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conserve plant genetic resources came mainly from breeders’ organizations in the USA and Europe, which led to crop-specific collections primarily located in developed countries (e.g. IRRI, CIMMYT). In the 1960s and 1970s, more focus was put on the collection and conservation of plant genetic resources in face of geneti...	{ "page_id": 56956663, "title": "Plant genetic resources" }
in November 2001 and came into force in 2004. The ITPGRFA established several mechanisms under the Multilateral System, which grants free access and equitable use of 64 of the world’s most important crops (Annex 1 crops) for some uses (research, breeding and training for food and agriculture). The treaty prevents the r...	{ "page_id": 56956663, "title": "Plant genetic resources" }
organism) are subject to the international ABS regulations described above. Forest genetic resources represent a specific case of plant genetic resources. == See also == === Internal links === Biopiracy Bioprospecting Plant Treaty Convention on Biological Diversity and Nagoya Protocol UPOV Convention on New Varieties o...	{ "page_id": 56956663, "title": "Plant genetic resources" }
Caesium (IUPAC spelling; also spelled cesium in American English) is a chemical element; it has symbol Cs and atomic number 55. It is a soft, silvery-golden alkali metal with a melting point of 28.5 °C (83.3 °F; 301.6 K), which makes it one of only five elemental metals that are liquid at or near room temperature. Caes...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
a significant health and environmental hazard. == Spelling == Caesium is the spelling recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). The American Chemical Society (ACS) has used the spelling cesium since 1921, following Webster's New International Dictionary. The element was named after t...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
metals, gold, and mercury (amalgams). At temperatures below 650 °C (1,202 °F), it does not alloy with cobalt, iron, molybdenum, nickel, platinum, tantalum, or tungsten. It forms well-defined intermetallic compounds with antimony, gallium, indium, and thorium, which are photosensitive. It mixes with all the other alkali...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
powerful than a sodium-water explosion with a similar amount of sodium. This is because caesium explodes instantly upon contact with water, leaving little time for hydrogen to accumulate. Caesium can be stored in vacuum-sealed borosilicate glass ampoules. In quantities of more than about 100 grams (3.5 oz), caesium is ...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
Many of the simple salts are hygroscopic, but less so than the corresponding salts of lighter alkali metals. The phosphate, acetate, carbonate, halides, oxide, nitrate, and sulfate salts are water-soluble. Its double salts are often less soluble, and the low solubility of caesium aluminium sulfate is exploited in refin...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
separating Cs+ from other cations in the remediation of nuclear wastes, where 137Cs+ must be separated from large amounts of nonradioactive K+. ==== Halides ==== Caesium fluoride (CsF) is a hygroscopic white solid that is widely used in organofluorine chemistry as a source of fluoride anions. Caesium fluoride has the h...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
The latter may be heated in a vacuum to generate Cs2O. Binary compounds with sulfur, selenium, and tellurium also exist. === Isotopes === Caesium has 41 known isotopes, ranging in mass number (i.e. number of nucleons in the nucleus) from 112 to 152. Several of these are synthesized from lighter elements by the slow neu...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
fission, and the prime sources of radioactivity from spent nuclear fuel after several years of cooling, lasting several hundred years. Those two isotopes are the largest source of residual radioactivity in the area of the Chernobyl disaster. Because of the low capture rate, disposing of 137Cs through neutron capture is...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
wt% Cs2O in the closely related mineral pezzottaite (Cs(Be2Li)Al2Si6O18), up to 8.4 wt% Cs2O in the rare mineral londonite ((Cs,K)Al4Be4(B,Be)12O28), and less in the more widespread rhodizite. The only economically important ore for caesium is pollucite Cs(AlSi2O6), which is found in a few places around the world in zo...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
double salts of caesium are precipitated as caesium antimony chloride (Cs4SbCl7), caesium iodine chloride (Cs2ICl), or caesium hexachlorocerate (Cs2(CeCl6)). After separation, the pure precipitated double salt is decomposed, and pure CsCl is precipitated by evaporating the water. The sulfuric acid method yields the ins...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
thermal decomposition of caesium azide CsN3, which can be produced from aqueous caesium sulfate and barium azide. In vacuum applications, caesium dichromate can be reacted with zirconium to produce pure caesium metal without other gaseous products. Cs2Cr2O7 + 2 Zr → 2 Cs + 2 ZrO2+ Cr2O3 The price of 99.8% pure caesium ...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
weight of the new element at 123.35 (compared to the currently accepted one of 132.9). They tried to generate elemental caesium by electrolysis of molten caesium chloride, but instead of a metal, they obtained a blue homogeneous substance which "neither under the naked eye nor under the microscope showed the slightest ...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
of the spectral line corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine energy levels of the ground state of caesium-133. The 13th General Conference on Weights and Measures of 1967 defined a second as: "the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of microwave light absorbed or emitted by the hyperfine transition of caesiu...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
less cleanup and reduce disposal costs. === Atomic clocks === Caesium-based atomic clocks use the electromagnetic transitions in the hyperfine structure of caesium-133 atoms as a reference point. The first accurate caesium clock was built by Louis Essen in 1955 at the National Physical Laboratory in the UK. Caesium clo...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
photomultiplier tubes, and video camera tubes. Nevertheless, germanium, rubidium, selenium, silicon, tellurium, and several other elements can be substituted for caesium in photosensitive materials. Caesium iodide (CsI), bromide (CsBr) and fluoride (CsF) crystals are employed for scintillators in scintillation counters...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
defects that, when heated, revert with emission of light proportionate to the received dose. Thus, measuring the light pulse with a photomultiplier tube can allow the accumulated radiation dose to be quantified. === Nuclear and isotope applications === Caesium-137 is a radioisotope commonly used as a gamma-emitter in i...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
sources. === Other uses === Caesium and mercury were used as a propellant in early ion engines designed for spacecraft propulsion on very long interplanetary or extraplanetary missions. The fuel was ionized by contact with a charged tungsten electrode. But corrosion by caesium on spacecraft components has pushed develo...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
to enable studies of ultracold atoms requiring tunable interactions. == Health and safety hazards == Nonradioactive caesium compounds are only mildly toxic, and nonradioactive caesium is not a significant environmental hazard. Because biochemical processes can confuse and substitute caesium with potassium, excess caesi...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
vegetables. Plants vary widely in the absorption of caesium, sometimes displaying great resistance to it. It is also well-documented that mushrooms from contaminated forests accumulate radiocaesium (caesium-137) in the fungal sporocarps. Accumulation of caesium-137 in lakes has been a great concern after the Chernobyl ...	{ "page_id": 5879, "title": "Caesium" }
Miriam Cather Simpson is a New Zealand-American physics/chemistry academic and entrepreneur. She is currently a professor at the University of Auckland, a joint appointment between the physics and chemistry departments. She is the founder of the Photon Factory laser lab at the University of Auckland and the chief scien...	{ "page_id": 56039160, "title": "Cather Simpson" }
the summer. Professor Rodewald became her first science mentor and her experience in his lab convinced her to become a scientist. She investigated how new-born rats pull immuno-globulins out of their mother's milk and into their bloodstream, learning to design and test experiments and use equipment like electron micros...	{ "page_id": 56039160, "title": "Cather Simpson" }
method to stop-motion photography. First, you hit a molecule with a short, sharp laser pulse of light. Then, you take a series of spectroscopic “snapshots” to see what the molecule is doing with the energy it absorbs from the laser. Using this method she discovered that the heme molecules in blood absorb light and conv...	{ "page_id": 56039160, "title": "Cather Simpson" }
fundamental blue-skies research to more applied commercial work. The initial motivation for this shift was the need to raise money for the expensive lasers needed for her research but she soon became convinced of the wider value of applied and commercial research for society. In 2015, Simpson co-founded the Science Sch...	{ "page_id": 56039160, "title": "Cather Simpson" }
have made advances in bone surgery and air-quality sensor chips. They have also studied how pigments fade in art, investigated light-based cancer cures, developed a handheld device for diagnosing suspicious skin lesions and explored basic laser–material interactions. Simpson led the research team from 2010 till 2019 wh...	{ "page_id": 56039160, "title": "Cather Simpson" }
presented at several conferences and served on conference committees. == Agtech == Simpson has a strong interest in using photonics and light-based technologies to make agriculture more efficient and sustainable. She has given international talks and written articles on this topic and in 2016 hosted a delegation of top...	{ "page_id": 56039160, "title": "Cather Simpson" }
disk and uses advanced laser technology to measure fat, protein, progesterone and other relevant compounds with the aim of informing farmers of the cow's health, reproductive and nutritional status. The initial proof-of-concept research was done with seed-funding from The University of Auckland's commercialisation comp...	{ "page_id": 56039160, "title": "Cather Simpson" }
to promote critical thinking such as ‘Convince your neighbour’ and ‘Problem of the Day’ group exercises. According to the award write-up students respond well with excellent student evaluations and outcomes. Undergraduate science and engineering students are encouraged to carry out cutting-edge research in the Photon F...	{ "page_id": 56039160, "title": "Cather Simpson" }
funding from the New Zealand government under the Unlocking Curious Minds program. As part of the event Simpson's team ran art competitions, had a logo competition and engaged with the indigenous (Māori) community, to come up with a translation of “International Year of Light.” They ran outreach activities at eight mus...	{ "page_id": 56039160, "title": "Cather Simpson" }
University of Auckland Sustained Excellence in Teaching Award (NZ) 2013 Award for Sustained Excellence in Tertiary Teaching, Ako Aotearoa, National Centre for Tertiary Teaching Excellence (NZ) 2016 KiwiNet Baldwins Researcher Entrepreneur Award 2016 KiwiNet BNZ Supreme Award for overall excellence in all core areas of ...	{ "page_id": 56039160, "title": "Cather Simpson" }
Generated by Photocleavage of Phospha-Wittig Reagents ArPPMe3". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 123 (28): 6925–6926. Bibcode:2001JAChS.123.6925S. doi:10.1021/ja015767l. PMID 11448199. Shreve, Andrew P.; Franzen, Stefan; Simpson, M. Cather; Dyer, R. Brian (1999). "Dependence of NO Recombination Dynamics in Hor...	{ "page_id": 56039160, "title": "Cather Simpson" }
Herman Louis Verlinde (born 21 January 1962) is a Dutch theoretical physicist and string theorist. He is the Class of 1909 Professor of Physics at Princeton University, where he is also the chair of the Department of Physics. He is the identical twin brother of Erik Verlinde. == References == == External links == Offic...	{ "page_id": 661246, "title": "Herman Verlinde" }
Polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs) are a group of microorganisms that, under certain conditions, facilitate the removal of large amounts of phosphorus from their environments. The most studied example of this phenomenon is in polyphosphate-accumulating bacteria (PAB) found in a type of wastewater processing kn...	{ "page_id": 3479299, "title": "Polyphosphate-accumulating organisms" }
fatty acids (VFAs) and glycogen during anoxic conditions. This is followed by the consumption of the PHA/VFAs and uptake of environmental orthophosphate during oxic conditions to regenerate polyphosphate reserves within the cell. === Non-Canonical (or "Fermentative) PAO Metabolism === Some PAOs have been found to have ...	{ "page_id": 3479299, "title": "Polyphosphate-accumulating organisms" }
waste treatment, the bacteria is highly abundant in wastewater treatment plants globally. It can consume a range of carbon compounds, such as acetate and propionate, under anaerobic conditions and store these compounds as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) which it consumes as a carbon and energy source for growth using oxyge...	{ "page_id": 3479299, "title": "Polyphosphate-accumulating organisms" }
PAO phenotype. === Malikia granosa === Malikia granosa is a bacteria isolated from activated sludge which has been found to accumulate polyphosphate and PHA, thus likely having a classical PAO phenotype. === Lampropedia spp. === Lampropedia species, isolated from EBPR activated sludge, have been found to accumulate pol...	{ "page_id": 3479299, "title": "Polyphosphate-accumulating organisms" }
Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) are a group of nematodes (thread worms), that cause death to insects. The term entomopathogenic has a Greek origin, with entomon, meaning insect, and pathogenic, which means causing disease. They are animals that occupy a bio control middle ground between microbial pathogens and predato...	{ "page_id": 4200196, "title": "Entomopathogenic nematode" }
heterorhabditids, respectively—cause host mortality within 24–48 hours. The nematodes provide shelter to the bacteria, which, in return, kill the insect host and provide nutrients to the nematode. Without this mutualism no nematode is able to act as an entomoparasite. Together, the nematodes and bacteria feed on the li...	{ "page_id": 4200196, "title": "Entomopathogenic nematode" }
has shown that this jumping behavior in Steinernema involves a reversible kink instability mechanism. By forming a closed loop and rapidly releasing stored elastic energy, nematodes such as Steinernema carpocapsae can achieve jumps up to 20 times their body length, enhancing their ability to disperse across complex ter...	{ "page_id": 4200196, "title": "Entomopathogenic nematode" }
(Grewal et al. 1997). Interspecific competition between nematode species can also occur in the soil environment outside of hosts. Millar and Barbercheck (2001) showed that the introduced nematode Steinernema riobrave survived and persisted in the environment for up to a year after its release. S. riobrave significantly...	{ "page_id": 4200196, "title": "Entomopathogenic nematode" }
populations and movement between patches may depend on the movement of infective juveniles or the movement of infected hosts (Lewis et al. 1998). Recent studies suggest that EPNs may also use non-host animals, such as isopods and earthworms for transport (Eng et al.2005, Shapiro et al. 1993) or can be scavengers (San-B...	{ "page_id": 4200196, "title": "Entomopathogenic nematode" }
(Strong et al. 1996). In a coastal shrubland food chain the native EPN, Heterorhabditis heplialus, parasitized ghost moth caterpillars, and ghost moth caterpillars consumed the roots of bush lupine. The presence H. heplialus correlated with lower caterpillar numbers and healthier plants. In addition, the researchers ob...	{ "page_id": 4200196, "title": "Entomopathogenic nematode" }
of plant-parasitic nematodes, which often remain enclosed within growths on the plant root. The mechanism by which insect parasitic nematodes have an effect on plant parasitic nematodes remains unknown. Although this effect is considered beneficial for agricultural systems where plant parasitic nematodes cause crop dam...	{ "page_id": 4200196, "title": "Entomopathogenic nematode" }
because it is better at surviving and persisting in hotter and drier conditions created by tillage (Millar and Barbercheck 2002). The data showed that Steinernema sp. found in some Indonesia regions showed high adaptive capability when applied on another region or condition (Anton Muhibuddin, 2008). The response of EPN...	{ "page_id": 4200196, "title": "Entomopathogenic nematode" }
et al.1998). Efforts to control foliage-feeding pests with EPNs were equally unsuccessful, because nematodes are highly sensitive to UV light and desiccation (Lewis et al.1998). Comparing the life histories of nematodes and target pests can often explain such failures (Gaugler et al. 1997). Each nematode species has a ...	{ "page_id": 4200196, "title": "Entomopathogenic nematode" }
Fertilisation of Orchids is a book by English naturalist Charles Darwin published on 15 May 1862 under the full explanatory title On the Various Contrivances by Which British and Foreign Orchids Are Fertilised by Insects, and On the Good Effects of Intercrossing. Darwin's previous book, On the Origin of Species, had br...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
minor variations of parts of the flowers to suit new purposes, Darwin countered the prevailing view that beautiful organisms were the handiwork of a Creator. Darwin's painstaking observations, experiments, and detailed dissection of the flowers explained previously unknown features such as the puzzle of Catasetum, whic...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
origin of species convinced him that cross-fertilisation played an important role in keeping specific forms consistent. He rejected the doctrine that the characteristics of a species were static, and was aware from animal husbandry that inbreeding could lead to changes, often deleterious. He thought that natural outbre...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
Darwin family to a spot above the quiet Cudham valley, teeming with orchids including Cephalanthera, Neottia, fly orchids and musk orchids. They called this place "Orchis Bank", and the whole family became involved in Darwin's researches. Darwin observed orchids every summer, but in twenty years, only on two occasions ...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
structure". This was a theme he developed in his orchid book. == Botany as recreation == After On the Origin of Species was published, Darwin became involved in producing revised editions as well as working on Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication as the first part of his planned "Big Book". By the spring...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
left in their pouches in adjacent plants under a glass bell jar. He wrote to American botanist Asa Gray that he had been "so struck with admiration at the contrivances, that I have sent notice to Gardeners Chronicle", and made similar enquiries of other experts. Darwin became engrossed in meticulous microscopic examina...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
handiwork of God; he saw the huge variety of flowers as a collection of ad hoc evolutionary adaptations. In June he described his examination of bee orchids as a passion, and his findings on insect fertilisation of orchids as "beautiful facts". There were several replies to Darwin's enquiry in The Gardeners' Chronicle ...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
of the contrivances." The family returned to Downe on 27 August, and Darwin again wrote to the Gardeners' Chronicle appealing for assistance as he was "very anxious to examine a few exotic forms". His requests to the wealthy enthusiasts who had taken up the fashionable pursuit of growing rare orchids brought large numb...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
wrote to Lady Dorothy Nevill, who responded generously by sending numerous exotic orchids, and requested a signed photograph of him to hang in her sitting room next to portraits of her other notable friends, including Hooker. === Linnean Society paper === The orchid book was delayed because of illness, but Darwin conti...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
other, they had been classified as different genera. === Publication === Darwin sent the incomplete manuscript to his publisher John Murray on 9 February 1862, while he was still working on the last chapter. Although anxious that the book might not sell, he could "say with confidence that the M.S. contains many new & v...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
and developed specialised pollen-dispersal mechanisms. The intricate morphology and anatomy of each flower was carefully described. Apparently trivial details were examined in relation to natural selection to demonstrate how slight variations in similar structures of closely related flowers led to specialised modificat...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
labellum, and pushes its head and proboscis into the centre of the flower and down to the nectary, it breaks the cup and the adhesive balls attach the pollen masses to the front of the insect. As the insect flies off, each stalk rotates the pollen mass downwards and forwards so that when the insect lands on another flo...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
that if bees moved from top to top of the spires, the pollen clusters they collected from the most recently opened flowers would be wasted as the topmost flowers on the next spike would not be ready to receive pollen. A bee starting at the lowest flowers on the first spire it visited would continue up until it reached ...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
insect touched an "antenna" projecting from the back of the flower, this released the bent pedicel which sprang straight and fired the pollinium, sticky disc first, at the insect. In experiments, Darwin had imitated this action using a whalebone spring. He vividly illustrated how the flower ejected the pollinium with c...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
a line, then counted the seeds in one-tenth of a inch (2.5 mm). By multiplication he found that each plant produced enough seeds to plant 1-acre (4,000 m2) of ground, and the great-grandchildren of a single plant could "carpet the entire surface of the land throughout the globe" if unchecked. In conclusion, he felt tha...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
have been kept distinct for many generations?" == Reception == Botanists responded favourably to the book immediately on its publication. Hooker told Darwin that the book showed him to be "out of sight the best Physiological observer & experimenter that Botany ever saw", and was glad to note that two leading traditiona...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
a success (but I do not know whether it sells) after cursing my folly in writing it". He told his publisher, "The Botanists praise my Orchid-book to the skies", and to Asa Gray he said, "I am fairly astonished at the success of my book with botanists." Darwin's geologist friend Charles Lyell gave it enthusiastic praise...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
1862 by George Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll, argued that Darwin's wording implied purpose, and concluded that "We know, too, that these purposes and ideas are not our own, but the ideas and purposes of Another." He considered Darwin's explanations the "most unsatisfactory conjectures", and raised obscure metaphysical o...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
Darwin on the basis of his theory of natural selection. == Influence == Michael Ghiselin has expressed the view that all studies of coevolution follow directly or indirectly from Darwin's orchid book, which was also the origin of all work on the evolution of extreme specialisation. Its publication led almost immediatel...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
changes in the location of rewards such as nectar. He found that alpine flowers tended to be visited by bees at lower altitudes, and by butterflies at higher altitudes, beginning research on the idea that plants at different altitudes were specialised for different pollinators. By comparing related plant species that h...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
century, there were so many uncritical and unproven speculations about floral mechanisms that floral ecology became discredited. In the 1920s, it was revived with further developments in detailed analyses of insects' senses, led by researchers Frederic Clements, Karl von Frisch and others. Their experiments resulted in...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
the gardeners attending to Darwin's experimental plants, as well as the way that Darwin used simple equipment for his experiments, dissecting and measuring plants and seeds. A chance observation "thoroughly aroused" Darwin's attention to a surprising decrease in vigour of the offspring of Linaria vulgaris following onl...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
which provided the basis for the Fertilisation of Orchids." Experts have identified "Orchis Bank" as the species-rich setting encapsulated in the closing paragraph of On the Origin of Species, in which Darwin wrote: It is interesting to contemplate an entangled bank, clothed with many plants of many kinds, with birds s...	{ "page_id": 21436165, "title": "Fertilisation of Orchids" }
Peter (Petter) Jacob Hjelm (2 October 1746 – 7 October 1813) was a Swedish chemist and the first person to isolate the element molybdenum in 1781, four years after its discovery by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. Working with Molybdic acid, Hjelm chemically reduced molybdenum oxide with carbon in an oxygen-free a...	{ "page_id": 15210243, "title": "Peter Jacob Hjelm" }
In chemistry, a pentagonal bipyramid is a molecular geometry with one atom at the centre with seven ligands at the corners of a pentagonal bipyramid. A perfect pentagonal bipyramid belongs to the molecular point group D5h. The pentagonal bipyramid is a case where bond angles surrounding an atom are not identical (see a...	{ "page_id": 13309700, "title": "Pentagonal bipyramidal molecular geometry" }
Harvestmen (Opiliones) are an order of arachnids often confused with spiders, though the two orders are not closely related. Research on harvestman phylogeny (that is, the phylogenetic tree) is in a state of flux. While some families are clearly monophyletic, that is share a common ancestor, others are not, and the rel...	{ "page_id": 14161673, "title": "Harvestman phylogeny" }
Eupnoi, Dyspnoi and Laniatores. While these three are each monophyletic, it is not clear how exactly they are related. In 2002, Giribet et al. came to the conclusion that Dyspnoi and Laniatores are sister groups, and called them Dyspnolaniatores, which are sister to Eupnoi. This is in contrast to the classical hypothes...	{ "page_id": 14161673, "title": "Harvestman phylogeny" }
division into Temperophthalmi and Tropicophthalmi is not supported, with Troglosironidae and Neogoveidae probably forming a monophyletic group. The Pettalidae are possibly the sister group to all other Cyphophthalmi. While most Cyphophthalmi are blind, eyes do occur in several groups. Many Stylocellidae, and some Petta...	{ "page_id": 14161673, "title": "Harvestman phylogeny" }
probably paraphyletic. It consists of the two superfamilies Travunioidea and Triaenonychoidea, with the latter closer to the Grassatores. Alternatively, the Pentanychidae, which reside in Travunioidea, could be the sister group to all other Laniatores. The Grassatores are traditionally divided into the Samooidea, Assam...	{ "page_id": 14161673, "title": "Harvestman phylogeny" }
A quantum solvent is essentially a superfluid (aka a quantum liquid) used to dissolve another chemical species. Any superfluid can theoretically act as a quantum solvent, but in practice the only viable superfluid medium that can currently be used is helium-4, and it has been successfully accomplished in controlled con...	{ "page_id": 399116, "title": "Quantum solvent" }
Chemical tests in mushroom identification are methods that aid in determining the variety of some fungi. The most useful tests are Melzer's reagent and potassium hydroxide. == Ammonia == Household ammonia can be used. A couple of drops are placed on the flesh. For example, Boletus spadiceus gives a fleeting blue to blu...	{ "page_id": 14423824, "title": "Chemical tests in mushroom identification" }
2–3% aqueous solution of phenol gives a color change in some species when applied to the cap or stem. == Potassium hydroxide == A 3–10% solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) gives a color change in some species of mushrooms: In Agaricus, some species such as A. xanthodermus turn yellow with KOH, many have no reaction, ...	{ "page_id": 14423824, "title": "Chemical tests in mushroom identification" }
Sulfo-vanillin == Made from sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and vanillin (vanilla). Used in Russula and Panaeolus identification. == References == Arora, David "Mushrooms Demystified" 2nd Edition, Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, 1986 Jordan, Michael "The Encyclopedia of Fungi of Britain and Europe" Frances Lincoln 2004 Kuo, Michael "...	{ "page_id": 14423824, "title": "Chemical tests in mushroom identification" }
The Global Species List Working Group (GSLWG) is a non-profit organization and non-governmental organization, founded in 2020, developed under the umbrella of the IUBS with the aim of creating a governance system that imbues global taxon lists with a legitimacy and authority respected by both taxonomists and the users ...	{ "page_id": 68622096, "title": "Global Species List Working Group" }
recognize species boundaries may appropriately vary between different taxonomic groups but should be consistent when possible. . A global list must balance conflicting needs for currency and stability by having archived versions. . Contributors need appropriate recognition. . List content should be traceable. . A globa...	{ "page_id": 68622096, "title": "Global Species List Working Group" }
July 2020). "How a scientific spat over how to name species turned into a big plus for nature". The Conversation. Stephen T. Garnett; Leslie Christidis; Stijn Conix; et al. (7 July 2020). "Principles for creating a single authoritative list of the world's species". PLOS Biology. 18 (7): e3000736. doi:10.1371/JOURNAL.PB...	{ "page_id": 68622096, "title": "Global Species List Working Group" }
InterPro is a database of protein families, protein domains and functional sites in which identifiable features found in known proteins can be applied to new protein sequences in order to functionally characterise them. The contents of InterPro consist of diagnostic signatures and the proteins that they significantly m...	{ "page_id": 4331282, "title": "InterPro" }
(released 21 August 2020) InterPro entries annotated 73.9% of residues found in UniProtKB with another 9.2% annotated by signatures that are pending integration. InterPro also includes data for splice variants and the proteins contained in the UniParc and UniMES databases. === InterPro consortium member databases === T...	{ "page_id": 4331282, "title": "InterPro" }
of multiple sequence alignments and hidden Markov models covering many common protein domains and families. PIRSF Protein classification system is a network with multiple levels of sequence diversity from superfamilies to subfamilies that reflects the evolutionary relationship of full-length proteins and domains. The p...	{ "page_id": 4331282, "title": "InterPro" }
SFLD A hierarchical classification of enzymes that relates specific sequence-structure features to specific chemical capabilities. TIGRFAMs TIGRFAMs is a collection of protein families, featuring curated multiple sequence alignments, hidden Markov models (HMMs) and annotation, which provides a tool for identifying func...	{ "page_id": 4331282, "title": "InterPro" }
InterPro entries and their related entries in Json format. There are six main endpoints for the API corresponding to the different InterPro data types: entry, protein, structure, taxonomy, proteome and set. == InterProScan == InterProScan is a software package that allows users to scan sequences against member database...	{ "page_id": 4331282, "title": "InterPro" }
Ribonucleoprotein Networks Analyzed by Mutational Profiling (RNP-MaP) is a strategy for probing RNA-protein networks and protein binding sites at a nucleotide resolution. Information about RNP assembly and function can facilitate a better understanding of biological mechanisms. RNP-MaP uses NHS-diazirine (SDA), a heter...	{ "page_id": 70194962, "title": "Ribonucleoprotein Networks Analyzed by Mutational Profiling" }
windows. == Analysis == === RNP-MaP site identification === RNP-MaP sites are defined as protein bound nucleotides. SDA and UV treated and UV only treated sample sequence reads are aligned and mutations are counted using ShapeMapper2 software. The SDA or RNP-MaP reactivity for a nucleotide is the ratio of the crosslink...	{ "page_id": 70194962, "title": "Ribonucleoprotein Networks Analyzed by Mutational Profiling" }
rate}}_{UV}\|}}} , where mutation rate S D A + U V {\displaystyle {\text{mutation rate}}_{SDA+UV}} is the mutation rate of a nucleotide treated with SDA and UV and mutation rate U V {\displaystyle {\text{mutation rate}}_{UV}} is the mutation rate of a nucleotide treated with UV only σ n t = mutation rate n t reads n t {...	{ "page_id": 70194962, "title": "Ribonucleoprotein Networks Analyzed by Mutational Profiling" }
discover RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) bound to RNA. Labeling MS methods involve the differential use of stable isotope labels or chemical tagging of proteins in samples and controls. This is used to obtain enrichment scores and true binding partners through the ratio of labeled peptides. Label-free MS methods are able t...	{ "page_id": 70194962, "title": "Ribonucleoprotein Networks Analyzed by Mutational Profiling" }
A solvation shell or solvation sheath is the solvent interface of any chemical compound or biomolecule that constitutes the solute in a solution. When the solvent is water it is called a hydration shell or hydration sphere. The number of solvent molecules surrounding each unit of solute is called the hydration number o...	{ "page_id": 399123, "title": "Solvation shell" }
shells of proteins == The hydration shell (also sometimes called hydration layer) that forms around proteins is of particular importance in biochemistry. This interaction of the protein surface with the surrounding water is often referred to as protein hydration and is fundamental to the activity of the protein. The hy...	{ "page_id": 399123, "title": "Solvation shell" }
The molecular formula C17H24O (molar mass: 244.37 g/mol, exact mass: 244.1827 u) may refer to: Falcarinol, also known as carotatoxin or panaxynol	{ "page_id": 24581911, "title": "C17H24O" }
Ionizing (ionising) radiation, including nuclear radiation, consists of subatomic particles or electromagnetic waves that have enough energy per individual photon or particle to ionize atoms or molecules by detaching electrons from them. Some particles can travel up to 99% of the speed of light, and the electromagnetic...	{ "page_id": 202522, "title": "Ionizing radiation" }
manufacturing, but is a health hazard if proper measures against excessive exposure are not taken. Exposure to ionizing radiation causes cell damage to living tissue and organ damage. In high acute doses, it will result in radiation burns and radiation sickness, and lower level doses over a protracted time can cause ca...	{ "page_id": 202522, "title": "Ionizing radiation" }
and two neutrons bound together into a particle: a helium-4 nucleus. Alpha particle emissions are generally produced in the process of alpha decay. Alpha particles are a strongly ionizing form of radiation, but when emitted by radioactive decay they have low penetration power and can be absorbed by a few centimeters of...	{ "page_id": 202522, "title": "Ionizing radiation" }
matter. Both of these can cause an indirect ionization effect. Bremsstrahlung is of concern when shielding beta emitters, as the interaction of beta particles with some shielding materials produces bremsstrahlung. The effect is greater with material having high atomic numbers, so material with low atomic numbers is use...	{ "page_id": 202522, "title": "Ionizing radiation" }
object in space, LET occurs and neutrons, alpha particles, low-energy protons, and other nuclei will be released by the collisions and contribute to the total absorbed dose of tissue. == Indirectly ionizing radiation == Indirectly ionizing radiation is electrically neutral and does not interact strongly with matter, th...	{ "page_id": 202522, "title": "Ionizing radiation" }

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