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dendritic Irregularly branched, like a tree. dentate Having a toothlike or serrated edge. denticulate Having small tooth-like projections or serrations along the edge. dextrinoid A chemical property referring to a substance's ability to turn reddish-brown in the presence of Melzer's reagent or iodine due to the presenc...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
thin upper stromatal layer. The term was introduced by Richard P. Korf in 1962. disk Also: disc. The curved or flat upper surface of the hymenium in an apothecium, often pigmented and surrounded by a margin or rim. distal Positioned away from a point of origin or from the center of a body. distoseptum Plural distosepta...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
thallus of a lichen without producing any visible symptoms of disease; these fungi are transmitted horizontally. endolith Also endolithic. A crustose lichen that grows in the interior of rocks (under and around the rock crystals), typically with little or no visible thallus on the outer rock surface. Contrast: epilithi...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
epruinose Lacking pruina. erumpent Also perrumpent. Breaking through a surface. A more precise definition has been suggested by Aptroot and Lücking, who propose that the term applies to ascomata and pseudostromata that are more than 1/2 to 3/4 above the level of the thallus. esorediate Also esorediose. Lacking soredia....	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
Having a ribbon-like or band-like structure, such as the thallus of some fruticose lichens. fascicle A bundle or cluster; can be used to refer to asci, conidiophores, hyphae, etc. fasciculate Arranged in bundles or clusters. fastigiate cortex A region of the cortex where the hyphae are aligned perpendicularly to the ma...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
brasilianum and various Chapsa species. fistular Also fistulose. Tubular and hollow. flabellate Also flabelliform. Fan-shaped. flexuous Also flexuose. Bending or curving in alternate directions, like a zigzag. floccose Having the texture of loose cotton or wool. foliicolous lichen Also epiphyllous lichen. A lichen that...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
Typically present in all asci, the fuzzy coat usually forms a thin layer along the ascus sides but may also appear as an apically thickened cap. == G == gelatinous lichen A rubbery or jelly-like lichen with a cyanobacterial photobiont. See related: homoiomerous. geniculate Having a knee-like bend; applied to parts of h...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
special organ called a goniocystangium. The term goniocyst was introduced by Johannes M. Norman in 1872. goniocystangium Plural goniocystangia. A special organ, found in some tropical foliicolous lichens, that produces goniocysts. granular Also granulate, granulose. Made of small particles (granules). granule An irregu...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
include paraphyses, paraphysoids, pseudoparaphyses, periphysoids, and periphyses. hapteron Also hapter, plural haptera. An aerial attachment organ, made of highly adhesive hyphae, that helps secure a thallus to its substrate in some fruticose lichens, such as Cladonia, Ramalina, and Usnea. hemiamyloid See dextrinoid. h...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
produced. hypha Plural hyphae. A microscopic fungus filament comprising one or more cells surrounded by a tubular cell wall. hyphophore An erect, stalked, peltate, asexual spore-producing organ (sporophore) associated with tropical foliicolous lichens. Hypnorum-blue A dark blue to black insoluble lichen pigment, associ...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
precise definition has been suggested by Aptroot and Lücking, who propose that the term applies to ascomata and pseudostromata that are more than 3/4 beneath the level of the thallus. incertae sedis A term used for a taxon of uncertain, doubtful, or unknown classification. incised Having deep, sharp notches or cuts alo...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
used to describe cells that are not elongated or flattened but maintain a uniform size across their width, height, and depth. isotomic Having branches of equal length. isthmus Plural isthmuses or isthmi. The narrow middle portion between the two locules of a polarilocular spore. == J == juga Plural jugae. A tiny carbon...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
insoluble lichen pigment, associated with the reference species Bacidia laurocerasi. lax Loose, loosely woven, not compact; like the hyphae in the medulla. lecanorine Also lecanoroid. An apothecium in which the disk is surrounded by a pale thalline margin, which has both algal and fungal cells, as in the genus Lecanora...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
apothecia with small pores, and a rough thallus containing crystals; this morphotype occurs in the genus Leptotrema. leucodectonoid A morphotype of corticolous thelotremoid lichens used to describe characteristics of apothecial and thallus morphology. Leucodectonoid lichens have closed apothecia with tiny pores, and a ...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
into lobes, such as the thallus of Lobaria scrobiculata. lobe A rounded or elongated projection of a thallus edge; in technical descriptions, it is measured from its widest point. lobule A small lobe originating from the edge or surface of a foliose lichen, typically the same color and character as the thallus. lobulat...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
minimized thallus margin. The distinctive feature of melanotopelioid apothecia is the presence of "teeth" that are black and carbonized, at least on the external surface. melanotremoid A morphotype of corticolous thelotremoid lichens used to describe characteristics of apothecial and thallus morphology. Melanotremoid l...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
The fungal part of a lichen, which combines with one or more phycobionts. The term was proposed by George Scott in 1957. mycophycobiosis Also defined: mycophycobiont. A symbiosis where an ascomycete fungus is housed inside multicellular algae; the algae and fungus involved in this association are called mycophycobionts...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
term was introduced by George Llano in 1950. orcularioid A brown, polarilocular spore, characteristic of Rinodina section Orcularia. ornithocoprophilic Used to describe lichens that grow or proliferate in environments rich in bird excrement. ostiole A small pore or opening; in lichens, it is used to refer to the paraph...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
and Helmut Mayrhofer in 1988. paraphysis A sterile, thread-like filament that that is attached at its base and grows vertically among the asci within a lichen's fruiting body (ascomata). These structures typically have slightly swollen tips and may be branched or unbranched, often containing pigments that contribute to...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
pedicellate Having a pedicel. peltate Also clypeate, scutiform. Referring to a rounded structure attached on the lower side at a single central point (often on a short stalk), with free edges. peltidiangium A basket-like structure in which peltidia are produced. peltidium A reproductive propagule found in the foliicolo...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
Wahlenbergiella tavaresiae and the brown alga Petroderma maculiforme. phenocortex Plural phenocortices, phenocortexes. A structure, similar to a cortex, containing hyphal fragments and dead, collapsed algal cells sloughed off from the algal layer. photobiont Also defined: phycobiont, cyanobiont. The photosynthetic comp...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
peltate, foliose, squamulose, and verrucose. The term was introduced by Theodor Fries in 1858. phyllopsoroid A lichen growth form characterized by mostly squamulose thalli with areoles or squamules often overgrowing a thick prothallus; this morphology occurs in the largely tropical genera Bacidiopsora, Eschatogonia, Ph...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
polarilocular Also placodiomorphic, polar-diblastic, polaridiblastic, polaribilocular, polocellate. A spore divided into two components (locules) separated by a central septum with a perforation or isthmus. The term was first used by Wilhelm Körber in 1855 (as "polari-dyblastae") to describe the spores of Rhizocarpon a...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
not lichenized, and is internal to the thalline margin (if present). The term "proper margin" was first used by Erik Acharius in 1803; in 1825 Elias Fries changed the noun and called it "proper exciple". proprium See proper exciple. prosenchyma Plural prosenchymata. A type of plectenchyma in which the constituent funga...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
Plural pseudocyphellae. Small openings in the cortex of a lichen, where the medulla is exposed to air, and there are no specialized cells surrounding the cavity. The term was first used by William Nylander in 1858. pseudoisidium Plural pseudoisidia. An outgrowth on the surface of a lichen thallus that somewhat resemble...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
pycnoascocarp A type of apothecium that originates from a pycnidium; characteristic of the family Lichinaceae. The term was first used by Aino Henssen in 1963. pyrenocarpous lichen A lichen with flask-shaped fruiting bodies (perithecia) that develop from the fungal partner. Originally thought to form a natural group, m...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
reticulate Marked like a net or network. rhizine Also rhizina, plural rhizinae. A root-like structure that serves as an attachment structure in many foliose lichens. rhizinomorph A root-like structure similar to a rhizine that is not involved as an attachment organ; associated with umbilicate lichens. rhizinose strand ...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
scabrous Also scabrose, scabrid, scabridous. With a crusty, rough surface often resulting from the accumulation of dead cortical material. schizidium Plural schizidia. A scale-like propagule originating from the upper layers of a lichen thallus. The term was proposed by Josef Poelt in 1965. schizobiont A bacterium that...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
hair or bristle-like structure, typically thick-walled and sharp-pointed, found on some lichens. sibling species Closely related species that are morphologically indistinguishable but can be distinguished by non-morphological traits, such as chemistry or genetic differences. Initially defined as species recognized main...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
soredium Plural soredia. A powdery to granular reproductive propagule that is not covered with a well-defined cortex (in contrast to isidia, and contains both algal (photobiont) and fungal (mycobiont) components. The term was first used by Erik Acharius in 1803. spathulate Spoon-shaped. species pair Two lichen species ...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
drop of a reagent on different parts of the lichen and noting any color change associated with application of the reagent. The four most common tests are C, K, KC, and PD. squamule A small, flattened, scale-like structure that forms part of the thallus of certain lichens. squamulose lichen A lichen with a thallus made ...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
are often used equivalently in lichenology, the latter term has different meanings in microbiology and in enzymology. subulate Slender and narrowing to a fine point; awl-shaped. sulcate With grooves or furrows. Superba-brown An orange-brown to ochre insoluble lichen pigment, associated with the reference species Porpid...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
Lichinaceae); they form from indistinct swellings of the thallus, with a hymenium covered by groups of algal cells. thalloconidium Plural thalloconidia. A dark brown, smooth to wrinkled propagule arising directly from a thallus, particularly the lower cortex and/or the rhizines. They are found in some species of Umbili...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
bitunicate ascus. tomentum Plural tomenta. Also defined: tomentose. A layer of short interwoven or coiled fungal hyphae with a texture similar to velvet. In lichens, the tomentum projects from the lower cortex and serves to help it attach to its substrate. Structures with this type of hyphae are called tomentose. Tomen...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
umbilicus, umbilical cord or funiculus. unciform Hook-shaped. undulate Having a wavy form, margin, or surface. uni- A prefix meaning "one"; equivalent to the prefix "mono-". uniguttulate Containing a single oil droplet (guttule). unilocular Containing a single cavity or locule. uniseriate Lined up in a single row. unit...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
reproduction; in lichens, this can involve just the mycobiont (as with thalloconidia), or both the mycobiont and photobiont, as with blastidia, isidia, and soredia. vein A cord of tissue on the underside of a foliose thallus, common in the genus Peltigera. vermiform Worm-like in shape or form, typically describing elon...	{ "page_id": 71377690, "title": "Glossary of lichen terms" }
An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem found in and around a body of water, in contrast to land-based terrestrial ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems contain communities of organisms—aquatic life—that are dependent on each other and on their environment. The two main types of aquatic ecosystems are marine ecosystems and fresh...	{ "page_id": 1975073, "title": "Aquatic ecosystem" }
the vegetation leaving large mud flats. Aquatic environments have relatively low oxygen levels, forcing adaptation by the organisms found there. For example, many wetland plants must produce aerenchyma to carry oxygen to roots. Other biotic characteristics are more subtle and difficult to measure, such as the relative ...	{ "page_id": 1975073, "title": "Aquatic ecosystem" }
substrate type, water depth, nutrient levels, temperature, salinity, and flow. It is often difficult to determine the relative importance of these factors without rather large experiments. There may be complicated feedback loops. For example, sediment may determine the presence of aquatic plants, but aquatic plants may...	{ "page_id": 1975073, "title": "Aquatic ecosystem" }
lead to saltwater intrusion in coastal wetlands. Freshwater used for irrigation purposes often absorbs levels of salt that are harmful to freshwater organisms. == Threats == The health of an aquatic ecosystem is degraded when the ecosystem's ability to absorb a stress has been exceeded. A stress on an aquatic ecosystem...	{ "page_id": 1975073, "title": "Aquatic ecosystem" }
amount of water on a planet Limnology – Science of inland aquatic ecosystems Ocean Stephen Alfred Forbes – American naturalist - one of the founders of aquatic ecosystem science Stream metabolism == References ==	{ "page_id": 1975073, "title": "Aquatic ecosystem" }
Bisulfite sequencing (also known as bisulphite sequencing) is the use of bisulfite treatment of DNA before routine sequencing to determine the pattern of methylation. DNA methylation was the first discovered epigenetic mark, and remains the most studied. In animals it predominantly involves the addition of a methyl gro...	{ "page_id": 9773858, "title": "Bisulfite sequencing" }
3). Microarray-based methods use PCR based on non-methylation-specific conditions also. === Non-methylation-specific PCR based methods === ==== Direct sequencing ==== The first reported method of methylation analysis using bisulfite-treated DNA utilized PCR and standard dideoxynucleotide DNA sequencing to directly dete...	{ "page_id": 9773858, "title": "Bisulfite sequencing" }
al., uses allele-specific primers that incorporate single-nucleotide polymorphisms into the sequence of the sequencing primer, thus allowing for separate analysis of maternal and paternal alleles. This technique is of particular usefulness for genomic imprinting analysis. ==== Methylation-sensitive single-strand confor...	{ "page_id": 9773858, "title": "Bisulfite sequencing" }
to the base pair immediately before the CpG of interest. The primer is allowed to extend one base pair into the C (or T) using DNA polymerase terminating dideoxynucleotides, and the ratio of C to T is determined quantitatively. A number of methods can be used to determine this C:T ratio. At the beginning, MS-SnuPE reli...	{ "page_id": 9773858, "title": "Bisulfite sequencing" }
determining the extent of methylation of the region as a whole. This method demonstrated efficacy for high-throughput screening, allowing for interrogation of numerous CpG sites in multiple tissues in a cost-efficient manner. === Methylation-specific PCR (MSP) === This alternative method of methylation analysis also us...	{ "page_id": 9773858, "title": "Bisulfite sequencing" }
and determines the quantitative ratio of the two products by comparing the differential peaks generated in a melting curve analysis. A high-resolution melting analysis method that uses both quantitative PCR and melting analysis has been introduced, in particular, for sensitive detection of low-level methylation === Mic...	{ "page_id": 9773858, "title": "Bisulfite sequencing" }
a single-stranded conformation and allow for complete conversion. Embedding the DNA in agarose gel has been reported to improve the rate of conversion by keeping strands of DNA physically separate. Incomplete conversion rates can be estimated and adjusted-for after sequencing by including an internal control in the seq...	{ "page_id": 9773858, "title": "Bisulfite sequencing" }
potentially significant problem following bisulfite treatment is incomplete desulfonation of pyrimidine residues due to inadequate alkalization of the solution. This may inhibit some DNA polymerases, rendering subsequent PCR difficult. However, this situation can be avoided by monitoring the pH of the solution to ensur...	{ "page_id": 9773858, "title": "Bisulfite sequencing" }
well characterized in many cancers. Global hypomethylation results in decreased genomic stability, while local hypermethylation of tumour suppressor gene promoters often accounts for their loss of function. Specific patterns of methylation are indicative of specific cancer types, have prognostic value, and can help to ...	{ "page_id": 9773858, "title": "Bisulfite sequencing" }
this, 5hmC bases are first "protected" by conversion to β-glucosyl-5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5gmC). The Tet enzyme is introduced to convert all 5mC to 5caC. Bisulfite then converts both C and 5caC into uracil. 5gmC will be read out like C in PCR amplification. == See also == Reduced representation bisulfite sequencing =...	{ "page_id": 9773858, "title": "Bisulfite sequencing" }
In evolutionary computation, Minimum Population Search (MPS) is a computational method that optimizes a problem by iteratively trying to improve a set of candidate solutions with regard to a given measure of quality. It solves a problem by evolving a small population of candidate solutions by means of relatively simple...	{ "page_id": 54928163, "title": "Minimum Population Search" }
{\displaystyle d-1} dimensional hyperplane. Taking a step orthogonal to this hyperplane will allow the search process to cover all the dimensions of the search space. Population size is a fundamental parameter in the performance of population-based heuristics. Larger populations promote exploration, but they also allow...	{ "page_id": 54928163, "title": "Minimum Population Search" }
this ideal case. In MPS Thresheld Convergence is specifically used to preserve diversity and avoid premature convergence by establishing a minimum search step. By disallowing new solutions which are too close to members of the current population, TC forces a strong exploration during the early stages of the search whil...	{ "page_id": 54928163, "title": "Minimum Population Search" }
x c {\displaystyle x_{c}} ) For each member of the population ( x i {\displaystyle x_{i}} ), generate a new offspring as follows: Uniformly generate a scaling factor ( F i {\displaystyle F_{i}} ) between − m a x _ s t e p {\displaystyle -max\_step} and m a x _ s t e p {\displaystyle max\_step} Generate a vector ( x o {...	{ "page_id": 54928163, "title": "Minimum Population Search" }
Antimony fluoride may refer to either of the following: Antimony trifluoride, SbF3 Antimony pentafluoride, SbF5	{ "page_id": 27599650, "title": "Antimony fluoride" }
The Kozeny–Carman equation (or Carman–Kozeny equation or Kozeny equation) is a relation used in the field of fluid dynamics to calculate the pressure drop of a fluid flowing through a packed bed of solids. It is named after Josef Kozeny and Philip C. Carman. The equation is only valid for creeping flow, i.e. in the slo...	{ "page_id": 14230307, "title": "Kozeny–Carman equation" }
particle Reynolds numbers up to approximately 1.0, after which point frequent shifting of flow channels in the bed causes considerable kinetic energy losses. This equation is a particular case of Darcy's law, with a very specific permeability. Darcy's law states that "flow is proportional to the pressure gradient and i...	{ "page_id": 14230307, "title": "Kozeny–Carman equation" }
Adnan Al Abdallat (1943 – 9 March 2021) was a Jordanian neurologist. He participated in the discovery of Abdallat Davis Farrage syndrome in 1980. Dr. Adnan Al Abdallat served in King Hussein Medical Center, a military hospital in Amman, Jordan. Abdallat held the position of head of the Neurologist Department in the hos...	{ "page_id": 34415398, "title": "Adnan Abdallat" }
Wolfgang Rindler (18 May 1924 – 8 February 2019) was an Austrian physicist working in the field of general relativity where he is known for introducing the term "event horizon", Rindler coordinates, and (in collaboration with Roger Penrose) for the use of spinors in general relativity. An honorary member of the Austria...	{ "page_id": 5186343, "title": "Wolfgang Rindler" }
The undergraduate textbook was lauded as a "refreshingly modern approach to the critical problem of teaching relativity theory." Another reviewer said it is "simply the best introduction" and is "filled with fabulous insights." When the second edition appeared in 1977 a reviewer noted its treatment "reminiscent of Mach...	{ "page_id": 5186343, "title": "Wolfgang Rindler" }
published several articles in The American Journal of Physics (AJP): Rindler, W.; Sciama, D. W. (1961). "Radiation Pressure on a Rapidly Moving Surface". American Journal of Physics. 29 (9). American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT): 643. Bibcode:1961AmJPh..29..643R. doi:10.1119/1.1937874. ISSN 0002-9505. Penrose...	{ "page_id": 5186343, "title": "Wolfgang Rindler" }
force on a magnetic monopole". American Journal of Physics. 57 (11). American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT): 993–994. Bibcode:1989AmJPh..57..993R. doi:10.1119/1.15782. ISSN 0002-9505. Rindler, Wolfgang (1994). "General relativity before special relativity: An unconventional overview of relativity theory". Amer...	{ "page_id": 5186343, "title": "Wolfgang Rindler" }
Listing of the diverse vegetation types of South Africa that have been sampled, classified, described, and mapped by the SANBI VEGMAP project. Vegetation types of Lesotho and Eswatini are included in the project. The vegetation map is useful for biodiversity assessment, research, conservation management and environment...	{ "page_id": 65872687, "title": "List of vegetation types of South Africa" }
types, codes FO and CB == Indian Ocean Coastal Belt == == Desert == == Subantarctic == 8 Subantarctic vegetation types, code ST: == References ==	{ "page_id": 65872687, "title": "List of vegetation types of South Africa" }
Pseudin is a peptide derived from Pseudis paradoxa. Pseudins have some antimicrobial function. There are several different forms: pseudin-1 pseudin-2 -- has been proposed as a treatment for type 2 diabetes. pseudin-4 == Pseudin-2 == Pseudin-2 is the most abundant version of the pseudins found on the skin of the paradox...	{ "page_id": 16065330, "title": "Pseudin" }
Izuo Hayashi (林厳雄, Hayashi Izuo) (May 1, 1922 – September 26, 2005) was a Japanese physicist. Hayashi was born in Tokyo in 1922 and graduated from the faculty of science, University of Tokyo in 1946. He worked as assistant professor at the Institute for Nuclear Research of the same university and defended his PhD in 1...	{ "page_id": 14164788, "title": "Izuo Hayashi" }
Susan M. Gasser (born 1955) is a Swiss molecular biologist. From 2004 to 2019 she was the director of the Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research in Basel, Switzerland, where she also led a research group from 2004 until 2021. She was in parallel professor of molecular biology at the University of Basel un...	{ "page_id": 47326005, "title": "Susan M. Gasser" }
organization. She was named professor of molecular biology at the University of Geneva in 2001, prior to moving to lead the Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research in Basel, as its director, in 2004. At the FMI she led a research group studying the spatial organization of double-strand break repair and che...	{ "page_id": 47326005, "title": "Susan M. Gasser" }
European Commission. Susan led the Gender Committee of the Swiss National Science Foundation from 2014- 2019, and initiated the PRIMA program for the promotion of women in academia, actively promoting the careers of women scientists in Switzerland. In Japan, she co-founded the Women in Science Japan organization. Susan...	{ "page_id": 47326005, "title": "Susan M. Gasser" }
fundamental microbiology, University of Lausanne, Switzerland == External appointments (selected) == 1993-2002 Member, research council of the Swiss National Science Foundation, Bern 2000-2009 Member, selection committee, SNF Career Professorship Program, Bern 2002-2003 Member, selection jury, Institut Universitaire de...	{ "page_id": 47326005, "title": "Susan M. Gasser" }
board of the systems biology department, Weizmann Inst. Rehovot, Israel since 2020 Member, scientific advisory board, Biozentrum der Universität Basel 2020-2022 Board of trustees, Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA), Austria since 2020 Chair, international review panel for ONCODE network, NL since 2021 R...	{ "page_id": 47326005, "title": "Susan M. Gasser" }
Munoz Jimenez C, Kalck V, Gaidatzis D, Padeken J, Askjaer P and Gasser SM 2017 Histone degradation in response to DNA damage enhances chromatin dynamics and recombination rates. Nature Struct. Mol. Biology, 24, 99 – 107. doi: 10.1038/nsmb.3347v Hauer MH, Seeber A, Singh V, Thierry R, Sack R, Amitai A, Kryzhanovska M, E...	{ "page_id": 47326005, "title": "Susan M. Gasser" }
D, Kalck V, Meister P, Askjaer P, Gasser SM 2012 Increased dynamics of double strand breaks requires Mec1, Rad9 and the homologous recombination machinery. Nat. Cell Biol. 14:502-509, Dion V, Kalck V, Horigome C, Towbin BD, Gasser SM 2012 Targeted INO80 enhances subnuclear chromatin movement and ectopic homologous reco...	{ "page_id": 47326005, "title": "Susan M. Gasser" }
Polymorphism in microRNA Target Site (PolymiRTS) is a database of naturally occurring DNA variations in putative microRNA target sites. == See also == MicroRNA List of miRNA target prediction tools == References == == External links == http://compbio.uthsc.edu/miRSNP/	{ "page_id": 30483254, "title": "PolymiRTS" }
In molecular biology, DNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule. DNA replication occurs in all living organisms, acting as the most essential part of biological inheritance. This is essential for cell division during growth and repair of damaged ...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
from cells and artificial DNA primers can be used to start DNA synthesis at known sequences in a template DNA molecule. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), ligase chain reaction (LCR), and transcription-mediated amplification (TMA) are examples. In March 2021, researchers reported evidence suggesting that a preliminary fo...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
in deoxyribose to which the next phosphate in the chain attaches. Directionality has consequences in DNA synthesis, because DNA polymerase can synthesize DNA in only one direction by adding nucleotides to the 3′ end of a DNA strand. The pairing of complementary bases in DNA (through hydrogen bonding) means that the inf...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
to a growing DNA strand, the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the proximal phosphate of the nucleotide to the growing chain is accompanied by hydrolysis of a high-energy phosphate bond with release of the two distal phosphate groups as a pyrophosphate. Enzymatic hydrolysis of the resulting pyrophosphate into ...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
a large complex of initiator proteins assembles into the pre-replication complex at particular points in the DNA, known as "origins". In E. coli the primary initiator protein is Dna A; in yeast, this is the origin recognition complex. Sequences used by initiator proteins tend to be "AT-rich" (rich in adenine and thymin...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
play a role in activating replication origins depending on species and cell type. Control of these Cdks vary depending on cell type and stage of development. This regulation is best understood in budding yeast, where the S cyclins Clb5 and Clb6 are primarily responsible for DNA replication. Clb5,6-Cdk1 complexes direct...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
free 3′ hydroxyl group before synthesis can be initiated (note: the DNA template is read in 3′ to 5′ direction whereas a new strand is synthesized in the 5′ to 3′ direction—this is often confused). Four distinct mechanisms for DNA synthesis are recognized: All cellular life forms and many DNA viruses, phages and plasmi...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
discontinuously from each primer forming Okazaki fragments. RNase removes the primer RNA fragments, and a low processivity DNA polymerase distinct from the replicative polymerase enters to fill the gaps. When this is complete, a single nick on the leading strand and several nicks on the lagging strand can be found. Lig...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
it, in a process called nick translation. Pol I is much less processive than Pol III because its primary function in DNA replication is to create many short DNA regions rather than a few very long regions. In eukaryotes, the low-processivity enzyme, Pol α, helps to initiate replication because it forms a complex with p...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
the replication fork, a major issue is how to achieve synthesis of new lagging strand DNA, whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork. ==== Leading strand ==== The leading strand is the strand of new DNA which is synthesized in the same direction as the growing replication...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
the DNA helix; topoisomerases (including DNA gyrase) achieve this by adding negative supercoils to the DNA helix. Bare single-stranded DNA tends to fold back on itself forming secondary structures; these structures can interfere with the movement of DNA polymerase. To prevent this, single-strand binding proteins bind t...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
appearing on template ssDNAs. Replication machineries include primosotors are replication enzymes; DNA polymerase, DNA helicases, DNA clamps and DNA topoisomerases, and replication proteins; e.g. single-stranded DNA binding proteins (SSB). In the replication machineries these components coordinate. In most of the bacte...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
is essential for distributing the chromatids into daughter cells after DNA replication. Because sister chromatids after DNA replication hold each other by Cohesin rings, there is the only chance for the disentanglement in DNA replication. Fixing of replication machineries as replication factories can improve the succes...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
site-binding protein, or Ter protein. Because bacteria have circular chromosomes, termination of replication occurs when the two replication forks meet each other on the opposite end of the parental chromosome. E. coli regulates this process through the use of termination sequences that, when bound by the Tus protein, ...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
cannot occur again until all Cdk activity is reduced in late mitosis. In budding yeast, inhibition of assembly is caused by Cdk-dependent phosphorylation of pre-replication complex components. At the onset of S phase, phosphorylation of Cdc6 by Cdk1 causes the binding of Cdc6 to the SCF ubiquitin protein ligase, which ...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
et al.,(2001) tracked GFP-tagged replication foci in budding yeast cells and revealed that replication origins move constantly in G1 and S phase and the dynamics decreased significantly in S phase. Traditionally, replication sites were fixed on spatial structure of chromosomes by nuclear matrix or lamins. The Heun's re...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
E. coli, the best-characterized bacteria, DNA replication is regulated through several mechanisms, including: the hemimethylation and sequestering of the origin sequence, the ratio of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and the levels of protein DnaA. All these control the binding of initiator ...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
vitro using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR uses a pair of primers to span a target region in template DNA, and then polymerizes partner strands in each direction from these primers using a thermostable DNA polymerase. Repeating this process through multiple cycles amplifies the targeted DNA region. At the sta...	{ "page_id": 9015, "title": "DNA replication" }
Drug resistance is the reduction in effectiveness of a medication such as an antimicrobial or an antineoplastic in treating a disease or condition. The term is used in the context of resistance that pathogens or cancers have "acquired", that is, resistance has evolved. Antimicrobial resistance and antineoplastic resist...	{ "page_id": 205627, "title": "Drug resistance" }
Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, and P aeruginosa were the six main causes (73%) of AMR-associated mortality in 2019, according to the 2022 Global Burden of Disease research. AMR not only causes death and disability, but it also has high financial expenses...	{ "page_id": 205627, "title": "Drug resistance" }
used by fungi and is called "parasexuality". Examples of drug-resistant strains are to be found in microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses, parasites both endo- and ecto-, plants, fungi, arthropods, mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, and amphibians. In the domestic environment, drug-resistant strains of organism may a...	{ "page_id": 205627, "title": "Drug resistance" }
evolutionary fitness as compared to susceptible pathogens. This is one of the reasons drug resistance adaptations are rarely seen in environments where antibiotics are absent. However, in the presence of antibiotics, the survival advantage conferred off-sets the high metabolic cost and allows resistant strains to proli...	{ "page_id": 205627, "title": "Drug resistance" }
bacteriotherapy Mass drug administration Multidrug resistance Pharmacoepidemiology Physical factors affecting microbial life Small multidrug resistance protein Eleftheria terrae == References == == External links == BURDEN of Resistance and Disease in European Nations—An EU project to estimate the financial burden of a...	{ "page_id": 205627, "title": "Drug resistance" }
Martha Ásdís Hjálmarsdóttir is a professor in biomedical science in the Department of Biomedical Science at the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Iceland and is the head of department there. == Professional experience == Martha graduated from Akureyri Junior College in 1971 (upper secondary school), completed un...	{ "page_id": 63316804, "title": "Martha Ásdís Hjálmarsdóttir" }
Medicine. == Research == The principal theme of her research regards bacteria that are not susceptible to antimicrobial agents. In recent years, her research has primarily involved the epidemiology of penicillin non-susceptible pneumococci, the characteristics of their clones, and the effect of pneumococcal vaccination...	{ "page_id": 63316804, "title": "Martha Ásdís Hjálmarsdóttir" }

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