Soviet interests, real or imagined, in Finland. During the summer and autumn he recommended several times in his reports to the Soviet Foreign Office that Finland ought to be finished off and wholly annexed by the Soviet Union.
On June 14, Soviet bombers shot down the Finnish passenger plane Kaleva, while en route from Tallinn to Helsinki. All nine passengers and crew perished.
On June 23, the Soviet Union proposed that Finland should revoke Petsamo mining rights from the British–Canadian company and transfer them to the Soviet Union, or to a joint venture owned by the Soviets and the Finns. On June 27, Moscow demanded either demilitarization or a joint fortification effort in Åland. After Sweden had signed the troop transfer agreement with Germany on July 8, Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov demanded similar rights for a Soviet troop transit to Hanko on July 9. The transfer rights were given on September 6, and demilitarization of Åland was agreed on October 11, but negotiations on Petsamo continued to drag on, with Finnish negotiators stalling as much as possible.
The Communist Party was so discredited in the Winter War that it never managed to recuperate between the wars. Instead, on May 22, the Peace and Friendship Society of Finland and Soviet Union was created, and it actively propagated Soviet viewpoints. Ambassador Zotov had very close contacts with the Society by holding weekly meetings with the Society leadership in the Soviet embassy and having Soviet diplomats participating in Society board meetings. The Society started by criticizing the government and military, and gained around 35,000 members at maximum. Emboldened by its success, it started organizing almost daily violent demonstrations during the first half of August which were supported politically by Zotov and a press campaign in Leningrad. The government reacted forcefully and arrested leading members of the society which ended the demonstrations in spite of Zotov's and Molotov's protests. The Society was finally outlawed in December 1940.
The Soviet Union demanded that Väinö Tanner be discharged from the cabinet because of his anti-Soviet stance and he had to resign August 15. Ambassador Zotov further demanded the resignation of both the Minister of Social Affairs Karl-August Fagerholm because he had called the Society a fifth column in a public speech, and the Minister of Interior Affairs Ernst von Born, who was responsible for police and led the crackdown of the Society, but they retained their places in the cabinet after Ryti delivered a radio speech in which he stated the willingness of his government to improve relations between Finland and the Soviet Union.
President Kallio suffered a stroke on August 28, after which he was unable to work, but when he presented his resignation November 27, the Soviet Union reacted by announcing that if Mannerheim, Tanner, Kivimäki, Svinhufvud or someone of their ilk were chosen president, it would be considered a breach of the Moscow peace treaty.
All of this reminded the public heavily of how the Baltic Republics had been occupied and annexed only a few months earlier. It was no wonder that the average Finn feared that the Winter War had produced only a short delay of the same fate.
British policy change
Compared to the early spring, during the summer of 1940, British foreign policy looked to gain some support from the Soviet Union, so the new Britain government under Churchill appointed Sir Stafford Cripps, from the left wing of the Labour Party, as ambassador to Moscow. He had openly supported the Terijoki Government during the Winter War and he wondered to Ambassador Paasikivi 'didn't the Finns really want to follow Baltic Republics and join the Soviet Union?'. He also dismissively called President Kallio "Kulak" and Nordic social democracy "reactionary". However, his opinions were not shared by the British Foreign Office, which apologized for his language to Ambassador Gripenberg.
During the nickel negotiations the Foreign Office pressured the license owning British-Canadian company to "temporarily" release the license and offered diplomatic support to Soviet attempts to gain control of the mine with the precondition that no ore would be shipped to Germany.
Improved relations with Nazi Germany
Unbeknownst to Finland, Adolf Hitler had started to plan his forthcoming invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa) now that France had collapsed. He had not been interested in Finland before the Winter War, but now he saw the value of Finland as an operating base, and perhaps also the military value of the Finnish army. In the first weeks of August, German fears of a likely immediate Soviet attack on Finland caused Hitler to free the arms embargo. The arms deliveries, which were stopped under the Winter War, were now resumed.
The next visitor from Germany came on August 18, when a representative of Hermann Göring, arms dealer Joseph Veltjens, arrived. He negotiated with Ryti and Mannerheim about German troop transfer rights between Finnmark in Northern Norway and ports of Gulf of Bothnia in exchange for arms and other material. At first these arms shipments were transferred via Sweden, but later they came directly to Finland. For the Third Reich, this was a breach of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, as well as being for Finland a material breach of the Moscow Peace Treaty—that in fact had been chiefly targeted against cooperation between Germany and Finland. It has been disputed in retrospect whether the ailing President Kallio was informed. Possibly Kallio's health collapsed before he could be confidentially briefed.
From the campaign to ease the Third Reich's coldness towards Finland, it seemed a natural development to also promote closer relations and cooperation, especially since the much-disliked Moscow Peace Treaty had, in clear language, tried to persuade the Finns not to do exactly that. Propaganda in the censored press contributed to Finland's international re-orientation—although with very measured means.
Soviet negotiators had insisted that the troop transfer agreement (to Hanko) should not be published for parliamentary discussion or voting. This precedent made it easy for the Finnish government to keep a troop transfer agreement with the Germans secret until the first German troops arrived at the port of Vaasa on September 21. The arrival of German troops produced much relief to the insecurity of average Finns, and was largely approved. Most contrary voices opposed more the way the agreement was negotiated than the transfer itself, although the Finnish people knew only the barest details of the agreements with the Third Reich. The presence of German troops was seen as a deterrent for further Soviet threats and a counterbalance to the Soviet troop transfer right. The German troop transfer agreement was augmented November 21 allowing the transfer of wounded, and soldiers on leave, via Turku. Germans arrived and established quarters, depots, and bases along the rail lines from Vaasa and Oulu to Ylitornio and Rovaniemi, and from there along the roads via Karesuvanto and Kilpisjärvi or Ivalo and Petsamo to Skibotn and Kirkenes in northern Norway. Also roadworks for improving winter road (between Karesuvanto and Skibotn) and totally new road (from Ivalo to Karasjok) were discussed, and later financed, by Germans.
Ryti, Mannerheim, Minister of Defence Walden and chief of staff Heinrichs decided October 23 that information concerning Finnish defence plans of Lappland could be given to the Wehrmacht to gain goodwill, even with the risk that they could be forwarded to the Soviet Union.
When Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov visited Berlin on November 12, he demanded that Germany stop supporting Finland, and the right to handle Finland in a similar way to Baltic states, but Hitler demanded that there should be no new military activities in Northern Europe before summer. Through unofficial channels, Finnish representatives were informed that "Finnish leaders can sleep peacefully, Hitler has opened his umbrella over Finland."
Attempted defence union with Sweden
On August 19, a new initiative was launched for co-operation between Sweden and Finland. It called for a union of the two states in exchange for a Finnish declaration of satisfaction with the current borders. The plans were primarily championed by the Swedish Foreign Minister, Christian Günther, and Conservative party leader Gösta Bagge, Education Minister in Stockholm. They had to counter increasing anti-Swedish opinions in Finland; and in Sweden, Liberal and Socialist suspicions against what was seen as right-wing dominance in Finland. One of the chief objectives of the plan was to ensure greatest possible liberty for Sweden and Finland in a presumed post-war Europe totally dominated by Nazi Germany. In Sweden, political opponents criticized the necessary adaptations to the Nazis; in Finland, the resistance centred on the loss of sovereignty and influence—and the acceptance of the loss of Finnish Karelia. However, the general feeling of Finland's dire and deteriorating position quieted many critics.
The official request for a union was made by Christian Günther on October 18, and Finland's approval was received on October 25, but by November 5, the Soviet ambassador in Stockholm, Alexandra Kollontai, warned Sweden about the treaty. The Swedish government retreated from the issue but discussions for a more acceptable treaty continued until December when, on December 6, the Soviet Union and, on December 19, Germany announced their strong opposition to any kind of union between Sweden and Finland.
Road to war
At the autumn of 1940, Finnish generals visited Germany and German occupied Europe several times to purchase additional material, guns and munition. Mannerheim even wrote a personal letter January 7, 1941, to Göring where he tried to persuade him to release Finnish purchased artillery pieces Germany had captured in Norwegian harbours during Weserübung. During one of these visits, Major General Paavo Talvela met with Chief of Staff of OKH, Col. Gen Franz Halder and Göring January 15–18, 1941, and was asked about Finnish plans to defend itself in case of new Soviet invasion. The Germans also inquired about the possibility of someone from Finland coming and giving a presentation about the experiences of the Winter War.
After the resignation of president Kallio, Risto Ryti was elected by parliament as the new president of Finland December 19. Johan Wilhelm Rangell formed a new government January 4, and this time the far-right IKL party was included in the cabinet as an act of goodwill toward Nazi Germany.
Petsamo Crisis
Finland had negotiated with the Germans since spring 1940 about the production of Kolosjoki nickel mines in Petsamo. In July 1940 Finland made a contract with the German company I.G. Farbenindustrie: 60% of the nickel produced was to be shipped to Germany. The negotiations alarmed the Soviet Union, which in June asked for 75% ownership of the mine and a nearby power plant together with the right to handle security in the area.
According to German reports, the ore body of Kolosjoki mines had a value of over 1 billion Reichsmark, and it could fulfil the demand for nickel in the Third Reich for 20 years. Later on, at the end of 1940, the Germans raised their estimate of the Kolosjoki nickel reserves four times larger.
Negotiations with the Soviet Union had dragged on for six months when the Soviet Foreign Ministry announced on January 14, 1941, that the negotiations had to be concluded quickly. On the same day, the Soviet Union interrupted grain deliveries to Finland. Soviet ambassador Zotov was recalled home on January 18 and Soviet radio broadcasts started attacking Finland. On January 21, 1941, the Soviet Foreign Ministry issued an ultimatum demanding that nickel negotiations be concluded in two days.
When Finnish military intelligence spotted troop movements on the Soviet side of the border, Mannerheim proposed on January 23, 1941, a partial mobilization, but Ryti and Rangell didn't accept. Ambassador Kivimäki reported on January 24, 1941, that Germany was conscripting new age classes, and it was unlikely that they were needed against Britain.
Finnish Chief of Staff Lt. Gen. Heinrichs visited Berlin on January 30–February 3, officially giving a lecture about Finnish experiences in the Winter War, but also including discussions with Halder. During the discussions Halder speculated about a possible German assault on the Soviet Union and Heinrichs informed him about Finnish mobilization limits and defence plans with and without German or Swedish participation.
Col. Buschenhagen had reported from northern Norway on February 1 that the Soviet Union had collected 500 fishing ships in Murmansk, capable of transporting a division. Hitler ordered troops in Norway to occupy Petsamo (Operation Rentier) immediately if the Soviet Union started attacking Finland.
Mannerheim submitted his letter of resignation on February 10, claiming that the continuing appeasement made it impossible to defend the country against an invader. He took his resignation back the next day after discussions with Ryti and after stricter instructions were sent to negotiators: 49% of mining rights to the Soviet Union, the power plant to a separate Finnish company, reservation of the highest management positions for Finns and no further Soviet agitation against Finland. The Soviet Union rejected those terms on February 18, thus ending nickel negotiations.
Diplomatic activities
After Heinrichs' visit and the end of the nickel negotiations, diplomatic activities were halted for a few months. The most significant activities of that time was the visit of Colonel Buschenhagen to Helsinki and Northern Finland February 18 – March 3 when he familiarized himself with the terrain and climate of Lappland. He also had discussions with Mannerheim, Heinrichs, Major General Airo and chief-of-operational-office Colonel Tapola. Both sides were careful to point out the speculative nature of these discussions, although later they became the basis of formal agreements.
Already in December 1940, leaders of Germany's Waffen-SS had demanded that Finland should show its orientation towards Germany "with deeds", by which it was clear that it meant enlistment of Finnish troops to the SS. The official contact was made on March 1, and in the following negotiations the Finns tried in vain to transform the troops from SS to Wehrmacht, in commemoration of the World War I-era Finnish Jäger Battalion. Ryti and Mannerheim considered the battalion necessary to reinforce German support of Finland, thence the nickname "Panttipataljoona" ("Pawn battalion"), and the negotiations were concluded on April 28 with the Finnish conditions that Government, Civil Guards or Armed Forces would not enlist and that all military personnel wishing to participate must first take their leave of the Finnish army. (These conditions were designed to limit Finnish commitment to Nazi Germany.) The enlistment was carried out in May, and in June the troops were transferred to Germany where a Finnish SS battalion was founded June 18. Foreign minister Witting informed Sweden, where similar activities were also conducted, already on March 23 about possible enlistment. The British ambassador to Helsinki, Gordon Vereker, notified the Finnish Foreign Ministry May 16 on the issue, demanding an end to the enlistment.
Relations between Sweden and Germany strained in March, and on March 15 Sweden mobilized 80,000 more men and moved military units to the southern coast and western border making it even more likely that Sweden couldn't support Finland if war broke out. This also affected Swedish-Finnish co-operation as the Finnish interest for intelligence exchange diminished considerably during April.
Race issues were sources of particular concern: the Finns were not viewed favourably by the Nazi race theorists. By active participation on Germany's side, Finnish leaders hoped for a more independent position in post-war Europe, through the removal of the Soviet threat and the incorporation of the related Finnish peoples of neighbouring Soviet areas, especially Karelia. This view gained increasing popularity in the Finnish leadership, and also in the press, during the spring of 1941.
From February to April, Germany prepared Barbarossa in secret, and apart from the above contacts, no operational or political discussions were concluded during this time. Instead they published disinformation, such as claims that the German troop buildup in the East was merely a ruse ahead of a planned invasion of Britain (such a plan had been considered under the codename Operation Sea Lion) or safe training locations from British bombers, to hide their real intentions. When Germany invaded Yugoslavia and Greece beginning on April 6, suspicion of German intentions increased in Finland, though uncertainty still prevailed as to whether Hitler really intended to attack the Soviet Union before the Battle of Britain was concluded.
However, the Finns had, in the past, learned bitterly how a small country can be used as small change in the deals of great powers, and in such a case Finland could have been used as a token of reconciliation between Hitler and Stalin, something which the Finns had every reason to fear, which is why relations with Berlin were considered of the utmost priority for the future of Finland, especially so if the war between Germany and Soviet Union failed to materialize.
Once again the German Foreign Ministry sent Ludwig Weissauer to Finland May 5, this time to clarify that war between Germany and the Soviet Union would not be launched before spring 1942. Ryti and Witting believed that, at least officially, and forwarded the message to Swedish Foreign Minister Günther, who was visiting Finland May 6–9. Witting also sent the information to Finnish-ambassador-to-London Gripenberg. When the war broke out only a couple of weeks later, it was understandable that both Swedish and British governments felt that the Finns had lied to them.
Part of that disinformation campaign was a request to ambassador Kivimäki that Finland should offer proposals for a new border that the Germans could pressure the Soviets to accept in negotiations. On May 30, 1941, General Airo produced five alternative border drafts for delivery to the Germans, who should then propose the best they felt they could bargain from the Soviet Union. In reality, the Germans had no such intentions, but the exercise served to fuel the support among leading Finns for taking part in Operation Barbarossa.
Operations like Barbarossa don't begin without some advance notice, and worsening of Soviet-German relations, which began with the meeting in Berlin November 12, was visible around the end of March 1941. Stalin tried to improve relations toward the Third Reich by taking the leadership of the Soviet government May 6, backed off from unimportant issues, and fulfilled all trade deals even as German deliveries were late. Part of this policy was also improving relations with Finland. A new ambassador, Pavel Orlov, was named to Helsinki April 23 and a gift of a trainload of wheat was presented to J. K. Paasikivi when he retired from Moscow. The Soviet Union also renounced opposition to a Swedish-Finnish defence alliance, but Swedish disinterest and German opposition to that kind of alliance rendered the proposal moot. Soviet radio propaganda against Finland also ceased. Orlov acted very conciliatory and soothed many feelings which had been raised by his predecessor, but as he failed to solve any critical issues (like the disagreement over Petsamo nickel) or to restart grain imports from Soviet Union, his line was seen only as a new facade on old policy.
British-ambassador-Vereker saw Finland moving towards Germany, and due to his reports, the British Foreign Office had requested easing Finnish trade regulations in Petsamo March 30. On April 28 Vereker reported that the British government should pressure the Soviet Union to return Hanko or Vyborg to Finland as he saw it as the only possible way to secure Finnish neutrality in the case of German-Soviet war.
The Petsamo crisis had disillusioned Finnish politicians, especially Ryti and Mannerheim, creating the impression that peaceful co-existence with the Soviet Union was impossible, and that Finland would survive in peace only if the Soviet Union was defeated, as Ryti presented it to US ambassador Arthur Schoenfeld on April 28. The effect of this general feeling was that voices advocating closer ties with Germany grew stronger and the voices advocating armed neutrality within Finland's new borders (some among the Social Democrats, and some of the more left-leaning in the Swedish People's Party) softened. Contacts with Sweden's Conservative Foreign Minister Günther showed an enthusiasm unusual for the Swedes for the anticipated "Crusade against Bolshevism".
After the successful occupation of Yugoslavia and Greece by the spring of 1941, the German army's standing was at its zenith, and its victory in the war seemed more than likely. The envoy of the German Foreign Ministry, Karl Schnurre, visited Finland May 20–24, and invited one or more staff officers to negotiations in Salzburg.
Cooperation with Germany
A group of staff officers led by General Heinrichs left Finland on May 24 and participated in discussions with OKW in Salzburg on May 25 where the Germans informed them about the northern part of Operation Barbarossa. The Germans also presented their interest in using Finnish territory to attack from Petsamo to Murmansk and from Salla to Kandalaksha. Heinrichs presented Finnish interest in Eastern Karelia, but Germany recommended a passive stance. The negotiations continued the next day in Berlin with OKH, and contrary to the negotiations of the previous day, Germany wanted Finland to form a strong attack formation ready to strike on the eastern or western side of Lake Ladoga. The Finns promised to examine the proposal, but notified the Germans that they were only able to arrange supply to the Olonets-Petrozavodsk-line. The issue of mobilization was also discussed. It was decided that the Germans would send signal officers to enable confidential messaging to Mannerheim's headquarters in Mikkeli. Naval issues were discussed, mainly for securing sea lines over the Baltic Sea, but also possible usage of the Finnish navy in the upcoming war. During these negotiations the Finns presented a number of material requests ranging from grain and fuel to airplanes and radio equipment.
Heinrichs' group returned on May 28 and reported their discussions to Mannerheim, Walden and Ryti. And on May 30 Ryti, Witting, Walden, Kivimäki, Mannerheim, Heinrichs, Talvela and Aaro Pakaslahti from Foreign Ministry had a meeting where they accepted the results of those negotiations with a list of some prerequisites: a guarantee of Finnish independence, the pre-Winter War borders (or better), continuing grain deliveries, and that Finnish troops would not cross the border before a Soviet incursion.
The next round of negotiations occurred in Helsinki on June 3–6 regarding some practical details. During these negotiations it was decided that Germany would be responsible for the area north of Oulu. This area was easily given to them because it was sparsely inhabited and not critical to the defence of the more important southern provinces. The Finns also agreed to give two divisions to the Germans in northern Finland (30 000 men) and to the usage of airfields in Helsinki and Kemijärvi (Because of the number of German aircraft, airfields at Kemi and Rovaniemi were added later). Finland also warned Germany that an attempt to establish a Quisling government would end co-operation as they considered it very important that Finland not be the aggressor and that no invasion should be launched from Finnish soil.
The negotiations for naval operations continued on June 6 in Kiel. It was agreed that the Kriegsmarine would close the Gulf of Finland with mines as soon as the war began.
The arrival of German troops participating in Operation Barbarossa began on June 7 in Petsamo, where SS Division Nord started southwards, and on June 8 in the ports of the Gulf of Bothnia where the German 169th Infantry Division was transported by rail to Rovaniemi, where both of these turned eastward on June 18. Britain cancelled all naval traffic to Petsamo June 14 in protest of these moves. Starting from June 14, a number of German minelayers and supporting MTBs arrived in Finland, some on an official naval visit, others hiding in the southern archipelago.
Finnish parliament was informed for the first time on June 9, when first mobilization orders were issued for troops needed to safeguard the following mobilization phases, like anti-air and border guard units. The Committee on Foreign Affairs complained that parliament was bypassed when deciding on these issues, and protesting that Parliament should be trusted with sensitive information, but no other actions were taken. Swedish ambassador Karl-Ivan Westman wrote that the Soviet-minded "Sextuples", the far-left Social Democrats, were the reason that parliament couldn't be trusted in foreign policy questions. When Soviet news agency TASS reported on June 13 that no negotiations were ongoing between Germany and the Soviet Union, Ryti and Mannerheim decided to delay mobilization as no guarantees had been received from Germany. General Waldemar Erfurt, who had been nominated as liaison officer to Finland on June 11, reported to OKW June 14, that Finland wouldn't finalize mobilization unless the prerequisites were granted. Although the Finns continued on the same day (June 14) with the second phase of mobilization, this time the mobilizing forces were located in northern Finland and later operated under German command. Field Marshal Keitel sent a message on June 15 stating that the Finnish prerequisites were accepted, and the general mobilization restarted on June 17, two days later than scheduled. On June 16, two Finnish divisions were transferred to the German army in Lapland.
An airfield in Utti was evacuated by Finnish planes on June 18 and the Germans were allowed to use it for refuelling from June 19. German reconnaissance planes were stationed at Tikkakoski, near Jyväskylä, on June 20.
On June 20 Finland's government ordered 45,000 people at the Soviet border to be evacuated. On June 21 Finland's chief of the General Staff, Erik Heinrichs, was finally informed by his German counterpart that the attack was to begin.
To the opening of hostilities
Operation Barbarossa had already commenced in the northern Baltic by the late hours of June 21, when German minelayers, which had been hiding in the Finnish archipelago, laid two large minefields across the Gulf of Finland, one at the mouth of the Gulf and a second in the middle of the Gulf.
These minefields ultimately proved sufficient to confine the Soviets' Baltic Fleet to the easternmost part of the Gulf of Finland until the end of the Continuation War. Three Finnish submarines participated in the mining operation by laying 9 small fields between Suursaari Island and the Estonian coast with first mines being laid at 0738 on 22 June 1941 by .
Later the same night, German bombers, flying from East Prussian airfields, flew along the Gulf of Finland to Leningrad and mined the harbour and the river Neva. Finnish air defence noticed that one group of these bombers, most likely the ones responsible for mining the river Neva, flew over southern Finland. On the return trip, these bombers refuelled in Utti airfield before returning to East Prussia.
Finland feared that the Soviet Union would occupy Åland as soon as possible and use it to close naval routes from Finland to Sweden and Germany (together with Hanko base), so Operation Kilpapurjehdus (Sail Race) was launched in the early hours of June 22 to deliver Finnish troops to Åland. Soviet bombers launched attacks against Finnish ships during the operation at 0605 on 22 June 1941 before the Finnish ships had delivered the troops to Åland but no damage was inflicted in the air attack.
Individual Soviet artillery batteries started to shoot at Finnish positions from Hanko early in the morning, so the Finnish commander sought permission to return fire, but before the permission was granted, Soviet artillery had stopped shooting.
On the morning of June 22, the German Gebirgskorps Norwegen started Operation Rentier and began its move from Northern Norway to Petsamo. The German ambassador initiated urgent negotiations with Sweden for transfer of the German 163rd Infantry Division from Norway to Finland using Swedish rail. Sweden agreed to this on June 24.
On the morning of June 22, both the Soviet Union and Finland declared that each would be neutral in respect of the other in the war that was now underway. This precipitated unease in the Nazi leadership, which tried to provoke a response from the Soviet Union by using both the Finnish archipelago as a base, and Finnish airfields for refuelling. Hitler's public statement worked in the same direction; Hitler declared that Germany would attack the Bolshevists "(...) in the North in alliance ["im Bunde"] with the Finnish freedom heroes". This was in flat contradiction of the statement made to parliament by British Foreign Secretary Eden on June 24 affirming Finnish neutrality.
Finland did not allow direct German attacks from its soil to the Soviet Union, so German forces in Petsamo and Salla had to hold their fire. Air attacks were also prohibited, and very bad weather in northern Finland helped to keep the Germans from flying. Only one attack from Southern Finland against the White Sea Canal was approved, but even that had to be cancelled due to bad weather. There were occasional individual and group level small arms shooting between Soviet and Finnish border guards, but otherwise the front was quiet.
To keep a close eye on their opponents, both parties—and also the Germans—performed active air reconnaissance over the border, but no air fights ensued.
After three days, early on the morning of June 25, the Soviet Union made its move and unleashed a major air offensive against 18 cities with 460 planes, mainly striking airfields but seriously damaging civilian targets as well. The worst damage was done in Turku, where the airfield become inoperable for a week, but among civilian targets, the medieval Turku Castle was damaged. (After the war, the castle was repaired, but the work took until 1961.) Heavy damage to civilian targets was also sustained in Kotka and Heinola. However, civilian casualties of this attack were relatively limited.
The Soviet Union justified the attack as being directed against German targets in Finland, but even the British embassy had to admit that the heaviest hits had been taken by southern Finland, and airfields where there were no Germans. Only two targets had German forces present at the time of attack: Rovaniemi and Petsamo. Once again Foreign Minister Eden had to admit to parliament on June 26 that the Soviet Union had initiated the war.
A meeting of parliament was scheduled for June 25 when Prime Minister Rangell had been due to present a notice about Finland's neutrality in the Soviet-German war, but the Soviet bombings led him to instead observe that Finland was once again at war with the Soviet Union. The Continuation War had begun.
See also
Aftermath of the Winter War
References
External links
1940 in Finland
1940 in international relations
1940 in the Soviet Union
1941 in Finland
1941 in international relations
1941 in the Soviet Union
Finland in World War II
Finland–Soviet Union relations
Military history of Finland during World War II | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interim%20Peace |
Panama is a cryptographic primitive which can be used both as a hash function and a stream cipher, but its hash function mode of operation has been broken and is not suitable for cryptographic use. Based on StepRightUp, it was designed by Joan Daemen and Craig Clapp and presented in the paper Fast Hashing and Stream Encryption with PANAMA on the Fast Software Encryption (FSE) conference 1998. The cipher has influenced several other designs, for example MUGI and SHA-3.
The primitive can be used both as a hash function and a stream cipher. The stream cipher uses a 256-bit key and the performance of the cipher is very good reaching 2 cycles per byte.
Hash function
As a hash function, collisions have been shown by Vincent Rijmen et al. in the paper Producing Collisions for PANAMA presented at FSE 2001. The attack shows a computational complexity of 282 and with negligible memory requirements.
At FSE 2007, Joan Daemen and Gilles Van Assche presented a practical attack on the Panama hash function that generates a collision in 26 evaluations of the state updating function.
Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen, Michaël Peeters, and Gilles Van Assche, at NIST's 2006 Second Cryptographic Hash Workshop, unveiled a Panama variant called RadioGatún. The hash function workings of RadioGatún does not have the known weaknesses that Panama's hash function has. In turn, RadioGatún inspired the new cryptographic standard SHA-3.
See also
Hash function security summary
References
External links
John Savard's page on Panama
Stream ciphers
Broken hash functions
Extendable-output functions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama%20%28cryptography%29 |
Semič (; , formerly also Semenič) is a settlement in southeastern Slovenia. It is the administrative seat of the Municipality of Semič.
Geography
The settlement is located in the traditional region of White Carniola (Bela krajina, part of Lower Carniola) and the Southeast Slovenia Statistical Region. It lies between the Kočevje Rog Plateau and the Gorjanci range of the Žumberak Mountains to the northeast. The slopes of the Gorjanci Hills are used for wine growing.
Semič is the site of an Iskra Kondenzatorji capacitor production plant, the largest employer in the region. In the 1980s the improper handling of PCB waste material led to serious pollution of nearby Krupa Creek and caused a major environmental scandal.
Hamlets
Semič contains a large number of hamlets, some of which used to be independent settlements. These include Coklovca, Gaber pri Semiču, Gora, Kašča, Kot pri Semiču (), Krč, Mladica, Podturn, Sadinja Vas (Sodinsdorf), Sela pri Semiču (Sela bei Heiligengeist), Trata, Vavpča Vas (Amtmannsdorf), Vrh, and Vrtača pri Semiču.
The name of the hamlet of Gaber, in the southwest part of the settlement, was changed to Gaber pri Semiču in 1953.
The name of the former village of Sela pri Svetem Duhu (literally, 'Sela by the Holy Spirit') in the east-central part of settlement was changed to Sela pri Semiču (literally, 'Sela by Semič') in 1955. The name was changed on the basis of the 1948 Law on Names of Settlements and Designations of Squares, Streets, and Buildings as part of efforts by Slovenia's postwar communist government to remove religious elements from toponyms. Sela pri Semiču ceased to exist as an independent settlement in 2001, when it was annexed by Semič.
History
The settlement was first mentioned in the 13th century, when White Carniola down to the Kolpa River was colonised by Slovene and German (Gottschee) peasants. It gets its name from Semenič Castle, which used to stand on a hill above the settlement. The Semič parish church is dedicated to Saint Stephen and belongs to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Novo Mesto. It was first mentioned in written sources dating to 1228.
Part of the Carniolan county of Metlika, Semič was part of the Imperial Duchy of Carniola from 1364 onwards. Incorporated into the Habsburg monarchy, it was attacked by Ottoman forces several times; the settlement and its fortified church were completely destroyed in 1547
With Carniola, Semič became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Yugoslavia) in 1918. It was the location of a Yugoslav Partisan base and airfield in World War II, from where Allied airmen and escaped and freed prisoners of war were airlifted to safety, led by Ralph Churches.
References
External links
Semič on Geopedia
Populated places in the Municipality of Semič | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi%C4%8D |
"The One Where Ross Can't Flirt" is the nineteenth episode of Friends fifth season. It first aired on NBC in the United States on April 22, 1999. In the episode, Monica and Chandler celebrate their ten-month anniversary as a couple by going out. Chandler wants Monica to wear the pair of earrings he bought her as a present, unaware she lent them to Phoebe whom in turn gave them to Rachel, who accidentally lost one. Meanwhile, Ross sees Chandler flirting with the pizza girl Caitlin, and decides to follow his example, with disastrous results. Joey lands a part in Law & Order; his grandmother comes over to New York to watch his part. However, when he discovers his part has been cut out, Joey improvises by recording a scene on a video tape and putting it into the VCR.
Plot
Chandler, dressed up for his and Monica's ten-month anniversary, picks up some pizzas that delivery girl Caitlin has brought for the group, but Ross mistakes his friend's natural jokes for flirting, which Chandler denies. Phoebe points out that the real reason Ross is mad is because he finds Caitlin attractive, and Ross takes the opportunity to flirt with her when he finds a missing vegetarian pizza for Phoebe. Ross makes inappropriate comments to Caitlin and saddened by his effort, he orders another pizza and practices flirting with Phoebe. Caitlin arrives with the pizza, but Ross screws up the flirting again, ending up talking to her about gas and methane. He scares her so much that she pays for the pizza herself and flees the apartment. Out of pity for Ross, Rachel catches up with Caitlin and tries to talk her into going out with Ross. Rachel returns to the apartment and gives Ross Caitlin's phone number.
Meanwhile, Joey introduces everyone to his Italian grandmother, who is deeply intent on seeing her grandson debut on Law & Order. As she does not speak a word of English, they find it difficult to communicate with her, except for Phoebe, who manages to offer her a glass of water in Italian. The TV show starts, but Joey finds out that he has been cut out of it. Desperate not to shock his grandmother, he records a crude clip of himself on tape at his apartment in a crime scene where he holds his duck hostage. But the clip is good enough for Nonni – until the tape continues rolling, showing Chandler sing "Space Oddity" in front of the camera.
Monica, getting dressed for the big anniversary date, asks Phoebe to return the earrings that Chandler bought her, which Phoebe borrowed some time ago. It turns out, however, that Phoebe lent the same earrings to Rachel, who has lost one of them. Phoebe tells her how the earrings are Monica's, which makes Rachel flip out because she is not allowed to borrow Monica's stuff as she ends up losing it. Fearing that Monica will kill her if she finds out, Phoebe takes the blame instead of Rachel, but Monica is understanding with her. Rachel steps in and explains everything to Monica, who immediately loses it with Rachel. Monica ends up wearing another pair of earrings, which luckily for her, Chandler doesn't notice. Monica and Chandler leave for dinner, and Chandler thanks Ross for the earrings he picked up for Monica.
Production
"The One Where Ross Can't Flirt" was written by Doty Abrams, her first writing credit of the season. The episode was directed by Gail Mancuso. Kristin Dattilo and Lilyan Chauvin guest-starred as Caitlin, the pizza delivery girl and Joey's grandmother respectively.
Cultural references
The Law & Order episode being watched by the friends is clearly "Agony". During breaks in the friends' dialogue, the TV is audible, including Jack McCoy mentioning the name of the suspect (Bergstrom) and Abbie Carmichael discussing her links to the Houston D.A.'s office. The times during which the TV is visible also confirm that "Agony" is playing.
Reception
In its original American broadcast, "The One Where Ross Can't Flirt" finished first in ratings for the week of April 19–25, 1999, with a Nielsen rating of 14.4. It was the highest rated show on the NBC network that week. In the United Kingdom the episode premiered on Sky1 on May 13, 1999 and was watched by 1.73 million viewers, making the program the most watched on the channel that week.
References
External links
1999 American television episodes
Friends (season 5) episodes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20One%20Where%20Ross%20Can%27t%20Flirt |
Kostel () is a settlement in the Municipality of Kostel in southern Slovenia. It is located on the left bank of the Kolpa River next to the border with Croatia. It is part of the traditional region of Lower Carniola and is now included in the Southeast Slovenia Statistical Region.
Landmarks
Kostel Castle
Its main landmark from which the settlement and the municipality are named is Kostel Castle, built on a cliff above the Kolpa Valley. The castle is surrounded by a small market settlement. It dates to the 13th century with various additions over the centuries and was an important defense fortification against Ottoman raids.
Holy Magi Church
The local church is dedicated to the Magi and belongs to the parish of Fara pri Kočevju. It is a single-nave Late Gothic building that was refurbished in the Baroque style in the 18th century.
References
External links
Kostel on Geopedia
Populated places in the Municipality of Kostel | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kostel%2C%20Kostel |
Moravče (; ) is a settlement in the Municipality of Moravče in central Slovenia. It is the seat of the municipality. The area is part of the traditional region of Upper Carniola. The village is home to about 957 people. It includes the hamlet of Trzen ().
Name
Moravče was attested in written sources in 1232 as Morawitz (and as Morauz in 1286 and Moraucz in 1301). The name is probably derived from a clipped noun phrase, Moravьče (selo); literally, 'Moravьcь's (village)'. It thus refers to an early inhabitant of the place. Locally, the settlement is also known as Maravče. In the past the German name was Moräutsch.
History
Moravče is an old religious center and was already made a parish in the 12th century. The settlement is located in a wet, low-lying area, and the first settlement at the site was where the cemetery is currently located and was known as Moravče na Griču 'Moravče on the hill'. Freeholders and lesser nobility made up a large part of the population, and they also bore responsibility for safeguarding the area. Cloth-making and other crafts flourished during the feudal era.
At the beginning of the 17th century, various radical sects were active in the area, led by the smith Gašper Goleš and his son Luka. Until the road to Vienna through the Black Valley () was built at the beginning of the 18th century, Moravče was on the freight route for transporting mercury from Idrija to Styria. Moravče was granted market rights by Maria Theresa in the 18th century; this especially applied to collecting vendors' fees at fairs, which were held at Martinmas and Saint Matthias' Day. A school was founded in Moravče in 1823, and a schoolhouse was built in 1865. A fire station was built in 1907. The tradition of a night watchman that called the hours was retained until 1933.
During the Second World War, the Partisans attacked the police station on 19 April 1942 and looted the dairy. On 16 March 1943 the Partisans destroyed the post office, savings bank, and municipal office. The schoolhouse was burned in 1943 (and later rebuilt in 1946). The Partisans took control of Moravče on 19 March 1944, but German forces aided by Russian Liberation Army troops and Slovene Home Guard forces retook control of the town in August 1944 during a battle in which the rectory and several houses were burned. Moravče came under aerial bombardment on 24 December 1944.
A public library was established in 1954. A new school was built in Moravče in 1967 and was named after Jurij Vega.
Moravče Castle
Moravče Castle stood on a rise above the village, but no trace of it is left today. It was built in 1550. During the Reformation, the lords of Moravče Castle were Lutheran, and the Counter-Reformation committee took steps against them in 1642.
Church
The parish church in the settlement is dedicated to Saint Martin and belongs to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Ljubljana. It is a Late Gothic building that was extended and restyled in the Baroque in 1740. Its 19th-century façade has two belfries. Saint Martin's church was first mentioned in 1232 and was probably a small wooden structure. The current structure was built in 1895 and was designed by Raimund Jeblinger (1853–1937). The main altar features Saint Martin kneeling on a throne accompanied by two angels.
Other cultural heritage
In addition to Saint Martin's Church, other cultural heritage items are registered in Moravče.
A chapel-shrine dedicated to Our Lady of Good Counsel stands in the western part of Moravče, near the church and south of the rectory. It dates from 1759 and is a squat structure with an onion-dome roof. It was originally an open chapel-shrine, but the side openings were filled in 1891. Its paintings also date from 1891 and were restored in 1987.
Notable people
Notable people that were born or lived in Moravče include:
Danilo Cerar (1896–1980), composer
Jurij Vega (1754–1802), mathematician
Fran Detela (1850–1926), writer and playwright
Radovan Klopčič (1898–1992), illustrator
Jože Lavrič (1903–1973), economist, lawyer, and translator
Anton Oliban (1824–1860), poet and translator
Anton Rožič (ca. 1787–?), historical writer
Janko Toman (1863–1945), school director
References
External links
Moravče on Geopedia
Moravče on Google Maps (map, photographs, street view)
Populated places in the Municipality of Moravče | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morav%C4%8De%2C%20Slovenia |
Fantasy Earth Zero was a 2006 massively multiplayer online role-playing game developed for Microsoft Windows. Originally developed by Puraguru (now known as Vanillaware) and Multiterm under the title Fantasy Earth: The Ring of Dominion, it was released by Square Enix as a paid product through its PlayOnline service. It relaunched under Gamepot as a free game, and was later handled by developer SoftGear and publisher Square Enix. Under the premise of a world where rival kingdoms engage in frequent conflicts, players choose an allied kingdom and fight against each other in groups of up to fifty players. The game closed down in September 2022.
Fantasy Earth began in 2001 as a project under Enix, with Puraguru founder George Kamitani steering the project away from its initial concept of humans fighting vampires to its current kingdom-based aesthetic. Kamitani and Puraguru left the project in 2004 due to differences with Square Enix, with Multiterm taking over production duties. Production met with several challenges including logistic issues, the technology required for large-scape online battles, and the merger of Enix with Square in 2003. The original music was composed by Basiscape, a company founded by composer Hitoshi Sakimoto.
The original release was unsuccessful, but following its re-release under Gamepot it became successful and profitable, gaining one million players by 2011. Reviews have praised its aesthetic and gameplay loop. Over the years, Fantasy Earth featured collaborations with several other video game series, and spawned two spin-off mobile titles. Kamitani and Basiscape would collaborate on all future Vanillaware titles.
Gameplay
Fantasy Earth Zero was a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) in which the player controls a customizable avatar and chooses one of the five nations to ally with and fight for. There was no storyline beyond the setting and premise, with the intended narrative being created by the battles of player factions. In the game's setting of Melpharia, a long era of peace causes ancient petty differences between the nations to erupt into full-scale wars for control over magical crystals that gave birth to all things. During the character creation stage, the player chose a gender, character class, weapon type and starting nation. The main emphasis of gameplay was player-versus-player battles, carried out on the same server; starting with a minimum of seven versus seven, it went up to large-scale battles between two armies of fifty players. Alongside this, there was a player versus environment element, with players able to fight hoards of monsters for lower rewards.
Player-versus-player battles were balanced by forcing each side to have a similar number of participants, placing "overflow" players into a queue waiting to enter the battle. Players from the two warring kingdoms received preference in this queue. A maximum of fifty players were allowed on each sides of the battle. Kingdom-versus-kingdom battles were all held on the same server. During battles, players needed to manually aim attacks at their opponent, and were allowed free movement through the map. Victory for either side was determined by territory controlled and individual enemy players defeated. Experience points were distributed across the victorious player army based on overall performance.
Another element of these battles was a building and fortification aspect similar to tower defense games. Players could use resources taken from crystals scattered across the battle map and construct different types of fortification and buildings, ranging from defensive structures to buildings which offered player advantages or could be used to directly attack the enemy. During battles, players could also use special structures to summon allied monsters into the battlefield, granting advantages in battles. Later updates added new building types, weather effects, and additional levels of factions for players to interact with. In-game items could be earned, or bought for real money at a dedicated shop.
Development
The Ring of Dominion
Fantasy Earth Zero began production in 2001 as Fantasy Earth: The Ring of Dominion, a small-scale online game project led by Enix. During this period, it was headed by George Kamitani, a developer whose previous work included fighting games for Capcom and the Sega Saturn game Princess Crown. The project ballooned in scale, and to facilitate its development Kamitani created a small development studio dubbed Puraguru (later known as Vanillaware) in 2002. The project was originally planned as a battle scenario between humans and vampires, but under Kamitani's guidance the scenario changed to a battle between princess-themed kingdoms. It was Kamitani's first time developing a 3D game, and he recycled artwork and assets from Dragon's Crown, a cancelled Dreamcast sequel to Princess Crown. Production was originally placed in a small section of the Enix company building nicknamed the "submarine". By 2003, Enix had merged with Square to become Square Enix, and Kamitani stated that the newly-merged company took the project away from him. Kamitani and Puraguru left production in 2004, and development was taken over by Multiterm. By this point, Tetsuya Fujimoto acted as the game's director, while Akashi Yamaguchi was lead designer.
The overall theme of the gameplay was emulating the entertainment of both player battles and normal player-versus-environment combat. Production of Fantasy Earth began when asymmetric digital subscriber lines (a high bandwidth connection technology allowing multiple people to access the same website) were becoming common, but the idea of a hundred players fighting each other was highly ambitious for its time and caused several problems. The game design was intended to be fast and action-based similar to first-person shooters, putting it in contrast with the command-based character control of most MMOs at the time. Several planned elements, such as stamina in battles and item or currency-based loss penalties, were dropped from the final release based on player feedback. Other issues included the lead staff changing multiple times, with Kamitani's departure being one of the more notable; enabling voice chat without crashing the system; and the merger of Square and Enix during the game's production. The music was composed primarily by a team from Basiscape, a company founded by former Square composer Hitoshi Sakimoto. Sakimoto came on board when Kamitani still led development. The music was co-composed by Sakimoto, Masaharu Iwata and Manabu Namiki. All three also handled arrangements for the soundtrack. Another contributor to the original version was Kenichi Koyano, an independent composer who had worked on a variety of titles.
The Ring of Dominion was announced in September 2004, scheduled for a release late in 2005. It was a notable game in Square Enix's business plan for its use of PlayOnline, a subscription-based online service platform for its titles at the time. It was the second announced game to use it after Final Fantasy XI, and formed part of the company's expanding corporate strategy at the time. It was promoted through Chains of Promathia, an expansion to Final Fantasy XI. Its first beta test began in October the following year. Due to its unusual network design, the team partnered with a local vocational school and installed the game client on their computers, enrolling its students in the beta test. For the different beta tests, they chose different kingdoms to represent, allowing them to adjust the balance so each would be able to have a chance in battles. The full game was released in Japan on February 23, 2006. It was originally released with the release model of an initial purchase fee followed by a monthly subscription. In November of that year, Square Enix transferred ownership and management of Fantasy Earth to Gamepot; the move came with a shift to item-based billing, with the base game being a free download.
Zero
With the transition from Square Enix to Gamepot, the game was renamed Fantasy Earth Zero. The game's title referred to its setting of Earth, the fantasy aesthetic, and the need to work together to win battles. It relaunched under its new title and model on December 7, 2006. Developer Multiterm changed its development structure to release regular updates and the change to item-based purchases positively altered both developer income and the general flow of gameplay compared to The Ring of Dominion. An issue with the item purchases was to make them both tempting for players and not mandatory, along with giving options for customisation. Due to this, several mechanics from The Ring of Dominion were adjusted and rebalanced for the systems of Zero. The next few years, the title underwent multiple updates to its gameplay systems, adding character classes and balance adjustments. Multiterm was merged with NHN Japan Corporation in 2007, and continued development in this capacity until 2008. The game also saw numerous collaborations with other video game series such as Trails.
As a result of discussions concerning the game's future between NHN Japan and Gamepot, staff members from Multiterm founded FenixSoft, which took over production of Fantasy Earth from NHN Japan. The game production and development was restructured; Square Enix maintained oversight of the game as supervisor and the original rights holder, Gamepot remained as publisher and server operator, and FenixSoft–later renamed SoftGear–handled actual game development. While some of the original staff remained, several new staff came on board to replace members who remained with NHN Japan. On March 30, 2012, a major update dubbed Chronicles was released for the game, featuring some gameplay adjustments, added environmental effects, and new characters with associated narratives. For the update, new battle themes were introduced. The themes were composed by Ryo Yamazaki, Hidenori Iwasaki and Tsuyoshi Sekito. In November 2015, Gamepot transferred all operations back to Square Enix. Between 2018 and 2020, production responsibilities were handed to Ocean Frontier.
Fantasy Earth Zero was released in Mainland China during April 2007 by Square Enix's local branch. For its release in Taiwan, Square Enix and Gamepot partnered with Gamania. It was released on July 25 that year under the title Fantasy Wars. Due to the end of the licensing agreement, the Taiwanese version was shut down on July 1, 2013. A North American release through Gamepot's local branch was announced in January 2010, supported by Square Enix. The title went through several beta tests, refining the game balance and stability before its final release. Square Enix handled the game's localization, which was described as an easy process. It was released in North America on May 18 the same year. Its North American servers were shut down on March 24, 2011, less than a year after the game's debut in the region. Square Enix closed Fantasy Earth Zero on September 28, 2022.
Reception
The release of The Ring of Dominion was a commercial failure, with low subscription rates contributing to it being sold to Gamepot. By contrast, Fantasy Earth Zero rapidly became very popular and one of Japan's most active online games of 2007. Between 2007 and 2009, registered active users increased from 200,000 to 700,000. By July 2011, the game was supporting one million concurrent players.
The original release met with a generally positive reception from Japanese critics, who praised its fast pace and addicting gameplay loops. Game Watch Impress, reviewing the version from the final beta test, called it one of the most innovative online experiences available at the time, praising its networking and gameplay loop, and looking forward to both its future game modes and its possible influence on the Japanese MMO market going forward. 4Gamer.net, again reviewing the last beta version, enjoyed the combat loop and movement, but noted that its interface and item management might be confusing for players.
Contemporary and retrospective of Fantasy Earth Zero were also positive, praising similar elements to its original release, but also noting mechanical improvements and positively mentioning the item billing system. Game Watch Impress, reviewing one year after its service started, again praised the gameplay and cited the changes implemented after The Ring of Dominion as an improvement both new and returning players would appreciate. 4Gamer.net, writing a gameplay report on a 2007 update, noted continued mechanical additions and improvements which helped keep the game alive and interesting. Famitsu, writing in 2020, noted its continuity and cited it as a good experience for casual players, praising its weapon variety and variety of battle modes.
Writing about a preview build for the press, MMORPG.coms Carolyn Koh had little commentary about the gameplay but noted "the graphics and animation look good and the music is superb". Christophor Rick of Gamers Daily News, also writing a preview based on the pre-release build, felt there was a lack of explanation for elements such as shops and tutorials for quick movement. Michael Sagoe of OnRPG, reviewing the North American release, found himself enjoying the gameplay despite not being a fan of battle-focused titles. PC Gamer noted its "surprising" success in Japan given its convoluted development history.
Legacy
Following their departure from production, Kamitani and Puraguru relocated to Kansai and renamed themselves Vanillaware, going on to develop multiple titles including Odin Sphere and a reimagined version of Dragon's Crown. Kamitani's parting with Square Enix was on poor terms, and he disliked the idea of working with the company again. Due to their earlier positive relationship, Kamitani has exclusively involved Basiscape and Sakimoto in his projects' music and sound design. The indie title Fantasy Versus, developed and published by Animu Games, was influenced by the gameplay of Fantasy Earth Zero.
A spin-off title set in the original game's universe, Melpharia March, was released on September 19, 2013 for iOS. An Android version was released on August 12 the following year. The gameplay used a field-based tower defense style similar to the Plants vs. Zombies series. Both versions were shut down on December 15, 2015.
A mobile sequel, Fantasy Earth Genesis, was developed by Asobimo under supervision from Square Enix for Android and iOS. It was originally scheduled for a Western release in partnership with Quantum Games, and made available for pre-registration. Its gameplay was a multiplayer online battle arena-style title sharing the parent game's 50-versus-50 player battles and summoned monsters. The title was proposed by Asobimo to Square Enix in 2015 as a mobile MMO using the Fantasy Earth intellectual property. The title was aimed both at newcomers to the game and veteran players of Fantasy Earth. The biggest challenge presented to the developers was adapting a PC-focused gameplay loop into the limited control options of a mobile title, in addition to the technical difficulties of replicating the original's large-scale battles. The team used assets from Fantasy Earth Zero to create the character models and environments. At release, it saw a mixed popular reception. Despite extensive support, Square Enix felt that it was becoming difficult to provide a satisfactory experience. Genesis ended service on March 31, 2020.
Notes
References
External links
2006 video games
Free-to-play video games
Inactive massively multiplayer online games
Massively multiplayer online role-playing games
Square Enix games
Video games scored by Hitoshi Sakimoto
Video games scored by Manabu Namiki
Video games scored by Masaharu Iwata
Video games scored by Tsuyoshi Sekito
Video games developed in Japan
Windows games
Windows-only games
Vanillaware games
Gamepot games
Gamania games | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy%20Earth%20Zero |
Corrosion fatigue is fatigue in a corrosive environment. It is the mechanical degradation of a material under the joint action of corrosion and cyclic loading. Nearly all engineering structures experience some form of alternating stress, and are exposed to harmful environments during their service life. The environment plays a significant role in the fatigue of high-strength structural materials like steel, aluminum alloys and titanium alloys. Materials with high specific strength are being developed to meet the requirements of advancing technology. However, their usefulness depends to a large extent on the degree to which they resist corrosion fatigue.
The effects of corrosive environments on the fatigue behavior of metals were studied as early as 1930.
The phenomenon should not be confused with stress corrosion cracking, where corrosion (such as pitting) leads to the development of brittle cracks, growth and failure. The only requirement for corrosion fatigue is that the sample be under tensile stress.
Effect of corrosion on S-N diagram
The effect of corrosion on a smooth-specimen S-N diagram is shown schematically on the right. Curve A shows the fatigue behavior of a material tested in air. A fatigue threshold (or limit) is seen in curve A, corresponding to the horizontal part of the curve. Curves B and C represent the fatigue behavior of the same material in two corrosive environments. In curve B, the fatigue failure at high stress levels is retarded, and the fatigue limit is eliminated. In curve C, the whole curve is shifted to the left; this indicates a general lowering in fatigue strength, accelerated initiation at higher stresses and elimination of the fatigue limit.
To meet the needs of advancing technology, higher-strength materials are developed through heat treatment or alloying. Such high-strength materials generally exhibit higher fatigue limits, and can be used at higher service stress levels even under fatigue loading. However, the presence of a corrosive environment during fatigue loading eliminates this stress advantage, since the fatigue limit becomes almost insensitive to the strength level for a particular group of alloys. This effect is schematically shown for several steels in the diagram on the left, which illustrates the debilitating effect of a corrosive environment on the functionality of high-strength materials under fatigue.
Corrosion fatigue in aqueous media is an electrochemical behavior. Fractures are initiated either by pitting or persistent slip bands. Corrosion fatigue may be reduced by alloy additions, inhibition and cathodic protection, all of which reduce pitting. Since corrosion-fatigue cracks initiate at a metal's surface, surface treatments like plating, cladding, nitriding and shot peening were found to improve the materials' resistance to this phenomenon.
Crack-propagation studies in corrosion fatigue
In normal fatigue-testing of smooth specimens, about 90 percent is spent in crack nucleation and only the remaining 10 percent in crack propagation. However, in corrosion fatigue crack nucleation is facilitated by corrosion; typically, about 10 percent of life is sufficient for this stage. The rest (90 percent) of life is spent in crack propagation. Thus, it is more useful to evaluate crack-propagation behavior during corrosion fatigue.
Fracture mechanics uses pre-cracked specimens, effectively measuring crack-propagation behavior. For this reason, emphasis is given to crack-propagation velocity measurements (using fracture mechanics) to study corrosion fatigue. Since fatigue crack grows in a stable fashion below the critical stress-intensity factor for fracture (fracture toughness), the process is called sub-critical crack growth.
The diagram on the right shows typical fatigue-crack-growth behavior. In this log-log plot, the crack-propagation velocity is plotted against the applied stress-intensity range. Generally there is a threshold stress-intensity range, below which crack-propagation velocity is insignificant. Three stages may be visualized in this plot. Near the threshold, crack-propagation velocity increases with increasing stress-intensity range. In the second region, the curve is nearly linear and follows Paris' law(6); in the third region crack-propagation velocity increases rapidly, with the stress-intensity range leading to fracture at the fracture-toughness value.
Crack propagation under corrosion fatigue may be classified as a) true corrosion fatigue, b) stress corrosion fatigue or c) a combination of true, stress and corrosion fatigue.
True corrosion fatigue
In true corrosion fatigue, the fatigue-crack-growth rate is enhanced by corrosion; this effect is seen in all three regions of the fatigue-crack growth-rate diagram. The diagram on the left is a schematic of crack-growth rate under true corrosion fatigue; the curve shifts to a lower stress-intensity-factor range in the corrosive environment. The threshold is lower (and the crack-growth velocities higher) at all stress-intensity factors. Specimen fracture occurs when the stress-intensity-factor range is equal to the applicable threshold-stress-intensity factor for stress-corrosion cracking.
When attempting to analyze the effects of corrosion fatigue on crack growth in a particular environment, both corrosion type and fatigue load levels affect crack growth in varying degrees. Common types of corrosion include filiform, pitting, exfoliation, intergranular; each will affect crack growth in a particular material in a distinct way. For instance, pitting will often be the most damaging type of corrosion, degrading a material's performance (by increasing the crack-growth rate) more than any other kind of corrosion; even pits of the order of a material's grain size may substantially degrade a material. The degree to which corrosion affects crack-growth rates also depends on fatigue-load levels; for instance, corrosion can cause a greater increase in crack-growth rates at a low loads than it does at a high load.
Stress-corrosion fatigue
In materials where the maximum applied-stress-intensity factor exceeds the stress-corrosion cracking-threshold value, stress corrosion adds to crack-growth velocity. This is shown in the schematic on the right. In a corrosive environment, the crack grows due to cyclic loading at a lower stress-intensity range; above the threshold stress intensity for stress corrosion cracking, additional crack growth (the red line) occurs due to SCC. The lower stress-intensity regions are not affected, and the threshold stress-intensity range for fatigue-crack propagation is unchanged in the corrosive environment. In the most-general case, corrosion-fatigue crack growth may exhibit both of the above effects; crack-growth behavior is represented in the schematic on the left.
See also
Corrosion
Cyclic corrosion testing
Metal Fatigue
Stress corrosion cracking
Stress
References
Structural engineering
Corrosion
Materials degradation
Fracture mechanics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion%20fatigue |
Škocjan (; ) is a settlement in the traditional region of Lower Carniola in southeastern Slovenia, best known as the birthplace of the Slovene missionary Ignatius Knoblecher (1819–1858). It is the seat of the Municipality of Škocjan and the Local Community of Škocjan within the municipality. The Municipality of Škocjan is now included in the Southeast Slovenia Statistical Region.
Vrh Estate
The Vrh Estate (in older sources also Kolešnik, ) stands 1 km west of Škocjan. By the 20th century it was reduced to a large farm owned by the Rupar family of Goriška Vas pri Škocjanu. The manor was built before 1667 by Wolfgang Blande. It passed through many owners over the following centuries and was purchased by the Rupar family in 1928.
Church
The local parish church from which the settlement gets its name is dedicated to Saint Cantius and Companions and belongs to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Novo Mesto. It is a medieval building that was extended in the 17th century and restyled in the Baroque style in the 18th century.
Notable people
Notable people that were born or lived in Škocjan include:
Ignatius Knoblecher (1819–1858), missionary and explorer of northeastern Africa
Franc Serafin Metelko (1789–1860), linguist, translator, writer and priest
(1792–1872), lexicographer, writer on economics, priest
References
External links
Škocjan on Geopedia
Populated places in the Municipality of Škocjan | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0kocjan%2C%20%C5%A0kocjan |
ELTA is a Lithuanian news agency based in the Lithuanian capital Vilnius. In a day, it receives about 5,000 news articles and produces about 300 articles in Lithuanian, Russian, and English. ELTA cooperates with foreign news agencies such as Reuters, ITAR-TASS, DPA, PAP, Xinhua, and others.
History
ELTA was founded in March 1920 in Kaunas, the temporary capital of Lithuania, by Juozas Eretas, the first director of the agency, a literature professor, publicist, and public figure of Swiss descent who sought to make the ELTA news wire as efficient and reliable as a "Swiss watch". ELTA was founded based on Lithuanian press bureaus that were established in Switzerland, Denmark, France, Sweden, Germany during World War I. The agency was owned by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Between 1920 and 1940, ELTA cooperated closely with the most prominent foreign agencies – its five teleprinters used to send news from Reuters (UK), DNB (Germany), Havas (France), Stefani (Italy) and TASS (Soviet Union). ELTA employed correspondents in Moscow and Berlin. When Soviet troops occupied Lithuania in 1940, ELTA was incorporated into TASS and relayed news from Moscow. Lithuanians who escaped the Soviet occupation established a free ELTA in Germany. The Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania (VLIK) published various ELTA bulletins in Lithuanian, German, Italian, English, Spanish, Portuguese.
When Lithuania declared independence in 1990, ELTA also re-established its independence from TASS and its direct contacts with the leading global agencies. In 1996, ELTA was partially sold by the government of Lithuania (the law required the government to retain at least 35% of the shares). In 2003, MG Baltic owned 50.86% and Achema Group owned 6.75% of the shares. Companies controlled by , publisher of the daily Respublika, acquired about 60% of ELTA in 2005. In 2006, , publisher of the daily Lietuvos aidas, acquired 39.51% of shares that were owned by the government. In August 2017, Gitana Markovičienė announced plans to purchase the controlling stake in ELTA and became the new CEO. The deal for the purchase of 80% of the shares closed in February 2018. GM Media Invest, owned by Markovičienė, acquired the remaining 20% of shares in January 2020 to become the sole owner of ELTA.
In 2022, Estonian AS Ekspress Grupp bought all ELTA shares and become single shareholder.
Directors
ELTA directors were:
See also
Eastern Bloc information dissemination
References
External links
Eastern Bloc mass media
News agencies based in Lithuania
1920 establishments in Lithuania
Mass media in Vilnius
Mass media companies established in 1920 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELTA |
The Municipality of Hrpelje-Kozina (; ) is a municipality in the Littoral region of Slovenia. Its seat is the village of Hrpelje.
A major border crossing to Italy is located in the municipality at the village of Krvavi Potok. It connects to Pesek in the Municipality of San Dorligo della Valle (Dolina) near Trieste on the Italian side.
Settlements
In addition to the municipal seat of Hrpelje, the municipality also includes the following settlements:
Artviže
Bač pri Materiji
Beka
Brezovica
Brezovo Brdo
Golac
Gradišče pri Materiji
Gradišica
Hotična
Javorje
Klanec pri Kozini
Kovčice
Kozina
Krvavi Potok
Markovščina
Materija
Mihele
Mrše
Nasirec
Obrov
Ocizla
Odolina
Orehek pri Materiji
Ostrovica
Petrinje
Poljane pri Podgradu
Povžane
Prešnica
Ritomeče
Rodik
Rožice
Skadanščina
Slivje
Slope
Tatre
Tublje pri Hrpeljah
Velike Loče
Vrhpolje
References
External links
Municipality of Hrpelje-Kozina on Geopedia
Hrpelje-Kozina
1994 establishments in Slovenia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipality%20of%20Hrpelje-Kozina |
Gheranda Samhita (IAST: gheraṇḍasaṁhitā, घेरंडसंहिता, meaning “Gheranda's collection”) is a Sanskrit text of Yoga in Hinduism. It is one of the three classic texts of hatha yoga (the other two being the Hatha Yoga Pradipika and the Shiva Samhita), and one of the most encyclopedic treatises in yoga. Fourteen manuscripts of the text are known, which were discovered in a region stretching from Bengal to Rajasthan. The first critical edition was published in 1933 by Adyar Library, and the second critical edition was published in 1978 by Digambarji and Ghote. Some of the Sanskrit manuscripts contain ungrammatical and incoherent verses, and some cite older Sanskrit texts.
It is likely a late 17th-century text, probably from northeast India, structured as a teaching manual based on a dialogue between Gheranda and Chanda. The text is organized into seven chapters and contains 351 shlokas (verses).
Book
The Gheranda Samhita calls itself a book on ghatastha yoga, which literally means "vessel yoga", wherein the body and mind are depicted as vessels that carry and serve the soul (atman, purusha). It is generally considered a Hatha yoga text. The text teaches a seven limbed yoga, in contrast to the eight-limbed yoga in Patanjali's Yogasutras, the six-limbed yoga of the Goraksha Samhita, and the four-limbed yoga in the Hatha Yoga Pradipika. It declares its goal to be the perfection of an individual's body, mind and soul through a seven step lifelong continuous self-development. The means of this goal include self purification, thirty two asanas it details for building body strength, twenty five mudras to perfect body steadiness, five means to pratyahara, lessons on proper nutrition and lifestyle, ten types of breathing exercises, three stages of meditation and six types of samadhi.
The text reverentially invokes Hindu god Shiva as well as Vishnu, with verses such as 5.77 and 7.4 suggesting that the writer was also inspired by Advaita Vedanta ideas such as "I am Brahman [Supreme Soul] alone, and nothing else; my form is truth, consciousness and bliss (satcitananda); I am eternally free".
Structure
Gheranda Samhita is a step by step detailed manual of yoga taught by sage Gheranda to student Chanda. Unlike other hatha yoga texts, the Gheranda Samhita speaks of a sevenfold yoga:
Shatkarma for body cleansing
Asana for body strengthening
Mudra for body steadying
Pratyahara for mind calming
Pranayama for inner lightness
Dhyana for inner perception
Samādhi for self liberation and bliss
The text itself follows this division in seven chapters, and has a focus upon the ṣaṭkarmas (shatkarma), thus this text is sometimes said to describe ghatastha yoga. For instance, the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali describes an eightfold path (yama and niyama instead of shatkarma and mudra, and addition of dharana). The closing stanzas on samadhi teach different methods than those described by Patanjali.
The earliest translation of the text into English was by Srisa Chandra Vasu.
References
Sources
Bahadur, Rai and Srisa Chandra Vasu. 1914-15 The Gheranda Samhita, (source)
External links
Version, interpretation and translation into Spanish, Dr. Fernando Estévez Griego (PDF)
Translation and commentary by Rai Bahadur Srisa Chandra Vasu, K. Pattabhi Jois school web.archive.org (PDF) (summary)
Hindu texts
Hatha yoga texts | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gheranda%20Samhita |
The Municipality of Dobrova–Polhov Gradec (; ) is a municipality in Slovenia. Its administrative seat is Dobrova.
History
Originally, according to the Establishment of Municipalities and Municipal Boundaries Act that came into effect on 1 January 1995, the municipality also included the town of Horjul and was named the Municipality of Dobrova–Horjul–Polhov Gradec (). After a ruling by the Slovene Constitutional Court, the local community of the town of Horjul gained its own municipality in 1998, named the Municipality of Horjul.
Settlements
In addition to the municipal seat of Dobrova, the municipality also includes the following settlements:
Babna Gora
Belica
Brezje pri Dobrovi
Briše pri Polhovem Gradcu
Butajnova
Črni Vrh
Dolenja Vas pri Polhovem Gradcu
Draževnik
Dvor pri Polhovem Gradcu
Gabrje
Hrastenice
Hruševo
Komanija
Log pri Polhovem Gradcu
Osredek pri Dobrovi
Planina nad Horjulom
Podreber
Podsmreka
Polhov Gradec
Praproče
Pristava pri Polhovem Gradcu
Razori
Rovt
Selo nad Polhovim Gradcem
Šentjošt nad Horjulom
Setnica
Setnik
Smolnik
Srednja Vas pri Polhovem Gradcu
Srednji Vrh
Stranska Vas
Šujica
Notable people
Notable people that were born or lived in the Municipality of Dobrova–Polhov Gradec include:
Emil Adamič (1877–1936), composer
Cardinal Aloysius Ambrozic (1930–2011), archbishop of Toronto
James Trobec (1838–1921), bishop of Saint Cloud, Minnesota
References
External links
Municipality of Dobrova–Polhov Gradec on Geopedia
Dobrova-Polhov Gradec municipal site
Dobrova-Polhov Gradec
1994 establishments in Slovenia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipality%20of%20Dobrova%E2%80%93Polhov%20Gradec |
Omar Ruben Rada Silva (born 16 July 1943) is a Uruguayan percussionist, composer, singer and television personality.
Closely associated with candombe, a genre built around a chorus of tamboriles, Uruguayan barrel drums, Rada has recorded more than thirty albums. His music, labelled candombe beat, combines pop, rock, and other styles with Uruguayan sounds, such as candombe drums and murga choruses.
Career
In 1965, he and Eduardo Mateo formed the band . This was the first group in Uruguay to create the beat genre in Spanish and to fuse rock with Latin American musical styles. In 1969 the success of his Candombe song "Las Manzanas" ("The Apples") led to his first solo album and participation in the Festival of Popular Music in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
A year later he formed the band Tótem. He has recorded more than thirty albums.
In 1977, he traveled to the United States after an invitation by the Fattoruso Brothers to play with the group OPA. Over the next year, he performed with Tom Scott, Ray Barretto, Hermeto Pascoal, and Flora Purim.
Between 1991 and 1994, he settled in Mexico, where he worked as a composer and arranger for local musicians such as Mijares, Eugenia León, Stephanie Salas, and Tania Libertad. In 1994 he shared the spotlight with Sting and UB40 at the Palacio de Deportes in Mexico City.
Rada has achieved renown outside the country and recorded under international labels, including EMI Latin and Universal Records. His songs are played worldwide and have been recorded by Milton Nascimento, Herb Alpert, and Lani Hall. He was invited by Jon Anderson and Joan Manuel Serrat to appear on their albums Deseo and Utopía, respectively. British singer Paul McCartney and Brazilian singer Milton Nascimento are among his admirers.
His albums Montevideo (1996) and Montevideo II (1999) were recorded in New York City with Hiram Bullock, Anton Fig, José Pedro Beledo, Hugo Fattoruso, Bakithi Kumalo, and Ringo Thielmann. Montevideo reached platinum sales in Uruguay
He voiced the part of Lucius Best/Frozone in the 2004 Argentinian dubbing of The Incredibles. He has directed radio and TV shows, such as Radar (radio) and El Teléfono (TV). Beginning in October 2007, he starred in the television sitcom La Oveja Negra (The Black Sheep).
In April 2010, the third round of the series LifeLines at the Haus der Kulturen der Welt in Berlin paid tribute to Rubén Rada. Three days of concerts and discussions took place about his life and career as part of the Bicentenario, focusing on 200 years of independence movements in Latin America.
Also in 2010, Rada recorded a show in the Argentine program Encuentro en El Estudio, which is run by that country's Ministry of Education.
Discography
The albums Magic Time (Opa – Fantasy Records), Montevideo, and Montevideo II (Big World) were released in the U.S., Japan, France, Italy, Sweden, and Germany.
Released in Uruguay
1968 Circa 1968 (Sondor)
1969 Las Manzanas (Sondor)
1970 Musicasión 4 ½ (Sondor)
1971 Totem (Sondor)
1972 Descarga (Sondor)
1972 Rada (Sondor)
1974 Camerata Punta del Este (Sondor)
1975 Radeces (Ayui)
1987 Botija de mi pais (Sondor)
1991 Fisico de Rock (Sondor)
1992 Concierto por la vida (Orfeo)
1993 Lo mejor de Rada Vol. I (Sondor)
1996 Botijas Band con Ruben Rada (Orfeo)
1996 Montevideo (Big World)
1997 Miscelanea Negra (Ayui)
1998 Black (Universal)
1999 Rada Para Ninos (Zapatito)
1999 Montevideo Dos (Big World)
2000 ¿Quien va a Cantar? (Universal)
2001 Suenos de Nino (Zapatito)
2003 Alegre Caballero (Zapatito)
2004 Rubenra (Zapatito)
2005 Candombe Jazz Tour (EMI)
2006 Richie Silver (EMI)
2007 Varsovia con Javier Malosetti (Zapatito/Oday)
2008 Bailongo (Sony)
2009 Fan (MMG)
2011 Confidence, Rada Instrumental (MMG)
2015 Tango, milonga y candombe (MMG)
Released in Argentina
1974 S.O.S.
1980 La Banda
1981 La Rada
1982 En Familia
1983 La Cosa Se Pone Negra
1984 Adar Nebur
1986 La Yapla Mata
1987 Siete Vidas
1989 Pa' los Uruguayos (Melopea)
1990 Las aventuras de R. Rada y Litto Nebbia(Melopea)
1991 Las aventuras de R. Rada y H. Fattoruso (Melopea)
1991 Terapia de Murga (Melopea)
1997 Montevideo (Argendisc)
1997 Miscelanea Negra (Aqua)
1998 Black (Universal)
2000 Quien Va a Cantar (Universal)
2003 Alegre Caballero (EMI)
2004 Rubenra (EMI)
2005 Candombe Jazz Tour (EMI)
2006 Richie Silver (EMI)
2007 Varsovia(Ruben Rada/Javier Malosetti) (Sony)
2008 Bailongo (Sony)
2010 Fan (Sony)
2011 Confidence, Rada Instrumental (Sony)
2015 Tango, milonga y candombe (MMG)
Filmography
Film
Television
Personal life
Rada, an Afro-Uruguayan, is of partial Brazilian descent through his mother.
See also
Uruguayan rock
Candombe
Tótem (band)
References
External links
Article on culturebase.net: "Uruguay’s Undiscovered Giant"
The Latin Recording Academy press release 2011 Special Awards
"Afro-Uruguayan innovator Ruben RADA Receives 2011 Lifetime Achievement Award from The Latin Recording Academy"
1943 births
Living people
Afro-Uruguayan
Musicians from Montevideo
Singers from Montevideo
Uruguayan musicians
20th-century Uruguayan male singers
Uruguayan songwriters
Male songwriters
Uruguayan jazz musicians
Uruguayan percussionists
21st-century Uruguayan male singers
Grammy Award winners
Latin Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners
Latin music songwriters
Uruguayan people of Brazilian descent
Male jazz musicians
Opa (Uruguayan band) members
Recipients of the Delmira Agustini Medal | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rub%C3%A9n%20Rada |
Medvode (; ) is a town in Slovenia. It is the seat of the Municipality of Medvode. The Sava and Sora rivers join in Medvode, from which the town's name (which means 'between the waters') is derived.
History
Following the annexation of Carantania by Bavarians, the area came under control of Germanic nobles and feudalists. These noticed that the nearby Medanski hill provided a good view over the Medvode and Ljubljana Basin.
Medvode gained greater importance in the 15th century, when the Emperor gave Kranj, Radovljica and Trzin the right to build a bridge and collect bridge tolls. In the 19th century, the town also began collecting road tolls.
During that period, Medvode also got a railway station and a savings bank. Due to that, industry began to develop in the town as well, along with an older paper mill in Goričane. A food oil factory was established in Medvode prior to the First World War. During the Interwar, textile and carpentry industries were established as well, many of which persist up until this day (namely the factory Donit).
After the Second World War, a Yugoslav labor camp for political prisoners operated in Medvode.
Industry
Two large factories, Color and Donit, are based in Medvode. The Sava River at Medvode is also the location of the Medvode Hydroelectric Power Plant. The hydroelectric plant was built in part using forced labor by Catholic priests held as political prisoners after the Second World War. There are a total of 1570 companies registered in Medvode that generate a total of 454,714,000€ annually.
Previously, there was a lead and quicksilver mine in Ločnica Valley, to the south of Medvode. In the 19th century, the town was increasingly famous to cities as far as Vienna as a tourist spot. The Sora River once attracted many bathers. During summers, a special vacations train connected the town with Kranj and Ljubljana. In 2018, a total of 35,802 tourists spent their nights in Medvode, including 33,966 foreign and 1,836 Slovene ones.
References
External links
Medvode on Geopedia
Populated places in the Municipality of Medvode
Cities and towns in Upper Carniola | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medvode |
Seve Paeniu (born 11 February 1965) is a Tuvaluan politician. Paeniu was elected to the Parliament of Tuvalu in the 2019 Tuvaluan general election to represent the Nukulaelae electorate. He was appointed as the Minister of Finance in the Natano Ministry.
Education and career
Paeniu attended Nelson College, New Zealand (1983–1984). Paeniu graduated from Canterbury University in Christchurch, New Zealand, with a Bachelor of Commerce degree in 1987. He went on to complete a Master of Arts degree in economics in 1995 at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.
He served as Assistant Planning Officer with Tuvalu's Ministry of Finance from May 1988 to August 1989. In September 1989 he became the Ministry's Director of Planning, serving until December 1993. He was also Economic Consultant with the Asian Development Bank for the Republic of the Marshall Islands May to July 2000. Later that year, he became the director of the Ministry's economic research and policy division. In January 2002, he transferred to the Ministry of Education and Sports, serving as Permanent Secretary until August 2003, when he moved back to the Ministry of Finance, Economic Planning and Industries as Permanent Secretary.(August 2003 – December 2005).
On his appointment as Tuvaluan High Commissioner to Fiji, Paeniu presented his credentials to Fiji's Acting President Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi on 21 February 2006. He was terminated after a new Government in Tuvalu came into office in December.
He was the Sustainable Development Adviser of the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) in Apia, Samoa (March 2007 – June 2010). Secretary for Finance for Nauru (July 2010 – June 2012). Consultant with the UNDP, the UNESCAP and Peer Review Consultant with the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat (September 2012 – June 2013). Economic and Finance Adviser to the Nauru Minister for Finance (July 2013 – July 2015). Head of Secretariat of the Oceania Customs Organisation (OCO), (August 2015 to September 2019).
Political career
Paeniu was elected to the Parliament of Tuvalu in the 2019 Tuvaluan general election to represent the Nukulaelae electorate. He was appointed as the Minister for Finance in the Natano Ministry.
As the Minister of Finance, he acts as the governor of the National Bank of Tuvalu, and he represents the government of Tuvalu on the board of directors of the Tuvalu Trust Fund. He also represents Tuvalu on the board of governors of the Asian Development Bank. On 18 October 2019, he attended the annual meetings of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank Group, representing the 9 Pacific Island Countries (PICs) of the Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Palau, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Tuvalu. While finance minister he represented Tuvalu at the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Glasgow.
Personal life
Paeniu married Malama Lipine Te'o on 7 February 1990. They have five children.
He is a nephew of Bikenibeu Paeniu, who was a former prime minister of Tuvalu.
References
1965 births
Living people
Finance Ministers of Tuvalu
High Commissioners of Tuvalu to Fiji
Members of the Parliament of Tuvalu
University of Canterbury alumni
University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa alumni
People educated at Nelson College | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seve%20Paeniu |
The Municipality of Pesnica () is a municipality in northeastern Slovenia. The seat of the municipality is Pesnica pri Mariboru, a suburb near Maribor. It lies at the western end of the Slovene Hills in the Upper Pesnica Valley. The area is part of the traditional region of Styria. It is now included in the Drava Statistical Region as part of the Pesnica Administrative Unit (). The main economic activities in the area are tourism, transportation, viticulture, winemaking, craftsmanship and farming.
Settlements
In addition to the municipal seat of Pesnica pri Mariboru, the municipality also includes the following settlements:
Dolnja Počehova
Dragučova
Drankovec
Flekušek
Gačnik
Jareninski Dol
Jareninski Vrh
Jelenče
Kušernik
Ložane
Mali Dol
Pernica
Pesniški Dvor
Počenik
Polička Vas
Polički Vrh
Ranca
Ročica
Slatenik
Spodnje Dobrenje
Spodnje Hlapje
Spodnji Jakobski Dol
Vajgen
Vosek
Vukovje
Vukovski Dol
Vukovski Vrh
Zgornje Hlapje
Zgornji Jakobski Dol
Notable people
Notable people from Pesnica include:
Rene Krhin (born 1990), a football player
Jan Muršak (born 1988), a hockey player
Tone Partljič (born 1940), a writer, screenwriter, and politician
(1961–1992), a writer and journalist who was killed in Sarajevo during the war
References
External links
Municipality of Pesnica on Geopedia
Pesnica municipal site
Pesnica
Pesnica
1994 establishments in Slovenia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipality%20of%20Pesnica |
Cerklje na Gorenjskem (; ) is a village in northwestern Slovenia. It is the seat of the Municipality of Cerklje na Gorenjskem.
Geography
Cerklje na Gorenjskem lies at the foot of Mount Krvavec. It is surrounded by forests, fields, and other agricultural areas.
Name
Cerklje na Gorenjskem was attested in historical sources in 1147 as Sancta Maria (and as Ecclesia sancte Marie in Cirkelach in 1239 and Zirchlach in 1271). The name Cerklje is derived from the plural demonym *Cerkъvľane (< *cerьky 'church'), meaning 'people living on church territory' or 'residents of the village with the church'. In the distant past, the settlement was also known as Trnovlje in Slovene (attested as in Tirnovlach in 1239), from the church dedicated to Our Lady of the Thorn (). The name of the settlement was changed from Cerklje to Cerklje na Gorenjskem in 1952. In the past the German name was Zirklach.
Recreation
Cerklje na Gorenjskem is a popular starting point for hiking and biking, and for other activities in the vicinity, such as skiing at Mount Krvavec, mountain hiking, climbing, and paragliding.
Notable people
Notable people that were born or lived in Cerklje na Gorenjskem include:
France Barle (1864–1928), fire department organizer
Ignacij Borštnik (1858–1919), theater actor
Ivan Lavrenčič (1857–1930), historian and politician
Matej Medved (1796–1865), builder of several churches in Slovenia
Ivan Šturm (1856–1935), theater actor
Andrej Vavken (1838–1898), composer and mayor
Distances (in a straight line)
Cerklje to Ljubljana = 22 km
Cerklje to Kranj = 11 km
Cerklje to Kamnik = 10 km
Cerklje to Šenčur = 5 km
Cerklje to Mount Krvavec = 6 km
References
External links
Cerklje na Gorenjskem on Geopedia
Populated places in the Municipality of Cerklje na Gorenjskem | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerklje%20na%20Gorenjskem |
The Apostolic Church of South Africa – Apostle Unity is the South African branch of the United Apostolic Church. It has roots in the Catholic Apostolic Church of the early 19th century. It was founded in 1955 as a schism of the New Apostolic Church. It is part of a branch of Christianity called Irvingism and is separate from Protestantism.
It is a member church of the United Apostolic Church, which was founded in Düsseldorf, Germany in 1956 after several apostles of the New Apostolic Church were excommunicated for refusing to accept the teachings of the Chief Apostle that Jesus Christ would return in his lifetime.
Its logo is a four R-symbol, which is also used by the Australian sister church, The Apostolic Church of Queensland. The four "R"s stand for: Right, Royal, Righteous and Rich. Right according to the Bible, Royal as the Bride to have membership with Christ, Righteous in partaking of the body and blood of Christ and Rich in the promises Christ gave to his apostles.
History
History of the Klibbe group
In 1889, Evangelist Carl George Klibbe arrived in South Africa to begin his mission work for the Apostolic Church. He was ordained as an Apostle in 1893 by Apostle H.F. Niemeyer of Australia. At that time, the office of Chief Apostle had not been established and each Apostle functioned independently from one another. Due to the personality cult of Chief Apostle Hermann Niehaus, Niemeyer separated himself from the German branch of the Church and founded The Apostolic Church of Queensland in 1912. In 1913, Klibbe was excommunicated from the New Apostolic Church. He then founded the New Apostolic Church (Africa). Klibbe later renamed the church the Old Apostolic Church of Africa. Also in 1913, he ordained his son-in-law H. Velde as priest in Swakopmund, Namibia. Velde was sent to Johannesburg. Later he was ordained as elder and as an evangelist.
Apostle H.F. Niemeyer died in 1920, and was succeeded by his son, Wilhelm Niemeyer. A break occurred between the young Niemeyer and Klibbe when, in 1925, Apostle Wilhelm Niemeyer appointed Hendrik Velde as Apostle for Africa, and Velde and his followers founded a separate Church from Klibbe, named The Apostolic Church of South Africa. On 27 September 1956 Velde died after a traffic accident in Wynberg, Cape Town.
History of the excommunicated group of the New Apostolic Church
When Apostle Klibbe was excommunicated in 1913, a counter-Apostle Wilhelm Schlaphoff was appointed by Chief Apostle Hermann Niehaus. Schlaphoff formed a new branch of the New Apostolic Church in South Africa after the original South African branch declared independence in 1915. Since that time, two churches in South Africa have been named the New Apostolic Church. The independent branch became the Old Apostolic Church in 1926 after an agreement was reached between Klibbe and Kreunen, a member of the New Apostolic Church. Due to the "Botschaft" of the Chief Apostle Johann Gottfried Bischoff, the New Apostolic Church suffered serious conflicts in the 1950s. In 1954, the apostles Philippus Jacobus Erasmus (1904–1960) and D.C.S. Malan (1918–1968) were excommunicated. Heinrich Franz Schlaphoff (1894–1965) resigned from his office as Apostle. They administered a prosperous district of about 60,000 members. They founded the Apostolic Church and many members of the New Apostolic Church followed them.
Union
The sudden death of Apostle Velde caused them to cancel a previously arranged meeting with the excommunicated group. The Australian Apostle Zielke asked Elder Petersen of the Apostolic Church of South Africa to meet with the excommunicated Apostles Erasmus and Malan. In Cape Town, they reached an agreement on 23 November 1956 to merge the two churches. About 800 members and three church buildings were brought into the new Apostolic Church (Apostle Unity) from the Klibbe group. In July 1956, the excommunicated group joined the newly founded International Federation of the United Apostolic Church.
On 14 May 1972, two new apostles were ordained: Johannes Philippus Erasmus (1943) and Josua Jeremia Joubert (1932). In 1978, Philippus Jacobus Erasmus retired. He died on 26 October 1986. In 1989, a mission was opened in the homeland of Venda. In February 1993, the congregations celebrated their centenary. At the end of July 1997, Apostle Joubert retired. Two new apostles - the son and son in law - were ordained: P.J. Erasmus (2017) and James Slabbert (2019). The Apostle Johannes Philippus Erasmus died on 10 June 2021 after a Corona infection.
Administration
The church is divided into 10 districts with 34 parishes which are mainly situated in the provinces of Western Cape, Gauteng, North West, Polokwane, Eastern Cape Northen Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga. The church's headquarters is located in Johannesburg in Gauteng province.
References
Further reading
Wissen, Volker, Zur Freiheit berufen - Ein Portrait der Vereinigung Apostolischer Gemeinden und ihrer Gliedkirchen, Remscheid 2008,
External links
Apostolic Church of South Africa – Apostle Unity - http://www.apostleunity.co.za
United Apostolic Church - http://www.united-apostolic.org
Catholic Apostolic Church denominations
Churches in South Africa
1955 establishments in South Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic%20Church%20of%20South%20Africa%20%E2%80%93%20Apostle%20Unity |
Dolenjske Toplice (; ) is a settlement near Novo Mesto in southeastern Slovenia and is the seat of the Municipality of Dolenjske Toplice. The area is part of the traditional region of Lower Carniola. The municipality is now included in the Southeast Slovenia Statistical Region. The town lies on the Sušica River, which joins the Krka 2 km north of town. It is a spa town known for its thermal baths established in 1658 by the Counts of Auersperg. The settlement has a population of around 900.
Name
Dolenjske Toplice was attested in historical sources as Topliz in 1228 and Toplicz in 1328. The name of the settlement was changed from Toplice to Dolenjske Toplice in 1953. The historical German name was Töplitz. The name comes from the Slovene common noun toplica 'hot spring'.
Church
The parish church in the settlement is dedicated to Saint Anne and belongs to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Novo Mesto. It is a Gothic building that was restyled in the Baroque in the late 17th century. The parish currently covers the parishes of Soteska, Kočevske Poljane, and Uršna Sela, which are without priests.
Spa
The village lies on several tectonic faults, where water can penetrate deep into the crust and heat up. This water has been well known for its healing abilities for hundreds of years. Today there is a spa built around these warm springs, which is the biggest business in the settlement. There are hotels, a wellness facility, and pools.
Gallery
References
External links
Dolenjske Toplice on Geopedia
Populated places in the Municipality of Dolenjske Toplice
Spa towns in Slovenia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolenjske%20Toplice |
The Municipality of Moravske Toplice (; ) is a municipality in Slovenia, part of the Prekmurje region. Its seat is the spa settlement of Moravske Toplice. The municipality is an important center of Lutheranism in Slovenia. Large Lutheran churches are found throughout the municipality.
Settlements
In addition to the municipal seat of Moravske Toplice, the municipality also includes the following settlements:
Andrejci
Berkovci
Bogojina
Bukovnica
Čikečka Vas
Filovci
Fokovci
Ivanci
Ivanjševci
Ivanovci
Kančevci
Krnci
Lončarovci
Lukačevci
Martjanci
Mlajtinci
Motvarjevci
Noršinci
Pordašinci
Prosenjakovci
Ratkovci
Sebeborci
Selo
Središče
Suhi Vrh
Tešanovci
Vučja Gomila
Demographics
Population by native language, 2002 census
Slovene: 5,617 (91.32%)
Hungarian: 324 (5.26%)
Others and Unknown: 210 (3.42%)
Total: 6,151
The majority of the population is Roman Catholic, but the Lutheran minority makes up more than 40% of the population.
References
External links
Municipality of Moravske Toplice on Geopedia
Moravske Toplice municipal site
Moravske Toplice
1994 establishments in Slovenia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipality%20of%20Moravske%20Toplice |
Andrew R. Heinze (born 19 January 1955) is an American playwright, non-fiction author, and scholar of American history. Growing up in New Jersey in a close-knit Jewish family, he left home at fourteen to attend Blair Academy, graduated from Amherst College in Massachusetts, and moved to California. He did his graduate work at the University of California, Berkeley, training in American history, with an emphasis on the history of race, immigration and the history of American Jews. During his academic career he taught both American and Jewish history at several American universities and was a tenured professor of history at the University of San Francisco, where he was director of the Swig Judaic Studies Program, holding the Mae and Benjamin Swig Chair and creating several new programs including an Ulpan and a Judaic studies lecture series.
He has written extensively about the American Jewish social, intellectual and cultural experience, and is the author of Adapting to Abundance (1990), the first full-length study of the impact of American consumer culture on an immigrant group, as well as Jews and the American Soul (2004), which hypothesizes that Jewish intellectuals provided a framework that came to shape the American psyche. He co-authored two books that deal with race and ethnicity, and he has contributed to a wide variety of scholarly journals as well as to popular newspapers, periodicals and online publications. His books and articles have been widely reviewed, praised in the scholarly community, and cited extensively.
In 2006, feeling creatively stifled by the confines of academic writing, he left his tenured full professorship at USF and moved to New York City to begin playwriting. He has written one-act as well as full-length plays, many of them focusing on the historical and Jewish themes that had absorbed him in his former career; these include a comedy about Moses and his family, a drama about a New York Jewish family adjusting to life after World War II, and a drama about an Israeli Russian immigrant who, in desperation, has turned to prostitution. His plays have been produced Off-Broadway in New York City and around the United States; several have won awards in national playwriting competitions.
Early life and education
Andrew R. Heinze was born on January 19, 1955, into a close-knit Jewish family in Passaic, New Jersey. His paternal grandmother (also born in Passaic) was one of eight children born to a self-made Polish Jew who had supplied coal to the city of Passaic. Heinze memorialized his grandmother in an article he wrote for The Jewish Daily Forward shortly after she died at the age of 101; he described her as a flamboyant, stylish, and impeccably dressed woman, and he recalled that after his grandfather (her husband of 60 years) had died, she "kept on going, honestly confessing her loneliness but unflaggingly maintaining her enthusiasm for life and for us." He quoted her as frequently giving him the reminder, "We are 100% Americans, dear, always remember that!" Heinze has a close relationship with his parents; in his acknowledgements of his second book, he wrote, "I have been blessed with extraordinarily devoted parents who enabled me, as a child, to feel at home in the world." His mother, he said, is a woman of "gentle disposition, sensitivity to human qualities that others overlook, vivacious imagination, love of art, and whimsical sense of humor," and his father he described as a man of "great loyalty, heartfelt devotion, and frequent praise [that] helped me set my sights high and pick myself up when fallen low."
At age fourteen Heinze won a scholarship to Blair Academy, a private boarding school in Warren County, New Jersey. His experience at Blair was formative. It was there that he first discovered a fascination with both writing and history. In a 2005 interview, he recalled that he had relished the mental stimulation his Blair teachers had given him, that they took his intellectual growth very seriously, and that he still recalled distinct lectures from many of his classes. He honed his writing skills working for Blair's school newspaper; he started as a reporter doing local news and human interest stories and ended up as the paper's editor-in-chief. Graduating from Blair in 1973, he won a Bodman Foundation scholarship which enabled him to attend Amherst College, where he received his BA in 1977, graduating magna cum laude. After graduating from Amherst, he left the East Coast, moved to California, and attended graduate school at the University of California, Berkeley where he received his MA (1980) and his PhD (1987) in American history.
Academic career
Heinze's first professorship was at San Jose State University, where he taught United States History and won San Jose State University's Meritorious Performance and Professional Promise Award for 1988–1989. He later taught United States History at the University of California, Davis and the University of California, Berkeley before becoming a tenured full professor at the University of San Francisco, where he taught American history from 1994 to 2006. He won the University of San Francisco's Ignatian Faculty Service Award in 2003.
Heinze specialized in the history of race and immigration in the United States, the evolution of American consumer culture, and the interaction between psychology and religion in American history. He researched and taught extensively on both African-Americans and Jews in the United States, and he maintained strong interests in relations between Christianity and Judaism, religion and homosexuality, racism and antisemitism.
In 1997 Heinze, who was faculty adviser to USF's Jewish Student Union, was appointed to be the Mae and Benjamin Swig Chair in the Swig Judaic Studies Program and to direct the program. The Swig program was established in 1977 and is believed to have been the first such program established in a Catholic university. Heinze's first act as director was to invite Jan Karski, a man he had long admired, to speak at the program's upcoming 20th anniversary dinner. Karski, renowned for his active role in the Polish resistance movement in World War II, delivered the keynote address before an audience that included former secretary of state, George Shultz.
To solidify the Swig Program's academic standing, Heinze created a Jewish Studies Certificate program and expanded the curriculum beyond the theology department by introducing courses in Hebrew, Jewish history, The Holocaust, Jewish American literature, and Yiddish culture. Free public lectures and programs were made available to the general public, and in 1998 he created Ulpan San Francisco, an intense Israeli-style Hebrew immersion program that was scheduled during the summer and served anyone living in the San Francisco Bay area; it was the first such program to be offered there and is still a part of that community.
In 1998 Heinze inaugurated The Swig Annual Lecture Series (1998–2005) which brought distinguished scholars to the university; the lectures were presented free to the general public and were published and distributed to universities, public libraries, and individual scholars in the United States and abroad. Heinze hand-picked the topics as well as the participating lecturers, bringing public attention to a range of often controversial subjects that were of special interest to him. Two of the lectures garnered particularly strong public interest: one dealt with relations between Catholicism and Judaism (the speakers were Cardinal Edward Cassidy, president of the Pontifical Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews, and renowned British rabbi, Rabbi Norman Solomon). The other lecture focused on homosexuality. Heinze had wanted to discover if there was a way "gay and lesbian Jews and Christians [might] find a more comfortable place within their faith-communities." (He had wanted to include Muslim speakers but was unable to find anyone.) The lecture was presented in the form of a symposium and was entitled "New Jewish and Christian Approaches to Homosexuality." Even in the liberal community of San Francisco, it sparked heated debate because established religion did not normally deal explicitly with the issue.
Non-fiction writing
Scholarly writings
Heinze's first book, Adapting to Abundance: Jewish Immigrants, Mass Consumption, and the Search for American Identity, was published in 1990. It was the first full-length study of the impact of American consumer culture on an immigrant group. Hasia Diner, professor of history at New York University, said about Heinze: “Historians of immigration and Jewish history will be indebted to him for opening up whole areas of behavior which they previously shrugged off as irrelevant.” The Journal of Consumer Affairs remarked upon the variety of topics that the book explored: the rise of ad campaigns for major American products in the foreign-language press; the rise of the summer vacation among working people; installment-buying as a way for working families to obtain expensive furnishings such as pianos; the role of Jewish women as agents of assimilation through their control over family purchases; and the way that American abundance altered religious rituals, especially holidays such as Chanukah and Passover. Adapting to Abundance established Heinze's reputation as part of a scholarly vanguard that produced the first histories of mass consumption in Europe and America. It is widely referenced in books, articles and syllabi around the world.
In 2004 Heinze published Jews and the American Soul: Human Nature in the Twentieth Century. David Hollinger, professor of history at the University of California, Berkeley said, "Jews and the American Soul is the most forthright, probing, nuanced, and carefully documented book yet addressed to the ways in which modern American culture has been influenced by Jews. A truly distinctive work of American history." Jon Butler, professor of American studies, history, and religious studies at Yale University, said about the book, "Heinze explains how Jewish intellectuals uncovered and explicated the marrow of American identity even as, or precisely because, they sought to secure their place in an America that did not always want them. Heinze uplifts an unexpected, enlightening story with insight, grace, and not infrequent irony--a simply fascinating read." It was named one of the "Best Books of 2004" by Publishers Weekly, was runner up in the 2005 National Jewish Book Award in the American Jewish History category, and was a Jewish Book Council Finalist for the 2004 Weinberg Judaic Studies Institute Book Award, University of Scranton.
Heinze was one of nine authors who contributed to The Columbia Documentary History of Race and Ethnicity in America (Columbia University Press), and to the abridged Race and Ethnicity in America: A Concise History. The Columbia Documentary History was praised as a "massive collection of primary-source documents dealing with 'the other' in America... [including]... an extensive introductory essay by a leading historian in the field."
His scholarly articles have appeared in a wide variety of journals, including Journal of American History, Judaism. American Quarterly, Religion and American Culture, American Jewish History, Journal of the West, American Jewish Archives, and Reviews in American History.
Opinion pieces and essays
Heinze's essays and opinion pieces have been widely published in newspapers, journals, periodicals and online publications. His opinion pieces are occasionally political, sometimes historical, but most focus on timely issues involving race, immigration or religion. His essays, in contrast, are often cultural critiques of popular books, television shows or movies. Sometimes his essays explore his own family or his personal life; sometimes they are serious, but often they are light-hearted or comic.
Opinion pieces
Heinze's opinion pieces rarely focus on politics, but in 2002 on the History News Network, he faulted George W. Bush for giving "a businessman's response" to questions about corporate greed. He suggested that Theodore Roosevelt (one of his favorite historical figures) would have spoken differently. "Theodore Roosevelt," Heinze said, "never thought or spoke like a businessman. On the contrary," he pointed out, "he placed military men, statesmen and even scholars – but not businessmen – at the top of his hierarchy of values... Selfishness, especially materialistic selfishness, offended him as a profound moral dereliction."
Heinze has often written about antisemitism, but his concerns have usually focused on countries other than the United States. "One of the reasons Jews have traditionally viewed America as a promised land is the comparative absence of violence against them," he said. In 1999, however, Buford Furrow and the Los Angeles Jewish Community Center shooting got his attention, and he wrote an opinion piece about it for the San Francisco Examiner. "Standing at the end of the decade, the century and the millennium," he wrote, "I think we must agree with Buford Furrow about one thing. The attack on a Jewish day care center in Los Angeles is a wake-up call."
Heinze has written a number of opinion pieces that have focused on the relations between Catholics and Jews. It was logical that he would be interested in the subject because he was a Jew who worked in a Catholic university, he was faculty advisor for the school's Jewish Student Union, and he was director of the school's Jewish Studies program. There was another, more personal, reason for his interest, however; in 1997 he had met Jan Karski, the courageous Polish Catholic who was recognized in 1982 as Righteous Among the Nations for his efforts to help the Jews in World War II. (Karski had said in 1981, "just as my wife’s entire family was wiped out in the ghettos of Poland, in its concentration camps and crematoria — so have all the Jews who were slaughtered become my family. But I am a Christian Jew... I am a practicing Catholic... My faith tells me the second original sin has been committed by humanity. This sin will haunt humanity to the end of time. And I want it to be so.”) After Karski delivered the keynote address at the first Swig function Heinze had presided over, he had spent some personal time with Heinze and his family; Heinze never forgot Karski's gentle warmth, his integrity and his courage.
In 1998 Heinze wrote an opinion piece for the Examiner, "The Vatican Repents Catholic Anti-Semitism;" it focused on the long-awaited and newly released document, We Remember: A Reflection on the Shoah, published by Cardinal Edward Cassidy, president of the Pontifical Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews. The document had caused heated controversy; many critics argued that it didn't go far enough in taking responsibility for the past. Heinze's Examiner article opened with the story of Bernard Lichtenberg, a Catholic priest who was arrested in 1941 by the Berlin Gestapo because he had publicly prayed for the Jews; after his arrest, Lichtenberg asked to be sent away with the Jews so that he could pray for their welfare. He spent the next two years in a Nazi prison camp and died on his way to Dachau. After telling the story of Father Lichtenberg, Heinze gave his opinion of the We Remember document. He agreed with the critics that "The Catholic Church must reckon with historical fact, proving its awareness of sin in high places." "But," he added, "the rest of us must encourage the message of repentance and renewal the church is preaching to its followers because, in the end, that is what produces people such as Bernard Lichtenberg." It was an opinion piece that encouraged reconciliation, not anger. Two years later Heinze invited Cardinal Cassidy to San Francisco to participate in a Swig lecture on interfaith understanding. Cardinal Cassidy accepted the invitation.
Essays
In his Jewish Daily Forward essay, "Breaking the Mold of the Sitcom," Heinze analyzes his favorite TV comedy, Seinfeld, casting an affectionate eye on the show's creators, Jerry Seinfeld and Larry David, and marveling at their success in probing "the many gestures, innuendoes and gaps in the messages we send each other every day in every type of situation. Those, they know, contain the real meanings that pass back and forth beneath the surface of our conventions. Those are the explosives littering the minefield that is life in society." Heinze is stunned that the show is able to pack so much original comedy into twenty-two minutes of airtime, and he has little sympathy for people who dismiss the show as being shallow or neurotically self-focused: "People with little sense of humor have failed, time and again, to understand that the notorious self-centeredness of the show’s characters enables us to laugh at the selfish, neurotic traits we all share but prefer to disguise."
In another Jewish Daily Forward essay, "Life Among the Goyim," Heinze looks at the British comedian, Sacha Baron Cohen, and his TV comedy, Da Ali G Show, whose title character is a parody of a "white wannabe-gangsta rapper who not only adopts all the appropriate clothes, gestures and locutions but also convinces himself that he is black." In his essay, Heinze points out that Baron Cohen is a Jew who speaks Hebrew and keeps kosher; and his undergraduate history thesis at Cambridge University was on black-Jewish relations. Yet, Heinze wonders, is there anything about his comedy that is specifically Jewish? For Heinze, the answer is yes, and he arrives at the "yes" in the following whimsical way: "If we take 'goyim' loosely to mean people who are strange, often affable, and potentially dangerous, then, yes, 'Da Ali G Show' is Jewish comedy and we, in our digital phantasmagoria of a world, are all goyim, all on camera, all the time."
"A Lost Chapter From the Life of Oz" (also in The Jewish Daily Forward) explores Amos Oz's 2005 memoir, A Tale of Love and Darkness. Heinze (who speaks Hebrew) noticed that the English translation was missing a chapter (chapter five). His essay is built on that discovery, and it seems the missing chapter was extracted (presumably by the editors) because it was a rant against "bad readers." It was thought, apparently, that chapter five would interrupt the flow of the book, or otherwise "put-off" the English-speaking audience. As to the actual information in chapter five: Oz believes that "bad readers" are intrusive; they are inquisitive about the author's life; they ask very personal questions; they pry; they make his life hell; they behave like the people on TMZ. Oz equates "the bad reader" with “a psychopathic lover.” Heinze was fascinated by the missing chapter and by Oz's assessment of things, and he approached the memoir (and its missing chapter) from an interesting slant, comparing it to the memoir Hunger of Memory by Richard Rodriguez, whose editors also tried (unsuccessfully) to get him to take out certain controversial passages from his book.
Theatrical career
In a 2005 interview, Heinze spoke of the creative frustration that led him to leave academia. "Even though I was doing a lot of academic writing," he said, "I had this ceaseless, nagging feeling that I wasn't fulfilling myself creatively... I finally took the plunge into a real fiction project... [and] it became clear to me that creative rather than scholarly writing was my real métier." He chose playwriting, in particular, because of Joe Orton; the intensity, intelligence and dark humor of Orton's plays had fascinated him. In 2006 he left his tenured full professorship at USF, moved to New York City, and embarked on a career in playwriting.
His first full-length play, Turtles All the Way Down, although unproduced, was praised by the Soho Theatre in London as "an accomplished first effort...sharp and highly enjoyable... very theatrical: fast moving with lots of humour." His next play, The Invention of the Living Room, started as a one-act play; it was produced in 2009 by HB Studio in Manhattan's West Village, and it had a second production at the Metropolitan Playhouse in the East Village.
The play focused on a Lower East Side Jewish family, struggling in the aftermath of World War II. Heinze expanded it into a full-length version that won a place in the Harriet Lake Festival of New Plays at the Orlando Shakespeare Theater in 2011. In 2012 it was a Finalist for the Blue Ink Playwriting Award given by the American Blues Theater in Chicago, and in 2014 it won the Texas NonProfit Theatres' New Play Project, with a World Premiere at the Tyler Civic Theatre.
He wrote Hamilton, a tragedy about Alexander Hamilton, in 2012; it was a semi-finalist for the 2012 National Playwrights Conference at the Eugene O'Neill Theatre and a Finalist for the T. Schreiber Studio’s 2012 New Works Festival. His dark comedy Please Lock Me Away was a Finalist at the Kitchen Dog Theater (Dallas) 2014 New Play competition. Moses, The Author, a comedy about the biblical Moses, "shows the 120-year-old lawgiver on his last day on earth as he races to finish the Torah" Heinze said the play "is a 'midrash' that imagines how Moses might have dealt with the series of crushing setbacks that faced him, from having a speech defect to being told that could not enter the Promised Land." Moses, The Author had a World Premiere at the New York International Fringe Festival in 2014, won a place in the Harriet Lake Festival of New Plays at the Orlando Shakespeare Theater (2014), and had an extended run at the SoHo Playhouse in Manhattan.
Heinze has written a number of one-act plays and believes the short-play format can teach a writer "the basics of dramatic structure." His short plays have been produced across the United States and have won numerous awards. In 2010 his one-act comedy, The FQ, won "Audience Favorite" at the New York City Fifteen-Minute Play Festival, and at the same festival, the following year, his short comedy, The Bar Mitzvah of Jesus Goldfarb, won "Judges' Choice" and "Audience Choice for Best Play." The FQ was published in The Best Ten-Minute Plays 2011, by Smith & Kraus. His one-act drama Masha: Conditions in the Holy Land won the Jury Prize for Best Script at the Fusion Theatre Company's 2012 Short Play Festival (Albuquerque, New Mexico), and in 2013 it was produced for the 38th Annual Samuel French Off-Off-Broadway Short Play Festival in New York City.
Asked by Samuel French, Inc. if he could name the playwright who had most influenced him, Heinze said, "If I were darker, it would be Orton. If I were more laconic, it would be Pinter. If I were more lyrically erudite, it would be Stoppard. If I had ten additional brains, it would be Shakespeare. Hm. Everyone seems to be English. If I were more Irish, it would be Beckett. (And if I had more savoir faire, it would be Molière.)" He added, "I think all my sources of inspiration are unconventional. It's the feeling of something unconventional that makes me want to write the play. At least for a full-length play that’s true. I think I wouldn't want to invest the time if I didn’t have that feeling."
Selected works
Selected non-fiction Books
Adapting to Abundance: Jewish Immigrants, Mass Consumption and the Search for American Identity (Columbia University Press, 1990)
Jews and the American Soul: Human Nature in the Twentieth Century (Princeton University Press, 2004)
He is a co-author of the following books:
Race and Ethnicity in America: A Concise History (Columbia University Press, 2003),
The Columbia Documentary History of Race and Ethnicity in America (Columbia University Press, 2004),
Selected scholarly articles
His scholarly articles have appeared in a wide variety of scholarly journals including, Journal of American History, Judaism. American Quarterly, Religion and American Culture, American Jewish History, Journal of the West, American Jewish Archives, and Reviews in American history.
Selected essays and opinion pieces
His essays and opinion pieces have been widely published. His work has appeared in various newspapers, journals, periodicals and online publications, including Chronicle of Higher Education, The Wall Street Journal, The San Francisco Examiner, Taki's Magazine, History News Network, San Francisco Gate, and The Jewish Daily Forward.
Selected theatrical plays
The Invention of the Living Room (2009)
The FQ (2010)
The Bar Mitzvah of Jesus Goldfarb (2011)
Hamilton (2012)
Masha: Conditions in the Holy Land (2012)
Please Lock Me Away (2013)
What It Takes to Get Things Done in Washington (2014)
Moses, The Author (2014)
The Swig Lectures 1998-2005
Jewish-Catholic Relations in a Secular Age (1998) – David Novak, professor of religion and philosophy at the University of Toronto
The New Otherness: Marrano Dualities in the First Generation (1999) – Yirmiyahu Yovel, professor of philosophy at The New School
Inaugural Symposium of the Flannery-Hyatt Institute for Interfaith Understanding (2000) – Cardinal Edward Cassidy, president of the Pontifical Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews; Rabbi Norman Solomon, winner of the Sir Edmund Sternberg Award in Christian-Jewish Relations
Worshipping Together in Uniform: Christians and Jews in World War II (2001) – Deborah Dash Moore, professor of history at the University of Michigan
New Jewish and Christian Approaches to Homosexuality: A Symposium (2002) – Patricia Beattie Jung, professor of theology at Loyola University Chicago; Jeffrey Siker, professor of theology at Loyola Marymount University; Rabbi Elliot N. Dorff, professor in philosophy at American Jewish University; Bishop Frederick H. Borsch, Fifth Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Los Angeles; Rabbi Rebecca Alpert, professor of religion and women's studies at Temple University; Donal Godfrey, Society of Jesus, University Ministry at the University of San Francisco
The Popes and the Jews (2003) – Richard McBrien, professor of theology at the University of Notre Dame
Tax Policy as a Moral Issue Under Judeo-Christian Ethics (2004) – Susan Pace Hamill, professor of law at the University of Alabama
Is America’s Jesus Good for the Jews (2005)– Stephen Prothero, chairman of the department of religion and professor of religion at Boston University
Notes and references
Footnotes
References
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
Historians of the United States
Living people
Writers from Passaic, New Jersey
Writers from New York City
Jewish American dramatists and playwrights
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
Jewish historians
Amherst College alumni
Blair Academy alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
University of San Francisco faculty
1955 births
20th-century American non-fiction writers
Historians from New York (state)
Historians from New Jersey
American male non-fiction writers
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American Jews | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20R.%20Heinze |
Akari may refer to:
Akari (album), by New York Unit, 1994
Akari (given name), a feminine Japanese given name
Akari (puzzle), logic puzzle, also known as Light Up
Akari (satellite), an infrared astronomy satellite developed by JAXA, in cooperation with institutes of Europe and Korea
AKARI Project, in telecommunications, refers to the AKARI Architecture Design Project of Japan
See also
Akare, a village in the Doufelgou Prefecture in the Kara Region of north-eastern Togo. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akari |
Nordstjernan () is a Swedish investment company. Nordstjernan is a fourth-generation family company controlled by the Axel and Margaret Ax:son Johnson Foundation. The origin is the shipping company Nordstjernan, which was founded in 1890.
History
The first generation
The founder, Axel Johnson (1844-1910), was a businessman of his time and built up capital through knowledgeable share-trading. In 1890, he formed the Nordstjernan shipping company, which expanded rapidly. His business acumen, combined with personal contacts among the economic elite, meant that there were prerequisites for the development of the business concept in combination with a favourable level of financing.
By the start of the twentieth century, Axel Johnson was already a leading shipowner in Sweden and a pioneer of regular traffic to South America, with the La Plata route. It was Axel Johnson's final business transaction that put Nordstjernan on the map. He managed to break the international coffee monopoly, "the coffee conference", a strictly controlled pricing cartel for the transportation of coffee to Europe. Axel Johnson built, thanks to his talent, will and ambition, combined with favourable external factors, the company that was to form the basis of the Johnson Group, and which was later developed by his son, Axel Ax:son Johnson (1876-1958).
The second generation
Axel Ax:son Johnson, or the Consul-General as he called himself, took over from his father in 1910, aged 34. New technology was introduced, and old technology was sold before anyone else understood that it had become out-dated, such as the sale of steam vessels and the purchase of diesel-driven ships. Slightly more than 20 years later, in 1936, the Johnson Group was an exponent of modern Sweden. The Consul-General, who was described as "a collector of synergies," already had three major industrial deeds behind him by that time. At the start of the 1920s, Nordstjernan had the world's first diesel-driven ocean-going fleet and the head-start on competitors meant the ability to open new routes, particularly the Pacific Lines to the west coasts of North and South America via the Panama Canal. In 1924, he launched stainless steel in Sweden and, in 1928, he had Sweden's first oil refinery built in Nynäshamn.
The diversification and expansion of the Johnson Group was guided by the integration principle. The aim was to make the Group self-sufficient in goods and services. The trading house took care of the sales (steel) and purchases (coal) for Avesta Jernverk, the shipping company was partially formed to take care of the trading house's transport requirements, the oil refinery supplied the vessels of the shipping company with oil and the Swedish roads with asphalt. The investments formed the core of the empire, which comprised a hundred companies at the time of his death. The Consul-General left behind him Sweden's largest individually controlled group of companies.
The third generation
The Consul-General's oldest son, Mining Engineer Axel Ax:son Johnson (1910-1988), took over the reins and the further development of the Group. Nordstjernan became a pioneer in container transport. In this, the Mining Engineer was following the traditional Johnson principle, which was self-sufficiency through integration. Fruit companies were purchased, later becoming SABA in cooperation with Saléns, in order to fill the space in newly built refrigerated (reefer) vessels.
Under the leadership of the Mining Engineer, the computer company Datema was started and connections with the Soviet Union were developed and increased. In 1918, Johnson had become the first foreign company to sign a trade agreement with the new communist government. The Johnson Group gradually became one of the Soviet Union's largest single trading partners.
At the beginning of the 1960s, Nordstjernan was expanded and internationalized, like the rest of Swedish industry. This was a consequence of the head-start achieved because Sweden was not involved in World War II. New markets opened up and trade was liberalized. Nordstjernan evolved into a vast conglomerate. The crisis experienced by Sweden in the 1970s was reflected in all of Nordstjernan's sectors. Long-term structural changes and economic cycles caused major losses in most of the businesses operated by the Group - shipping, engineering, oil and steel. The 1970s crisis forced Nordstjernan to break with the sacred principle of complete independence, and the listing of the company began to be discussed with the aim of gaining access to external venture capital.
In 1981, Bo Ax:son Johnson (1917-1997) took over his brother's earlier assignments and functions in the Johnson Group, with the exception of those taken over by Axel's daughter Antonia Ax:son Johnson (1943-), A. Johnson & Co and A. Johnson & Co Inc (now the Axel Johnson Group).
Bo Ax:son Johnson began what is called a "Cultural Revolution" and implemented major changes in Nordstjernan's operations. This meant investment in one core business, the construction sector, which constituted about 30 percent of Nordstjernan's sales in 1985, and was a sector in which the Group had long had an interest in the form of wholly owned companies, including Strå Kalkbruk (1915), Nya Asfalt (1928) and Svenska Väg (1930).
The structural transformation and concentration into one core operation is something of a record in Swedish industry. Some 180 companies and legal entities were sold in the ensuing years. No fewer than five companies were listed on the stock market in the process, including Avesta Jernverk (1987), Databolin (1987), Silja Line (1990), NK (1987 and 1997) and Linjebuss (1992). This streamlining process created the opportunities for NCC, the construction and real estate company, to expand. This company was originally listed as Nordstjernan, but changed its name to NCC following the acquisition of ABV in 1988.
In the 1980s, Nordstjernan was transformed from a closed family company and industrial conglomerate to become a listed Nordic construction and real estate company - NCC. Following the acquisition of in spring 1997, which was Bo Ax:son Johnson's last business transaction, the aim of becoming the largest, market-leading construction company in the Nordic region had been realized. Nordstjernan remains the principal owner of NCC.
The fourth generation
Following the death of Bo Ax:son Johnson in 1997, the two cousins Antonia Ax:son Johnson (1943-) and Viveca Ax:son Johnson (1963-) took over the responsibility of Nordstjernan. A new Board of Directors and management team was appointed. Today, the main investment of Nordstjernan is NCC, the second-largest construction company in Northern Europe.
Key people
Peter Hofvenstam (born 1965) is CEO of Nordstjernan AB since 2019.
Viveca Ax:son Johnson (born 1963) is Chairman) of the board of directors since 2007. Antonia Ax:son Johnson (born 1943) is Vice Chairman since 2007.
References
Larsson, Sören, Saving, Jaak, Nordstjernan : the inside story (translated by David Jenkins), Stockholm: Norstedt, 1990.
External links
Investment companies of Sweden
Financial services companies established in 1890
1890 establishments in Sweden
Companies based in Stockholm | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordstjernan |
Daniel Tucker may refer to:
Daniel Tucker (colonial administrator) (1575–1625), Governor of Bermuda 1616 to 1619
Daniel Tucker (minister) (1740–1818), American Methodist minister, captain in the American Revolution
Dan Tucker (lawman) (born 1849), American lawman and gunfighter
Daniel Tucker, bassist for the band Obituary (from 1984 to present)
Daniel Tuckier, inaugural member of the Indigenous Advisory Council in Australia
See also
"Old Dan Tucker", an 1843 American folk song | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Tucker |
Welland Viaduct, Harringworth Viaduct or Seaton Viaduct, crosses the valley of the River Welland between Harringworth in Northamptonshire and Seaton in Rutland, England.
The viaduct is long and has 82 arches, each with a span. It is the longest masonry viaduct across a valley in the United Kingdom. Built by the contractor Lucas and Aird, a total of 30 million bricks were used in the viaduct's construction. Completed during 1878, it has since become a Grade II listed building.
The Welland Viaduct is on the Oakham to Kettering Line between and Manton Junction, where it joins the Leicester to Peterborough line. The line is generally used by freight trains and steam specials. In early 2009, a single daily return passenger service was introduced by East Midlands Trains between Melton Mowbray and St Pancras via Corby, the first regular passenger service to operate across the viaduct since the 1960s. There are now two return services between Melton Mowbray and London St Pancras each weekday. The viaduct is on a diversionary route for East Midlands Railway using the Midland Main Line route.
History
Construction
In the late 1870s, the Midland Railway commenced construction of the 17-mile line between Kettering in Northamptonshire and Manton, Rutland. The valley of the River Welland was a major geographical obstacle along the selected route for the line requiring the construction of a lengthy viaduct. In 1874, an Act of Parliament was passed, authorising the line's construction. A contract for the construction of the viaduct was tendered, to which London-based civil engineering firm Lucas and Aird was awarded prime contractor status.
The viaduct, which crosses both the Welland Valley and its flood plain, was designed by William Henry Barlow and members of his company, including his son Crawford, who was the resident engineer, and his former pupil Charles Bernard Baker. Crawford described the Welland Viaduct as being: "one of the grandest and most perfect pieces of workmanship to be seen in the United Kingdom".
In 1875, Cyprus Camp was built at the north end of the viaduct adjacent to the village of Seaton to house construction workers and their families. The camp had 47 wooden huts, each typically housing seven men, two women and three children; at its height, it had a reported population of 560 people. Another 12 huts were built at Gretton Hill.
The viaduct was principally built by manual labour. It has been estimated that every man engaged in preparing the ground and building the earthworks shovelled more than 20 tons of earth in a 12-hour shift. At its peak, a workforce of 3,500 and 120 horses were employed along the length of the line. Several workers died during its construction. An account of the workers, Life and Work Among the Navvies, was written by Reverend D. W. Barrett, the vicar of Nassington, curate-in-charge of the Bishop of Peterborough's railway mission.
The viaduct required about 30 million bricks, most of which were fired onsite. W. H. Lorden was the subcontractor for the brickwork, while the bricks themselves were produced by R. Holmes. Additional construction materials included of concrete and of stone. Barrow lime for concrete and mortar was supplied by Ellis and Sons of Mountsorrel Junction, Leicester. The viaduct was built on land belonging to Lieutenant Colonel Tryon of Bulwick Hall.
In March 1876, the first brick of the viaduct was laid; the first arch was completed during June 1877. The piers are articulated at varying intervals by plain pilasters, while the piers' inner faces feature a pair of recessed panels. A projecting parapet pier resting on corbelled panels is positioned at an interval of one in every three arches; these parapets are adorned with stone coping.
All 82 of the viaduct's arches were completed within 13 months. On 5 July 1878, Lieutenant Colonel Tryon keyed the final arch in a ceremony to mark the viaduct's completion. At the time of its construction, only the elevated multi-track approach to London Bridge railway station exceeded the viaduct's length of 1,280 yards (1,171 metres). Even by the early twenty-first century, it remains the longest masonry viaduct across a river valley in the United Kingdom.
Operations
Opened as a through passenger route on 1 March 1880, the Manton to Kettering line provided Nottingham with a more direct link to London with eight trains per day, four in each direction. On 1 October 1885, the "Slip Coach", entered service to connect with fast trains to London, Northampton, Cambridge and the Eastern Counties at Kettering. By 1903, the line carried over a dozen express and stopping trains in both directions daily.
In 1906, the embankment north of the viaduct collapsed because of insufficient drainage after heavy rain leaving the rails suspended in mid air. During the First World War, the viaduct was attacked by a German Zeppelin, possibly because of its strategic importance in transporting troops to the ports on the English Channel. In 1939, bombing threats issued by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) resulted in the area around the viaduct being placed under guard by police.
In 1967, as a consequence of the Beeching cuts, scheduled passenger services over the viaduct were discontinued, but the line remained open for freight traffic. During 2009, passenger services were reintroduced by East Midlands Trains, becoming the first regular daily passenger service to operate across the viaduct since the 1960s. The line is also infrequently trafficked by chartered heritage trains.
The viaduct's brickwork has suffered from weathering and structural deterioration. Before the privatisation of British Rail, repairs were made by Kettering and Leicester civil engineering staff. Bricklayers reported seeing the imprints of children's hands and feet in the bricks from when they had walked on the clay-filled moulds before firing in the kiln. The viaduct is built from bricks manufactured onsite, which have a red face. Repairs have used other types of bricks, predominantly blue engineering bricks, which have superior water resistance and are stronger, making them suited for arch re-lining and face brick replacement. The use of different bricks has given the viaduct a red-and-blue patchwork appearance in places. Some of the blue bricks have been painted red for aesthetic reasons.
During 2001, restoration efforts commenced on the viaduct. In 2004, in Network Rail's continuous structures maintenance programme, Birse Rail undertook structural repairs; the restoration cost £1.5m ().. Traditional methods and materials were employed alongside modern access techniques to ensure the viaduct's long-term structural integrity.
Between 2016 and 2017, works in Network Rail's Infrastructure Projects East Midlands Civils Renewals was undertaken by Amco Rail. It addressed brickwork defects and prepared the viaduct for a long-term strengthening scheme aimed at raising its restrictive load capacity rating from RA0 (the lowest rating) to RA10 (the highest rating) so that traffic can cross more quickly. Freight trains with a 25-tonne axle-load were limited to 20 mph when crossing, a major goal of the strengthening measures was to increase this to 60 mph.
The parapets had 20mm joints saw-cut through them to allow for shear movement, reducing the rate of cracking, while over 2,300 20mm-diameter vertical reinforcement bars were installed at one-metre intervals through the brickwork to anchor the parapets to the structure. Vertical cracks were fitted with 6mm stitch bars where applicable, and galvanised steel angle brackets were fixed onto either side of joints where the outwards lean exceeded 40 mm. Network Rail required that no further use be made of pattress plates on the viaduct. Core-drilling of the parapets was performed by a bespoke 900 kg rig, developed by Amco Rail, which reduced the programme's cost by £200,000 over conventional means even when including its development cost.
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Welland Viaduct via geograph.org.uk
Railway viaducts in Northamptonshire
Railway viaducts in Rutland
Bridges completed in 1878
Grade II listed bridges
Grade II listed buildings in Northamptonshire
Grade II listed buildings in Rutland | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welland%20Viaduct |
The Armstrongs is a British documentary television series broadcast on BBC Two in the UK. The Armstrongs is an access-all-areas insight into the unorthodox and sometimes ruthless business antics that are routine at "U-Fit", Coventry's third-biggest double glazing company. The show is narrated by actor Bill Nighy.
This was the second TV outing for the Armstrongs. The first was in a one-off documentary in 2003 called "The Office Christmas Party", which showed the preparations for U-Fit's Christmas party.
There is some discussion as to whether it is a true fly-on-the wall documentary, a fictional comedy with an elaborately constructed presence on the internet, or a mixture of the two.
In July 2014, Ann Armstrong announced on Facebook that she and John had split up.
Overview
Driven by the desire for profit, management team John and Ann Armstrong are constantly spying on their unwieldy sales force with CCTV cameras and phone taps. But motivating the team is an uphill struggle and John and Ann must resort to ever-more desperate measures to boost sales. Despite their best endeavours, their plans backfire with alarming frequency. However, woe betide anyone who gets in the way of their dream of becoming multi-millionaires.
The idea is a kind of all-too-real-life version of The Office, set in Coventry. Ann is the more talkative of the two, a mixture of starry-eyed optimist and petty disciplinarian. John mostly just swears a lot and criticises Ann's schemes for improving the company – such as hiring a Zimbabwean motivational guru called Basil Mienie (pronounced 'meanie').
The Armstrongs: The Movie
A film length special was made for Christmas in 2006. It was compiled from material from the series.
External links
U-Fit Business Website
References
BBC television documentaries
2006 British television series debuts
2006 British television series endings | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Armstrongs |
Christoph Bernhard (1 January 1628 – 14 November 1692) was born in Kolberg, Pomerania, and died in Dresden. He was a German Baroque composer and musician. He studied with former Sweelinck-pupil Paul Siefert in Danzig (now Gdańsk) and in Warsaw. By the age of 20, he was singing at the electoral court in Dresden under Heinrich Schütz and composed some of the music for the Master's funeral. He then spent a year in Copenhagen to study singing with Agostino Fontana.
After his appointment as assistant kapellmeister in Dresden in 1655, Bernhard made two sojourns to Italy to further his musical education. When he was 35, he moved to Hamburg to work as the director of music for the Johanneum and for civic musical events. The next ten years were a golden age in the musical tradition of Hamburg: Bernhard and his good friend Matthias Weckmann performed together and directed the latest compositions from Italy and Vienna, as well as composing an important collection of music in finely-wrought counterpoint.
The Elector of Saxony recalled Bernhard to Dresden in 1674, where he returned as assistant kapellmeister. Six years later, the large - and primarily Italian - musical establishment in the city was greatly reduced, until Bernhard remained the only kapellmeister at court. He continued composing, directing and caring for the music library in Dresden until his death in 1692, at the age of 64. Bernhard left behind many sacred vocal works, a few secular compositions, and three important treatises on music, the most famous of which is the Tractatus compositionis augmentatus (ca. 1657), which was the source of the term passus duriusculus.
In the 21st century Bernhard was suggested as one of three possible composers of the Kyrie–Gloria Mass for double choir, BWV Anh. 167.
Sources
Wohl dem, der den Herren fürchtet , by Christoph Bernhard (Garri Editions, Frankfurt am Main, 2005) Dr. Alejandro Garri, Ed.
References
External links
1628 births
1692 deaths
17th-century classical composers
German Baroque composers
German classical composers
German male classical composers
German music theorists
Pupils of Heinrich Schütz
17th-century male musicians | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph%20Bernhard |
Hopping may refer to:
Activities
Hopping, the act of jumping with one foot
Freighthopping, the act of surreptitiously riding on a railroad freight car
Movie hopping, using a single ticket for a movie theater to see more than one movie
People
Blair Hopping (born 1980), New Zealand sportsman
Enos D. Hopping (1805–1847), United States Army general of the Mexican–American War
Ralph Hopping (1868-1941), American entomologist
Other uses
, an American warship
The Hoppings, a travelling fun fair held on the Town Moor, Newcastle upon Tyne
Hopping, the use of hops in brewing beer
Hopping, also known as Yogic flying
See also
Hopping Mappy, an arcade game
Devil Hopping, an album by British band Inspiral Carpets
Hopping Hill, an area in Milford, Derbyshire, England
Island hopping (disambiguation)
Hop (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopping |
No. 5 Squadron was a Royal Australian Air Force training, army co-operation and helicopter squadron. The squadron was formed in 1917 as a training unit of the Australian Flying Corps in Britain, readying pilots for service on the Western Front. It subsequently became a naval fleet co-operation squadron, but was later redesignated as No. 9 Squadron RAAF before being re-formed as an army co-operation squadron during World War II. In the mid-1960s, it was re-formed as a helicopter squadron, before being disbanded in December 1989, when it was used to form the Australian Defence Force Helicopter Training School.
History
World War I and interbellum
No. 5 Squadron was formed at Shawbury in England on 15 June 1917, as a unit of the Australian Flying Corps, under the command of Captain Andrew Lang, and was initially known as "29 (Australian) (Training) Squadron" of the Royal Flying Corps. During August 1917, Major Henry Petre assumed command of the squadron. Its Australian Flying Corps designation ("No. 5 (Training) Squadron, AFC") was officially recognised in early 1918. Equipped with a variety of aircraft, including Maurice Farman Shorthorns, Airco DH.6, Avro 504s, Sopwith Pups, S.E.5as and Sopwith Camels, the squadron provided training to Australian pilots in Britain during World War I. After completing their training with No. 5 Squadron Australian pilots could be posted to one of the operational squadrons but to begin with the squadron's main role was to train pilots and observers for service in No. 1 Squadron in the Middle East. Later, when equipped with Camels, the squadron supplied pilots to 4 Squadron, Australian Flying Corps. During the war, the squadron graduated on average of eight pilots per month, who were trained by combat experienced pilots transferred from the operational squadrons. No. 5 Squadron was embarked to return to Australia in May 1919 and was for formally disbanded on reaching Australia the following month.
On 20 April 1936, No. 5 Squadron was re-formed at RAAF Base Richmond as a naval fleet co-operation squadron by expanding No. 101 (Fleet Co-Operation) Flight. Equipped with the Supermarine Seagull V amphibian aircraft, the squadron's detached flights operated from Royal Australian Navy cruisers and the seaplane tender HMAS Albatross. No. 5 Squadron was redesignated No. 9 Squadron on 1 January 1939.
World War II
On 9 January 1941, No. 5 Squadron was re-formed at RAAF Base Laverton as an army co-operation squadron equipped with Wirraways. The squadron was relocated to Toowoomba in Queensland on 17 May 1942. On 17 November 1942, the squadron was relocated to Toogoolawah for three months before redeploying to Kingaroy. The squadron was partially re-equipped with Boomerangs in late 1943 and was assigned to several different stations in Australia. On 11 November 1944, No. 5 Squadron was deployed to Piva Airfield at Torokina on Bougainville under No. 84 (Army Co-operation) Wing, and operated with units of the Royal New Zealand Air Force, undertaking reconnaissance, artillery observation, ground attack, and aerial resupply missions in support of Australian ground troops fighting against the Japanese on the island. The squadron also operated detachments on New Britain and New Guinea.
In September 1945, shortly after the end of the war, the squadron received three or four P-40 Kittyhawks, but retained Boomerangs and Wirraways. In early 1946, the squadron was transferred to Western Australia, as a cadre, with the intention of rebuilding the squadron. However, No 5 Squadron was disbanded on 18 October 1946 at RAAF Base Pearce. During the war, 24 members of the squadron lost their lives.
Cold War
No. 5 Squadron was re-formed in 1964 as a helicopter squadron equipped with Bell UH-1 Iroquois utility helicopters. The squadron saw active service in support of anti-insurgent operations on the Thai-Malay border and then in the Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation.
On 12 April 1966, No. 9 Squadron RAAF at RAAF Base Fairbairn was renumbered as No. 5 Squadron RAAF (with a 'new' No. 9 Squadron promptly formed for deployment to South Vietnam as part of Australia's commitment to the Vietnam War. The squadron in Malaysia was retitled as No. 5 Squadron Detachment C, which was disbanded the following month, with its members returning to the squadron at Fairbairn. The squadron trained aircrew preparing for service in Vietnam and supported battalions training up for deployment to Vietnam. It also conducted search and rescue sorties.
In the mid-1970s and mid-1980s, the squadron contributed Iroquois to peacekeeping missions in the Middle East Egypt, firstly to Ismailia with the United Nations Emergency Force and then later to the Sinai as part of the Multinational Force and Observers.
The squadron acquired AS350B Squirrel utility helicopters in early 1984, and along with the Iroquois UH1-Hs, the squadron continued the training role and Army support, in addition to providing aid to the civil community in times of natural disaster. In December 1989, No. 5 Squadron was disbanded and absorbed into the Australian Defence Force Helicopter School (ADFHS) in 1990.
See also
No. 5 Flight RAAF
References
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
029T
5
R
Military units and formations established in 1917
Military units and formations disestablished in 1989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No.%205%20Squadron%20RAAF |
Josh Fraser (born 5 January 1982) is a former professional Australian rules footballer who played for the Collingwood Football Club and the Gold Coast Suns in the Australian Football League (AFL).
Playing career
From Mansfield via Murray U18, Fraser was the number one pick in the 1999 National Draft, going to Collingwood. Fraser played 21 games in his first season. He won an AFL Rising Star nomination in his debut year. He played all 25 games in 2002, kicked 37 goals and played in the Grand Final team where he kicked three goals, following a three-goal haul in the Preliminary Final. In 2003 he had over 340 disposals in the season, 300 hit outs and kicked 20 goals.
Fraser played all 23 games in 2006, having 341 hit outs for the year, his best return. He kicked 16 goals, averaged more than 17 touches a game, more than 7 marks a game, and 15 hit outs. He finished fourth in the Copeland Trophy, along with Heath Shaw, only three votes behind the eventual winner Alan Didak.
In 2007, Josh Fraser did not miss a game until Round 20 against Melbourne, his second last game for the season. He returned for the Elimination Final win against before withdrawing late against the next week, his last game for the season.
In 2008, Fraser was named Scott Burns' vice-captain.
In 2010, Fraser played nine games for the club, and he lost his first-choice ruckman position to new recruit Darren Jolly. He played his 200th game for Collingwood in the round 22 clash against Hawthorn.
At the conclusion of the season, Fraser was picked up by Gold Coast, ending his tenure with Collingwood. In Fraser's first season at the Suns he played 16 games, with an average of 14.8 disposals and 13.3 hit outs per game. His main role at the Suns was to support and develop the young, emerging ruckmen at the club.
Fraser's AFL playing career ended when he resigned from the Gold Coast Suns on 29 August 2012. He played 18 games for the club.
Post-playing career
Following the end of his playing career in 2012, Fraser expressed interest in football coaching roles and stated that wanted to establish a long-term coaching career. He has completed two coaching courses; Level Two Coaches Course and Next Coach Program.
In 2013, Fraser was a part-time AFL commentator on ABC radio.
In January 2014, Fraser commenced his coaching career when he was appointed coach of the Gold Coast Sun's reserves team that plays in the North East Australian Football League (NEAFL).
He signed to serve as development coach at the Carlton Football Club in 2016, and within that role served as coach of its club, the Northern Blues. He remained with the club until the start of the 2020 season, at which point the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic saw Carlton end its connection with the Northern Blues and make Fraser redundant. In 2021, the VFL club re-established itself under its previous identity, the Northern Bullants, and Fraser remained with the club as its senior coach. After two seasons coaching the Bullants, Fraser was appointed coach of Collingwood's VFL team ahead of the 2023 season.
In 2016 Fraser joined the Tatyoon Football Club, who won the premiership with Fraser kicking 8.6 goals in a best on ground effort.
Personal life
Fraser married long time girlfriend Kylie Sutcliffe in December 2008 in Port Melbourne. They have 2 children, Ted (born in 2009) and Emmy (born in 2013).
References
External links
Gold Coast Suns NEAFL team
1982 births
Living people
Collingwood Football Club players
Gold Coast Football Club players
Australian rules footballers from Victoria (state)
Murray Bushrangers players
Preston Football Club (VFA) coaches
Mansfield Football Club players | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josh%20Fraser |
Mirna Peč (; ) is a rural settlement in southeast Slovenia. It is the seat of the Municipality of Mirna Peč.
Geography
Mirna Peč is located about 10 km northwest of Novo Mesto, the cultural and administrative centre of the traditional region of Lower Carniola, in the heart of the Temenica Valley. Mirna Peč consists of 16 streets: Brezence, Borovje, Češence, Industrijska cesta, Ivanja Vas, Marof, Na hirb, Ob avtocesti, Postja, Prisojna Pot, Rogovila, Rožna Ulica, Šranga, Trg, and Vihre.
Culture
The Mirna Peč parish church of Saint Cantianius is part of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Novo Mesto. It was built in 1915 on the site of a 15th-century predecessor.
Notable people
Notable people that were born or lived in Mirna Peč include:
Anton Bartel (1853–1938), lexicographer
Franc Dular (1860–1924), veterinarian
Karel Javoršek (1873–1916), composer
Ivan Kovačič (a.k.a. Efenka) (1921–1963), Partisan and People's Hero of Yugoslavia
Stane Potočar (a.k.a. Lakar) (1919–1997), Partisan and People's Hero of Yugoslavia
Mara Rupena (a.k.a. Osolnik) (1918–2003), Partisan and editor
Zora Rupena (a.k.a. Katja) (1920–1945), Partisan
Lojze Slak (1932–2011), musician
Ludvik Starič (1906–1989), motorcyclist
Albert Struna (1901–1982), engineer
References
External links
Mirna Peč on Geopedia
Populated places in the Municipality of Mirna Peč | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirna%20Pe%C4%8D |
Neo-Medieval music is a modern popular music characterized by elements of Medieval music and early music in general. Music styles within neo-Medieval music vary from authentic performance interpretations of Medieval music (understood as Classical music) to crossover genres that blend Medieval instruments, such as bagpipe, shawm and hurdy-gurdy with electronic music and rock. In many cases, it is more or less overlapping with styles such as folk rock, British folk rock and neofolk.
Bands specializing in neo-Medieval music are particularly plentiful in Germany, although the genre also enjoys some popularity in North America, the Czech Republic, the Netherlands, France, United Kingdom, Italy and the Scandinavian countries.
History
It is difficult to point to the exact origins of neo-Medieval music. One could argue that all Medieval-sounding tunes written after the Middle Ages are in some way neo-Medieval music; this definition would include music from as early as the Renaissance and onwards. Other examples of early neo-Medievalism in music would also include a number of Romantic composers such as Niels W. Gade, Edvard Grieg, and Felix Mendelssohn (who often used Medieval- and folk-style tunes in their music), as well as parts of the Carmina Burana by Carl Orff, and many movie soundtracks from the 20th century.
However, as a popular music form, the birth of neo-Medieval music is closely connected with the folk rock and roots music movement of the 1960s and 1970s. In many countries in Europe musicians sought to find their cultural roots, reviving music that had largely died out as a result of centuries of industrialization, and decades of exposure to United States music styles like jazz and rock.
In Great Britain, too, prog rock bands like Jethro Tull would often write songs with a Medieval touch. It was not until the late 1980s, however, that neo-Medieval music would arise as an entire genre of its own, replete with a subculture following.
The Australian outfit Dead Can Dance, who released most of their most famous works in the latter half of the 1980s, were another early influence on the scene. Dead Can Dance had a more symphonic sound than previous acts, and, although never considering themselves to be a goth band, were popular among goths. This formed the precedent of neo-Medieval music being particularly popular in the Goth scene.
1989 saw the formation of the German band Corvus Corax, two members of which were on the run from the disintegrating East German regime. In the 1990s, Corvus Corax would go on to have a profound effect on neo-Medieval music. Corvus Corax, along with other bands, started the now popular strategy of combining Medieval music with electronic music. Their side-project Tanzwut has given a start to a whole new genre Mittelalter Rock|Metal now presented by such famous Bands as In Extremo, Subway to Sally, Saltatio Mortis, Schandmaul, Feuerschwanz etc.
More recently, the band Extra Life has combined aspects of early music with the modern genre of math rock.
Neo-Medieval and neo-Renaissance qualities have been used by contemporary composers like Mamoru Fujieda and Michael Waller, with their use of modal cells and subtle counterpoint.
Popular music
Medieval music | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Medieval%20music |
Majšperk (, in older sources Majšperg, ) is a settlement in the Municipality of Majšperk in northeastern Slovenia. It is the seat of the municipality. The area is part of the traditional region of Styria. The municipality is now included in the Drava Statistical Region.
Name
Majšperk was first mentioned as Mannesperch in written documents dating to 1261 (and as Mansperch in 1263 and 1371, and Monsperg in 1426). The name is derived from 13th-century Majšperk Castle (). The castle fell into disrepair in the late 19th century and today only ruins remain. The castle name is a compound of the genitive form of the Old High German name Manne plus berg 'mountain', originally meaning 'Manno's mountain'.
History
Majšperk is an old settlement at the foot of the Dravinja Hills (), at the intersection of the roads to Poljčane, Ptuj, Rogatec, and Slovenska Bistrica. It was first mentioned in old documents in 1261 together with Majšperk Castle and Saint Nicholas's Church. The castle was rebuilt after a fire in 1695, but it fell into disrepair at the end of the 19th century. In the urbanized part of the settlement stands Hamre Castle, a small structure that was owned by the Ptuj Minorites from 1461 to 1880.
Church
The parish church in the settlement is dedicated to Saint Nicholas and belongs to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Maribor. It dates to the 13th century, but the current church was built in 1639.
References
External links
Majšperk on Geopedia
Populated places in the Municipality of Majšperk | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maj%C5%A1perk |
Barbe-bleue (, Bluebeard) is an opéra bouffe, or operetta, in three acts (four scenes) by Jacques Offenbach to a French libretto by Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy based on Charles Perrault's 1697 story.
Performance history
The work was composed while Offenbach was travelling during 1865, in Vienna, Brussels and Cologne, conducting his works in those cities. Other distractions during the period were the marriage on 9 August in Étretat of his eldest daughter Berthe to Charles Comte (for which he composed a mass) and problems with gout (which he encouraged the press to report).
It was first performed at the Théâtre des Variétés, Paris on 5 February 1866, playing for five months. Following the great success of the creators' Belle Hélène, the roles were close relations of the composer's antique operetta: Dupuis (Paris) another seducer, in Barbe-Bleue, Kopp (Ménélas) another old vain, cuckolded monarch in Bobèche, Grenier (Calchas) once more the mediocre confidant of a king - Count Oscar and Schneider (Hélène) again a woman seeking all of her desires - Boulotte. Contemporary critics judged the libretto to be one of the best constructed the composer set.
Productions outside France followed swiftly: London, Vienna and Brussels in 1866, Stockholm, Berlin, Budapest, Milan and Copenhagen in 1867. The operetta was given in New York City at the Grand Opera House on 24 December 1870 and seen in Sydney, Australia in 1872. It had its Czech premiere in 1874, under Adolf Čech.
The work was revived in 1888 at the Variétés in Paris with Jeanne Granier as Boulotte. A 1904 Paris revival included Baron as Bobèche, Ève Lavallière as Hermia and Tariol as Boulotte. In 1941, Mikael Fokine's final choreography consisted of a ballet reworking by Antal Doráti, staged in Mexico. In the period up to 1963 the work was much neglected until the Komische Oper production that year; the Berlin production was directed by Walter Felsenstein and continued for many years in the repertoire of the house as well as being filmed and toured. In 1971 the Théâtre de Paris presented the piece in a disfigured edition, musically and textually, with Jean Le Poulain playing both Bobèche and Popolani. Productions were mounted in Geneva in 1984 and in Strasbourg in 1996.
In the 11th Offenbach staging of his career, Laurent Pelly created a new production in Lyon in June 2019. The title role was sung by Yann Beuron, with Héloïse Mas as Boulotte, Christophe Mortagne as Bobêche and Christophe Gay as Popolani; Michele Spotti was in the pit.
Roles
Synopsis
Act 1
SCENE: A small rural village with the castle of Squire Bluebeard prominent
King Bobèche, not wanting a girl as his heir, abandoned his daughter Hermia when she was three years old. Now aged eighteen and living as a shepherdess under the assumed name Fleurette, she is in love with the young and attractive shepherd boy Saphir but is not happy that he has not yet proposed marriage to her. The King's chamberlain Oscar discovers that the shepherdess "Fleurette" is really the Princess Hermia and requires her to return to the King's court, which however means she must leave the boy she loves. Squire Bluebeard has recently lost his fifth wife and sends his alchemist Popolani to the village to find a virginal young peasant girl to become his sixth wife. Popolani decides to choose a wife for the squire by holding a raffle, but the winner turns out to be the anything but virginal Boulotte. Bluebeard is delighted with his new wife.
Act 2
SCENE ONE: The royal palace
King Bobèche wants to increase his glory and is practicing court etiquette. He is delighted to welcome his long lost daughter back to his side and to find her a royal bridegroom. Fleurette resists any thought of marriage until she discovers, to her joy, that her intended mate is Saphir, not a shepherd boy as she had thought, but a prince who had disguised himself as such to be near her, since he was madly besotted by her. Squire Bluebeard comes to pay King
Bobèche a visit and to show off his new wife Boulotte, but is instantly smitten by Princess Hermia.
SCENE TWO: Popolani's dungeon
Bluebeard orders Popolani to dispose of his new wife Boulotte as, he thinks, Popolani has disposed of all his previous wives by poisoning them, so that Bluebeard can marry Hermia. But Popolani has only been pretending to kill Bluebeard's wives, in fact he has only been giving them sleeping pills, not poison, and they have all been living in comfortable apartments. Bluebeard witnesses, in the midst of a storm, what he thinks is the murder of his latest wife Boulotte, but after she wakes up from the sleeping potion, the feisty young lady leads the other "dead" wives in a march on the castle.
Act 3
SCENE: The chapel in the royal palace
Hermia and Saphir are entering the chapel for their marriage when Bluebeard interrupts the procession and demands by force of arms, having the palace surrounded by his military forces, that Hermia be surrendered to him as his seventh wife, Boulotte, as he thinks, having died. But he is embarrassed by the selfsame Boulotte turning up leading in a furious procession of his other "dead" wives. They are accompanied by five lords who were also supposedly put to death for having flirted with Queen Clémentine. The solution is found- the "dead" lords will marry the "dead" wives, Bluebeard will stay with Boulotte and the marriage of Hermia and Saphir can proceed.
Recordings
See also
Recordings which appear on operadis-opera-discography.org.uk
Libretto in WikiSource
References
Notes
Sources
Boosey and Hawkes page about the operetta
External links
Libretto as originally submitted for censorship.
Information about the New York production
Information about English version
Operas by Jacques Offenbach
French-language operas
Operas
Opéras bouffes
1866 operas
Operas based on works by Charles Perrault
Bluebeard | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbe-bleue%20%28opera%29 |
Podčetrtek ( or ; ) is a settlement in eastern Slovenia by the river Sotla. It is the seat of the Municipality of Podčetrtek. The area belongs to the traditional region of Styria. It is now included in the Savinja Statistical Region.
Name
The castle in Podčetrtek was mentioned in written sources in 1209 as de Landesperc (and as de Lonsperch in 1213, de Landesperch in 1227, and ze Lantsperch in 1328, among other names). The name appears on a 1763–87 map in both German and Slovene as Landsberg Windisch Pod Tschetertkom. The name implies that the castle above the settlement was once called *Četrtek (literally, 'Thursday'). The motivation for the name is unknown. It may refer to the day that court sentences were handed down, to a market day, to a day of corvée, or to the day when the settlement was founded. In the past the German name of the settlement was Windisch Landsberg.
Castle
Most of the current structure of the castle dates to the early 17th century, when a two-story building with a central courtyard and two southern towers was built. It was adapted again in the late 18th century to the Baroque style, but retains its original features. After 1945 it was looted and fell into a state of disrepair, although the imposing building on a hill above the settlement is still a prominent landmark.
Church
The parish church in the settlement is dedicated to Saint Lawrence and belongs to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Celje. The nave dates to the 14th century and the belfry is from the 17th century. In the early 18th century the sanctuary was extended.
References
External links
Podčetrtek on Geopedia
Populated places in the Municipality of Podčetrtek
Spa towns in Slovenia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pod%C4%8Detrtek |
The Municipality of Dobrepolje (; ) is a municipality in Slovenia. It lies in a karst valley approximately south of the Slovenian capital Ljubljana. The administrative seat of the municipality is in Videm. The area is part of the traditional region of Lower Carniola. The municipality is now included in the Central Slovenia Statistical Region.
Settlements
In addition to the municipal seat of Videm, the municipality also includes the following settlements:
Bruhanja Vas
Cesta
Četež pri Strugah
Hočevje
Kolenča Vas
Kompolje
Lipa
Mala Vas
Paka
Podgora
Podgorica
Podpeč
Podtabor
Ponikve
Potiskavec
Predstruge
Pri Cerkvi–Struge
Rapljevo
Tisovec
Tržič
Vodice
Zagorica
Zdenska Vas
References
External links
Municipality of Dobrepolje on Geopedia
Dobrepolje municipal site
Dobrepolje
1994 establishments in Slovenia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipality%20of%20Dobrepolje |
Datça is a municipality and district of Muğla Province, Turkey. Its area is 436 km2, and its population is 25,029 (2022). The town center is situated midway through the peninsula which carries the same name as the district and the town (Datça Peninsula). It was a nahiya of Marmaris District until 1928. Datça's first center in village of Reşadiye till 1947, when it was moved to present borough of İskele.
Name
The name Datça comes from Stadia, an ancient town near Cnidus. Stadia developed into Tadya, Dadya, Dadça, and then Datça.
Both the town and the peninsula of Datça were called Reşadiye for a brief period in the beginning of the 20th century, honoring the penultimate Ottoman Sultan Mehmed V Reşad, and some maps may still refer to the peninsula under this name; today Reşadiye is the name of one of the quarters of the town.
Geography
The long and narrow Datça Peninsula, whose outline follows the undulations of small bays and coves facing south or north all along its length which reaches near , corresponds almost exactly to the Datça district, with the addition beyond its isthmus of a small panhandle in the direction of the south-east. The isthmus itself is only several hundred meters wide.
The extreme end of the western tip of the district and the peninsula, the locality called Tekir, is the location of the ancient city of Knidos. There is an ongoing debate on whether or not this location was the original site of the ancient city, a number of sources claiming that until the mid-4th century BCE, Knidos was halfway along the peninsula, near the present-day district center.
The peninsula's eastern end is marked by the fjord-like indentation of Bencik Cove, 1.5 km in length, at the end of which the narrow isthmus where it joins the mainland is found. This point is a natural curiosity which offers a wide view of the Gulf of Gökova in the north and the Gulf of Hisarönü in the south and is called Balıkaşıran (literally, the place where fish may leap across) and is also often used for the portage of small boats. According to Herodotus, during the Persian invasions in 540 BC, the Knidians had sought to dig a canal at this spot as a defensive measure and in order to transform their territory into an island. But an oracle was consulted who reportedly said "If the gods had so willed, they would have made your land an island. Do not pierce the isthmus." Whereupon they surrendered to the Persians.
Settlement
The quarters of the city of Datça are Reşadiye, Eski Datça 'Old Datça' and İskele 'quay', separated by about a mile from each other. Reşadiye was the original administrative core when the town was renamed Datça and turned into a district center in 1928, before it was moved to İskele quarter. The center town is crossed by the short course of the Datça Stream (Datça Çayı in Turkish).
The Datça district has nine villages scattered along the peninsula. These are; Cumalı, Emecik, Hızırşah, Karaköy, Kızlan, Mesudiye, Sındı, Yakaköy, Yazıköy. Historically, apart from small coastal patches, Datça Peninsula has two fertile areas along its length. The whole of the eastern half is bare, mountainous and scarcely inhabited. The western part is also mountainous, rising in places over 1,000 meters, but has towards its western end on the south side a considerable extent of well-watered land reaching to the coast at Palamutbükü locality and supporting a group of villages known collectively as Betçe (the five villages). These are; Mesudiye, Sındı, Yakaköy, Yazıköy, Cumalı. The village of Mesudiye, very near the sea shore has a jetty owned by the community of villagers. The village's bay is called Hayıtbükü. Palamutbükü locality, more to the west, also has a little pier which allows boats to moore. Palamutbükü today is a holiday village with a long beach.
The second and larger area of good land is in the middle of the peninsula southwest of the median isthmus dividing the two halves and centered on the town of Datça. The region's promising potential was noted already in the 1880s by the hydrographer Thomas Abel B. Spratt in the following terms:
A point of note on the general settlement pattern of these villages is that the locations chosen were never in the immediate coastline, but always at a mile's distance or more from the sea and at a relatively safe altitude on the slopes of a hill. The reason was from times immemorial was the fear of pirates, advantaged as they were by the intricate geology of shores of southwestern Turkey and of the many islands and islets that are its natural extensions, in an environment not unlike that of the Caribbean Sea. Piracy remained a serious security problem well until the beginning of the 20th century and especially during the weakening of the Ottoman Empire and the issue often necessitated foreign intervention.
Composition
There are 12 neighbourhoods in Datça District:
Cumalı
Datça
Emecik
Hızırşah
İskele
Karaköy
Kızlan
Mesudiye
Reşadiye
Sındı
Yakaköy
Yazıköy
Tourism
Datça Peninsula is popular among tourists, especially by mariners, because of its many coves and larger bays, which are promoted as part of the Blue Cruise along Turkey's southwest coast. Boats (usually gulets) depart from Bodrum, Marmaris, or Datça.
The road from Marmaris to Datça is rough in parts.
Apart from the traditional settlements, there are also a dozen recently constructed vacation villages on the peninsula.
Datça has become a major rock climbing destination since about 2013, most popular from fall to spring.
Forest Fires
On 29 August 2012, a fire in the town of Emecik, Datca burned 75 hectares of forest.
Notable natives
In Turkish literature, Datça is associated with the poet and the accomplished translator (notably of Shakespeare) Can Yücel who spent the last decades of his life in Datça and is also buried here.
Twin Towns
Houma, Louisiana, United States
See also
Fethiye
Bodrum
Datça Peninsula
Gulf of Gökova
Marinas in Turkey
Foreign purchases of real estate in Turkey
Footnotes
External links
Official Datça History
Short movie about Eski Datca
Rock Climbing in Datça
Turkish Riviera
Populated coastal places in Turkey
Aegean Sea port cities and towns in Turkey
Populated places in Muğla Province
Fishing communities in Turkey
Districts of Muğla Province
Metropolitan district municipalities in Turkey | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dat%C3%A7a |
Ula is a municipality and district of Muğla Province, Turkey. Its area is 479 km2, and its population is 26,613 (2022). Its name reflects the ancient town of Ula in ancient Caria, whose site is conjectured to be nearby.
The town of Ula is situated at a distance of only from the province seat of Muğla, a mile after a bifurcation on the road to Marmaris. It is notable for its old houses in the Turkish style and the vast forest region that extends to the south along the country road called Çiçekli after the town. The history of the inhabitants and the town, situated in ancient Caria, can be traced at least as far back as the dynasty of Menteşe.
The towns of Akyaka and Gökova, situated at a close distance to each other at the tip of the Gulf of Gökova, are both rising centers of international tourism.
Composition
There are 25 neighbourhoods in Ula District:
Akçapınar
Akyaka
Alparslan
Arıcılar
Armutçuk
Ataköy
Ayazkıyı
Çiçekli
Çıtlık
Çörüş
Demirtaş
Elmalı
Esentepe
Gökçe
Gökova
Gölcük
Karaböğürtlen
Kavakçalı
Kıyra
Kızılağaç
Kızılyaka
Köprübaşı
Örnekköy
Portakallık
Sarayyanı
Şirinköy
Turgut
Yaylasöğüt
Yeşilçam
Yeşilova
See also
Sedir Island
References
External links
Images of a lake in Ula District
Municipality of Ula District
Populated places in Muğla Province
Districts of Muğla Province
Metropolitan district municipalities in Turkey | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ula%2C%20Mu%C4%9Fla |
Puconci (; in older sources also Pucinci, , Prekmurje Slovene: Püconci) is a town in the Prekmurje region in northeastern Slovenia. It is the seat of the Municipality of Puconci. Prior to 1920 it was known as Battyánd.
Church
There is a Lutheran church in the middle of the settlement, built in 1784, the first Lutheran church in the region of Prekmurje. It was rebuilt and restyled in 1909.
Notable people
Prominent natives and residents of Puconci include the writers István Lülik, Sándor Terplán, Rudolf Czipott, and Ferenc Berke, and the politician Feri Horvat.
References
External links
Puconci on Geopedia
Populated places in the Municipality of Puconci
Prekmurje | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puconci |
Randersacker is a market town and municipality in Lower Franconia, a part of Bavaria, Germany. With its long tradition in wine making, Randersacker is a well-known wine places of Germany. It lies in the Würzburg district, and adjoins to Würzburg boroughs Heidingsfeld, Rottenbauer, Sanderau and Frauenland and to the municipalities of Gerbrunn, Theilheim and Eibelstadt.
Geography
Randersacker is located in the south of Würzburg. This part of the Main is called . The term refers to the course of the river, it looks similar to a triangle.
The city of Würzburg is about three miles away from the village center of Randersacker.
There are two subdistricts: Lindelbach and the main part Randersacker.
Geology
The ground of Randersacker consists of shellbearing limestone. Until the middle of the 20th century, the region was a centre of the quarry industry. There are still residues on top of some hills. An important historic monument is the museum-quarry near Lindelbach with a well preserved crane.
History
The first written mention of a settlement on the location of Randersacker was in 779. It was the (report of Würzburg area). It reports that there were some vineyards on this ground.
The first mention of Randersacker was in 1123.
Population
1970 – 3,378
1987 – 3,507
2000 – 3,513
2009 – 3,435
Economy
The most important industries in Randersacker are viticulture and tourism. There are about 17 winemakers and several restaurants and hotels. Weingut Schmitt’s Kinder is a member of the Verband Deutscher Prädikatsweingüter (VDP).
Traffic
The Autobahn A3 passes Randersacker 2 kilometres south of the village centre. Also the river Main is a transport route of national importance.
Main sights
The Balthasar Neumann Pavilion is a pavilion designed and built by the famous architect Johann Balthasar Neumann about 1750. It is his smallest building and is completely preserved. Today the pavilion serves for representation purposes, weddings etc.
The church Sankt Stephanus is one of the most beautiful romanesque churches in Franconia. The steeple is about high and was built in the 13th and 14th century.
The Zehnthof is an old manor in Randersacker.
References
Würzburg (district) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randersacker |
Kozje (, ) is a small town in eastern Slovenia. It is the seat of the Municipality of Kozje. The settlement of Kozje lies in the centre of the municipality, from Celje, from Ljubljana, and from Rogaška Slatina. It is the main settlement of the Kozje region (). The area is part of the traditional region of Styria. The municipality is now included in the Savinja Statistical Region. It is one of the oldest settlements in the area, first mentioned in written documents dating to 1016. It was granted market rights before 1384.
The parish church in the settlement is dedicated to the Assumption of Mary and belongs to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Celje. It was built on the site of an earlier building in the 15th century and has major 17th-century alterations. A second church in the settlement is dedicated to Saint Hemma (). It was built in around 1466 with 16th-century modifications and the nave extended in 1861.
References
External links
Kozje on Geopedia
Populated places in the Municipality of Kozje | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kozje |
Radenci (; ) is a town on the right bank of the Mura River in the Mura Statistical Region of northeastern Slovenia. It is a well-known spa town and was first mentioned in written documents dating back to 1436. After 1833, when a new source of mineral water was discovered, it developed into a popular resort. Since 1994 it has been the seat and the largest settlement of the Municipality of Radenci.
History
Radenci was first mentioned in 1436 under the name Radein. In 1833 Karol F. Henn, at the time still a student of medicine, discovered the mineral water there. According to a local legend, strange sounds and bubbling coming from the ground was believed to be the sounds of witches cooking soup deep underground. While passing by the mineral water spring in a carriage on the way to nearby Ljutomer, Henn overheard the sounds of the bubbling water. He took some samples of the water for analysis and returned to Radenci after 32 years, in 1869, at that time already a renowned doctor and expert in balneology. He bought the property together with the mineral spring, and in 1869 the first mineral water, named "Radeiner Sauerbrunn," flowed from the spring.
The same year he bottled the first "Radenska Three Hearts" mineral water, which was later supplied to the emperor's court in Vienna and to the pope's palace in Rome. The mineral water became known for its healing effects, and in 1882 the first guests were welcomed to health resort and the town later developed into a thermal spa health resort.
See also
Radenska d.d.
Three Hearts Marathon
References
External links
Radenci on Geopedia
Populated places in the Municipality of Radenci
Spa towns in Slovenia
Cities and towns in Styria (Slovenia) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radenci |
Clemente Anselmo Agustino Cattini (born 20 August 1937) is an English rock and roll drummer of the late 1950s and 60s, who was a member of The Tornados before becoming well known for his work as a session musician. He is one of the most prolific drummers in UK recording history, appearing on hundreds of recordings by artists as diverse as Cliff Richard and Lou Reed, and has featured on 42 different UK number one singles.
Biography
Born to Italian parents living in Stoke Newington, North London, Cattini worked in his father's restaurant before deciding to pursue a career in music. He began as a drummer at The 2i's Coffee Bar, backing performers such as Terry Dene, before joining the touring band known as the Beat Boys, backing singers managed by Larry Parnes, including Marty Wilde and Billy Fury. He then joined Johnny Kidd & the Pirates, playing on their hit "Shakin' All Over", and became Joe Meek's in-house drummer, backing artists such as John Leyton and Don Charles, before helping found The Tornados in 1961, and playing on their international No. 1 hit "Telstar".
In 1965 he became a session musician, drumming on tracks by The Kinks, Herman's Hermits, Dusty Springfield, The Merseys, Bee Gees, Lulu, Marianne Faithfull, Tom Jones, P. J. Proby, The Hollies, Paul and Barry Ryan, Gene Pitney, Donovan, Love Affair, Jeff Beck, Engelbert Humperdinck, Nirvana, the Ivy League, Edison Lighthouse, The Yardbirds, The Family Dogg, Marc Bolan, Clodagh Rodgers, Keith West, The Flower Pot Men, Georgie Fame, Roy Harper, Ralph McTell, Harmony Grass, Joe Cocker, Graham Gouldman and Brian Auger. In the 1970s, he played on recordings by Marvin, Welch & Farrar, Lou Reed, Cliff Richard, Justin Hayward, Phil Everly, Julie Covington, Claire Hamill, Alvin Stardust, Bay City Rollers, Kenny, the Wombles, Brotherhood of Man, Carl Douglas, Christie, Tim Rose, Demis Roussos, The Goodies, Stephanie de Sykes, John Betjeman, Malcolm and Alwyn, John Schroeder, Paul McCartney, Hank Marvin, Mike Batt, Chris Spedding, Bob Downes, Dave Kelly, Sweet Dreams, Christopher Neil, Evelyn Thomas, Barbara Pennington, Slapp Happy, Mike Berry and Grace Kennedy, and prog rock bands including Beggars Opera, Amazing Blondel and Edwards Hand.
Cattini has played on at least 42 UK number 1 singles, including "Telstar", Ken Dodd's "Tears", Rolf Harris's "Two Little Boys", Clive Dunn's "Grandad", "Ernie (The Fastest Milkman in the West)" by Benny Hill, "Whispering Grass" by Windsor Davies and Don Estelle, Peters and Lee's "Welcome Home", Typically Tropical's "Barbados", J. J. Barrie's "No Charge", Renée and Renato's "Save Your Love", and "(Is This The Way To) Amarillo" by Tony Christie featuring Peter Kay. He also played in the orchestra for BBC TV's Top of the Pops, and toured with Cliff Richard, Roy Orbison, Lynda Carter, The Kids from "Fame" and many others. He was also considered for Led Zeppelin – he was initially on Jimmy Page's shortlist of drummers when forming the band before they settled on John Bonham. He had earlier played alongside John Paul Jones on Donovan's hit single "Hurdy Gurdy Man".
In the 1980s, he reactivated the Tornados' name for tours and, in 1989, played in the West End run of The Rocky Horror Show. He more recently recorded the drums for the track "No Tears to Cry" from Paul Weller's 2010 album Wake Up the Nation. He was portrayed by James Corden in the 2009 film Telstar, and appeared himself playing John Leyton's chauffeur.
In 2016, he recorded a new version of the 1960s hit "Telstar", with the North London ska band the Skammers.
Clem Cattini's memoirs, My Life, Through the Eye of a Tornado, was published in July 2019.
References
External links
Coda-uk.co.uk Biography
Tornados and Clem Cattini information centre run by Tom Hammond
2008 Radio Interview of WFMU
2016 Newspaper article
1937 births
English drummers
British male drummers
Living people
English session musicians
People from Stoke Newington
English people of Italian descent
The Jeff Beck Group members
Screaming Lord Sutch and the Savages members
Brian Auger and the Trinity members
The Ivy League (band) members
Johnny Kidd & the Pirates members
The Tornados members | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clem%20Cattini |
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