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lives in, only blue light with a wavelength of 500 nanometres percolates down and needs to be reflected, so mirrors 125 nanometres apart provide good camouflage. In fish such as the herring which live in shallower water, the mirrors must reflect a mixture of wavelengths, and the fish accordingly has crystal stacks with...	{ "page_id": 6446, "title": "Camouflage" }
Liberators and naval Avengers. The planes were fitted with forward-pointing lamps automatically adjusted to match the brightness of the night sky. This enabled them to approach much closer to a target – within 3,000 yards (2,700 m) – before being seen. Counterillumination was made obsolete by radar, and neither diffuse...	{ "page_id": 6446, "title": "Camouflage" }
of camouflage on land before 1800, but two unusual ceramics show men in Peru's Mochica culture from before 500 AD, hunting birds with blowpipes which are fitted with a kind of shield near the mouth, perhaps to conceal the hunters' hands and faces. Another early source is a 15th-century French manuscript, The Hunting Bo...	{ "page_id": 6446, "title": "Camouflage" }
in a land of dust". Later they improvised by dyeing cloth locally. Other regiments in India soon adopted the khaki uniform, and by 1896 khaki drill uniform was used everywhere outside Europe; by the Second Boer War six years later it was used throughout the British Army. During the late 19th century camouflage was appl...	{ "page_id": 6446, "title": "Camouflage" }
Ship camouflage was introduced in the early 20th century as the range of naval guns increased, with ships painted grey all over. In April 1917, when German U-boats were sinking many British ships with torpedoes, the marine artist Norman Wilkinson devised dazzle camouflage, which paradoxically made ships more visible bu...	{ "page_id": 6446, "title": "Camouflage" }
avoid appearing as dark shapes against the sky. For ships, dazzle camouflage was mainly replaced with plain grey in the Second World War, though experimentation with colour schemes continued. As in the First World War, artists were pressed into service; for example, the surrealist painter Roland Penrose became a lectur...	{ "page_id": 6446, "title": "Camouflage" }
Second World War, radar made camouflage generally less effective, though coastal boats are sometimes painted like land vehicles. Aircraft camouflage too came to be seen as less important because of radar, and aircraft of different air forces, such as the Royal Air Force's Lightning, were often uncamouflaged. Many camou...	{ "page_id": 6446, "title": "Camouflage" }
=== Civil structures === Camouflage is occasionally used to make built structures less conspicuous: for example, in South Africa, towers carrying cell telephone antennae are sometimes camouflaged as tall trees with plastic branches, in response to "resistance from the community". Since this method is costly (a figure o...	{ "page_id": 6446, "title": "Camouflage" }
during the war in the painting of ships ... The total effect was brilliant and fantastic. More recently, fashion designers have often used camouflage fabric for its striking designs, its "patterned disorder" and its symbolism. Camouflage clothing can be worn largely for its symbolic significance rather than for fashion...	{ "page_id": 6446, "title": "Camouflage" }
Trübner. Thayer, Abbott Handerson (1909). Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom Macmillan. ==== General reading ==== Elias, Ann (2011). Camouflage Australia: Art, Nature, Science and War. Sydney University Press. ISBN 978-1-920899-73-8. Elias, Ann (2015). Camouflage Cultures: Beyond the Art of Disappearance. Sydn...	{ "page_id": 6446, "title": "Camouflage" }
series. Moonlight Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85103-298-3. (ages 4–8) == External links == Ohio State University: The Camouflage Project – interplay of science and art Behrens, Roy. A Chronology of Camouflage MACV-SOG Improvised Camo Camouflage Effectiveness on YouTube	{ "page_id": 6446, "title": "Camouflage" }
The Journal of Marine Research is an American journal, first published by Yale University in 1937, that covers peer-reviewed scientific articles and is still published today. The academic journal publishes articles that deal with biological processes, as well as those that report significant observations. A supplement,...	{ "page_id": 38869298, "title": "Journal of Marine Research" }
The Brendel–Bormann oscillator model is a mathematical formula for the frequency dependence of the complex-valued relative permittivity, sometimes referred to as the dielectric function. The model has been used to fit to the complex refractive index of materials with absorption lineshapes exhibiting non-Lorentzian broa...	{ "page_id": 69015860, "title": "Brendel–Bormann oscillator model" }
^{2}-i\Gamma _{j}\omega }}} χ j G ( ω ) = 1 2 π σ j exp ⁡ [ − ( ω 2 σ j ) 2 ] {\displaystyle \chi _{j}^{G}(\omega )={\frac {1}{{\sqrt {2\pi }}\sigma _{j}}}\exp {\left[-\left({\frac {\omega }{{\sqrt {2}}\sigma _{j}}}\right)^{2}\right]}} where s j {\displaystyle s_{j}} is the Lorentzian strength of the j {\displaystyle j...	{ "page_id": 69015860, "title": "Brendel–Bormann oscillator model" }
imaginary component is positive. This is achieved by: ℜ ( a j ) = ω 1 + ( Γ j / ω ) 2 + 1 2 {\displaystyle \Re \left(a_{j}\right)=\omega {\sqrt {\frac {{\sqrt {1+\left(\Gamma _{j}/\omega \right)^{2}}}+1}{2}}}} ℑ ( a j ) = ω 1 + ( Γ j / ω ) 2 − 1 2 {\displaystyle \Im \left(a_{j}\right)=\omega {\sqrt {\frac {{\sqrt {1+\l...	{ "page_id": 69015860, "title": "Brendel–Bormann oscillator model" }
A guild (or ecological guild) is any group of species that exploit the same resources, or that exploit different resources in related ways. It is not necessary that the species within a guild occupy the same, or even similar, ecological niches. == Details == Guilds are defined according to the locations, attributes, or...	{ "page_id": 11147575, "title": "Guild (ecology)" }
is a functional group of taxa sharing the same set of predators and prey within a food web. === Microbial guilds === Some authors have used the term guild to analyze microbial communities. However, precisely because of the pointed lack of concretion in the original definition, it has been used with different connotatio...	{ "page_id": 11147575, "title": "Guild (ecology)" }
environmental range is the same. Species grouped into the same beta guild still may use the same resources but not competitively. == Example guilds == == See also == Functional group (ecology) == Footnotes == == References ==	{ "page_id": 11147575, "title": "Guild (ecology)" }
Heremba Bailung is an Indian physicist. He is a professor at and the director of the Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology. == Education and career == Bailung earned his BSc and MSc from Dibrugarh University, and his PhD from Gauhati University. Bailung was awarded the Boyscast fellowship by Department ...	{ "page_id": 64035132, "title": "Heremba Bailung" }
Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) is cyclic voltammetry with a very high scan rate (up to 1×106 V·s−1). Application of high scan rate allows rapid acquisition of a voltammogram within several milliseconds and ensures high temporal resolution of this electroanalytical technique. An acquisition rate of 10 Hz is routine...	{ "page_id": 41163070, "title": "Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry" }
each oxidation and reduction reaction is known. Advantages such as chemical specificity, high resolution, and noninvasive probes make FSCV a powerful technique for detecting changing chemical concentrations in vivo. The chemical specificity of FSCV is derived from reduction potentials. Every compound has a unique reduc...	{ "page_id": 41163070, "title": "Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry" }
relative to the background, so they cannot be used to quantify resting concentrations. This is partially due to the fact that the basal current levels are largely affected by factors such as pH, so over longer periods of time these values tend to drift. The age of the electrode is also important, and probes tend to be ...	{ "page_id": 41163070, "title": "Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry" }
neurotransmission and development of drug addiction was studied with FSCV. Dopamine is a primary neurotransmitter mediating learning, goal-directing behavior and decision making. Monitoring of dopamine concentration in vivo in behaving animals with FSCV reveals dopamine coding of the brain's decision making process. ==...	{ "page_id": 41163070, "title": "Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry" }
The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope (FGST, also FGRST), formerly called the Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST), is a space observatory being used to perform gamma-ray astronomy observations from low Earth orbit. Its main instrument is the Large Area Telescope (LAT), with which astronomers mostly intend to per...	{ "page_id": 399678, "title": "Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope" }
designed and built the spacecraft that carries the instruments. It travels in a low, circular orbit with a period of about 95 minutes. Its normal mode of operation maintains its orientation so that the instruments will look away from the Earth, with a "rocking" motion to equalize the coverage of the sky. The view of th...	{ "page_id": 399678, "title": "Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope" }
To understand the mechanisms of particle acceleration in active galactic nuclei (AGN), pulsars, and supernova remnants (SNR). Resolve the gamma-ray sky: unidentified sources and diffuse emission. Determine the high-energy behavior of gamma-ray bursts and transients. Probe dark matter (e.g. by looking for an excess of g...	{ "page_id": 399678, "title": "Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope" }
early universe Study better than ever before how concentrations of visible and ultraviolet light change over time. The mission should easily detect regions of spacetime where gamma-rays interacted with visible or UV light to make matter. This can be seen as an example of E=mc2 working in reverse, where energy is conver...	{ "page_id": 399678, "title": "Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope" }
17:40 UTC daily, until 7 August 2008. === Launch === Launch occurred successfully on 11 June 2008 at 16:05 UTC aboard a Delta 7920H-10C rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 17-B. Spacecraft separation took place about 75 minutes after launch. === Orbit === Fermi resides in a low-Earth circu...	{ "page_id": 399678, "title": "Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope" }
antenna, rotate the solar panels out of the way and to fire Fermi's rocket thrusters for one second to move it out of the way. Even though the thrusters had been idle since the telescope had been placed in orbit nearly five years earlier, they worked correctly and potential disaster was thus avoided. === Extended missi...	{ "page_id": 399678, "title": "Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope" }
analysis of extended supernova remnants, and to search for extended sources in the Galactic plane. For almost all event classes, Version P8R2 had a residual background that was not fully isotropic. This anisotropy was traced to cosmic-ray electrons leaking through the ribbons of the Anti-Coincidence Detector and a set ...	{ "page_id": 399678, "title": "Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope" }
jet of material ejected in the blast must have moved at a minimum of 99.9999% the speed of light. Overall, GRB 080916C had "the greatest total energy, the fastest motions, and the highest initial-energy emissions" ever seen. === Galactic Center gamma ray excess === In 2009, a surplus of gamma rays from a spherical regi...	{ "page_id": 399678, "title": "Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope" }
early 2012, Fermi/GLAST observed the highest energy light ever seen in a solar eruption. At the flare's peak, the LAT detected gamma rays with two billion times the energy of visible light, or about four billion electron volts (GeV), easily setting a record for the highest-energy light ever detected during or immediate...	{ "page_id": 399678, "title": "Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope" }
by an independent group, released in June 2016, purported to identify statistical flaws in the initial analysis, concluding that the observation was consistent with a statistical fluctuation or an Earth albedo transient on a 1-second timescale. A rebuttal of this follow-up analysis, however, pointed out that the indepe...	{ "page_id": 399678, "title": "Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope" }
single detector at Hanford LIGO registered a gravitational-wave candidate which was consistent with a binary neutron star merger, occurring 2 seconds before the GRB 170817A event. This observation was "the first joint detection of gravitational and electromagnetic radiation from a single source". == Instruments == === ...	{ "page_id": 399678, "title": "Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope" }
standards, a few arc minutes for the highest-energy photons and about 3 degrees at 100 MeV. It is sensitive from 20 MeV to 300 GeV (from medium up to some very-high-energy gamma rays). The LAT is a bigger and better successor to the EGRET instrument on NASA's Compton Gamma Ray Observatory satellite in the 1990s. Severa...	{ "page_id": 399678, "title": "Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope" }
completely independent discovery of an electromagnetic counterpart to a gravitational wave signal (GW170817) that "confirmed that short gamma-ray bursts are produced by binary neutron star mergers and enabled a global multi-wavelength follow-up campaign." == See also == Galactic Center GeV excess GRB 160625B List of ga...	{ "page_id": 399678, "title": "Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope" }
The molecular formula C6H11NO3 (molar mass: 145.16 g/mol, exact mass: 145.0739 u) may refer to: N-Acetyl-γ-aminobutyric acid Allysine Methyl aminolevulinate (MAL)	{ "page_id": 24320320, "title": "C6H11NO3" }
Galactoglucomannan is a water-soluble hemicellulose, consisting of galactose, glucose and mannose. Many softwood species, e.g. Norway spruce are rich of galactoglucomannans and can contain it up to 10–20%. == Structure == Galactoglucomannan consists of a backbone of randomly distributed (1→4)-linked mannose and glucose...	{ "page_id": 26745153, "title": "Galactoglucomannan" }
The coral of life is a metaphor or a mathematical model useful to illustrate evolution of life or phylogeny at various levels of resolution, including individual organisms, populations, species and large taxonomic groups. Its use in biology resolves several practical and conceptual difficulties that are associated with...	{ "page_id": 60823876, "title": "Coral of life" }
time h, there is an equivalence partition of points into classes C. A class Cg1 is the ancestor of the entire branch above it, Cr1 is the closest common ancestor class of two segments. A segment S is defined by two classes such that there is no branching between them. On top in the middle is visualized a horizontal eve...	{ "page_id": 60823876, "title": "Coral of life" }
as one axis and some other meaningful property, such as taxon richness, as the other (one or two). Regarding their applicability to represent phylogenies, corals and trees compare in the following way: Trees are tools of discrete mathematics, and are therefore inappropriate to demonstrate evolutionary continuum, wherea...	{ "page_id": 60823876, "title": "Coral of life" }
the system of Linnaean ranks works only thanks to our insufficient knowledge of the past life. It is due to the absence of extinct forms and to the consequent wide gaps in the series, that we are enabled to divide the existing species into definable groups, such as genera, families, and tribes Earlier, in the Origin of...	{ "page_id": 60823876, "title": "Coral of life" }
The molecular formula C20H23NO4 may refer to: Efaproxiral, an allosteric effector of hemoglobin Isopavine, an alkaloid 6-Monoacetylcodeine, a codein ester Naltrexone, a medication primarily used to manage alcohol dependence Pavine, an alkaloid found in poppy species Thebacon, a semisynthetic opioid used as an analgesic	{ "page_id": 24320326, "title": "C20H23NO4" }
In genetics, the coefficient of coincidence (c.o.c.) is a measure of interference in the formation of chromosomal crossovers during meiosis. It is generally the case that, if there is a crossover at one spot on a chromosome, this decreases the likelihood of a crossover in a nearby spot. This is called interference. The...	{ "page_id": 26810695, "title": "Coefficient of coincidence" }
recombination between genes A and B. And there are 81 + 23 + 27 + 89 = 220 progeny showing recombination between genes B and C. Thus the expected rate of double recombination is (350 / 1000) * (220 / 1000) = 0.077, or 77 per 1000. However, there are actually only 23 + 27 = 50 double recombinants. The coefficient of coi...	{ "page_id": 26810695, "title": "Coefficient of coincidence" }
The Chemical Institute of Canada is a Canadian professional umbrella organization for researchers and professionals in the field of chemistry. It was founded in 1921 as the Canadian Institute of Chemistry until it merged with other groups in 1945 under its current name. The organization comprises two groups: the Canadi...	{ "page_id": 2627913, "title": "Chemical Institute of Canada" }
Official website Complete list of fellowships	{ "page_id": 2627913, "title": "Chemical Institute of Canada" }
Transmissibility, in the context of structural dynamics, can be defined as the ratio of the maximum force ( f m a x {\displaystyle f_{max}} ) on the floor as a result of the vibration of a machine to the maximum machine force ( P 0 {\displaystyle P_{0}} ): T R = f m a x P 0 = R d 1 + ( 2 ζ β ) 2 {\displaystyle TR={\fra...	{ "page_id": 14227786, "title": "Transmissibility (structural dynamics)" }
== Amazonia bioregion == === Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests === Caquetá moist forests (Brazil, Colombia) Guianan moist forests (Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela) Guianan piedmont and lowland moist forests (Brazil, Venezuela) Gurupa várzea (Brazil) Iquitos várzea (Bolivia, Brazil, Per...	{ "page_id": 13769036, "title": "List of Neotropical ecoregions by bioregion" }
pineyards (The Bahamas, Turks and Caicos Islands) Cuban pine forests (Cuba) Hispaniolan pine forests (Dominican Republic, Haiti) === Flooded grasslands and savannas === Cuban wetlands (Cuba) Enriquillo wetlands (Dominican Republic, Haiti) === Deserts and xeric shrublands === Cayman Islands xeric scrub (Cayman Islands) ...	{ "page_id": 13769036, "title": "List of Neotropical ecoregions by bioregion" }
Mexican wetlands (Mexico) === Montane grasslands and shrublands === Talamancan páramo (Costa Rica, Panama) Zacatonal (Mexico) === Deserts and xeric shrublands === Motagua Valley thornscrub (Guatemala) San Lucan xeric scrub (Mexico) Tehuacán Valley matorral (Mexico) == Central Andes == === Tropical and subtropical moist...	{ "page_id": 13769036, "title": "List of Neotropical ecoregions by bioregion" }
montane forests (Colombia, Venezuela) Eastern Panamanian montane forests (Colombia, Panama) Eastern Cordillera Real montane forests (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru) Magdalena Valley montane forests (Colombia) Magdalena–Urabá moist forests (Colombia) Northwestern Andean montane forests (Colombia, Ecuador) Santa Marta montane f...	{ "page_id": 13769036, "title": "List of Neotropical ecoregions by bioregion" }
=== Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands === Uruguayan savanna (Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay) === Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands === Argentine Espinal (Argentina) Argentine Monte (Argentina) Humid Pampa (Argentina) Patagonian grasslands (Argentina, Chile) Patagonian steppe (Argent...	{ "page_id": 13769036, "title": "List of Neotropical ecoregions by bioregion" }
Manchón mangroves (Mexico) ==== Pacific South America ==== Esmeraldas–Pacific Colombia mangroves (Colombia, Ecuador) Gulf of Guayaquil–Tumbes mangroves (Ecuador, Peru) Gulf of Panama mangroves (Panama) Manabí mangroves (Ecuador) Piura mangroves (Peru) ==== Galápagos Islands ==== Galápagos mangroves (Ecuador) == Referen...	{ "page_id": 13769036, "title": "List of Neotropical ecoregions by bioregion" }
Genetic drift, also known as random genetic drift, allelic drift or the Wright effect, is the change in the frequency of an existing gene variant (allele) in a population due to random chance. Genetic drift may cause gene variants to disappear completely and thereby reduce genetic variation. It can also cause initially...	{ "page_id": 72016, "title": "Genetic drift" }
a new marble with the same colour into a new jar. This is the "offspring" of the original marble, meaning that the original marble remains in its jar. Repeat this process until 20 new marbles are in the second jar. The second jar will now contain 20 "offspring", or marbles of various colours. Unless the second jar cont...	{ "page_id": 72016, "title": "Genetic drift" }
allele A and the other half have allele B. Thus, A and B each has an allele frequency of 1/2. The drop of solution then shrinks until it has only enough food to sustain four bacteria. All other bacteria die without reproducing. Among the four that survive, 16 possible combinations for the A and B alleles exist: (A-A-A-...	{ "page_id": 72016, "title": "Genetic drift" }
latter case, genetic drift has occurred because the population's allele frequencies have changed due to random sampling. In this example, the population contracted to just four random survivors, a phenomenon known as a population bottleneck. The probabilities for the number of copies of allele A (or B) that survive (gi...	{ "page_id": 72016, "title": "Genetic drift" }
( 2 N ) ! k ! ( 2 N − k ) ! p k q 2 N − k {\displaystyle {\frac {(2N)!}{k!(2N-k)!}}p^{k}q^{2N-k}} where the symbol "!" signifies the factorial function. This expression can also be formulated using the binomial coefficient, ( 2 N k ) p k q 2 N − k {\displaystyle {2N \choose k}p^{k}q^{2N-k}} === Moran model === The Mora...	{ "page_id": 72016, "title": "Genetic drift" }
in allele frequencies can also be caused by effects other than sampling error, for example random changes in selection pressure. One important alternative source of stochasticity, perhaps more important than genetic drift, is genetic draft. Genetic draft is the effect on a locus by selection on linked loci. The mathema...	{ "page_id": 72016, "title": "Genetic drift" }
many replicated populations, starting with allele frequencies of p and q, the variance in allele frequency across those populations is V t ≈ p q ( 1 − exp ⁡ ( − t 2 N e ) ) {\displaystyle V_{t}\approx pq\left(1-\exp \left(-{\frac {t}{2N_{e}}}\right)\right)} === Time to fixation or loss === Assuming genetic drift is the...	{ "page_id": 72016, "title": "Genetic drift" }
and p is the initial frequency for the given allele. The result is the number of generations expected to pass before fixation occurs for a given allele in a population with given size (Ne) and allele frequency (p). The expected time for the neutral allele to be lost through genetic drift can be calculated as T ¯ lost =...	{ "page_id": 72016, "title": "Genetic drift" }
if }}mN_{e}\ll 1\\[8pt]{\dfrac {\ln {(mN_{e})}+\gamma }{m}}{\text{ if }}mN_{e}\gg 1\end{cases}}} where γ {\displaystyle \gamma } is Euler's constant. The first approximation represents the waiting time until the first mutant destined for loss, with loss then occurring relatively rapidly by genetic drift, taking time ⁠1...	{ "page_id": 72016, "title": "Genetic drift" }
mechanism of evolutionary change primarily within small, isolated populations. The mathematics of genetic drift depend on the effective population size, but it is not clear how this is related to the actual number of individuals in a population. Genetic linkage to other genes that are under selection can reduce the eff...	{ "page_id": 72016, "title": "Genetic drift" }
interesting example of a bottleneck causing unusual genetic distribution is the relatively high proportion of individuals with total rod cell color blindness (achromatopsia) on Pingelap atoll in Micronesia. After a bottleneck, inbreeding increases. This increases the damage done by recessive deleterious mutations, in a...	{ "page_id": 72016, "title": "Genetic drift" }
success. However, the genetic loss caused by bottleneck and genetic drift can increase fitness, as in Ehrlichia. Over-hunting also caused a severe population bottleneck in the northern elephant seal in the 19th century. Their resulting decline in genetic variation can be deduced by comparing it to that of the southern ...	{ "page_id": 72016, "title": "Genetic drift" }
changes in the colony's gene frequency led most scientists to consider the founder effect (and by extension, genetic drift) a significant driving force in the evolution of new species. Sewall Wright was the first to attach this significance to random drift and small, newly isolated populations with his shifting balance...	{ "page_id": 72016, "title": "Genetic drift" }
sampling error). "Drift" came to be adopted as a technical term in the stochastic sense exclusively. Today it is usually defined still more narrowly, in terms of sampling error, although this narrow definition is not universal. Wright wrote that the "restriction of "random drift" or even "drift" to only one component, ...	{ "page_id": 72016, "title": "Genetic drift" }
But the debates have continued between the "gradualists" and those who lean more toward the Wright model of evolution where selection and drift together play an important role. In 1968, Motoo Kimura rekindled the debate with his neutral theory of molecular evolution, which claims that most of the genetic changes are ca...	{ "page_id": 72016, "title": "Genetic drift" }
Flooded grasslands and savannas is a terrestrial biome of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) biogeographical system, consisting of large expanses or complexes of flooded grasslands. These areas support numerous plants and animals adapted to the unique hydrologic regimes and soil conditions. Large congregations of mig...	{ "page_id": 203089, "title": "Flooded grasslands and savannas" }
The Gough–Joule effect (a.k.a. Gow–Joule effect) is originally the tendency of elastomers to contract when heated if they are under tension. Elastomers that are not under tension do not see this effect. The term is also used more generally to refer to the dependence of the temperature of any solid on the mechanical def...	{ "page_id": 13572433, "title": "Gough–Joule effect" }
can bind if the seal shrinks due to overheating. == References == == External links == O-ring Gland design notes, PSP Inc. A solar power science project using the Gow-Joule effect "Material Ease: Elastomeric Seals 101 - A Brief Tutorial" (PDF). The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 8, Number 2. Archived from the original (PDF)...	{ "page_id": 13572433, "title": "Gough–Joule effect" }
Artificial seawater (abbreviated ASW) is a mixture of dissolved mineral salts (and sometimes vitamins) that simulates seawater. Artificial seawater is primarily used in marine biology and in marine and reef aquaria, and allows the easy preparation of media appropriate for marine organisms (including algae, bacteria, pl...	{ "page_id": 12851541, "title": "Artificial seawater" }
chemical processing. Typically, laboratory-grade water is used for preparing synthetic seawater. == See also == Algaculture Aquarium == References == == External links == Artificial seawater media, Goldman & McCarthy (1978) Modified Artificial Seawater Media (MASM), Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa Synthetic Se...	{ "page_id": 12851541, "title": "Artificial seawater" }
Cryptochromes (from the Greek κρυπτός χρώμα, "hidden colour") are a class of flavoproteins found in plants and animals that are sensitive to blue light. They are involved in the circadian rhythms and the sensing of magnetic fields in a number of species. The name cryptochrome was proposed as a portmanteau combining the...	{ "page_id": 1972565, "title": "Cryptochrome" }
486 show a conserved domain with the FAD binding domain of DNA photolyase. Comparative genomic analysis supports photolyase proteins as the ancestors of cryptochromes. However, by 1995 it became clear that the products of the HY4 gene and its two human homologs did not exhibit photolyase activity and were instead a new...	{ "page_id": 1972565, "title": "Cryptochrome" }
Drosophila) were still functioning effectively. When cryb mutants also had visually unresponsive compound eyes, though, they failed to behaviorally entrain to environmental cues. These findings led researchers to conclude that the cryptochrome protein encoded by cry is necessary for Drosophila photoentrainment. In mamm...	{ "page_id": 1972565, "title": "Cryptochrome" }
and the Arabidopsis (6-4) photolyase protein. Based on the role of cryptochromes in the entrainment of mammalian circadian rhythms, current researchers hypothesize that they developed simultaneously with the coevolution of PER, TIM, CLOCK, and CYCLE proteins, but there is currently insufficient evidence to determine th...	{ "page_id": 1972565, "title": "Cryptochrome" }
Arabidopsis thaliana Early Flowering 3 (elf3) and Cry2 genes delays flowering under continuous light and was shown to accelerate it during long and short days, which suggests that Arabidopsis CRY2 may play a role in accelerating flowering time during continuous light. === Photomorphogenesis === Cryptochromes receptors ...	{ "page_id": 1972565, "title": "Cryptochrome" }
FAD would then be reduced to FADH, which probably mediates the phosphorylation of a certain domain in cryptochrome. This could then trigger a signal transduction chain, possibly affecting gene regulation in the cell nucleus. A new hypothesis proposes that partner molecules sense the transduction of a light signal into ...	{ "page_id": 1972565, "title": "Cryptochrome" }
In contrast, the eyes of most animals use photo-sensitive opsins expressed in photoreceptor cells, which communicate information about light from the environment to the nervous system. However, A. queenslandica lacks a nervous system, like other sponges. And it does not have an opsin gene in its fully sequenced genome ...	{ "page_id": 1972565, "title": "Cryptochrome" }
providing evidence for an ancestral clock mechanism involving both light-sensing and transcriptional-repression roles for cryptochrome. Cry mutants have altered circadian rhythms, showing that Cry affects the circadian pacemaker. Drosophila with mutated Cry exhibit little to no mRNA cycling. A point mutation in cryb, w...	{ "page_id": 1972565, "title": "Cryptochrome" }
however it is not the only input for light information, as a sustained rhythm has been shown in the absence of the CRY pathway, in which it is believed that the rhodopsin pathway is providing some light input. Recently, it has also been shown that there is a CRY-mediated light response that is independent of the classi...	{ "page_id": 1972565, "title": "Cryptochrome" }
Period (PER), CLOCK, and BMAL1. In this loop, CLOCK and BMAL1 proteins are transcriptional activators, which together bind to the promoters of the Cry2 and Per genes and activate their transcription. The CRY2 and PER proteins then bind to each other, enter the nucleus, and inhibit CLOCK-BMAL1-activated transcription. T...	{ "page_id": 1972565, "title": "Cryptochrome" }
and Per2 mRNA levels have almost the same phase, Cry1 mRNA production is delayed by approximately four hours relative to Cry1 promoter activation. This delay is independent of CRY1 or CRY2 levels and is mediated by a combination of E/E'-box and D-box elements in the promoter and RevErbA/ROR binding elements (RREs) in t...	{ "page_id": 1972565, "title": "Cryptochrome" }
were severely different for participants who were wild type in comparison to those with the CRY1Δ11 variant. The participants with the variant had a delayed sleep cycle and delayed metabolic output when compared to the wild type. === Magnetoreception === Magnetoreception is a sense which allows an organism to detect a ...	{ "page_id": 1972565, "title": "Cryptochrome" }
of tryptophans. The absence of spin-selective recombination of these radical pairs on the nanosecond to microsecond timescales seems to be incompatible with the suggestion that magnetoreception by cryptochromes is based on the forward light reaction. == References == == External links == cryptochrome at the U.S. Nation...	{ "page_id": 1972565, "title": "Cryptochrome" }
Phototropins are blue light photoreceptor proteins (more specifically, flavoproteins) that mediate phototropism responses across many species of algae, fungi and higher plants. Phototropins can be found throughout the leaves of a plant. Along with cryptochromes and phytochromes they allow plants to respond and alter th...	{ "page_id": 1972580, "title": "Phototropin" }
evidence to suggest that phototropins undergo autophosphorylation at various sites across the enzyme. Phototropins trigger signaling responses within the cell, but it is unknown which proteins are phosphorylated by phototropins, or exactly how the autophosphorylation events play a role in signaling. Phototropins are ty...	{ "page_id": 1972580, "title": "Phototropin" }
This is a list of dyes with Colour Index International generic names and numbers and CAS Registry numbers. Note Synonyms should be treated with caution because they are often used inconsistently, see discussion page and external link [1] == See also == Glossary of dyeing terms == Sources == BDH laboratory chemicals & b...	{ "page_id": 19667303, "title": "List of dyes" }
In analytical mechanics and quantum field theory, minimal coupling refers to a coupling between fields which involves only the charge distribution and not higher multipole moments of the charge distribution. This minimal coupling is in contrast to, for example, Pauli coupling, which includes the magnetic moment of an e...	{ "page_id": 32708967, "title": "Minimal coupling" }
+ q A i {\displaystyle p_{i}={\frac {\partial {\mathcal {L}}}{\partial {\dot {x}}_{i}}}=m{\dot {x}}_{i}+qA_{i}} Note that canonical momenta are not gauge invariant, and are not physically measurable. However, the kinetic momenta P i ≡ m x ˙ i = p i − q A i {\displaystyle P_{i}\equiv m{\dot {x}}_{i}=p_{i}-qA_{i}} are ga...	{ "page_id": 32708967, "title": "Minimal coupling" }
˙ i \| p i ′ + q ∂ f ∂ x i \| p i ′ ) = − p ˙ i ′ {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\left.{\frac {\partial H'}{\partial {x_{i}}}}\right\|_{p'_{i}}&=\left.{\frac {\partial }{\partial {x_{i}}}}\right\|_{p'_{i}}({\dot {x}}_{i}p'_{i}-L')=-\left.{\frac {\partial L'}{\partial {x_{i}}}}\right\|_{p'_{i}}\\&=-\left.{\frac {\partial L}{...	{ "page_id": 32708967, "title": "Minimal coupling" }
2 c 2 + ( p − q A ) 2 + q φ {\displaystyle {\mathcal {H}}(t)={\dot {\mathbf {x} }}\cdot \mathbf {p} -{\mathcal {L}}=c{\sqrt {m^{2}c^{2}+{\left(\mathbf {p} -q\mathbf {A} \right)}^{2}}}+q\varphi } This results in the force equation (equivalent to the Euler–Lagrange equation) p ˙ = − ∂ H ∂ x = q x ˙ ⋅ ( ∇ A ) − q ∇ φ = q ...	{ "page_id": 32708967, "title": "Minimal coupling" }
( ∇ × A ) . {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}\nabla \left(\mathbf {A} \cdot \mathbf {A} \right)\ =\ \mathbf {A} \cdot \mathbf {J} _{\mathbf {A} }\ =\ \mathbf {A} \cdot (\nabla \mathbf {A} )\ =\ (\mathbf {A} {\cdot }\nabla )\mathbf {A} \,+\,\mathbf {A} {\times }(\nabla {\times }\mathbf {A} ).} An equivalent expression for ...	{ "page_id": 32708967, "title": "Minimal coupling" }
}} , and utilizing the gauge covariant derivative. == References ==	{ "page_id": 32708967, "title": "Minimal coupling" }
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is the emission of characteristic "secondary" (or fluorescent) X-rays from a material that has been excited by being bombarded with high-energy X-rays or gamma rays. The phenomenon is widely used for elemental analysis and chemical analysis, particularly in the investigation of metals, glass, c...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
L→K transition is traditionally called Kα, an M→K transition is called Kβ, an M→L transition is called Lα, and so on. Each of these transitions yields a fluorescent photon with a characteristic energy equal to the difference in energy of the initial and final orbital. The wavelength of this fluorescent radiation can be...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
109Cd, 57Co, 55Fe, 238Pu and 241Am) can be used without the need for an elaborate power supply, allowing for easier use in small, portable instruments. When the energy source is a synchrotron or the X-rays are focused by an optic like a polycapillary, the X-ray beam can be very small and very intense. As a result, atom...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }
carriers measured have to come from the same photon to measure the photon energy correctly (peak length discrimination is used to eliminate events that seem to have been produced by two X-ray photons arriving almost simultaneously). The spectrum is then built up by dividing the energy spectrum into discrete bins and co...	{ "page_id": 72048, "title": "X-ray fluorescence" }

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