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and of rapidly introducing and withdrawing the sample without losing vacuum, pose major challenges for the design of the instrument. For less demanding applications, or when the sample is damaged by a vacuum (e.g. a volatile sample), a helium-swept X-ray chamber can be substituted, with some loss of low-Z (Z = atomic n...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
convenient Peltier cooling can be employed. ==== Wafer detectors ==== More recently, high-purity silicon wafers with low conductivity have become routinely available. Cooled by the Peltier effect, this provides a cheap and convenient detector, although the liquid nitrogen cooled Si(Li) detector still has the best resol...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
it provides precise results. ==== Usage ==== EDX spectrometers are different from WDX spectrometers in that they are smaller, simpler in design and have fewer engineered parts, however the accuracy and resolution of EDX spectrometers are lower than for WDX. EDX spectrometers can also use miniature X-ray tubes or gamma ...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
in under 30 s. Another advantage of this arrangement is that the fixed-geometry monochromators have no continuously moving parts, and so are very reliable. Reliability is important in production environments where instruments are expected to work without interruption for months at a time. Disadvantages of simultaneous ...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
challenge for mechanical reliability. However, modern sequential instruments can achieve reliability almost as good as that of simultaneous instruments, even in continuous-usage applications. ==== Sample preparation ==== In order to keep the geometry of the tube-sample-detector assembly constant, the sample is normally...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
angular resolution, one must lengthen the collimator, and/or reduce the plate spacing. This arrangement has the advantage of simplicity and relatively low cost, but the collimators reduce intensity and increase scattering, and reduce the area of sample and crystal that can be "seen". The simplicity of the geometry is e...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
is an integer multiple n of the X-ray wavelength λ.(Fig.7) 2 d sin ⁡ θ = n λ . {\displaystyle 2d\sin \theta =n\lambda .} The desirable characteristics of a diffraction crystal are: High diffraction intensity High dispersion Narrow diffracted peak width High peak-to-background Absence of interfering elements Low thermal...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
for a particular experimental setup always get noted behind the crystal material(e.g. Ge111, Ge444) Notice, that the Ge222 configuration is forbidden due to diffraction rules stating, that all allowed reflections must be with all odd or all even Miller indices that, combined, result in 4 n {\displaystyle 4n} , where n ...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
1,3}} - and K β ′ {\displaystyle K_{\beta '}} -mainlines) Structural electronic configuration around the central metal atom (determine intensity, broadening, tailing and piloting of K β 2 , 5 {\displaystyle K_{\beta 2,5}} - and K β ″ {\displaystyle K_{\beta ''}} -lines) These measurements are mostly done at synchrotron...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
the detector. The window needs to be conductive, thin enough to transmit the X-rays effectively, but thick and strong enough to minimize diffusion of the detector gas into the high vacuum of the monochromator chamber. Materials often used are beryllium metal, aluminised PET film and aluminised polypropylene. Ultra-thin...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
==== Extracting analytical results ==== At first sight, the translation of X-ray photon count-rates into elemental concentrations would appear to be straightforward: WDX separates the X-ray lines efficiently, and the rate of generation of secondary photons is proportional to the element concentration. However, the numb...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
secondary X-rays emitted by a heavier element are sufficiently energetic to stimulate additional secondary emission from a lighter element. This phenomenon can also be modelled, and corrections can be made provided that the full matrix composition can be deduced. Sample macroscopic effects consist of effects of inhomog...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
background correction becomes necessary. This is really only feasible on a sequential spectrometer. Line overlap is a common problem, bearing in mind that the spectrum of a complex mineral can contain several hundred measurable lines. Sometimes it can be overcome by measuring a less-intense, but overlap-free line, but ...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
holography – imaging methodPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback == Notes == == References == Beckhoff, B., Kanngießer, B., Langhoff, N., Wedell, R., Wolff, H., Handbook of Practical X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis, Springer, 2006, ISBN 3-540-28603-9 Bertin, E. P., Principles and Practice of X-ray Spectromet...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
The molecular formula C18H24O3 may refer to: 10β,17β-Dihydroxyestra-1,4-dien-3-one Doisynolic acid Epiestriol 16β,17α-Epiestriol 17α-Epiestriol Estriol Hydroxyestradiols 15α-Hydroxyestradiol 2-Hydroxyestradiol 4-Hydroxyestradiol Ketoisanic acid	{ "page_id": 24058224, "title": "C18H24O3" }
Chlamydoabsidia is a genus of fungi belonging to the family Cunninghamellaceae. Species: Chlamydoabsidia padenii Hesselt. & J.J.Ellis == References ==	{ "page_id": 67639666, "title": "Chlamydoabsidia" }
Self-assembling peptides are a category of peptides which undergo spontaneous assembling into ordered nanostructures. Originally described in 1993, these designer peptides have attracted interest in the field of nanotechnology for their potential for application in areas such as biomedical nanotechnology, tissue cell c...	{ "page_id": 24648049, "title": "Self-assembling peptide" }
physical limit. Moreover, the top-down approach applies mainly to silicon-based technology and cannot be used for biological developments. The peptide structure is organized hierarchically into four levels. The primary structure of a peptide is the sequence of the amino acids of the peptide chain. Amino acids are monom...	{ "page_id": 24648049, "title": "Self-assembling peptide" }
These interactions work on the basis of preference dependent on energy properties and specificity. A range of different nanostructures can be formed. Nanotubes are defined as elongated nano-objects with definite inner holes. Nanofibrils are solid on the inside, as opposed to the hollow nanotubes. == Processing/Synthesi...	{ "page_id": 24648049, "title": "Self-assembling peptide" }
example of a dipeptide that has been studied is a peptide from the diphenylalanine motif of the Alzheimer's β-amyloid peptide. Dipeptides have also been shown to self-assemble into hydrogels, another form of nanostructures, when connected to the protecting group Fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl chloride. Experiments focusing...	{ "page_id": 24648049, "title": "Self-assembling peptide" }
Surfactant–like peptides that undergo self-assembly in water to form nanotubes and nanovesicles have been designed using natural lipids as guides. This class of peptides has a hydrophilic head (with one or two charged amino acids such as aspartic or glutamic acids, or lysine or histidine acids) with a hydrophobic tail ...	{ "page_id": 24648049, "title": "Self-assembling peptide" }
This property is best illustrated using an example. The DAR16-IV peptide, has 16 amino acids and forms a 5 nm β-sheet structure at ambient temperatures; a swift change in structure occurs at high temperature or a change in pH when a 2.5 nm α-helix forms. === Cyclic peptides === Extensive research has been performed on ...	{ "page_id": 24648049, "title": "Self-assembling peptide" }
Although they are less stiff than carbon and non-carbon nanotubes, with these values these nanotubes are amongst some of the stiffest known biological materials. The mechanisms which facilitates the mechanical stiffness has been suggested to be the intermolecular hydrogen bonds and rigid aromatic side chains on the pep...	{ "page_id": 24648049, "title": "Self-assembling peptide" }
and future applications == The appeal of designer peptides is that they are structurally simple and are simple and affordable to produce a large scale. === Cell culturing === Peptide scaffolds formed from LEGO peptides have been used extensively for 3D cell culturing as they closely resemble the porosity and the struct...	{ "page_id": 24648049, "title": "Self-assembling peptide" }
to preferentially form on bacterial cell membranes and thus these tubes can perform as antibacterial and cytotoxin agents. === Molecular electronics applications === Molecular 'switch' peptides can be made into nanoswitches when an electronic component is incorporated. Metal nanocrystals can be covalently linked to the...	{ "page_id": 24648049, "title": "Self-assembling peptide" }
mechanical strength and stability makes them excellent materials for application in this area. Nanotubes have also been used in developing electrochemical biosensing platforms and have proved to have great potential. Dipeptide nanotubes deposited on graphite electrodes improved electrode sensitivity; thiol-modified nan...	{ "page_id": 24648049, "title": "Self-assembling peptide" }
fully fulfilled until useful functionality is incorporated into the structures. Moreover, so far most of the peptide structures formed are in one or two dimensions. In contrast, in nature, most biological structures are in three dimensions. Criticism has come because there is a lack of theoretical knowledge about the s...	{ "page_id": 24648049, "title": "Self-assembling peptide" }
Tendril perversion is a geometric phenomenon sometimes observed in helical structures in which the direction of the helix transitions between left-handed and right-handed. Such a reversal of chirality is commonly seen in helical plant tendrils and telephone handset cords. The phenomenon was known to Charles Darwin, who...	{ "page_id": 19667315, "title": "Tendril perversion" }
image of a tendril perversion in a tendril of Bryonia dioica by Michael Becker	{ "page_id": 19667315, "title": "Tendril perversion" }
IUCLID (; International Uniform Chemical Information Database) is a software application to capture, store, maintain and exchange data on intrinsic and hazard properties of chemical substances. Distributed free of charge, the software is especially useful to chemical industry companies and to government authorities. It...	{ "page_id": 8853878, "title": "IUCLID" }
IUCLID 5.1: 16 January 2009 IUCLID 5.2: 15 February 2010 IUCLID 5.3: 24 February 2011 IUCLID 5.4: 5 June 2012 IUCLID 5.5: 2 April 2013 IUCLID 5.6: 16 April 2014 == IUCLID 5 == === Data Format and Exchange === Data that can be stored and maintained with IUCLID encompass information about: The party running IUCLID (produ...	{ "page_id": 8853878, "title": "IUCLID" }
Chemical Assessment Programme US HPV Challenge Programme Japan HPV Challenge Programme Archived 2005-08-15 at the Wayback Machine(provided OECD guidance for SIDS dossiers is followed there). The IUCLID 5 data model also features Biocides/Pesticides elements. A dataset prepared for a substance under REACH can therefore ...	{ "page_id": 8853878, "title": "IUCLID" }
the user-interface. The first official version of IUCLID 6 was published on 29 April 2016. == See also == European Chemicals Agency OECD European Commission REACH Institute for Health and Consumer Protection Joint Research Centre == References == == External links == IUCLID 5 website Archived 2012-03-17 at the Wayback ...	{ "page_id": 8853878, "title": "IUCLID" }
The Kubo formula, named for Ryogo Kubo who first presented the formula in 1957, is an equation which expresses the linear response of an observable quantity due to a time-dependent perturbation. Among numerous applications of the Kubo formula, one can calculate the charge and spin susceptibilities of systems of electro...	{ "page_id": 37099898, "title": "Kubo formula" }
( t ) θ ( t − t 0 ) , {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}(t)={\hat {H}}_{0}+{\hat {V}}(t)\theta (t-t_{0}),} where θ ( t ) {\displaystyle \theta (t)} is the Heaviside function (1 for positive times, 0 otherwise) and V ^ ( t ) {\displaystyle {\hat {V}}(t)} is hermitian and defined for all t, so that H ^ ( t ) {\displaystyle {\hat ...	{ "page_id": 37099898, "title": "Kubo formula" }
given by \| n ( t ) ⟩ = e − i H ^ 0 t / ℏ \| n ^ ( t ) ⟩ = e − i H ^ 0 t / ℏ U ^ ( t , t 0 ) \| n ^ ( t 0 ) ⟩ , {\displaystyle \|n(t)\rangle =e^{-i{\hat {H}}_{0}t/\hbar }\left\|{\hat {n}}(t)\right\rangle =e^{-i{\hat {H}}_{0}t/\hbar }{\hat {U}}(t,t_{0})\left\|{\hat {n}}(t_{0})\right\rangle ,} where by definition for all t and...	{ "page_id": 37099898, "title": "Kubo formula" }
although the result is of first order in the perturbation, it involves only the zeroth-order eigenfunctions, which is usually the case in perturbation theory and moves away all complications which otherwise might arise for t > t 0 {\displaystyle t>t_{0}} . The above expression is true for any kind of operators. (see al...	{ "page_id": 37099898, "title": "Kubo formula" }
The Purple Earth Hypothesis (PEH) is an astrobiological hypothesis, first proposed by molecular biologist Shiladitya DasSarma in 2007, that the earliest photosynthetic life forms of Early Earth were based on the simpler molecule retinal rather than the more complex porphyrin-based chlorophyll, making the surface biosph...	{ "page_id": 11147646, "title": "Purple Earth hypothesis" }
known bioenergetic systems for harvesting light energy. == Evolutionary history == Microorganisms with purple and green photopigments frequently co-exist in stratified colonies known as microbial mats, where they may utilize complementary regions of the solar spectrum. Co-existence of purple and green pigment-containin...	{ "page_id": 11147646, "title": "Purple Earth hypothesis" }
which might have paved way for the long-term endosymbiosis between anaerobic archaea and aerobic eubacteria (which evolved into mitochondria) that enabled eukaryotes to evolve. However, the porphyrin-based nature of chlorophyll had created an evolutionary trap, dictating that chlorophyllic organisms cannot re-adapt to ...	{ "page_id": 11147646, "title": "Purple Earth hypothesis" }
In metallurgy, the Darken equations are used to describe the solid-state diffusion of materials in binary solutions. They were first described by Lawrence Stamper Darken in 1948. The equations apply to cases where a solid solution's two components do not have the same coefficient of diffusion. == The equations == Darke...	{ "page_id": 39262593, "title": "Darken's equations" }
experiment supported the concept that a concentration gradient in a binary alloy would result in the different components having different velocities in the solid solution. The experiment showed that in brass zinc had a faster relative velocity than copper, since the molybdenum wires moved farther into the brass. In es...	{ "page_id": 39262593, "title": "Darken's equations" }
coordinate axes to evaluate the derivation, Darken sets the x-axis to be fixed at the far ends of the rods, and the origin at the initial position of the interface between the two rods. In addition this choice of a coordinate system allows the derivation to be simplified, whereas Smigelskas and Kirkendall's coordinate ...	{ "page_id": 39262593, "title": "Darken's equations" }
Kirkendall's experiment. In the following equation, which represents Fick's first law for one of the two components, D1 is the diffusion coefficient of component one, and C1 is the concentration of component one: − D 1 ∂ C 1 ∂ y . {\displaystyle -D_{1}{\frac {\partial C_{1}}{\partial y}}.} This coordinate system only w...	{ "page_id": 39262593, "title": "Darken's equations" }
x − C 1 ν ] . {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial C_{1}}{\partial t}}={\frac {\partial }{\partial x}}\left[D_{1}{\frac {\partial C_{1}}{\partial x}}-C_{1}\nu \right].} The same equation can be written for the other component, designated as component two: ∂ C 2 ∂ t = ∂ ∂ x [ D 2 ∂ C 2 ∂ x − C 2 ν ] . {\displaystyle {\frac {...	{ "page_id": 39262593, "title": "Darken's equations" }
I {\displaystyle \textstyle D_{1}{\frac {\partial C_{1}}{\partial x}}+D_{2}{\frac {\partial C_{2}}{\partial x}}-C\nu =I} , where I {\displaystyle I} is an integration constant. At relative infinite distances from the initial interface, the concentration gradients of each of the components and the marker velocity can be...	{ "page_id": 39262593, "title": "Darken's equations" }
{\partial }{\partial x}}\left[D_{1}{\frac {\partial C_{1}}{\partial x}}-C_{1}\nu \right]} gives ∂ C 1 ∂ t = ∂ ∂ x [ D 1 ∂ C 1 ∂ x − C 1 C [ D 1 ∂ C 1 ∂ x + D 2 ∂ C 2 ∂ x ] ] . {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial C_{1}}{\partial t}}={\frac {\partial }{\partial x}}\left[D_{1}{\frac {\partial C_{1}}{\partial x}}-{\frac {C_{1}...	{ "page_id": 39262593, "title": "Darken's equations" }
D = D 1 N 2 + D 2 N 1 . {\displaystyle D=D_{1}N_{2}+D_{2}N_{1}.} This equation is only applicable for binary systems that follow the equations of state and the Gibbs–Duhem equation. This equation, as well as Darken's first law, ν = ( D 2 − D 1 ) ∂ N 2 ∂ x {\displaystyle \nu =(D_{2}-D_{1}){\tfrac {\partial N_{2}}{\parti...	{ "page_id": 39262593, "title": "Darken's equations" }
as D 2 d C 2 d x = 1 N A d F 2 d x B 2 C 2 . {\displaystyle D_{2}{\frac {dC_{2}}{dx}}={\frac {1}{N_{\text{A}}}}{\frac {dF_{2}}{dx}}B_{2}C_{2}.} After some rearrangement of variables the expression can be written for D2, the diffusivity of component two: D 2 = d F 2 d C 2 B 2 C 2 N A . {\displaystyle D_{2}={\frac {dF_{2...	{ "page_id": 39262593, "title": "Darken's equations" }
N 1 . {\displaystyle {\tilde {D}}=(N_{1}D_{2}+N_{2}D_{1}){\frac {\partial \ln a_{1}}{\partial \ln N_{1}}}.} == Applications == Darken’s equations can be applied to almost any scenario involving the diffusion of two different components that have different diffusion coefficients. This holds true except in situations whe...	{ "page_id": 39262593, "title": "Darken's equations" }
v = ( D 2 − D 1 ) ∂ N 2 ∂ x {\displaystyle \textstyle v=(D_{2}-D_{1}){\frac {\partial N_{2}}{\partial x}}} , can be rewritten in terms of vacancy flux, J v = ( D 2 − D 1 ) ∂ N 2 ∂ x {\displaystyle \textstyle J_{v}=(D_{2}-D_{1}){\frac {\partial N_{2}}{\partial x}}} . Use of Darken’s equation in this form has important i...	{ "page_id": 39262593, "title": "Darken's equations" }
Universal adaptive strategy theory (UAST) is an evolutionary theory developed by J. Philip Grime in collaboration with Simon Pierce describing the general limits to ecology and evolution based on the trade-off that organisms face when the resources they gain from the environment are allocated between either growth, mai...	{ "page_id": 25368964, "title": "Universal adaptive strategy theory" }
stress tolerator, and ruderal. These strategies each thrive best in a unique combination of either high or low intensities of stress and disturbance. === Competitors === Competitors are plant species that thrive in areas of low intensity stress (moisture deficit) and disturbance and excel in biological competition. The...	{ "page_id": 25368964, "title": "Universal adaptive strategy theory" }
to grow under low levels of resources, the CSR theory predicts that competitive ability is determined by relative growth rate and other size related traits. While some experiments supported the R* predictions, other supported the CSR predictions. The different predictions stem from different assumptions on the size asy...	{ "page_id": 25368964, "title": "Universal adaptive strategy theory" }
Hemeroby, or hemerochora is a term used in botanical and ecological sciences. It is often associated to naturalness as the complementary term, with a high degree of hemeroby equating to a high human influence on a natural environment. However, the two terms are not inversely related. == Etymology == The term is derived...	{ "page_id": 27728261, "title": "Hemeroby" }
Holtfreter's solution (Holtfreter's medium) is a balanced salt solution that was developed by the developmental biologist Johannes Holtfreter for studying amphibian embryos and to reduce bacterial infections. As a specialised aqueous solution, it finds use in aquaria to prevent infections for early stage amphibians, wh...	{ "page_id": 31332741, "title": "Holtfreter's solution" }
Paul Chaleff (born 1947) is an American ceramist and professor emeritus of Fine Arts at Hofstra University. He is considered a pioneer of the revival of wood-fired ceramics in the US and credited as one of the first to use wood-burning dragon kilns in the style of the anagama tradition. He is best known as an innovator...	{ "page_id": 72292745, "title": "Paul Chaleff" }
showcased at an official State dinner at the White House. Between 1989 and 2000, Chaleff collaborated on a series of clay sculptures with Sir Anthony Caro in his studio, first in Pine Plains and then Ancram. In 1995, he participated in Fire and Clay, a symposium of international clay sculptors held in Iksan. In 1997, C...	{ "page_id": 72292745, "title": "Paul Chaleff" }
Body capacitance is the physical property of a human body to act as a capacitor. Like any other electrically conductive object, a human body can store electric charge if insulated. The actual amount of capacitance varies with the surroundings; it would be low when standing on top of a pole with nothing nearby, but high...	{ "page_id": 5314955, "title": "Body capacitance" }
a shock, even a visible spark. Capacitance of a human body in normal surroundings is typically in the tens to low hundreds of picofarads, which is small by typical electronic standards. The human-body model defined by the Electrostatic Discharge Association (ESDA) is a 100 pF capacitor in series with a 1.5 kΩ resistor....	{ "page_id": 5314955, "title": "Body capacitance" }
metal shield may be placed behind a tuning knob so that the presence of an operator's hand does not affect the tuning. Body capacitance is exploited in the theremin to shift the frequency of the musical instrument's internal oscillators (one oscillator controls pitch and the other controls loudness). == See also == Sel...	{ "page_id": 5314955, "title": "Body capacitance" }
Aspartame-acesulfame salt is an artificial sweetener marketed under the name Twinsweet. It is produced by soaking a 2:1 mixture of aspartame and acesulfame potassium in an acidic solution and allowing it to crystallize; moisture and potassium are removed during this process. It is approximately 350 times as sweet as su...	{ "page_id": 13834635, "title": "Aspartame-acesulfame salt" }
6-Phosphogluconolactone is an intermediate in the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP). In the PPP pathway, it is produced from glucose-6-phosphate by glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. It is then converted to 6-Phosphogluconic acid by 6-phosphogluconolactonase. == See also == Lactone == References ==	{ "page_id": 10426763, "title": "6-Phosphogluconolactone" }
In parasitology and epidemiology, a host switch (or host shift) is an evolutionary change of the host specificity of a parasite or pathogen. For example, the human immunodeficiency virus used to infect and circulate in non-human primates in West-central Africa, but switched to humans in the early 20th century. All symb...	{ "page_id": 50796942, "title": "Host switch" }
not affect the further fate of the conspecific parasites on the donor host, and may finally lead to parasite speciation. This type of switch is more likely to target an increasing host population that harbours a relatively poor parasite/pathogen fauna, such as the pioneer populations of invasive species. The switch of ...	{ "page_id": 50796942, "title": "Host switch" }
spillover infections occur and pathogens are exposed to human-specific selection pressures. The pathogen is therefore driven towards specific-specific adaptation and is more likely to gain the necessary mutations to jump the species barrier and become human-infective. === Host switch and pathogenicity === The problem w...	{ "page_id": 50796942, "title": "Host switch" }
increasing exposure and driving further evolution. This gives rise to complete host adaptation and the capability for a larger epidemic and the pathogen can sustainably survive in its new host – i.e. host switch. Sufficiently adapted pathogens may also reach pandemic status meaning the disease has infected the whole co...	{ "page_id": 50796942, "title": "Host switch" }
between humans. This is the case for spillover events such as rabies. Humans infected from the bite of rabid animals do not tend to pass on the disease and so are classed as dead-end hosts. An extensive list of zoonotic infections can be found at Zoonosis. == Case studies == The following pathogens are examples of dise...	{ "page_id": 50796942, "title": "Host switch" }
Because of this, influenza has the capacity to mutate frequently dependent of the current selection pressures and has the capability to adapt to surviving in different host species. ==== Transmission and infection methods ==== Comparing IAVs in birds and humans, one of the main barriers to host switching is the type of...	{ "page_id": 50796942, "title": "Host switch" }
acid mostly present in the regions of the host that each IAVs infected respectively - i.e. the gastrointestinal tract of birds and the respiratory tract of humans. Therefore, in order to commit to a host switch, the HA specificity must mutate to the substrate receptors of the new host. In the final stages of infection,...	{ "page_id": 50796942, "title": "Host switch" }
enabling host cofactor interaction, whereas the glutamic acid residue found in IAVs disrupt this basic region and subsequent interactions. ===== Host cofactor ===== The cellular protein ANP32A has been shown to account for contrasting levels of avian influenza interaction efficiency with different host species. The key...	{ "page_id": 50796942, "title": "Host switch" }
incoming pathogens. In particular, HIV infects CD4+ T helper lymphocytes, a cell involved in the organisation and coordination of the immune response. This means that the body can recognise incoming pathogens but cannot trigger their defences against them. When HIV sufficiently diminishes the immune system, it causes a...	{ "page_id": 50796942, "title": "Host switch" }
in HIV-1 groups M, N and O, suggesting a strong selection pressure in the new host. This observation was supported by other data including the fact that this mutation was reversed when HIV-1 was used to infect primates meaning that the arginine or lysine converted back to the methionine originally observed in SIVs. Thi...	{ "page_id": 50796942, "title": "Host switch" }
in the cytoplasmic region. This incomplete cytoplasmic domain renders Nef proteins found in SIVs ineffective as an anti-tetherin response in humans and so in order to switch from non-human primates to a human host, the SIV must activate the Vpu protein which instead blocks tetherin through interaction with the conserve...	{ "page_id": 50796942, "title": "Host switch" }
A carnivore , or meat-eater (Latin, caro, genitive carnis, meaning meat or "flesh" and vorare meaning "to devour"), is an animal or plant whose nutrition and energy requirements are met by consumption of animal tissues (mainly muscle, fat and other soft tissues) as food, whether through predation or scavenging. == Nome...	{ "page_id": 6543, "title": "Carnivore" }
required nutrients from processed food made from plant and synthetic sources. Outside the animal kingdom, there are several genera containing carnivorous plants (predominantly insectivores), several phyla containing carnivorous fungi (preying mostly on microscopic invertebrates, such as nematodes, amoebae, and springta...	{ "page_id": 6543, "title": "Carnivore" }
thus, in nature, they must consume flesh to supply these nutrients. == Characteristics of carnivores == Characteristics commonly associated with carnivores include strength, speed, and keen senses for hunting, as well as teeth and claws for capturing and tearing prey. However, some carnivores do not hunt and are scaven...	{ "page_id": 6543, "title": "Carnivore" }
many very early remains show evidence of boreholes or other markings attributed to small predator species. The sudden disappearance of the precambrian Ediacaran biota at the end-Ediacaran extinction, who were mostly bottom-dwelling filter feeders and grazers, has been hypothetized to be partly caused by increased preda...	{ "page_id": 6543, "title": "Carnivore" }
minimal adaptation; and herbivory, which took advantage of the abundance of coal forest foliage but in contrast required a complex set of adaptations that was necessary for digesting on the cellulose- and lignin-rich plant materials. After the Carboniferous rainforest collapse, both synapsid and sauropsid amniotes quic...	{ "page_id": 6543, "title": "Carnivore" }
Melbourne, AU: CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 978-0-643-10310-8.	{ "page_id": 6543, "title": "Carnivore" }
Matched molecular pair analysis (MMPA) is a method in cheminformatics that compares the properties of two molecules that differ only by a single chemical transformation, such as the substitution of a hydrogen atom by a chlorine one. Such pairs of compounds are known as matched molecular pairs (MMP). Because the structu...	{ "page_id": 44046734, "title": "Matched molecular pair analysis" }
Significance of MMP based analysis == MMP based analysis is an attractive method for computational analysis because they can be algorithmically generated and they make it possible to associate defined structural modifications at the level of compound pairs with chemical property changes, including biological activity. ...	{ "page_id": 44046734, "title": "Matched molecular pair analysis" }
chemistry and drug discovery as they represent a discontinuity in structure-activity relationship (SAR). This discontinuity also indicates high SAR information content, because small chemical changes in the set of similar compounds lead to large changes in activity. The assessment of activity cliffs requires careful co...	{ "page_id": 44046734, "title": "Matched molecular pair analysis" }
issue in the MMPA. Moreover, the effect of a particular molecular transformation can significantly depend on the Chemical context of transformations. Beside these, MMPA might pose some limitations in terms of computational resources, especially when dealing with databases of compounds with a large number of breakable b...	{ "page_id": 44046734, "title": "Matched molecular pair analysis" }
In statistical mechanics and condensed matter physics, the Kovacs effect is a kind of memory effect in glassy systems below the glass-transition temperature. A.J. Kovacs observed that a system’s state out of equilibrium is defined not only by its macro thermodynamical variables, but also by the inner parameters of the ...	{ "page_id": 67967371, "title": "Kovacs effect" }
In the second step, the sample is quenched again from T 0 {\displaystyle T_{0}} to a temperature T 1 {\displaystyle T_{1}} that is lower than T r {\displaystyle T_{r}} , so that T 0 > T r > T 1 {\displaystyle T_{0}>T_{r}>T_{1}} . But now, the system is held at temperature T 1 {\displaystyle T_{1}} only until the time t...	{ "page_id": 67967371, "title": "Kovacs effect" }
only one maximum of height Δ V M {\displaystyle \Delta V_{M}} at a certain time t M {\displaystyle t_{M}} ; as the temperature T 1 {\displaystyle T_{1}} is lowered, the hump becomes larger, Δ V M {\displaystyle \Delta V_{M}} increases, and moves to shorter times, t M {\displaystyle t_{M}} decreases. In the subsequent s...	{ "page_id": 67967371, "title": "Kovacs effect" }
external driving ξ {\displaystyle \xi } that plays the role of the temperature. The emergence of Kovacs-like humps highlights the relevance of non-Gaussianities to describe the physical state of granular gases. "Anomalous" Kovacs humps have been reported in athermal systems, i.e. Δ P ≤ 0 {\displaystyle \Delta P\leq 0} ...	{ "page_id": 67967371, "title": "Kovacs effect" }
Cell CANARY (Cellular Analysis and Notification of Antigen Risks and Yields) is a recent technology that uses genetically engineered B cells to identify pathogens. Existing pathogen detection technologies include the Integrated Biological Detection System and the Joint Chemical Agent Detector. == History == In 2007, Be...	{ "page_id": 35789206, "title": "Cell CANARY" }
antibodies are then up-regulated in these cells, which allows for greater antibody production and therefore more of the cell surface to be coated in antibodies. This engineering principle allows lower concentrations of antigen to be detected by the cells. Antigens can then bind to the antibodies, resulting in a few nat...	{ "page_id": 35789206, "title": "Cell CANARY" }
urine, and get an analysis within minutes. No longer would the patient and doctor have to wait on lab results to determine the presence of foreign bodies. The military would be able to test air samples and water samples to discover threats immediately before dispatching. High profile and even regular office buildings c...	{ "page_id": 35789206, "title": "Cell CANARY" }
Radó von Kövesligethy (in Hungarian usage, Kövesligethy Radó) (1 September 1862 in Verona, then Austrian Empire – 11 October 1934 in Budapest, Hungary), was a Hungarian physicist, astronomer and geophysicist. Kövesligethy developed a spectral equation for black body radiation for the continuous spectra of celestial bod...	{ "page_id": 27793814, "title": "Radó von Kövesligethy" }
Himabindu "Hima" Lakkaraju is an Indian-American computer scientist who works on machine learning, artificial intelligence, algorithmic bias, and AI accountability. She is currently an assistant professor at the Harvard Business School and is also affiliated with the Department of Computer Science at Harvard University...	{ "page_id": 67508632, "title": "Himabindu Lakkaraju" }
Cynthia Rudin, and Sendhil Mullainathan during her PhD. Her doctoral research focused on developing interpretable and fair machine learning models that can complement human decision making in domains such as healthcare, criminal justice, and education. This work was awarded the Microsoft Research Dissertation Grant and...	{ "page_id": 67508632, "title": "Himabindu Lakkaraju" }
University in 2020. Over the past few years, she has done pioneering work in the area of explainable machine learning. She initiated the study of adaptive and interactive post hoc explanations which can be used to explain the behavior of complex machine learning models in a manner that is tailored to user preferences. ...	{ "page_id": 67508632, "title": "Himabindu Lakkaraju" }
a platform for early career researchers to showcase their work, and more broadly develop a community of researchers and practitioners working on topics related to trustworthy ML. Lakkaraju has developed several tutorials and a full-fledged course on explainable machine learning as part of this initiative. == Awards and...	{ "page_id": 67508632, "title": "Himabindu Lakkaraju" }
== References ==	{ "page_id": 67508632, "title": "Himabindu Lakkaraju" }
IBM Granite is a series of decoder-only AI foundation models created by IBM. It was announced on September 7, 2023, and an initial paper was published 4 days later. Initially intended for use in the IBM's cloud-based data and generative AI platform Watsonx along with other models, IBM opened the source code of some cod...	{ "page_id": 76093849, "title": "IBM Granite" }
Kafbikh (Persian: کفبیخ) is a type of traditional Iranian sweet made in Khorasan, specially in the cities of Gonabad and Birjand. It is a foodstuff eaten traditionally at Yalda, the ancient Persian celebration of the winter solstice. == Preparation == Kaf is a marshmallow-like sweetmeat prepared from the root of the pl...	{ "page_id": 56039834, "title": "Kafbikh" }
The men send an edible arrangement combining seven kinds of fruits and a variety of gifts to their fiancées. In some areas, the girl and her family return the favor by sending gifts back to the young man. == Gallery == == See also == Nowruz Yalda Gonabad Zibad Jesuite Konditorei Kuo Yuan Ye Museum of Cake and Pastry Li...	{ "page_id": 56039834, "title": "Kafbikh" }

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