Split (1)

train · 115k rows

text stringlengths 2 4.67k	source dict
c \| {\displaystyle R={\frac {{\vec {J}}_{\mathrm {refl} }\cdot \left(-{\hat {n}}\right)}{{\vec {J}}_{\mathrm {inc} }\cdot {\hat {n}}}}={\frac {\|J_{\mathrm {refl} }\|}{\|J_{\mathrm {inc} }\|}}} Law of total probability requires that T + R = 1 {\displaystyle T+R=1} , which in one dimension reduces to the fact that the sum o...	{ "page_id": 5318198, "title": "Transmission coefficient" }
coefficient Reflections of signals on conducting lines == References ==	{ "page_id": 5318198, "title": "Transmission coefficient" }
Volatiles are the group of chemical elements and chemical compounds that can be readily vaporized. In contrast with volatiles, elements and compounds that are not readily vaporized are known as refractory substances. On planet Earth, the term 'volatiles' often refers to the volatile components of magma. In astrogeology...	{ "page_id": 9446968, "title": "Volatile (astrogeology)" }
can give rise to a lava fountain. === Volatiles in magma === Some volcanic eruptions are explosive because of the mixing between water and magma reaching the surface, which releases energy suddenly. However, in some cases, the eruption is caused by volatiles dissolved in the magma itself. Approaching the surface, press...	{ "page_id": 9446968, "title": "Volatile (astrogeology)" }
= 0.0023 P. These simple equations work if there is only one volatile in a magma. However, in reality, the situation is not so simple because there are often multiple volatiles in a magma. It is a complex chemical interaction between different volatiles. Simplifying, the solubility of water in rhyolite and basalt is fu...	{ "page_id": 9446968, "title": "Volatile (astrogeology)" }
is at this point already supersaturated. The magma enriched in carbon dioxide bubbles, rises up to the roof of the chamber and carbon dioxide tends to leak through cracks into the overlying caldera. Basically, during an eruption the magma loses more carbon dioxide than water, that in the chamber is already supersaturat...	{ "page_id": 9446968, "title": "Volatile (astrogeology)" }
astronomy terms Volatiles of Costa Rican volcanoes. Volatile Planetary Science Research Discoveries	{ "page_id": 9446968, "title": "Volatile (astrogeology)" }
Pair production is the creation of a subatomic particle and its antiparticle from a neutral boson. Examples include creating an electron and a positron, a muon and an antimuon, or a proton and an antiproton. Pair production often refers specifically to a photon creating an electron–positron pair near a nucleus. As ener...	{ "page_id": 140858, "title": "Pair production" }
mc2; where E is energy, m is mass and c is the speed of light. The photon must have higher energy than the sum of the rest mass energies of an electron and positron (2 × 511 keV = 1.022 MeV, resulting in a photon wavelength of 1.2132 pm) for the production to occur. (Thus, pair production does not occur in medical X-ra...	{ "page_id": 140858, "title": "Pair production" }
to the energy of the photon and can be neglected. Taking this approximation of p R ≈ 0 {\displaystyle p_{R}\approx 0} and expanding the remaining relation ( p γ ) 2 ≈ ( p e − ) 2 + 2 p e − p e + + ( p e + ) 2 {\displaystyle (p_{\gamma })^{2}\approx (p_{{\text{e}}^{-}})^{2}+2p_{{\text{e}}^{-}}p_{{\text{e}}^{+}}+(p_{{\te...	{ "page_id": 140858, "title": "Pair production" }
{1}{2}}(h\nu -2\,m_{\text{e}}c^{2})} === Cross section === The exact analytic form for the cross section of pair production must be calculated through quantum electrodynamics in the form of Feynman diagrams and results in a complicated function. To simplify, the cross section can be written as: σ = α r e 2 Z 2 P ( E , ...	{ "page_id": 140858, "title": "Pair production" }
The Hoffmann kiln is a series of batch process kilns. Hoffmann kilns are the most common kiln used in production of bricks and some other ceramic products. Patented by German Friedrich Hoffmann for brickmaking in 1858, it was later used for lime-burning, and was known as the Hoffmann continuous kiln. == Construction an...	{ "page_id": 10888763, "title": "Hoffmann kiln" }
Iran, there are kilns that are still active and have been working continuously for 35 years. Any fuel may be used in a Hoffmann kiln, including gasoline, natural gas, heavy petroleum and wood fuel. The dimensions of a typical Hoffmann kiln are completely variable, but in average about 5 m (height) x 15 m (width) x 150 ...	{ "page_id": 10888763, "title": "Hoffmann kiln" }
for lime-burning and has recently been partially restored as part of an industrial archaeology conservation project supported by English Heritage and the Heritage Lottery Fund. Two examples in North Yorkshire, the Hoffmann lime-burning kiln at Meal Bank Quarry, Ingleton, and that at the former Craven and Murgatroyd lim...	{ "page_id": 10888763, "title": "Hoffmann kiln" }
only remaining Hoffman kiln in the state. === Catalonia === Bòbila de Bellamar a Calafell. === Other countries === There is a complete kiln in the restored Tsalapatas brick Factory in Volos Greece that has been converted to an industrial museum. There are two in New Zealand. Kaohsiung city in Taiwan is also home to a H...	{ "page_id": 10888763, "title": "Hoffmann kiln" }
In classical mechanics, a constraint on a system is a parameter that the system must obey. For example, a box sliding down a slope must remain on the slope. There are two different types of constraints: holonomic and non-holonomic. == Types of constraint == First class constraints and second class constraints Primary c...	{ "page_id": 36775486, "title": "Constraint (mechanics)" }
The timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their natural satellites charts the progress of the discovery of new bodies over history. Each object is listed in chronological order of its discovery (multiple dates occur when the moments of imaging, observation, and publication differ), identified through its va...	{ "page_id": 534079, "title": "Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons" }
are annotated with the following symbols: i: for date of first imaging (photography, etc.); o: for date of first human visual observation, either through telescope or on photographic plate; p: for date of announcement or publication. In a few cases, the date is uncertain and is then marked "(?)". * Note: Moons marked b...	{ "page_id": 534079, "title": "Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons" }
numbered the four real Uranian satellites then known outward from their parent planet as I (Ariel), II (Umbriel), III (Titania), and IV (Oberon), and this finally stuck. == 19th century == The discovery of Amalthea marks the first time the Roman numerals were not adjusted with the discovery of a new satellite; from the...	{ "page_id": 534079, "title": "Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons" }
Green chemistry metrics describe aspects of a chemical process relating to the principles of green chemistry. The metrics serve to quantify the efficiency or environmental performance of chemical processes, and allow changes in performance to be measured. The motivation for using metrics is the expectation that quantif...	{ "page_id": 9578059, "title": "Green chemistry metrics" }
mass of materials rather than their impact. Atom economy, E-factor, yield, reaction mass efficiency and effective mass efficiency are all metrics that compare the mass of desired product to the mass of waste. They do not differentiate between more harmful and less harmful wastes. A process that produces less waste may ...	{ "page_id": 9578059, "title": "Green chemistry metrics" }
used for producing R: A + B → P + X P + C → Q + Y Q + D → R + Z The atom economy is calculated by Atom economy = molecular mass of R molecular masses of A, B, C and D × 100 % {\displaystyle {\text{Atom economy}}={\frac {\text{molecular mass of R}}{\text{molecular masses of A, B, C and D}}}\times 100\%} The conservation...	{ "page_id": 9578059, "title": "Green chemistry metrics" }
stage design. The drawback of this type of analysis is that assumptions have to be made. In an ideal chemical process, the amount of starting materials or reactants equals the amount of all products generated and no atom is lost. However, in most processes, some of the consumed reactant atoms do not become part of the ...	{ "page_id": 9578059, "title": "Green chemistry metrics" }
costs or environmental costs in extraction. In addition, increasing the temperature can also increase the yield of some endothermic reactions, but at the expense of consuming more energy. Hence this may not be attractive methods as well. == Reaction mass efficiency == The reaction mass efficiency is the percentage of a...	{ "page_id": 9578059, "title": "Green chemistry metrics" }
no environmental risk associated with them, for example, water, low-concentration saline, dilute ethanol, autoclaved cell mass, etc.”. This definition leaves the metric open to criticism, as nothing is absolutely benign (which is a subjective term), and even the substances listed in the definition have some environment...	{ "page_id": 9578059, "title": "Green chemistry metrics" }
production facility can measure how much material enters the site and how much leaves as product and waste, thereby directly giving an accurate global E-factor for the site. Sheldon's analyses (see table) demonstrate that oil companies produce less waste than pharmaceuticals as a percentage of material processed. This ...	{ "page_id": 9578059, "title": "Green chemistry metrics" }
=== General references === Sheldon, Roger A. (2018). "Metrics of Green Chemistry and Sustainability: Past, Present, and Future". ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 6 (1): 32–48. doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b03505.	{ "page_id": 9578059, "title": "Green chemistry metrics" }
Electric charge (symbol q, sometimes Q) is a physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. Electric charge can be positive or negative. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other. An object with no net charge is referred to as electric...	{ "page_id": 9804, "title": "Electric charge" }
glass rod when it is rubbed with a silk cloth. Electric charges produce electric fields. A moving charge also produces a magnetic field. The interaction of electric charges with an electromagnetic field (a combination of an electric and a magnetic field) is the source of the electromagnetic (or Lorentz) force, which is...	{ "page_id": 9804, "title": "Electric charge" }
particles by asserting that the force is proportional to the product of their charges, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The charge of an antiparticle equals that of the corresponding particle, but with opposite sign. The electric charge of a macroscopic object is the sum of the ele...	{ "page_id": 9804, "title": "Electric charge" }
materials together, such as rubbing amber with fur or glass with silk. In this way, non-conductive materials can be charged to a significant degree, either positively or negatively. Charge taken from one material is moved to the other material, leaving an opposite charge of the same magnitude behind. The law of conserv...	{ "page_id": 9804, "title": "Electric charge" }
we now call the electron in 1897. The unit is today referred to as elementary charge, fundamental unit of charge, or simply denoted e, with the charge of an electron being −e. The charge of an isolated system should be a multiple of the elementary charge e, even if at large scales charge seems to behave as a continuous...	{ "page_id": 9804, "title": "Electric charge" }
spark to jump, but there is also a claim that no mention of electric sparks appeared until late 17th century. This property derives from the triboelectric effect. In late 1100s, the substance jet, a compacted form of coal, was noted to have an amber effect, and in the middle of the 1500s, Girolamo Fracastoro, discovere...	{ "page_id": 9804, "title": "Electric charge" }
electrical experiments with it. Other European pioneers were Robert Boyle, who in 1675 published the first book in English that was devoted solely to electrical phenomena. His work was largely a repetition of Gilbert's studies, but he also identified several more "electrics", and noted mutual attraction between two bod...	{ "page_id": 9804, "title": "Electric charge" }
Cisternay du Fay, inspired by Gray's work, made a series of experiments (reported in Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences), showing that more or less all substances could be 'electrified' by rubbing, except for metals and fluids and proposed that electricity comes in two varieties that cancel each other, which he...	{ "page_id": 9804, "title": "Electric charge" }
He identified the term positive with vitreous electricity and negative with resinous electricity after performing an experiment with a glass tube he had received from his overseas colleague Peter Collinson. The experiment had participant A charge the glass tube and participant B receive a shock to the knuckle from the ...	{ "page_id": 9804, "title": "Electric charge" }
source by which it is produced. He discussed a variety of known forms, which he characterized as common electricity (e.g., static electricity, piezoelectricity, magnetic induction), voltaic electricity (e.g., electric current from a voltaic pile), and animal electricity (e.g., bioelectricity). In 1838, Faraday raised a...	{ "page_id": 9804, "title": "Electric charge" }
in contact, they still exhibit no electrical properties. When separated, they attract each other. A second piece of glass rubbed with a second piece of resin, then separated and suspended near the former pieces of glass and resin causes these phenomena: The two pieces of glass repel each other. Each piece of glass attr...	{ "page_id": 9804, "title": "Electric charge" }
proton and the negatively charged electron. The movement of any of these charged particles constitutes an electric current. In many situations, it suffices to speak of the conventional current without regard to whether it is carried by positive charges moving in the direction of the conventional current or by negative ...	{ "page_id": 9804, "title": "Electric charge" }
{S} =\int J\mathrm {d} S\cos \theta =I.} Thus, the conservation of electric charge, as expressed by the continuity equation, gives the result: I = − d q d t . {\displaystyle I=-{\frac {\mathrm {d} q}{\mathrm {d} t}}.} The charge transferred between times t i {\displaystyle t_{\mathrm {i} }} and t f {\displaystyle t_{\m...	{ "page_id": 9804, "title": "Electric charge" }
Colonel Hamish Stephen de Bretton-Gordon (born September 1963) is a soldier. He was a British Army officer for 23 years and commanding officer of the UK's Joint Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear Regiment and NATO's Rapid Reaction CBRN Battalion. He is a visiting lecturer in disaster management at Bournemou...	{ "page_id": 54404690, "title": "Hamish de Bretton-Gordon" }
on 30 June 2007. From 2007 to 2010, he was based at HQ Land Command as assistant director intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance. He retired from the British Army on 12 September 2011. == See also == Alastair Hay == References == == External links == "Hamish de Bretton-Gordon articles". the Guardian. 24 June 201...	{ "page_id": 54404690, "title": "Hamish de Bretton-Gordon" }
Peter Waage (29 June 1833 – 13 January 1900) was a Norwegian chemist and professor of chemistry at the University of Kristiania. Along with his brother-in-law Cato Maximilian Guldberg, he co-discovered and developed the law of mass action between 1864 and 1879. == Biography == He grew up on the island of Hidra in Vest-...	{ "page_id": 1189459, "title": "Peter Waage" }
C. M. (1986). "Studies Concerning Affinity". Journal of Chemical Education. 63 (12): 1044–1047. Bibcode:1986JChEd..63.1044W. doi:10.1021/ed063p1044.- English translation of Waage and Guldberg's 1864 paper (above) == Related reading == Peter Østrøm Guldberg and Waage on the Influence of Temperature on the Rates of Chemi...	{ "page_id": 1189459, "title": "Peter Waage" }
Fluid Dynamics Research is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering all fields of fluid dynamics. Published on behalf of the Japan Society of Fluid Mechanics, from 1986 to 2008 it was published by Elsevier and since 2009 it has been published by IOP Publishing. The editor-in-chief is Genta Kawahara (Osaka ...	{ "page_id": 50734674, "title": "Fluid Dynamics Research" }
An extinction event (also known as a mass extinction or biotic crisis) is a widespread and rapid decrease in the biodiversity on Earth. Such an event is identified by a sharp fall in the diversity and abundance of multicellular organisms. It occurs when the rate of extinction increases with respect to the background ex...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
the many other Phanerozoic extinction events that appear only slightly lesser catastrophes; further, using different methods of calculating an extinction's impact can lead to other events featuring in the top five. Fossil records of older events are more difficult to interpret. This is because: Older fossils are more d...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
Sepkoski and other authors switched to genera, which are more precise than families and less prone to taxonomic bias or incomplete sampling relative to species. These are several major papers estimating loss or ecological impact from fifteen commonly-discussed extinction events. Different methods used by these papers a...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
was a broad interval of high extinction smeared over the later half of the Devonian, with its apex in the Frasnian stage. Through the 1980s, Raup and Sepkoski continued to elaborate and build upon their extinction and origination data, defining a high-resolution biodiversity curve (the "Sepkoski curve") and successive ...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
extinction and origination rates among both marine and continental (freshwater & terrestrial) families, identifying 22 extinction intervals and no periodic pattern. Overview books by O.H. Walliser (1996) and A. Hallam and P.B. Wignall (1997) summarized the new extinction research of the previous two decades. One chapte...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
high extinction and low origination. Computer models run by Foote (2005) determined that abrupt pulses of extinction fit the pattern of prehistoric biodiversity much better than a gradual and continuous background extinction rate with smooth peaks and troughs. This strongly supports the utility of rapid, frequent mass ...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
rarefaction of fossil abundances rather than raw temporal range data, in order to account for all of these biases. But that solution is influenced by biases related to sample size. One major bias in particular is the "Pull of the recent", the fact that the fossil record (and thus known diversity) generally improves clo...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
either end of a time interval, and sampling time intervals in sequence, can together be combined into equations to predict extinction and origination with less bias. In subsequent papers, Alroy continued to refine his equations to improve lingering issues with precision and unusual samples. McGhee et al. (2013), a pape...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
diversity and abundance of life. For this reason, well-documented extinction events are confined to the Phanerozoic eon – with the sole exception of the Oxygen Catastrophe in the Proterozoic – since before the Phanerozoic, all living organisms were either microbial, or if multicellular then soft-bodied. Perhaps due to ...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
another, it is rarely because the newly dominant group is "superior" to the old but usually because an extinction event eliminates the old, dominant group and makes way for the new one, a process known as adaptive radiation. For example, mammaliaformes ("almost mammals") and then mammals existed throughout the reign of...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
opinion that biotic interactions, such as competition for food and space – the 'struggle for existence' – were of considerably greater importance in promoting evolution and extinction than changes in the physical environment. He expressed this in The Origin of Species: "Species are produced and exterminated by slowly a...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
appear to have become less likely to suffer extinction, which may reflect more robust food webs, as well as fewer extinction-prone species, and other factors such as continental distribution. However, even after accounting for sampling bias, there does appear to be a gradual decrease in extinction and origination rates...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
that can be shown to have happened, not just inferred from the extinction. It may be necessary to consider combinations of causes. For example, the marine aspect of the end-Cretaceous extinction appears to have been caused by several processes that partially overlapped in time and may have had different levels of signi...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
by flood basalt events could have: produced dust and particulate aerosols, which inhibited photosynthesis and thus caused food chains to collapse both on land and at sea emitted sulfur oxides that were precipitated as acid rain and poisoned many organisms, contributing further to the collapse of food chains emitted car...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
falls are very probably the result of other events, such as sustained global cooling or the sinking of the mid-ocean ridges. Sea-level falls are associated with most of the mass extinctions, including all of the "Big Five"—End-Ordovician, Late Devonian, End-Permian, End-Triassic, and End-Cretaceous, along with the more...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
hypothesis has been widely challenged, with the impact hypothesis being rejected by most researchers. According to the Shiva hypothesis, the Earth is subject to increased asteroid impacts about once every 27 million years because of the Sun's passage through the plane of the Milky Way galaxy, thus causing extinction ev...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
of the current ice age are believed to have had only a very mild impact on biodiversity, so the mere existence of a significant cooling is not sufficient on its own to explain a mass extinction. It has been suggested that global cooling caused or contributed to the End-Ordovician, Permian–Triassic, Late Devonian extinc...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
a methane eruption ("clathrate gun") could cause rapid global warming or make it much more severe if the eruption was itself caused by global warming. The most likely signature of such a methane eruption would be a sudden decrease in the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 in sediments, since methane clathrates are low in ...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
Bio-availability of selenium during these extinction events dropped to about 1% of the current oceanic concentration, a level that has been proven lethal to many extant organisms. British oceanologist and atmospheric scientist, Andrew Watson, explained that, while the Holocene epoch exhibits many processes reminiscent ...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
winds, causing oxygen ions to escape the atmosphere in a rate increased by 3–4 orders, resulting in a disastrous decrease in oxygen. ==== Plate tectonics ==== Movement of the continents into some configurations can cause or contribute to extinctions in several ways: by initiating or ending ice ages; by changing ocean a...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
annihilation" akin to a sixth mass extinction event is underway as a result of anthropogenic causes, such as over-population and over-consumption. The study suggested that as much as 50% of the number of animal individuals that once lived on Earth were already extinct, threatening the basis for human existence too. ===...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
oceans boiling away, while the Earth's liquid outer core cools due to the inner core's expansion and causes the Earth's magnetic field to shut down. In the absence of a magnetic field, charged particles from the Sun will deplete the atmosphere and further increase the Earth's temperature to an average of around 420 K (...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
the recovery was not complete until 30 million years after the P-T extinction, that is, in the late Triassic. Subsequent to the P-T extinction, there was an increase in provincialization, with species occupying smaller ranges – perhaps removing incumbents from niches and setting the stage for an eventual rediversificat...	{ "page_id": 9813, "title": "Extinction event" }
The molecular formula C5H10O may refer to: Isoprenol Isovaleraldehyde (3-methylbutanal) 2-Methylbutanal Methyl isopropyl ketone 2-Methyltetrahydrofuran 3-Methyltetrahydrofuran Pentanal 2-Pentanone 3-Pentanone Pivaldehyde (2,2-dimethylpropanal) Prenol Tetrahydropyran	{ "page_id": 12265047, "title": "C5H10O" }
Tonic in physiology refers to a physiological response which is slow and may be graded. This term is typically used in opposition to a fast response. For instance, tonic muscles are contrasted by the more typical and much faster twitch muscles, while tonic sensory nerve endings are contrasted to the much faster phasic ...	{ "page_id": 9250392, "title": "Tonic (physiology)" }
Mark S. Gordon is a professor of chemistry at Iowa State University, and Ames Laboratory working in the area of computational quantum chemistry. He is a member of The International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science. Mark Gordon received his B.S. from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, followed by a PhD. from Carnegie...	{ "page_id": 49882712, "title": "Mark S. Gordon" }
Emanuel David "Rudy" Rudolph (9 September 1927, Brooklyn – 22 June 1992, Columbus, Ohio) was a botanist, lichenologist, and historian of botany. He was "the first botanist to conduct diverse experiments on the total biology of lichens in both polar regions". == Biography == After graduating from Brooklyn's Erasmus Hall...	{ "page_id": 66004570, "title": "Emanuel David Rudolph" }
Academy of Science (founded in 1891) and served the Academy in several capacities — when he unexpectedly died in June 1992 he was the Academy's president-elect (as of April 1992). He was from 1974 to 1980 an associate editor for the Academy's Ohio Journal of Science and served as its book review editor from 1965 to 197...	{ "page_id": 66004570, "title": "Emanuel David Rudolph" }
Lichens and Vascular Plants: Their Significance". BioScience. 15 (4): 285–287. doi:10.2307/1293425. JSTOR 1293425. Rudolph, Emanuel D.; Giesy, Robert M. (1966). "Electron Microscope Studies of Lichen Reproductive Structures in Physcia aipolia". Mycologia. 58 (5): 786–796. doi:10.1080/00275514.1966.12018370. PMID 597668...	{ "page_id": 66004570, "title": "Emanuel David Rudolph" }
Rudolph, Emanuel D. (1996). "INVITED SPECIAL PAPER: History of the botanical teaching laboratory in the United States". American Journal of Botany. 83 (5): 661–671. Bibcode:1996AmJB...83..661R. doi:10.1002/j.1537-2197.1996.tb12752.x. === Books === Rudolph, Emanuel David (2000). Stuckey, Ronald L.; Burk, William R. (eds...	{ "page_id": 66004570, "title": "Emanuel David Rudolph" }
The Petkau effect is an early counterexample to linear-effect assumptions usually made about radiation exposure. It was found by Dr. Abram Petkau at the Atomic Energy of Canada Whiteshell Nuclear Research Establishment, Manitoba and published in Health Physics March 1972. The Petkau effect was coined by Swiss nuclear h...	{ "page_id": 403035, "title": "Petkau effect" }
dismutase is a radioprotective agent. Thus, Petkau's original 1972 experiment apparently revealed the potential effects of ionizing radiation on cells without natural radioprotective mechanisms in place. == References ==	{ "page_id": 403035, "title": "Petkau effect" }
The molecular formula C3H5NS (molar mass: 87.14 g/mol, exact mass: 87.0143 u) may refer to: Ethyl thiocyanate 3-Mercaptopropionitrile Thiazoline	{ "page_id": 24520284, "title": "C3H5NS" }
IBM SPSS Modeler is a data mining and text analytics software application from IBM. It is used to build predictive models and conduct other analytic tasks. It has a visual interface which allows users to leverage statistical and data mining algorithms without programming. One of its main aims from the outset was to eli...	{ "page_id": 20588127, "title": "SPSS Modeler" }
Watson Studio Local, and Watson Studio Desktop. Watson Studio Desktop documentation: https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/SSBFT6_1.1.0/mstmap/kc_welcome.html == Product history == Early versions of the software were called Clementine and were Unix-based. The first version was released on Jun 9th 1994, after Beta...	{ "page_id": 20588127, "title": "SPSS Modeler" }
IBM. IBM SPSS Modeler 15, released in June 2012, introduced significant new functions for social network analysis and entity analytics. == See also == IBM SPSS Statistics List of statistical packages Cross Industry Standard Process for Data Mining == References == == Further reading == Chapman, P.; Clinton, J.; Kerber,...	{ "page_id": 20588127, "title": "SPSS Modeler" }
The Séralini affair was the controversy surrounding the publication, retraction, and republication of a journal article by French molecular biologist Gilles-Éric Séralini. First published by Food and Chemical Toxicology in September 2012, the article presented a two-year feeding study in rats, and reported an increase ...	{ "page_id": 39331424, "title": "Séralini affair" }
Environmental Sciences Europe, and the raw data were made public. According to writer Nathanael Johnson, not all of the raw data were, in fact, released. The journal did not conduct any further peer review; reviewers checked only that the scientific content of the paper had not changed. == Background == Séralini, a pro...	{ "page_id": 39331424, "title": "Séralini affair" }
applied to Séralini 2009, and that the study included no new information that would change the EFSA's conclusions. The French Haut Conseil des biotechnologies (High Council of Biotechnologies Scientific Committee or HCB) reviewed Séralini 2009 and concluded that it "presents no admissible scientific element likely to a...	{ "page_id": 39331424, "title": "Séralini affair" }
had been funded by and run with the collaboration of CRIIGEN. The study used 100 male and 100 female Sprague Dawley rats, divided into twenty groups with 10 rats each. Ten diets were tested separately on the males and females. The diets comprised 11 percent, 22 percent and 33 percent genetically modified corn (NK603) a...	{ "page_id": 39331424, "title": "Séralini affair" }
Proposition 37, which called for labeling genetically modified food. The study was cited by supporters of the proposition. The ethics committee of the French National Centre for Scientific Research wrote that Séralini's public relations approach was "inappropriate for a high-quality and objective scientific debate." Sc...	{ "page_id": 39331424, "title": "Séralini affair" }
rats are susceptible to mammary tumors when food intake is not restricted. Sanders said, "The statistical methods are unconventional ... and it would appear the authors have gone on a statistical fishing trip." The Washington Post quoted Marion Nestle, the Paulette Goddard professor in the Department of Nutrition, Food...	{ "page_id": 39331424, "title": "Séralini affair" }
Séralini et al. was found to be inadequately designed, analysed and reported...The study as described by Séralini et al. does not allow giving weight to their results and conclusions as published. Conclusions cannot be drawn on the difference in tumour incidence between treatment groups on the basis of the design, the ...	{ "page_id": 39331424, "title": "Séralini affair" }
products, and the role of the pathologist in the study design and data interpretation." The letter criticized the Seralini study on several fronts, and concluded: "However, given this study presents serious deficiencies in the protocol, the procedures and the interpretation of the results, the SFPT cannot support any o...	{ "page_id": 39331424, "title": "Séralini affair" }
9 The study was also criticized by the European Society of Toxicologic Pathology, which expressed shock at the way the rats in the study were treated and questioned whether the study was legal to perform under European law. A 2015 reanalysis of multiple animal studies found that Seralini chose to forgo statistical test...	{ "page_id": 39331424, "title": "Séralini affair" }
rodent diets are contaminated with "dangerous" levels of GMOs. This has been strongly criticised by numerous experts, for example, Tamara Galloway said that the study "speculates beyond the evidence presented in this paper". Other Séralini supporters criticized the retraction of the study, concluding the response was a...	{ "page_id": 39331424, "title": "Séralini affair" }
"agenda". Henry I. Miller, in an opinion piece for Forbes, said "[Seralini] has crossed the line from merely performing and reporting flawed experiments to committing gross scientific misconduct and attempting fraud." Séralini responded by saying, "...that he won't make any data available to the EFSA and the BfR until ...	{ "page_id": 39331424, "title": "Séralini affair" }
our community should remember past mistakes..." === Lawsuit === In 2012 Séralini sued the editor of Marianne and journalist Jean-Claude Jaillet for defamation after they accused him of fraud. The High Court of Paris ruled in Seralini's favor in 2015. The court said that the fraud allegation had first been made by Henry...	{ "page_id": 39331424, "title": "Séralini affair" }
been very vocal that he believes his conclusions are correct. In our analysis, his conclusions cannot be claimed from the data presented in this article. Séralini and his supporters strongly objected to the retraction, and Séralini himself threatened to sue FCT. A bioethicist with the NIH examined the case and wrote in...	{ "page_id": 39331424, "title": "Séralini affair" }
of animals per group was small, the histopathological description of tumours was poor, and incidences of tumours for individual animals were not provided." == See also == Pusztai affair == Notes == == References ==	{ "page_id": 39331424, "title": "Séralini affair" }
The total boron (BT) is the sum of boron species in a solution. In the environment these species usually include boric acid and borate, for example: BT = [H2BO−3] + [H3BO3] where BT is the total boron concentration [H2BO−3] is the dihydrogen borate concentration [H3BO3] is the boric acid concentration == Importance == ...	{ "page_id": 5187170, "title": "Total boron" }
Physiological functional capacity (PFC) is the ability to perform the physical tasks of daily life and the ease with which these tasks can be performed. PFC declines at some point with advancing age even in healthy adults, resulting in a reduced capacity to perform certain physical tasks. This can eventually result in ...	{ "page_id": 53683812, "title": "Physiological functional capacity" }
National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics (NICPB; Estonian Keemilise ja Bioloogilise Füüsika Instituut, or KBFI) is public non-profit research institute that carries out fundamental and applied research and engages in the development of the novel directions in material sciences, physics, chemistry, gene- an...	{ "page_id": 38086246, "title": "National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics" }
In systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a heat exchanger used to condense a gaseous substance into a liquid state through cooling. In doing so, the latent heat is released by the substance and transferred to the surrounding environment. Condensers are used for efficient heat rejection in many industrial syst...	{ "page_id": 13903462, "title": "Condenser (heat transfer)" }
the outlet of the condenser, only liquid remains. Some condenser designs contain an additional length to subcool this condensed liquid below the saturation temperature. Countless variations exist in condenser design, with design variables including the working fluid, the secondary fluid, the geometry, and the material....	{ "page_id": 13903462, "title": "Condenser (heat transfer)" }

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.