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selective of their partners because of the far greater effort they have to contribute to pregnancy and child-rearing. Males being more aggressive is hypothesized to stem from the more intense reproductive competition faced by them. Males of low status may be especially vulnerable to being childless. It may have been ev...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
may be adopted by men who otherwise are unlikely to be appealing to women and therefore cannot form legitimate relationships, or by high-status men on socially vulnerable women who are unlikely to retaliate to increase their reproductive success even further. The sociobiological theories of rape are highly controversia...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
environment, often appealing to emotional devices such as "outrage" to inspire collective action. Relative gains dominate relations with enemies, whereas absolute gains characterize relations with allies. Coalitional size and male physical strength will positively predict individual support for aggressive foreign polic...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
ranks for each individual and that monkeys remain socially functioning after the removal of most of the brain as additional arguments against big brains promoting social networking. The model of males as both providers and protectors is criticized for the impossibility of being in two places at once, the male cannot bo...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
science controversies related to the debate on nature versus nurture. Evolutionary psychologists typically contrast evolutionary psychology with what they call the standard social science model (SSSM). They characterize the SSSM as the "blank slate", "relativist", "social constructionist", and "cultural determinist" pe...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
are a potentially infinite number of alternative explanations for why a trait evolved, critics contend that it is impossible to determine the exact explanation. While evolutionary psychology hypotheses are difficult to test, evolutionary psychologists assert that it is not impossible. Part of the critique of the scient...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
and that the fact that so many human behaviours are adaptive in the current environment is evidence that the ancestral environment of humans had much in common with the present one, as these behaviours would have evolved in the ancestral environment. Thus Alcock concludes that researchers can make predictions on the ad...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
supports a model based on more domain general faculties and processes. Moreover, empirical support for the domain-specific theory stems almost entirely from performance on variations of the Wason selection task which is extremely limited in scope as it only tests one subtype of deductive reasoning. === Cultural rather ...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
Human Behavior and Evolution Society; international society dedicated to using evolutionary theory to study human nature The International Society for Human Ethology; promotes ethological perspectives on the study of humans worldwide European Human Behaviour and Evolution Association an interdisciplinary society that s...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
they interact with human social behavior. Biological Theory: Integrating Development, Evolution and Cognition – devoted to theoretical advances in the fields of biology and cognition, with an emphasis on the conceptual integration afforded by evolutionary and developmental approaches. Evolutionary Anthropology Behavior...	{ "page_id": 9703, "title": "Evolutionary psychology" }
The Journal of Social and Evolutionary Systems was a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering the intersection of biology and sociology. It was established in 1978 as the Journal of Social and Biological Structures by James Danielli and Harvey Wheeler, who served as its founding editors-in-chief; they were l...	{ "page_id": 71968234, "title": "Journal of Social and Evolutionary Systems" }
In bioethics and law, gene theft or DNA theft is the act of acquiring the genetic material of another individual, usually from public places, without his or her permission. The DNA may be harvested from a wide variety of common objects such as discarded cigarettes, used condoms, coffee cups, and hairbrushes. In additio...	{ "page_id": 24978923, "title": "Gene theft" }
bioethicists believe that such conduct is an unethical invasion of human privacy. Professor Jacob Appel has warned that criminals may acquire the capability to copy DNA of innocent people and deposit it at crimes scenes, endangering the blameless and undermining a key tool of forensic investigation." In addition, there...	{ "page_id": 24978923, "title": "Gene theft" }
Xuedong David Huang (born October 20, 1962) is a Chinese American computer scientist and technology executive who has made contributions to spoken language processing and artificial intelligence, including Azure AI Services. He is Zoom's chief technology officer after serving as Microsoft's Technical Fellow and Azure A...	{ "page_id": 17966572, "title": "Xuedong Huang" }
AI enabled products and services. In 2016, Wired magazine named him one of 25 Geniuses. In 2021, Azure AI was named the winner of InfoWorld's Technology of the Year Award. Huang was awarded the Allen Newell research excellence medal in 1992, and IEEE Speech Processing Best Paper in 1993. He was recognized as an IEEE Fe...	{ "page_id": 17966572, "title": "Xuedong Huang" }
Electronegativity, symbolized as χ, is the tendency for an atom of a given chemical element to attract shared electrons (or electron density) when forming a chemical bond. An atom's electronegativity is affected by both its atomic number and the distance at which its valence electrons reside from the charged nucleus. T...	{ "page_id": 9707, "title": "Electronegativity" }
from other atomic or molecular properties. Several methods of calculation have been proposed, and although there may be small differences in the numerical values of the electronegativity, all methods show the same periodic trends between elements. The most commonly used method of calculation is that originally proposed...	{ "page_id": 9707, "title": "Electronegativity" }
the bonding. The difference in electronegativity between atoms A and B is given by: \| χ A − χ B \| = ( e V ) − 1 / 2 E d ( A B ) − E d ( A A ) + E d ( B B ) 2 {\displaystyle \|\chi _{\rm {A}}-\chi _{\rm {B}}\|=({\rm {eV}})^{-1/2}{\sqrt {E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AB}})-{\frac {E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {AA}})+E_{\rm {d}}({\rm {BB}})}{2}}}}...	{ "page_id": 9707, "title": "Electronegativity" }
values in 1961 to take account of the greater availability of thermodynamic data, and it is these "revised Pauling" values of the electronegativity that are most often used. The essential point of Pauling electronegativity is that there is an underlying, quite accurate, semi-empirical formula for dissociation energies,...	{ "page_id": 9707, "title": "Electronegativity" }
electronegativity. Thus, it is these semi-empirical formulas for bond energy that underlie the concept of Pauling electronegativity. The formulas are approximate, but this rough approximation is in fact relatively good and gives the right intuition, with the notion of the polarity of the bond and some theoretical groun...	{ "page_id": 9707, "title": "Electronegativity" }
mole, χ = ( 1.97 × 10 − 3 ) ( E i + E e a ) + 0.19. {\displaystyle \chi =(1.97\times 10^{-3})(E_{\rm {i}}+E_{\rm {ea}})+0.19.} The Mulliken electronegativity can only be calculated for an element whose electron affinity is known. Measured values are available for 72 elements, while approximate values have been estimate...	{ "page_id": 9707, "title": "Electronegativity" }
method of calculation based on the reciprocal of the atomic volume. With a knowledge of bond lengths, Sanderson's model allows the estimation of bond energies in a wide range of compounds. Sanderson's model has also been used to calculate molecular geometry, s-electron energy, NMR spin-spin coupling constants and other...	{ "page_id": 9707, "title": "Electronegativity" }
wide variety of methods of calculation of electronegativities, which all give results that correlate well with one another, is one indication of the number of chemical properties that might be affected by electronegativity. The most obvious application of electronegativities is in the discussion of bond polarity, for w...	{ "page_id": 9707, "title": "Electronegativity" }
the d-block contraction. Elements of the fourth period immediately after the first row of the transition metals have unusually small atomic radii because the 3d-electrons are not effective at shielding the increased nuclear charge, and smaller atomic size correlates with higher electronegativity (see Allred-Rochow elec...	{ "page_id": 9707, "title": "Electronegativity" }
lead to a difference in pKa of log10(1⁄4) = −0.6 between hypochlorous acid and perchloric acid. As the oxidation state of the central chlorine atom increases, more electron density is drawn from the oxygen atoms onto the chlorine, diminishing the partial negative charge of individual oxygen atoms. At the same time, the...	{ "page_id": 9707, "title": "Electronegativity" }
the greater the metallic character of an element the greater the electropositivity. Therefore, the alkali metals are the most electropositive of all. This is because they have a single electron in their outer shell and, as this is relatively far from the nucleus of the atom, it is easily lost; in other words, these met...	{ "page_id": 9707, "title": "Electronegativity" }
In fibers, trilobal is a cross-section shape with three distinct sides. The shape is advantageous for optical reflective properties and is used in textile fibers. Silk fibers' rounded edges and triangular cross section contribute to their luster; in some cases, synthetic fibers are manufactured to mimic this trilobal s...	{ "page_id": 68560364, "title": "Trilobal" }
Allotransplant (allo- meaning "other" in Greek) is the transplantation of cells, tissues, or organs to a recipient from a genetically non-identical donor of the same species. The transplant is called an allograft, allogeneic transplant, or homograft. Most human tissue and organ transplants are allografts. It is contras...	{ "page_id": 796144, "title": "Allotransplantation" }
Kidney transplants Pancreas transplantation Islet cell transplantation Bone marrow transplants Bone allograft Ligament or tendon allograft == Laws and regulations == === United States === In the US, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has regulated human tissue intended for transplants since 1993. In order to ensure...	{ "page_id": 796144, "title": "Allotransplantation" }
Secretion is the movement of material from one point to another, such as a secreted chemical substance from a cell or gland. In contrast, excretion is the removal of certain substances or waste products from a cell or organism. The classical mechanism of cell secretion is via secretory portals at the plasma membrane ca...	{ "page_id": 534001, "title": "Secretion" }
membrane at porosomes, by a process called exocytosis, dumping its contents out of the cell's environment. Strict biochemical control is maintained over this sequence by usage of a pH gradient: the pH of the cytosol is 7.4, the ER's pH is 7.0, and the cis-golgi has a pH of 6.5. Secretory vesicles have pHs ranging betwe...	{ "page_id": 534001, "title": "Secretion" }
of two translocation systems, which requires the presence of an N-terminal signal peptide on the secreted protein. Others are translocated across the cytoplasmic membrane by the twin-arginine translocation pathway (Tat). Gram-negative bacteria have two membranes, thus making secretion topologically more complex. There ...	{ "page_id": 534001, "title": "Secretion" }
many with as yet unknown function. Gram-negative type IV pili use a modified version of the type II system for their biogenesis, and in some cases certain proteins are shared between a pilus complex and type II system within a single bacterial species. === Type III secretion system (T3SS or TTSS) === It is homologous t...	{ "page_id": 534001, "title": "Secretion" }
disease) utilizes a type IVB secretion system, known as the icm/dot (intracellular multiplication / defect in organelle trafficking genes) system, to translocate numerous effector proteins into its eukaryotic host. The prototypic Type IVA secretion system is the VirB complex of Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Protein member...	{ "page_id": 534001, "title": "Secretion" }
the outer membrane and freeing the passenger domain. Some researchers believe remnants of the autotransporters gave rise to the porins which form similar beta-barrel structures. A common example of an autotransporter that uses this secretion system is the Trimeric Autotransporter Adhesins. === Type VI secretion system ...	{ "page_id": 534001, "title": "Secretion" }
spherical structures made of a lipopolysaccharide-rich lipid bilayer enclosing periplasmic materials, and are deployed for membrane vesicle trafficking to manipulate environment or invade at host–pathogen interface. Vesicles from a number of bacterial species have been found to contain virulence factors, some have immu...	{ "page_id": 534001, "title": "Secretion" }
Virosphere (virus diversity, virus world, global virosphere) was coined to refer to all those places in which viruses are found or which are affected by viruses. However, more recently virosphere has also been used to refer to the pool of viruses that occurs in all hosts and all environments, as well as viruses associa...	{ "page_id": 68756978, "title": "Virosphere" }
maximum 35kb by coronavirus. RNA genomes have higher mutation rate, that is why their genome has to be small enough in order not to harbour to many mutations, which would disrupt the essential genes or their parts. The function of the vast majority of viral genes remain unknown and the approaches to study have to be de...	{ "page_id": 68756978, "title": "Virosphere" }
virion. Capsid is made of protein and sometimes has lipid layer harboured from the host cell while exiting it. Capsid proteins are highly symmetrical and assemble within a host cell by their own due to the fact, that assembled capsid is more thermodynamically favourable state, than separate randomly floating proteins. ...	{ "page_id": 68756978, "title": "Virosphere" }
also the largest, they exceed1Mb (million base pairs). == Viral evolution == Viral evolution or evolution of viruses presumably started from the beginning of the second age of RNA world, when different types of viral genomes arose through the transition from RNA- RT –DNA, which also emphasises that viruses played a cri...	{ "page_id": 68756978, "title": "Virosphere" }
scratched on a surface of a great viral diversity. The classic methods like viral culture used previously allowed to observe physical virions or viral particles using electron microscope, they also allowed to gathering information about their physical and molecular properties. New methods deal only with the genetic inf...	{ "page_id": 68756978, "title": "Virosphere" }
An animal track is an imprint left behind in soil, snow, or mud, or on some other ground surface, by an animal walking across it. Animal tracks are used by hunters in tracking their prey and by naturalists to identify animals living in a given area. == Archaeology == Foot tracks of ancient and extinct creatures notably...	{ "page_id": 6628854, "title": "Animal track" }
Oxathiane is a saturated heterocyclic compound containing one oxygen, one sulfur and four carbon atoms in a ring. The formula is C4H8OS. There are three isomers: 1,2-Oxathiane or o-Oxathiane 1,3-Oxathiane or m-Oxathiane 1,4-Oxathiane or p-Oxathiane the most important	{ "page_id": 62858746, "title": "Oxathiane" }
Advances in Space Research is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that is published 24 times per year by Elsevier. It was established in 1981 and is the official journal of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR). The editor-in-chief is Pascal Willis. Topics of interest for this journal are all interactions observed in...	{ "page_id": 27534842, "title": "Advances in Space Research" }
Northern resident orcas, also known as northern resident killer whales (NRKW), are one of four separate, non-interbreeding communities of the exclusively fish-eating ecotype of orca in the northeast portion of the North Pacific Ocean. They live primarily off the coast of British Columbia (BC), Canada, and also travel t...	{ "page_id": 67118588, "title": "Northern resident orcas" }
killer whales have also been observed beach rubbing. == Location == The Northern residents have been seen as far south as Grays Harbor, Washington and as far north as Glacier Bay, Alaska. From spring until mid-summer, the Northern residents are commonly found in Chatham Sound near the BC–Alaska ocean border and in Caam...	{ "page_id": 67118588, "title": "Northern resident orcas" }
Balcomb, Kenneth C. (2000). Killer Whales: the natural history and genealogy of Orcinus orca in British Columbia and Washington (2nd ed.). Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. ISBN 9780774808002. Hoyt, Erich (2013). Orca: the whale called killer (eBook ed.). Richmond Hill, Ontario: Firefly Books Ltd. ISBN 9781770880672. Hubbard-M...	{ "page_id": 67118588, "title": "Northern resident orcas" }
Gregory A. Petsko (born August 7, 1948) is an American biochemist and member of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Medicine, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the American Philosophical Society. He is currently Professor of Neurology at the Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases a...	{ "page_id": 12592636, "title": "Gregory Petsko" }
yeast genetics and molecular biology with the support of a Guggenheim Foundation Fellowship.[2] == Career == Petsko's independent academic career has included stints at Wayne State University School of Medicine, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the Max Planck Institute for Medical Research in Heidelberg, and,...	{ "page_id": 12592636, "title": "Gregory Petsko" }
he and eight other scientists received the National Medal of Science from President Joe Biden. The National Medal of Science is the highest honor the United States can confer on a scientist; since the first was awarded in 1963 by President John F. Kennedy, only 506 individuals have received it.[3][4][5][6] == Research ...	{ "page_id": 12592636, "title": "Gregory Petsko" }
Hughes Medical Institute and Rutgers Steven Almo, professor and chair of biochemistry at Albert Einstein College of Medicine Axel Brunger, professor at Stanford University and member of the National Academy of Sciences Elias Lolis, professor at Yale University Dennis Vitkup, professor at Columbia University Charles Bre...	{ "page_id": 12592636, "title": "Gregory Petsko" }
A non-inertial reference frame (also known as an accelerated reference frame) is a frame of reference that undergoes acceleration with respect to an inertial frame. An accelerometer at rest in a non-inertial frame will, in general, detect a non-zero acceleration. While the laws of motion are the same in all inertial fr...	{ "page_id": 2434557, "title": "Non-inertial reference frame" }
even a calculational viewpoint. As pointed out by Ryder for the case of rotating frames as used in meteorology: A simple way of dealing with this problem is, of course, to transform all coordinates to an inertial system. This is, however, sometimes inconvenient. Suppose, for example, we wish to calculate the movement o...	{ "page_id": 2434557, "title": "Non-inertial reference frame" }
of the laws of motion varies from one type of curvilinear coordinate system to another. == Relativistic point of view == === Frames and flat spacetime === If a region of spacetime is declared to be Euclidean, and effectively free from obvious gravitational fields, then if an accelerated coordinate system is overlaid on...	{ "page_id": 2434557, "title": "Non-inertial reference frame" }
accelerated frames (which show gravitational effects) and inertial frames (where the geometry is supposedly free from gravitational fields). When a forcibly-accelerated body physically "drags" a coordinate system, the problem becomes an exercise in warped spacetime for all observers. == See also == Rotating reference f...	{ "page_id": 2434557, "title": "Non-inertial reference frame" }
An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of electrons as a source of illumination. They use electron optics that are analogous to the glass lenses of an optical light microscope to control the electron beam, for instance focusing it to produce magnified images or electron diffraction patterns. As the wav...	{ "page_id": 9730, "title": "Electron microscope" }
this day the issue of who invented the transmission electron microscope is controversial. In 1928, at the Technische Hochschule in Charlottenburg (now Technische Universität Berlin), Adolf Matthias (Professor of High Voltage Technology and Electrical Installations) appointed Max Knoll to lead a team of researchers to a...	{ "page_id": 9730, "title": "Electron microscope" }
in 1938. The first North American electron microscopes were constructed in the 1930s, at the Washington State University by Anderson and Fitzsimmons and at the University of Toronto by Eli Franklin Burton and students Cecil Hall, James Hillier, and Albert Prebus. Siemens produced a transmission electron microscope (TEM...	{ "page_id": 9730, "title": "Electron microscope" }
be viewed directly by an operator using a fluorescent viewing screen coated with a phosphor or scintillator material such as zinc sulfide. A high-resolution phosphor may also be coupled by means of a lens optical system or a fibre optic light-guide to the sensor of a digital camera. Direct electron detectors have no sc...	{ "page_id": 9730, "title": "Electron microscope" }
are normally separate instruments. === Scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) === A STEM combines features of both a TEM and a SEM by rastering a focused incident probe across a specimen. Many types of imaging are common to both TEM and STEM, but some such as T annular dark-field imaging and other analytical ...	{ "page_id": 9730, "title": "Electron microscope" }
As the angle of incidence increases, the interaction volume increases and the "escape" distance of one side of the beam decreases, resulting in more secondary electrons being emitted from the sample. Thus steep surfaces and edges tend to be brighter than flat surfaces, which results in images with a well-defined, three...	{ "page_id": 9730, "title": "Electron microscope" }
of position as the contrast mechanism. It is one of the simplest ways to image in a transmission electron microscope, and widely used. The idea is to use an objective aperture below the sample and select only one or a range of different diffracted directions, then use these to form an image. When the aperture includes ...	{ "page_id": 9730, "title": "Electron microscope" }
types of images. === X-ray microanalysis === X-ray microanalysis is a method of obtaining local chemical information within electron microscopes or all types, although it is most commonly used in scanning instruments. When high energy electrons interact with atoms they can knock out electrons, particularly those in the...	{ "page_id": 9730, "title": "Electron microscope" }
main technique used. Another uses conical illumination and is called convergent beam electron diffraction (CBED). This approach is good for determining the symmetry of materials. A third is precession electron diffraction where a parallel beam is spun around a large angle, producing a type of average diffraction patter...	{ "page_id": 9730, "title": "Electron microscope" }
in TEM mode was by Harald Rose and Maximilian Haider in 1998 using a hexapole corrector, and in STEM mode by Ondrej Krivanek and Niklas Dellby in 1999 using a quadrupole/octupole corrector. As of 2024 correction of geometric aberrations is standard in many commercial electron microscopes, and they are extensively used ...	{ "page_id": 9730, "title": "Electron microscope" }
analysis of cryofixed, vitrified specimens has also become increasingly used. Many samples suffer from radiation damage which can change internal structures. This can be due to either or both radiolytic processes or ballistic, for instance with collision cascades. This can be a severe issue for biological samples, == S...	{ "page_id": 9730, "title": "Electron microscope" }
Difluoroethene or Difluoroethylene can refer to any one of several isomeric forms of the organochloride with the molecular formula C2H2F2: There are three isomers: 1,1-Difluoroethene 1,2-Difluoroethene (E and Z) == See also == Difluoroethane Dichloroethene	{ "page_id": 35595779, "title": "Difluoroethene" }
Gertrude "Trudy" Belle Elion (January 23, 1918 – February 21, 1999) was an American biochemist and pharmacologist, who shared the 1988 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with George H. Hitchings and Sir James Black for their use of innovative methods of rational drug design for the development of new drugs. This new...	{ "page_id": 337411, "title": "Gertrude B. Elion" }
working as a high school teacher during the day. In an interview after receiving her Nobel Prize, she stated that she believed the sole reason she was able to further her education as a young woman was because she was able to attend Hunter College for free. Her fifteen financial aid applications for graduate school wer...	{ "page_id": 337411, "title": "Gertrude B. Elion" }
need to give up her job and go to school full-time. Elion made a critical decision in her life, and stayed with her job and give up the pursuit of her doctorate. She never obtained a formal Ph.D., but was later awarded an honorary Ph.D. from New York University Tandon School of Engineering (then Polytechnic University ...	{ "page_id": 337411, "title": "Gertrude B. Elion" }
of pharmacology and of experimental medicine from 1971 to 1983 and research professor from 1983 to 1999. During her time at Duke, she focused on mentoring medical and graduate students. She published more than 25 papers with the students she mentored at Duke. Even after her retirement from Burroughs Wellcome, Gertrude ...	{ "page_id": 337411, "title": "Gertrude B. Elion" }
an Antiherpetic Agent, 9-(2-hydroxyethoxymethyl) guanine". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 74 (12): 5716–5720. Bibcode:1977PNAS...74.5716E. doi:10.1073/pnas.74.12.5716. PMC 431864. PMID 202961. Elion, Gertrude B.; Hitchings, George H. (1955). "The Synthesis of 6-Thioguanine". Journal of the American Ch...	{ "page_id": 337411, "title": "Gertrude B. Elion" }
medicine (1st ed.). Rosen Pub. Group. ISBN 9780823938766. OCLC 50285519. Nobel Prize Women in Science by Sharon Bertsch McGrayne Mary Ellen Avery Gertrude Elion National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoirs, VOLUME 78, 2000 BY NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS WASHINGTON, D.C Royal Society biographical memoir, Volume 54 in 20...	{ "page_id": 337411, "title": "Gertrude B. Elion" }
Kiwellin is a protein prevalent in cell walls of plants. It is one of the most abundant proteins found in kiwifruits and is known to be an allergen in humans. In maize it works as part of its defense mechanism against corn smut. and may also be part of the tomato and potato plants defense mechanism against potato bligh...	{ "page_id": 60040711, "title": "Kiwellin" }
A dehalogenase is a type of enzyme that catalyzes the removal of a halogen atom from a substrate. Examples include: Reductive dehalogenases 4-chlorobenzoate dehalogenase 4-chlorobenzoyl-CoA dehalogenase Dichloromethane dehalogenase Fluoroacetate dehydrogenase Haloacetate dehalogenase (R)-2-haloacid dehalogenase (S)-2-h...	{ "page_id": 29107719, "title": "Dehalogenase" }
Eugenics ( yoo-JEN-iks; from Ancient Greek εύ̃ (eû) 'good, well' and -γενής (genḗs) 'born, come into being, growing/grown') is a set of largely discredited beliefs and practices that aim to improve the genetic quality of a human population. Historically, eugenicists have attempted to alter the frequency of various huma...	{ "page_id": 9737, "title": "Eugenics" }
reproduce, and negative measures, such as marriage prohibitions and forced sterilization of people deemed unfit for reproduction.: 104–155 Positive eugenics is aimed at encouraging reproduction among the genetically advantaged, for example, the intelligent, the healthy, and the successful. Possible approaches include f...	{ "page_id": 9737, "title": "Eugenics" }
see Tacitus' ethnographic writing as unreliable in such details. === Academic origins === The term eugenics and its modern field of study were first formulated by Francis Galton in 1883, directly drawing on the recent work delineating natural selection by his half-cousin Charles Darwin. He published his observations an...	{ "page_id": 9737, "title": "Eugenics" }
Sweden. Frederick Osborn's 1937 journal article "Development of a Eugenic Philosophy" framed eugenics as a social philosophy—a philosophy with implications for social order. That definition is not universally accepted. Osborn advocated for higher rates of sexual reproduction among people with desired traits ("positive ...	{ "page_id": 9737, "title": "Eugenics" }
sometimes called new eugenics, also known as "neo-eugenics", "consumer eugenics", or "liberal eugenics"; which focuses on individual freedom and allegedly pulls away from racism, sexism or a focus on intelligence. ==== Early opposition ==== Early critics of the philosophy of eugenics included the American sociologist L...	{ "page_id": 9737, "title": "Eugenics" }
Concerns over human devolution === ==== Dysgenics ==== === Eugenic feminism === === North American eugenics === ==== Eugenics in Mexico ==== === Nazism and the decline of eugenics === The reputation of eugenics started to decline in the 1930s, a time when Ernst Rüdin used eugenics as a justification for the racial poli...	{ "page_id": 9737, "title": "Eugenics" }
Union also proclaims "the prohibition of eugenic practices, in particular those aiming at selection of persons". === In Singapore === Lee Kuan Yew, the founding father of Singapore, actively promoted eugenics as late as 1983. In 1984, Singapore began providing financial incentives to highly educated women to encourage ...	{ "page_id": 9737, "title": "Eugenics" }
"where children are increasingly regarded as made-to-order consumer products". The United Nations' International Bioethics Committee also noted that while human genetic engineering should not be confused with the 20th century eugenics movements, it nonetheless challenges the idea of human equality and opens up new form...	{ "page_id": 9737, "title": "Eugenics" }
different from breeding domestic animals for traits such as speed or herding skill. Dawkins felt that enough time had elapsed to at least ask just what the ethical differences were between breeding for ability versus training athletes or forcing children to take music lessons, though he could think of persuasive reason...	{ "page_id": 9737, "title": "Eugenics" }
understood, given the complexity of human genetics, culture, and psychology, at this point there is no agreed objective means of determining which traits might be ultimately desirable or undesirable. Some conditions such as sickle-cell disease and cystic fibrosis respectively confer immunity to malaria and resistance t...	{ "page_id": 9737, "title": "Eugenics" }
choice technology for clearly therapeutic purposes should be relinquished, he argues, since it would inevitably produce temptations to tamper with such things as cognitive capacities. He argues that it is possible for societies to benefit from renouncing particular technologies, using Ming China, Tokugawa Japan and the...	{ "page_id": 9737, "title": "Eugenics" }
male being, the Kwisatz Haderach. The Star Trek franchise features a race of genetically engineered humans which is known as "Augments", the most notable of them is Khan Noonien Singh. These "supermen" were the cause of the Eugenics Wars, a dark period in Earth's fictional history, before they were deposed and exiled. ...	{ "page_id": 9737, "title": "Eugenics" }
Gattaca warned of the dangers of genetic information being used by a totalitarian state, genetic testing could also favor better meritocracy in democratic societies which already administer a variety of standardized tests to select people for education and employment. He suggests that polygenic scores might supplement ...	{ "page_id": 9737, "title": "Eugenics" }
Palladium hexafluoride is an inorganic chemical compound of palladium metal and fluorine with the chemical formula PdF6. It is reported to be a still hypothetical compound. This is one of many palladium fluorides. == Synthesis == Fluorination of palladium powder with atomic fluoride at 900–1700 Pa. == Physical properti...	{ "page_id": 73410057, "title": "Palladium hexafluoride" }
In surface science, selective adsorption is the effect when minima associated with bound-state resonances occur in specular intensity in atom-surface scattering. In crystal growth, selective adsorption refers to the phenomenon where adsorbing molecules attach preferentially to certain crystal faces. An example of selec...	{ "page_id": 9250314, "title": "Selective adsorption" }
The Fajans–Paneth–Hahn Law (also Fajans precipitation rule, Fajans-Peneth precipitation and adsorption rule, Hahn law of precipitation and adsorption, Fajans Law), in chemistry, is a rule governing how a small amount of one substance (tracer) is carried down to a precipitate of another substance present in much larger ...	{ "page_id": 28321291, "title": "Fajans–Paneth–Hahn Law" }
CAMEO is a system of software applications used widely to plan for and respond to chemical emergencies. It is one of the tools developed by EPA’s Office of Emergency Management (OEM) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Office of Response and Restoration (NOAA), to assist front-line chemical emergenc...	{ "page_id": 18163211, "title": "Computer-aided management of emergency operations" }
Free-energy perturbation (FEP) is a method based on statistical mechanics that is used in computational chemistry for computing free-energy differences from molecular dynamics or Metropolis Monte Carlo simulations. The FEP method was introduced by Robert W. Zwanzig in 1954. According to the free-energy perturbation met...	{ "page_id": 11085324, "title": "Free-energy perturbation" }
a different CPU, in what is known as an "embarrassingly parallel" setup. == Application == FEP calculations have been used for studying host–guest binding energetics, pKa predictions, solvent effects on reactions, and enzymatic reactions. Other applications are the virtual screening of ligands in drug discovery, in sil...	{ "page_id": 11085324, "title": "Free-energy perturbation" }
Large-signal modeling is a common analysis method used in electronic engineering to describe nonlinear devices in terms of the underlying nonlinear equations. In circuits containing nonlinear elements such as transistors, diodes, and vacuum tubes, under "large signal conditions", AC signals have high enough magnitude t...	{ "page_id": 10167825, "title": "Large-signal model" }
Soil carbon storage is an important function of terrestrial ecosystems. Soil contains more carbon than plants and the atmosphere combined. Understanding what maintains the soil carbon pool is important to understand the current distribution of carbon on Earth, and how it will respond to environmental change. While much...	{ "page_id": 39200277, "title": "Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage" }
glomalin, produced only by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, has been found to accumulate in some soils, and may be a substantial fraction of the soil carbon pool in these ecosystems. However, a recent set of experiments demonstrates the presence of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi results in net losses of soil carbon, calling...	{ "page_id": 39200277, "title": "Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage" }
fungi are confined to roots. == Effects on soil aggregation == Soil aggregation can physically protect organic carbon from decay by soil microbes. More aggregate formation can result in more soil carbon storage. There is much evidence that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi increase soil aggregate formation, and that aggrega...	{ "page_id": 39200277, "title": "Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage" }
report variation in form of nitrogen produced in the rhizosphere of trees that vary in mycorrhizal type, however the effects of root and mycorrhizal priming could not be separated. == Inhibition of decomposition == The first report of mycorrhizal inhibition of decomposition was in 1971 and came from ectomycorrhizal Pin...	{ "page_id": 39200277, "title": "Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage" }
Isoserine is a non-proteinogenic α-hydroxy-β-amino acid, and an isomer of serine. Non-proteinogenic amino are not part of the genetic code of any known organism and are only present in proteins if added post-translationally. Isoserine has only been produced synthetically. The first documented synthesis of isoserine in ...	{ "page_id": 54273558, "title": "Isoserine" }

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