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skills have allowed him to defeat Swordsman in combat. He is also an excellent fighter, being able to hold his own against such skilled fighters as Captain America and Wolverine. He is an expert horseman as well. Whitman is a scientist, having earned a master's degree in physics, while being proficient in a wide array ...	{ "page_id": 2630654, "title": "Black Knight (Dane Whitman)" }
for a while. Taking the appearance of a typical jousting shaft, the power lance is a marvel of technological craftsmanship studded with numerous modern armaments and gadgetry. ==== Neural sword ==== After giving up the Ebony Blade, Whitman designed and constructed a neural sword. The neural sword appears to be made of ...	{ "page_id": 2630654, "title": "Black Knight (Dane Whitman)" }
unique in that he possesses mystical powers of his own. Most notably, Strider is capable of far greater air speeds than either of Whitman's previous mounts; for example, he is easily capable of breaking the sound barrier. Whitman can verbally summon Strider to appear at his side or return to Avalon as he pleases. While...	{ "page_id": 2630654, "title": "Black Knight (Dane Whitman)" }
Superheroes" created by Roy Thomas. == Other versions == A zombified alternate universe variant of Dane Whitman from Earth-2149 makes a minor appearance in the Marvel Zombies tie-in one-shot Marvel Zombies: Dead Days. An alternate universe variant of Dane Whitman from Earth-1610 appears in the Ultimate Marvel story Ult...	{ "page_id": 2630654, "title": "Black Knight (Dane Whitman)" }
as an unseen voice (identified off-screen as Blade) asks whether he is ready for it. === Video games === Dane Whitman / Black Knight appears as a playable character in Avengers in Galactic Storm. Dane Whitman / Black Knight appears as a playable character in Marvel Avengers Alliance. Dane Whitman / Black Knight appears...	{ "page_id": 2630654, "title": "Black Knight (Dane Whitman)" }
DeepMind Technologies Limited, trading as Google DeepMind or simply DeepMind, is a British–American artificial intelligence research laboratory which serves as a subsidiary of Alphabet Inc. Founded in the UK in 2010, it was acquired by Google in 2014 and merged with Google AI's Google Brain division to become Google De...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
and Legg first met at the Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit at University College London (UCL). Demis Hassabis has said that the start-up began working on artificial intelligence technology by teaching it how to play old games from the seventies and eighties, which are relatively primitive compared to the ones tha...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
research remains a mystery, with both Google and DeepMind declining to reveal who sits on the board. DeepMind has opened a new unit called DeepMind Ethics and Society and focused on the ethical and societal questions raised by artificial intelligence featuring prominent philosopher Nick Bostrom as advisor. In October 2...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
an algorithm that learns from experience using only raw pixels as data input. Their initial approach used deep Q-learning with a convolutional neural network. They tested the system on video games, notably early arcade games, such as Space Invaders or Breakout. Without altering the code, the same AI was able to play ce...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
a score of 4 to 1 in a five-game match. In the 2017 Future of Go Summit, AlphaGo won a three-game match with Ke Jie, who had been the world's highest-ranked player for two years. In 2017, an improved version, AlphaGo Zero, defeated AlphaGo in a hundred out of a hundred games. Later that year, AlphaZero, a modified vers...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
generated its own data, playing millions of games against itself. It used a single neural network, rather than separate policy and value networks. Its simplified tree search relied upon this neural network to evaluate positions and sample moves. A new reinforcement learning algorithm incorporated lookahead search insid...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
July 2019, AlphaStar began playing against random humans on the public 1v1 European multiplayer ladder. Unlike the first iteration of AlphaStar, which played only Protoss v. Protoss, this one played as all of the game's races, and had earlier unfair advantages fixed. By October 2019, AlphaStar had reached Grandmaster l...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
interactions of proteins with DNA, RNA, and various other molecules. In a particular benchmark test on the problem of DNA interactions, AlphaFold3's attained an accuracy of 65%, significantly improving the previous state of the art of 28%. In October 2024, Hassabis and John Jumper received half of the 2024 Nobel Prize ...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
a rate comparable to that of an average programmer, with the company testing the system against coding challenges created by Codeforces utilized in human competitive programming competitions. AlphaCode earned a rank equivalent to 54% of the median score on Codeforces after being trained on GitHub data and Codeforce pro...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
December 2024, Google introduced PaliGemma 2, an upgraded vision-language model. In February 2025, they launched PaliGemma 2 Mix, a version fine-tuned for multiple tasks. It is available in 3B, 10B, and 28B parameters with 224px and 448px resolutions. In March 2025, Google released Gemma 3, calling it the most capable ...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
the AI higher than the human moderator 56% of the time. === Video generation === In May 2024, a multimodal video generation model called Veo was announced at Google I/O 2024. Google claimed that it could generate 1080p videos beyond a minute long. In December 2024, Google released Veo 2, available via VideoFX. It suppo...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
including the goalkeeper, defenders, and strikers during different scenarios such as penalty kicks. The researchers used heat maps and cluster analysis to organize players based on their tendency to behave a certain way during the game when confronted with a decision on how to score or prevent the other team from scori...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
Materials Exploration (GNoME). The tool proposes millions of materials previously unknown to chemistry, including several hundred thousand stable crystalline structures, of which 736 had been experimentally produced by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, at the time of the release. However, according to Anthony ...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
suggests a geometrical construct to move forward. However, it is unclear how applicable this method is to other domains of mathematics or reasoning, because symbolic engines rely on domain-specific rules and because of the need for synthetic data. ==== AlphaProof ==== AlphaProof is an AI model, which couples a pre-trai...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
an initial algorithm and metrics to evaluate the quality of a solution. At each step, it uses the LLM to generate variations of the algorithms or combine them, and selects the best candidates for further iterations. AlphaEvolve has made several algorithmic discoveries, including in matrix multiplication. According to G...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
and Moorfields Eye Hospital was announced to develop AI applications for healthcare. DeepMind would be applied to the analysis of anonymised eye scans, searching for early signs of diseases leading to blindness. In August 2016, a research programme with University College London Hospital was announced with the aim of d...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
absorbed into Google Health. Privacy advocates said the announcement betrayed patient trust and appeared to contradict previous statements by DeepMind that patient data would not be connected to Google accounts or services. A spokesman for DeepMind said that patient data would still be kept separate from Google service...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
and initiatives they had initiated for transparency, oversight and engagement. This included developing a patient and public involvement strategy and being transparent in its partnerships. In May 2017, Sky News published a leaked letter from the National Data Guardian, Dame Fiona Caldicott, revealing that in her "consi...	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
of Computer Science. == See also == Anthropic Cohere Glossary of artificial intelligence Imagen Model Context Protocol OpenAI Robot Constitution == References == == External links == Official website GitHub Repositories	{ "page_id": 41755648, "title": "Google DeepMind" }
Relational data mining is the data mining technique for relational databases. Unlike traditional data mining algorithms, which look for patterns in a single table (propositional patterns), relational data mining algorithms look for patterns among multiple tables (relational patterns). For most types of propositional pa...	{ "page_id": 926722, "title": "Relational data mining" }
A coenogamete is a multi-nucleate gamete (a gamete with more than one nucleus). Fusion of coengametes creates coenocytes. They exist amongst members of the phylum Porifera (sponges) under kingdom Animalia and division Zygomycota of kingdom Fungi. == References ==	{ "page_id": 34153482, "title": "Coenogamete" }
Double field theory in theoretical physics refers to formalisms that capture the T-duality property of string theory as a manifest symmetry of a field theory. == Background == In double field theory, the T-duality transformation of exchanging momentum and winding modes of closed strings on toroidal backgrounds translat...	{ "page_id": 75834378, "title": "Double field theory" }
A shotgun wedding is a wedding arranged in response to pregnancy resulting from premarital sex. The phrase comes from the figurative imagining that the relatives of the pregnant bride threaten the reluctant male groom with a shotgun in order to ensure that he marries the woman. == Rationale == One purpose of such a wed...	{ "page_id": 599052, "title": "Shotgun wedding" }
involved, especially the women, from becoming social pariahs. Apart from instances of regional slang, there is no universal, specific term for "shotgun weddings" in Arabic. This is because they are not recognised as a regular social phenomenon and because a successfully conducted Middle Eastern shotgun wedding is gener...	{ "page_id": 599052, "title": "Shotgun wedding" }
is forced to marry a woman for various reasons. Although the most common ground is impregnation, another variant of this practise include the woman's parents forcing marriage on the man to their daughter due to his social status or wealth, rather than his desire to marry her for love; this occurs even if the former did...	{ "page_id": 599052, "title": "Shotgun wedding" }
late 2000s, the practice had become so rare that the term was growing obsolete. According to a 2013 by the Centrum voor Leesonderzoek, the word moetje was recognised by 82.5% of the Dutch and 43.1% of the Flemish. In Spain shotgun weddings are called casarse de penalty in Spanish or casar-se de penal in Catalan (marry ...	{ "page_id": 599052, "title": "Shotgun wedding" }
film, refilming of Acht Mädels im Boot A Kind of Loving (1962), British feature film Girl with Green Eyes (1964), Irish feature film Ride with the Devil (1999) Confederate Bushwaker film. Shotgun Wedding (2022), American feature film === Books === The Lonely Girl (1962), Irish novel on which Girl with Green Eyes is bas...	{ "page_id": 599052, "title": "Shotgun wedding" }
In the evolutionary biology of sexual reproduction, operational sex ratio (OSR) is the ratio of sexually competing males that are ready to mate to sexually competing females that are ready to mate, or alternatively the local ratio of fertilizable females to sexually active males at any given time. This differs from phy...	{ "page_id": 15213586, "title": "Operational sex ratio" }
an accident, predation, etc. This, in turn, affects how long reproductive cycles will be in both males and females. If the males were to invest more time in the care of their offspring, they would be spending less time mating. This pushes the population towards a female biased OSR and vice versa. Whether or not it is t...	{ "page_id": 15213586, "title": "Operational sex ratio" }
will tend to undergo more competition for mates and therefore undergo strong sexual selection. Intensity of competition is also a factor that can be predicted by OSR. According to sexual selection theory, whichever sex is more abundant is expected to compete more strongly and the sex that is less abundant is expected t...	{ "page_id": 15213586, "title": "Operational sex ratio" }
Migration schedules differ between sexes which eventually leads to seasonal changes in the OSR. For example, if males arrive first to the migration site, then for a certain amount of time the population would have a male biased OSR. Spatial distribution can also cause biased in the OSR. So if there is a wide spatial di...	{ "page_id": 15213586, "title": "Operational sex ratio" }
Evolution is the change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. It occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection and genetic drift act on genetic variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more or less common within a population over successiv...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
patterns of biodiversity have been shaped by repeated formations of new species (speciation), changes within species (anagenesis), and loss of species (extinction) throughout the evolutionary history of life on Earth. Morphological and biochemical traits tend to be more similar among species that share a more recent co...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
at all and are very sensitive to sunburn. Heritable characteristics are passed from one generation to the next via DNA, a molecule that encodes genetic information. DNA is a long biopolymer composed of four types of bases. The sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule specifies the genetic information, in a man...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
within and between species. An individual organism's phenotype results from both its genotype and the influence of the environment it has lived in. The modern evolutionary synthesis defines evolution as the change over time in this genetic variation. The frequency of one particular allele will become more or less preva...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
gene has been duplicated because it increases the redundancy of the system; one gene in the pair can acquire a new function while the other copy continues to perform its original function. Other types of mutations can even generate entirely new genes from previously noncoding DNA, a phenomenon termed de novo gene birth...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
was first described by John Maynard Smith. The first cost is that in sexually dimorphic species only one of the two sexes can bear young. This cost does not apply to hermaphroditic species, like most plants and many invertebrates. The second cost is that any individual who reproduces sexually can only pass on 50% of it...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the adzuki bean weevil Callosobruchus chinensis has occurred. An example of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic bdelloid rotifers, which have received a range of genes from bacteria, fungi and plants. Viruses can also carry DNA between org...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
changes in allele frequencies include natural selection, genetic drift, and mutation bias. === Natural selection === Evolution by natural selection is the process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in successive generations of a population. It embodies three principles: Variation ...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
traits are said to be selected for. Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival and increased fecundity. Conversely, the lower fitness caused by having a less beneficial or deleterious allele results in this allele likely becoming rarer—they are selected against. Importantly, the fitness of an al...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
measure against which individuals and individual traits, are more or less likely to survive. "Nature" in this sense refers to an ecosystem, that is, a system in which organisms interact with every other element, physical as well as biological, in their local environment. Eugene Odum, a founder of ecology, defined an ec...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
some alleles from a population due to chance alone. Even in the absence of selective forces, genetic drift can cause two separate populations that begin with the same genetic structure to drift apart into two divergent populations with different sets of alleles. According to the neutral theory of molecular evolution mo...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
not be the same for every gene in the same population. It is usually difficult to measure the relative importance of selection and neutral processes, including drift. The comparative importance of adaptive and non-adaptive forces in driving evolutionary change is an area of current research. === Mutation bias === Mutat...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
for the evolution of composition suffered a reduction in scope when it was discovered that (1) GC-biased gene conversion makes an important contribution to composition in diploid organisms such as mammals and (2) bacterial genomes frequently have AT-biased mutation. Contemporary thinking about the role of mutation bias...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
captured by an appropriate effective population size. ==== Sexual selection ==== A special case of natural selection is sexual selection, which is selection for any trait that increases mating success by increasing the attractiveness of an organism to potential mates. Traits that evolved through sexual selection are pa...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
lessening the chance of it going extinct, while a wide geographic range increases the chance of speciation, by making it more likely that part of the population will become isolated. In this sense, microevolution and macroevolution might involve selection at different levels—with microevolution acting on genes and orga...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
the two senses of the word may be distinguished. Adaptations are produced by natural selection. The following definitions are due to Theodosius Dobzhansky: Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats. Adaptedness is the state of being adapted: the de...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
a common mammalian ancestor. However, since all living organisms are related to some extent, even organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity, such as arthropod, squid and vertebrate eyes, or the limbs and wings of arthropods and vertebrates, can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
the developmental basis of adaptations and exaptations. This research addresses the origin and evolution of embryonic development and how modifications of development and developmental processes produce novel features. These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to produce new structures, such as embr...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
a reciprocal relationship as the plants provide the fungi with sugars from photosynthesis. Here, the fungi actually grow inside plant cells, allowing them to exchange nutrients with their hosts, while sending signals that suppress the plant immune system. Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolv...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
concepts, these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and phylogenetic. The Biological Species Concept (BSC) is a classic example of the interbreeding approach. Defined by evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr in 1942, the BSC states that "species are gro...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
reproductive isolation followed by genealogical divergence. There are four primary geographic modes of speciation. The most common in animals is allopatric speciation, which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by habitat fragmentation or migration. Selection under these conditions can produ...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
Finally, in sympatric speciation species diverge without geographic isolation or changes in habitat. This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic differences between parts of a population. Generally, sympatric speciation in animals requires the evolution of both genetic differences and no...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
correspond to the parental population and the organisms undergoing speciation and rapid evolution are found in small populations or geographically restricted habitats and therefore rarely being preserved as fossils. === Extinction === Extinction is the disappearance of an entire species. Extinction is not an unusual ev...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
with the fitter species surviving and the other species being driven to extinction. The intermittent mass extinctions are also important, but instead of acting as a selective force, they drastically reduce diversity in a nonspecific manner and promote bursts of rapid evolution and speciation in survivors. == Applicatio...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level. In computer science, simulations of evolution using evolutionary algorithms and artificial life started in the 1960s and were extended with simulation of artificial selection. A...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date, leaving at least 80% not yet described. Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago, and half a billion y...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
the comparative anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the morphological, or anatomical, record. By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, palaeontologists can infer the lineages of those species. However, this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard body parts, such as shells...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
multicellularity occurred in multiple independent events, in organisms as diverse as sponges, brown algae, cyanobacteria, slime moulds and myxobacteria. In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK-PID may have allowed organisms to go from...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
Things'). === Middle Ages === In contrast to these materialistic views, Aristotelianism had considered all natural things as actualisations of fixed natural possibilities, known as forms. This became part of a medieval teleological understanding of nature in which all things have an intended role to play in a divine co...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
evolutionary change of species over time according to natural laws. In 1751, Pierre Louis Maupertuis wrote of natural modifications occurring during reproduction and accumulating over many generations to produce new species. Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, suggested that species could degenerate into different ...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
reproduction because of limited resources. This could explain the diversity of plants and animals from a common ancestry through the working of natural laws in the same way for all types of organism. Darwin developed his theory of "natural selection" from 1838 onwards and was writing up his "big book" on the subject wh...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
of North America, which included his discoveries of birds with teeth. These skeletons helped bridge the gap between dinosaurs and birds, and provided invaluable support for Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin wrote to Marsh saying, "Your work on these old birds & on the many fossil animals of N. America has afforded t...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
robust statistical philosophy. The false contradiction between Darwin's theory, genetic mutations, and Mendelian inheritance was thus reconciled. === The 'modern synthesis' === In the 1920s and 1930s, the modern synthesis connected natural selection and population genetics, based on Mendelian inheritance, into a unifie...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
responses == In the 19th century, particularly after the publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859, the idea that life had evolved was an active source of academic debate centred on the philosophical, social and religious implications of evolution. Today, the modern evolutionary synthesis is accepted by a vast ma...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
the 1970s and 1980s, but it returned in pseudoscientific form as intelligent design (ID), to be excluded once again in the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District case. The debate over Darwin's ideas did not generate significant controversy in China. == See also == Devolution (biology) – Notion that species can r...	{ "page_id": 9236, "title": "Evolution" }
A subpulmonic effusion is excess fluid that collects at the base of the lung, in the space between the pleura and diaphragm. It is a type of pleural effusion in which the fluid collects in this particular space but can be "layered out" with decubitus chest radiographs. There is minimal nature of costophrenic angle blun...	{ "page_id": 20653077, "title": "Subpulmonic effusion" }
In robot kinematics, forward kinematics refers to the use of the kinematic equations of a robot to compute the position of the end-effector from specified values for the joint parameters. The kinematics equations of the robot are used in robotics, computer games, and animation. The reverse process, that computes the jo...	{ "page_id": 9249813, "title": "Forward kinematics" }
( a i , i + 1 ) Rot X i ⁡ ( α i , i + 1 ) . {\displaystyle [X_{i}]=\operatorname {Trans} _{X_{i}}(a_{i,i+1})\operatorname {Rot} _{X_{i}}(\alpha _{i,i+1}).} Using this notation, each transformation-link goes along a serial chain robot, and can be described by the coordinate transformation, i − 1 T i = [ Z i ] [ X i ] = ...	{ "page_id": 9249813, "title": "Forward kinematics" }
\operatorname {Trans} _{Z_{i}}(d_{i})={\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&0\\0&1&0&0\\0&0&1&d_{i}\\0&0&0&1\end{bmatrix}},\quad \operatorname {Rot} _{Z_{i}}(\theta _{i})={\begin{bmatrix}\cos \theta _{i}&-\sin \theta _{i}&0&0\\\sin \theta _{i}&\cos \theta _{i}&0&0\\0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}.} Similarly, Trans X i ⁡ ( a i , i + 1 ...	{ "page_id": 9249813, "title": "Forward kinematics" }
be used as a method in 3D computer graphics for animating models. The essential concept of forward kinematic animation is that the positions of particular parts of the model at a specified time are calculated from the position and orientation of the object, together with any information on the joints of an articulated ...	{ "page_id": 9249813, "title": "Forward kinematics" }
In thermodynamics, the Massieu function (sometimes called Massieu–Gibbs function, Massieu potential, or Gibbs function, or characteristic (state) function in its original terminology), symbol Ψ (Psi), is defined by the following relation: Ψ = Ψ ( X 1 , … , X i , Y i + 1 , … Y r ) {\displaystyle \Psi =\Psi {\big (}X_{1}...	{ "page_id": 27075609, "title": "Massieu function" }
various fluids and on the theory of vapors]. Comptes rendus (in French). 69: 858–862. Massieu, François. (1876). Thermodynamique : Mémoire sur les fonctions caractéristiques des divers fluides et sur la théorie des vapeurs. 92 pgs. Académie des Sciences de L'Institut National de France.	{ "page_id": 27075609, "title": "Massieu function" }
The RP Photonics Encyclopedia (formerly Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology) is an encyclopedia of optics and optoelectronics, laser technology, optical fibers, nonlinear optics, optical communications, imaging science, optical metrology, spectroscopy and ultrashort pulse physics. It is available online as a f...	{ "page_id": 12395546, "title": "RP Photonics Encyclopedia" }
The ATP test is a process of rapidly measuring actively growing microorganisms through detection of adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. == Method == ATP is a molecule found in and around living cells, and as such it gives a direct measure of biological concentration and health. ATP is quantified by measuring the light prod...	{ "page_id": 24716317, "title": "ATP test" }
ATP offers the ability to assess biological health and activity, and subsequently control water and wastewater processes. == See also == Adenosine triphosphate == References == https://meridian.allenpress.com/jfp/article/81/5/729/175086/Development-of-a-Novel-Hygiene-Monitoring-System https://meridian.allenpress.com/jf...	{ "page_id": 24716317, "title": "ATP test" }
Wouthuysen–Field coupling, or the Wouthuysen–Field effect, is a mechanism that couples the excitation temperature, also called the spin temperature, of neutral hydrogen to Lyman-alpha radiation. This coupling plays a role in producing a difference in the temperature of neutral hydrogen and the cosmic microwave backgrou...	{ "page_id": 33891361, "title": "Wouthuysen–Field coupling" }
and then re-emits Lyman-alpha photons, and may enter either of the two spin states. This process causes a redistribution of the electrons between the hyperfine states, decoupling the neutral hydrogen from the CMB photons. The coupling between Lyman-alpha photons and the hyperfine states depends not on the intensity of ...	{ "page_id": 33891361, "title": "Wouthuysen–Field coupling" }
"Reionization by UV or X-ray sources". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 523: A4. arXiv:1003.0834. Bibcode:2010A&A...523A...4B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014347. S2CID 118601309. Field, G. B. (1959). "The Spin Temperature of Intergalactic Neutral Hydrogen". The Astrophysical Journal. 129: 536. Bibcode:1959ApJ...129..536F. doi:1...	{ "page_id": 33891361, "title": "Wouthuysen–Field coupling" }
A Grob fragmentation is an elimination reaction that breaks a neutral aliphatic chain into three fragments: a positive ion spanning atoms 1 and 2 (the "electrofuge"), an unsaturated neutral fragment spanning positions 3 and 4, and a negative ion (the "nucleofuge") comprising the rest of the chain. For example, the posi...	{ "page_id": 5121058, "title": "Grob fragmentation" }
preferred geometry of elimination is for the sigma bond that drives out the leaving group to being anti to it, analogous to the conformational orientation in the E2 mechanism of elimination reactions. == Examples == === Thapsigargin from Wieland–Miescher ketone === An example of a Grob-like fragmentation in organic syn...	{ "page_id": 5121058, "title": "Grob fragmentation" }
with the nitrogen at the 3 position. The reaction products are an electrofugal fragment, an imine, and a nucleofugal fragment (such as an alcohol). 3-aza-Grob fragmentation can proceed with several different nucleofuges. The reaction mechanism has been reported to begin with the reduction of an ether protected amide to...	{ "page_id": 5121058, "title": "Grob fragmentation" }
CHARISSA (derived from 'CHARged particle Instrumentation for a Solid State Array') is a nuclear structure research collaboration originally conceived, initiated and partially built by Dr. William Rae of the University of Oxford (retired) and now run by the School of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Birmingham...	{ "page_id": 21177379, "title": "CHARISSA" }
Binary subcomplexes in proteins database (BISC) is a protein–protein interaction database about binary subcomplexes. == References == == External links == "BISC – Binary Interacting SubComplexes". University of Edinburgh and University of California, Santa Cruz. Archived from the original on 2011-09-18.	{ "page_id": 30352425, "title": "BISC (database)" }
T-cell receptor excision circles (TRECs) are small circles of DNA created in T-cells during their passage through the thymus as they rearrange their TCR genes. Their presence indicates maturation of T cells; TRECs are reduced in SCID (severe combined immunodeficiency disease). Signal joint T-cell receptor excision circ...	{ "page_id": 29828138, "title": "T-cell receptor excision circles" }
Ala al-Dīn Ali ibn Muhammed (1403 – 18 December 1474), Persian: علاءالدین علی بن محمد سمرقندی known as Ali Qushji (Ottoman Turkish : علی قوشچی, kuşçu – falconer in Turkish; Latin: Ali Kushgii) was a Timurid theologian, jurist, astronomer, mathematician and physicist, who settled in the Ottoman Empire some time before 1...	{ "page_id": 14951467, "title": "Ali Qushji" }
work while standing up. Ulugh Beg assigned him to Ulugh Beg Observatory, which was called Samarkand Observatory at that time. Qushji worked there until Ulugh Beg was assassinated. After Ulugh Beg's death, Ali Kuşçu went to Herat, Tashkent, and finally Tabriz where, around 1470, the Ak Koyunlu ruler Uzun Hasan sent him ...	{ "page_id": 14951467, "title": "Ali Qushji" }
theologians who opposed the interference of Aristotelianism in astronomy, Qushji rejected Aristotelian physics and completely separated natural philosophy from Islamic astronomy, allowing astronomy to become a purely empirical and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion...	{ "page_id": 14951467, "title": "Ali Qushji" }
due to using the earlier work of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi as a basis. This is more of a possibility considering "the remarkable coincidence between a passage in De revolutionibus (I.8) and one in Ṭūsī’s Tadhkira (II.1[6]) in which Copernicus follows Ṭūsī’s objection to Ptolemy’s "proofs" of the Earth's immobility." == His ...	{ "page_id": 14951467, "title": "Ali Qushji" }
20α,22R-Dihydroxycholesterol, or (3β)-cholest-5-ene-3,20,22-triol is an endogenous, metabolic intermediate in the biosynthesis of the steroid hormones from cholesterol. Cholesterol ((3β)-cholest-5-en-3-ol) is hydroxylated by cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc) to form 22R-hydroxycholesterol, which is subse...	{ "page_id": 35791919, "title": "20α,22R-Dihydroxycholesterol" }
Ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs), also known as ribosomal natural products, are a diverse class of natural products of ribosomal origin. Consisting of more than 20 sub-classes, RiPPs are produced by a variety of organisms, including prokaryotes, eukaryotes, and archaea, and the...	{ "page_id": 42804273, "title": "Ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides" }
of 1000 Da. The advent of next-generation sequencing methods has made genome mining of RiPPs a common strategy. In part due to their increased discovery and hypothesized ease of engineering, the use of RiPPs as drugs is increasing. Although they are ribosomal peptides in origin, RiPPs are typically categorized as small...	{ "page_id": 42804273, "title": "Ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides" }
amatoxins and phallotoxins also differ from other RiPPs based on the presence of a C-terminal recognition sequence in addition to the N-terminal leader peptide. α-Amanitin, an amatoxin, has a number of posttranslational modifications in addition to macrocyclization and formation of the tryptathionine bridge: oxidation ...	{ "page_id": 42804273, "title": "Ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides" }
cyanobactin family may bear thiazolines/oxazolines, thiazoles/oxazoles, and methylations depending on additional modification enzymes. For example, perhaps the most famous cyanobactin is patellamide A, which contains two thiazoles, a methyloxazoline, and an oxazoline in its final state, a macrocycle derived from 8 amin...	{ "page_id": 42804273, "title": "Ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides" }
constraint. However, some lasso peptides were recently discovered that also contain serine or alanine as their first residue. The threading of the lasso tail is trapped either by disulfide bonds between ring and tail cysteine residues (class I lasso peptides), by steric effects due to bulky residues on the tail (class ...	{ "page_id": 42804273, "title": "Ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides" }

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