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Phagocytosis (from Ancient Greek φαγεῖν (phagein) 'to eat' and κύτος (kytos) 'cell') is the process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle (≥ 0.5 μm), giving rise to an internal compartment called the phagosome. It is one type of endocytosis. A cell that performs phagocytosis is called a ph...	{ "page_id": 206508, "title": "Phagocytosis" }
cells. Haeckel reported his experiment in a 1862 monograph Die Radiolarien (Rhizopoda Radiaria): Eine Monographie. Phagocytosis was noted by Canadian physician William Osler (1876), and later studied and named by Élie Metchnikoff (1880, 1883). == In immune system == Phagocytosis is one main mechanisms of the innate imm...	{ "page_id": 206508, "title": "Phagocytosis" }
lysosomes. Dendritic cells also reside in tissues and ingest pathogens by phagocytosis. Their role is not killing or clearance of microbes, but rather breaking them down for antigen presentation to the cells of the adaptive immune system. === Initiating receptors === Receptors for phagocytosis can be divided into two c...	{ "page_id": 206508, "title": "Phagocytosis" }
receptor. The ingestion mediated by the mannose receptor is distinct in molecular mechanisms from Fcγ receptor or complement receptor mediated phagocytosis. === Phagosome === Engulfment of material is facilitated by the actin-myosin contractile system. The phagosome is the organelle formed by phagocytosis of material. ...	{ "page_id": 206508, "title": "Phagocytosis" }
of the macrophage such as the phosphatidylserine receptor or by soluble (free-floating) receptors such as thrombospondin 1, GAS6, and MFGE8, which themselves then bind to other receptors on the macrophage such as CD36 and alpha-v beta-3 integrin. Defects in apoptotic cell clearance is usually associated with impaired p...	{ "page_id": 206508, "title": "Phagocytosis" }
Cryogenic engineering is a sub stream of mechanical engineering dealing with cryogenics, and related very low temperature processes such as air liquefaction, cryogenic engines (for rocket propulsion), cryosurgery. Generally, temperatures below cold come under the purview of cryogenic engineering. Cryogenics may be cons...	{ "page_id": 23406255, "title": "Cryogenic engineering" }
In physics and chemistry, an equation of state is a thermodynamic equation relating state variables, which describe the state of matter under a given set of physical conditions, such as pressure, volume, temperature, or internal energy. Most modern equations of state are formulated in the Helmholtz free energy. Equatio...	{ "page_id": 9908, "title": "Equation of state" }
data. Equations of state can also describe solids, including the transition of solids from one crystalline state to another. Equations of state are also used for the modeling of the state of matter in the interior of stars, including neutron stars, dense matter (quark–gluon plasmas) and radiation fields. A related conc...	{ "page_id": 9908, "title": "Equation of state" }
the short end of the tube and that in the long, open end. Through these experiments, Boyle noted that the gas volume varied inversely with the pressure. In mathematical form, this can be stated as: p V = c o n s t a n t . {\displaystyle pV=\mathrm {constant} .} The above relationship has also been attributed to Edme Ma...	{ "page_id": 9908, "title": "Equation of state" }
C ) . {\displaystyle pV_{m}=R\left(T_{C}+273.15\ {}^{\circ }{\text{C}}\right).} In 1873, J. D. van der Waals introduced the first equation of state derived by the assumption of a finite volume occupied by the constituent molecules. His new formula revolutionized the study of equations of state, and was the starting poi...	{ "page_id": 9908, "title": "Equation of state" }
gas law === Since for atomic and molecular gases, the classical ideal gas law is well suited in most cases, let us describe the equation of state for elementary particles with mass m {\displaystyle m} and spin s {\displaystyle s} that takes into account quantum effects. In the following, the upper sign will always corr...	{ "page_id": 9908, "title": "Equation of state" }
1} reduces to p V = N k B T [ 1 ± π 3 / 2 2 ( 2 s + 1 ) N ℏ 3 V ( m k B T ) 3 / 2 + ⋯ ] {\displaystyle pV=Nk_{\text{B}}T\left[1\pm {\frac {\pi ^{3/2}}{2(2s+1)}}{\frac {N\hbar ^{3}}{V(mk_{\text{B}}T)^{3/2}}}+\cdots \right]} With a fixed number density N / V {\displaystyle N/V} , decreasing the temperature causes in Ferm...	{ "page_id": 9908, "title": "Equation of state" }
equation is also called the Kamerlingh Onnes equation. If appropriate assumptions are made about the mathematical form of intermolecular forces, theoretical expressions can be developed for each of the coefficients. A is the first virial coefficient, which has a constant value of 1 and makes the statement that when vol...	{ "page_id": 9908, "title": "Equation of state" }
) ρ 2 + ( b R T − a − d T + c T 2 ) ρ 3 + α ( a + d T ) ρ 6 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}p=\rho RT&+\left(B_{0}RT-A_{0}-{\frac {C_{0}}{T^{2}}}+{\frac {D_{0}}{T^{3}}}-{\frac {E_{0}}{T^{4}}}\right)\rho ^{2}\\[2pt]&+\left(bRT-a-{\frac {d}{T}}+{\frac {c}{T^{2}}}\right)\rho ^{3}+\alpha \left(a+{\frac {d}{T}}\right)\rho ^{...	{ "page_id": 9908, "title": "Equation of state" }
=== Perturbation theory-based models === Perturbation theory is frequently used for modelling dispersive interactions in an equation of state. There is a large number of perturbation theory based equations of state available today, e.g. for the classical Lennard-Jones fluid. The two most important theories used for the...	{ "page_id": 9908, "title": "Equation of state" }
s ( τ , δ ) + a residual ( τ , δ ) R T {\displaystyle {\frac {a(T,\rho )}{RT}}={\frac {a^{\mathrm {ideal\,gas} }(\tau ,\delta )+a^{\textrm {residual}}(\tau ,\delta )}{RT}}} with τ = T r T , δ = ρ ρ r {\displaystyle \tau ={\frac {T_{r}}{T}},\delta ={\frac {\rho }{\rho _{r}}}} The reduced density ρ r {\displaystyle \rho ...	{ "page_id": 9908, "title": "Equation of state" }
∑ j = 24 38 n i , j δ i τ j / 2 exp ⁡ ( − δ 3 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}a^{\mathrm {residual} }={}&\sum _{i=1}^{8}\sum _{j=-8}^{12}n_{i,j}\delta ^{i}\tau ^{j/8}+\sum _{i=1}^{5}\sum _{j=-8}^{24}n_{i,j}\delta ^{i}\tau ^{j/8}\exp \left(-\delta \right)\\&+\sum _{i=1}^{5}\sum _{j=16}^{56}n_{i,j}\delta ^{i}\tau ^{j/8}...	{ "page_id": 9908, "title": "Equation of state" }
but few simple alternatives are available for severely nonisentropic processes such as strong shocks. === Morse oscillator equation of state === An equation of state of Morse oscillator has been derived, and it has the following form: p = Γ 1 ν + Γ 2 ν 2 {\displaystyle p=\Gamma _{1}\nu +\Gamma _{2}\nu ^{2}} Where Γ 1 {...	{ "page_id": 9908, "title": "Equation of state" }
exp ⁡ ( − R 1 V ) + B ( 1 − ω R 2 V ) exp ⁡ ( − R 2 V ) + ω e 0 V {\displaystyle p=A\left(1-{\frac {\omega }{R_{1}V}}\right)\exp(-R_{1}V)+B\left(1-{\frac {\omega }{R_{2}V}}\right)\exp \left(-R_{2}V\right)+{\frac {\omega e_{0}}{V}}} The ratio V = ρ e / ρ {\displaystyle V=\rho _{e}/\rho } is defined by using ρ e {\displa...	{ "page_id": 9908, "title": "Equation of state" }
Cholinergic urticaria (CholU, CU) is a form of hives (urticaria) that is triggered by an elevation in body temperature, breaking a sweat, or exposure to heat. It is also sometimes called exercise-induced urticaria or heat hives. The condition is caused by an overreaction of the immune system to the release of histamine...	{ "page_id": 10954421, "title": "Cholinergic urticaria" }
be mediated by a specific IgE for sweat in atopic dermatitis as well as CU. ==== Treatment ==== Sweat Therapy: Forced perspiration by excessive body warming (sauna, hot bath, or exercise) used daily may reduce the symptoms through exhaustion of inflammatory mediators. Antihistamines: are a commonly prescribed first-lin...	{ "page_id": 10954421, "title": "Cholinergic urticaria" }
Elevated expression levels of CCL2/MCP-1, CCL5/RANTES and CCL17/TARC which result in chemoattracted CD4+ and CD8+ T cell populations to the surrounding area may be responsible for exerting a downmodulatory effect on the AchE and CHRM3 expressions. Corticosteroid inhibits the expressions of CCL2/MCP-1, CCL5/RANTES and C...	{ "page_id": 10954421, "title": "Cholinergic urticaria" }
urticaria was first described by Duke in 1924 as "urticaria calorica". The term cholinergic is derived from the finding that hives similar to those of CU can be evoked using cholinergic agonists (e.g. methacholine). == See also == Miliaria Exercise-induced anaphylaxis Idiopathic pure sudomotor failure Hypohidrosis Fabr...	{ "page_id": 10954421, "title": "Cholinergic urticaria" }
Seth Lloyd (born August 2, 1960) is a professor of mechanical engineering and physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His research area is the interplay of information with complex systems, especially quantum systems. He has performed seminal work in the fields of quantum computation, quantum communicatio...	{ "page_id": 1451702, "title": "Seth Lloyd" }
it runs a cosmic program. According to Lloyd, once we understand the laws of physics completely, we will be able to use small-scale quantum computing to understand the universe completely as well. Lloyd states that we could have the whole universe simulated in a computer in 600 years provided that computational power i...	{ "page_id": 1451702, "title": "Seth Lloyd" }
In January 2020, at the request of the MIT Corporation, the law firm Goodwin Procter issued a report on all of MIT's interactions with Epstein. As a result of the report, on January 10, 2020, Lloyd was placed on paid administrative leave. Lloyd has vigorously denied that he misled MIT about the source of the funds he r...	{ "page_id": 1451702, "title": "Seth Lloyd" }
In 2022 Lloyd starred in the short film Steeplechase directed by Andrey Kezzyn, which thematizes closed timelike curves, a topic Lloyd has also addressed in his scientific work. == See also == Digital physics Nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computer Quantum Aspects of Life Simulated reality == Notes == == External l...	{ "page_id": 1451702, "title": "Seth Lloyd" }
The European Solar Physics Division (ESPD) of the European Physical Society (EPS), is an organisation whose purpose is to promote solar physics and represent European scientists interested in the physics of the Sun. The ESPD is known mostly for its organisation of the European Solar Physics Meetings, which bring togeth...	{ "page_id": 55912118, "title": "European Solar Physics Division" }
ESPM-5, Titisee, Germany 1990: ESPM-6, Debrecen, Hungary 1993: ESPM-7, Catania, Italy 1996: ESPM-8, Thessaloniki, Greece 1999: ESPM-9, Florence, Italy 2002: ESPM-10, Prague, Czech Republic 2005: ESPM-11, Leuven, Belgium 2008: ESPM-12, Freiburg, Germany 2011: ESPM-13, Rhodes, Greece 2014: ESPM-14, Dublin, Ireland 2017: ...	{ "page_id": 55912118, "title": "European Solar Physics Division" }
In organic chemistry, the Michael reaction or Michael 1,4 addition is a reaction between a Michael donor (an enolate or other nucleophile) and a Michael acceptor (usually an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl) to produce a Michael adduct by creating a carbon-carbon bond at the acceptor's β-carbon. It belongs to the larger class ...	{ "page_id": 1648316, "title": "Michael addition reaction" }
through the addition of carbon nucleophiles. The terms oxa-Michael reaction and aza-Michael reaction have been used to refer to the 1,4-addition of oxygen and nitrogen nucleophiles, respectively. The Michael reaction has also been associated with 1,6-addition reactions. == Mechanism == In the reaction mechanism, there ...	{ "page_id": 1648316, "title": "Michael addition reaction" }
relative acidities of the nucleophile and product, the reaction may be catalytic in base. In most cases, the reaction is irreversible at low temperature. == History == The research done by Arthur Michael in 1887 at Tufts University was prompted by an 1884 publication by Conrad & Kuthzeit on the reaction of ethyl 2,3-di...	{ "page_id": 1648316, "title": "Michael addition reaction" }
the protonated amine in the proline side group. A well-known Michael reaction is the synthesis of warfarin from 4-hydroxycoumarin and benzylideneacetone first reported by Link in 1944: Several asymmetric versions of this reaction exist using chiral catalysts. == Examples == Classical examples of the Michael reaction ar...	{ "page_id": 1648316, "title": "Michael addition reaction" }
A Michael reaction is used as a mechanistic step by many covalent inhibitor drugs. Cancer drugs such as ibrutinib, osimertinib, and rociletinib have an acrylamide functional group as a Michael acceptor. The Michael donor on the drug reacts with a Michael acceptor in the active site of an enzyme. This is a viable cancer...	{ "page_id": 1648316, "title": "Michael addition reaction" }
A molecular lesion or point lesion is damage to the structure of a biological molecule such as DNA, RNA, or protein. This damage may result in the reduction or absence of normal function, and in rare cases the gain of a new function. Lesions in DNA may consist of breaks or other changes in chemical structure of the hel...	{ "page_id": 927421, "title": "Molecular lesion" }
endogenous DNA lesions by either increasing the amount of reactive oxygen by transmembrane transporters, losing chromosomes by replisome binding, and stalling replication by transcription factors. For RNA lesions specifically, the most abundant types of endogenous damage include oxidation, alkylation, and chlorination....	{ "page_id": 927421, "title": "Molecular lesion" }
which can cause damage through physical interaction with DNA or by indirectly setting off a reactive oxygen species, excessive nickel exposure, which can repress the DNA damage-repair pathways, aflatoxins, which are found in food, and many more. == Lesions of Nucleic Acids == === Oxidative lesions === Oxidative lesions...	{ "page_id": 927421, "title": "Molecular lesion" }
RNA. Tautomerization is a chemical reaction that is primarily relevant in the behavior of amino acids and nucleic acids. Both of which are correlated to DNA and RNA. The process of tautomerization of DNA bases occurs during DNA replication. The ability for the wrong tautomer of one of the standard nucleic bases to misp...	{ "page_id": 927421, "title": "Molecular lesion" }
with RNA or DNA polymerases or be proximal to other lesions, leading to TOP1-linked SSBs or TOP1-linked DSBs. === Chemical Adducts === A DNA adduct is a segment of DNA that binds to a chemical carcinogen. Some adducts that cause lesions to DNA included oxidatively modified bases, propano-, etheno-, and MDA-induced addu...	{ "page_id": 927421, "title": "Molecular lesion" }
and Parkinson's diseases. These come as a result of neurons generally being associated with high mitochondrial respiration and redox species production, which can damage nuclear DNA. Since these cells often cannot be replaced after being damaged, the damage done to them leads to dire consequences. Other disorders stemm...	{ "page_id": 927421, "title": "Molecular lesion" }
lesions. DDR consists of various pathways, the most common of which are the DDR kinase signaling cascades. These are controlled by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-related kinases (PIKK), and range from DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PKcs) and ataxia telangiectasia-mutated (ATM) most involved in repairing DSBs to the m...	{ "page_id": 927421, "title": "Molecular lesion" }
Double stranded breaks (DSB) are a threat to all organisms as they can cause cell death and cancer. They can be caused exogenously as a result of radiation and endogenously from errors in replication or encounters with DNA lesions by the replication fork. DSB repair occurs through a variety of different pathways and me...	{ "page_id": 927421, "title": "Molecular lesion" }
Tyrocinium Chymicum was a published set of chemistry lecture notes started by Jean Beguin in 1610 in Paris, France. It has been cited as the first chemistry textbook (as opposed to that for alchemy). Many of the preparations were pharmaceutical in nature. == References == == External links == Antonio Clericuzio, Chemic...	{ "page_id": 3811007, "title": "Tyrocinium Chymicum" }
Nucleophilic abstraction is a type of an organometallic reaction which can be defined as a nucleophilic attack on a ligand which causes part or all of the original ligand to be removed from the metal along with the nucleophile. == Alkyl abstraction == While nucleophilic abstraction of an alkyl group is relatively uncom...	{ "page_id": 35595969, "title": "Nucleophilic abstraction" }
The reaction then proceeds to kick out CO2 and NMe3. An article from the Bulletin of Korean Chemical Society journal showed interesting results where one iridium complex undergoes carbonyl abstraction while a very similar iridium complex undergoes hydride extraction. == Hydrogen abstraction == Nucleophilic abstraction ...	{ "page_id": 35595969, "title": "Nucleophilic abstraction" }
reduced palladium complex shown. The following year a similar mechanism was proposed where oxidative addition of an aryl halide followed by migratory CO insertion and is followed by nucleophilic abstraction of the α-acyl by MeOH. One of the advantages of this intermolecular nucleophilic abstraction is the production of...	{ "page_id": 35595969, "title": "Nucleophilic abstraction" }
In chemistry, pyramidal inversion (also umbrella inversion) is a fluxional process in compounds with a pyramidal molecule, such as ammonia (NH3) "turns inside out". It is a rapid oscillation of the atom and substituents, the molecule or ion passing through a planar transition state. For a compound that would otherwise ...	{ "page_id": 50407105, "title": "Pyramidal inversion" }
exhibits a quantum tunnelling due to a narrow tunneling barrier, and not due to thermal excitation. Superposition of two states leads to energy level splitting, which is used in ammonia masers. === Examples === The inversion of ammonia was first detected by microwave spectroscopy in 1934. In one study the inversion in ...	{ "page_id": 50407105, "title": "Pyramidal inversion" }
Frank Lake is a restored wetland located 6 km (3.7 mi) east of High River, Alberta, 50 km (31 mi) south of Calgary, near Blackie. The lake is controlled by Ducks Unlimited Canada for wildlife management purposes, and is an Important Bird Area and Key Biodiversity Area. It is one of four Alberta lakes with the same name...	{ "page_id": 35661509, "title": "Frank Lake (Alberta)" }
meat packing plant. During World War II an area in the middle of the dry lake bed was used as a relief landing field for RCAF Station High River == Natural environment == Frank Lake is located in the foothills fescue prairie ecoregion. The lake is a hemi-marsh, which means it roughly has the same area of open water as ...	{ "page_id": 35661509, "title": "Frank Lake (Alberta)" }
of waterfowl and other water birds. == Citations == == References == Key Biodiversity Areas - Frank Lake (South), Canada Retrieved April 25, 2023 Welcoming Back Wildlife-Frank Lake Conservation Area, home to some of the most important wetlands in southwestern Alberta, is an amazing story of rejuvenation Retrieved Augus...	{ "page_id": 35661509, "title": "Frank Lake (Alberta)" }
The van 't Hoff factor i (named after Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff) is a measure of the effect of a solute on colligative properties such as osmotic pressure, relative lowering in vapor pressure, boiling-point elevation and freezing-point depression. The van 't Hoff factor is the ratio between the actual ...	{ "page_id": 730824, "title": "Van 't Hoff factor" }
+ α {\displaystyle i=1+\alpha } . For dissociation in the absence of association, the van 't Hoff factor is: i > 1 {\displaystyle i>1} . == Associated solutes == Similarly, if a fraction α {\displaystyle \alpha } of n {\displaystyle n} moles of solute associate to form one mole of an n-mer (dimer, trimer, etc.), then i...	{ "page_id": 730824, "title": "Van 't Hoff factor" }
Colligative properties Thermodynamic activity Raoult's law Law of dilution Van 't Hoff equation Dissociation (chemistry) Osmosis Osmotic coefficient == References == Tro, Nivaldo J. (2020). Chemistry : A Molecular Approach (Fifth ed.). Hoboken, NJ. pp. 613–614. ISBN 978-0-13-498889-4. OCLC 1048659501.{{cite book}}: CS1...	{ "page_id": 730824, "title": "Van 't Hoff factor" }
BriX is a database containing some protein fragments from 4 to 14 residue from non-homologous proteins. There are very few loops registered in Brix, so to address this issue, Loop Brix was added to the system to help structure non-regular elements. These are organized with clustering of end to end elements, and their d...	{ "page_id": 30353100, "title": "Brix (database)" }
In machine learning, grokking, or delayed generalization, is a transition to generalization that occurs many training iterations after the interpolation threshold, after many iterations of seemingly little progress, as opposed to the usual process where generalization occurs slowly and progressively once the interpolat...	{ "page_id": 77080272, "title": "Grokking (machine learning)" }
Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) are natural polymers of high molecular weight secreted by microorganisms into their environment. EPS establish the functional and structural integrity of biofilms, and are considered the fundamental component that determines the physicochemical properties of a biofilm. EPS in th...	{ "page_id": 13575891, "title": "Extracellular polymeric substance" }
the culture medium, they can be easily recovered and purified. Different strategies used for the economical extraction and other downstream processing were discussed in a chapter of the referenced book. The minerals, results of biomineralization processes regulated by the environment or bacteria, are also essential com...	{ "page_id": 13575891, "title": "Extracellular polymeric substance" }
monosaccharides (galactose, glucose, xylose, and fructose) were detected in the hydrolysate of EPS from D. salina under salt stress. In contrast, the water-soluble polysaccharides released by Chlorella pyrenoidosa contain galactose, arabinose, mannose, ribose, xylose, fucose, and rhamnose; their release depends on the ...	{ "page_id": 13575891, "title": "Extracellular polymeric substance" }
spp.) galactosaminogalactan (Aspergillus spp.) gellan (Aureomonas elodea and Sphingomonas paucimobilis) glucuronan (Sinorhizobium meliloti) N-acetylglucosamine (Staphylococcus epidermidis) N-acetyl-heparosan (Escherichia coli) hyaluronic acid (Streptococcus equi) indican (Beijerinckia indica) kefiran (Lactobacillus hil...	{ "page_id": 13575891, "title": "Extracellular polymeric substance" }
have been explored as fluorescent tags, food coloring agents, cosmetics, and immunological diagnostic agents. Most of these pigments are synthesized and accumulated intracellularly. As an exception, the cyanobacteria Oscillatoria and Scytonema sp. release an extracellular phycoerythrin-like 250 kDa protein. This pigmen...	{ "page_id": 13575891, "title": "Extracellular polymeric substance" }
drugs are of relatively low toxicity to the human body. The development of peptide inhibitors as drugs is thus an attractive research topic in current medicinal chemistry. Protease inhibitors are attractive agents in the treatment of specific diseases; for instance, elastase is of critical importance in diseases like l...	{ "page_id": 13575891, "title": "Extracellular polymeric substance" }
DNA (eDNA) contribute to viscoelasticity of mature biofilms so that detachment of biofilm from the substratum will be challenging even under sustained fluid shear stress or high mechanical pressure. In addition to mechanical resistance, EPS also promotes protection against antimicrobials and enhanced drug tolerance. An...	{ "page_id": 13575891, "title": "Extracellular polymeric substance" }
of energy and carbon. Furthermore, EPS protects them from dehydration and reinforces the adhesion of the cells to the surface. In algal biofilms, EPS has two sub-categories; soluble EPS (sEPS) and the bounded EPS (bEPS) with former being distributed in the medium and the latter being attached to the algal cells. Bounde...	{ "page_id": 13575891, "title": "Extracellular polymeric substance" }
have a large impact on biogeochemical cycling. Predator-prey interactions between biofilms and bacterivores, such as the soil-dwelling nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, had been extensively studied. Via the production of sticky matrix and formation of aggregates, Yersinia pestis biofilms can prevent feeding by obstructi...	{ "page_id": 13575891, "title": "Extracellular polymeric substance" }
perspectives. === Cosmetics and medicine === In nutraceutical industries, Arthrospira (Spirulina) and Chlorella are the most important species in commercialization as health foods and nutrition supplements with various health benefits including enhancing immune system activity, anti-tumor effects, and animal growth pro...	{ "page_id": 13575891, "title": "Extracellular polymeric substance" }
its biofilm which allows it to effectively maintain a favorable microenvironment in the gastrointestinal tract. In order to survive the passage through the upper gastrointestinal tract, B. subtilis produces an extracellular matrix that protects it from stressful environments such as the highly acidic environment in the...	{ "page_id": 13575891, "title": "Extracellular polymeric substance" }
tomato plants. It was also suggested that TasA plays an important role in mediating interspecies aggregation with streptococci. Due to the growing need to find a more efficient and environmentally friendly alternative to conventional waste removal methods, industries are paying more attention to the function of bacteri...	{ "page_id": 13575891, "title": "Extracellular polymeric substance" }
into the biofilm include physicochemical interactions of the NP with EPS components, the characteristics of the water spaces (pores) within the EPS matrix and the EPS matrix viscosity. Size and surface properties (charge and functional groups) of the NPs are the major determinants of the penetration in and the interact...	{ "page_id": 13575891, "title": "Extracellular polymeric substance" }
Magnotech is a type of biosensor using magnetic nanoparticles to measure target molecules in blood and saliva in a matter of minutes. The technology is based on magnetic nanoparticles that are actuated by magnetic fields. A cartridge is inserted into a hand-held analyzer. The cartridge is constructed entirely from plas...	{ "page_id": 24520406, "title": "Magnotech" }
An episome is a special type of plasmid, which remains as a part of the eukaryotic genome without integration. Episomes manage this by replicating together with the rest of the genome and subsequently associating with metaphase chromosomes during mitosis. Episomes do not degrade, unlike standard plasmids, and can be de...	{ "page_id": 9944, "title": "Episome" }
A lead compound (, i.e. a "leading" compound, not to be confused with various compounds of the metallic element lead) in drug discovery is a chemical compound that has pharmacological or biological activity likely to be therapeutically useful, but may nevertheless have suboptimal structure that requires modification to...	{ "page_id": 11085533, "title": "Lead compound" }
sometimes also referred to as the "Pfizer rule" or simply as the "rule of five." Other factors, such as the ease of scaling up the manufacturing of the chemical, must be taken into consideration. == See also == Drug development Drug design Rational drug design Drug discovery hit to lead Lead optimization == References ...	{ "page_id": 11085533, "title": "Lead compound" }
Organic molecular cages represent a unique class of porous materials characterized by their discrete molecular nature and well-defined internal cavities, formed through covalent bonds between precisely designed organic building blocks. These molecular structures contain organized frameworks surrounding a central cavity...	{ "page_id": 79308512, "title": "Organic molecular cages" }
applications. Common node geometries include trigonal (three-directional), tetrahedral (four-directional), and octahedral (six-directional). Complementing the nodes, linkers act as edges that connect these vertices to form the complete cage structure. These linkers are typically linear or slightly bent organic molecule...	{ "page_id": 79308512, "title": "Organic molecular cages" }
provide enhanced structural rigidity. The strong covalent bonds in these structures result in high thermal stability, making them suitable for applications under demanding conditions. Their rigid framework ensures consistent cavity size and shape, making them particularly valuable for selective molecular recognition ap...	{ "page_id": 79308512, "title": "Organic molecular cages" }
of new cage systems. == Properties == === Chemical Properties === Organic molecular cages exhibit diverse chemical properties determined by their structural components and functional groups. Imine-based cages show pH-responsive behavior, with the imine bonds being stable at neutral to basic conditions but susceptible t...	{ "page_id": 79308512, "title": "Organic molecular cages" }
reactions is particularly crucial in cage synthesis for several reasons. The ability to self-correct defects during formation ensures the production of highly ordered structures with minimal imperfections. The formation of thermodynamically favored products leads to stable and well-defined cage architectures that can m...	{ "page_id": 79308512, "title": "Organic molecular cages" }
control over the final product and is particularly useful for asymmetric cage structures. The key advantage of this method lies in its ability to isolate and characterize intermediate products, ensuring the quality of each synthetic step. For instance, in the synthesis of large cages, building blocks can be first combi...	{ "page_id": 79308512, "title": "Organic molecular cages" }
Single-crystal X-ray diffraction serves as the definitive method for determining atomic-level structure of organic cages. This technique provides precise information about spatial arrangements of atoms, revealing exact bond lengths, angles, and the three-dimensional architecture of the cage framework. Critical structur...	{ "page_id": 79308512, "title": "Organic molecular cages" }
Thermal Analysis === Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) assess the thermal stability and phase behavior of cage compounds. TGA reveals decomposition temperatures and solvent loss patterns, while DSC identifies phase transitions and structural changes. These techniques are parti...	{ "page_id": 79308512, "title": "Organic molecular cages" }
for catalytic transformations. The confined environment enhances reaction rates and selectivity through concentration effects in the cavity, specific orientation of reactants, stabilization of transition states, and control over product distribution. The well-defined cavity creates a unique microenvironment that can ac...	{ "page_id": 79308512, "title": "Organic molecular cages" }
of stimuli-responsive systems, and integration of cages into devices and practical applications. Computational approaches are increasingly important for predicting structure-property relationships and designing cages with targeted functions. The combination of experimental and theoretical methods promises to accelerate...	{ "page_id": 79308512, "title": "Organic molecular cages" }
In pharmaceutics, sink condition is a term mostly related to the dissolution testing procedure. It means using a sheer volume of solvent, usually about 5 to 10 times greater than the volume present in the saturated solution of the targeted chemical (often the API, and sometimes the excipients) contained in the dosage f...	{ "page_id": 50210529, "title": "Sink condition" }
The schedules of substances annexed to the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) list toxic substances and their precursors which can be used for the production of chemical weapons, the use of which is permitted by State Parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention only to a limited extent under the supervision of the Organi...	{ "page_id": 72558305, "title": "Schedules of substances annexed to the Chemical Weapons Convention" }
that purpose. These chemicals have little or no use for peaceful purposes in commercial or industrial activities. Examples are VX, sarin, mustard gas and the biological toxins ricin and saxitoxin. Schedule 1 substances shall not be produced, acquired, retained or used at all by State Parties outside their territories, ...	{ "page_id": 72558305, "title": "Schedules of substances annexed to the Chemical Weapons Convention" }
substance BZ in List 2. For substances in List 3, a threshold value of 30 tonnes applies. == References ==	{ "page_id": 72558305, "title": "Schedules of substances annexed to the Chemical Weapons Convention" }
Peak bone mass is the maximum amount of bone a person has during their life. It typically occurs in the early 20s in females and late 20s in males. Peak bone mass is typically lower in females than males, and is also lower in White people and Asians compared to black populations. A way to determine bone mass is to look...	{ "page_id": 46737123, "title": "Peak bone mass" }
The Sitnikov problem is a restricted version of the three-body problem named after Russian mathematician Kirill Alexandrovitch Sitnikov that attempts to describe the movement of three celestial bodies due to their mutual gravitational attraction. A special case of the Sitnikov problem was first discovered by the Americ...	{ "page_id": 46606054, "title": "Sitnikov problem" }
time, the equation becomes: d 2 z d t 2 = − z r 3 {\displaystyle {\frac {d^{2}z}{dt^{2}}}=-{\frac {z}{r^{3}}}} This, according to Figure 1, is also true: r 2 = a 2 + z 2 = 1 + z 2 {\displaystyle r^{2}=a^{2}+z^{2}=1+z^{2}} Thus, the equation of motion is as follows: d 2 z d t 2 = − z ( 1 + z 2 ) 3 {\displaystyle {\frac ...	{ "page_id": 46606054, "title": "Sitnikov problem" }
Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy, 56/1993, pp. 99–101, ISSN 0923-2958, pdf D. Hevia, F. Rañada: Chaos in the three-body problem: the Sitnikov case. In: European Journal of Physics, 17/1996, pp. 295–302, ISSN 0143-0807, pdf Rudolf Dvorak, Florian Freistetter, J. Kurths, Chaos and Stability in Planetary System...	{ "page_id": 46606054, "title": "Sitnikov problem" }
In materials science, a refractory (or refractory material) is a material that is resistant to decomposition by heat or chemical attack and that retains its strength and rigidity at high temperatures. They are inorganic, non-metallic compounds that may be porous or non-porous, and their crystallinity varies widely: the...	{ "page_id": 861928, "title": "Refractory" }
is used when the material must withstand extremely high temperatures. Silicon carbide and carbon (graphite) are two other refractory materials used in some very severe temperature conditions, but they cannot be used in contact with oxygen, as they would oxidize and burn. Binary compounds such as tungsten carbide or bor...	{ "page_id": 861928, "title": "Refractory" }
can attack both alumina and silica are hydrofluoric acid, phosphoric acid, and fluorinated gases (e.g. HF, F2). At high temperatures, acidic refractories may also react with limes and basic oxides. Silica refractories are refractories containing more than 93% silicon oxide (SiO2). They are acidic, have high resistance ...	{ "page_id": 861928, "title": "Refractory" }
abrasion and corrosion resistance, and high refractoriness under load, and are typically used in metallurgical furnaces. Dolomite refractories mainly consist of calcium magnesium carbonate. Typically, dolomite refractories are used in converter and refining furnaces. Magnesia-chrome refractories mainly consist of magne...	{ "page_id": 861928, "title": "Refractory" }
industrial furnace. There are ranges of standard shapes of different sizes manufactured to produce walls, roofs, arches, tubes and circular apertures etc. Special shapes are specifically made for specific locations within furnaces and for particular kilns or furnaces. Special shapes are usually less dense and therefore...	{ "page_id": 861928, "title": "Refractory" }
are used to reduce the rate of heat loss through furnace walls. These refractories have low thermal conductivity due to a high degree of porosity, with a desired porous structure of small, uniform pores evenly distributed throughout the refractory brick in order to minimize thermal conductivity. Insulating refractories...	{ "page_id": 861928, "title": "Refractory" }
Dihydroxybiphenyl (as known as biphenol) refers to a class of organic compounds consisting of a biphenyl structure with two hydroxyl groups attached. The most common isomers are 2,2'-dihydroxybiphenyl and 4,4'-dihydroxybiphenyl. == Chemical properties == Molecular Formula: C12H10O2 Molecular Weight: 186.21 g/mol CAS Nu...	{ "page_id": 45164265, "title": "Dihydroxybiphenyl" }
The field of bullets hypothesis describes a model in which extinction is non-selective and occurs randomly. The metaphor of the field of bullets suggest that species are simply out in a field and "bullets" are hitting them at random, thus their extinction is due only to stochastic effects. The field of bullets operates...	{ "page_id": 13641453, "title": "Field of bullets" }
Glypican-3 is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the GPC3 gene. The GPC3 gene is located on human X chromosome (Xq26) where the most common gene (Isoform 2, GenBank Accession No.: NP_004475) encodes a 70-kDa core protein with 580 amino acids. Three variants have been detected that encode alternatively spliced for...	{ "page_id": 14755566, "title": "Glypican 3" }

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