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Disease linkage == Deletion mutations in this gene are associated with Simpson–Golabi–Behmel syndrome. == Diagnostic utility == Glypican 3 immunostaining has utility for differentiating hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and dysplastic changes in cirrhotic livers; HCC stains with glypican 3, while liver with dysplastic cha...	{ "page_id": 14755566, "title": "Glypican 3" }
CAR (hYP7) T cells can eliminate GPC3-positive cancer cells, by inducing perforin- and granzyme-mediated cell death and reducing Wnt signaling in tumor cells. CAR (hYP7) T cells are being evaluated at a clinical trial at the NIH. == See also == Glypican == References == == Further reading == == External links == GeneRe...	{ "page_id": 14755566, "title": "Glypican 3" }
Body composition may be analyzed in various ways. This can be done in terms of the chemical elements present, or by molecular structure e.g., water, protein, fats (or lipids), hydroxyapatite (in bones), carbohydrates (such as glycogen and glucose) and DNA. In terms of tissue type, the body may be analyzed into water, f...	{ "page_id": 13248239, "title": "Composition of the human body" }
in far smaller doses. Bromine is used by some (though not all) bacteria, fungi, diatoms, and seaweeds, and opportunistically in eosinophils in humans. One study has indicated bromine to be necessary to collagen IV synthesis in humans. Fluorine is used by a number of plants to manufacture toxins but in humans its only k...	{ "page_id": 13248239, "title": "Composition of the human body" }
Food and Drug Administration as essential nutrients, as well as six additional elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen (the fundamental building blocks of life on Earth), sulfur (essential to all cells) and cobalt (a necessary component of vitamin B12). Elements listed as "Possibly" or "Probably" essential are...	{ "page_id": 13248239, "title": "Composition of the human body" }
inside the healthy human body. In fact, there are roughly as many microbial as human cells in the human body by number. (much less by mass or volume). Some of these symbionts are necessary for our health. Those that neither help nor harm humans are called commensal organisms. == See also == List of organs of the human ...	{ "page_id": 13248239, "title": "Composition of the human body" }
Many-body localization (MBL) is a dynamical phenomenon which leads to the breakdown of equilibrium statistical mechanics in isolated many-body systems. Such systems never reach local thermal equilibrium, and retain local memory of their initial conditions for infinite times. One can still define a notion of phase struc...	{ "page_id": 59188974, "title": "Localization-protected quantum order" }
(topological or otherwise). Thermal equilibrium strongly constrains the allowed orders at finite temperatures. In general, thermal fluctuations at finite temperatures reduce the long-ranged quantum correlations present in ordered phases and, in lower dimensions, can destroy order altogether. As an example, the Peierls-...	{ "page_id": 59188974, "title": "Localization-protected quantum order" }
thermodynamic averages over eigenstates. Indeed, a thermodynamic ensemble average isn't even appropriate in MBL systems since they never reach thermal equilibrium. What's more, while individual eigenstates aren't themselves experimentally accessible, order in eigenstates nevertheless has measurable dynamical signatures...	{ "page_id": 59188974, "title": "Localization-protected quantum order" }
density of the eigenstate. On the other hand, MBL systems do not obey the ETH and nearby many-body eigenstates have very different local properties. This is what enables individual MBL eigenstates to display order even if thermodynamic averages are forbidden from doing so. == Localization-protected symmetry-breaking or...	{ "page_id": 59188974, "title": "Localization-protected quantum order" }
ferromagnetically ordered with spins aligned along the z {\displaystyle z} axis for J > h {\displaystyle J>h} , but is a paramagnet for J < h {\displaystyle J<h} and at any finite temperature (Fig 1a). Deep in the ordered phase, the system has two degenerate Ising symmetric ground states which look like ``Schrödinger c...	{ "page_id": 59188974, "title": "Localization-protected quantum order" }
like \| ψ S G n , ± ⟩ = 1 2 ( \| ↑↑↓↓↓↑↑ ⋯ ⟩ ± \| ↓↓↑↑↑↓↓ ⋯ ⟩ {\displaystyle \|\psi _{\rm {SG}}^{n,\pm }\rangle ={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}(\|\uparrow \uparrow \downarrow \downarrow \downarrow \uparrow \uparrow \cdots \rangle \pm \|\downarrow \downarrow \uparrow \uparrow \uparrow \downarrow \downarrow \cdots \rangle } , where n ...	{ "page_id": 59188974, "title": "Localization-protected quantum order" }
many-body localized and order persists deep in the PM/SG phases. Strong enough interactions destroy MBL and the system transitions to a thermalizing phase. The fate of the MBL PM to MBL SG transition in the presence of interactions is presently unsettled, and it is likely this transition proceeds via an intervening the...	{ "page_id": 59188974, "title": "Localization-protected quantum order" }
measurable. Indeed, a nice example of this is furnished by recent experiments detecting time-crystals in Floquet MBL systems, where the time crystal phase spontaneously breaks both time translation symmetry and spatial Ising symmetry, showing correlated spatiotemporal eigenstate order. == Localization-protected topolog...	{ "page_id": 59188974, "title": "Localization-protected quantum order" }
state (the maximum entropy state without energy conservation). However, with MBL, this heating can be evaded and one can again get non-trivial quantum orders in the eigenstates of the Floquet unitary, which is the time-evolution operator for one period. The most striking example of this is the time-crystal, a phase wit...	{ "page_id": 59188974, "title": "Localization-protected quantum order" }
A timeline of illustrated botanical works to 1900. == BCE == Enquiry into Plants Theophrastus (371—287 BCE) == 1–100 CE == c. 77 De Materia Medica Dioscorides (40–90 CE) Naturalis Historiae Gaius Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) == 201-300 == c. 200 – 250 CE Shennong Ben Cao Jing Traditionally attributed to the mythical empe...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
Vilanova (c1240-c1311) == 1501–1600 == Early 16th-century Paris Livre des Simples Medicines Matthaeus Platearius Robinet Testard 1526 England The Grete Herball 1530 Strasbourg Herbarium Vivae Eicones Otto Brunfels (1488–1534), Hans Weiditz 1530 Strasbourg Lustgärten und Pflantzungen Christian Egenolff (1502–1555) 1534 ...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany Jacopo Ligozzi (1547–1627) 1581 Antwerp Plantarum Seu Stirpium Icones Matthias de Lobel (1538–1616) 1583 Florence De Plantis Libri XVI Andrea Cesalpino (1519–1603) 1583 Antwerp Stirpium Historiae Pemptades Sex Rembert Dodoens (1517–1585) 1585 Rome Herbario nuovo Castore Durante (born 1...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
(1859–1647) 1620-29 London Tradescant's Orchard John Tradescant the Elder (c. 1570-1638) 1623 Basel Pinax Theatri Botanici Caspar Bauhin (1560–1624) 1629 Venice De plantis exoticis libri duo Prospero Alpini (1553–1617) 1629 London Paradisi in Sole John Parkinson (1567–1650) 1631–1793 Paris Les Vélins du Roi Nicolas Rob...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
al. (1636–1691) 1679 Nuremberg Der Raupen wunderbare Verwandelung und sonderbare Blumennahrung Maria Sibylla Merian (1647–1717) 1680 Amsterdam Aloidarium Historia Abraham Munting (1626–1683) 1680 Oxford Historia plantarum universalis Oxoniensis Robert Morison (1620–1683) 1682 London Methodus Plantarum Nova John Ray (16...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
(1680–1764) 1705 London Amaltheum Botanicum Leonard Plukenet (1641–1706) 1705 Amsterdam Metamorphosis insectorum Surinamensium Maria Sibylla Merian (1647–1717) 1706 Horti medici amstelodamensis Planta Rariores et Exoticae Caspar Commelijn (1668–1731) 1707–25 London Voyage to the Islands Madera, Barbadoes, Nieves, St. C...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
Vertoning - Beschryvingen der Bloemdragende Gewassen Johann Wilhelm Weinmann (1683–1741) 1737 Amsterdam Thesaurus Zeylanicus Catalogus Plantarum Africanarum Johannes Burman (1707–1779) 1737 Amsterdam Hortus Cliffortianus Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) Georg Dionysius Ehret (1708–1770) Jan Wandelaar (1690–1759) 1737–45 Ratis...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
ex Capite Bonae Spei Peter Jonas Bergius (1730–1790) 1767 Stockholm Mantissa Plantarum Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) 1767 London Hortus Europae Americanus Mark Catesby (1683–1749) 1767–68 Palermo La Natura e Coltura de'Fiori fisicamente esposta in due trattati Filippo Arena (1708–1789) P. M. Camareri 1768-69 Heilbronn Dend...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
plantes dessinées et gravées par ordre du roi Louis XIV Nicolas Robert (1614-1685) Abraham Bosse (1602-1676) Louis de Chastillon (1639–1734) Sébastien Le Clerc (1637–1714) 1786 Halle Florulae Insularum Australium Prodromus Georg Forster (1754–1794) 1786 Nuremberg Hortus nitidissimus Christoph Jacob Trew (1695–1769) 178...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
Haarlem Icones Plantarum Rariorum 1794 London Coloured Engravings of Heaths Henry Cranke Andrews fl.(1794–1830) 1794 Uppsala Prodromus Plantarum Capensium Carl Thunberg (1743–1828) 1795 Stuttgart Hortus sempervirens exhibens icones plantarum selectiorum... de:Johann Simon von Kerner (1755–1830) 1795-1819 London Plants ...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
Nikolaus Thomas Host 1802–12 Vienna Descriptiones et icones plantarum rariorum Hungariae Pál Kitaibel (1757–1817) Franz de Paula Adam von Waldstein (1759–1823) Karl Schutz Johann Schutz 1802–15 Paris Les liliacées Redouté (1759–1840) de Candolle François de Laroche Alire Raffeneau-Delile Louis-Jean Allais (1762–1833) 1...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
(8 vols., 600 plates) Auguste Drapiez (1778-1856) 1817 London Groups of flowers George Brookshaw (1751–1823) 1817 London Conversations on Botany Sarah Mary Fitton (c1796-1874) Elizabeth Fitton (fl. 1817–1834) 1817 Nuremberg Deutschlands Flora In Abbildungen Joseph Sturm (1771–1848) 1817–18 Philadelphia Vegetable Materi...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
Leipzig Historia naturalis palmarum Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius (1794–1868) 1824–39 Paris Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis Augustin Pyramus de Candolle (1778–1841) Alphonse de Candolle (1806–1893) 1825-1832 Paris Flora Brasiliae Meridionalis (3 vols) Augustin Saint-Hilaire (1779-1853) Pierre Jean...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
Reichenbach (1823-1889) Ch. Schnorr 1835 Paris Collection de 24 Bouquets de Fleurs Henriette Vincent 1835-44 Paris Voyage dans l’Inde pendant les années 1828 à 1832, publié sous les auspices de M. Guizot Victor Jacquemont (1801-1832) Alfred Riocreux (1820-1912) Borromee 1835–45 Leipzig Nova genera ac species plantarum,...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
Brasiliensis Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius (1794–1868) et al. 1841-44 Berlin Icones plantarum rariorum horti regii botanici Berolinensis Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link (1767-1851) Johann Friedrich Klotsch (1805-1860) Christoph Friedrich Otto (1783-1856) Carl Friedrich Schmidt (1811-1890) 1841–47 Iconographie descr...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
South American Plants John Miers (1789–1879) 1850–52 Brussels Album de pomologie Alexandre Joseph Désiré Bivort (1809–1872) 1850–52 London Paxton’s Flower Garden John Lindley (1799–1865) Joseph Paxton (1803–1865) 1851 A Century of Orchidaceous Plants William Jackson Hooker(1785–1865) Walter Hood Fitch (1817–1892) 1851 ...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
Kenntniss der Orchideen Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach (1823–1889) Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig Kraenzlin (1847–1934) 1859 Dublin Thesaurus Capensis or Illustrations of the South African Flora William Henry Harvey (1811–1866) 1859 Nice Les Champignons De La Province De Nice Jean-Baptiste Barla (1817–1896) 1859 New York Wild F...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
Faguet (1841–1886) Thiebault (1866–95 fl.) 1867 London A Second Century of Orchidaceous Plants James Bateman (1811–1897) Walter Hood Fitch (1817–1892) 1867 New York Floral Belles from the Green-House and Garden Clarissa Munger Badger 1868 Nice Flore illustrée de Nice et des Alpes-Maritimes JB Barla 1868 Massachusetts A...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
ED de Puydt 1880 Brussels Fleurs, fruits et feuillages choisis de l'ille de Java Berthe Hoola van Nooten 1881–93 L'Orchidophile; Journal des Amateurs d'Orchidées A. Godefroy-Lebeuf Guillaume Severeyns F. Stroobant Jeanne Koch. 1882–83 Berlin Deutsche Pomologie Wilhelm Lauche 1882–97 London The Orchid Album Robert Warne...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
1894 Brussels Les Orchidées Exotiques et leur culture en Europe Lucien Linden Alfred Cogniaux (1841–1916) G Grignan 1894 London The Orchid Grower's Manual Benjamin Samuel Williams (1824–1890) 1895 Berlin Handbuch der Tafeltraubenkultur Rudolf Goethe (1843–1911) Wilhelm Lauche 1895 Berlin Die pflanzenwelt Ost-Afrikas Ad...	{ "page_id": 15607539, "title": "List of florilegia and botanical codices" }
An oxygen diffusion-enhancing compound is any substance that increases the availability of oxygen in body tissues by influencing the molecular structure of water in blood plasma and thereby promoting the movement (diffusion) of oxygen through plasma. Oxygen diffusion-enhancing compounds have shown promise in the treatm...	{ "page_id": 37431028, "title": "Oxygen diffusion-enhancing compound" }
as structure building. Structure building reduces resistance to the movement of oxygen through plasma via diffusion. Since blood plasma offers the major barrier for oxygen to move from the red blood cells and into the tissues, the more structured character of water imparted by the oxygen diffusion-enhancing compound wi...	{ "page_id": 37431028, "title": "Oxygen diffusion-enhancing compound" }
Since the first printing of Carl Linnaeus's Species Plantarum in 1753, plants have been assigned one epithet or name for their species and one name for their genus, a grouping of related species. Many of these plants are listed in Stearn's Dictionary of Plant Names for Gardeners. William Stearn (1911–2001) was one of t...	{ "page_id": 65611509, "title": "List of plant genus names with etymologies (L–P)" }
Citations == == References == Bayton, Ross (2020). The Gardener's Botanical: An Encyclopedia of Latin Plant Names. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-20017-0. Burkhardt, Lotte (2018). Verzeichnis eponymischer Pflanzennamen – Erweiterte Edition [Index of Eponymic Plant Names – Extended Edi...	{ "page_id": 65611509, "title": "List of plant genus names with etymologies (L–P)" }
Umberto (2019) [2000]. CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names, Volume III, M–Q. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-367-44751-9.	{ "page_id": 65611509, "title": "List of plant genus names with etymologies (L–P)" }
Cymdeithas Edward Llwyd (Welsh for 'Edward Llwyd Society') is a Welsh natural history organisation whose name commemorates the great Welsh natural historian, geographer and linguist Edward Llwyd (1660–1709). The Cymdeithas Edward Llwyd organises regular country walks throughout Wales in sites of interest of the Welsh e...	{ "page_id": 665333, "title": "Cymdeithas Edward Llwyd" }
In theoretical physics, Hamiltonian field theory is the field-theoretic analogue to classical Hamiltonian mechanics. It is a formalism in classical field theory alongside Lagrangian field theory. It also has applications in quantum field theory. == Definition == The Hamiltonian for a system of discrete particles is a f...	{ "page_id": 47392500, "title": "Hamiltonian field theory" }
field π(x, t), defined as the partial derivative of the Lagrangian density with respect to the time derivative of the field, π = ∂ L ∂ ϕ ˙ , ϕ ˙ ≡ ∂ ϕ ∂ t , {\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {\partial {\mathcal {L}}}{\partial {\dot {\phi }}}}\,,\quad {\dot {\phi }}\equiv {\frac {\partial \phi }{\partial t}}\,,} in which the o...	{ "page_id": 47392500, "title": "Hamiltonian field theory" }
above equations and definitions can be extended to vector fields and more generally tensor fields and spinor fields. In physics, tensor fields describe bosons and spinor fields describe fermions. == Equations of motion == The equations of motion for the fields are similar to the Hamiltonian equations for discrete parti...	{ "page_id": 47392500, "title": "Hamiltonian field theory" }
_{1},\phi _{2},\ldots ,\pi _{1},\pi _{2},\ldots ,\nabla \phi _{1},\nabla \phi _{2},\ldots ,\nabla \pi _{1},\nabla \pi _{2},\ldots ,\mathbf {x} ,t\right)\,,} and the fields are zero on the boundary of the volume the integrals are taken over, the field theoretic Poisson bracket is defined as (not to be confused with the ...	{ "page_id": 47392500, "title": "Hamiltonian field theory" }
V {\displaystyle {\mathcal {V}}} ), H = T + V . {\displaystyle {\mathcal {H}}={\mathcal {T}}+{\mathcal {V}}\,.} === Continuity equation === Taking the partial time derivative of the definition of the Hamiltonian density above, and using the chain rule for implicit differentiation and the definition of the conjugate mom...	{ "page_id": 47392500, "title": "Hamiltonian field theory" }
Four-vector Canonical quantization Hamiltonian fluid mechanics Covariant classical field theory Polysymplectic manifold Non-autonomous mechanics == Notes == == Citations == == References == Badin, G.; Crisciani, F. (2018). Variational Formulation of Fluid and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics - Mechanics, Symmetries and Conse...	{ "page_id": 47392500, "title": "Hamiltonian field theory" }
Experimental evolution is the use of laboratory experiments or controlled field manipulations to explore evolutionary dynamics. Evolution may be observed in the laboratory as populations adapt to new environmental conditions by natural selection. Adaptation can arise in experimental evolution in two different ways. One...	{ "page_id": 796412, "title": "Experimental evolution" }
of the adaptation and functional follow up studies can shed insight into what effect the mutation/allele has on phenotype. == History == === Domestication and breeding === Unwittingly, humans have carried out evolution experiments for as long as they have been domesticating plants and animals. Selective breeding of pla...	{ "page_id": 796412, "title": "Experimental evolution" }
incubator from an initial 60 °F up to 158 °F. The early cultures had shown clear signs of distress at a temperature of 73 °F, and were certainly not capable of surviving at 158 °F. The organisms Dallinger had in his incubator at the end of the experiment, on the other hand, were perfectly fine at 158 °F. However, these...	{ "page_id": 796412, "title": "Experimental evolution" }
started in February, 1980. This system started with ten populations, five cultured at later ages, and five cultured at early ages. Since then more than 200 different populations have been created in this laboratory radiation, with selection targeting multiple characters. Some of these highly differentiated populations ...	{ "page_id": 796412, "title": "Experimental evolution" }
evolution include P. fluorescens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis and E. coli (see below), while the Yeast S. cerevisiae has been used as a model for the study of eukaryotic evolution. ==== Lenski's E. coli experiment ==== One of the most widely known examples of laboratory bacterial evolution is the long...	{ "page_id": 796412, "title": "Experimental evolution" }
ribosomal biosynthesis, increased protein biosynthesis and thus increased growth rate of the culture. These adaptations observed over generations of parasites are governed by copy number variations (CNV) and epistatic interactions between affected genes, and allow us to justify Leishmania genomic instability through it...	{ "page_id": 796412, "title": "Experimental evolution" }
maximum rate of aerobic metabolism, predatory propensity, and herbivorous capability. Aerobic lines are selected for the maximum rate of oxygen consumption achieved during swimming at 38°C; Predatory lines – for a short time to catch live crickets; Herbivorous lines – for capability to maintain body mass when fed a low...	{ "page_id": 796412, "title": "Experimental evolution" }
underlying the evolutionary regain of lost biological function can be studied. Experimental evolution of mammalian cells harboring synthetic gene circuits reveals the role of cellular heterogeneity in the evolution of drug resistance, with implications for chemotherapy resistance of cancer cells. === Other examples ===...	{ "page_id": 796412, "title": "Experimental evolution" }
External links == E. coli Long-term Experimental Evolution Project Site Archived 2017-07-27 at the Wayback Machine, Lenski lab, Michigan State University A movie illustrating the dramatic differences in wheel-running behavior. Experimental Evolution Publications by Ted Garland: Artificial Selection for High Voluntary W...	{ "page_id": 796412, "title": "Experimental evolution" }
A plasticolous lichenized fungus is a lichen that grows on plastic surfaces. This behaviour was first observed in 1994 when foliicolous (leaf-dwelling) lichens were found growing on plastic tape but they have since been observed growing on artificial plastic leaves, plastic signs and nylon nets. The phenomenon of liche...	{ "page_id": 71444220, "title": "Plasticolous lichen" }
There exist a number of competitions and prizes to reward distinguished contributions and to encourage developments in biotechnology. == Inducement prizes == The Archon X Prize for Genomics of US$10,000,000 is to be awarded to "the first Team that can build a device and use it to sequence 100 human genomes within 10 da...	{ "page_id": 22947583, "title": "Competitions and prizes in biotechnology" }
Mound-building termites are a group of termite species that live in mounds which are made of a combination of soil, termite saliva and dung. These termites live in Africa, Australia and South America. The mounds sometimes have a diameter of 30 metres (98 ft). Most of the mounds are in well-drained areas. Termite mounds...	{ "page_id": 1713919, "title": "Mound-building termites" }
rises due to heat exchange and is forced below the nest and eventually through the nest again. This model was proposed for mounds with capped chimneys and with no large vents constructed by the species Macrotermes natalensis. A similar model based on the Stack effect was proposed for mounds with open-chimneys. The tall...	{ "page_id": 1713919, "title": "Mound-building termites" }
mound. Overall, a similar mechanism of ventilation and thermoregulation is observed in Macrotermes michaelseni and Odontotermes obesus mounds. == Social castes == Workers, smallest in size, are the most numerous of the castes. They are all completely blind, wingless, and sexually immature. Their job is to feed and groo...	{ "page_id": 1713919, "title": "Mound-building termites" }
about 200 million termite mounds spread over an area the size of Great Britain. Some of the mounds are 3 m (10 ft) tall and 10 m (33 ft) wide, and they are spaced about 20 m (66 ft) apart. Underneath the mounds are networks of tunnels that required the excavation of 10 cubic kilometres (2.4 cu mi) of dirt. Scientists p...	{ "page_id": 1713919, "title": "Mound-building termites" }
The Anaerococcus and Onthovivens genetic code (tentative code number 36) translates CGG to tryptophan, as determined by the codon assignment software Codetta; it was further shown that this recoding is associated with a special tRNA with the appropriate anticodon and tRNA identity elements appropriate for such decoding...	{ "page_id": 77670146, "title": "Anaerococcus and Onthovivens genetic code" }
A molecular-weight size marker, also referred to as a protein ladder, DNA ladder, or RNA ladder, is a set of standards that are used to identify the approximate size of a molecule run on a gel during electrophoresis, using the principle that molecular weight is inversely proportional to migration rate through a gel mat...	{ "page_id": 6563587, "title": "Molecular-weight size marker" }
piece is partially ligated. The consequence of this is that dimers of 200bp, trimers of 300bp, tetramers of 400bp, pentamers of 500bp, etc. will form. Additionally, a portion of the 100bp dsDNA will remain. As a result, a DNA "ladder" composed of DNA pieces of known molecular mass is created on the gel. The second meth...	{ "page_id": 6563587, "title": "Molecular-weight size marker" }
TAE is better suited for fragments greater than 1500 base pairs. In terms of buffering capacity, TAE is lower when compared to TBE; this generally results in slower mobility of the DNA. TBE is also capable of better resolution. It must be noted that water cannot act as a substitute for one of these buffers, as the DNA ...	{ "page_id": 6563587, "title": "Molecular-weight size marker" }
easily visualized on a lower percentage gel. == Protein markers == === Development === Previously, protein markers had been developed using a variety of whole proteins. The development of a kit including a molecular-weight size marker based on protein fragments began in 1993. This protein marker, composed of 49 differe...	{ "page_id": 6563587, "title": "Molecular-weight size marker" }
normally run on the outer lane of a gel, while the sample is loaded in the middle lanes. Molecular markers are different from protein ladders in that they are composed of a mixture of native proteins whose specifications are well categorized but do not correspond to whole numbers. Generally these are much cheaper, but ...	{ "page_id": 6563587, "title": "Molecular-weight size marker" }
As such, the gel must be stained in order to visualize the bands. Recombinant and Natural Markers Besides stained and unstained markers, protein markers can be thought of in terms of recombinant and natural. Recombinant markers consist of recombinant proteins which have been greatly purified. These markers are designed...	{ "page_id": 6563587, "title": "Molecular-weight size marker" }
migrate at different rates depending on the buffer used. Charge/Voltage Voltage plays a role in the mobility of proteins on a gel. Proteins will migrate faster at higher voltages. Consequently, the gel running time will be shorter. Conversely, higher voltages can result in greater band diffusion. Also, if the voltage i...	{ "page_id": 6563587, "title": "Molecular-weight size marker" }
referred to as the rolling circle method, the improvements of this technique stems from its efficiency in synthesizing RNA oligonucleotides. From the circular DNA template, single-stranded RNA varying in length from 4-1500 bp can be produced without the need for primers and by recycling nucleotide triphosphate. DNA can...	{ "page_id": 6563587, "title": "Molecular-weight size marker" }
equivalent molecular weights, RNA will migrate faster than DNA. However, both RNA and DNA have a negative linear slope between their migration distance and logarithmic molecular weight. That is, samples of less weight are able to migrate a greater distance. This relationship is a consideration when choosing RNA or DNA ...	{ "page_id": 6563587, "title": "Molecular-weight size marker" }
the electric field is turned on, protein migration will initiate. Upon completion, a detection mechanism such as western blotting can be used, which will reveal the presence of bands. Each band represents a specific protein. The distance of travel is solely based on molecular weight; therefore, the molecular weight of ...	{ "page_id": 6563587, "title": "Molecular-weight size marker" }
between DNA variants. Today these are the most commonly used markers. DNA-based markers work by surveying nucleotides, which can serve a variety of functions, such as detecting differences in nucleotides or even quantifying the number of mutations. RFLP Restriction fragment length polymorphism is a technique used to de...	{ "page_id": 6563587, "title": "Molecular-weight size marker" }
restriction fragments are then ligated together. A molecular marker is then generated when specific fragments are selected for amplification. AFLP markers are run alongside a DNA marker on a gel. A common AFLP DNA marker is 30-330bp long. The fragments of this marker lie at 10bp intervals to increase precision. RAPD Ra...	{ "page_id": 6563587, "title": "Molecular-weight size marker" }
oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides are the compounds of interest. They are labeled at their reducing ends with a fluorescent label (i.e. a fluorophore). This derivitization with a fluorophore permits both separation on a gel under the desired circumstances and fluorescence imaging of the gel. In this case, a polyacr...	{ "page_id": 6563587, "title": "Molecular-weight size marker" }
The d electron count or number of d electrons is a chemistry formalism used to describe the electron configuration of the valence electrons of a transition metal center in a coordination complex. The d electron count is an effective way to understand the geometry and reactivity of transition metal complexes. The formal...	{ "page_id": 21243650, "title": "D electron count" }
a whole d shell. The usual explanation in chemistry textbooks is that half-filled or completely filled subshells are particularly stable arrangements of electrons. An example is chromium whose electron configuration is [Ar]4s13d5 with a d electron count of 5 for a half-filled d subshell, although Madelung's rule predic...	{ "page_id": 21243650, "title": "D electron count" }
unfilled and usually well above the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO). Since the orbitals resulting from the ns orbital are either buried in bonding or elevated well above the valence, the ns orbitals are not relevant to describing the valence. Depending on the geometry of the final complex, either all three o...	{ "page_id": 21243650, "title": "D electron count" }
occupied molecular orbitals (HOMO). Crystal field theory is an alternative description of electronic configurations that is simplified relative to LFT. It rationalizes a number of phenomena, but does not describe bonding nor offer an explanation for why ns electrons are ionized before (n − 1)d electrons. == Tanabe–Suga...	{ "page_id": 21243650, "title": "D electron count" }
d3 Examples: Reinecke's salt. d4 Octahedral high-spin: 4 unpaired electrons, paramagnetic, substitutionally labile. Octahedral low-spin: 2 unpaired electrons, paramagnetic, substitutionally inert. d5 Octahedral high-spin: 5 unpaired electrons, paramagnetic, substitutionally labile. Octahedral low-spin: 1 unpaired elect...	{ "page_id": 21243650, "title": "D electron count" }
In inorganic chemistry, the Primogenic Effect describes the change in excited state manifolds for first row vs second and third row metal complexes. The effect is used to rationalize the ability or inability of certain metal complexes to function as photosensitizers, which in turn is relevant to photocatalysis. Complex...	{ "page_id": 75048709, "title": "Primogenic Effect" }
Wet storage stain, more commonly known as white rust or white corrosion, is a type of zinc corrosion. It is called wet storage stain because it occurs when a fresh zinc surface is stored in a wet environment with limited oxygen and carbon dioxide sources; the restriction in air is usually due to the items being stacked...	{ "page_id": 24192774, "title": "Wet storage stain" }
can be used. Both require a thorough water rinsing afterward and do not restore lustrous surface finish if one was previously present. == Prevention == Wet storage stain can be prevented for a limited amount of time by coating in a light oil, chromate conversion coatings, or phosphate conversion coatings. A more perman...	{ "page_id": 24192774, "title": "Wet storage stain" }
The Absconditabacterales genetic code (tentative code number 37) translates UGA to glycine, and CGG and GCA to tryptophan, as determined by the codon assignment software Codetta; it was further shown that these recodings are associated with three special tRNAs with appropriate anticodons and tRNA identity elements. Cod...	{ "page_id": 77670151, "title": "Absconditabacterales genetic code" }
NetOwl is a suite of multilingual text and identity analytics products that analyze big data in the form of text data – reports, web, social media, etc. – as well as structured entity data about people, organizations, places, and things. NetOwl utilizes artificial intelligence (AI)-based approaches, including natural l...	{ "page_id": 39397128, "title": "NetOwl" }
variety of data sources including both traditional sources (e.g., news, reports, web pages, email) and social media (e.g., Twitter, Facebook, chats, blogs). It runs on a variety of Big Data analytics platforms, including Apache Hadoop and LexisNexis’s High-Performance Computer Cluster (HPCC) technology. It has been int...	{ "page_id": 39397128, "title": "NetOwl" }
A neutral network is a set of genes all related by point mutations that have equivalent function or fitness. Each node represents a gene sequence and each line represents the mutation connecting two sequences. Neutral networks can be thought of as high, flat plateaus in a fitness landscape. During neutral evolution, ge...	{ "page_id": 41625353, "title": "Neutral network (evolution)" }
of sequence nodes, through the neutral network, to another cluster of sequence nodes. Since the majority of evolution is thought to be neutral, a large proportion of gene change is the movement though expansive neutral networks. === Robustness === The more neutral neighbours a sequence has, the more robust to mutations...	{ "page_id": 41625353, "title": "Neutral network (evolution)" }
interpenetration of the two networks will determine how common cryptic variation for the promiscuous activity is in sequence space. == Mathematical Framework == The fact that neutral mutations were probably widespread was proposed by Freese and Yoshida in 1965. Motoo Kimura later crystallized a theory of neutral evolut...	{ "page_id": 41625353, "title": "Neutral network (evolution)" }
the upper half plane. Therefore, a secondary structure is a scaffold having many sequences compatible with its implied base pairing constraints. Later, Smith and Waterman developed an algorithm that performed local sequence alignment. Another prediction algorithm for RNA secondary structure was given by Nussinov Nussin...	{ "page_id": 41625353, "title": "Neutral network (evolution)" }
distributed randomly in sequence space. They observed that common structures can be reached from a random sequence by just a few mutations. These two facts lead them to conclude that the sequence space seemed to be percolated by neutral networks of nearest neighbor mutants that fold to the same structure. In 1997, C. R...	{ "page_id": 41625353, "title": "Neutral network (evolution)" }
Complete-linkage clustering is one of several methods of agglomerative hierarchical clustering. At the beginning of the process, each element is in a cluster of its own. The clusters are then sequentially combined into larger clusters until all elements end up being in the same cluster. The method is also known as fart...	{ "page_id": 28976910, "title": "Complete-linkage clustering" }
N × N {\displaystyle N\times N} proximity matrix D contains all distances d(i,j). The clusterings are assigned sequence numbers 0,1,......, (n − 1) and L(k) is the level of the kth clustering. A cluster with sequence number m is denoted (m) and the proximity between clusters (r) and (s) is denoted d[(r),(s)]. The compl...	{ "page_id": 28976910, "title": "Complete-linkage clustering" }
r ) ] , d [ ( k ) , ( s ) ] } {\displaystyle d[(r,s),(k)]=\max\{d[(k),(r)],d[(k),(s)]\}} . If all objects are in one cluster, stop. Else, go to step 2. === Optimally efficient scheme === The algorithm explained above is easy to understand but of complexity O ( n 3 ) {\displaystyle O(n^{3})} . In May 1976, D. Defays pro...	{ "page_id": 28976910, "title": "Complete-linkage clustering" }
of the ultrametricity hypothesis. The branches joining a {\displaystyle a} and b {\displaystyle b} to u {\displaystyle u} then have lengths δ ( a , u ) = δ ( b , u ) = 17 / 2 = 8.5 {\displaystyle \delta (a,u)=\delta (b,u)=17/2=8.5} (see the final dendrogram) First distance matrix update We then proceed to update the in...	{ "page_id": 28976910, "title": "Complete-linkage clustering" }
step === Second clustering We now reiterate the three previous steps, starting from the new distance matrix D 2 {\displaystyle D_{2}} : Here, D 2 ( ( a , b ) , e ) = 23 {\displaystyle D_{2}((a,b),e)=23} is the lowest value of D 2 {\displaystyle D_{2}} , so we join cluster ( a , b ) {\displaystyle (a,b)} with element e ...	{ "page_id": 28976910, "title": "Complete-linkage clustering" }
, D 2 ( e , c ) ) = m a x ( 30 , 39 ) = 39 {\displaystyle D_{3}(((a,b),e),c)=max(D_{2}((a,b),c),D_{2}(e,c))=max(30,39)=39} D 3 ( ( ( a , b ) , e ) , d ) = m a x ( D 2 ( ( a , b ) , d ) , D 2 ( e , d ) ) = m a x ( 34 , 43 ) = 43 {\displaystyle D_{3}(((a,b),e),d)=max(D_{2}((a,b),d),D_{2}(e,d))=max(34,43)=43} === Third st...	{ "page_id": 28976910, "title": "Complete-linkage clustering" }
b ) , e ) {\displaystyle ((a,b),e)} and ( c , d ) {\displaystyle (c,d)} . Let r {\displaystyle r} denote the (root) node to which ( ( a , b ) , e ) {\displaystyle ((a,b),e)} and ( c , d ) {\displaystyle (c,d)} are now connected. The branches joining ( ( a , b ) , e ) {\displaystyle ((a,b),e)} and ( c , d ) {\displaysty...	{ "page_id": 28976910, "title": "Complete-linkage clustering" }
a different linkage in the naive algorithm is simply a matter of using a different formula to calculate inter-cluster distances in the initial computation of the proximity matrix and in step 4 of the above algorithm. An optimally efficient algorithm is however not available for arbitrary linkages. The formula that shou...	{ "page_id": 28976910, "title": "Complete-linkage clustering" }

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