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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Appel | Andrew Wilson Appel (born 1960) is the Eugene Higgins Professor of computer science at Princeton University. He is especially well-known because of his compiler books, the Modern Compiler Implementation in ML () series, as well as Compiling With Continuations (). He is also a major contributor to the Standard ML of New Jersey compiler, along with David MacQueen, John H. Reppy, Matthias Blume and others and one of the authors of Rog-O-Matic.
Biography
Andrew Appel is the son of mathematician Kenneth Appel, who proved the Four-Color Theorem in 1976. Appel graduated summa cum laude with an A.B. in physics from Princeton University in 1981 after completing a senior thesis, titled "Investigation of galaxy clustering using an asymptotically fast N-body algorithm", under the supervision of Nobel laureate James Peebles. He later received a Ph.D. (computer science) at Carnegie Mellon University, in 1985. He became an ACM Fellow in 1998, due to his research of programming languages and compilers.
In 1981, Appel developed a better approach to the -body problem in linearithmic instead of quadratic time.
From July 2005 to July 2006, he was a visiting researcher at the Institut national de recherche en informatique et en automatique (INRIA), Rocquencourt, France, on sabbatical from Princeton University.
Andrew Appel campaigns on issues related to the interaction of law and computer technology. He testified in the penalty phase of the Microsoft antitrust case in 2002. He is opposed to |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brake%20fluid | Brake fluid is a type of hydraulic fluid used in hydraulic brake and hydraulic clutch applications in automobiles, motorcycles, light trucks, and some bicycles. It is used to transfer force into pressure, and to amplify braking force. It works because liquids are not appreciably compressible.
Most brake fluids used today are glycol-ether based, but mineral oil (Citroën/Rolls-Royce liquide hydraulique minéral (LHM)) and silicone-based (DOT 5) fluids are also available.
Standards
Most Brake fluids are manufactured to meet standards set by international, national, or local organizations or government agencies.
International
The International Standards Organisation has published its standard ISO 4925, defining classes 3, 4, and 5, as well as class 5.1, class 6 and class 7 reflecting progressively higher performance for brake fluids.
SAE
The Society of Automotive Engineers SAE has published standards J1703, J1704, and J1705, reflecting progressively higher performance for brake fluids. These have counterparts in the international standard, ISO 4925.
United States
The Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) under FMVSS Standard No. 116 defines grades DOT 3, DOT 4, DOT 5 and DOT 5.1, where DOT refers to the U.S. Department of Transportation. These are widely used in other countries. Their classifications broadly reflect the SAE's specifications, DOT 3 is equivalent to SAE J1703 and ISO class 3, DOT 4 to SAE J1704 and ISO class 4, etc.
All DOT compliant fluids must be c |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton%20Morrison | Clinton Hubert Morrison (né Chambers; born 14 May 1979) is a former professional footballer and sports pundit.
As a player, he was a forward. He notably played in the Premier League for both Crystal Palace and Birmingham City. He also played in the Football League for Coventry City, Sheffield Wednesday, Milton Keynes Dons, Brentford, Colchester United and Exeter City. He also played non-league football for Long Eaton United, Redditch United and Mickleover Sports.
Born in England, he represented the Republic of Ireland 36 times at full international level, scoring 9 goals, and made their squad for the 2002 FIFA World Cup. He is now a regular reporter and occasional pundit on Sky Sports Soccer Saturday.
Club career
First spell at Crystal Palace
Born in Tooting, London, Morrison joined Crystal Palace as a trainee on 1 August 1997. Morrison was previously at Tottenham Hotspur before they let him go at sixteen. He began his career at Crystal Palace of the Premier League, making his debut on 10 May 1998 as an 82nd-minute substitute for Neil Shipperley, and scoring the injury-time winner over opponents Sheffield Wednesday.
At the start of the 1998–99 season, Morrison appeared in the second leg of the UEFA Intertoto Cup third round against Samsunspor, eventually losing 4–0 on aggregate. He then scored two goals against Bury in two separate matches on 23 September 1998 and 30 September 1998. Morrison quickly became a first team regular for the club, becoming Crystal Palace's firs |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oversampling | In signal processing, oversampling is the process of sampling a signal at a sampling frequency significantly higher than the Nyquist rate. Theoretically, a bandwidth-limited signal can be perfectly reconstructed if sampled at the Nyquist rate or above it. The Nyquist rate is defined as twice the bandwidth of the signal. Oversampling is capable of improving resolution and signal-to-noise ratio, and can be helpful in avoiding aliasing and phase distortion by relaxing anti-aliasing filter performance requirements.
A signal is said to be oversampled by a factor of N if it is sampled at N times the Nyquist rate.
Motivation
There are three main reasons for performing oversampling: to improve anti-aliasing performance, to increase resolution and to reduce noise.
Anti-aliasing
Oversampling can make it easier to realize analog anti-aliasing filters. Without oversampling, it is very difficult to implement filters with the sharp cutoff necessary to maximize use of the available bandwidth without exceeding the Nyquist limit. By increasing the bandwidth of the sampling system, design constraints for the anti-aliasing filter may be relaxed. Once sampled, the signal can be digitally filtered and downsampled to the desired sampling frequency. In modern integrated circuit technology, the digital filter associated with this downsampling is easier to implement than a comparable analog filter required by a non-oversampled system.
Resolution
In practice, oversampling is implemented in order t |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6-meter%20band | The 6-meter band is the lowest portion of the very high frequency (VHF) radio spectrum internationally allocated to amateur radio use. The term refers to the average signal wavelength of 6 meters.
Although located in the lower portion of the VHF band, it nonetheless occasionally displays propagation mechanisms characteristic of the high frequency (HF) bands. This normally occurs close to sunspot maximum, when solar activity increases ionization levels in the upper atmosphere. Worldwide 6 meter propagation occurred during the sunspot maximum of 2005, making 6 meter communications as good as or, in some cases and locations, better than HF frequencies. The prevalence of HF characteristics on this VHF band has inspired amateur operators to dub it the "magic band".
In the northern hemisphere, activity peaks from May through early August, when regular sporadic E propagation enables long-distance contacts spanning up to for single-hop propagation. Multiple-hop sporadic E propagation allows intercontinental communications at distances of up to . In the southern hemisphere, sporadic E propagation is most common from November through early February.
The 6-meter band shares many characteristics with the neighboring 8-meter band, but it is somewhat higher in frequency.
History
On October 10, 1924, the 5-meter band (56–64 MHz) was first made available to amateurs in the United States by the Third National Radio Conference. On October 4, 1927, the band was allocated on a worldwide b |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU-T%20V.23 | The V.23 standard was an early modem standard first approved by ITU-T precursor CCITT in 1964.
It specifies audio frequency-shift keying (AFSK) to encode and transfer data at a rate of 1200 bits per second, half-duplex at 1200 baud (Mode 2), (or at a "fallback rate" of 600 baud, mode 1) for the forward data-transmission channel, and an optional 75 baud backward channel.
V.23 Mode 1 AFSK uses a 1300 Hz tone (FZ) for mark (typically a binary 1) and 1700 Hz (FA) for space (typically a binary 0), and a 1500 Hz center frequency (F0).
V.23 Mode 2 AFSK uses a 1300 Hz tone (FZ) for mark (typically a binary 1) and 2100 Hz (FA) for space (typically a binary 0), and a 1700 Hz center frequency (F0).
V.23 backward channel AFSK uses a 390 Hz tone (FZ) for mark (typically a binary 1) and a 450 Hz (FA) for space (typically a binary 0).
In some European countries, (and perhaps elsewhere), V.23 Mode 2 AFSK modulation, (without the backward channel) is used to transmit Caller ID information over POTS lines in the public telephone network.
The 75 baud backward channel was originally envisioned for use in error correction schemes, but V.23 was also widely used in Videotex applications where the backward channel was used to send keyboard data in an asymmetrical full duplex scheme in devices such as the Minitel.
Related technology
The BELL 202 communications standard defines a similar modulation scheme.
See also
Caller ID
References
External links
the ITU V.23 normalization
Modems
Tel |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engel%27s%20theorem | In representation theory, a branch of mathematics, Engel's theorem states that a finite-dimensional Lie algebra is a nilpotent Lie algebra if and only if for each , the adjoint map
given by , is a nilpotent endomorphism on ; i.e., for some k. It is a consequence of the theorem, also called Engel's theorem, which says that if a Lie algebra of matrices consists of nilpotent matrices, then the matrices can all be simultaneously brought to a strictly upper triangular form. Note that if we merely have a Lie algebra of matrices which is nilpotent as a Lie algebra, then this conclusion does not follow (i.e. the naïve replacement in Lie's theorem of "solvable" with "nilpotent", and "upper triangular" with "strictly upper triangular", is false; this already fails for the one-dimensional Lie subalgebra of scalar matrices).
The theorem is named after the mathematician Friedrich Engel, who sketched a proof of it in a letter to Wilhelm Killing dated 20 July 1890 . Engel's student K.A. Umlauf gave a complete proof in his 1891 dissertation, reprinted as .
Statements
Let be the Lie algebra of the endomorphisms of a finite-dimensional vector space V and a subalgebra. Then Engel's theorem states the following are equivalent:
Each is a nilpotent endomorphism on V.
There exists a flag such that ; i.e., the elements of are simultaneously strictly upper-triangulizable.
Note that no assumption on the underlying base field is required.
We note that Statement 2. for various and V is |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollicutes | Mollicutes is a class of bacteria distinguished by the absence of a cell wall. The word "Mollicutes" is derived from the Latin mollis (meaning "soft" or "pliable"), and cutis (meaning "skin"). Individuals are very small, typically only 0.2–0.3 μm (200–300 nm) in size and have a very small genome size. They vary in form, although most have sterols that make the cell membrane somewhat more rigid. Many are able to move about through gliding, but members of the genus Spiroplasma are helical and move by twisting. The best-known genus in the Mollicutes is Mycoplasma. Colonies show the typical "fried-egg" appearance.
Mollicutes are parasites of various animals and plants, living on or in the host's cells. Many cause diseases in humans, attaching to cells in the respiratory or urogenital tracts, particularly species of Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma. Phytoplasma and Spiroplasma are plant pathogens associated with insect vectors.
Whereas formerly the trivial name "mycoplasma" (plural: "mycoplasmas") has commonly denoted any member of the class Mollicutes, it now in scientific classification refers exclusively to a member of the genus Mycoplasma.
Origin and development to parasitic life
Analysis of the genomes of Mollicutes ("mycoplasmas") gives solid support for the hypothesis that Mollicutes have developed from Gram-positive bacteria by a process of reductive evolution. By adopting a parasitic mode of life with use of nutrients from their hosts, many Mollicutes were able to reduce the |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergic%20conjunctivitis | Allergic conjunctivitis (AC) is inflammation of the conjunctiva (the membrane covering the white part of the eye) due to allergy. Although allergens differ among patients, the most common cause is hay fever. Symptoms consist of redness (mainly due to vasodilation of the peripheral small blood vessels), edema (swelling) of the conjunctiva, itching, and increased lacrimation (production of tears). If this is combined with rhinitis, the condition is termed allergic rhinoconjunctivitis (ARC).
The symptoms are due to release of histamine and other active substances by mast cells, which stimulate dilation of blood vessels, irritate nerve endings, and increase secretion of tears.
Treatment of allergic conjunctivitis is by avoiding the allergen (e.g., avoiding grass in bloom during "hay fever season") and treatment with antihistamines, either topical (in the form of eye drops), or systemic (in the form of tablets). Antihistamines, medications that stabilize mast cells, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are generally safe and usually effective.
Signs and symptoms
The conjunctiva is a thin membrane that covers the eye. When an allergen irritates the conjunctiva, common symptoms that occur in the eye include: ocular itching, eyelid swelling, tearing, photophobia, watery discharge, and foreign body sensation (with pain).
Itching is the most typical symptom of ocular allergy, and more than 75% of patients report this symptom when seeking treatment. Symptoms are usually |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsonevo | Tsonevo (Цонево) is a village located in the Luda Kamchiya Valley in Dalgopol Municipality, Varna Province, Bulgaria.
References
Villages in Varna Province |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodocyclales | The Rhodocyclales are an order of the class Betaproteobacteria in the phylum "Pseudomonadota". Following a major reclassification of the class in 2017, the previously monofamilial order was split into three families:
Rhodocyclaceae (type family) contains the genera Rhodocyclus (type genus), Azospira and Propionivibrio. Cells are curved rods, rings or spirillae. Dominant respiratory quinones are menaquinone-8, ubiquinone-8 and rhodoquinone-8. G+C fractions are 61.6 - 65.3 mol%.
Azonexaceae contains the genera Azonexus (type genus), Dechloromonas, Ferribacterium and Quatrionicoccus. Cells are curved rods or cocci. Dominant respiratory quinone is ubiquinone-8. G+C fractions are 63.5 - 67.0 mol%.
Zoogloeaceae contains the genera Zoogloea (type genus), Thauera, Uliginosibacterium and Azoarcus. Cells are rod shaped. Dominant respiratory quinones are ubiquinone-8 and rhodoquinone-8. G+C fractions are 59.3 - 69.0 mol%.
The genus Azovibrio also falls within the order but is incertae sedis, falling between the Zoogloeaeceae and the Azonexaceae.
References
Betaproteobacteria |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrna%20Blyth | Myrna Blyth (born 1939) is an American editor and writer. She currently works at AARP Media and has authored four books, including the nonfiction book Spin Sisters.
Biography
She was born in New York and graduated from Bennington College.
Blyth is currently the Senior Vice President and Editorial Director of AARP Media. She is the former editor-in-chief and publishing director of Ladies' Home Journal. She was the founding editor and publishing director of More magazine. She was also Director of Magazine Development for the Meredith Corporation. Earlier in her career Blyth was the Executive Editor of Family Circle and Senior Editor of Family Health Magazine.
She is also the author of two novels, Cousin Suzanne and For Better and For Worse, both Literary Guild selections, and two non-fiction books, Spin Sisters, which was a New York Times bestseller and How To Raise An American.
Blyth was the Chairman of the President’s Commission on White House Fellowships. She has written articles and short stories for many publications including The New Yorker, New York, Redbook, Cosmopolitan and Reader's Digest. She has written for National Review Online, National Review and other websites, and has been an editorial consultant for a number of magazine and internet projects. She was Editor-in-Chief of ThirdAge.com, the longest established website for boomer women.
Personal life
She was married to the British journalist Jeffrey Blyth, who died in 2013. She has two sons, a granddaughter, |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crna | Crna or CRNA may refer to:
Centre en route de la navigation aérienne, air traffic control centres across France
Črna na Koroškem, a municipality in Slovenia
Cost-related nonadherence to medications, see Medication costs for a related article
Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetist, an advanced practice nurse with expertise in anesthesia in the United States
cRNA, RNA derived from cDNA through standard RNA synthesis
Center for Resilient Networks and Applications, a research institution in Oslo, Norway
See also
Crna Reka (disambiguation)
Crna Bara (disambiguation) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osaka%20Exchange | , renamed from , is the largest derivatives exchange in Japan, in terms of amount of business handled.
, the Osaka Securities Exchange had 477 listed companies with a combined market capitalization of $212 billion. The Nikkei 225 Futures, introduced at the Osaka Securities Exchange in 1988, is now an internationally recognized futures index. In contrast to the Tokyo Stock Exchange, which mainly deals in spot trading, the Osaka Securities Exchange's strength is in derivative products. The OSE is the leading Derivatives Exchange in Japan and it was the largest futures market in the world in 1990 and 1991. According to statistics from 2003, the Osaka Securities Exchange handled 59% of the stock price index futures market in Japan, and almost 100% of trading in the options market. Osaka Securities Exchange Co., which listed on its Hercules market for startups in April 2004 is the only Japanese securities exchange which went public on its own market.
In July 2006 OSE launched their newest futures contract the Nikkei 225 mini, which is one tenth of the size of the original Nikkei 225 Futures contract and highly popular among Japanese individual investors.
In September 2007 OSE established evening session for Stock Index Futures and Options.The trading hours is from 16:30 to 19:00 (JST. 7:30-10:00 in UTC). In July 2012 a planned merger with the Tokyo Stock Exchange was approved by the Japan Fair Trade Commission. Today, despite its name, trading for Osaka Stock Exchange takes |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediator | Mediator may refer to:
A person who engages in mediation
Business mediator, a mediator in business
Vanishing mediator, a philosophical concept
Mediator variable, in statistics
Chemistry and biology
Mediator (coactivator), a multiprotein complex that functions as a transcriptional coactivator
Endogenous mediator, proteins that enhance and activate the functions of other proteins
Gaseous mediator, chemicals produced by some cells that have biological signalling functions
Mediator, a brand name of benfluorex, a withdrawn appetite suppressant medication
Internet, software, and computer
Mediator pattern, in computer science
A mail server's role in email forwarding
Other
Mediator, guitar pick or plectrum, an accessory for picking strings of musical instruments
The Mediator, a teen book series by Meg Cabot (some under the pseudonym Jenny Carroll)
The Mediator, a television documentary produced by Open Media
Mediator (Christ as Mediator), an office of Jesus Christ
Linesman/Mediator, a radar system in the United Kingdom
HMS Mediator, three ships of the British navy
USS Mediator, a ship of the United States navy
Mediator, brand name for benfluorex, an anorectic and hypolipidemic agent |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusterin | Clusterin (apolipoprotein J) is a 75-80 kDa disulfide-linked heterodimeric protein associated with the clearance of cellular debris and apoptosis. In humans, clusterin is encoded by the CLU gene on chromosome 8. CLU is a molecular chaperone responsible for aiding protein folding of secreted proteins, and its three isoforms have been differentially implicated in pro- or antiapoptotic processes. Through this function, CLU is involved in many diseases related to oxidative stress, including neurodegenerative diseases, cancers, inflammatory diseases, and aging.
Structure
The CLU gene contains nine exons and expresses three isoforms alternatively-spliced at the first exon. The encoded protein isoforms all localize to different subcellular compartments: one isoform localizes to the nucleus; a second isoform localizes to the cytoplasm; and the third is secreted from the cell. They also perform opposing functions: the nuclear CLU binds Ku70 to release BAX and induce apoptosis, whereas the cytosolic and secretory isoforms inhibit apoptosis. The nuclear isoform encodes a 49 kDa protein, while the secretory isoform, which is the main gene transcript, encodes a 75–80 kDa protein after maturation (glycosylation, secretion, and dimerization). The mature protein is a 449-residue, heterodimeric, disulfide-linked glycoprotein composed of two subunits of ~34-40 kDa α- and β-chains.
Function
Clusterin was first identified in ram rete testis fluid where it showed signs of clustering with ra |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Scriver | Charles Robert Scriver (November 7, 1930 – April 7, 2023) was a Canadian pediatrician and biochemical geneticist. His work focused on inborn errors of metabolism and led in establishing a Canada-wide newborn metabolic screening program.
Early life and education
Born in Montreal, Quebec, Scriver graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in 1951 and from the Faculty of Medicine of McGill University in 1955.
Scientific career
Scriver was appointed to the Department of Paediatrics at McGill and as a Markle scholar in 1961, becoming a professor in pediatrics in 1969. He was the Samuel Rudin Distinguished Visiting Professorship at Columbia University from 1979 to 1980 and was the Alva professor Emeritus of Human Genetics in the Faculty of Medicine of McGill University.
Scriver played a critical role in developing scientific and ethical policies associated with the international Human Genome Project - created to decode more than three billion DNA base pairs and identify all the genes.
Scriver was co-editor of the authoritative multi-volume textbook entitled The Metabolic & Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease, published by McGraw-Hill.
Death
Scriver died on April 7, 2023, at the age of 92.
Honours
He was awarded the McLaughlin medal from the Royal Society of Canada in 1981.
In 1985 he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada
In 1991, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.
In 1995, he was awarded the Government of Quebec's Prix Wilder-Penfield.
In 1996 he was promote |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20Noise | White noise is primarily a signal or sound with a flat frequency spectrum.
White Noise may also refer to:
Literature
White Noise (novel), a 1985 novel by Don DeLillo
White Noise (play), a 2019 play by Suzan-Lori Parks
Film and television
White Noise, a 2004 film starring Rahul Bose
White Noise (2005 film), a horror thriller film starring Michael Keaton
White Noise: The Light, the 2007 sequel
White Noise (2020 film), a documentary film
White Noise (2022 film), a black comedy film directed by Noah Baumbach based on the 1985 DeLillo book
White Noise, a fictional character from The Venture Bros. episode "Powerless in the Face of Death" (2006)
Music
White Noise (band), an English electronic music band
White Noise Records, an American record label
The White Noise, an American post-hardcore music group
White Noise: A Cautionary Musical, a rock musical, based on the real-life band Prussian Blue
White Noise, a Scottish rock band formed by Doogie White
Albums
White Noise (Cop Shoot Cop album), 1991
White Noise (Gary Numan album), 2008
White Noise (PVRIS album), or the title song, 2014
White Noise (The Living End album), 2008
Sound of White Noise, a 1993 album by Anthrax
White Noise, a 2002 album by Alpinestars
White Noise, a 2017 album by Noah Gundersen
White Noise, a 2007 EP by David Sneddon
Songs
"White Noise" (Disclosure song), 2013
"White Noise" (Linkin Park song), 2014
"White Noise" (The Living End song), 2008
"White Noise (백색소음)", by Exo from Ex' |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isochron%20dating | Isochron dating is a common technique of radiometric dating and is applied to date certain events, such as crystallization, metamorphism, shock events, and differentiation of precursor melts, in the history of rocks. Isochron dating can be further separated into mineral isochron dating and whole rock isochron dating; both techniques are applied frequently to date terrestrial and also extraterrestrial rocks (meteorites). The advantage of isochron dating as compared to simple radiometric dating techniques is that no assumptions are needed about the initial amount of the daughter nuclide in the radioactive decay sequence. Indeed, the initial amount of the daughter product can be determined using isochron dating. This technique can be applied if the daughter element has at least one stable isotope other than the daughter isotope into which the parent nuclide decays.
Basis for method
All forms of isochron dating assume that the source of the rock or rocks contained unknown amounts of both radiogenic and non-radiogenic isotopes of the daughter element, along with some amount of the parent nuclide. Thus, at the moment of crystallization, the ratio of the concentration of the radiogenic isotope of the daughter element to that of the non-radiogenic isotope is some value independent of the concentration of the parent. As time goes on, some amount of the parent decays into the radiogenic isotope of the daughter, increasing the ratio of the concentration of the radiogenic isotope to th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot%20water%20reset | Hot water reset, also called outdoor reset (ODR), is an energy-saving automatic control algorithm for heating boilers that are typically fired with fuel oil or natural gas. A hot water reset control loop measures the outside air temperature; this information is used to estimate demand or heating load as the outdoor temperature varies. The supply hot water temperature is modulated up and down range in an inverse linear ratio to outside air temperature. The typical range for conventional boilers is to vary the supply water temperature from as the outside temperature varies from .
Buildings cool down slowly when the outdoor temperature is moderate, and cool more rapidly when the outdoor temperature is colder. Hot water reset reduces the energy output by the heating system to approximately balance it against the energy lost as the building cools. This makes it easier to maintain the temperature within the desired range (as the radiant heating systems that boilers usually power respond slowly and are subject to overshoot) and can allow boilers to operate more efficiently.
Implementation
The control system can be made to modulate the supply water temperature in two different ways:
By acting as an operating control on the boiler burners, either modulated on/off, high/low fire, or fully modulating fire, depending on the burner construction. When modulating the actual boiler temperature lower, water temperature needs to have a low limit and be maintained above the flue gas conden |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20in%20Brazil%20by%20population | Brazil has a high level of urbanization with 87.8% of the population residing in urban and metropolitan areas. The criteria used by the IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) in determining whether households are urban or rural, however, are based on political divisions, not on the developed environment.
Nowadays, the country has 5,570 cities, with 5,568 municipalities plus the capital and the Island of Fernando de Noronha.
With two exceptions, the state capitals are all the largest cities in their respective states: Florianópolis, the capital of Santa Catarina is its second-largest city after Joinville, while Vitória is only the fourth-largest city in Espírito Santo, although it is located in that state's largest metropolitan area.
Most populous cities in Brazil
This is a list of the most populous cities based on the population of the municipality where the city is located, rather than its metropolitan area. As IBGE considers the entire Federal District synonymous to Brasília, the population of the Federal District is shown for Brasília.
2010 IBGE Census counts as of 1 August 2010. 2022 IBGE Census
State capitals are in bold and states' largest cities are in italics.
Brazil's population, as recorded by the 2010 census, was of 190,755,799 inhabitants (22.40 inhabitants per square kilometer), with 84.36% of the population defined as urban. The population is heavily concentrated in the Southeast (80.4 million) and Northeast (53.1 million).
Distribution
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9vy%20distribution | In probability theory and statistics, the Lévy distribution, named after Paul Lévy, is a continuous probability distribution for a non-negative random variable. In spectroscopy, this distribution, with frequency as the dependent variable, is known as a van der Waals profile. It is a special case of the inverse-gamma distribution. It is a stable distribution.
Definition
The probability density function of the Lévy distribution over the domain is
where is the location parameter and is the scale parameter. The cumulative distribution function is
where is the complementary error function and is the Laplace Function (CDF of the Standard Normal Distribution). The shift parameter has the effect of shifting the curve to the right by an amount , and changing the support to the interval [, ). Like all stable distributions, the Levy distribution has a standard form f(x;0,1) which has the following property:
where y is defined as
The characteristic function of the Lévy distribution is given by
Note that the characteristic function can also be written in the same form used for the stable distribution with and :
Assuming , the nth moment of the unshifted Lévy distribution is formally defined by:
which diverges for all so that the integer moments of the Lévy distribution do not exist (only some fractional moments).
The moment generating function would be formally defined by:
however this diverges for and is therefore not defined on an interval around zero, so the momen |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long%20drink | A long drink or tall drink is an alcoholic mixed drink with a relatively large volume (> 120 ml, frequently 160-400 ml or between 5–9 fluid ounces).
A long drink will have a tall glass full of mixer, in contrast to a short drink, or shooter, which has less mixer, or none. Short drinks are generally stronger since both types tend to contain the same amount of alcohol.
A classic long drink is a Tom Collins. A simple style of long drink is the highball, a cocktail composed of one liquor and one mixer (excluding garnish or ice). A classic example of the highball is the Scotch and soda. In Finland, a ‘long drink’ specifically contains gin plus a mixer, almost always a fruit soda.
Finnish long drink
In Finland, long drink (in Finnish lonkero) refers to a very popular mixed drink made from gin and a mixer, traditionally grapefruit soda, though many other flavours (almost always fruit) are available. It is ubiquitously available in Finnish stores, bars and restaurants.
References
Mixed drinks |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robonaut | A robonaut is a humanoid robot, part of a development project conducted by the Dexterous Robotics Laboratory at NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston, Texas. Robonaut differs from other current space-faring robots in that, while most current space robotic systems (such as robotic arms, cranes and exploration rovers) are designed to move large objects, Robonaut's tasks require more dexterity.
The core idea behind the Robonaut series is to have a humanoid machine work alongside astronauts. Its form factor and dexterity are designed such that Robonaut "is capable of performing all of the tasks required of an EVA-suited crewmember."
NASA states "Robonauts are essential to NASA's future as we go beyond low Earth orbit", and R2 will provide performance data about how a robot may work side-by-side with astronauts.
The latest Robonaut version, R2, was delivered to the International Space Station (ISS) by STS-133 in February 2011. The first US-built robot on the ISS, R2 is a robotic torso designed to assist with crew EVAs and can hold tools used by the crew. However, Robonaut 2 does not have adequate protection needed to exist outside the space station and enhancements and modifications would be required to allow it to move around the station's interior.
NASA planned to return R2 for repairs and then relaunch.
Robonaut 1
Robonaut 1 (R1) was the first model. The two Robonaut versions (R1A and R1B) had many partners including DARPA. None were flown to space. Other |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional%20crystallization | Fractional crystallization may refer to:
Fractional crystallization (chemistry), a process to separate different solutes from a solution
Fractional crystallization (geology), a natural process occurring in igneous rocks during which precipitation of minerals takes place |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halocline | In oceanography, a halocline (from Greek hals, halos 'salt' and klinein 'to slope') is a cline, a subtype of chemocline caused by a strong, vertical salinity gradient within a body of water. Because salinity (in concert with temperature) affects the density of seawater, it can play a role in its vertical stratification. Increasing salinity by one kg/m3 results in an increase of seawater density of around 0.7 kg/m3.
Description
In the midlatitudes, an excess of evaporation over precipitation leads to surface waters being saltier than deep waters. In such regions, the vertical stratification is due to surface waters being warmer than deep waters and the halocline is destabilizing. Such regions may be prone to salt fingering, a process which results in the preferential mixing of salinity.
In certain high latitude regions (such as the Arctic Ocean, Bering Sea, and the Southern Ocean) the surface waters are actually colder than the deep waters and the halocline is responsible for maintaining water column stability, isolating the surface waters from the deep waters. In these regions, the halocline is important in allowing for the formation of sea ice, and limiting the escape of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
Haloclines are also found in fjords, and poorly mixed estuaries where fresh water is deposited at the ocean surface.
A halocline can be easily created and observed in a drinking glass or other clear vessel. If fresh water is slowly poured over a quantity of salt wat |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrabble%20letter%20distributions | Editions of the word board game Scrabble in different languages have differing letter distributions of the tiles, because the frequency of each letter of the alphabet is different for every language. As a general rule, the rarer the letter, the more points it is worth.
Most languages use sets of 100 tiles, since the original distribution of ninety-eight tiles was later augmented with two blank tiles. In tournament play, while it is acceptable to pause the game to count the tiles remaining in the game, it is not acceptable to mention how many tiles are remaining at any time. Several online tools exist for counting tiles during friendly play.
Official editions
Scrabble editions listed in this section are officially licensed by Hasbro (for North America) or Mattel (for the rest of the world).
English
English-language editions of Scrabble contain 100 letter tiles, in the following distribution:
2 blank tiles (scoring 0 points)
1 point: E ×12, A ×9, I ×9, O ×8, N ×6, R ×6, T ×6, L ×4, S ×4, U ×4
2 points: D ×4, G ×3
3 points: B ×2, C ×2, M ×2, P ×2
4 points: F ×2, H ×2, V ×2, W ×2, Y ×2
5 points: K ×1
8 points: J ×1, X ×1
10 points: Q ×1, Z ×1
The total number of points is 187. Diacritical marks (such as "é" in words borrowed from French) are ignored.
When Alfred Butts invented the game, he initially experimented with different distributions of letters. A popular story claims that Butts created an elaborate chart by studying the front page of The New York Times to create |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skolem%27s%20paradox | In mathematical logic and philosophy, Skolem's paradox is a seeming contradiction that arises from the downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem. Thoralf Skolem (1922) was the first to discuss the seemingly contradictory aspects of the theorem, and to discover the relativity of set-theoretic notions now known as non-absoluteness. Although it is not an actual antinomy like Russell's paradox, the result is typically called a paradox and was described as a "paradoxical state of affairs" by Skolem (1922: p. 295).
Skolem's paradox is that every countable axiomatisation of set theory in first-order logic, if it is consistent, has a model that is countable. This appears contradictory because it is possible to prove, from those same axioms, a sentence that intuitively says (or that precisely says in the standard model of the theory) that there exist sets that are not countable. Thus the seeming contradiction is that a model that is itself countable, and which therefore contains only countable sets, satisfies the first-order sentence that intuitively states "there are uncountable sets".
A mathematical explanation of the paradox, showing that it is not a contradiction in mathematics, was given by Skolem (1922). Skolem's work was harshly received by Ernst Zermelo, who argued against the limitations of first-order logic, but the result quickly came to be accepted by the mathematical community.
The philosophical implications of Skolem's paradox have received much study. One line of inquiry que |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein%20efficiency%20ratio | Protein efficiency ratio (PER) is based on the weight gain of a test subject divided by its intake of a particular food protein during the test period.
From 1919 until very recently, the PER had been a widely used method for evaluating the quality of protein in food.
The food industry in Canada currently uses the PER as the standard for evaluating the protein quality of foods. The official method for determining the protein efficiency ratio is from Health Canada's Health Protection Branch Method FO-1, October 15, 1981.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration now uses the Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) as the basis for the percent of the U.S. recommended daily allowance (USRDA) for protein shown on food labels. However, the PER is still used in certain FDA regulations. The US FDA official methods to calculate the PER are as stated in the Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International, 16th ed. (1995) Section 45.3.05, AOAC Official Method 982.30 Protein Efficiency Ratio Calculation Method; and Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International, 18th ed. (2005).
See also
Protein (nutrient)
Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS)
Net protein utilization
Nitrogen balance
Biological value
References
Proteins
Nutrition |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evgenii%20Landis | Evgenii Mikhailovich Landis (, Yevgeny Mikhaylovich Landis; 6 October 1921 – 12 December 1997) was a Soviet mathematician who worked mainly on partial differential equations.
Life
Landis was born in Kharkiv, Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union. He was Jewish. He studied and worked at the Moscow State University, where his advisor was Alexander Kronrod, and later Ivan Petrovsky. In 1946, together with Kronrod, he rediscovered Sard's lemma, unknown in USSR at the time.
Later, he worked on uniqueness theorems for elliptic and parabolic differential equations, Harnack inequalities, and Phragmén–Lindelöf type theorems. With Georgy Adelson-Velsky, he invented the AVL tree data structure (where "AVL" stands for Adelson-Velsky Landis).
He died in Moscow. His students include Yulij Ilyashenko.
External links
Biography of Y.M. Landis at the International Centre for Mathematical Sciences.
20th-century Russian mathematicians
Soviet mathematicians
Soviet inventors
Moscow State University alumni
1921 births
1997 deaths
Mathematical analysts
Ukrainian Jews
Ukrainian mathematicians
Ukrainian inventors
Russian scientists |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R03 | R03 may refer to:
AAA battery
Alkali Lake State Airport in Lake County, Oregon
ATC code R03, a subgroup of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System
See also
R3 (disambiguation) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baccarat%20%28company%29 | Baccarat () is a French luxury house and manufacturer of fine crystal located in Baccarat, Meurthe-et-Moselle, France. The company owns two museums: the Musée Baccarat in Baccarat, and the Musée Baccarat in Paris on the Place des États-Unis.
Groupe du Louvre was the majority shareholder of the company until 2005. The company was then acquired by Starwood Capital Group, which used the name for a luxury hotel called Baccarat Hotel New York, featuring the company's chandeliers, decorative pieces and glasses.
In 2018, Fortune Fountain Capital, a Beijing-based financial group, acquired an 88.8 per cent stake of the company from Starwood Capital Group and L Catterton. On 23 December 2020, four financing funds based in Hong Kong - Tor, Sammasan, Dolphin and Corbin - took control of the capital of Fortune Fountain Limited (FFL), the holding company that held 97% of the shares of Baccarat.
History
1764-1816
After the closure of the Rozières saltworks in 1760 due to a drop in the salt-content of the water, there became available a large quantity of wood floating down to the town of Baccarat. One of the main owners of the Vosges forest where this driftwood came from, namely Monseigneur de Montmorency-Laval, bishop of Metz, that wanted to find another use for it and set a fire pit in Baccarat which became a glassworks. In this way, the Bishop wanted to encourage the creation of this industry in the tiny village of Baccarat. To justify the creation of this enterprise in a request mad |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bead%20sort | Bead sort, also called gravity sort, is a natural sorting algorithm, developed by Joshua J. Arulanandham, Cristian S. Calude and Michael J. Dinneen in 2002, and published in The Bulletin of the European Association for Theoretical Computer Science. Both digital and analog hardware implementations of bead sort can achieve a sorting time of O(n); however, the implementation of this algorithm tends to be significantly slower in software and can only be used to sort lists of positive integers. Also, it would seem that even in the best case, the algorithm requires O(n2) space.
Algorithm overview
The bead sort operation can be compared to the manner in which beads slide on parallel poles, such as on an abacus. However, each pole may have a distinct number of beads. Initially, it may be helpful to imagine the beads suspended on vertical poles. In Step 1, such an arrangement is displayed using n=5 rows of beads on m=4 vertical poles. The numbers to the right of each row indicate the number that the row in question represents; rows 1 and 2 are representing the positive integer 3 (because they each contain three beads) while the top row represents the positive integer 2 (as it only contains two beads).
If we then allow the beads to fall, the rows now represent the same integers in sorted order. Row 1 contains the largest number in the set, while row n contains the smallest. If the above-mentioned convention of rows containing a series of beads on poles 1..k and leaving poles |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oudin%20coil | An Oudin coil, also called an Oudin oscillator or Oudin resonator, is a resonant transformer circuit that generates very high voltage, high frequency alternating current (AC) electricity at low current levels, used in the obsolete forms of electrotherapy around the turn of the 20th century. It is very similar to the Tesla coil, with the difference being that the Oudin coil was connected as an autotransformer. It was invented in 1893 by French physician Paul Marie Oudin as a modification of physician Jacques Arsene d'Arsonval's electrotherapy equipment and used in medical diathermy therapy as well as quack medicine until perhaps 1940. The high voltage output terminal of the coil was connected to an insulated handheld electrode which produced luminous brush discharges, which were applied to the patient's body to treat various medical conditions in electrotherapy.
How it works
Oudin and Tesla coils are spark-excited air-core double-tuned transformer circuits that use resonance to generate very high voltages at low currents. They produce alternating current in the radio frequency (RF) range. The medical coils of the early 20th century produced potentials of 50,000 up to a million volts, at frequencies in the range 200 kHz to 5 MHz. The primary circuit of the coil has Leyden jar capacitors (C) which in combination with the primary winding of the coil (L1) make a resonant circuit (tuned circuit). In medical coils usually two capacitors were used for safety, one in each side |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toda%20field%20theory | In mathematics and physics, specifically the study of field theory and partial differential equations, a Toda field theory, named after Morikazu Toda, is specified by a choice of Lie algebra and a specific Lagrangian.
Formulation
Fixing the Lie algebra to have rank , that is, the Cartan subalgebra of the algebra has dimension , the Lagrangian can be written
The background spacetime is 2-dimensional Minkowski space, with space-like coordinate and timelike coordinate . Greek indices indicate spacetime coordinates.
For some choice of root basis, is the th simple root. This provides a basis for the Cartan subalgebra, allowing it to be identified with .
Then the field content is a collection of scalar fields , which are scalar in the sense that they transform trivially under Lorentz transformations of the underlying spacetime.
The inner product is the restriction of the Killing form to the Cartan subalgebra.
The are integer constants, known as Kac labels or Dynkin labels.
The physical constants are the mass and the coupling constant .
Classification of Toda field theories
Toda field theories are classified according to their associated Lie algebra.
Toda field theories usually refer to theories with a finite Lie algebra. If the Lie algebra is an affine Lie algebra, it is called an affine Toda field theory (after the component of φ which decouples is removed). If it is hyperbolic, it is called a hyperbolic Toda field theory.
Toda field theories are integrable mode |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-25 | K-25 was the codename given by the Manhattan Project to the program to produce enriched uranium for atomic bombs using the gaseous diffusion method. Originally the codename for the product, over time it came to refer to the project, the production facility located at the Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, the main gaseous diffusion building, and ultimately the site. When it was built in 1944, the four-story K-25 gaseous diffusion plant was the world's largest building, comprising over of floor space and a volume of .
Construction of the K-25 facility was undertaken by J. A. Jones Construction. At the height of construction, over 25,000 workers were employed on the site. Gaseous diffusion was but one of three enrichment technologies used by the Manhattan Project. Slightly enriched product from the S-50 thermal diffusion plant was fed into the K-25 gaseous diffusion plant. Its product in turn was fed into the Y-12 electromagnetic plant. The enriched uranium was used in the Little Boy atomic bomb used in the atomic bombing of Hiroshima. In 1946, the K-25 gaseous diffusion plant became capable of producing highly enriched product.
After the war, four more gaseous diffusion plants named K-27, K-29, K-31 and K-33 were added to the site. The K-25 site was renamed the Oak Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant in 1955. Production of enriched uranium ended in 1964, and gaseous diffusion finally ceased on the site on 27 August 1985. The Oak Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant was rena |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocele | A hydrocele is an accumulation of serous fluid in a body cavity. A hydrocele testis, the most common form of hydrocele, is the accumulation of fluids around a testicle. It is often caused by fluid collecting within a layer wrapped around the testicle, called the tunica vaginalis, which is derived from peritoneum. Provided there is no hernia present, it goes away without treatment in the first year. Although hydroceles usually develop in males, rare instances have been described in females in the canal of Nuck.
Primary hydroceles may develop in adulthood, particularly in the elderly and in hot countries, by slow accumulation of serous fluid. This is presumably caused by impaired reabsorption, which appears to be the explanation for most primary hydroceles, although the reason remains obscure. A hydrocele can also be the result of a plugged inguinal lymphatic system caused by repeated, chronic infection of Wuchereria bancrofti or Brugia malayi, two mosquito-borne parasites of Africa and Southeast Asia, respectively. As such, the condition would be a part of more diffuse sequelae commonly referred to as elephantiasis, which also affects the lymphatic system in other parts of the body.
Presentation
Complications
Among the complications of hydrocele are:
Rupture usually occurs as a result of trauma but may be spontaneous. On rare occasions cure results after the fluid has been absorbed.
Transformation into a haematocele occurs if there is spontaneous bleeding into the sac or |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligand-gated%20ion%20channel | Ligand-gated ion channels (LICs, LGIC), also commonly referred to as ionotropic receptors, are a group of transmembrane ion-channel proteins which open to allow ions such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, and/or Cl− to pass through the membrane in response to the binding of a chemical messenger (i.e. a ligand), such as a neurotransmitter.
When a presynaptic neuron is excited, it releases a neurotransmitter from vesicles into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter then binds to receptors located on the postsynaptic neuron. If these receptors are ligand-gated ion channels, a resulting conformational change opens the ion channels, which leads to a flow of ions across the cell membrane. This, in turn, results in either a depolarization, for an excitatory receptor response, or a hyperpolarization, for an inhibitory response.
These receptor proteins are typically composed of at least two different domains: a transmembrane domain which includes the ion pore, and an extracellular domain which includes the ligand binding location (an allosteric binding site). This modularity has enabled a 'divide and conquer' approach to finding the structure of the proteins (crystallising each domain separately). The function of such receptors located at synapses is to convert the chemical signal of presynaptically released neurotransmitter directly and very quickly into a postsynaptic electrical signal. Many LICs are additionally modulated by allosteric ligands, by channel blockers, ions, or the membrane potent |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurex%20Exchange | Eurex Exchange is an international exchange which primarily offers trading in European based derivatives. It is the largest European futures and options market. The products traded on this exchange vary from German and Swiss debt instruments to European stocks and various stock indexes. All transactions executed on Eurex Exchange are cleared through Eurex Clearing, which functions as a central counterparty (CCP) for multi-asset class clearing of the above-mentioned exchange-traded product range as well as over-the-counter traded products.
According to the 2015 Futures Industry Association’s annual survey, Eurex Exchange is ranked as the world's third-largest derivatives exchange by contract volume. The Exchange is headquartered in Eschborn, Germany, near Frankfurt am Main, and it is operated by Eurex Frankfurt AG and Eurex Zürich AG, which are public companies wholly owned by the German stock exchange operator Deutsche Börse AG.
History
In the 1990s, Europe went through a power shift in its financial sector. London (LIFFE, London Financial Futures Exchange) began to lose dominance in trading German government bonds futures (The Bund) to the Frankfurt-based Deutsche Terminbörse (DTB). This event has come to be known as the ‘Battle of the Bund’.
The DTB was one of the world's first electronic exchanges, and by 1997 had distributed its screens across Europe and into the United States. As the DTB was in the midst of a battle to wrench liquidity in the Bund contract away fr |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursodeoxycholic%20acid | Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), also known as ursodiol, is a secondary bile acid, produced in humans and most other species from metabolism by intestinal bacteria. It is synthesized in the liver in some species, and was first identified in bile of bears of genus Ursus, from which its name derived. In purified form, it has been used to treat or prevent several diseases of the liver or bile ducts.
It is available as a generic medication.
Medical uses
UDCA has been used as medical therapy in gallstone disease (cholelithiasis) and for biliary sludge. UDCA helps reduce the cholesterol saturation of bile and leads to gradual dissolution of cholesterol-rich gallstones.
UDCA may be given after bariatric surgery to prevent cholelithiasis, which commonly occurs due to the rapid weight loss producing biliary cholesterol oversaturation and also biliary dyskinesia secondary to hormonal changes.
Primary biliary cholangitis
UDCA is used as therapy in primary biliary cholangitis (PBC; previously known as primary biliary cirrhosis) where it can produce an improvement in biomarkers. Meta-analyses have borne out conflicting results on the mortality benefit. However analyses that exclude trials of short duration (i.e. < 2 years) have demonstrated a survival benefit and are generally considered more clinically relevant. A Cochrane systematic review in 2012 found no significant benefit in reducing mortality, the rate of liver transplantation, pruritus or fatigue. Ursodiol and obeticholic acid a |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnipeg%20Commodity%20Exchange | ICE Futures Canada (IFCA)—known as the Winnipeg Commodity Exchange (WCE) until 2008—was a derivatives market based in Winnipeg, Manitoba, and was Canada's only commodity futures exchange.
Prior to 2008, WCE was the subsidiary of WCE Holdings Inc., which also owned WCE Clearing Corporation, and Canadian Climate Exchange Inc. In 2007, WCE was purchased by the U.S.-based Intercontinental Exchange. In mid 2018, IFCA's futures and options contracts transitioned to ICE Futures U.S. (IFUS). Under the IFUS trading name, ICE continues to electronically trade Canadian contracts for milling wheat, durum, western barley, and canola (rapeseed).
ICE's operations in Manitoba are regulated by the Manitoba Securities Commission. In contrast, the Ontario Securities Commission has provided ICE an order that exempts it from the requirement to be recognized as a stock exchange and as a commodity futures exchange in Ontario.
History
The Winnipeg Grain & Produce Exchange was established in 1887. Initially serving as a forum for cash trades in Canadian grains, it introduced its first futures contracts in 1904. Beginning with wheat futures, it subsequently added futures trading in barley, oats, flax, and rye. In 1908, the Exchange was re-organized as a voluntary, non-profit organization, changing its name to the Winnipeg Grain Exchange.
In 1972, with the opening of the market in gold futures, the Exchange was renamed the Winnipeg Commodity Exchange.
It also formerly operated the Canadian Financ |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene%20Dynkin | Eugene Borisovich Dynkin (; 11 May 1924 – 14 November 2014) was a Soviet and American mathematician. He made contributions to the fields of probability and algebra, especially semisimple Lie groups, Lie algebras, and Markov processes. The Dynkin diagram, the Dynkin system, and Dynkin's lemma are named after him.
Biography
Dynkin was born into a Jewish family, living in Leningrad until 1935, when his family was exiled to Kazakhstan. Two years later, when Dynkin was 13, his father disappeared in the Gulag.
Moscow University
At the age of 16, in 1940, Dynkin was admitted to Moscow University. He avoided military service in World War II because of his poor eyesight, and received his MS in 1945 and his PhD in 1948. He became an assistant professor at Moscow, but was not awarded a "chair" until 1954 because of his political undesirability. His academic progress was made difficult due to his father's fate, as well as Dynkin's Jewish origin; the special efforts of Andrey Kolmogorov, his PhD supervisor, made it possible for Dynkin to progress through graduate school into a teaching position.
USSR Academy of Sciences
In 1968, Dynkin was forced to transfer from the Moscow University to the Central Economic Mathematical Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences. He worked there on the theory of economic growth and economic equilibrium.
Cornell
He remained at the Institute until 1976, when he emigrated to the United States. In 1977, he became a professor at Cornell University.
De |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aminopterin | Aminopterin (or 4-aminopteroic acid), the 4-amino derivative of folic acid, is an antineoplastic drug with immunosuppressive properties often used in chemotherapy. Aminopterin is a synthetic derivative of pterin. Aminopterin works as an enzyme inhibitor by competing for the folate binding site of the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase. Its binding affinity for dihydrofolate reductase effectively blocks tetrahydrofolate synthesis. This results in the depletion of nucleotide precursors and inhibition of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis.
It is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U.S.C. 11002), and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store, or use it in significant quantities.
Uses
Discovered by Yellapragada Subbarow, the drug was first used by Sidney Farber in 1947 to induce remissions among children with leukemia. Aminopterin was later marketed by Lederle Laboratories (Pearl River, New York) in the United States from 1953 to 1964 for the indication of pediatric leukemia. The closely related antifolate methotrexate was simultaneously marketed by the company during the same period. Aminopterin was discontinued by Lederle Laboratories in favor of methotrexate due to manufacturing difficulties of the former.
During the period Aminopterin was marketed, the agent was used off-label to safely treat over 4,000 patients with p |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CGB | CGB may refer to:
covertgoBlue, a popular youtube content creator
Chorionic gonadotropin beta, a protein encoded by the CGB gene
Christian Trade Union Federation of Germany
Compagnie des Chemins de Fer de Grande Banlieue, a defunct railway in France
Consumer & Governmental Affairs Bureau, a part of the Federal Communications Commission
Game Boy Color (product code CGB-001), Nintendo
Marechal Rondon International Airport (IATA code), in Cuiabá, Brazil
Station code for Cigombong railway station |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meningism | Meningism is a set of symptoms similar to those of meningitis but not caused by meningitis. Whereas meningitis is inflammation of the meninges (membranes that cover the central nervous system), meningism is caused by nonmeningitic irritation of the meninges, usually associated with acute febrile illness, especially in children and adolescents. Meningism involves the triad (3-symptom syndrome) of nuchal rigidity (neck stiffness), photophobia (intolerance of bright light) and headache. It therefore requires differentiating from other CNS problems with similar symptoms, including meningitis and some types of intracranial hemorrhage. Related clinical signs include Kernig's sign and three signs all named Brudzinski's sign.
Although nosologic coding systems, such as ICD-10 and MeSH, define meningism/meningismus as meningitis-like but in fact not meningitis, many physicians use the term meningism in a loose sense clinically to refer to any meningitis-like set of symptoms before the cause is definitively known. In this sense, the word implies "suspected meningitis". The words meningeal symptoms can be used instead to avoid ambiguity, thus reserving the term meningism for its strict sense.
Signs and symptoms
The main clinical signs that indicate meningism are nuchal rigidity, Kernig's sign and Brudzinski's signs. None of the signs are particularly sensitive; in adults with meningitis, nuchal rigidity was present in 30% and Kernig's or Brudzinski's sign only in 5%.
Nuchal rigidity
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodobacterales | Rhodobacterales are an order of the Alphaproteobacteria.
Gene transfer agents are viruslike elements produced by Rhodobacterales which transfer DNA and may be an important factor in their evolution.
Etymology
From Greek rhodon, the rose, and bakterion, a rod. This refers to the colour of aerobic phototrophic cultures of this order of bacteria which can be pink or red due to the production of carotenoids.
References
Further reading
Scientific journals
Scientific books
External links
Alphaproteobacteria |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat%20death%20paradox | The heat death paradox, also known as thermodynamic paradox, Clausius' paradox and Kelvin’s paradox, is a reductio ad absurdum argument that uses thermodynamics to show the impossibility of an infinitely old universe. It was formulated in February 1862 by Lord Kelvin and expanded upon by Hermann von Helmholtz and William John Macquorn Rankine.
The paradox
This theoretical paradox is directed at the then-mainstream strand of belief in a classical view of a sempiternal universe, whereby its matter is postulated as everlasting and having always been recognisably the universe. Heat death paradox is born of a paradigm resulting from fundamental ideas about the cosmos. It is necessary to change the paradigm to resolve the paradox.
The paradox was based upon the rigid mechanical point of view of the second law of thermodynamics postulated by Rudolf Clausius and Lord Kelvin, according to which heat can only be transferred from a warmer to a colder object. It notes: if the universe were eternal, as claimed classically, it should already be cold and isotropic (its objects should have the same temperature, and the distribution of matter or radiation should be even). Kelvin compared the universe to a clock that runs slower and slower, constantly dissipating energy in impalpable heat, although he was unsure whether it would stop for ever (reach thermodynamic equilibrium). According to this model, the existence of usable energy, which can be used to perform work and produce entropy, mea |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%B6nhage%E2%80%93Strassen%20algorithm | The Schönhage–Strassen algorithm is an asymptotically fast multiplication algorithm for large integers, published by Arnold Schönhage and Volker Strassen in 1971. It works by recursively applying fast Fourier transform (FFT) over the integers modulo 2n+1. The run-time bit complexity to multiply two -digit numbers using the algorithm is in big notation.
The Schönhage–Strassen algorithm was the asymptotically fastest multiplication method known from 1971 until 2007. It is asymptotically faster than older methods such as Karatsuba and Toom–Cook multiplication, and starts to outperform them in practice for numbers beyond about 10,000 to 100,000 decimal digits. In 2007, Martin Fürer published an algorithm with faster asymptotic complexity. In 2019, David Harvey and Joris van der Hoeven demonstrated that multi-digit multiplication has theoretical complexity; however, their algorithm has constant factors which make it impossibly slow for any conceivable practical problem (see galactic algorithm).
Applications of the Schönhage–Strassen algorithm include large computations done for their own sake such as the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search and approximations of , as well as practical applications such as Lenstra elliptic curve factorization via Kronecker substitution, which reduces polynomial multiplication to integer multiplication.
Description
Every number in base B, can be written as a polynomial:
Furthermore, multiplication of two numbers could be thought of as a produ |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical%20model%20of%20the%20Solar%20System | A numerical model of the Solar System is a set of mathematical equations, which, when solved, give the approximate positions of the planets as a function of time. Attempts to create such a model established the more general field of celestial mechanics. The results of this simulation can be compared with past measurements to check for accuracy and then be used to predict future positions. Its main use therefore is in preparation of almanacs.
Older efforts
The simulations can be done in either Cartesian or in spherical coordinates. The former are easier, but extremely calculation intensive, and only practical on an electronic computer. As such only the latter was used in former times. Strictly speaking, the latter was not much less calculation intensive, but it was possible to start with some simple approximations and then to add perturbations, as much as needed to reach the wanted accuracy.
In essence this mathematical simulation of the Solar System is a form of the N-body problem. The symbol N represents the number of bodies, which can grow quite large if one includes the Sun, 8 planets, dozens of moons, and countless planetoids, comets and so forth. However the influence of the Sun on any other body is so large, and the influence of all the other bodies on each other so small, that the problem can be reduced to the analytically solvable 2-body problem. The result for each planet is an orbit, a simple description of its position as function of time. Once this is solved the |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodobium%20%28bacterium%29 | Rhodobium is a genus of purple non-sulfur bacteria. The cells are rod-shaped and reproduce by budding, as in many other members of the Hyphomicrobiales. RNA trees separate it from the others, however, and it is given its own family. R. orientis, the type species, was isolated from seawater in 1995. It is capable of photosynthetic hydrogen production via the nitrogenase enzyme.
References
Hyphomicrobiales
Bacteria genera |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucokinase%20regulatory%20protein | The glucokinase regulatory protein (GKRP) also known as glucokinase (hexokinase 4) regulator (GCKR) is a protein produced in hepatocytes (liver cells). GKRP binds and moves glucokinase (GK), thereby controlling both activity and intracellular location of this key enzyme of glucose metabolism.
GKRP is a 68 kD protein of 626 amino acids. It is coded for by a 19 exon gene, GCKR, on the short arm of chromosome 2 (2p23). GKRP was discovered by Emile van Schaftingen and reported in 1989
Physiological function
Glucokinase (GK) in liver cells phosphorylates glucose, preparing it for incorporation into glycogen or for glycolysis. During periods of ample glucose supply, most GK activity can be found in the peripheral cytoplasm where glycogen synthesis is occurring. As the glucose supply declines during periods of fasting, GK activity in the cytoplasm diminishes. GKRP participates in this modulation of GK activity and location by binding free cytoplasmic GK as glucose levels decline, and moving it into the nucleus, where it is held in reserve in an inactive form. As glucose and insulin levels rise, as during digestion of a meal, GK is released from GKRP and moves back to the cytoplasm, where much of it associates with the bifunctional enzyme.
In hepatocytes of various mammals, GKRP has always been found in molar excess of the amount of GK, but the GKRP:GK ratio varies according to diet, insulin sufficiency, and other factors. Free GKRP shuttles between the nucleus and the cytoplasm |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixture%20unit | In plumbing, a Fixture Unit (FU) or Drain Fixture Unit (DFU) is "a unit of measure, based on the rate of discharge, time of operation and frequency of use of a fixture, that expresses the hydraulic load imposed by that fixture on the sanitary plumbing installation". A Fixture Unit is not a flow rate unit but a design factor. A fixture unit is equal to of water drained in a diameter pipe over one minute. One cubic foot of water is roughly . A Fixture Unit is used in plumbing design for both water supply and waste water.
Different fixtures have different flow requirements. In order to determine the required size of pipe, an arbitrary unit is used for pipe sizing which takes into account the likelihood that all the fixtures will not be used at the same time. This is called "fixture unit" (FU). The relationship between gallons per minute (gpm) and fixture unit is not constant, but varies with the number of fixture units. For example, 1000 FU is equivalent to while 2000 FU represents only , about 1.5 times the flow rate.
Fixture unit values can be determined using charts from the International Plumbing Code or similar codes in local jurisdictions.
There are situations where a design provides for more FUs being discharged than being supplied. This occurs in situations where liquids may infiltrate or are added to a draining system, such as might happen in a large sports venue. Examples of how this could occur include rain water infiltration.
References
Plumbing
Units of |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S3%20Texture%20Compression | S3 Texture Compression (S3TC) (sometimes also called DXTn, DXTC, or BCn) is a group of related lossy texture compression algorithms originally developed by Iourcha et al. of S3 Graphics, Ltd. for use in their Savage 3D computer graphics accelerator. The method of compression is strikingly similar to the previously published Color Cell Compression, which is in turn an adaptation of Block Truncation Coding published in the late 1970s. Unlike some image compression algorithms (e.g. JPEG), S3TC's fixed-rate data compression coupled with the single memory access (cf. Color Cell Compression and some VQ-based schemes) made it well-suited for use in compressing textures in hardware-accelerated 3D computer graphics. Its subsequent inclusion in Microsoft's DirectX 6.0 and OpenGL 1.3 (via the GL_EXT_texture_compression_s3tc extension) led to widespread adoption of the technology among hardware and software makers. While S3 Graphics is no longer a competitor in the graphics accelerator market, license fees have been levied and collected for the use of S3TC technology until October 2017, for example in game consoles and graphics cards. The wide use of S3TC has led to a de facto requirement for OpenGL drivers to support it, but the patent-encumbered status of S3TC presented a major obstacle to open source implementations, while implementation approaches which tried to avoid the patented parts existed.
Patent
Some (e.g. US 5956431 A) of the multiple USPTO patents on S3 Texture Compression |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt%20pond | Salt pond or Saltpond may refer to:
Types of salt ponds
Salt evaporation pond, an artificial salt pond
Tropical salt pond ecosystem, a natural salt pond ecosystem
Salt pan (geology), desert feature with occasional salt ponds
Places
Saltpond, a town in the Central Region of South Ghana, West Africa
Salt Pond Township, Saline County, Missouri
Salt Pond Mountain, in Giles County, Virginia
See also
Great Salt Pond (disambiguation) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant%20DNA | Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning) that bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in the genome.
Recombinant DNA is the general name for a piece of DNA that has been created by combining two or more fragments from different sources. Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the same chemical structure, differing only in the nucleotide sequence. Recombinant DNA molecules are sometimes called chimeric DNA because they can be made of material from two different species like the mythical chimera. rDNA technology uses palindromic sequences and leads to the production of sticky and blunt ends.
The DNA sequences used in the construction of recombinant DNA molecules can originate from any species. For example, plant DNA can be joined to bacterial DNA, or human DNA can be joined with fungal DNA. In addition, DNA sequences that do not occur anywhere in nature can be created by the chemical synthesis of DNA and incorporated into recombinant DNA molecules. Using recombinant DNA technology and synthetic DNA, any DNA sequence can be created and introduced into living organisms.
Proteins that can result from the expression of recombinant DNA within living cells are termed recombinant proteins. When recombinant DNA encoding a protein is introduced into a host organism, the recombinant protein is |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous-wave%20radar | Continuous-wave radar (CW radar) is a type of radar system where a known stable frequency continuous wave radio energy is transmitted and then received from any reflecting objects. Individual objects can be detected using the Doppler effect, which causes the received signal to have a different frequency from the transmitted signal, allowing it to be detected by filtering out the transmitted frequency.
Doppler-analysis of radar returns can allow the filtering out of slow or non-moving objects, thus offering immunity to interference from large stationary objects and slow-moving clutter. This makes it particularly useful for looking for objects against a background reflector, for instance, allowing a high-flying aircraft to look for aircraft flying at low altitude against the background of the surface. Because the very strong reflection off the surface can be filtered out, the much smaller reflection from a target can still be seen.
CW radar systems are used at both ends of the range spectrum.
Inexpensive radio-altimeters, proximity sensors and sport accessories that operate from a few dozen feet to several kilometers
Costly early-warning CW angle track (CWAT) radar operating beyond 100 km for use with surface-to-air missile systems
Operation
The main advantage of CW radar is that energy is not pulsed so these are much simpler to manufacture and operate. They have no minimum or maximum range, although the broadcast power level imposes a practical limit on range. Continuous- |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Grojnowski | Ian Grojnowski is a mathematician working at the Department of Pure Mathematics and Mathematical Statistics at the University of Cambridge.
Awards and honours
Grojnowski was the first recipient of the Fröhlich Prize of the London Mathematical Society in 2004 for his work in representation theory and algebraic geometry. The citation reads
References
20th-century British mathematicians
21st-century British mathematicians
Australian mathematicians
Living people
Cambridge mathematicians
Year of birth missing (living people)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GLS | GLS may refer to:
Science and technology
GBAS landing system, an aircraft landing system
General Lighting Service, a type of light bulb
Generalized least squares, in statistics
Global location sensor
Glutaminase, a gene and enzyme
Gray leaf spot, a fungal plant disease
Guided local search, a search algorithm
Organisations
General Logistics Systems, a Dutch logistics company
Genesis Lease (NYSE: GLS), a former Bermudan aircraft leasing company
Government Legal Service, former name of a UK Government group
University of Chicago Graduate Library School
Glasgow Literary Society, Scotland
Global Linguist Solutions, an American translation company
GLS Bank, a German ethical bank
GLS University, in Ahmedabad, India
Events
Games, Learning & Society Conference
Georgetown Leadership Seminar
Global Leaders' Summit
Places
Glaisdale railway station (Station code), in England
Gloucestershire, England
Scholes International Airport at Galveston (IATA and FAA LID codes), Texas, US
Other uses
Guy L. Steele Jr. (born 1954), American computer scientist
Mercedes-Benz GLS, an automobile |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impossibility%20theorem | Impossibility theorem could refer to:
Proof of impossibility, a negative proof of a theory
Arrow's impossibility theorem in welfare economics |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Component%20speaker | A component speaker is a car audio speaker matched for optimal sound quality. Typically, a pair of tweeters and mid-bass drivers are matched with a crossover to limit the frequency range each speaker must accurately reproduce. Component speakers drivers are physically separated so the tweeter, which is very directional, can be placed in an optimal position, usually on the dash facing the listener, while the larger mid-bass driver can be placed where there is room, often in the lower front of the car doors. Component speaker pairs are offered by all of the high-end audio manufacturers.
Best component speakers enhance your car sound quality because of separate orientation of all speakers tweeters, mid-bass and base or base tube. A crossover or a amplifier is used to channelize the audio all over the car.
References
Loudspeakers |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backpropagation | As a machine-learning algorithm, backpropagation performs a backward pass to adjust a neural network model's parameters, aiming to minimize the mean squared error (MSE). In a multi-layered network, backpropagation uses the following steps:
Propagate training data through the model from input to predicted output by computing the successive hidden layers' outputs and finally the final layer's output (the feedforward step).
Adjust the model weights to reduce the error relative to the weights.
The error is typically the squared difference between prediction and target.
For each weight, the slope or derivative of the error is found, and the weight adjusted by a negative multiple of this derivative, so as to go downslope toward the minimum-error configuration.
This derivative is easy to calculate for final layer weights, and possible to calculate for one layer given the next layer's derivatives. Starting at the end, then, the derivatives are calculated layer by layer toward the beginning -- thus "backpropagation".
Repeatedly update the weights until they converge or the model has undergone enough iterations.
It is an efficient application of the Leibniz chain rule (1673) to such networks. It is also known as the reverse mode of automatic differentiation or reverse accumulation, due to Seppo Linnainmaa (1970). The term "back-propagating error correction" was introduced in 1962 by Frank Rosenblatt, but he did not know how to implement this, even though Henry J. Kelley h |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply%20Belcher | Supply Belcher (March 29, 1751 – June 9, 1836) was an American composer, singer, and compiler of tune books. He was one of the so-called Yankee tunesmiths or First New England School, a group of mostly self-taught composers who created sacred vocal music for local choirs. He was active first in Lexington, Massachusetts, then eventually moved to Farmington, Maine. Like most of his colleagues, Belcher could not make music his main occupation, and worked as tax assessor, schoolmaster, town clerk, and so on; nevertheless he was considerably well known for his musical activities, and even dubbed 'the Handell [sic] of Maine' by a local newspaper. Most of his works survive in The Harmony of Maine, a collection Belcher published himself in Boston in 1794.
Life
Belcher was born in Stoughton, Massachusetts. In the early 1770s he moved to Boston to embark on a merchant's career, but returned to Stoughton just a few years later. He was a private during the Revolutionary War, part of the company of Stoughton Minutemen that marched to Cambridge on April 19, 1775 immediately after receiving the alarm from Lexington. Later, he was promoted to the rank of Captain under Washington. Around 1778 he bought a farm in Canton, Massachusetts and established a tavern there; he was known then as "Uncle Ply." It was at his tavern that some of the early singing meetings in the area were held, but contrary to some written accounts, Belcher never joined the Stoughton Musical Society. Also, he was not a pu |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal%20Light | Crystal Light is an American brand of powdered and artificially sweetened beverage mixes produced by Kraft Heinz. It was introduced in 1982 to a test market and released to the public in April 1984. General Foods, a now defunct company, were the original sellers of the product, but now it is sold by Kraft Foods. It is available in a wide variety of flavors, such as lemonade, sweet tea, and fruit punch.
History
Test marketing and introduction
Crystal Light was sold in test markets beginning in 1982. As of mid-1983, it was being sold in 11 test areas. It was introduced throughout the United States in April 1984. General Foods sold $150 million of Crystal Light during the product's first year on national markets, representing 20% of all powdered drink mixes and 2/3 of all sugar-free drink mixes in the United States.
Advertisements
A 1985 commercial featuring Linda Evans showed her doing aerobics in a women's gym and drinking Crystal Light. Another undated commercial used a similar format, showing Evans exercising and drinking Crystal Light in a women's gym. Her final commercial, airing in 1987 or 1988, featuring her stuck in traffic in a limousine and performing a variety of difficult stunts, ultimately ending up on a boat drinking Crystal Light. Many of her print advertisements for the brand featured her in workout attire.
A 1986 commercial featuring Priscilla Presley showed her practicing karate in a dojo while drinking Crystal Light.
A 1987 commercial featuring Raquel |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klein%20transformation | In quantum field theory, the Klein transformation is a redefinition of the fields to amend the spin-statistics theorem.
Bose–Einstein
Suppose φ and χ are fields such that, if x and y are spacelike-separated points and i and j represent the spinor/tensor indices,
Also suppose χ is invariant under the Z2 parity (nothing to do with spatial reflections!) mapping χ to −χ but leaving φ invariant. Obviously, free field theories always satisfy this property. Then, the Z2 parity of the number of χ particles is well defined and is conserved in time. Let's denote this parity by the operator Kχ which maps χ-even states to itself and χ-odd states into their negative. Then, Kχ is involutive, Hermitian and unitary.
Needless to say, the fields φ and χ above don't have the proper statistics relations for either a boson or a fermion. i.e. they are bosonic with respect to themselves but fermionic with respect to each other. But if you look at the statistical properties alone, we find it has exactly the same statistics as the Bose–Einstein statistics. Here's why:
Define two new fields φ' and χ' as follows:
and
This redefinition is invertible (because Kχ is). Now, the spacelike commutation relations become
Fermi–Dirac
Now, let's work with the example where
(spacelike-separated as usual).
Assume once again we have a Z2 conserved parity operator Kχ acting upon χ alone.
Let
and
Then
More than two fields
If there are more than two fields, then one can keep applying the Klein transformati |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control%20volume | In continuum mechanics and thermodynamics, a control volume (CV) is a mathematical abstraction employed in the process of creating mathematical models of physical processes. In an inertial frame of reference, it is a fictitious region of a given volume fixed in space or moving with constant flow velocity through which the continuuum (a continuous medium such as gas, liquid or solid) flows. The closed surface enclosing the region is referred to as the control surface.
At steady state, a control volume can be thought of as an arbitrary volume in which the mass of the continuum remains constant. As a continuum moves through the control volume, the mass entering the control volume is equal to the mass leaving the control volume. At steady state, and in the absence of work and heat transfer, the energy within the control volume remains constant. It is analogous to the classical mechanics concept of the free body diagram.
Overview
Typically, to understand how a given physical law applies to the system under consideration, one first begins by considering how it applies to a small, control volume, or "representative volume". There is nothing special about a particular control volume, it simply represents a small part of the system to which physical laws can be easily applied. This gives rise to what is termed a volumetric, or volume-wise formulation of the mathematical model.
One can then argue that since the physical laws behave in a certain way on a particular control volume, th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic%20differential%20equation | A stochastic differential equation (SDE) is a differential equation in which one or more of the terms is a stochastic process, resulting in a solution which is also a stochastic process. SDEs have many applications throughout pure mathematics and are used to model various behaviours of stochastic models such as stock prices, random growth models or physical systems that are subjected to thermal fluctuations.
SDEs have a random differential that is in the most basic case random white noise calculated as the derivative of a Brownian motion or more generally a semimartingale. However, other types of random behaviour are possible, such as jump processes like Lévy processes or semimartingales with jumps. Random differential equations are conjugate to stochastic differential equations. Stochastic differential equations can also be extended to differential manifolds.
Background
Stochastic differential equations originated in the theory of Brownian motion, in the work of Albert Einstein and Marian Smoluchowski in 1905, although Louis Bachelier was the first person credited with modeling Brownian motion in 1900, giving a very early example of Stochastic Differential Equation now known as Bachelier model. Some of these early examples were linear stochastic differential equations, also called 'Langevin' equations after French physicist Langevin, describing the motion of a harmonic oscillator subject to a random force.
The mathematical theory of stochastic differential equations wa |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel%20Martyn | Antony Nigel Martyn (born 11 August 1966) is an English football coach and former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper.
He notably played in the Premier League for Crystal Palace, Leeds United and Everton, having initially played in the Football League with Bristol Rovers. His move to Palace saw him become the first £1 million goalkeeper in British football and was a member of the Palace side that lost the 1990 Cup Final and won the Full Members Cup in 1991. An ankle injury forced him to retire in 2006. He won 23 England caps between 1992 and 2002 and was a member of the national squad at four major tournaments.
Following retirement, Martyn briefly held a role as goalkeeping coach for Bradford City but has not returned to the sport since 2009.
Club career
Early career
Martyn started his career as a midfielder until invited to play as a goalkeeper for his brother's works team when he was 17. He started by playing amateur football for Cornish sides Heavy Transport FC, Bugle and St Blazey while working in a plastics factory and for a coal merchant, before beginning his professional career with Bristol Rovers in 1987 after apparently having been "spotted" by Rovers' tea lady Vi Harris, whilst she was on holiday.
Crystal Palace
Martyn was transferred to Crystal Palace for a fee of £1 million in 1989, becoming the first goalkeeper to attract a million-pound transfer fee in English football. He remained at Palace for seven seasons, appearing 349 times for his club |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein%20S%20deficiency | Protein S deficiency is a disorder associated with increased risk of venous thrombosis. Protein S, a vitamin K-dependent physiological anticoagulant, acts as a nonenzymatic cofactor to activate protein C in the degradation of factor Va and factor VIIIa.
Decreased (antigen) levels or impaired function of protein S leads to decreased degradation of factor Va and factor VIIIa and an increased propensity to venous thrombosis. Some risk factors for deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism in patients with protein S deficiency include pregnancy, older age, hormonal therapy, consumption of birth control pills, recent surgery, trauma, and physical inactivity. Protein S circulates in human plasma in two forms: approximately 60 percent is bound to complement component C4b β-chain while the remaining 40 percent is free, only free protein S has activated protein C cofactor activity
Signs and symptoms
Among the possible presentation of protein S deficiency are:
Cause
In terms of the cause of protein S deficiency it can be in inherited via autosomal dominance. A mutation in the PROS1 gene triggers the condition. The cytogenetic location of the gene in question is chromosome 3, specifically 3q11.1 Protein S deficiency can also be acquired due to vitamin K deficiency, treatment with warfarin, liver disease, kidney disease, chemotherapy, infection, surgery, birth control pills, pregnancy, and acute thrombosis (antiphospholipid antibodies may also be a cause as well)
Pathophysiology
In |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva%20Frequency%20Plan%20of%201975 | The Geneva Frequency Plan of 1975 (aka "The Final Acts of the Regional Administrative LF/MF Broadcasting Conference (Regions 1 and 3) Geneva, 1975" or simply "GE75") is the internationally agreed frequency plan which was drawn up to implement the provisions of the Final Acts of the Regional Administrative LF/MF Broadcasting Conference (Regions 1 and 3) held in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1975. It covers radio broadcasting in the long and medium wave bands outside the Americas (separate agreements being in place for North and South America).
The plan was drawn up under the auspices of the World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC) of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) with the assistance of the European Broadcasting Union (EBU/UER).
The Geneva plan replaced the 1948 Copenhagen plan. It became necessary because of the large number of broadcasting stations in these frequency ranges leading to ever more mutual interference (many countries had refused to ratify the Copenhagen plan and compliance was patchy even among those which had). The Geneva plan entered into force on 23 November 1978 and although its intended lifespan was only until 1989, it is still valid (with small modification by mutual coordination between countries) today, and compliance has been far more widespread.
Most existing European radio stations were required to change their broadcasting frequencies following implementation of the plan. In most cases the changes were slight (less than five kiloh |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein%20S | Protein S (also known as PROS) is a vitamin K-dependent plasma glycoprotein synthesized in the liver. In the circulation, Protein S exists in two forms: a free form and a complex form bound to complement protein C4b-binding protein (C4BP). In humans, protein S is encoded by the PROS1 gene. Protein S plays a role in coagulation.
History
Protein S is named for Seattle, Washington, where it was originally discovered and purified by Earl Davie's group in 1977.
Structure
Protein S is partly homologous to other vitamin K-dependent plasma coagulation proteins, such as protein C and factors VII, IX, and X. Similar to them, it has a Gla domain and several EGF-like domains (four rather than two), but no serine protease domain. Instead, there is a large C-terminus domain that is homologous to plasma steroid hormone-binding proteins such as sex hormone-binding globulin and corticosteroid-binding globulin. It may play a role in the protein functions as either a cofactor for activated protein C (APC) or in binding C4BP.
Additionally, protein S has a peptide between the Gla domain and the EGF-like domain, that is cleaved by thrombin. The Gla and EGF-like domains stay connected after the cleavage by a disulfide bond. However, protein S loses its function as an APC cofactor following either this cleavage or binding C4BP.
Function
The best characterized function of Protein S is its role in the anti coagulation pathway, where it functions as a cofactor to Protein C in the inactivation of Fa |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrotron | A gyrotron is a class of high-power linear-beam vacuum tubes that generates millimeter-wave electromagnetic waves by the cyclotron resonance of electrons in a strong magnetic field. Output frequencies range from about 20 to 527 GHz, covering wavelengths from microwave to the edge of the terahertz gap. Typical output powers range from tens of kilowatts to 1–2 megawatts. Gyrotrons can be designed for pulsed or continuous operation. The gyrotron was invented by Soviet scientists at NIRFI, based in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia.
Principle
The gyrotron is a type of free-electron maser that generates high-frequency electromagnetic radiation by stimulated cyclotron resonance of electrons moving through a strong magnetic field. It can produce high power at millimeter wavelengths because, as a fast-wave device, its dimensions can be much larger than the wavelength of the radiation. This is unlike conventional microwave vacuum tubes such as klystrons and magnetrons, in which the wavelength is determined by a single-mode resonant cavity, a slow-wave structure. Thus, as operating frequencies increase, the resonant cavity structures must decrease in size, which limits their power-handling capability.
In the gyrotron, a hot filament in an electron gun (1) at one end of the tube emits an annular-shaped (hollow tubular) beam of electrons (6), which is accelerated by a high-voltage DC anode (10) and then travels through a large tubular resonant cavity structure (2) in a strong axial magnetic fiel |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelling%20biological%20systems | Modelling biological systems is a significant task of systems biology and mathematical biology. Computational systems biology aims to develop and use efficient algorithms, data structures, visualization and communication tools with the goal of computer modelling of biological systems. It involves the use of computer simulations of biological systems, including cellular subsystems (such as the networks of metabolites and enzymes which comprise metabolism, signal transduction pathways and gene regulatory networks), to both analyze and visualize the complex connections of these cellular processes.
An unexpected emergent property of a complex system may be a result of the interplay of the cause-and-effect among simpler, integrated parts (see biological organisation). Biological systems manifest many important examples of emergent properties in the complex interplay of components. Traditional study of biological systems requires reductive methods in which quantities of data are gathered by category, such as concentration over time in response to a certain stimulus. Computers are critical to analysis and modelling of these data. The goal is to create accurate real-time models of a system's response to environmental and internal stimuli, such as a model of a cancer cell in order to find weaknesses in its signalling pathways, or modelling of ion channel mutations to see effects on cardiomyocytes and in turn, the function of a beating heart.
Standards
By far the most widely accepte |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random%20forest | Random forests or random decision forests is an ensemble learning method for classification, regression and other tasks that operates by constructing a multitude of decision trees at training time. For classification tasks, the output of the random forest is the class selected by most trees. For regression tasks, the mean or average prediction of the individual trees is returned. Random decision forests correct for decision trees' habit of overfitting to their training set. Random forests generally outperform decision trees, but their accuracy is lower than gradient boosted trees. However, data characteristics can affect their performance.
The first algorithm for random decision forests was created in 1995 by Tin Kam Ho using the random subspace method, which, in Ho's formulation, is a way to implement the "stochastic discrimination" approach to classification proposed by Eugene Kleinberg.
An extension of the algorithm was developed by Leo Breiman and Adele Cutler, who registered "Random Forests" as a trademark in 2006 (, owned by Minitab, Inc.). The extension combines Breiman's "bagging" idea and random selection of features, introduced first by Ho and later independently by Amit and Geman in order to construct a collection of decision trees with controlled variance.
History
The general method of random decision forests was first proposed by Ho in 1995. Ho established that forests of trees splitting with oblique hyperplanes can gain accuracy as they grow without sufferin |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retargeting | In software engineering, retargeting is an attribute of software development tools that have been specifically designed to generate code for more than one computing platform.
Compilers
A retargetable compiler is a compiler that has been designed to be relatively easy to modify to generate code for different CPU instruction set architectures. The history of this idea dates back to the 1950s when UNCOL was proposed as the universal intermediate language. The Pascal P-compiler is an example of an early widely used retargetable compiler.
The cost of producing a retargetable compiler that generates code of similar quality to a non-retargetable compiler (i.e., one designed to only ever produce code for a single processor) is higher because it is not possible to make use of cpu specific details throughout all phases of compilation. The benefits of a retargetable compiler is that the total cost over multiple CPUs is much lower than the combined cost of many individual non-targetable compilers.
Some retargetable compilers, e.g., GCC, became so widely ported and developed that they now include support for many optimizations and machine specific details that the quality of code often surpasses that of non-retargetable compilers on many CPUs.
A general-purpose global optimizer followed by machine-specific peephole optimization is a commonly used implementation technique. The optimization of code for some high performance processors requires a detailed and specific knowledge of th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinestone | A rhinestone, paste or diamante is a diamond simulant originally made from rock crystal but since the 19th century from crystal glass or polymers such as acrylic.
Origins
Originally, rhinestones were rock crystals gathered from the river Rhine, hence the name, although some were also found in areas like the Alps (the source of the Rhine). Today the name "rhinestone" applies only to varieties of lead glass known as crystal glass. The availability of such products increased greatly in the 18th century when the Alsatian jeweller Georg Friedrich Strass (1701-1773) developed imitation diamonds by coating the lower side of lead glass with metal powder. Many European languages use the word strass (or equivalent) to refer to rhinestones.
As opposed to the classic rhinestones, which had a metal-powder coating on the bottom side only, several companies have opted to mass-produce iridescent lead glass by reducing the metal-coating thickness and applying it uniformly, not using metal powder with a binder but applying various forms of metal deposition (thin foil, vapor deposition, etc.). Such developments include Favrile glass by Tiffany in 1894, Carnival glass under the name "Iridrill" by Fenton in 1908, "Aurora Borealis" glass by Swarovski in 1956 and PVD-coated dichroic glass in the late 20th century, amongst many other decorative lead glasses coated with a thin metal layer and sold under various commercial names such as "rainbow glass", "aurora glass" and such.
Rhinestones can be |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein%20C | Protein C, also known as autoprothrombin IIA and blood coagulation factor XIX, is a zymogen, that is, an inactive enzyme. The activated form plays an important role in regulating anticoagulation, inflammation, and cell death and maintaining the permeability of blood vessel walls in humans and other animals. Activated protein C (APC) performs these operations primarily by proteolytically inactivating proteins Factor Va and Factor VIIIa. APC is classified as a serine protease since it contains a residue of serine in its active site. In humans, protein C is encoded by the PROC gene, which is found on chromosome 2.
The zymogenic form of protein C is a vitamin K-dependent glycoprotein that circulates in blood plasma. Its structure is that of a two-chain polypeptide consisting of a light chain and a heavy chain connected by a disulfide bond. The protein C zymogen is activated when it binds to thrombin, another protein heavily involved in coagulation, and protein C's activation is greatly promoted by the presence of thrombomodulin and endothelial protein C receptors (EPCRs). Because of EPCR's role, activated protein C is found primarily near endothelial cells (i.e., those that make up the walls of blood vessels), and it is these cells and leukocytes (white blood cells) that APC affects. Because of the crucial role that protein C plays as an anticoagulant, those with deficiencies in protein C, or some kind of resistance to APC, suffer from a significantly increased risk of forming d |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalit | Dalit (from meaning "broken/scattered"), also previously known as untouchables, is the lowest stratum of the castes in the Indian subcontinent. Dalits were excluded from the four-fold varna system of Hinduism and were seen as forming a fifth varna, also known by the name of Panchama. Dalits predominantly follow Hinduism, with significant populations of the adherents of Buddhism, Sikhism, Christianity, and Islam. Scheduled Castes is the official term for Dalits, who get reservation under positive discrimination, as per the constitution of India.
Terminology
The term Dalit is a self-applied concept for those called the "untouchables" and others that were outside of the traditional Hindu caste hierarchy. Economist and reformer B. R. Ambedkar (1891–1956) said that untouchability came into Indian society around 400 CE, due to the struggle for supremacy between Buddhism and Brahmanism (an ancient term for Brahmanical Hinduism). Some Hindu priests befriended untouchables and were demoted to low-caste ranks. Eknath, who was an excommunicated Brahmin, fought for the rights of untouchables during the Bhakti period.
In the late 1880s, the Marathi word 'Dalit' was used by Jyotirao Phule for the outcasts and Untouchables who were oppressed and broken in the Hindu society. Dalit is a vernacular form of the Sanskrit दलित (dalita). In Classical Sanskrit, this means "divided, split, broken, scattered". This word was repurposed in 19th-century Sanskrit to mean "(a person) not belonging to |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20Germanus | Saint Germanus or Saint Germanicus may refer to:
Germanicus of Smyrna (died 155), saint and martyr
Germanus (Cermanus, died 305), Spanish martyr-saint (see Servandus and Cermanus)
Germanus of Auxerre (378–448), bishop of Auxerre who founded the Abbey of Saint-Germain d'Auxerre
Germanus of Normandy (died 480), also known as Germanus the Scot
Germanus of Capua (died 541), archbishop
Germanus of Paris (496-576), also Saint Germain of Paris
Germanus of Granfelden (died 675), Saint
Germanus I of Constantinople (died ), 39th Patriarch of Constantinople
Sanctus Germanus, a titular see of the Roman Catholic Church
See also
Germanus (disambiguation)
Saint-Germain (disambiguation)
San Germano (disambiguation)
St Germans (disambiguation) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica%20Cistern | The Basilica Cistern, or Cisterna Basilica (, or , "Subterranean Cistern" or "Subterranean Palace"), is the largest of several hundred ancient cisterns that lie beneath the city of Istanbul, Turkey. The cistern, located southwest of the Hagia Sophia on the historical peninsula of Sarayburnu, was built in the 6th century during the reign of Byzantine emperor Justinian I. Today it is kept with little water, for public access inside the space.
History
This subterranean cistern was called Basilica because it was located under a large public square, the Stoa Basilica, on the First Hill of Constantinople. Prior to its construction, a great basilica stood on the spot. It had been built during the Early Roman Age between the 3rd and 4th centuries as a commercial, legal and artistic centre. The basilica was reconstructed by Illus after a fire in 476.
Ancient texts indicated that the basilica contained gardens surrounded by a colonnade that faced the Hagia Sophia. According to ancient historians, Emperor Constantine built a structure that was later reconstructed and enlarged by Emperor Justinian after the Nika riots of 532, which devastated the city.
Historical texts claim that 7,000 slaves were involved in the construction of the cistern.
The enlarged cistern provided a water filtration system for the Great Palace of Constantinople and other buildings on the First Hill, and continued to provide water to the Topkapı Palace after the Ottoman conquest in 1453 and into modern times |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr.%20Saturday%20Night | Mr. Saturday Night is a 1992 American comedy-drama film that marked the directorial debut of its star, Billy Crystal.
It focuses on the rise and fall of Buddy Young Jr., a stand-up comedian. Crystal produced and co-wrote the screenplay with the writing duo Babaloo Mandel and Lowell Ganz. It was filmed from November 1991 to March 1992 and released on September 23, 1992, by Columbia Pictures. Co-star David Paymer received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor.
Plot
Stand-up comedian Buddy Young Jr. became a television star with the help of his brother and manager, Stan, but alienated many of those closest to him once his career began to fade.
Through a series of flashbacks, the brothers are seen during childhood entertaining their family in the living room. The older Buddy continues his career as a comic in the primarily Jewish resorts of the Catskills, where he meets his future wife, Elaine.
As Buddy's fame grows, so does his ego. He hits the big time with his own Saturday night television show. But despite the warnings of his brother, Buddy uses offensive material on the air, costing him his show and causing his career to suffer, officially ending when his stand-up act on the Ed Sullivan Show is scheduled right after the Beatles' first US appearance, leading to his act being ignored and cut short. Furious over being snubbed, he goes into an offensive tirade and quits.
As an older man, long past his prime, Buddy is estranged from Stan as well as from his |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elemental%20analysis | Elemental analysis is a process where a sample of some material (e.g., soil, waste or drinking water, bodily fluids, minerals, chemical compounds) is analyzed for its elemental and sometimes isotopic composition. Elemental analysis can be qualitative (determining what elements are present), and it can be quantitative (determining how much of each is present). Elemental analysis falls within the ambit of analytical chemistry, the instruments involved in deciphering the chemical nature of our world.
History
Antoine Lavoisier is regarded as the inventor of elemental analysis as a quantitative, experimental tool to assess the chemical composition of a compound. At the time, elemental analysis was based on the gravimetric determination of specific absorbent materials before and after selective adsorption of the combustion gases. Today fully automated systems based on thermal conductivity or infrared spectroscopy detection of the combustion gases, or other spectroscopic methods are used.
CHNX analysis
For organic chemists, elemental analysis or "EA" almost always refers to CHNX analysis—the determination of the mass fractions of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and heteroatoms (X) (halogens, sulfur) of a sample. This information is important to help determine the structure of an unknown compound, as well as to help ascertain the structure and purity of a synthesized compound. In present-day organic chemistry, spectroscopic techniques (NMR, both 1H and 13C), mass spectrometry and chro |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6G%20%28disambiguation%29 | 6G or 6-G may refer to:
6G, a cellular network technology generation
6G Mobile, a Dutch telecommunications operator
Rhodamine 6G, a chemical compound and dye
6G-fructosyltransferase, an enzyme
Air Wales' IATA code
6G, the production code for the 1983 Doctor Who serial Terminus
6G Era, a generation of video game consoles
See also
G6 (disambiguation)
T-6G Texan, a model of North American T-6 Texan |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrobotics | Anthrobotics is the science of developing and studying robots that are either entirely or in some way human-like.
The term anthrobotics was originally coined by Mark Rosheim in a paper entitled "Design of An Omnidirectional Arm" presented at the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, May 13–18, 1990, pp. 2162–2167. Rosheim says he derived the term from "...Anthropomorphic and Robotics to distinguish the new generation of dexterous robots from its simple industrial robot forebears." The word gained wider recognition as a result of its use in the title of Rosheim's subsequent book Robot Evolution: The Development of Anthrobotics, which focussed on facsimiles of human physical and psychological skills and attributes.
However, a wider definition of the term anthrobotics has been proposed, in which the meaning is derived from anthropology rather than anthropomorphic. This usage includes robots that respond to input in a human-like fashion, rather than simply mimicking human actions, thus theoretically being able to respond more flexibly or to adapt to unforeseen circumstances. This expanded definition also encompasses robots that are situated in social environments with the ability to respond to those environments appropriately, such as insect robots, robotic pets, and the like.
Anthrobotics is now taught at some universities, encouraging students not only to design and build robots for environments beyond current industrial applications, but also to speculat |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noncentral%20F-distribution | In probability theory and statistics, the noncentral F-distribution is a continuous probability distribution that is a noncentral generalization of the (ordinary) F-distribution. It describes the distribution of the quotient (X/n1)/(Y/n2), where the numerator X has a noncentral chi-squared distribution with n1 degrees of freedom and the denominator Y has a central chi-squared distribution with n2 degrees of freedom. It is also required that X and Y are statistically independent of each other.
It is the distribution of the test statistic in analysis of variance problems when the null hypothesis is false. The noncentral F-distribution is used to find the power function of such a test.
Occurrence and specification
If is a noncentral chi-squared random variable with noncentrality parameter and degrees of freedom, and is a chi-squared random variable with degrees of freedom that is statistically independent of , then
is a noncentral F-distributed random variable.
The probability density function (pdf) for the noncentral F-distribution is
when and zero otherwise.
The degrees of freedom and are positive.
The term is the beta function, where
The cumulative distribution function for the noncentral F-distribution is
where is the regularized incomplete beta function.
The mean and variance of the noncentral F-distribution are
and
Special cases
When λ = 0, the noncentral F-distribution becomes the
F-distribution.
Related distributions
Z has a noncentral chi-square |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Hanson%20%28robotics%20designer%29 | David Hanson Jr. is an American roboticist who is the founder and Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Hanson Robotics, a Hong Kong-based robotics company founded in 2013.
The designer and researcher creates human-looking robots who have realistic facial expressions, including Sophia and other robots designed to mimic human behavior. Sophia has received widespread media attention, and was the first robot to be granted citizenship.
Early life and education
Hanson was born on December 20, 1969 in Dallas, Texas, United States. He studied at Highland Park High School for his senior year to focus on math and science. As a teenager, Hanson’s hobbies included drawing and reading science fiction works by writers like Isaac Asimov and Philip K. Dick—the latter of whom he would later replicate in android form.
Hanson has a Bachelor of Fine Arts from the Rhode Island School of Design in Film, Animation, Video (FAV) and a Ph.D. from the University of Texas at Dallas in interactive arts and engineering. In 1995 as part of an independent-study project on out-of-body experiences, he built a humanoid head in his own likeness, operated by a remote operator.
Career
Hanson’s career has focused on creating humanlike robots. Hanson's most well-known creation is Sophia, the world's first ever robot citizen.
In 2004 at a Denver American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) conference, Hanson presented K-Bot, a robotic head created with polymer skin, finely sculpted features, and bi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial%20capsule | The bacterial capsule is a large structure common to many bacteria. It is a polysaccharide layer that lies outside the cell envelope, and is thus deemed part of the outer envelope of a bacterial cell. It is a well-organized layer, not easily washed off, and it can be the cause of various diseases.
The capsule—which can be found in both gram negative and gram-positive bacteria—is different from the second lipid membrane – bacterial outer membrane, which contains lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins and is found only in gram-negative bacteria.
When the amorphous viscid secretion (that makes up the capsule) diffuses into the surrounding medium and remains as a loose undemarcated secretion, it is known as a slime layer. Capsule and slime layer are sometimes summarized under the term glycocalyx.
Composition
Most bacterial capsules are composed of polysaccharide, but some species use other materials, such as poly-D-glutamic acid in Bacillus anthracis. Because most capsules are so tightly packed, they are difficult to stain because most standard stains cannot penetrate the capsule. To visualize encapsulated bacteria using a microscope, a sample is treated with a dark stain, such as India ink. The structure of the capsule prevents the stain from penetrating the cell. When viewed, bacterial capsules appear as a bright halo around the cell on a dark background.
Function
The bacterial capsule serves as a shield, giving protection from toxins, and from drying out. Capsules allow ad |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellmuth%20Kneser | Hellmuth Kneser (16 April 1898 – 23 August 1973) was a Baltic German mathematician, who made notable contributions to group theory and topology. His most famous result may be his theorem on the existence of a prime decomposition for 3-manifolds. His proof originated the concept of normal surface, a fundamental cornerstone of the theory of 3-manifolds.
He was born in Dorpat, Russian Empire (now Tartu, Estonia) and died in Tübingen, Germany. He was the son of the mathematician Adolf Kneser and the father of the mathematician Martin Kneser. He assisted Wilhelm Süss in the founding of the Mathematical Research Institute of Oberwolfach and served as the director of the institute from 1958 to 1959.
He was an editor of Mathematische Zeitschrift, Archiv der Mathematik and Aequationes Mathematicae.
Kneser formulated the problem of non-integer iteration of functions and proved the existence of the entire Abel function of the exponential; on the base of this Abel function, he constructed the functional square root of the exponential function as a half-iteration of the exponential, i.e. a function such that .
Kneser was a student of David Hilbert. He was an advisor of a number of notable mathematicians, including Reinhold Baer.
Hellmuth Kneser was a member of the NSDAP and also the SA. In July 1934 he wrote to Ludwig Bieberbach a short note supporting his anti-semitic views and stating: "May God grant German science a unitary, powerful and continued political position."
Sele |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachnoiditis | Arachnoiditis is an inflammatory condition of the arachnoid mater or 'arachnoid', one of the membranes known as meninges that surround and protect the nerves of the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord. The arachnoid can become inflamed because of adverse reactions to chemicals, infection from bacteria or viruses, as the result of direct injury to the spine, chronic compression of spinal nerves, complications from spinal surgery or other invasive spinal procedures, or the accidental intrathecal injection of steroids intended for the epidural space. Inflammation can sometimes lead to the formation of scar tissue and adhesion that can make the spinal nerves "stick" together, a condition where such tissue develops in and between the leptomeninges. The condition is extremely painful, especially when progressing to adhesive arachnoiditis. Another form of the condition is arachnoiditis ossificans, in which the arachnoid becomes ossified, or turns to bone, and is thought to be a late-stage complication of the adhesive form of arachnoiditis.
Signs and symptoms
Arachnoid inflammation can lead to many painful and debilitating symptoms which can vary greatly in each case, and not all people experience all symptoms. Chronic pain is common, including neuralgia, while numbness and tingling of the extremities can occur with spinal cord involvement, and bowel, bladder, and sexual functioning can be affected if the lower part of the spinal cord is involved. While ara |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich%20Franz%20Friedrich%20Tietze | Heinrich Franz Friedrich Tietze (August 31, 1880 – February 17, 1964) was an Austrian mathematician, famous for the Tietze extension theorem on functions from topological spaces to the real numbers. He also developed the Tietze transformations for group presentations, and was the first to pose the group isomorphism problem. Tietze's graph is also named after him; it describes the boundaries of a subdivision of the Möbius strip into six mutually-adjacent regions, found by Tietze as part of an extension of the four color theorem to non-orientable surfaces.
Education and career
Tietze was the son of Emil Tietze and the grandson of Franz Ritter von Hauer, both of whom were Austrian geologists.
He was born in Schleinz, Austria-Hungary, and studied mathematics at the Technische Hochschule in Vienna beginning in 1898. After additional studies in Munich, he returned to Vienna, completing his doctorate in 1904 and his habilitation in 1908.
From 1910 until 1918 Tietze taught mathematics in Brno, and was promoted to ordinary professor in 1913. He served in the Austrian army during World War I, and then returned to Brno, but in 1919 he took a position at the University of Erlangen, and then in 1925 moved again to the University of Munich, where he remained for the rest of his career. One of his doctoral students was Georg Aumann. Tietze retired in 1950, and died in Munich, West Germany.
Awards and honors
Tietze was a fellow of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and a fellow of the Au |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interview%20%28magazine%29 | Interview is an American magazine founded in late 1969 by artist Andy Warhol and British journalist John Wilcock. The magazine, nicknamed "The Crystal Ball of Pop", features interviews with celebrities, artists, musicians, and creative thinkers. Interviews were usually unedited or edited in the eccentric fashion of Warhol's books and The Philosophy of Andy Warhol: From A to B and Back Again.
History
Andy Warhol period
Bob Colacello was a film student at Columbia University in 1970 when he got a call from someone at Interview while he was having dinner at his parents' house in suburban Long Island. Warhol had read a film review Colacello had written for The Village Voice and wanted to meet him. Colacello subsequently began writing film reviews and essays for Interview. After about six months, Colacello was promoted to editor of the magazine, at a salary of $50 a week. (He also received course credits, as he was still working on his master's degree at Columbia). Colacello brought in his friend and classmate Glenn O'Brien as an assistant. Colacello's first issue featured film 1940s-era stills of actress Rita Hayworth on the cover and on every page. The idea came from Warhol collaborator and filmmaker Paul Morrissey, who told Colacello, "Just put one on every page and it'll be funny."
In the early days, complimentary copies of Interview were often given away to the "in-crowd"; this was the start of the magazine's circulation. Over time, Warhol withdrew from everyday oversight |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgii%20Skrotskii | George V. Skrotskii (January 11, 1915 – July 13, 1992) was a Russian physicist.
Skrotskii realized that electromagnetic field equations in a curved spacetime can be written in a non-covariant form formally equivalent to Maxwell's equations in a macroscopic medium in flat spacetime.
References
A.A. Kolokolov/G.V. Skrotskii."Interference of reactive components of an electromagnetic field". Soviet Physics - Uspekhi, Vol. 35, No. 12 (1992), pp. 1089–1093.
G.V. Pokazaniev/G.V. Skrotskii. " The Basics of Torsion Mechanics. Psevdomagnetizm. //Uspekhi fizicheskikh nauk, 1979, v. 129, # 4, p. 615. (Russian)
The gravitational effect is known as gravitational Faraday rotation or the Rytov or Skrotskii effect. Lett. 23 (1983) 235–237. [399] GV Skrotskii, The influence of gravitation on the propagation of light, Sov. Phys. Doklady 2
External links
Nader Haghighipour
Biography of G. V. Skrotskii
1915 births
1992 deaths
Russian physicists |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioenergetics | Bioenergetics is a field in biochemistry and cell biology that concerns energy flow through living systems. This is an active area of biological research that includes the study of the transformation of energy in living organisms and the study of thousands of different cellular processes such as cellular respiration and the many other metabolic and enzymatic processes that lead to production and utilization of energy in forms such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules. That is, the goal of bioenergetics is to describe how living organisms acquire and transform energy in order to perform biological work. The study of metabolic pathways is thus essential to bioenergetics.
Overview
Bioenergetics is the part of biochemistry concerned with the energy involved in making and breaking of chemical bonds in the molecules found in biological organisms. It can also be defined as the study of energy relationships and energy transformations and transductions in living organisms. The ability to harness energy from a variety of metabolic pathways is a property of all living organisms. Growth, development, anabolism and catabolism are some of the central processes in the study of biological organisms, because the role of energy is fundamental to such biological processes. Life is dependent on energy transformations; living organisms survive because of exchange of energy between living tissues/ cells and the outside environment. Some organisms, such as autotrophs, can acquire energy from |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrorheological%20fluid | Electrorheological (ER) fluids are suspensions of extremely fine non-conducting but electrically active particles (up to 50 micrometres diameter) in an electrically insulating fluid. The apparent viscosity of these fluids changes reversibly by an order of up to 100,000 in response to an electric field. For example, a typical ER fluid can go from the consistency of a liquid to that of a gel, and back, with response times on the order of milliseconds. The effect is sometimes called the Winslow effect after its discoverer, the American inventor Willis Winslow, who obtained a US patent on the effect in 1947 and wrote an article published in 1949.
The ER effect
The change in apparent viscosity is dependent on the applied electric field, i.e. the potential divided by the distance between the plates. The change is not a simple change in viscosity, hence these fluids are now known as ER fluids, rather than by the older term Electro Viscous fluids. The effect is better described as an electric field dependent shear yield stress. When activated an ER fluid behaves as a Bingham plastic (a type of viscoelastic material), with a yield point which is determined by the electric field strength. After the yield point is reached, the fluid shears as a fluid, i.e. the incremental shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear (in a Newtonian fluid there is no yield point and stress is directly proportional to shear). Hence the resistance to motion of the fluid can be controlled by adjustin |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylmercury | Methylmercury (sometimes methyl mercury) is an organometallic cation with the formula . It is the simplest organomercury compound. Methylmercury is extremely toxic, and its derivatives are the major source of organic mercury for humans. It is a bioaccumulative environmental toxicant.
Structure and chemistry
"Methylmercury" is a shorthand for the hypothetical "methylmercury cation", sometimes written methylmercury(1+) cation or methylmercury(II) cation. This functional group is composed of a methyl group bonded to an atom of mercury. Its chemical formula is (sometimes written as ).The Methylmercury compound has an overall charge of +1, with Hg in the +2 oxidation state. Methylmercury exists as a substituent in many complexes of the type (L = Lewis base) and MeHgX (X = anion).
As a positively charged ion, it readily combines with anions such as chloride (), hydroxide () and nitrate (). It has particular affinity for sulfur-containing anions, particularly thiols (). Thiols are generated when the amino acid cysteine and the peptide glutathione form strong complexes with methylmercury:
Sources
Environmental sources
Methylmercury is formed from inorganic mercury by the action of microbes that live in aquatic systems including lakes, rivers, wetlands, sediments, soils and the open ocean. This methylmercury production has been primarily attributed to anaerobic bacteria in the sediment. Significant concentrations of methylmercury in ocean water columns are strongly associated w |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QK | QK may refer to:
QK, the IATA designator for Jazz (airline)
QK, the Library of Congress Classification for botany
QK-77, a variation of Khorasan wheat or Kamut |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4N | 4N may refer to:
4th parallel north latitude
Air North's IATA code
4N, the production code for the 1976 Doctor Who serial The Hand of Fear
4N, A special TSMC semiconductor node built specifically for Nvidia in their Geforce 40 Series of graphics cards
See also
Hückel's rule, 4n + 2 rule
Singly even number, a number of the form 4n + 2
A-4N, a model of Douglas A-4 Skyhawk
AD-4N, a model of Douglas A-1 Skyraider
RQ-4N, a model of Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk
F-4N Phantom II, see List of McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II variants
F7F-4N, a model of Grumman F7F Tigercat
F4N, a model of Vought F4U Corsair
N4 (disambiguation) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Iranian%20research%20centers |
See also
Science and technology in Iran
Iran National Science Foundation
List of universities in Iran
Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
External links
Scientific advances of Iranians
Perspective of Science in Iran
The contribution of Iranian scientists to world civilization
The medical sciences in the Avesta
Iranian science: Iran's Scientists Cautiously Reach Out to the World
Discipline-Wise Index of Leading Scientists and Engineers of OIC
References
Education in Iran
Iran education-related lists
Economy of Iran |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear%20pump | A gear pump uses the meshing of gears to pump fluid by displacement. They are one of the most common types of pumps for hydraulic fluid power applications. The gear pump was invented around 1600 by Johannes Kepler.
Gear pumps are also widely used in chemical installations to pump high-viscosity fluids. There are two main variations: external gear pumps which use two external spur gears, and internal gear pumps which use an external and an internal spur gear (internal spur gear teeth face inwards, see below). Gear pumps provide positive displacement (or fixed displacement), meaning they pump a constant amount of fluid for each revolution. Some gear pumps are designed to function as either a motor or a pump.
Theory of operation
As the gears rotate they separate on the intake side of the pump, creating a void and suction which is filled by fluid. The fluid is carried by the gears to the discharge side of the pump, where the meshing of the gears displaces the fluid. The mechanical clearances are small— on the order of 10 μm. The tight clearances, along with the speed of rotation, effectively prevent the fluid from leaking backwards.
The rigid design of the gears and houses allow for very high pressures and the ability to pump highly viscous fluids.
Many variations exist, including helical and herringbone gear sets (instead of spur gears), lobe shaped rotors similar to Roots blowers (commonly used as superchargers), and mechanical designs that allow the stacking of pumps. T |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20Signal%20Designation | Digital Signal Designation is the classification of digital bit rates in the digital multiplex hierarchy used in transport of signals from one location to another in telecommunications.
The DS technically refers to the rate and format of the signal, while the T designation refers to the equipment providing the signals. In practice, "DS" and "T" are used synonymously; for example, DS1 and T1, DS3 and T3.
Digital signal line rates
North America
Europe
Optical carrier
See SONET for more information.
References
Multiplexing |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highly%20cototient%20number | In number theory, a branch of mathematics, a highly cototient number is a positive integer which is above 1 and has more solutions to the equation
than any other integer below and above 1. Here, is Euler's totient function. There are infinitely many solutions to the equation for
= 1
so this value is excluded in the definition. The first few highly cototient numbers are:
2, 4, 8, 23, 35, 47, 59, 63, 83, 89, 113, 119, 167, 209, 269, 299, 329, 389, 419, 509, 629, 659, 779, 839, 1049, 1169, 1259, 1469, 1649, 1679, 1889, ...
Many of the highly cototient numbers are odd. In fact, after 8, all the numbers listed above are odd, and after 167 all the numbers listed above are congruent to 29 modulo 30.
The concept is somewhat analogous to that of highly composite numbers. Just as there are infinitely many highly composite numbers, there are also infinitely many highly cototient numbers. Computations become harder, since integer factorization becomes harder as the numbers get larger.
Example
The cototient of is defined as , i.e. the number of positive integers less than or equal to that have at least one prime factor in common with . For example, the cototient of 6 is 4 since these four positive integers have a prime factor in common with 6: 2, 3, 4, 6. The cototient of 8 is also 4, this time with these integers: 2, 4, 6, 8. There are exactly two numbers, 6 and 8, which have cototient 4. There are fewer numbers which have cototient 2 and cototient 3 (one number in each |
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