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surface of copper with exposure to the water and carbon dioxide in the air. Silver coins or cutlery that are exposed to high sulfur foods such as eggs or the low levels of sulfur species in the air develop a layer of black silver sulfide. Gold and platinum are extremely difficult to oxidize under normal circumstances, ...	{ "page_id": 9601, "title": "Electrochemistry" }
anodes ==== A method commonly used to protect a structural metal is to attach a metal which is more anodic than the metal to be protected. This forces the structural metal to be cathodic, thus spared corrosion. It is called "sacrificial" because the anode dissolves and has to be replaced periodically. Zinc bars are att...	{ "page_id": 9601, "title": "Electrochemistry" }
can yield large amounts of metallic sodium and gaseous chlorine, and is widely used in mineral dressing and metallurgy industries. The emf for this process is approximately −4 V indicating a (very) non-spontaneous process. In order for this reaction to occur the power supply should provide at least a potential differen...	{ "page_id": 9601, "title": "Electrochemistry" }
solutions === Electrolysis in an aqueous solution is a similar process as mentioned in electrolysis of water. However, it is considered to be a complex process because the contents in solution have to be analyzed in half reactions, whether reduced or oxidized. ==== Electrolysis of a solution of sodium chloride ==== The...	{ "page_id": 9601, "title": "Electrochemistry" }
kinetic rather than thermodynamic considerations. In fact, it has been proven that the activation energy for the chloride ion is very low, hence favorable in kinetic terms. In other words, although the voltage applied is thermodynamically sufficient to drive electrolysis, the rate is so slow that to make the process pr...	{ "page_id": 9601, "title": "Electrochemistry" }
{\displaystyle m={\frac {1}{F}}\cdot {\frac {QM}{n}}} where m is the mass of the substance produced at the electrode (in grams), Q is the total electric charge that passed through the solution (in coulombs), n is the valence number of the substance as an ion in solution (electrons per ion), M is the molar mass of the s...	{ "page_id": 9601, "title": "Electrochemistry" }
large format lithium-ion batteries, electrochemical reactors and super-capacitors that are becoming increasingly commercial. Electrochemical or coulometric titrations were introduced for quantitative analysis of minute quantities in 1938 by the Hungarian chemists László Szebellédy and Zoltan Somogyi. Electrochemistry a...	{ "page_id": 9601, "title": "Electrochemistry" }
The following drugs are controlled by the German Narcotic Drugs Act (German: Betäubungsmittelgesetz or BtMG). Trade and possession of these substances without licence or prescription is considered illegal; prescription is illegal for drugs on Anlage I and II and drugs on Anlage III require a special prescription form. ...	{ "page_id": 47129984, "title": "Drugs controlled by the German Narcotic Drugs Act" }
Huber's equation, first derived by a Polish engineer Tytus Maksymilian Huber, is a basic formula in elastic material tension calculations, an equivalent of the equation of state, but applying to solids. In most simple expression and commonly in use it looks like this: σ r e d = ( σ 2 ) + 3 ( τ 2 ) {\displaystyle \sigma...	{ "page_id": 11543936, "title": "Huber's equation" }
The species Bundibugyo ebolavirus ( BUUN-dee-BUUJ-aw) is the taxonomic home of one virus, Bundibugyo virus (BDBV), that forms filamentous virions and is closely related to the infamous Ebola virus (EBOV). The virus causes severe disease in humans in the form of viral hemorrhagic fever and is a Select agent, World Healt...	{ "page_id": 33039752, "title": "Bundibugyo ebolavirus" }
criteria == A virus of the genus Ebolavirus is a member of the species Bundibugyo ebolavirus if: it is endemic in Uganda it has a genome with three gene overlaps (VP35/VP40, GP/VP30, VP24/L) it has a genomic sequence different from Ebola virus by ≥30%, but different from that of Bundibugyo virus by <30% A virus of the ...	{ "page_id": 33039752, "title": "Bundibugyo ebolavirus" }
2007. In depth analysis revealed that the present ebolavirus was a relative, but not identical, to the other four ebolaviruses known at the time. The outbreak was declared over on February 20, 2008. A second outbreak was reported by the WHO August 17, 2012 suspected to have infected 15 and killed 10 including 3 health ...	{ "page_id": 33039752, "title": "Bundibugyo ebolavirus" }
individual open reading frames, is similar to that of the other four known ebolaviruses (58-61% nucleotide similarity). It is therefore currently assumed that the knowledge obtained for EBOV can be extrapolated to BDBV and that all BDBV proteins are analogs of those of EBOV. == Patent == A United States patent with mul...	{ "page_id": 33039752, "title": "Bundibugyo ebolavirus" }
and is not intended to be limiting. The patent was published before the US Supreme Court ruled that natural material could not be patented as being an invention (as dictated in the 2013 trial: “Association for Molecular Pathology, et al., v. Myriad Genetics, Inc., et al.;” argued 04/15/2013 and decided 06/13/2013), but...	{ "page_id": 33039752, "title": "Bundibugyo ebolavirus" }
The Central Highlands, Central High Plateau, or Hauts-Plateaux are a mountainous biogeographical region in central Madagascar. They include the contiguous part of the island's interior above 800 m (2,600 ft) elevation. The Central Highlands are separated from the Northern Highlands of the northern tip of Madagascar by ...	{ "page_id": 27993482, "title": "Central Highlands (Madagascar)" }
Mammalogy 88(5):1216–1229. Goodman, S.M., Maminirina, C.P., Bradman, H.M., Christidis, L. and Appleton, B. 2009. The use of molecular phylogenetic and morphological tools to identify cryptic and paraphyletic species: Examples from the diminutive long-fingered bats (Chiroptera: Miniopteridae: Miniopterus) on Madagascar....	{ "page_id": 27993482, "title": "Central Highlands (Madagascar)" }
Lanthanum iodide may refer to: Lanthanum diiodide, LaI2 Lanthanum(III) iodide (lanthanum triiodide), LaI3	{ "page_id": 72623501, "title": "Lanthanum iodide" }
Praseodymium iodide may refer to: Praseodymium diiodide, PrI2 Praseodymium(III) iodide (praseodymium triiodide), PrI3	{ "page_id": 72623502, "title": "Praseodymium iodide" }
Cell Autonomous Sex Identity (CASI) refers to the intrinsic determination of a cell's sex-specific characteristics based on its genetic and epigenetic makeup, independent of external hormonal influences. Unlike traditional models of sex differentiation, which emphasize the role of gonadal hormones in directing cellular...	{ "page_id": 78914959, "title": "Cell autonomous sex identity" }
at the cellular level in some cases, independent of systemic hormonal control. The field gained significant traction in the 21st century with advancements in genetic and molecular biology. Landmark studies in chickens demonstrated that individual cells in somatic tissues could retain their sex identity regardless of th...	{ "page_id": 78914959, "title": "Cell autonomous sex identity" }
expression profiles even when exposed to identical hormonal environments. === Key Components of Cell Autonomous Sex Identity Mechanisms === ==== Sex Chromosome-Linked Gene Expression ==== Genes located on sex chromosomes, such as DMRT1 in birds and TRA-1 in some insects, play crucial roles in establishing cell-autonomo...	{ "page_id": 78914959, "title": "Cell autonomous sex identity" }
development. == Cell Autonomous Sex Identity in Model Organisms == Research on cell autonomous sex identity has leveraged various model organisms to uncover the genetic, cellular, and developmental mechanisms underlying sex-specific traits. These studies have provided valuable insights into how CASI operates across dif...	{ "page_id": 78914959, "title": "Cell autonomous sex identity" }
studies in murine models have shown that the presence of XX or XY chromosomes in brain cells can lead to sex-specific differences in neuronal development and function, independent of gonadal hormone influence. === C. elegans (Roundworms) === The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has provided key insights into CASI in her...	{ "page_id": 78914959, "title": "Cell autonomous sex identity" }
between genetic, epigenetic, and cellular factors. === Comparative Physiology === By exploring CASI across different species, researchers can identify universal and species-specific mechanisms of sexual differentiation. This comparative approach enhances our understanding of how sex-specific traits are regulated in div...	{ "page_id": 78914959, "title": "Cell autonomous sex identity" }
chimeras, male (ZZ) and female (ZW) cells retain their respective gene expression profiles even when transplanted into opposite-sex tissues. This underscores the cell-intrinsic nature of CASI and its role in establishing baseline sex identity at the cellular level. === Hormonal Modulation of Cell Autonomous Sex Identit...	{ "page_id": 78914959, "title": "Cell autonomous sex identity" }
of response to androgens. === Implications for Research and Medicine === Understanding the interaction between CASI and hormonal influences has profound implications: Endocrinology: Investigating how CASI interacts with hormone-driven processes can provide deeper insights into endocrine disorders. Regenerative Medicine...	{ "page_id": 78914959, "title": "Cell autonomous sex identity" }
chromosomes. The ability of cells to interpret sex chromosome composition autonomously may have driven the specialization of sex chromosomes, such as the differentiation of X and Y in mammals and Z and W in birds. In species where chromosomal sex determination is absent or secondary, as in zebrafish or certain reptiles...	{ "page_id": 78914959, "title": "Cell autonomous sex identity" }
of cell autonomous sex identity in humans is an emerging field that offers new insights into sex differentiation, disorders of sexual development (DSDs), and broader aspects of human biology. While hormonal signals are well-known to play a key role in sexual differentiation, CASI presents a crucial layer of regulation ...	{ "page_id": 78914959, "title": "Cell autonomous sex identity" }
develop male characteristics (e.g., congenital adrenal hyperplasia). In cases such as androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS), cells that would typically be influenced by testosterone fail to respond to the hormone, resulting in the development of female external genitalia despite the presence of a Y chromosome. However,...	{ "page_id": 78914959, "title": "Cell autonomous sex identity" }
susceptibility and progression. For example, in certain types of cancers, such as breast cancer or ovarian cancer, the intrinsic sex identity of cells could affect their behavior, such as their response to treatment, their rate of growth, and their metastatic potential. Investigating CASI could help elucidate why some ...	{ "page_id": 78914959, "title": "Cell autonomous sex identity" }
Metal aromaticity or metalloaromaticity is the concept of aromaticity, found in many organic compounds, extended to metals and metal-containing compounds. The first experimental evidence for the existence of aromaticity in metals was found in aluminium cluster compounds of the type MAl−4 where M stands for lithium, sod...	{ "page_id": 3220879, "title": "Metal aromaticity" }
trioxide and molybdenum trioxide. The photoelectric signal is also broad which suggests a large difference in conformation between the anion and the neutral species. Computational chemistry shows that the M3O−9 anions and M3O2−9 dianions are ideal hexagons with identical metal-to-metal bond lengths. Tritantalum oxide c...	{ "page_id": 3220879, "title": "Metal aromaticity" }
Cytometry is the measurement of number and characteristics of cells. Variables that can be measured by cytometric methods include cell size, cell count, cell morphology (shape and structure), cell cycle phase, DNA content, and the existence or absence of specific proteins on the cell surface or in the cytoplasm. Cytome...	{ "page_id": 26682769, "title": "Cytometry" }
are flow cytometers capable of sorting cells according to their characteristics. The sorting is achieved by using technology similar to what is used in inkjet printers. The fluid stream is broken up into droplets by a mechanical vibration. The droplets are then electrically charged according to the characteristics of t...	{ "page_id": 26682769, "title": "Cytometry" }
filtering technique for fluorescence excitation light was developed by Heinrich Lehmann at Zeiss in 1910, based on work by Robert Wood. However, the "Lumineszenzmikroskop" he developed was only second on the market, after the one independently developed by Oskar Heimstädt who worked at C Reichert, Optische Werke AG in ...	{ "page_id": 26682769, "title": "Cytometry" }
years earlier. Dittrich and Göhde’s pulse cytophotometer was built around a Zeiss fluorescent microscope and commercialized as the ICP 11 by Partec GmbH in 1968. Kamentsky’s device was commercialized by Bio/Physics Systems Inc. as the Cytograph in 1970. These devices were able to count cells, like the earlier Coulter c...	{ "page_id": 26682769, "title": "Cytometry" }
Europium iodide may refer to: Europium(II) iodide (europium diiodide), EuI2 Europium(III) iodide (europium triiodide), EuI3	{ "page_id": 72623504, "title": "Europium iodide" }
An extremophile (from Latin extremus 'extreme' and Ancient Greek φιλία (philía) 'love') is an organism that is able to live (or in some cases thrive) in extreme environments, i.e., environments with conditions approaching or stretching the limits of what known life can adapt to, such as extreme temperature, pressure, r...	{ "page_id": 9619, "title": "Extremophile" }
Some microorganisms have been found thriving inside rocks up to 1,900 feet (580 m) below the sea floor under 8,500 feet (2,600 m) of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, "You can find microbes everywhere—they're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherev...	{ "page_id": 9619, "title": "Extremophile" }
in hydrostatic pressures above 10 MPa (= 99 atm = 1,450 psi). Polyextremophile (mixed Latin/Greek compound for affection for many extremes): not a well-defined category itself – an organism that qualifies as an extremophile under more than one category. Psychrophile or cryophile: an organism with optimal growth at temp...	{ "page_id": 9619, "title": "Extremophile" }
makes use of physics, chemistry, astronomy, solar physics, biology, molecular biology, ecology, planetary science, geography, and geology to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and recognize biospheres that might be different from that on Earth. Astrobiologists are interested in extremophiles, as it all...	{ "page_id": 9619, "title": "Extremophile" }
Simulation Laboratory (MSL) maintained by the German Aerospace Center (DLR). On 29 April 2013, scientists at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by NASA, reported that, during spaceflight on the International Space Station, microbes seem to adapt to the space environment in ways "not observed on Earth" and in ways...	{ "page_id": 9619, "title": "Extremophile" }
reported that bacteria that feed on air discovered 2017 in Antarctica are likely not limited to Antarctica after discovering the two genes previously linked to their "atmospheric chemosynthesis" in soil of two other similar cold desert sites, which provides further information on this carbon sink and further strengthen...	{ "page_id": 9619, "title": "Extremophile" }
species have demonstrated higher gene expression for the alkane mono-oxygenase alkB at temperatures exceeding 60 °C (140 °F). The expression of this gene is a crucial precursor to the bioremediation process. Fungi that have been genetically modified with cold-adapted enzymes to tolerate differing pH levels and temperat...	{ "page_id": 9619, "title": "Extremophile" }
close to the acidity levels of battery acid or stomach acid. Exposure to the polluted water can greatly affect the health of plants, humans, and animals. However, a productive method of remediation is to introduce the extremophile, Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. This extremophile is useful for its bioleaching property. It ...	{ "page_id": 9619, "title": "Extremophile" }
population. In experiments exposing lepidopteran insects to gamma radiation, significant DNA damage was detected only at 20 Gy and higher doses, in contrast with human cells that showed similar damage at only 2 Gy. == Examples and recent findings == New sub-types of extremophiles are identified frequently and the sub-c...	{ "page_id": 9619, "title": "Extremophile" }
bleaching, food pasteurization, and surface decontamination of food packaging. DNA modifying enzymes such as Taq DNA polymerase and some Bacillus enzymes used in clinical diagnostics and starch liquefaction are produced commercially by several biotechnology companies. == DNA transfer == Over 65 prokaryotic species are ...	{ "page_id": 9619, "title": "Extremophile" }
by means of homologous recombination. Van Wolferen et al. noted that this DNA exchange process may be crucial under DNA damaging conditions such as high temperatures. It has also been suggested that DNA transfer in Sulfolobus may be an early form of sexual interaction similar to the more well-studied bacterial transfor...	{ "page_id": 9619, "title": "Extremophile" }
Thulium chloride may refer to: Thulium(II) chloride (thulium dichloride), TmCl2 Thulium(III) chloride (thulium trichloride), TmCl3	{ "page_id": 18163097, "title": "Thulium chloride" }
Ecology (from Ancient Greek οἶκος (oîkos) 'house' and -λογία (-logía) 'study of') is the natural science of the relationships among living organisms and their environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere levels. Ecology overlaps with the closely related sci...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
of organization spanning micro-level (e.g., cells) to a planetary scale (e.g., biosphere) phenomena. Ecosystems, for example, contain abiotic resources and interacting life forms (i.e., individual organisms that aggregate into populations which aggregate into distinct ecological communities). Because ecosystems are dyn...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
finer scale units, such as vegetation associations, climate, and soil types, and integrate this information to identify emergent patterns of uniform organization and processes that operate on local to regional, landscape, and chronological scales. To structure the study of ecology into a conceptually manageable framewo...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
of a species describes the environment over which a species is known to occur and the type of community that is formed as a result. More specifically, "habitats can be defined as regions in environmental space that are composed of multiple dimensions, each representing a biotic or abiotic environmental variable; that i...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
able to persist. The realized niche is the set of environmental plus ecological conditions under which a species persists. The Hutchinsonian niche is defined more technically as a "Euclidean hyperspace whose dimensions are defined as environmental variables and whose size is a function of the number of values that the ...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
organisms. The process and concept of ecosystem engineering are related to niche construction, but the former relates only to the physical modifications of the habitat whereas the latter also considers the evolutionary implications of physical changes to the environment and the feedback this causes on the process of na...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
forest, taiga, tundra, hot desert, and polar desert. Other researchers have recently categorized other biomes, such as the human and oceanic microbiomes. To a microbe, the human body is a habitat and a landscape. Microbiomes were discovered largely through advances in molecular genetics, which have revealed a hidden ri...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
death, birth, immigration, and emigration. An example of an introductory population model describes a closed population, such as on an island, where immigration and emigration does not take place. Hypotheses are evaluated with reference to a null hypothesis which states that random processes create the observed data. I...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
/ d t = 0 {\displaystyle \mathrm {d} N(t)/\mathrm {d} t=0} ), when the rates of increase and crowding are balanced, r / α {\displaystyle r/\alpha } . A common, analogous model fixes the equilibrium, r / α {\displaystyle r/\alpha } as K, which is known as the "carrying capacity." Population ecology builds upon these int...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
and ranging. Dispersal is usually distinguished from migration because it involves the one-way permanent movement of individuals from their birth population into another population. In metapopulation terminology, migrating individuals are classed as emigrants (when they leave a region) or immigrants (when they enter a ...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
a dynamically responsive system having both physical and biological complexes. Ecosystem ecology is the science of determining the fluxes of materials (e.g. carbon, phosphorus) between different pools (e.g., tree biomass, soil organic material). Ecosystem ecologists attempt to determine the underlying causes of these f...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
are generally restricted to a specific habitat, such as a cave or a pond, and principles gleaned from small-scale studies are extrapolated to larger systems. Feeding relations require extensive investigations, e.g. into the gut contents of organisms, which can be difficult to decipher, or stable isotopes can be used to...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
autotrophs (or primary producers), heterotrophs (or consumers), and Detritivores (or decomposers). Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own food (production is greater than respiration) by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Heterotrophs are organisms that must feed on others for nourishment and energy (respiratio...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
species results in a range of dramatic cascading effects (termed trophic cascades) that alters trophic dynamics, other food web connections, and can cause the extinction of other species. The term keystone species was coined by Robert Paine in 1969 and is a reference to the keystone architectural feature as the removal...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
units that superimpose onto the smaller parts. "What were wholes on one level become parts on a higher one.": 209 Small scale patterns do not necessarily explain large scale phenomena, otherwise captured in the expression (coined by Aristotle) 'the sum is greater than the parts'. "Complexity in ecology is of at least s...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
be identified but nothing is understood about the causal relations without reference to the whole system, which leads to 3) a metaphysical hierarchy whereby the causal relations of larger systems are understood without reference to the smaller parts. Scientific holism differs from mysticism that has appropriated the sa...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
organisms can exhibit behaviours. Even plants express complex behaviour, including memory and communication. Behavioural ecology is the study of an organism's behaviour in its environment and its ecological and evolutionary implications. Ethology is the study of observable movement or behaviour in animals. This could i...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
The birds-of-paradise, for example, sing and display elaborate ornaments during courtship. These displays serve a dual purpose of signalling healthy or well-adapted individuals and desirable genes. The displays are driven by sexual selection as an advertisement of quality of traits among suitors. === Cognitive ecology ...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
selectively advantageous for groups if their members express altruistic behaviours to one another. Groups with predominantly altruistic members survive better than groups with predominantly selfish members. === Coevolution === Ecological interactions can be classified broadly into a host and an associate relationship. ...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
specialize on the locally common genetic defense systems of its host that drives the evolution of sexual reproduction to diversify the genetic constituency of populations responding to the antagonistic pressure. === Biogeography === Biogeography (an amalgamation of biology and geography) is the comparative study of the...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
initial increase in population size is not limited by competition, leaving an abundance of available resources for rapid population growth. These early phases of population growth experience density-independent forces of natural selection, which is called r-selection. As the population becomes more crowded, it approach...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
science with the publication of his book, Molecular Markers, Natural History and Evolution. Newer technologies opened a wave of genetic analysis into organisms once difficult to study from an ecological or evolutionary standpoint, such as bacteria, fungi, and nematodes. Molecular ecology engendered a new research parad...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
but moves beyond the field of human ecology. Ecosystems tie into human societies through the critical and all-encompassing life-supporting functions they sustain. In recognition of these functions and the incapability of traditional economic valuation methods to see the value in ecosystems, there has been a surge of in...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
science is used in the methods of sustainable harvesting, disease, and fire outbreak management, in fisheries stock management, for integrating land-use with protected areas and communities, and conservation in complex geo-political landscapes. == Relation to the environment == The environment of ecosystems includes bo...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
or environmental factor can concurrently affect the dynamic state of an entire ecosystem. === Disturbance and resilience === A disturbance is any process that changes or removes biomass from a community, such as a fire, flood, drought, or predation. Disturbances are both the cause and product of natural fluctuations wi...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
The evolution of the earliest organisms, likely anaerobic methanogen microbes, started the process by converting atmospheric hydrogen into methane (4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O). Anoxygenic photosynthesis reduced hydrogen concentrations and increased atmospheric methane, by converting hydrogen sulfide into water or other sul...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
Autotrophs—responsible for primary production—assimilate light energy which becomes metabolically stored as potential energy in the form of biochemical enthalpic bonds. === Physical environments === ==== Water ==== Diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen is approximately 10,000 times slower in water than in air. When so...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
is uneven and influences the shape and movement of tectonic plates as well as influencing geomorphic processes such as orogeny and erosion. These forces govern many of the geophysical properties and distributions of ecological biomes across the Earth. On the organismal scale, gravitational forces provide directional cu...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
affected by circulation patterns in the global trade winds. Wind power and the turbulent forces it creates can influence heat, nutrient, and biochemical profiles of ecosystems. For example, wind running over the surface of a lake creates turbulence, mixing the water column and influencing the environmental profile to c...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
forest fire suppression and management in the 1960s. Native North Americans were among the first to influence fire regimes by controlling their spread near their homes or by lighting fires to stimulate the production of herbaceous foods and basketry materials. Fire creates a heterogeneous ecosystem age and canopy struc...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
feed and migrate through soils they physically displace materials, an ecological process called bioturbation. This aerates soils and stimulates heterotrophic growth and production. Soil microorganisms are influenced by and are fed back into the trophic dynamics of the ecosystem. No single axis of causality can be disce...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
the ecology of the land. For example, through the early-mid Eocene volcanic outgassing, the oxidation of methane stored in wetlands, and seafloor gases increased atmospheric CO2 (carbon dioxide) concentrations to levels as high as 3500 ppm. In the Oligocene, from twenty-five to thirty-two million years ago, there was a...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
=== Early beginnings === Ecology has a complex origin, due in large part to its interdisciplinary nature. Ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates and Aristotle were among the first to record observations on natural history. However, they viewed life in terms of essentialism, where species were conceptualized as ...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
and even alluded to concepts that are the foundation of a modern ecological law on species-to-area relationships. Natural historians, such as Humboldt, James Hutton, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (among others) laid the foundations of the modern ecological sciences. The term "ecology" (German: Oekologie, Ökologie) was coin...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
Origin of Species. Evolutionary theory changed the way that researchers approached the ecological sciences. === Since 1900 === Modern ecology is a young science that first attracted substantial scientific attention toward the end of the 19th century (around the same time that evolutionary studies were gaining scientifi...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
text. Alfred J. Lotka brought in many theoretical concepts applying thermodynamic principles to ecology. In 1942, Raymond Lindeman wrote a landmark paper on the trophic dynamics of ecology, which was published posthumously after initially being rejected for its theoretical emphasis. Trophic dynamics became the foundati...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
ecological science to link the release of environmental toxins to human and ecosystem health. Since then, ecologists have worked to bridge their understanding of the degradation of the planet's ecosystems with environmental politics, law, restoration, and natural resources management. == See also == Lists == Notes == =...	{ "page_id": 9630, "title": "Ecology" }
An ecosystem (or ecological system) is a system formed by organisms in interaction with their environment.: 458 The biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Ecosystems are controlled by external and internal factors. External factors—including climate and what parent m...	{ "page_id": 9632, "title": "Ecosystem" }
system through photosynthesis, building up plant tissue. Animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system, by feeding on plants and on one another. They also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers release car...	{ "page_id": 9632, "title": "Ecosystem" }
to "take place at a wide range of scales". Therefore, the correct scale of study depends on the question asked.: 5 === Origin and development of the term === The term "ecosystem" was first used in 1935 in a publication by British ecologist Arthur Tansley. The term was coined by Arthur Roy Clapham, who came up with the ...	{ "page_id": 9632, "title": "Ecosystem" }
the factor that "most strongly determines ecosystem processes and structure".: 14 Climate determines the biome in which the ecosystem is embedded. Rainfall patterns and seasonal temperatures influence photosynthesis and thereby determine the amount of energy available to the ecosystem.: 145 Parent material determines t...	{ "page_id": 9632, "title": "Ecosystem" }
the carbon cycle, which influences global climate via the greenhouse effect. Through the process of photosynthesis, plants capture energy from light and use it to combine carbon dioxide and water to produce carbohydrates and oxygen. The photosynthesis carried out by all the plants in an ecosystem is called the gross pr...	{ "page_id": 9632, "title": "Ecosystem" }
the ecosystem. Net ecosystem production is the difference between gross primary production (GPP) and ecosystem respiration. In the absence of disturbance, net ecosystem production is equivalent to the net carbon accumulation in the ecosystem. Energy can also be released from an ecosystem through disturbances such as wi...	{ "page_id": 9632, "title": "Ecosystem" }
and nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted.: 183 Decomposition processes can be separated into three categories—leaching, fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material. As water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water-soluble components. These are then ...	{ "page_id": 9632, "title": "Ecosystem" }
properties), the quantity and quality of the dead material available to decomposers, and the nature of the microbial community itself.: 194 Temperature controls the rate of microbial respiration; the higher the temperature, the faster the microbial decomposition occurs. Temperature also affects soil moisture, which aff...	{ "page_id": 9632, "title": "Ecosystem" }
soil from bare rock and the faster recovery of a community from disturbance.: 67 Disturbance also plays an important role in ecological processes. F. Stuart Chapin and coauthors define disturbance as "a relatively discrete event in time that removes plant biomass".: 346 This can range from herbivore outbreaks, treefall...	{ "page_id": 9632, "title": "Ecosystem" }
forth between plants, animals, microbes and the soil. Most nitrogen enters ecosystems through biological nitrogen fixation, is deposited through precipitation, dust, gases or is applied as fertilizer.: 266 Most terrestrial ecosystems are nitrogen-limited in the short term making nitrogen cycling an important control on...	{ "page_id": 9632, "title": "Ecosystem" }
from dead organic matter in the soil, where plants, fungi, and bacteria compete for it. Some soil bacteria use organic nitrogen-containing compounds as a source of carbon, and release ammonium ions into the soil. This process is known as nitrogen mineralization. Others convert ammonium to nitrite and nitrate ions, a pr...	{ "page_id": 9632, "title": "Ecosystem" }
level of limiting similarity—they must be different from one another in some fundamental way, otherwise, one species would competitively exclude the other. Despite this, the cumulative effect of additional species in an ecosystem is not linear: additional species may enhance nitrogen retention, for example. However, be...	{ "page_id": 9632, "title": "Ecosystem" }
the next several decades. Ecosystems can be studied through a variety of approaches—theoretical studies, studies monitoring specific ecosystems over long periods of time, those that look at differences between ecosystems to elucidate how they work and direct manipulative experimentation. Studies can be carried out at a...	{ "page_id": 9632, "title": "Ecosystem" }
four elements of the definition of ecosystems: a biotic component, an abiotic complex, the interactions between and within them, and the physical space they occupy. Different approaches to ecological classifications have been developed in terrestrial, freshwater and marine disciplines, and a function-based typology has...	{ "page_id": 9632, "title": "Ecosystem" }

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