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The Budapest Reference Connectome server computes the frequently appearing anatomical brain connections of 418 healthy subjects. It has been prepared from diffusion MRI datasets of the Human Connectome Project into a reference connectome (or brain graph), which can be downloaded in CSV and GraphML formats and visualize...	{ "page_id": 46798538, "title": "Budapest Reference Connectome" }
reflect the individual brain development and provide an opportunity to direct some edges of the human consensus brain graph. == References ==	{ "page_id": 46798538, "title": "Budapest Reference Connectome" }
An unused drug or leftover drug is the medicine which remains after the consumer has quit using it. Individual patients may have leftover medicines at the end of their treatment. Health care organizations may keep larger amounts of drugs as part of providing care to a community, and may have unused drugs for a range of...	{ "page_id": 53941965, "title": "Unused drug" }
confused records about what drugs a patient has, especially for offices without full computer records. Also a physician might provide drugs inappropriately in unnecessary health care. == Scope of the issue == Many consumers store unused drugs. Many health care organizations come to acquire large amounts of unused drugs...	{ "page_id": 53941965, "title": "Unused drug" }
particularly dangerous because of substantial risk of their being misused. == References ==	{ "page_id": 53941965, "title": "Unused drug" }
Hylotheism (from Gk. hyle, 'matter' and theos, 'God') is the belief that matter and God are the same, so in other words, defining God as matter. The American Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod defines hylotheism is "Theory equating matter with God or merging one into the other" which it states as "Synonym for pantheism* an...	{ "page_id": 3741389, "title": "Hylotheism" }
Drug recycling, also referred to as medication redispensing or medication re-use, is the idea that health care organizations or patients with unused drugs can transfer them in a safe and appropriate way to another patient in need. The purpose of such a program is reducing medication waste, thereby saving healthcare cos...	{ "page_id": 53941967, "title": "Drug recycling" }
compensation. In Greece, the organization GIVMED operates in drug recycling, and saved over half a million euros by recycling almost 60k drug packages since 2016. However, in other countries, such as Canada, implementation of drug recycling programs is limited. Other initiatives focus on donating drugs to third world c...	{ "page_id": 53941967, "title": "Drug recycling" }
publication from the United States Environmental Protection Agency	{ "page_id": 53941967, "title": "Drug recycling" }
The term wetware is used to describe the protocols and molecular devices used in molecular biology and synthetic biology. Where biological components and systems are treated in a similar manner to software, and similar development models and methodologies are applied, the term 'wetware' can be used to imply an approach...	{ "page_id": 23402198, "title": "Wetware (biology)" }
The structure of liquids, glasses and other non-crystalline solids is characterized by the absence of long-range order which defines crystalline materials. Liquids and amorphous solids do, however, possess a rich and varied array of short to medium range order, which originates from chemical bonding and related interac...	{ "page_id": 30283480, "title": "Structure of liquids and glasses" }
the peaks at increasing radial distances from the center indicates the decreasing degree of order from the center particle. This illustrates vividly the absence of "long-range order" in liquids and glasses. At long ranges, g(r) approaches a limiting value of 1, which corresponds to the macroscopic density of the materi...	{ "page_id": 30283480, "title": "Structure of liquids and glasses" }
of the probe (photon or neutron). Typically diffraction measurements are performed at a single (monochromatic) λ, and diffracted intensity is measured over a range of 2θ angles, to give a wide range of q. Alternatively a range of λ, may be used, allowing the intensity measurements to be taken at a fixed or narrow range...	{ "page_id": 30283480, "title": "Structure of liquids and glasses" }
macroscopic thermodynamic parameters such as the internal energy, Gibbs free energy, entropy and enthalpy of the system. == Theories of glass formation and criterion == === Structural theory of glass formation, Zachariasen === While studying glass, Zachariasen began to notice repeating properties in glasses. He postula...	{ "page_id": 30283480, "title": "Structure of liquids and glasses" }
bond strength is between 60 and 80 kcal per bond (intermediate bond strength, it will be an intermediate. This means it will not form a glass on its own, but it partially can while combined with other network forming atoms. === Dietzel's field strength criterion === Dietzel looked at direct Coulombic interactions betwe...	{ "page_id": 30283480, "title": "Structure of liquids and glasses" }
nature of bonding in the glass is the same as in the crystal but where the basic structural units in a glass are connected in a random manner in contrast to the periodic arrangement in a crystalline material. Despite the lack of long range order, the structure of glass does exhibit a high degree of ordering on short le...	{ "page_id": 30283480, "title": "Structure of liquids and glasses" }
glass network and holding one negative charge to compensate for the positive ion nearby. Some elements can play multiple roles; e.g. lead can act both as a network former (Pb4+ replacing Si4+), or as a modifier. The presence of non-bridging oxygens lowers the relative number of strong bonds in the material and disrupts...	{ "page_id": 30283480, "title": "Structure of liquids and glasses" }
from 140° in α-tridymite to 144° in α-quartz to 180° in β-tridymite. === Glassy SiO2 === In amorphous silica (fused quartz), the SiO4 tetrahedra form a network that does not exhibit any long-range order. However, the tetrahedra themselves represent a high degree of local ordering, i.e. every silicon atom is coordinated...	{ "page_id": 30283480, "title": "Structure of liquids and glasses" }
ISBN 978-3642056727.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Santen, L. & Krauth W. (2000). "Absence of a Thermodynamic Phase Transition in a Model Glass Former". Nature. 405 (6786): 550–1. arXiv:cond-mat/9912182. Bibcode:2000Natur.405..550S. doi:10.1038/35014561. PMID 10850709. S2CID 4411550.	{ "page_id": 30283480, "title": "Structure of liquids and glasses" }
The Hopkins statistic (introduced by Brian Hopkins and John Gordon Skellam) is a way of measuring the cluster tendency of a data set. It belongs to the family of sparse sampling tests. It acts as a statistical hypothesis test where the null hypothesis is that the data is generated by a Poisson point process and are thu...	{ "page_id": 53221081, "title": "Hopkins statistic" }
links == http://www.sthda.com/english/wiki/assessing-clustering-tendency-a-vital-issue-unsupervised-machine-learning	{ "page_id": 53221081, "title": "Hopkins statistic" }
In thermodynamics, the fugacity of a real gas is an effective partial pressure which replaces the mechanical partial pressure in an accurate computation of chemical equilibrium. It is equal to the pressure of an ideal gas which has the same temperature and molar Gibbs free energy as the real gas. Fugacities are determi...	{ "page_id": 1185498, "title": "Fugacity" }
equal to the vapor pressure when the vapor pressure is not too high. == Pure substance == Fugacity is closely related to the chemical potential μ. In a pure substance, μ is equal to the Gibbs energy Gm for a mole of the substance,: 207 and d μ = d G m = − S m d T + V m d P , {\displaystyle d\mu =dG_{\mathrm {m} }=-S_{\...	{ "page_id": 1185498, "title": "Fugacity" }
law; and at very high pressures, the sizes of the molecules are no longer negligible and repulsive forces between molecules increases the pressure. At low temperatures, molecules are more likely to stick together instead of rebounding elastically. The ideal gas law can still be used to describe the behavior of a real g...	{ "page_id": 1185498, "title": "Fugacity" }
the activity is just 97.03 without units. === Condensed phase === The fugacity of a condensed phase (liquid or solid) is defined the same way as for a gas: d μ c = R T d ln ⁡ f c {\displaystyle d\mu _{\mathrm {c} }=RT\,d\ln f_{\mathrm {c} }} and lim P → 0 f c P = 1. {\displaystyle \lim _{P\to 0}{\frac {f_{\mathrm {c} }...	{ "page_id": 1185498, "title": "Fugacity" }
345–346 Unless pressures are very high, the Poynting factor is usually small and the exponential term is near 1. Frequently, the fugacity of the pure liquid is used as a reference state when defining and using mixture activity coefficients. == Mixture == The fugacity is most useful in mixtures. It does not add any new ...	{ "page_id": 1185498, "title": "Fugacity" }
liquid mixture, the fugacity of each component is equal to that of a vapor component in equilibrium with the liquid. In an ideal solution, the fugacities obey the Lewis-Randall rule: f i = x i f i ∗ , {\displaystyle f_{i}=x_{i}f_{i}^{*},} where xi is the mole fraction in the liquid and f∗i is the fugacity of the pure l...	{ "page_id": 1185498, "title": "Fugacity" }
f P 0 ) ) P = − S m R < 0. {\displaystyle \left({\frac {\partial }{\partial T}}\left(T\ln {\frac {f}{P^{0}}}\right)\right)_{P}=-{\frac {S_{\mathrm {m} }}{R}}<0.} Since the temperature and entropy are positive, ln ⁠f/P0⁠ decreases with increasing temperature. == Measurement == The fugacity can be deduced from measuremen...	{ "page_id": 1185498, "title": "Fugacity" }
formula is based on the molar volume. Since the pressure and the molar volume are related through the equation of state; a typical procedure would be to choose a volume, calculate the corresponding pressure, and then evaluate the right-hand side of the equation. == History == The word fugacity is derived from the Latin...	{ "page_id": 1185498, "title": "Fugacity" }
Stephen C. Harrison is professor of biological chemistry and molecular pharmacology, professor of pediatrics, and director of the Center for Molecular and Cellular Dynamics of Harvard Medical School, head of the Laboratory of Molecular Medicine at Boston Children's Hospital, and investigator of the Howard Hughes Medica...	{ "page_id": 38213339, "title": "Stephen C. Harrison" }
Molecular Biology Organization, American Crystallographic Association and American Association for the Advancement of Science. == Awards == 1982 Ledlie Prize, Harvard University 1988 Wallace P. Rowe Award, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases 1990 Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (with Don Wiley and Michael ...	{ "page_id": 38213339, "title": "Stephen C. Harrison" }
The Mark I, also known as the SLAC-LBL Magnetic Detector, was a particle detector that operated at the interaction point of the SPEAR collider from 1973 to 1977. It was the first 4π detector, i.e. the first detector to uniformly cover as much of the 4π steradians (units of solid angle) around the interaction point as p...	{ "page_id": 4855513, "title": "Mark I (detector)" }
these counters generated light pulses, detected by photo-multiplier tubes and associated electronics. === Multi-Wire Proportional Chambers === SLAC collaborators developed the MWPC system. === Cylindrical Wire Spark Chambers === There were 4 concentric sets of electronic read-out wire spark chambers. Design and constru...	{ "page_id": 4855513, "title": "Mark I (detector)" }
A synnema (plural synnemata, also coremia; derivation: "Threads together") is a large, erect reproductive structure borne by some fungi, bearing compact conidiophores, which fuse together to form a strand resembling a stalk of wheat, with conidia at the end or on the edges. Fungal genera which bear synnemata include Do...	{ "page_id": 18552541, "title": "Synnema" }
In engineering, a parallel force system is a type of force system where in all forces are oriented along one axis. An example of this type of system is a see saw. In a see saw, the children apply the two forces at the ends, and the fulcrum in the middle gives the counter force to maintain the see saw in a neutral posit...	{ "page_id": 55121627, "title": "Parallel force system" }
Allan Verne Cox (December 17, 1926 – January 27, 1987) was an American geophysicist. His work on dating geomagnetic reversals, with Richard Doell and Brent Dalrymple, made a major contribution to the theory of plate tectonics. Allan Cox won numerous awards, including the prestigious Vetlesen Prize, and was the presiden...	{ "page_id": 1906396, "title": "Allan V. Cox" }
dating method was developed. Cox and Doell arranged for the USGS to hire Brent Dalrymple, a graduate from Berkeley with expertise in this method. The three succeeded in creating the first geomagnetic polarity time scale. This work made possible the first test, by Frederick Vine and Drummond Matthews, of the seafloor sp...	{ "page_id": 1906396, "title": "Allan V. Cox" }
a thing of the past." == Honors == Cox was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the American Philosophical Society. In 1969 the American Geophysical Union awarded him the John Adam Fleming medal for research in geomagnetism;. In 1970 he was awarded th...	{ "page_id": 1906396, "title": "Allan V. Cox" }
A sacral anterior root stimulator is an implantable medical device enabling patients with a spinal cord lesion to empty their bladders. == History == From 1969 onwards Giles Brindley developed the sacral anterior root stimulator, with successful human trials from the early 1980s onwards. Although both sphincter and det...	{ "page_id": 10688224, "title": "Sacral anterior root stimulator" }
Snow science addresses how snow forms, its distribution, and processes affecting how snowpacks change over time. Scientists improve storm forecasting, study global snow cover and its effect on climate, glaciers, and water supplies around the world. The study includes physical properties of the material as it changes, b...	{ "page_id": 52434656, "title": "Snow science" }
Growth Kinetics of Ice from the Vapour Phase and its Growth Forms. In August 1983, Astronauts synthesized snow crystals in orbit on the Space Shuttle Challenger during mission STS-8. By 1988 Norihiko Fukuta et al. confirmed the Nakaya Diagram with artificial snow crystals, made in an updraft and Yoshinori Furukawa demo...	{ "page_id": 52434656, "title": "Snow science" }
or shear, snow strength can be regarded as the maximum stress snow can withstand without failing or fracturing, expressed in pascals per second, squared. Penetrability of snow surface (P) is the depth that an object penetrates into the snow from the surface, usually measured with a Swiss rammsonde, or more crudely by a...	{ "page_id": 52434656, "title": "Snow science" }
gauge having a diameter of 100 mm (4 in; plastic) or 200 mm (8 in; metal). Rain gauges are adjusted to winter by removing the funnel and inner cylinder and allowing the snow/freezing rain to collect inside the outer cylinder. Antifreeze liquid may be added to melt the snow or ice that falls into the gauge. In both type...	{ "page_id": 52434656, "title": "Snow science" }
cooled by radiative cooling below ambient temperature. Melt Forms (MF) – Range from clustered round grains of wet snow through melt-freeze rounded polycrystals when water in veins freezes to loosely bonded, fully rounded single crystals and polycrystals.to polycrystals from a surface layer of wet snow that refroze afte...	{ "page_id": 52434656, "title": "Snow science" }
are multiple means for characterizing microstructure, there is no standard method. Grain shape (F ) includes both natural and artificial depositions, which may have decomposed or include newly formed crystals freeze-thaw or from hoar frost. Grain size (E ) represents the average size of grains, each measured at its gre...	{ "page_id": 52434656, "title": "Snow science" }
studies of the actual conditions. Satellite observations record a decrease in snow-covered areas since the 1960s, when satellite observations began. In some regions such as China, a trend of increasing snow cover has been observed (from 1978 to 2006). These changes are attributed to global climate change, which may lea...	{ "page_id": 52434656, "title": "Snow science" }
for estimating ground conditions underneath clouds. For hydrological models, it is important to have continuous information about the snow cover. Applicable techniques involve interpolation, using the known to infer the unknown. Passive microwaves sensors are especially valuable for temporal and spatial continuity beca...	{ "page_id": 52434656, "title": "Snow science" }
when Ta < Tm where: M = melt coefficient Ta = air temperature Tm = snowpack temperature More recent models use an energy balance approach that take into account the following factors to compute the energy available for melt (Qm) as: Qm = Q* +Qh + Qe + Qg + Qr – QΘ where: Q* = net radiation Qh = convective transfer of s...	{ "page_id": 52434656, "title": "Snow science" }
the McMurdo Station, called "Phoenix". It is designed accommodate approximately 60 annual sorties of heavy, wheeled transport aircraft. The compacted snow runway was designed and constructed to service a Boeing C-17 weighing more than 230,000 kg (500,000 lb). This required engineering knowledge of the properties of mec...	{ "page_id": 52434656, "title": "Snow science" }
Temperature Science, Hokkaido University Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research website U.S. National Snow and Ice Data Center Snow Science website American Society of Civil Engineers ground snow loads interactive map for the continental US The International Classification for Seasonal Snow on ...	{ "page_id": 52434656, "title": "Snow science" }
The Cat, or simply Cat, is a fictional character in the British science fiction sitcom Red Dwarf. He is played by Danny John-Jules. He is a descendant of Dave Lister's pregnant pet house cat Frankenstein, whose descendants evolved into a humanoid form over three million years while Lister was in stasis (suspended anima...	{ "page_id": 399074, "title": "Cat (Red Dwarf)" }
Frankenstein three million years earlier as part of his five-year plan. In "Waiting for God" (1988), Holly translates a holy book written by the Cat's people for Lister, in which Lister is described as the cats' god "Cloister", and that his plan of buying a farm on Fiji and opening up a hot dog and doughnut diner has b...	{ "page_id": 399074, "title": "Cat (Red Dwarf)" }
(played by Matthew Devitt). He is depicted as flea-ridden, and having an interest in smelling people's behinds and a fear of baths. In "Timeslides" (1989), the Cat race temporarily ceases to exist after Lister is seen travelling back in time by entering a photographic slide with mutated developing fluid to convince his...	{ "page_id": 399074, "title": "Cat (Red Dwarf)" }
a "despair squid" causes Lister, Rimmer, the Cat and mechanoid Kryten (Robert Llewellyn) to share a hallucination, with the hallucinations attacking things they each consider "quintessential to [their] self-esteem". In the hallucination, the Cat loses his "cool", and becomes a "no-style gimbo" with a massive overbite a...	{ "page_id": 399074, "title": "Cat (Red Dwarf)" }
both the present and the future, or in other words, killing the present crew of Starbug in the present also killed the crew in the future, making it impossible for the future crew from ever going back in time to kill themselves in the present. The Cat later mentions in the episode that time returned to the point before...	{ "page_id": 399074, "title": "Cat (Red Dwarf)" }
being left on the planetoid. Kryten orders the nanobots to rebuild Lister's arm and turn the planetoid back into Red Dwarf. In Back in the Red (1999), Holly creates a new set of nanobots to bring the entire crew on board Red Dwarf back to life after Kryten's had gone missing again. Included among the resurrected crew i...	{ "page_id": 399074, "title": "Cat (Red Dwarf)" }
hologram and the most senior officer on board again; how these have come about and what happened to the micro-organism is not explained. In this special, a female "despair squid", whose ink causes joy and elation instead of despair to defend herself, causes Lister, Rimmer, the Cat and Kryten to share a hallucination wh...	{ "page_id": 399074, "title": "Cat (Red Dwarf)" }
with the Cat. The polymorph reaches the end of her life cycle after implanting the eggs, and Lister and the Cat kill the offspring after the Cat gives birth to them. In this episode he inadvertently reveals himself to be a virgin, and insists that being impregnated by the polymorph "still counts". In "Cured" (2017), it...	{ "page_id": 399074, "title": "Cat (Red Dwarf)" }
acting purely without concern when his old mentor the "Cat Priest" dies, giving Kryten an earring that the Cat hates on the day before Kryten's automatic self-destruct is scheduled and choosing to finish his lunch rather than carry Lister to the medical bay when he collapses. In the episode "Backwards" (1989), Lister a...	{ "page_id": 399074, "title": "Cat (Red Dwarf)" }
Brown's moves and Richard Pryor's facial expressions. When auditioning for the show John-Jules attended the audition in character, wearing his father's wedding suit, which he described as a "zoot suit". In order to understand the role, John-Jules studied the 1986 book Catwatching by Desmond Morris, learning, among othe...	{ "page_id": 399074, "title": "Cat (Red Dwarf)" }
as a single and reached number 17 in October 1993 in the UK Singles Chart. The artist was listed simply as "The Cat". == US pilot == In the first and second pilot episodes of an American version of the television series, the Cat was played by Hinton Battle and Terry Farrell respectively. (Farrell's version was more out...	{ "page_id": 399074, "title": "Cat (Red Dwarf)" }
Black-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic radiation within, or surrounding, a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment, emitted by a black body (an idealized opaque, non-reflective body). It has a specific continuous spectrum that depends only on the body's temperature. A perfectly-insulated enc...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
the body appears white, it is emitting a substantial fraction of its energy as ultraviolet radiation. The Sun, with an effective temperature of approximately 5800 K, is an approximate black body with an emission spectrum peaked in the central, yellow-green part of the visible spectrum, but with significant power in the...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
and reflected from a body relative to other frequencies (that is, the net amount of radiation leaving its surface, called the spectral radiance) is determined solely by the equilibrium temperature and does not depend upon the shape, material or structure of the body. For a black body (a perfect absorber) there is no re...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
for the applicability of Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation: the blackbody curve is characteristic of thermal light, which depends only on the temperature of the walls of the cavity, provided that the walls of the cavity are completely opaque and are not very reflective, and that the cavity is in thermodynamic equili...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
a perfect Lambertian radiator. Real objects never behave as full-ideal black bodies, and instead the emitted radiation at a given frequency is a fraction of what the ideal emission would be. The emissivity of a material specifies how well a real body radiates energy as compared with a black body. This emissivity depend...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
black body at room temperature (300 K) with one square meter of surface area will emit a photon in the visible range (390–750 nm) at an average rate of one photon every 41 seconds, meaning that, for most practical purposes, such a black body does not emit in the visible range. The study of the laws of black bodies and ...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
were not considered, and because of quantization modes having infinitesimally little energy were excluded. Thus for shorter wavelengths very few modes (having energy more than h ν {\displaystyle h\nu } ) were allowed, supporting the data that the energy emitted is reduced for wavelengths less than the wavelength of the...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
explain the photoelectric effect. These theoretical advances eventually resulted in the superseding of classical electromagnetism by quantum electrodynamics. These quanta were called photons and the blackbody cavity was thought of as containing a gas of photons. In addition, it led to the development of quantum probabi...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
to the normal. However, this means that, following Lambert's cosine law, B ν ( T ) cos ⁡ θ {\displaystyle B_{\nu }(T)\cos \theta } is the radiance density per unit area of emitting surface as the surface area involved in generating the radiance is increased by a factor 1 / cos ⁡ θ {\displaystyle 1/\cos \theta } with re...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
peak {\displaystyle \lambda _{\text{peak}}} is approximately 2898 μm/T, with the temperature given in kelvins. At a typical room temperature of 293 K (20 °C), the maximum intensity is at 9.9 μm. Planck's law was also stated above as a function of frequency. The intensity maximum for this is given by ν peak = T × 5.879....	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
K 4 {\displaystyle \sigma \equiv {\frac {2\pi ^{5}}{15}}{\frac {k^{4}}{c^{2}h^{3}}}=5.670373\times 10^{-8}\mathrm {\frac {W}{m^{2}K^{4}}} } being the Stefan–Boltzmann constant. On a side note, at a distance d, the intensity d I {\displaystyle dI} per area d A {\displaystyle dA} of radiating surface is the useful expres...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
an adult is about 2 m2, and the mid- and far-infrared emissivity of skin and most clothing is near unity, as it is for most nonmetallic surfaces. Skin temperature is about 33 °C, but clothing reduces the surface temperature to about 28 °C when the ambient temperature is 20 °C. Hence, the net radiative heat loss is abou...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
Temperature relation between a planet and its star === The blackbody law may be used to estimate the temperature of a planet orbiting the Sun. The temperature of a planet depends on several factors: Incident radiation from its star Emitted radiation of the planet (for example, Earth's infrared glow) The albedo effect c...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
is the temperature of the planet. This temperature, calculated for the case of the planet acting as a black body by setting P a b s = P e m t b b {\displaystyle P_{\rm {abs}}=P_{\rm {emt\,bb}}} , is known as the effective temperature. The actual temperature of the planet will likely be different, depending on its surfa...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
8 m , {\displaystyle R_{\rm {S}}=6.957\times 10^{8}\ \mathrm {m} ,} D = 1.496 × 10 11 m , {\displaystyle D=1.496\times 10^{11}\ \mathrm {m} ,} α = 0.309 {\displaystyle \alpha =0.309\ } With the average emissivity ε ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {\varepsilon }}} set to unity, the effective temperature of the Earth is: T E...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
of about 2.7 K. It is a "snapshot" of the radiation at the time of decoupling between matter and radiation in the early universe. Prior to this time, most matter in the universe was in the form of an ionized plasma in thermal, though not full thermodynamic, equilibrium with radiation. According to Kondepudi and Prigogi...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
Light falling on them is not reflected outwards, but enters into the Bodies, and is often reflected and refracted within them, until it be stifled and lost?", thereby introducing the notion of a black body. In his first memoir, Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1788–1827) responded to a view he extracted from a French translation...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
near the thermal equilibrium in which they had been prepared. === Gustav Kirchhoff === In 1859, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff reported the coincidence of the wavelengths of spectrally resolved lines of absorption and emission of visible light. Importantly for thermal physics, he also observed that bright lines or dark lines ...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
principle, however, has endured: it was that for heat rays of the same wavelength, in equilibrium at a given temperature, the wavelength-specific ratio of emitting power to absorptivity has one and the same common value for all bodies that emit and absorb at that wavelength. In symbols, the law stated that the waveleng...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
as well as various perfect black bodies labeled BB. It required that the bodies be kept in a cavity in thermal equilibrium at temperature T. His proof intended to show that the ratio E(λ, T, i) / a(λ, T, i) was independent of the nature i of the non-ideal body, however partly transparent or partly reflective it was. Hi...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
For any material at all, radiating and absorbing in thermodynamic equilibrium at any given temperature T, for every wavelength λ, the ratio of emissive power to absorptivity has one universal value, which is characteristic of a perfect black body, and is an emissive power which we here represent by Bλ (λ, T). (For our ...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
source that is moving in relation to the observer, so that the wave is observed to have frequency f': f ′ = f 1 − v c cos ⁡ θ 1 − v 2 / c 2 , {\displaystyle f'=f{\frac {1-{\frac {v}{c}}\cos \theta }{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}},} where v is the velocity of the source in the observer's rest frame, θ is the angle between the ...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
Calculating Blackbody Radiation Interactive calculator with Doppler Effect. Includes most systems of units. Color-to-Temperature demonstration at Academo.org Cooling Mechanisms for Human Body – From Hyperphysics Descriptions of radiation emitted by many different objects Blackbody Emission Applet Archived 2010-06-09 at...	{ "page_id": 726748, "title": "Black-body radiation" }
The Journal of Food and Drug Analysis is a quarterly peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal published by the Taiwanese Food and Drug Administration. It contains review and research articles covering food science, pharmacology, and chemical analysis. The journal was established in 1993 and the editor-in-chief is G...	{ "page_id": 70588141, "title": "Journal of Food and Drug Analysis" }
Joyce Jacobson Kaufman (June 21, 1929 - August 26, 2016) was an American chemist known for advancing the science of quantum chemistry and for clinical research on anaesthetics. Born to an immigrant family in the Bronx and educated at Johns Hopkins University, she worked at the Sorbonne and Martin Marietta before return...	{ "page_id": 63706861, "title": "Joyce Jacobson Kaufman" }
Werner Rolfinck (15 November 1599 – 6 May 1673) was a German physician, scientist and botanist. He was a medical student in Leiden, Oxford, Paris, and Padua. == Biography == Rolfinck earned his master's degree at the University of Wittenberg under Daniel Sennert, and his medical doctorate in 1625 at the University of P...	{ "page_id": 18421489, "title": "Werner Rolfinck" }
National Quantum Mission India is an initiative by the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, to foster quantum technologies related scientific and industrial research and development to support national Digital India, Make India, Skill India and Sustainable development goals. == Background == The u...	{ "page_id": 73668337, "title": "National Quantum Mission India" }
Jonathan "Jack" Stanley Hodgins IV, Ph.D. is a character in the American television series, Bones. He is portrayed by T. J. Thyne. Hodgins is introduced to the series primarily as a forensic entomologist, as well as a botanist, mineralogist, forensic palynologist, and forensic chemist at the Jeffersonian Institute; his...	{ "page_id": 9901812, "title": "Jack Hodgins (Bones)" }
in elementary and middle school for being a "rich boy" and in high school for his small physical stature and poor social skills. He "managed to stand up for himself" on the last day of senior year, which Sweets believes to have given him closure. Hodgins owns an original Mini, which FBI Agent Seeley Booth (David Borean...	{ "page_id": 9901812, "title": "Jack Hodgins (Bones)" }
"The Maiden in the Mushrooms", after using the last of intern Finn Abernathy's (Luke Kleintank) late grandmother's hot sauce, Hodgins deduces the ingredients and opens a side business called "Opie and Thurston's" to market a re-creation of the concoction. In season 10, in "The Eye in the Sky", Hodgins invents a packagi...	{ "page_id": 9901812, "title": "Jack Hodgins (Bones)" }
the group, and initially deals with some anger management issues. He also had some initial difficulty in working with Dr Goodman, the Jeffersonian's administrator, as Dr Goodman frequently used conjecture or imagination to make inferences about the victims of crimes. He is sometimes "the funny man" with a notable impre...	{ "page_id": 9901812, "title": "Jack Hodgins (Bones)" }
finding clues in the major story arc in which the discovery of "The Ghost Killer" and the killer's connections lead the team to uncover a widespread and deeply rooted conspiracy going on in the FBI. By the time of "High Treason in the Holiday Season", Booth and Hodgins have reached a stage where Hodgins not only takes ...	{ "page_id": 9901812, "title": "Jack Hodgins (Bones)" }
fully trust each other, and end their relationship. After their break-up, when he learns that Angela's father (ZZ Top's Billy Gibbons) is in town, Hodgins awakes in the middle of a desert with a bandage on his shoulder, which he removes to reveal a tattoo of Angela's face along with the words "Angie Forever". After tim...	{ "page_id": 9901812, "title": "Jack Hodgins (Bones)" }
a judge arrives to post their bail, they are finally married in a private ceremony in the jail cell. They announce their marriage to their colleagues soon after. Upon their return from their honeymoon in Paris, it is revealed that they are expecting their first child, who will be named Temperance, if it's a girl, after...	{ "page_id": 9901812, "title": "Jack Hodgins (Bones)" }
the interns, Hodgins is particularly close to Wendell Bray, Finn Abernathy and Arastoo Vaziri (Pej Vahdat). He initially had an awkward relationship with Wendell as the latter once dated Angela for a period of time and Angela had painted Wendell nude once. They later resolve the issue over time. Hodgins and Arastoo fre...	{ "page_id": 9901812, "title": "Jack Hodgins (Bones)" }
'squint' who has spent the most time out in the field with Booth — discounting Dr. Camille Saroyan (Tamara Taylor), who had prior experience working in law enforcement before joining the Jeffersonian — occasionally accompanying Booth when investigations require on-site particulate analysis. == References ==	{ "page_id": 9901812, "title": "Jack Hodgins (Bones)" }
Geraldine Anne Kenney-Wallace (29 March 1943 – 17 October 2023) was a British-Canadian academic. She served as the president and vice-chancellor of McMaster University from 1990 to 1995. She was educated in England and later earned her Ph.D. from the University of British Columbia. Kenney-Wallace was responsible for or...	{ "page_id": 47060724, "title": "Geraldine A. Kenney-Wallace" }
Plant genetic resources describe the variability within plants that comes from human and natural selection over millennia. Their intrinsic value mainly concerns agricultural crops (crop biodiversity). According to the 1983 revised International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture of the Food...	{ "page_id": 56956663, "title": "Plant genetic resources" }
of genetic variability for breeding and collected thousands of seeds during his extensive travels to establish one of the first gene banks. Vavilov inspired the American Jack Harlan to collect seeds from across the globe for the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). David Fairchild, another botanist at USDA, ...	{ "page_id": 56956663, "title": "Plant genetic resources" }

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