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resilience and biocapacity. The report refers to natural systems as humanity's "life-support system", providing essential ecosystem services. The assessment measures 24 ecosystem services and concludes that only four have shown improvement over the last 50 years, 15 are in serious decline, and five are in a precarious ...	{ "page_id": 9632, "title": "Ecosystem" }
of the ecosystem or to gradual disruption of biotic processes and degradation of abiotic conditions of the ecosystem. Once the original ecosystem has lost its defining features, it is considered collapsed (see also IUCN Red List of Ecosystems). Ecosystem collapse could be reversible and in this way differs from species...	{ "page_id": 9632, "title": "Ecosystem" }
In mathematics, a Lagrangian system is a pair (Y, L), consisting of a smooth fiber bundle Y → X and a Lagrangian density L, which yields the Euler–Lagrange differential operator acting on sections of Y → X. In classical mechanics, many dynamical systems are Lagrangian systems. The configuration space of such a Lagrangi...	{ "page_id": 24585634, "title": "Lagrangian system" }
\delta _{i}{\mathcal {L}}=\partial _{i}{\mathcal {L}}+\sum _{\|\Lambda \|}(-1)^{\|\Lambda \|}\,d_{\Lambda }\,\partial _{i}^{\Lambda }{\mathcal {L}},} where d Λ = d λ 1 ⋯ d λ k , d λ = ∂ λ + y λ i ∂ i + ⋯ , {\displaystyle d_{\Lambda }=d_{\lambda _{1}}\cdots d_{\lambda _{k}},\qquad d_{\lambda }=\partial _{\lambda }+y_{\lambd...	{ "page_id": 24585634, "title": "Lagrangian system" }
A solution of the equations of motion is called a motion. == See also == Lagrangian mechanics Calculus of variations Noether's theorem Noether identities Jet bundle Jet (mathematics) Variational bicomplex == References == Arnold, V. I. (1989). Mathematical Methods of Classical Mechanics. Graduate Texts in Mathematics. ...	{ "page_id": 24585634, "title": "Lagrangian system" }
A biocenosis (UK English, biocoenosis, also biocenose, biocoenose, biotic community, biological community, ecological community, life assemblage), coined by Karl Möbius in 1877, describes the interacting organisms living together in a habitat (biotope). The use of this term has declined in the 21st сentury. In the pala...	{ "page_id": 206243, "title": "Biocoenosis" }
needing environmental protection, such as the British Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs). The Australian Department of the Environment and Heritage maintains a register of Threatened Species and Threatened Ecological Communities under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act)...	{ "page_id": 206243, "title": "Biocoenosis" }
The reticular membrane (RM, also called reticular lamina or apical cuticular plate) is a thin, stiff lamina that extends from the outer hair cells to the Hensen's cells. The RM is composed of "minute-fiddle-shaped cuticular structures" called the phalangeal extensions of the outer hair cells, interspaced with extension...	{ "page_id": 39003555, "title": "Reticular membrane" }
In electrical circuits, reactance is the opposition presented to alternating current by inductance and capacitance. It's measured in Ω (Ohms). Along with resistance, it is one of two elements of impedance; however, while both elements involve transfer of electrical energy, no dissipation of electrical energy as heat oc...	{ "page_id": 140710, "title": "Electrical reactance" }
the main circuit elements that have reactance (capacitors and inductors) have a frequency dependent reactance, unlike resistors which have the same resistance for all frequencies, at least in the ideal case. The term reactance was first suggested by French engineer Édouard Hospitalier in L'Industrie Electrique on 10 Ma...	{ "page_id": 140710, "title": "Electrical reactance" }
reactance approaches 0 {\displaystyle 0} , behaving like a short circuit. The application of a DC voltage across a capacitor causes positive charge to accumulate on one side and negative charge to accumulate on the other side; the electric field due to the accumulated charge is the source of the opposition to the curre...	{ "page_id": 140710, "title": "Electrical reactance" }
(and capacitive reactance, however inductive reactance is more common) can limit the power capacity of an AC transmission line, because power is not completely transferred when voltage and current are out-of-phase (detailed above). That is, current will flow for an out-of-phase system, however real power at certain tim...	{ "page_id": 140710, "title": "Electrical reactance" }
in series with a square wave AC voltage source of RMS amplitude A {\displaystyle A} and frequency f {\displaystyle f} is equal to: I L = A π 2 8 ω L = A π 16 f L {\displaystyle I_{L}={A\pi ^{2} \over 8\omega L}={A\pi \over 16fL}} making it appear as if the inductive reactance to a square wave was about 19% smaller X L ...	{ "page_id": 140710, "title": "Electrical reactance" }
R = Re ( Z ) {\displaystyle {R={\text{Re}}{(\mathbf {Z} )}}} X {\displaystyle X} is the reactance, measured in ohms. It is the imaginary part of the impedance: X = Im ( Z ) {\displaystyle {X={\text{Im}}{(\mathbf {Z} )}}} j {\displaystyle \mathbf {j} } is the square root of minus one, usually represented by i {\displays...	{ "page_id": 140710, "title": "Electrical reactance" }
voltage across a purely reactive device (i.e. with zero parasitic resistance) lags the current by π 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\pi }{2}}} radians for a capacitive reactance and leads the current by π 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\pi }{2}}} radians for an inductive reactance. Without knowledge of both the resistance and rea...	{ "page_id": 140710, "title": "Electrical reactance" }
A mechanical system is scleronomous if the equations of constraints do not contain the time as an explicit variable and the equation of constraints can be described by generalized coordinates. Such constraints are called scleronomic constraints. The opposite of scleronomous is rheonomous. == Application == In 3-D space...	{ "page_id": 7677352, "title": "Scleronomous" }
q_{i}}}\cdot {\frac {\partial \mathbf {r} }{\partial q_{j}}}{\dot {q}}_{i}{\dot {q}}_{j},\end{aligned}}} where T 0 {\displaystyle T_{0}\,\!} , T 1 {\displaystyle T_{1}\,\!} , T 2 {\displaystyle T_{2}} are respectively homogeneous functions of degree 0, 1, and 2 in generalized velocities. If this system is scleronomous,...	{ "page_id": 7677352, "title": "Scleronomous" }
0 cos ⁡ ω t ) 2 + y 2 − L = 0. {\displaystyle {\sqrt {(x-x_{0}\cos \omega t)^{2}+y^{2}}}-L=0.} == See also == Lagrangian mechanics Holonomic system Nonholonomic system Rheonomous Mass matrix == References ==	{ "page_id": 7677352, "title": "Scleronomous" }
In radiometry, photometry, and color science, a spectral power distribution (SPD) measurement describes the power per unit area per unit wavelength of an illumination (radiant exitance). More generally, the term spectral power distribution can refer to the concentration, as a function of wavelength, of any radiometric ...	{ "page_id": 1320360, "title": "Spectral power distribution" }
luminance of lighting fixtures and other light sources are handled separately, a spectral power distribution may be normalized in some manner, often to unity at 555 or 560 nanometers, coinciding with the peak of the eye's luminosity function. == Responsivity == The SPD can be used to determine the response of a sensor ...	{ "page_id": 1320360, "title": "Spectral power distribution" }
metamerisms where an object's color appearance changes. The spectral makeup of the source can also coincide with color temperature producing differences in color appearance due to the source's temperature. == See also == == References == == External links == Spectral Power Distribution Curves, GE Lighting.	{ "page_id": 1320360, "title": "Spectral power distribution" }
The molecular formula C10H16N5O13P3 (molar mass: 507.18 g/mol) may refer to: Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Deoxyguanosine triphosphate (dGTP)	{ "page_id": 5776811, "title": "C10H16N5O13P3" }
McStas is free and open-source (GNU General Public License) software simulator for neutron scattering experiments. McStas is an abbreviation for Monte carlo Simulation of triple axis spectrometers, but the software can be used to simulate all types of neutron scattering instruments. The software is based on both Monte ...	{ "page_id": 23995819, "title": "McStas" }
In genetics, two organisms that differ in only one locus and a linked segment of chromosome are defined as congenic. Similarly, organisms that are coisogenic differ in one locus only and not in the surrounding chromosome. Unlike congenic organisms, coisogenic organisms cannot be bred and only occur through spontaneous ...	{ "page_id": 7153075, "title": "Congenic" }
Victor Chandler Twitty (November 5, 1901 — March 22, 1967) was an American biologist and embryologist. Twitty was chair of the biological sciences department, Stanford University, president of the American Society of Zoologists, a member of the National Academy of Sciences, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences...	{ "page_id": 34350515, "title": "Victor C. Twitty" }
A mechanical system is rheonomous if its equations of constraints contain the time as an explicit variable. Such constraints are called rheonomic constraints. The opposite of rheonomous is scleronomous. == Example: simple 2D pendulum == As shown at right, a simple pendulum is a system composed of a weight and a string....	{ "page_id": 7677370, "title": "Rheonomous" }
Hard hadronic reactions are hadron reactions in which the main role is played by quarks and gluons and which are well described by perturbation theory in QCD. All hadrons discovered so far fit into the standard picture, in which they are colorless composite particles built from quarks and antiquarks. The characteristic...	{ "page_id": 60892603, "title": "Hard hadronic reaction" }
RegTransBase is database of regulatory interactions and transcription factor binding sites in prokaryotes == See also == Transcription factors == References == == External links == http://regtransbase.lbl.gov.	{ "page_id": 30483900, "title": "RegTransBase" }
Conservation status is a measure used in conservation biology to assess an ecoregion's degree of habitat alteration and habitat conservation. It is used to set priorities for conservation. Ecoregion Conservation Status refers to the assessment and categorization of the ecological health, biodiversity, and threats faced...	{ "page_id": 206272, "title": "Ecoregion conservation status" }
encroachment of invasive species Stable/Intact: These areas are in relatively good health, showing signs of well-preserved and thriving biodiversity, with minimal habitat loss. While these ecoregions require monitoring, immediate intervention is not needed. The selection process for the Global 200 is tedious and thorou...	{ "page_id": 206272, "title": "Ecoregion conservation status" }
sources of success are utilized to gauge the pace of improvement This method of framework aids in identifying conservation targets, understanding degradation, and continuing with effective strategies for the rehabilitation of falling ecoregions. Systems: conversation target in a system along with the process to maintai...	{ "page_id": 206272, "title": "Ecoregion conservation status" }
the IUCN Red Listing system to setting species targets for conservation planning purposes. Biodiversity and Conservation, 20, 1001-1012.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0009-0 == References ==	{ "page_id": 206272, "title": "Ecoregion conservation status" }
A list of chemical analysis methods with acronyms. == A == Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (AFS) Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer (APXS) == C == Capillary electrophoresis (CE) Chromatography Colorimetry Computed tomography Cyclic Voltammetry (CV)...	{ "page_id": 13116867, "title": "List of chemical analysis methods" }
Nujol is a brand of light paraffin oil that was produced by Schering-Plough that was commonly used in infrared spectroscopy. As a paraffin oil it is largely chemically inert and has a relatively uncomplicated IR spectrum, with major peaks between 2950-2800, 1465-1450, and 1380–1300 cm−1. Nujol is primarily a mixture of...	{ "page_id": 4138437, "title": "Nujol" }
Evolutionism is a term used (often derogatorily) to denote the theory of evolution. Its exact meaning has changed over time as the study of evolution has progressed. In the 19th century, it was used to describe the belief that organisms deliberately improved themselves through progressive inherited change (orthogenesis...	{ "page_id": 9670, "title": "Evolutionism" }
evolution used during the later part of what Trigger calls the Antiquarianism-Imperial Synthesis period (c1770-c1900). The term evolutionism subsequently came to be used for the now discredited theory that evolution contained a deliberate component, rather than the selection of beneficial traits from random variation b...	{ "page_id": 9670, "title": "Evolutionism" }
impious corollary, chance") Review of Charles Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals The Times Friday, December 13, 1872; pg. 4; Issue 27559; col A. ("His [Darwin's] thorough-going 'evolutionism' tends to eliminate...") Ruse, Michael. 2003. Is Evolution a Secular Religion? Science 299:1523-1524 (con...	{ "page_id": 9670, "title": "Evolutionism" }
A safety data sheet (SDS), material safety data sheet (MSDS), or product safety data sheet (PSDS) is a document that lists information relating to occupational safety and health for the use of various substances and products. SDSs are a widely used type of fact sheet used to catalogue information on chemical species in...	{ "page_id": 337353, "title": "Safety data sheet" }
1.4. Emergency telephone number SECTION 2: Hazards identification 2.1. Classification of the substance or mixture 2.2. Label elements 2.3. Other hazards SECTION 3: Composition/information on ingredients 3.1. Substances 3.2. Mixtures SECTION 4: First aid measures 4.1. Description of first aid measures 4.2. Most importan...	{ "page_id": 337353, "title": "Safety data sheet" }
of the latest revision of the SDS == National and international requirements == === Canada === In Canada, the program known as the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) establishes the requirements for SDSs in workplaces and is administered federally by Health Canada under the Hazardous Products Act,...	{ "page_id": 337353, "title": "Safety data sheet" }
web site offered by the University of Groningen. === South Africa === This section contributes to a better understanding of the regulations governing SDS within the South African framework. As regulations may change, it is the responsibility of the reader to verify the validity of the regulations mentioned in text. As ...	{ "page_id": 337353, "title": "Safety data sheet" }
government gazette or on the official website. Lastly, subordinate legislation are the bylaws issued by local authorities and authorised by parliament. Statutory law gives effect to the Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993 and the National Road Traffic Act of 1996. The Occupational Health and Safety Act details t...	{ "page_id": 337353, "title": "Safety data sheet" }
The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations govern the use of hazardous substances in the workplace in the UK and specifically require an assessment of the use of a substance. Regulation 12 requires that an employer provides employees with information, instruction and training for people exposed t...	{ "page_id": 337353, "title": "Safety data sheet" }
Hazard Study analyzed 140 data sheets of substances capable of producing combustible dusts. None of the SDSs contained all the information the board said was needed to work with the material safely, and 41 percent failed to even mention that the substance was combustible. As part of its study of an explosion and fire t...	{ "page_id": 337353, "title": "Safety data sheet" }
phrases for labeling dangerous chemicals and compounds == References ==	{ "page_id": 337353, "title": "Safety data sheet" }
An endosymbiont or endobiont is an organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism. Typically the two organisms are in a mutualistic relationship. Examples are nitrogen-fixing bacteria (called rhizobia), which live in the root nodules of legumes, single-cell algae inside reef-building corals, and bacte...	{ "page_id": 9677, "title": "Endosymbiont" }
biosis "living". == Symbiogenesis == Symbiogenesis theory holds that eukaryotes evolved via absorbing prokaryotes. Typically, one organism envelopes a bacterium and the two evolve a mutualistic relationship. The absorbed bacterium (the endosymbiont) eventually lives exclusively within the host cells. This fits the conc...	{ "page_id": 9677, "title": "Endosymbiont" }
interaction allows genetic exchange between both organisms involved to increase the propensity for novel functions as seen in the plant-bacterium interaction (holobiont formation). === Vertical === Vertical transmission takes place when the symbiont moves directly from parent to offspring. In horizontal transmission ea...	{ "page_id": 9677, "title": "Endosymbiont" }
===== Primary ===== Among primary endosymbionts of insects, the best-studied are the pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) and its endosymbiont Buchnera sp. APS, the tsetse fly Glossina morsitans morsitans and its endosymbiont Wigglesworthia glossinidia brevipalpis and the endosymbiotic protists in lower termites. As with en...	{ "page_id": 9677, "title": "Endosymbiont" }
insect cell. A complementary theory suggests that the relatively small numbers of bacteria inside each insect decrease the efficiency of natural selection in 'purging' deleterious mutations and small mutations from the population, resulting in a loss of genes over many millions of years. Research in which a parallel ph...	{ "page_id": 9677, "title": "Endosymbiont" }
of tsetse flies that lives inter- and intracellularly in various host tissues, including the midgut and hemolymph. Phylogenetic studies do not report a correlation between evolution of Sodalis and tsetse. Unlike Wigglesworthia, Sodalis has been cultured in vitro. Cardinium and many other insects have secondary endosymb...	{ "page_id": 9677, "title": "Endosymbiont" }
provide their hosts with energy via carbonate deposition. Previously thought to be a single species, molecular phylogenetic evidence reported diversity in Symbiodinium. In some cases, the host requires a specific Symbiodinium clade. More often, however, the distribution is ecological, with symbionts switching among hos...	{ "page_id": 9677, "title": "Endosymbiont" }
in low nutrient conditions. Cell division for both the diatom host and cyanobacterial symbiont can be uncoupled and mechanisms for passing bacterial symbionts to daughter cells during cell division are still relatively unknown. Other endosymbiosis with nitrogen fixers in open oceans include Calothrix in Chaetoceros spp...	{ "page_id": 9677, "title": "Endosymbiont" }
level. Hatena arenicola is a flagellate protist with a complicated feeding apparatus that feeds on other microbes. When it engulfs a green Nephroselmis alga, the feeding apparatus disappears and it becomes photosynthetic. During mitosis the algae is transferred to only one of the daughter cells, while the other cell re...	{ "page_id": 9677, "title": "Endosymbiont" }
their individual biological processes and functions. ==== Fungal endophytes ==== Fungal endophytes can be found in all plant tissues. Fungi living below the ground amidst plant roots are known as mycorrhiza, but are further categorized based on their location inside the root, with prefixes such as ecto, endo, arbuscula...	{ "page_id": 9677, "title": "Endosymbiont" }
from Boswellia sacra produce indole acetic acid hormone to promote plant health and development. Aphids can be found in most plants. Carnivorous ladybirds are aphid predators and are used in pest control. Plant endophytic fungus Neotyphodium lolii produces alkaloid mycotoxins in response to aphid invasions. In response...	{ "page_id": 9677, "title": "Endosymbiont" }
Archaea endosymbionts ==== Archaea are members of most microbiomes. While archaea are abundant in extreme environments, they are less abundant and diverse in association with eukaryotic hosts. Nevertheless, archaea are a substantial constituent of plant-associated ecosystems in the aboveground and belowground phytobiom...	{ "page_id": 9677, "title": "Endosymbiont" }
turn, may influence the effect the fungus has on its plant host. Another interesting example of a bacterium living in symbiosis with a fungus is the fungus Mortierella. This soil-dwelling fungus lives in close association with a toxin-producing bacteria, Mycoavidus, which helps the fungus defend against nematodes. In 2...	{ "page_id": 9677, "title": "Endosymbiont" }
The von Braun amide degradation is the chemical reaction of a monosubstituted amide with phosphorus pentachloride or thionyl chloride to give a nitrile and an organohalide. It is named after Julius Jacob von Braun, who first reported the reaction. == Reaction mechanism == The secondary amide 1 reacts via its enolized f...	{ "page_id": 4924885, "title": "Von Braun amide degradation" }
Janwillem van den Berg (26 November 1920 in Akkrum – 18 October 1985 in Groningen) was a Dutch speech scientist and medical physicist who played a major role in establishing the myoelastic-aerodynamic theory of voice production. The most notable aspect of van den Berg's theory is its impact on modern speech science in ...	{ "page_id": 1975770, "title": "Janwillem van den Berg" }
Limonene () is a colorless liquid aliphatic hydrocarbon classified as a cyclic monoterpene, and is the major component in the essential oil of citrus fruit peels. The (+)-isomer, occurring more commonly in nature as the fragrance of oranges, is a flavoring agent in food manufacturing. It is also used in chemical synthe...	{ "page_id": 1779163, "title": "Limonene" }
°C. When warmed with mineral acid, limonene isomerizes to the conjugated diene α-terpinene (which can also easily be converted to p-cymene). Evidence for this isomerization includes the formation of Diels–Alder adducts between α-terpinene adducts and maleic anhydride. It is possible to effect reaction at one of the dou...	{ "page_id": 1779163, "title": "Limonene" }
of orange juice manufacture). It is used as a paint stripper and is also useful as a fragrant alternative to turpentine. Limonene is also used as a solvent in some model airplane glues and as a constituent in some paints. Commercial air fresheners, with air propellants, containing limonene are used by stamp collectors ...	{ "page_id": 1779163, "title": "Limonene" }
Environmental Protection Agency	{ "page_id": 1779163, "title": "Limonene" }
Earths were defined by the Ancient Greeks as "materials that could not be changed further by the sources of heat then available". Several oxides were thought to be earths, such as aluminum oxide and magnesium oxide. It was not discovered until 1808 that these weren't elements but metallic oxides. == See also == Rare ea...	{ "page_id": 992733, "title": "Earth (historical chemistry)" }
The self-consistency principle was established by Rolf Hagedorn in 1965 to explain the thermodynamics of fireballs in high energy physics collisions. A thermodynamical approach to the high energy collisions first proposed by E. Fermi. == Partition function == The partition function of the fireballs can be written in tw...	{ "page_id": 39396833, "title": "Self-consistency principle in high energy physics" }
1 {\displaystyle Z_{q}(V_{o},T)={\bigg (}{\frac {1}{\beta -\beta _{o}}}{\bigg )}^{\alpha }-1} where a singularity is clearly observed for β {\displaystyle \beta } → β o {\displaystyle \beta _{o}} . This singularity determines the limiting temperature T o = 1 / β o {\displaystyle \textstyle T_{o}=1/\beta _{o}} in Hagedo...	{ "page_id": 39396833, "title": "Self-consistency principle in high energy physics" }
Evolutionary psychology is a theoretical approach in psychology that examines cognition and behavior from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify human psychological adaptations with regard to the ancestral problems they evolved to solve. In this framework, psychological traits and mechanisms are either...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
issues due to interpretations of research results. == Scope == === Principles === Its central assumption is that the human brain is composed of a large number of specialized mechanisms that were shaped by natural selection over a vast period of time to solve the recurrent information-processing problems faced by our an...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
perceptional data, e.g. a visual image of a spider, and outputs the appropriate reaction, e.g. fear of possibly dangerous animals. Under this view, any domain-general learning is impossible because of the combinatorial explosion. Evolutionary Psychology specifies the domain as the problems of survival and reproduction....	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
are specialized for solving problems in humanity's evolutionary past. The brain has evolved specialized neural mechanisms that were designed for solving problems that recurred over deep evolutionary time, giving modern humans stone-age minds. Most contents and processes of the brain are unconscious; and most mental pro...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
and Karl von Frisch. W.D. Hamilton's (1964) papers on inclusive fitness and Robert Trivers's (1972) theories on reciprocity and parental investment helped to establish evolutionary thinking in psychology and the other social sciences. In 1975, Edward O. Wilson combined evolutionary theory with studies of animal and soc...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
(DIT), developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s, has a slightly different perspective by trying to explain how human behavior is a product of two different and interacting evolutionary processes: genetic evolution and cultural evolution. DIT is seen by some as a "middle-ground" between views that emphasize human uni...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
organism's social traits in such a way that (statistically) results in helping the survival and reproduction of other copies of the same genes (most simply, identical copies in the organism's close relatives). According to Hamilton's rule, self-sacrificing behaviors (and the genes influencing them) can evolve if they t...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
the Baldwin effect. == Evolved psychological mechanisms == Evolutionary psychology is based on the hypothesis that, just like hearts, lungs, livers, kidneys, and immune systems, cognition has a functional structure that has a genetic basis, and therefore has evolved by natural selection. Like other organs and tissues, ...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
through these types of circumstances helps mammals cope with separation anxiety. === Historical topics === Proponents of evolutionary psychology in the 1990s made some explorations in historical events, but the response from historical experts was highly negative and there has been little effort to continue that line o...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
to identify which psychological traits are likely to be adaptations, byproducts or random variation. George C. Williams suggested that an "adaptation is a special and onerous concept that should only be used where it is really necessary." As noted by Williams and others, adaptations can be identified by their improbabl...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
that reflect the different reproductive strategies of males and females. It has been found that both male and female personality traits differ on a large spectrum. Males had a higher rate of traits relating to dominance, tension, and directness. Females had higher rates organizational behavior and more emotional based ...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
ancestors of modern humans lived in smaller groups, had more cohesive cultures, and had more stable and rich contexts for identity and meaning. Researchers look to existing hunter-gatherer societies for clues as to how hunter-gatherers lived in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness. Unfortunately, the few survivi...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
rabbits and flowers) were not. There is thus a mismatch between humans' evolved fear-learning psychology and the modern environment. This mismatch also shows up in the phenomena of the supernormal stimulus, a stimulus that elicits a response more strongly than the stimulus for which the response evolved. The term was c...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
are expected to be presented as proximate mechanisms that interact with the environment in either a generally obligate or facultative fashion (see above). Evolutionary psychologists are also interested in identifying these proximate mechanisms (sometimes termed "mental mechanisms" or "psychological adaptations") and wh...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
to consciousness. In contrast, others have argued that the recursive circuitry underwriting consciousness is much more primitive, having evolved initially in pre-mammalian species because it improves the capacity for interaction with both social and natural environments by providing an energy-saving "neutral" gear in a...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
they say, depth perception seems to have evolved not to help us know the distances to other objects but rather to help us move around in space. Evolutionary psychologists say that animals from fiddler crabs to humans use eyesight for collision avoidance, suggesting that vision is basically for directing action, not pro...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
humans have an intrinsic hunger for salty and sweet tastes. The sense of touch is actually many senses, including pressure, heat, cold, tickle, and pain. Pain, while unpleasant, is adaptive. An important adaptation for senses is range shifting, by which the organism becomes temporarily more or less sensitive to sensati...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
spatial problems faster and more accurately than females, due to the effects of male hormones during development. The same might be true of humans. ==== Emotion and motivation ==== Motivations direct and energize behavior, while emotions provide the affective component to motivation, positive or negative. In the early ...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
random sequences. "Gamblers' Fallacy" is one example of this. Gamblers may falsely believe that they have hit a "lucky streak" even when each outcome is actually random and independent of previous trials. Most people believe that if a fair coin has been flipped 9 times and Heads appears each time, that on the tenth fli...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
the population is generally trusting and gullible, the behavioral morph of being a "cheater" (or, in the extreme case, a sociopath) may be advantageous. Finally, like many other psychological adaptations, personality traits may be facultative – sensitive to typical variations in the social environment, especially durin...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
psychologists hold that the FOXP2 gene may well be associated with the evolution of human language. In the 1980s, psycholinguist Myrna Gopnik identified a dominant gene that causes language impairment in the KE family of Britain. This gene turned out to be a mutation of the FOXP2 gene. Humans have a unique allele of th...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
pan-adaptionist view of evolution, and dismisses Pinker and Bloom's question of whether "Language has evolved as an adaptation" as being misleading. He argues instead that from a biological viewpoint the evolutionary origins of language is best conceptualized as being the probable result of a convergence of many separa...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
that anisogamy typically results in different levels of parental investment between the sexes, with females initially investing more. Trivers proposed that this difference in parental investment leads to the sexual selection of different reproductive strategies between the sexes and to sexual conflict. For example, he ...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
are distinct. Women, on average, should prefer a mate who can offer resources (e.g., financial, commitment), thus, a woman risks losing such resources with a mate who commits emotional infidelity. Men, on the other hand, are never certain of the genetic paternity of their children because they do not bear the offspring...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
competition; these traits may act as cues that would help women predict which men may have, or would be able to acquire, resources. === Parenting === Reproduction is always costly for women, and can also be for men. Individuals are limited in the degree to which they can devote time and resources to producing and raisi...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
(1996) noted: "Evolutionary thinking led to the discovery of the most important risk factor for child homicide – the presence of a stepparent. Parental efforts and investments are valuable resources, and selection favors those parental psyches that allocate effort effectively to promote fitness. The adaptive problems t...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
this leads natural selection to favor organisms that would behave in ways that maximize their inclusive fitness. It is also true that natural selection favors behavior that maximizes personal fitness. Hamilton's rule describes mathematically whether or not a gene for altruistic behavior will spread in a population: r b...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
recognition factors was discussed in Lieberman, Tooby, and Cosmides (2007) Whatever the proximate mechanisms of kin recognition there is substantial evidence that humans act generally more altruistically to close genetic kin compared to genetic non-kin. === Interactions with non-kin / reciprocity === Although interacti...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
disliking, he says, evolved to help present-day humans' ancestors form coalitions with others who reciprocated and to exclude those who did not reciprocate. Moral indignation may have evolved to prevent one's altruism from being exploited by cheaters, and gratitude may have motivated present-day humans' ancestors to re...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
has traditionally focused on individual-level behaviors, determined by species-typical psychological adaptations, considerable work has been done on how these adaptations shape and, ultimately govern, culture (Tooby and Cosmides, 1989). Tooby and Cosmides (1989) argued that the mind consists of many domain-specific psy...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
by some environmental event. Critics object that this view is reductionist and that cognitive specialisation only comes about through the interaction of humans with their real environment, rather than the environment of distant ancestors. Interdisciplinary approaches are increasingly striving to mediate between these o...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
of psychological disorders are often based on analogies between physiological and psychological dysfunctions, as noted in the table below. Prominent theorists and evolutionary psychiatrists include Michael T. McGuire, Anthony Stevens, and Randolph M. Nesse. They, and others, suggest that mental disorders are due to the...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
can be presented as a reflection of the systemic conservation function of the female sex. Male superiority is mostly noted in exploratory abilities - in risk- and sensation seeking, spacial orientation, physical strength and higher rates in physical aggression. In combination with higher birth and accidental death rate...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }

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