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recognition is often used as an input method for hand-held PDAs. The first PDA to provide written input was the Apple Newton, which exposed the public to the advantage of a streamlined user interface. However, the device was not a commercial success, owing to the unreliability of the software, which tried to learn a us...	{ "page_id": 203619, "title": "Handwriting recognition" }
prompts for samples of a user's handwriting and uses them to retrain the system for higher accuracy recognition. This system is distinct from the less advanced handwriting recognition system employed in its Windows Mobile OS for PDAs. Although handwriting recognition is an input form that the public has become accustom...	{ "page_id": 203619, "title": "Handwriting recognition" }
Wolfram Mathematica (8.0 or later) also provides a handwriting or text recognition function TextRecognize. == Research == Handwriting recognition has an active community of academics studying it. The biggest conferences for handwriting recognition are the International Conference on Frontiers in Handwriting Recognition...	{ "page_id": 203619, "title": "Handwriting recognition" }
character recognition Pen computing Sketch recognition Stylus (computing) Tablet PC === Lists === Outline of artificial intelligence List of emerging technologies == References == == External links == Annotated bibliography of references to gesture and pen computing Notes on the History of Pen-based Computing – video o...	{ "page_id": 203619, "title": "Handwriting recognition" }
The molecular formula C21H22O4 (molar mass: 338.39 g/mol, exact mass: 338.1518 u) may refer to: Bergamottin, a natural furanocoumarin Licochalcone A, a polyphenol Taxamairin A	{ "page_id": 23993187, "title": "C21H22O4" }
Potted shrimps is a traditional English dish made with brown shrimp flavored with nutmeg and baked in butter. The butter acts as a preservative, and cayenne pepper may also be used. Regarded as a delicacy, it is traditionally eaten with bread. Potted shrimps was a favourite dish of Ian Fleming, who passed on his predil...	{ "page_id": 5118821, "title": "Potted shrimps" }
In physiology, psychology, or psychophysics, a limen or a liminal point is a sensory threshold of a physiological or psychological response. Such points delineate boundaries of perception; that is, a limen defines a sensory threshold beyond which a particular stimulus becomes perceivable, and below which it remains unp...	{ "page_id": 2562918, "title": "Limen" }
Biomolecular engineering is the application of engineering principles and practices to the purposeful manipulation of molecules of biological origin. Biomolecular engineers integrate knowledge of biological processes with the core knowledge of chemical engineering in order to focus on molecular level solutions to issue...	{ "page_id": 11344743, "title": "Biomolecular engineering" }
the future can help explain biomolecular engineering. Looking at the Moore's law "Prediction", in the future quantum and biology-based processors are "big" technologies. With the use of biomolecular engineering, the way our processors work can be manipulated in order to function in the same sense a biological cell work...	{ "page_id": 11344743, "title": "Biomolecular engineering" }
levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Primary structure refers to the amino acid backbone sequence. Secondary structure focuses on minor conformations that develop as a result of the hydrogen bonding between the amino acid chain. If most of the protein contains intermolecular hydrogen bonds...	{ "page_id": 11344743, "title": "Biomolecular engineering" }
in a 1:2:1 ratio, respectively. Common monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and ribose. When linked together monosaccharides can form disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides: the nomenclature is dependent on the number of monosaccharides linked together. Common dissacharides, two monosaccharides joined, ...	{ "page_id": 11344743, "title": "Biomolecular engineering" }
repeating structural units of nucleic acids. The nucleotides are made of a nitrogenous base, a pentose (ribose for RNA or deoxyribose for DNA), and three phosphate groups. See, Site-directed mutagenesis, recombinant DNA, and ELISAs. === Lipids === Lipids are biomolecules that are made up of glycerol derivatives bonded ...	{ "page_id": 11344743, "title": "Biomolecular engineering" }
DNA fragments, which have also been cut with the same restriction endonuclease, have been inserted into host cell, the restriction endonuclease gene is expressed by applying heat, or by introducing a biomolecule, such as arabinose. Upon expression, the enzyme will cleave the plasmid at its corresponding recognition sit...	{ "page_id": 11344743, "title": "Biomolecular engineering" }
for human use. Other proteins, such as human growth hormone, factor VIII, and hepatitis B vaccine are produced using similar means. Recombinant DNA can also be used for diagnostic methods involving the use of the ELISA method. This makes it possible to engineer antigens, as well as the enzymes attached, to recognize di...	{ "page_id": 11344743, "title": "Biomolecular engineering" }
to the wild type plasmid. After the primer anneals, a DNA polymerase will complete the primer. When the bacterial plasmid is replicated, the mutated strand will be replicated as well. The same technique can be used to create a gene insertion or deletion. Often, an antibiotic resistant gene is inserted along with the mo...	{ "page_id": 11344743, "title": "Biomolecular engineering" }
the cell a factory for producing whatever protein the insertion in the gene codes. === Bio-immobilization and bio-conjugation === Bio-immobilization and bio-conjugation is the purposeful manipulation of a biomolecule's mobility by chemical or physical means to obtain a desired property. Immobilization of biomolecules a...	{ "page_id": 11344743, "title": "Biomolecular engineering" }
EDC/NHS coupling, all of which take advantage of the reactive amines on the biomolecule's surface. Because immobilization restricts the biomolecule, care must be given to ensure that functionality is not entirely lost. Variables to consider are pH, temperature, solvent choice, ionic strength, orientation of active site...	{ "page_id": 11344743, "title": "Biomolecular engineering" }
desired DNA fragment is the creation of the correct DNA primer. The most common method of primer synthesis is by the phosphoramidite method. This method includes the biomolecular engineering of a number of molecules to attain the desired primer sequence. The most prominent biomolecular engineering technique seen in thi...	{ "page_id": 11344743, "title": "Biomolecular engineering" }
molecules in urine to indicate pregnancy, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis antibodies in blood to test patients for tuberculosis. Furthermore, ELISA is also widely used as a toxicology screen to test people's serum for the presence of illegal drugs. ==== Techniques involved in ELISA ==== Although there are three differen...	{ "page_id": 11344743, "title": "Biomolecular engineering" }
engineering is an extensive discipline with applications in many different industries and fields. As such, it is difficult to pinpoint a general perspective on the Biomolecular engineering profession. The biotechnology industry, however, provides an adequate representation. The biotechnology industry, or biotech indust...	{ "page_id": 11344743, "title": "Biomolecular engineering" }
where di= crystallizer impeller diameter Ni= impeller rotation rate === Related industries === ==== Bioengineering ==== A broad term encompassing all engineering applied to the life sciences. This field of study utilizes the principles of biology along with engineering principles to create marketable products. Some bio...	{ "page_id": 11344743, "title": "Biomolecular engineering" }
the electric potential developed between muscles or nerves of the body. This discipline requires knowledge in the fields of electricity and biology to understand and utilize these concepts to improve or better current bioprocesses or technology. Bioelectrochemistry - Chemistry concerned with electron/proton transport t...	{ "page_id": 11344743, "title": "Biomolecular engineering" }
"unit operations," such as extraction, filtration, and distillation. These unit operations are found in all chemical processes. Biomolecular engineering is a subset of Chemical Engineering that applies these same principles to the processing of chemical substances made by living organisms. === Education and programs ==...	{ "page_id": 11344743, "title": "Biomolecular engineering" }
The Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project is a project, somewhat along the lines of AMIP or CMIP, to coordinate and encourage the systematic study of atmospheric general circulation models (AGCMs) and to assess their ability to simulate large climate changes such as those that occurred in the distant past. Pro...	{ "page_id": 1514344, "title": "Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project" }
The molecular formula H2N2O2 (molar mass: 62.03 g/mol) may refer to: Hyponitrite ion Hyponitrous acid Nitramide	{ "page_id": 29825894, "title": "H2N2O2" }
The molecular formula C6H13NO4 (molar mass: 163.17 g/mol, exact mass: 163.0845 u) may refer to: Bicine 1-Deoxynojirimycin, or moranolin Perosamine Migalastat	{ "page_id": 23993191, "title": "C6H13NO4" }
Microwave chemistry is the science of applying microwave radiation to chemical reactions. Microwaves act as high frequency electric fields and will generally heat any material containing mobile electric charges, such as polar molecules in a solvent or conducting ions in a solid. Microwave heating occurs primarily throu...	{ "page_id": 1710956, "title": "Microwave chemistry" }
and energy. It is also able to heat sufficiently thin objects throughout their volume (instead of through its outer surface), in theory producing more uniform heating. However, due to the design of most microwave ovens and to uneven absorption by the object being heated, the microwave field is usually non-uniform and l...	{ "page_id": 1710956, "title": "Microwave chemistry" }
early papers in microwave chemistry postulated the possibility of exciting specific molecules, or functional groups within molecules. However, the time within which thermal energy is repartitioned from such moieties is much shorter than the period of a microwave wave, thus precluding the presence of such 'molecular hot...	{ "page_id": 1710956, "title": "Microwave chemistry" }
100 °C while a chloroform phase would retain a temperature of 50 °C, providing the extraction as well of the reactants from one phase to the other. Microwave chemistry is particularly effective in dry media reactions. == Microwave effect == There are two general classes of microwave effects: Specific microwave effects....	{ "page_id": 1710956, "title": "Microwave chemistry" }
The Protomap is a primordial molecular map of the functional areas of the mammalian cerebral cortex during early embryonic development, at a stage when neural stem cells are still the dominant cell type. The protomap is a feature of the ventricular zone, which contains the principal cortical progenitor cells, known as ...	{ "page_id": 22092654, "title": "Protomap (neuroscience)" }
Protistology is a scientific discipline devoted to the study of protists, a highly diverse group of eukaryotic organisms. All eukaryotes apart from animals, plants and fungi are considered protists. Its field of study therefore overlaps with the more traditional disciplines of phycology, mycology, and protozoology, jus...	{ "page_id": 9247603, "title": "Protistology" }
(renamed Journal of Protistology, 2018-); Protistology, 1999-, Russia. Other less specialized journals, important to protistology before the appearance of the more specialized: Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences, 1666-, France; Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, 1853-1966, UK (renamed Journal of Cell Sc...	{ "page_id": 9247603, "title": "Protistology" }
The surname Smith, as a taxonomic authority, may refer to any of a number of people across a variety of disciplines. Determining which person is intended generally requires looking at initials in addition to the surname, and in some cases to the field and dates for which the authority is cited. Generally Andrew Smith (...	{ "page_id": 31988598, "title": "List of taxonomic authorities named Smith" }
Ralph Elliott Smith (Eliot) (R.E.Sm.) Ronald I. Lewis Smith (R.I.L.Sm.) Selena Y. Smith (S.Y.Sm.), a botanist Stanley Jay Smith (S.J.Sm.) William Gardner Smith (Wm.G.Sm.) Worthington George Smith (W.G.Sm., 1835–1917), an English cartoonist and illustrator, archaeologist, plant pathologist and mycologist == References =...	{ "page_id": 31988598, "title": "List of taxonomic authorities named Smith" }
In organic chemistry, the Knoevenagel condensation (pronounced [ˈknøːvənaːɡl̩]) reaction is a type of chemical reaction named after German chemist Emil Knoevenagel. It is a modification of the aldol condensation. A Knoevenagel condensation is a nucleophilic addition of an active hydrogen compound to a carbonyl group fo...	{ "page_id": 1776503, "title": "Knoevenagel condensation" }
charge transfer complex molecule. The Knoevenagel condensation is a key step in the commercial production of the antimalarial drug lumefantrine (a component of Coartem): The initial reaction product is a 50:50 mixture of E and Z isomers but because both isomers equilibrate rapidly around their common hydroxyl precursor...	{ "page_id": 1776503, "title": "Knoevenagel condensation" }
KOBO (King of the Blue Ocean) is the skeleton of a 66-foot-long (20 m) juvenile blue whale on display at the New Bedford Whaling Museum in New Bedford, Massachusetts. The whale was accidentally struck and killed by a tanker and brought ashore in Rhode Island in March 1998. It was named by New Bedford sixth-grade studen...	{ "page_id": 19864442, "title": "KOBO (whale)" }
been relatively healthy prior to its injuries. Researchers concluded that the whale had been first struck by a propeller, possibly belonging to a different ship, and then was killed when the Botany Triumph collided with it. The exact location and date of its death is uncertain, but it was estimated that the whale was s...	{ "page_id": 19864442, "title": "KOBO (whale)" }
the oil and deposits it in a beaker, where visitors can view it and learn about whale oil. == Naming == In 2000, the New Bedford Whaling Museum held a children's essay contest to name the skeleton. They received about 1,200 entries, and the winner was New Bedford sixth-grader Katie Hallet, who chose the name KOBO, shor...	{ "page_id": 19864442, "title": "KOBO (whale)" }
The International Society for Biosemiotic Studies (ISBS) is an academic society for the researchers in semiotic biology. The Society was established in 2005. Its official journal is Biosemiotics, published by Springer and launched in 2008. The purpose of the ISBS is to constitute an organizational framework for the col...	{ "page_id": 18226044, "title": "International Society for Biosemiotic Studies" }
Professor Mahmoud Behzad (Persian: محمود بهزاد, b. 1913 - d. 2007), born in Rasht, the capital city of Gilan province, is known as the father of modern biology in Iran. He wrote more than 100 books in Persian and participated in the authorship of more than 200 books in Iran. The son of a lapidarist, Behzad completed hi...	{ "page_id": 13114237, "title": "Mahmoud Behzad" }
Retro (or reverse) screening (RS) is a relatively new approach to determine the specificity and selectivity of a therapeutic drug molecule against a target protein or another macromolecule. It proceeds in the opposite direction to the so-called virtual screening (VS). In VS, the goal is to use a protein target to ident...	{ "page_id": 42736510, "title": "Retro screening" }
Biologging is the use of tags attached to animals to record aspects of their behaviour, physiology or environment. == Description == Often this can just be the location of the animal, e.g. GPS animal tracking but typically has a focus on learning about other features besides the animal's location. Many sensor types can...	{ "page_id": 78191488, "title": "Biologging" }
An action potential pulse is a mathematically and experimentally correct Synchronized Oscillating Lipid Pulse coupled with an Action Potential. This is a continuation of Hodgkin Huxley's work in 1952 with the inclusion of accurately modelling ion channel proteins, including their dynamics and speed of activation. The a...	{ "page_id": 53877635, "title": "Action potential pulse" }
must have a further component of which the 'soliton' mechanical pulse is the only candidate. The resulting action potential pulse therefore is a synchronized, coupled pulse with the entropy from depolarization at one channel providing sufficient entropy for a pulse to travel to sequential channels and mechanically open...	{ "page_id": 53877635, "title": "Action potential pulse" }
The Double Helix Medal has been awarded annually since 2006 by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL) to individuals who have positively impacted human health by raising awareness and funds for biomedical research. At the inaugural dinner, Muhammad Ali received the first Double Helix Medal for his fight against Parkinson...	{ "page_id": 30612355, "title": "Double Helix Medal" }
Harold E. Varmus November 9, 2010: Mary-Claire King Evelyn Lauder John F. Nash, Jr. November 10, 2009: Herbert W. Boyer Stanley N. Cohen Kathryn W. Davis Maurice Greenberg November 6, 2008: Sherry Lansing Marilyn and James Simons James D. Watson J. Craig Venter November 8, 2007: David Koch Michael Wigler Richard Axel N...	{ "page_id": 30612355, "title": "Double Helix Medal" }
Medial eye fields are areas in the frontal lobe of the primate brain that play a role in visually guided eye movement. Most neuroscientists refer to this area as the supplementary eye fields. Eye fields are divided into two hemispheres regulated by sonic hedgehog (Shh) and Six3. == See also == Saccade Smooth pursuit Su...	{ "page_id": 4135813, "title": "Medial eye fields" }
The term autopoiesis (from Greek αὐτo- (auto) 'self' and ποίησις (poiesis) 'creation, production'), one of several current theories of life, refers to a system capable of producing and maintaining itself by creating its own parts. The term was introduced in the 1972 publication Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realizatio...	{ "page_id": 269190, "title": "Autopoiesis" }
to our interactions with a concrete autopoietic system, however, we project this system on the space of our manipulations and make a description of this projection.": 89 == Meaning == Autopoiesis was originally presented as a system description that was said to define and explain the nature of living systems. A canonic...	{ "page_id": 269190, "title": "Autopoiesis" }
Operationally it is impossible. That is, if the organization of a thing changes, the thing changes". Moreover, an autopoietic system is autonomous and operationally closed, in the sense that there are sufficient processes within it to maintain the whole. Autopoietic systems are "structurally coupled" with their medium,...	{ "page_id": 269190, "title": "Autopoiesis" }
thus language and print or electronic technology are autopoietic systems.: 200–1 The philosopher Slavoj Žižek, in his discussion of Hegel, argues: "Hegel is – to use today's terms – the ultimate thinker of autopoiesis, of the process of the emergence of necessary features out of chaotic contingency, the thinker of cont...	{ "page_id": 269190, "title": "Autopoiesis" }
attempts to compare the different theories and discuss them together. == Relation to cognition == An extensive discussion of the connection of autopoiesis to cognition is provided by Evan Thompson in his 2007 publication, Mind in Life. The basic notion of autopoiesis as involving constructive interaction with the envir...	{ "page_id": 269190, "title": "Autopoiesis" }
issue as the "explanatory gap", and one aspect of it is the hard problem of consciousness, how and why we have qualia. A second question is whether autopoiesis can provide a bridge between these concepts. Thompson discusses this issue from the standpoint of enactivism. An autopoietic cell actively relates to its enviro...	{ "page_id": 269190, "title": "Autopoiesis" }
reading == == External links == Several papers on autopoietic theory are available through archonic.net Autopoiesis and knowledge in the organization by Aquiles Limone, Luis E. Bastias	{ "page_id": 269190, "title": "Autopoiesis" }
Natural antisense short interfering RNA (natsiRNA) is a type of siRNA. They are endogenous RNA regulators which are between 21 and 24 nucleotides in length, and are generated from complementary mRNA transcripts which are further processed into siRNA. natsiRNA has been implicated in several developmental and response me...	{ "page_id": 32840582, "title": "Natural antisense short interfering RNA" }
A chemical formula is a way of presenting information about the chemical proportions of atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound or molecule, using chemical element symbols, numbers, and sometimes also other symbols, such as parentheses, dashes, brackets, commas and plus (+) and minus (−) signs. These are l...	{ "page_id": 7043, "title": "Chemical formula" }
atoms that have bonds to four or more different substituents. Since a chemical formula must be expressed as a single line of chemical element symbols, it often cannot be as informative as a true structural formula, which is a graphical representation of the spatial relationship between atoms in chemical compounds (see ...	{ "page_id": 7043, "title": "Chemical formula" }
empirical formula of ethanol may be written C2H6O because the molecules of ethanol all contain two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom. Some types of ionic compounds, however, cannot be written with entirely whole-number empirical formulae. An example is boron carbide, whose formula of CBn is a variab...	{ "page_id": 7043, "title": "Chemical formula" }
ClO3, and molecular formula Cl2O6, but in liquid or solid forms, this compound is more correctly shown by an ionic condensed formula [ClO2]+[ClO4]−, which illustrates that this compound consists of [ClO2]+ ions and [ClO4]− ions. In such cases, the condensed formula only need be complex enough to show at least one of ea...	{ "page_id": 7043, "title": "Chemical formula" }
same empirical formula, CH2O. This is also the molecular formula for formaldehyde, but acetic acid has double the number of atoms. Like the other formula types detailed below, an empirical formula shows the number of elements in a molecule, and determines whether it is a binary compound, ternary compound, quaternary co...	{ "page_id": 7043, "title": "Chemical formula" }
it illustrates which atoms are bonded to which other ones. From the connectivity, it is often possible to deduce the approximate shape of the molecule. A condensed (or semi-structural) formula may represent the types and spatial arrangement of bonds in a simple chemical substance, though it does not necessarily specify...	{ "page_id": 7043, "title": "Chemical formula" }
Chemical names in answer to limitations of chemical formulae === The alkene called but-2-ene has two isomers, which the chemical formula CH3CH=CHCH3 does not identify. The relative position of the two methyl groups must be indicated by additional notation denoting whether the methyl groups are on the same side of the d...	{ "page_id": 7043, "title": "Chemical formula" }
often used to enclose the ionic formula, as in [B12H12]2−, which is found in compounds such as caesium dodecaborate, Cs2[B12H12]. Parentheses ( ) can be nested inside brackets to indicate a repeating unit, as in Hexamminecobalt(III) chloride, [Co(NH3)6]3+Cl−3. Here, (NH3)6 indicates that the ion contains six ammine gro...	{ "page_id": 7043, "title": "Chemical formula" }
an atom (M) would simply be represented as MC60 regardless of whether M was inside the fullerene without chemical bonding or outside, bound to one of the carbon atoms. Using the @ symbol, this would be denoted M@C60 if M was inside the carbon network. A non-fullerene example is [As@Ni12As20]3−, an ion in which one arse...	{ "page_id": 7043, "title": "Chemical formula" }
such that the number of carbon atoms in a molecule is indicated first, the number of hydrogen atoms next, and then the number of all other chemical elements subsequently, in alphabetical order of the chemical symbols. When the formula contains no carbon, all the elements, including hydrogen, are listed alphabetically. ...	{ "page_id": 7043, "title": "Chemical formula" }
library calculating Hill notation is available on npm.	{ "page_id": 7043, "title": "Chemical formula" }
The molecular formula C11H12O3 (molar mass: 192.21 g/mol) may refer to: Carpacin 4-(4-Methylphenyl)-4-oxobutanoic acid Myristicin Ocean propanal Quercinol	{ "page_id": 23993221, "title": "C11H12O3" }
Christoph Carl Herbert "Chris" Adami (born August 30, 1962) is a German-American professor of microbiology and molecular genetics, as well as professor of physics and astronomy, at Michigan State University. He is a core faculty member of the Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior (EEB) Program there. == Education == Adami w...	{ "page_id": 5970823, "title": "Chris Adami" }
R. E.; Ofria, C.; Pennock, R. T.; Adami, C. (2003). "The evolutionary origin of complex features" (PDF). Nature. 423 (6936): 139–144. Bibcode:2003Natur.423..139L. doi:10.1038/nature01568. PMID 12736677. S2CID 4401833. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-01-21. Retrieved 2013-08-20. Adami, Christoph (2024-01-16). T...	{ "page_id": 5970823, "title": "Chris Adami" }
In astrophysics and cosmology scalar field dark matter is a classical, minimally coupled, scalar field postulated to account for the inferred dark matter. == Background == The universe may be accelerating, fueled perhaps by a cosmological constant or some other field possessing long range 'repulsive' effects. A model m...	{ "page_id": 30874505, "title": "Scalar field dark matter" }
the de-Broglie wavelength: λ = 2 π / m v {\displaystyle \lambda =2\pi /mv} , here m is the mass of the dark matter particle and v is the dispersion velocity of the halo. The average number of the particles in cubic volume having the dimension equal to the de Broglie wavelength, λ 3 {\displaystyle \lambda ^{3}} is given...	{ "page_id": 30874505, "title": "Scalar field dark matter" }
dark matter. Fuzzy dark matter and ultra-light axion are examples of scalar field dark matter. == See also == Weakly interacting massive particles – Hypothetical particles that may constitute dark matterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model – Simplest supersymmetr...	{ "page_id": 30874505, "title": "Scalar field dark matter" }
Subtractive hybridization is a technology that allows for PCR-based amplification of only cDNA fragments that differ between a control (driver) and experimental transcriptome. cDNA is produced from mRNA. Differences in relative abundance of transcripts are highlighted, as are genetic differences between species. The te...	{ "page_id": 9509772, "title": "Suppression subtractive hybridization" }
Benzyl acetate is an organic ester with the molecular formula CH3C(O)OCH2C6H5. It is formed by the condensation of benzyl alcohol and acetic acid. Similar to most other esters, it possesses a sweet and pleasant aroma, owing to which, it finds applications in personal hygiene and health care products. It is a constituen...	{ "page_id": 3218316, "title": "Benzyl acetate" }
In machine learning, a common task is the study and construction of algorithms that can learn from and make predictions on data. Such algorithms function by making data-driven predictions or decisions, through building a mathematical model from input data. These input data used to build the model are usually divided in...	{ "page_id": 1514392, "title": "Training, validation, and test data sets" }
be used for regularization by early stopping (stopping training when the error on the validation data set increases, as this is a sign of over-fitting to the training data set). This simple procedure is complicated in practice by the fact that the validation data set's error may fluctuate during training, producing mul...	{ "page_id": 1514392, "title": "Training, validation, and test data sets" }
as over-fitting, the examples in the validation and test data sets should not be used to train the model. Most approaches that search through training data for empirical relationships tend to overfit the data, meaning that they can identify and exploit apparent relationships in the training data that do not hold in gen...	{ "page_id": 1514392, "title": "Training, validation, and test data sets" }
the network having the best performance on new data, the simplest approach to the comparison of different networks is to evaluate the error function using data which is independent of that used for training. Various networks are trained by minimization of an appropriate error function defined with respect to a training...	{ "page_id": 1514392, "title": "Training, validation, and test data sets" }
In a scenario where both validation and test data sets are used, the test data set is typically used to assess the final model that is selected during the validation process. In the case where the original data set is partitioned into two subsets (training and test data sets), the test data set might assess the model o...	{ "page_id": 1514392, "title": "Training, validation, and test data sets" }
all valuable data for training, a data set can be repeatedly split into several training and a validation data sets. This is known as cross-validation. To confirm the model's performance, an additional test data set held out from cross-validation is normally used. It is possible to use cross-validation on training and ...	{ "page_id": 1514392, "title": "Training, validation, and test data sets" }
In chemistry, nuclear physics, and particle physics, inelastic scattering is a process in which the internal states of a particle or a system of particles change after a collision. Often, this means the kinetic energy of the incident particle is not conserved (in contrast to elastic scattering). Additionally, relativis...	{ "page_id": 1252256, "title": "Inelastic scattering" }
be observed when internal energy of the matter is transferred to the photon; this process is called anti-Stokes Raman scattering. Inelastic scattering is seen in the interaction between an electron and a photon. When a high-energy photon collides with a free electron (more precisely, weakly bound since a free electron ...	{ "page_id": 1252256, "title": "Inelastic scattering" }
== See also == Inelastic collision Elastic scattering Scattering theory == References ==	{ "page_id": 1252256, "title": "Inelastic scattering" }
The Journal of High Energy Physics is a monthly peer-reviewed open access scientific journal covering the field of high energy physics. It is published by Springer Science+Business Media on behalf of the International School for Advanced Studies. The journal is part of the SCOAP3 initiative. According to the Journal Ci...	{ "page_id": 7216032, "title": "Journal of High Energy Physics" }
A dispersal vector is an agent of biological dispersal that moves a dispersal unit, or organism, away from its birth population to another location or population in which the individual will reproduce. These dispersal units can range from pollen to seeds to fungi to entire organisms. There are two types of dispersal ve...	{ "page_id": 23665572, "title": "Dispersal vector" }
trichomes; or being pushed or twisted into the ground by hygromorphic awns in response to humidity changes, e.g. Erodium cicutarium. In some cases, ballochory can be more effective when combined with a secondary dispersal vector: ejecting the seeds or spores in order for them to use wind or water for longer distance di...	{ "page_id": 23665572, "title": "Dispersal vector" }
gut makes them more able to germinate when they are ingested by birds and mammals. Finally, the ingestion of herbivores by carnivores may help disperse seeds as they prey on primary seed dispersers such as herbivores or omnivores. When a bird is eaten by a cat or another carnivore, that animal will inadvertently consum...	{ "page_id": 23665572, "title": "Dispersal vector" }
night, and developing flowers that can handle rough feeders. The pollen of some plants can be stuck to the fur of mammals and accidentally ingested when nectar is consumed. Mammals contribute to bryophyte and fern spore dispersal by carrying spores on their fur. Small mammals acting as dispersal vectors may have advant...	{ "page_id": 23665572, "title": "Dispersal vector" }
distance dispersal that helps to spread species to new habitats. Each species has its own "wind dispersal potential". This is the proportion of dispersal units (seeds, spores or pollen) that travel farther than a specific distance travelled under normal weather conditions. Its effectiveness relies on the wind condition...	{ "page_id": 23665572, "title": "Dispersal vector" }
Trifolium fragiferum, or strawberry clover. === Human effects on anemochory === Wind dispersal of a particular species can also be affected by human actions. Humans can affect anemochory in three major ways: habitat fragmentation, chemical runoff, and climate change. Clearing land for development and building roads thr...	{ "page_id": 23665572, "title": "Dispersal vector" }
one. === Marine dispersal === A majority of marine organisms reproduce using ocean currents and movement within the water column. The process of releasing potential offspring into the water is called broadcast spawning. While it requires parents to be relatively close to each other for fertilization, the fertilized zyg...	{ "page_id": 23665572, "title": "Dispersal vector" }
seeds, fruits, and leaves. Abiotic rafts are usually floating woods or plastics, including buoys and discarded trash. Sea ice is also an important dispersal vector. Some arctic species rely on sea ice to disperse their eggs, like Daphnia pulex. Drifting, as discussed above, can help marine mammals move efficiently. It ...	{ "page_id": 23665572, "title": "Dispersal vector" }
functioning as a vector. The heavy and intense rain that comes with these events facilitate long distance dispersal. Overflows are side effects of heavy rains impacting one specific area. They have been proven to be effective in increasing biodiversity in temporary lakes and ponds. The overflow of pool water can be an ...	{ "page_id": 23665572, "title": "Dispersal vector" }
pipe due to a newly constructed canal. Such waterways not only connect communities that are geographically close, but they also transmit invasive species from distant communities. The distribution of invasive species is, in part, regulated by local ocean conditions and currents. The introduction of human-generated wast...	{ "page_id": 23665572, "title": "Dispersal vector" }
The molecular formula C14H18O4 (molar mass: 250.29 g/mol) may refer to : Cinoxate, an ingredient in some types of sunscreens Trolox, water-soluble derivative of vitamin E Gregatin B, a fungal metabolite	{ "page_id": 23993254, "title": "C14H18O4" }
Self-supervised learning (SSL) is a paradigm in machine learning where a model is trained on a task using the data itself to generate supervisory signals, rather than relying on externally-provided labels. In the context of neural networks, self-supervised learning aims to leverage inherent structures or relationships ...	{ "page_id": 67902375, "title": "Self-supervised learning" }
an encoder network that maps the input data to a lower-dimensional representation (latent space), and a decoder network that reconstructs the input from this representation. The training process involves presenting the model with input data and requiring it to reconstruct the same data as closely as possible. The loss ...	{ "page_id": 67902375, "title": "Self-supervised learning" }
samples from the 'proposal' distribution p ( x t + k ) {\displaystyle p\left(x_{t+k}\right)} , it minimizes the following loss function: L N = − E X [ log ⁡ f k ( x t + k , c t ) ∑ x j ∈ X f k ( x j , c t ) ] {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {N} }=-\mathbb {E} _{X}\left[\log {\frac {f_{k}\left(x_{t+k},c_{t}\right...	{ "page_id": 67902375, "title": "Self-supervised learning" }

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