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the offspring are exact genetic clones of their parents. The genetic load of organisms and their populations will increase due to the addition of multiple deleterious mutations and decrease the overall reproductive success and fitness. For sexually reproducing populations, studies have shown that single-celled bottlene...	{ "page_id": 661661, "title": "Evolution of sexual reproduction" }
an increasingly large effect on the fitness of the organism. This relationship between number of mutations and fitness is known as synergistic epistasis. By way of analogy, think of a car with several minor faults. Each is not sufficient alone to prevent the car from running, but in combination, the faults combine to p...	{ "page_id": 661661, "title": "Evolution of sexual reproduction" }
small effect). == Other explanations == === Geodakyan's evolutionary theory of sex === Geodakyan suggested that sexual dimorphism provides a partitioning of a species' phenotypes into at least two functional partitions: a female partition that secures beneficial features of the species and a male partition that emerged...	{ "page_id": 661661, "title": "Evolution of sexual reproduction" }
G {\displaystyle G} is the size of the genome in bits. === Libertine bubble theory === The evolution of sex can alternatively be described as a kind of gene exchange that is independent from reproduction. According to the Thierry Lodé's "libertine bubble theory", sex originated from an archaic gene transfer process amo...	{ "page_id": 661661, "title": "Evolution of sexual reproduction" }
Many protists reproduce sexually, as do many multicellular plants, animals, and fungi. In the eukaryotic fossil record, sexual reproduction first appeared about 2.0 billion years ago in the Proterozoic Eon, although a later date, 1.2 billion years ago, has also been presented. Nonetheless, all sexually reproducing euka...	{ "page_id": 661661, "title": "Evolution of sexual reproduction" }
strand exchange in the bacterial sexual process of transformation, has orthologs in eukaryotes that perform similar functions in meiotic recombination Natural transformation in bacteria, DNA transfer in archaea, and meiosis in eukaryotic microorganisms are induced by stressful circumstances such as overcrowding, resour...	{ "page_id": 661661, "title": "Evolution of sexual reproduction" }
originated from selfish parasitic genetic elements that exchange genetic material (that is: copies of their own genome) for their transmission and propagation. In some organisms, sexual reproduction has been shown to enhance the spread of parasitic genetic elements (e.g. yeast, filamentous fungi). Bacterial conjugation...	{ "page_id": 661661, "title": "Evolution of sexual reproduction" }
model suggests that the nucleus originated when the lysogenic virus incorporated genetic material from the archaean and the bacterium and took over the role of information storage for the amalgam. The archaeal host transferred much of its functional genome to the virus during the evolution of cytoplasm, but retained th...	{ "page_id": 661661, "title": "Evolution of sexual reproduction" }
originated from the fusion between two cells infected with related but different viruses which recognised each other as uninfected. After the fusion of the two cells, incompatibilities between the two viruses result in a meiotic-like cell division. The two viruses established in the cell would initiate replication in r...	{ "page_id": 661661, "title": "Evolution of sexual reproduction" }
of recombination machinery in a bacterial ancestor which was maintained for 3 Gy(billion years), until the neomuran revolution when the mechanics were adapted to the presence of nucleosomes. The archaeal products of the revolution maintained recombination machinery that was essentially bacterial, whereas the eukaryotic...	{ "page_id": 661661, "title": "Evolution of sexual reproduction" }
sex. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-201-40754-9. "Scientists put sex origin mystery to bed, Wild strawberry research provides evidence on when gender emerges". NBC News. Archived from the original on 19 December 2015. Retrieved 25 November 2008. Ridley, Mark (1993). Evolution. Oxford: Blackwell Scien...	{ "page_id": 661661, "title": "Evolution of sexual reproduction" }
Nucleomorphs are small, vestigial eukaryotic nuclei found between the inner and outer pairs of membranes in certain plastids. They are thought to be vestiges of red and green algal nuclei that were engulfed by a larger eukaryote. Because the nucleomorph lies between two sets of membranes, nucleomorphs support the endos...	{ "page_id": 333981, "title": "Nucleomorph" }
monophyletic, the tree built from their host-nucleus DNA is not, implying that they might have acquired very similar algae independently. == Structure == A cryptomonad nucleomorph is typically much smaller than the host nucleus. A relatively large portion of its size is devoted to the nucleolus, which contains its own ...	{ "page_id": 333981, "title": "Nucleomorph" }
but no cER, it's possible that the protein is first sent into the ER, then sent to the epiplastid space by the endomembrane sorting system. Some sort of a pore may then move the peptide into the periplastid space, but there seems to be no SELMA-like pore in this group. It's only known that the TIC/TOC complex exists fo...	{ "page_id": 333981, "title": "Nucleomorph" }
the chlorarachniophyte Bigelowiella natans indicates that its nucleomorph is probably the vestigial nucleus of a green alga, whereas the nucleomorph in G. theta probably came from a red alga. The B. natans genome is smaller than that of G. theta, with about 373 Kbp and contains 293 protein-coding genes as compared to t...	{ "page_id": 333981, "title": "Nucleomorph" }
In cryptophytes and chlorarachniophytes all DNA transfer between the nucleomorph and host genome seems to have ceased, but the process is still going on in a few dinoflagellates (MGD and TGD). == Tertiary endosymbiosis == The standard nucleomorph is the result of secondary endosymbiosis: a cyanobacterium first became t...	{ "page_id": 333981, "title": "Nucleomorph" }
Nuclease protection assay is a laboratory technique used in biochemistry and genetics to identify individual RNA molecules in a heterogeneous RNA sample extracted from cells. The technique can identify one or more RNA molecules of known sequence even at low total concentration. The extracted RNA is first mixed with ant...	{ "page_id": 6363299, "title": "Nuclease protection assay" }
also used to detect the presence of double stranded RNA, presence of which could mean RNA interference. Northern blotting is a laboratory technique that produces similar information. It is slower and less quantitative, but also produces accurate information about the size of the target RNA. Nuclease protection assay pr...	{ "page_id": 6363299, "title": "Nuclease protection assay" }
Photon Multiplicity Detector (PMD) is a detector used in the measurement of the multiplicity and spatial distribution of photons produced in nucleus - nucleus collisions. In short form, it is denoted by PMD. It was incorporated in the WA93 experiment. The funding for research and development of the design of PMD was do...	{ "page_id": 77535397, "title": "Photon Multiplicity Detector" }
In ecology, r/K selection theory relates to the selection of combinations of traits in an organism that trade off between quantity and quality of offspring. The focus on either an increased quantity of offspring at the expense of reduced individual parental investment of r-strategists, or on a reduced quantity of offsp...	{ "page_id": 1906854, "title": "R/K selection theory" }
hypothesised to drive evolution in one of two generalized directions: r- or K-selection. These terms, r and K, are drawn from standard ecological formula as illustrated in the simplified Verhulst model of population dynamics: d N d t = r N ( 1 − N K ) {\displaystyle {\frac {{\text{d}}N}{{\text{d}}t}}=r\ N\left(1-{\frac...	{ "page_id": 1906854, "title": "R/K selection theory" }
of organisms known for exhibiting r-selected traits are bacteria, diatoms, insects, grasses, cephalopods, fowl, and rodents. === K-selection === By contrast, K-selected species display traits associated with living at densities close to carrying capacity and typically are strong competitors in such crowded niches, that...	{ "page_id": 1906854, "title": "R/K selection theory" }
re-expressed as a continuous spectrum using the economic concept of discounted future returns, with r-selection corresponding to large discount rates and K-selection corresponding to small discount rates. == Ecological succession == In areas of major ecological disruption or sterilisation (such as after a major volcani...	{ "page_id": 1906854, "title": "R/K selection theory" }
to r/K selection. Some researchers, such as Lee Ellis, J. Philippe Rushton, and Aurelio José Figueredo, have attempted to apply r/K selection theory to various human behaviors, including crime, sexual promiscuity, fertility, IQ, and other traits related to life history theory. Rushton developed "differential K theory" ...	{ "page_id": 1906854, "title": "R/K selection theory" }
More recently, the panarchy theories of adaptive capacity and resilience promoted by C. S. Holling and Lance Gunderson have revived interest in the theory, and use it as a way of integrating social systems, economics, and ecology. Writing in 2002, Reznick and colleagues reviewed the controversy regarding r/K selection ...	{ "page_id": 1906854, "title": "R/K selection theory" }
Statistical relational learning (SRL) is a subdiscipline of artificial intelligence and machine learning that is concerned with domain models that exhibit both uncertainty (which can be dealt with using statistical methods) and complex, relational structure. Typically, the knowledge representation formalisms developed ...	{ "page_id": 19667111, "title": "Statistical relational learning" }
identification of equivalent entries in two or more separate databases/datasets == Representation formalisms == One of the fundamental design goals of the representation formalisms developed in SRL is to abstract away from concrete entities and to represent instead general principles that are intended to be universally...	{ "page_id": 19667111, "title": "Statistical relational learning" }
Gert Korthof is a Dutch biologist who was trained at Utrecht University. He has reviewed various books of evolution, creationism, and intelligent design, including Michael Behe's The Edge of Evolution. He contributed to Why Intelligent Design Fails: A Scientific Critique of the New Creationism. == References == == Exte...	{ "page_id": 12720295, "title": "Gert Korthof" }
This is a list of terms related to oncology. The original source for this list was the US National Cancer Institute's public domain Dictionary of Cancer Terms. == 0–9 == 10-propargyl-10-deazaaminopterin – 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate – 13-cis retinoic acid – 17-N-allylamino-17-demethoxygeldanamycin – 18F-EF5 – ...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
– alpha-fetoprotein – Alteplase – altretamine – aluminium sulfate – ALVAC-CEA vaccine – Amanita phalloides – Ambien – amelanotic melanoma – Ames, Bruce – amifostine – amikacin – aminocamptothecin – aminoglutethimide – aminoglycoside antibiotic – aminolevulinic acid – aminopterin – AML – amonafide – amoxicillin – amphot...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
– astrocytoma – asymptomatic – atamestane – ataxia – ataxia-telangiectasia – ataxic gait – atelectasis – athymic nude mouse – ATLL – ATP – atrasentan – atypical hyperplasia – ATRT atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor – augmerosen – autoimmune disease – autologous – autologous bone marrow – autologous bone marrow transplant...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
– biological therapy – biomarker – Biomed 101 – biopsy – biopsy specimen – biotherapy – Birt–Hogg–Dube syndrome – bispecific antibody – bispecific monoclonal antibody – bisphosphonate – bizelesin – BL22 immunotoxin – black cohosh – black snakeroot – blast – blast crisis – blast phase – bleomycin – blessed thistle – bli...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
Information Service – cancer of unknown primary origin – cancer stem cell – cancer vaccine – Cancer.gov – Candidiasis – Candidosis – CAP-1 – capecitabine – capsaicin – captopril – carbendazim – carbogen – carbon-11 acetate – carboplatin – carboxyamidotriazole – carboxypeptidase-G2 – carcinoembryonic antigen – carcinoem...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
choroid plexus tumor – CHPP – chronic granulocytic leukemia – chronic idiopathic myelofibrosis – chronic leukemia – chronic lymphoblastic leukemia – chronic lymphocytic leukemia – chronic myelogenous leukemia – chronic myeloid leukemia – chronic myelomonocytic leukemia – chronic phase – chronic phase chronic myelogenou...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
– contingency management – continuous hyperthermic peritoneal perfusion – continuous infusion – contralateral – control animal – control group – controlled clinical trial – controlled study – conventional therapy – conventional treatment – cooperative group – CoQ10 – cordectomy – cordycepin – core biopsy – corticostero...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
– DFMO – DHA-paclitaxel – DHEA – di-dgA-RFB4 monoclonal antibody – diagnosis – diagnostic mammogram – diagnostic procedures – diagnostic trial – diathermy – diaziquone – didanosine – DIEP flap – diethylstilbestrol – differentiation – difluoromethylornithine – digital mammography – digital photography – digital rectal e...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
endoscopic ultrasound – endoscopy – endostatin – endothelial cell – endothelin receptor antagonist – endothelin-1 protein receptor antagonists – eniluracil – enoxaparin – ENT – enterostomal therapist – enucleation – enveloped virus – eosinophil – eosinophilia – EP-2101 – ependymal tumor – ependymoma – epidemiology – ep...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
– Fanconi syndrome – FAP – fatty-replaced breast tissue – fazarabine – fecal occult blood test – fenretinide – fentanyl – fiber – fibrin sealant – fibroblast – fibroid – fibromatosis – fibrosarcoma – fibrosis – fibrous – fifth cranial nerve – filgrastim – filgrastim-SD/01 – finasteride – fine-needle aspiration – first-...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
– glial cell – glial tumor – glioblastoma – glioblastoma multiforme – glioma – gliosarcoma – glossectomy – glucagon – glucagonoma – glucocorticoid – gluconeogenesis – glufosfamide – glutamine – glutathione – glutathione S-transferase – glycinamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase inhibitor – glycolysis – glycopeptide –...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
histone – histone deacetylase – historic cohort study – historical control subject – HLA – HNPCC – Hodgkin's disease – Hodgkin's lymphoma – holmium Ho 166 DOTMP – homoharringtonine – hormonal therapy – hormone receptor – hormone receptor test – hormone replacement therapy – hormone responsive – hormone therapy – Horner...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
– indium In 111 ibritumomab tiuxetan – indium In 111 pentetreotide – indole-3-carbinol – indolent lymphoma – indometacin – induction therapy – infiltrating cancer – infiltrating ductal carcinoma – inflammatory breast cancer – infliximab – infrared coagulation – inguinal orchiectomy – inoperable – inositol – inositol he...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
– Jewett staging system – JM 216 – junctional nevus – juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia == K == Kaposi's sarcoma – karenitecin – Karnofsky Performance Status – keloid – keratan sulfate – keratinocyte growth factor – keratoacanthoma – ketoconazole – ketorolac – keyhole limpet hemocyanin – KGF – killer cell – Kinaret – Kl...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
– loperamide hydrochloride – losoxantrone – low-grade lymphoma – lower GI series – LU 79553 – LU-103793 – lubricant – lumbar puncture – lumpectomy – lung metastases – lurtotecan – luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone – luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone agonist – lutetium texaphyrin – LY231514 – LY293111 – LY317615...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
– melanoma vaccine – melphalan – MEN-10755 – MEN1 syndrome – meningeal – meningeal metastases – meningioma – menopausal hormone therapy – mercaptopurine – mercury – Merkel cell cancer – mesenchymal – mesenteric membrane – mesna – mesonephroma – mesothelioma – metaplasia – metaplastic carcinoma – metastasectomy – metast...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
metaplasia – myelosuppression – myelosuppressive therapy – myometrium == N == N-acetylcysteine – N-acetyldinaline – N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl) nitrosamine – naloxone – National Cancer Institute – National Institutes of Health – natural killer cell – NB1011 – NBI-3001 – NCI – nebulizer – neck dissection – needle biopsy ...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
– omega-3 fatty acid – omentectomy – omentum – omeprazole – Ommaya reservoir – oncogene – oncologist – oncology – oncology nurse – oncology pharmacy specialist – oncolysate – oncolysis – oncolytic – Oncolytic virus – Onconase – ondansetron – ONYX-015 – oophorectomy – open biopsy – open colectomy – open label study – op...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
– peldesine – pelvic exenteration – pelvic lymphadenectomy – pemetrexed disodium – penclomedine – penicillamine – pentetic acid calcium – pentosan polysulfate – pentostatin – pentoxifylline – peptide – peptide 946 – percutaneous ethanol injection – percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage – percutaneous transhepatic ...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
axillary lymph node – positive test result – positron emission tomography scan – postremission therapy – PR+ – PR- – precancerous – precancerous dermatitis – precancerous dermatosis – precancerous polyps – predictive factor – prednisolone – prednisone – preleukemia – premalignant – pretracheal space – prevascular space...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
– radioimmunotherapy – radioisotope – radiolabeled – radiologic exam – radionuclide scanning – radiopharmaceutical – radiosensitization – radiosensitizer – radiosurgery – radiotherapy – raloxifene – raltitrexed – randomized clinical trial – ranpirnase – rapamycin – rapid hormone cycling – rapid-onset opioid – ras gene ...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
inhibitor – sella turcica – semaxanib – seminal vesicle biopsy – seminoma – semiparasitic – semustine – senile keratosis – sentinel lymph node – sentinel lymph node biopsy – sentinel lymph node mapping – seocalcitol – SERM – serotonin – sertraline – serum albumin – serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase – Serum glutamic...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
therapy – STI481 – STI571 – stoma – stomatitis – streptavidin – streptozocin – Stromagen – stromal tumor – strontium-89 – Sturge–Weber syndrome – SU011248 – SU101 – SU5416 – SU6668 – subcutaneous port – subependymal – suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid – subglottis – subset analysis – subtenon – sucralfate – sulfonamide –...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
– tocladesine – tomography – topical chemotherapy – topoisomerase inhibitor – topotecan – toremifene – tositumomab – total androgen blockade – total estrogen blockade – total nodal irradiation – total parenteral nutrition – total-body irradiation – TP-38 immunotoxin – tPA – TPA – trabecular cancer – transabdominal ultr...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
radiation – UVB radiation – uvula == V == vaccine adjuvant – vaccine therapy – vaccinia CEA vaccine – vaginal cancer – vaginal melanoma–vaginal tumors – valacyclovir – valdecoxib – valerian – Valeriana officinalis – Valerianae radix – valganciclovir – valproic acid – vancomycin – vapreotide – varicose veins – vascular ...	{ "page_id": 1120426, "title": "Index of oncology articles" }
4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase may refer to: 4-aminobutyrate transaminase, an enzyme 4-aminobutyrate—pyruvate transaminase, an enzyme	{ "page_id": 25827499, "title": "4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase" }
Plant intelligence is a field of plant biology which aims to understand how plants process the information they obtain from their environment. Plant intelligence has been defined as "any type of intentional and flexible behavior that is beneficial and enables the organism to achieve its goal". Plant neurobiology is a s...	{ "page_id": 45684913, "title": "Plant intelligence" }
Jagadish Chandra Bose invented various devices and instruments to measure electrical responses in plants. According to biologist Patrick Geddes "In his investigations on response in general Bose had found that even ordinary plants and their different organs were sensitive— exhibiting, under mechanical or other stimuli,...	{ "page_id": 45684913, "title": "Plant intelligence" }
minds and souls. === Cleve Backster === In the 1960s Cleve Backster, an interrogation specialist with the CIA, conducted research that led him to believe that plants can feel and respond to emotions and intents from other organisms including humans. Backster's interest in the subject began in February 1966 when he trie...	{ "page_id": 45684913, "title": "Plant intelligence" }
spate of popular literature on "plant consciousness" appears to have been triggered by "experiments" with a lie detector, subsequently reported and embellished in a book called The Secret Life of Plants. Unfortunately, when scientists in the discipline of plant physiology attempted to repeat the experiments, using eith...	{ "page_id": 45684913, "title": "Plant intelligence" }
she conducted at Colorado Women's College on applying different music to plants. She stated that the plants died in response to acid rock but flourished in response to classical music and jazz. The experiments were described as pseudoscientific as they were poorly designed and did not control for other factors such as ...	{ "page_id": 45684913, "title": "Plant intelligence" }
Behavior and Intelligence that highlighted a plant's cognition through its colonial-organization skills reflecting insect swarm behaviors. This organizational skill reflects the plant's ability to interact with its surroundings to improve its survivability, and a plant's ability to identify exterior factors. Evidence o...	{ "page_id": 45684913, "title": "Plant intelligence" }
behaviours (rather than simple) reactions". Raja proposed that researchers should look for corresponding cognitive signatures. A minority of researchers within the field of plant neurobiology argue that plants are conscious organisms. Peter Wohlleben argued for plant sentience in his 2016 book The Hidden Life of Trees....	{ "page_id": 45684913, "title": "Plant intelligence" }
no evidence for the presence of neurons in plants, the idea of plant neurobiology and cognition is unfounded and needs to be redefined. They commented that "plant neurobiology does not add to our understanding of plant physiology, plant cell biology or signaling". In response to this article, Francisco Calvo Garzón pub...	{ "page_id": 45684913, "title": "Plant intelligence" }
World of Plant Intelligence Offers a New Understanding of Life on Earth. New York: Harper. ISBN 9780063073852. OCLC 1421933387. Archived from the original on 16 April 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024. Segundo-Ortin M, Calvo P. (2022). "Consciousness and cognition in plants". Wiley Interdiscip Rev Cogn Sci. 13 (2): e1578. doi...	{ "page_id": 45684913, "title": "Plant intelligence" }
synapses nor a nervous system". J Plant Physiol. 263: 153467. Bibcode:2021JPPhy.26353467R. doi:10.1016/j.jplph.2021.153467. PMID 34247030. Taiz, Lincoln; Alkon, Daniel; Draguhn, Andreas; Murphy, Angus; Blatt, Michael; Hawes, Chris; Thiel, Gerhard; Robinson, David G. (2019). "Plants Neither Possess nor Require Conscious...	{ "page_id": 45684913, "title": "Plant intelligence" }
State switching (a.k.a. phenotypic switching) is a fundamental physiological process in which a cell/organism undergoes spontaneous, and potentially reversible, transitions between different phenotypes. Thus, the ability to switch states/phenotypes (phenotypic plasticity) is a key feature of development and normal func...	{ "page_id": 50796722, "title": "State switching" }
and are overexpressed in many pathological states including cancer. Thus, the products of most oncogenes such as Jun, Fos, Myc, the Yamanaka factors namely, OCT3/4, SOX2, MYC, NANOG, and KLF4 that induce reprogramming of pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, and >90% of the Cancer/Testis Antigens several of which are implicate...	{ "page_id": 50796722, "title": "State switching" }
engage in ‘promiscuous’ interactions. These stochastic interactions between the IDPs and their partners result in ‘noise’, defined as conformational noise. Indeed, many biological processes are driven by probabilistic events underscoring the importance of ‘noise’ in biological systems. However, while research on biolog...	{ "page_id": 50796722, "title": "State switching" }
reversal to normalcy. Indeed, such stochasticity in phenotypic switching is also thought to underlie cellular differentiation, generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells), tumor heterogeneity and emergence of cancer stem cells from non-stem cancer cells. Implicit in the MRK model, the PIN configuration con...	{ "page_id": 50796722, "title": "State switching" }
which evolution operates and predicted that in difficult evolutionary searches that may require many possibilities to be tested, each learning trial can be almost as helpful to the evolutionary search as the production and evaluation of a whole new organism. Thus, logically speaking, the ‘efficiency’ of evolution is gr...	{ "page_id": 50796722, "title": "State switching" }
strategies necessary for survival under extreme stress. These characteristics present cancer cells in a different light – smart communicating cells – and tend to portray tumours as societies of cells capable of making decisions. Thus, the MRK model posits that the stochasticity in interactions of IDPs that are overexpr...	{ "page_id": 50796722, "title": "State switching" }
that which operates over relatively short timescales maybe retained within the PINS, information that operates over long periods such as cellular transformation, development and evolution, is directly transferred to the genome to effect heritable genetic/epigenetic changes, or via a mechanism similar to genetic assimil...	{ "page_id": 50796722, "title": "State switching" }
forms is lower. Through this process a new species can arise in a few generations. However, in either case, mutations that hold the key arise by chance and without foresight for the potential advantage or disadvantage of the mutation. Furthermore, the underlying implication would be a unidirectional flow of information...	{ "page_id": 50796722, "title": "State switching" }
mathematical model to compare the adaptive value of different schemes of inheritance by Rivoire and Leibler does appear to lend credence to the MRK model. The authors considered three biological phenomena that are often considered to be either irrelevant to evolution, or absent because “forbidden” namely, i) role of ph...	{ "page_id": 50796722, "title": "State switching" }
The subjective sweetness of a wine is determined by the interaction of several factors, including the amount of sugar in the wine, but also the relative levels of alcohol, acids, and tannins. Sugars and alcohol enhance a wine's sweetness, while acids cause sourness and bitter tannins cause bitterness. These principles ...	{ "page_id": 1054902, "title": "Sweetness of wine" }
apparent sweetness of wines and other beverages. The practice continued well into the 19th century, although the leading was mostly restricted to very cheap wines after the harmful nature of lead was demonstrated in the 17th century. == Residual sugar == Among the components influencing how sweet a wine will taste is r...	{ "page_id": 1054902, "title": "Sweetness of wine" }
alcohol level is elevated.: 198–199 Medium and sweet wines have a perception among many consumers of being of lower quality than dry wines. However, many of the world's great wines, such as those from Sauternes (including Barsac) or Tokaj, have a high level of residual sugar, which is carefully balanced with additional...	{ "page_id": 1054902, "title": "Sweetness of wine" }
wines. === European Union terms for sparkling wine === Sparkling wines have ratings according to Commission Regulation (EC) No 607/2009 of 14 July 2009. Article 58 points out "the sugar content may not differ by more than 3 grams per litre from what appears on the product label", so there is some leeway. For example, a...	{ "page_id": 1054902, "title": "Sweetness of wine" }
of France, such as Loire. === Germany === In Germany, sweetness of must and wine is measured with the Oechsle scale, and below are ranges of minimum must weights for Riesling, depending on the region. Kabinett – 67–82 °Oe Spätlese – 76–90 °Oe Auslese – 83–100 °Oe Beerenauslese and Eiswein – 110–128 °Oe (Eiswein is made...	{ "page_id": 1054902, "title": "Sweetness of wine" }
Hyperhydricity (previously known as vitrification) is a physiological malformation that results in excessive hydration, low lignification, impaired stomatal function and reduced mechanical strength of tissue culture-generated plants. The consequence is poor regeneration of such plants without intensive greenhouse accli...	{ "page_id": 31529144, "title": "Hyperhydricity" }
also be controlled by bottom cooling, which allows water to condense on the medium, the use of cytokinin-meta-topolin (6-(3-Hydroxybenzylamino)purine)</9>, the combination of lower cytokinin and ammonium nitrate in the medium, use of nitrate or glutamine as the sole nitrogen source and decreasing the ratio of NH4+:NO3-...	{ "page_id": 31529144, "title": "Hyperhydricity" }
In chemical analysis, chromatography is a laboratory technique for the separation of a mixture into its components. The mixture is dissolved in a fluid solvent (gas or liquid) called the mobile phase, which carries it through a system (a column, a capillary tube, a plate, or a sheet) on which a material called the stat...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
of plant pigments such as chlorophyll, carotenes, and xanthophylls. Since these components separate in bands of different colors (green, orange, and yellow, respectively) they directly inspired the name of the technique. New types of chromatography developed during the 1930s and 1940s made the technique useful for many...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
the system. In the case of an optimal system the signal is proportional to the concentration of the specific analyte separated. Chromatograph – an instrument that enables a sophisticated separation, e.g. gas chromatographic or liquid chromatographic separation. Chromatography – a physical method of separation that dist...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
chromatography to purify sufficient quantities of a substance for further use, rather than analysis. Retention time – the characteristic time it takes for a particular analyte to pass through the system (from the column inlet to the detector) under set conditions. See also: Kovats' retention index Sample – the matter a...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
whole inside volume of the tube (packed column) or be concentrated on or along the inside tube wall leaving an open, unrestricted path for the mobile phase in the middle part of the tube (open tubular column). Differences in rates of movement through the medium are calculated to different retention times of the sample....	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
the stationary phase as compared to the mobile phase. The specific Retention factor (Rf) of each chemical can be used to aid in the identification of an unknown substance. ==== Paper chromatography ==== Paper chromatography is a technique that involves placing a small dot or line of sample solution onto a strip of chro...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
== Displacement chromatography == The basic principle of displacement chromatography is: A molecule with a high affinity for the chromatography matrix (the displacer) competes effectively for binding sites, and thus displaces all molecules with lesser affinities. There are distinct differences between displacement and ...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
columns generally give far superior resolution and although more expensive are becoming widely used, especially for complex mixtures. Further, capillary columns can be split into three classes: porous layer open tubular (PLOT), wall-coated open tubular (WCOT) and support-coated open tubular (SCOT) columns. PLOT columns...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
small packing particles and a relatively high pressure is referred to as high-performance liquid chromatography. In HPLC the sample is forced by a liquid at high pressure (the mobile phase) through a column that is packed with a stationary phase composed of irregularly or spherically shaped particles, a porous monolith...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
biomolecules, or as a primary step in analyzing a protein with unknown physical properties. However, liquid chromatography techniques exist that do utilize affinity chromatography properties. Immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) is useful to separate the aforementioned molecules based on the relative affini...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
thus suffer essentially no retention; such species are the first to be eluted. It is generally a low-resolution chromatography technique and thus it is often reserved for the final, "polishing" step of a purification. It is also useful for determining the tertiary structure and quaternary structure of purified proteins...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
feed. After elution, the adsorbent is cleaned with a predefined cleaning-in-place (CIP) solution, with cleaning followed by either column regeneration (for further use) or storage. == Special techniques == === Reversed-phase chromatography === Reversed-phase chromatography (RPC) is any liquid chromatography procedure i...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
most water structuring around the molecule and resulting hydrophobic pressure. Ammonium sulfate is frequently used for this purpose. The addition of organic solvents or other less polar constituents may assist in improving resolution. In general, Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography (HIC) is advantageous if the sampl...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
smaller droplets because of their larger overall size. Larger droplets will elute first from the middle of the column while smaller droplets stick to the sides of the column and elute last. This form of chromatography is useful for separating analytes by molar mass (or molecular mass), size, shape, and structure when u...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
able to achieve separations using an 80 mm long channel on the timescale of 3 minutes for particles with diameters ranging from 26 to 110 nm, but the authors expressed a need to improve the retention and dispersion parameters. In a 2010 publication by Jellema, Markesteijn, Westerweel, and Verpoorte, implementing HDC wi...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
applied to GC or LC separations. The heart-cutting approach selects a specific region of interest on the first dimension for separation, and the comprehensive approach uses all analytes in the second-dimension separation. === Simulated moving-bed chromatography === The simulated moving bed (SMB) technique is a variant ...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
sample tube, and rapidly heated to 600–1000 °C. Depending on the application even higher temperatures are used. Three different heating techniques are used in actual pyrolyzers: Isothermal furnace, inductive heating (Curie point filament), and resistive heating using platinum filaments. Large molecules cleave at their ...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
pump and is normally kept constant, while the composition of the buffer can be varied by drawing fluids in different proportions from two or more external reservoirs. The stationary phase is a resin composed of beads, usually of cross-linked agarose, packed into a cylindrical glass or plastic column. FPLC resins are av...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
are commercially available for laboratory, pilot, and industrial-scale separations with different sizes of columns ranging from some 10 milliliters to 10 liters in volume. === Periodic counter-current chromatography === In contrast to Counter current chromatography (see above), periodic counter-current chromatography (...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }
phase is significantly less polar than the stationary phase) in which water is one of the mobile phase solvent system components. It is distinguished from hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) in that the retention mechanism is due to adsorption rather than partitioning. == Applications == Chromatograph...	{ "page_id": 6329, "title": "Chromatography" }

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