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The BOttle MAnnequin ABsorber phantom was developed by Bush in 1949 (Bush 1949) and has since been accepted in North America as the industry standard (ANSI 1995) for calibrating whole body counting systems. The phantom consists of 10 polyethylene bottles, either cylinders or elliptical cylinders, that represent the hea...	{ "page_id": 12783915, "title": "Bomab" }
sometimes used to estimate detection sensitivity of in vivo personnel counting systems. == See also == Computational human phantom Imaging phantom == References == == External links == Bush F. The integral dose received from a uniformly distributed radioactive isotope. British J Radiol. 22:96-102; 1949. Health Physics ...	{ "page_id": 12783915, "title": "Bomab" }
CuproBraze is a copper-alloy heat exchanger technology for high-temperature and pressure environments such as those in modern diesel engines. The technology, developed by the International Copper Association (ICA), is licensed for free to heat exchanger manufacturers around the world. Applications for CuproBraze includ...	{ "page_id": 37753134, "title": "CuproBraze" }
200-400 fpm. This saves one process step of coating the tube later. The coated tubes, along with copper fins, headers and side supports made of brass, are fitted together into a core assembly which is brazed in a furnace. The technology enables brazed serpentine fins to be used in copper-brass heat exchanger designs. T...	{ "page_id": 37753134, "title": "CuproBraze" }
exchanger core with a smaller air pressure drops from the front to the back of the core (i.e., from the windward to the leeward side in a wind tunnel test) is more efficient. Air pressure drops typically are 24% less for CuproBraze versus aluminum heat exchangers. This advantage, responsible for a 6% increase in heat r...	{ "page_id": 37753134, "title": "CuproBraze" }
other materials. These braze joints are the very important in heat exchangers and must be leak-free. CuproBraze also has higher tolerances to internal pressures because its thin-gauge high strength materials provide stronger support for the tubes. The material is also less sensitive to bad coolants than aluminum heat e...	{ "page_id": 37753134, "title": "CuproBraze" }
meet the U.S. Tier 4i standards for stationary and mobile engines. Published reports estimate that the average life of an aluminum charge air cooler is currently about 3,500 hours. Aluminum is near its upper technological limit to accommodate higher temperatures and thermal stress levels because the tensile strength of...	{ "page_id": 37753134, "title": "CuproBraze" }
=== Repairability === CuproBraze can be repaired with little complexities. This advantage of the technology is important in remote areas where spare parts may be limited. CuproBraze can be repaired with lead-free soft solder (for example 97% tin, 3% copper) or with common silver-containing brazing alloys. === Antimicro...	{ "page_id": 37753134, "title": "CuproBraze" }
Engineers (SAE) Technical Paper Series 2007-01-1385; https://web.archive.org/web/20121023013350/http://store.sae.org/ Falkenö A., 2006. Environmentally Driven Development of New Heat Exchanger Materials, SAE Technical Paper Series 2006-01-0727; https://web.archive.org/web/20121023013350/http://store.sae.org/ Falkenö A....	{ "page_id": 37753134, "title": "CuproBraze" }
Ground truth is information that is known to be real or true, provided by direct observation and measurement (i.e. empirical evidence) as opposed to information provided by inference. == Etymology == The Oxford English Dictionary (s.v. ground truth) records the use of the word Groundtruth in the sense of 'fundamental t...	{ "page_id": 332079, "title": "Ground truth" }
to information collected at the imaged location. Ground truth allows image data to be related to real features and materials on the ground. The collection of ground truth data enables calibration of remote-sensing data, and aids in the interpretation and analysis of what is being sensed. Examples include cartography, m...	{ "page_id": 332079, "title": "Ground truth" }
and Minimum Distance Classification offer different techniques to classify an image. Additional ground truth sites allow the remote sensor to establish an error matrix that validates the accuracy of the classification method used. Different classification methods may have different percentages of error for a given clas...	{ "page_id": 332079, "title": "Ground truth" }
such as GIS, GPS, and GNSS, have become so widespread that the term "ground truth" has taken on special meaning in that context. If the location coordinates returned by a location method such as GPS are an estimate of a location, then the "ground truth" is the actual location on Earth. A smart phone might return a set ...	{ "page_id": 332079, "title": "Ground truth" }
Sanger sequencing is a method of DNA sequencing that involves electrophoresis and is based on the random incorporation of chain-terminating dideoxynucleotides by DNA polymerase during in vitro DNA replication. After first being developed by Frederick Sanger and colleagues in 1977, it became the most widely used sequenc...	{ "page_id": 1708335, "title": "Sanger sequencing" }
and the DNA polymerase. To each reaction is added only one of the four dideoxynucleotides (ddATP, ddGTP, ddCTP, or ddTTP), while the other added nucleotides are ordinary ones. The deoxynucleotide concentration should be approximately 100-fold higher than that of the corresponding dideoxynucleotide (e.g. 0.5mM dTTP : 0....	{ "page_id": 1708335, "title": "Sanger sequencing" }
facilitates reading in an optical system for faster and more economical analysis and automation. The later development by Leroy Hood and coworkers of fluorescently labeled ddNTPs and primers set the stage for automated, high-throughput DNA sequencing. Chain-termination methods have greatly simplified DNA sequencing. Fo...	{ "page_id": 1708335, "title": "Sanger sequencing" }
electrophoresis, they detect and record dye fluorescence, and output data as fluorescent peak trace chromatograms. Sequencing reactions (thermocycling and labelling), cleanup and re-suspension of samples in a buffer solution are performed separately, before loading samples onto the sequencer. A number of commercial and...	{ "page_id": 1708335, "title": "Sanger sequencing" }
and more affordable method to retrieving the genetic code. Laboratories in lower income countries may not have the capabilities to implement expensive applications such as next generation sequencing, so Sanger methods may prevail in supporting the generation of sequencing data for surveillance of variants. Sanger seque...	{ "page_id": 1708335, "title": "Sanger sequencing" }
developed that allow rapid sequencing of target genes without cloning or prior amplification. Current methods can directly sequence only relatively short (300–1000 nucleotides long) DNA fragments in a single reaction. The main obstacle to sequencing DNA fragments above this size limit is insufficient power of separatio...	{ "page_id": 1708335, "title": "Sanger sequencing" }
of the genome. A challenge of short-read sequence data is particularly an issue in sequencing new genomes (de novo) and in sequencing highly rearranged genome segments, typically those seen of cancer genomes or in regions of chromosomes that exhibit structural variation. === Applications of microfluidic sequencing tech...	{ "page_id": 1708335, "title": "Sanger sequencing" }
excess sequencing reagent) is conducted through a capture/purification chamber at 30 °C via a 33-Volts/cm electric field applied between capture outlet and inlet ports. The capture gel through which the sample is driven, consists of 40 μM of oligonucleotide (complementary to the primers) covalently bound to a polyacryl...	{ "page_id": 1708335, "title": "Sanger sequencing" }
rapid DNA sequencing". Journal of Molecular Biology. 143 (2): 161–178. doi:10.1016/0022-2836(80)90196-5. PMID 6260957. == External links == MBI Says New Tool That Automates Sanger Sample Prep Cuts Reagent and Labor Costs	{ "page_id": 1708335, "title": "Sanger sequencing" }
A cloned enzyme donor immunoassay (CEDIA) is a competitive homogenous enzyme immunoassay. This assay makes use of two component fragments of an enzyme which are each individually inactive. Under the right conditions in solution these fragments can spontaneously reassemble to form the active enzyme. For use in biochemic...	{ "page_id": 38080816, "title": "Cloned enzyme donor immunoassay" }
A consensus site is a term in molecular biology that refers to a site on a protein that is often modified in a particular way. Modifications may be N- or O- linked glycosylation, phosphorylation, tyrosine sulfation or other. == References ==	{ "page_id": 24514868, "title": "Consensus site" }
Oncogenomics is a sub-field of genomics that characterizes cancer-associated genes. It focuses on genomic, epigenomic and transcript alterations in cancer. Cancer is a genetic disease caused by accumulation of DNA mutations and epigenetic alterations leading to unrestrained cell proliferation and neoplasm formation. Th...	{ "page_id": 7737653, "title": "Oncogenomics" }
is also a major focus of epigenetic studies. Access to whole cancer genome sequencing is important to cancer (or cancer genome) research because: Mutations are the immediate cause of cancer and define the tumor phenotype. Access to cancerous and normal tissue samples from the same patient and the fact that most cancer ...	{ "page_id": 7737653, "title": "Oncogenomics" }
targeted gene therapy. This analysis validated the approach of whole cancer genome sequencing in identifying somatic mutations and the importance of parallel sequencing of normal and tumor cell genomes. In 2011, the genome of an exceptional bladder cancer patient whose tumor had been eliminated by the drug everolimus w...	{ "page_id": 7737653, "title": "Oncogenomics" }
kbit/s. Digital karyotyping: Detects copy number variation using genomics tags obtained via restriction enzyme digests. These tags are then linked to into ditags, concatenated, cloned, sequenced and mapped back to the reference genome to evaluate tag density. Bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-end sequencing (end-se...	{ "page_id": 7737653, "title": "Oncogenomics" }
oncogenomics == Comparative oncogenomics uses cross-species comparisons to identify oncogenes. This research involves studying cancer genomes, transcriptomes and proteomes in model organisms such as mice, identifying potential oncogenes and referring back to human cancer samples to see whether homologues of these oncog...	{ "page_id": 7737653, "title": "Oncogenomics" }
driver of carcinogenesis. Nucleotide sequence context influences mutation probability and analysis of mutational (mutable) DNA motifs can be essential for understanding the mechanisms of mutagenesis in cancer. Such motifs represent the fingerprints of interactions between DNA and mutagens, between DNA and repair/replic...	{ "page_id": 7737653, "title": "Oncogenomics" }
or inhibitors of one of the genes. The therapeutic potential of synthetic lethality as an efficacious anti-cancer strategy is continually improving. Recently, the applicability of synthetic lethality to targeted cancer therapy has heightened due to the recent work of scientists including Ronald A. DePinho and colleague...	{ "page_id": 7737653, "title": "Oncogenomics" }
deletion of mitochondrial malic enzyme 2 (ME2), an oxidative decarboxylase essential for redox homeostasis. Dey et al. show that ME2 genomic deletion in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cells results in high endogenous reactive oxygen species, consistent with KRAS-driven pancreatic cancer, and essentially primes ME2-nu...	{ "page_id": 7737653, "title": "Oncogenomics" }
Thus, many ovarian cancers respond to an FDA-approved treatment with a PARP inhibitor, causing synthetic lethality to cancer cells deficient in BRCA1 or BRCA2. This treatment is also being evaluated for breast cancer and numerous other cancers in Phase III clinical trials in 2016. There are two pathways for homologous ...	{ "page_id": 7737653, "title": "Oncogenomics" }
Another approach is to individually knock out each gene in a genome and observe the effect on normal and cancerous cells. If the knockout of an otherwise nonessential gene has little or no effect on healthy cells, but is lethal to cancerous cells containing a mutated oncogene, then the system-wide suppression of the su...	{ "page_id": 7737653, "title": "Oncogenomics" }
normal samples, including matched adjacent controls. The suite includes hematological malignancy samples for many well-known cancers. Specific databases for model animals include the Retrovirus Tagged Cancer Gene Database (RTCGD) that compiled research on retroviral and transposon insertional mutagenesis in mouse tumor...	{ "page_id": 7737653, "title": "Oncogenomics" }
homogenous. Abundant point mutations located within the non-coding region, D-loop, of the cancerous mitochondria suggest that mutations within this region might be an important characteristic in some cancers. === Deletions === This type of mutation is sporadically detected due to its small size ( < 1 kb). The appearanc...	{ "page_id": 7737653, "title": "Oncogenomics" }
cells. The fact that the amount of mtDNA is constant in tumor cells suggests that the amount of mtDNA is controlled by a much more complicated system in tumor cells, rather than simply altered as a consequence of abnormal cell proliferation. The role of mtDNA content in human cancers apparently varies for particular tu...	{ "page_id": 7737653, "title": "Oncogenomics" }
International Cancer Genome Consortium Personalized onco-genomics The Cancer Genome Atlas == References ==	{ "page_id": 7737653, "title": "Oncogenomics" }
Elizabeth Janet Browne (née Bell, born 30 March 1950) is a British historian of science, known especially for her work on the history of 19th-century biology. She taught at the Wellcome Trust Centre for the History of Medicine, University College, London, before returning to Harvard. She is currently Aramont Professor ...	{ "page_id": 2036020, "title": "Janet Browne" }
University. She specializes in life sciences, natural history, and evolutionary biology from the 17th to the 20th century. == Publications == The following is a selection of Browne's publications, chosen primarily by convenience from internet searches, but also to indicate the timespan over which she has published. Bro...	{ "page_id": 2036020, "title": "Janet Browne" }
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921354-2. Retrieved 30 July 2010. Browne, Janet (2009). "Darwin the Scientist". Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology. 74: 1–7. doi:10.1101/sqb.2009.74.047. PMID 20508059. Browne, Janet (2010). "Making Darwin: Biography and the Changing Representations of Charles Dar...	{ "page_id": 2036020, "title": "Janet Browne" }
This glossary of artificial intelligence is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to the study of artificial intelligence (AI), its subdisciplines, and related fields. Related glossaries include Glossary of computer science, Glossary of robotics, and Glossary of machine vision. == A == A* search Pronounc...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
may not be accompanied by equally profound social and cultural change. action language A language for specifying state transition systems, and is commonly used to create formal models of the effects of actions on the world. Action languages are commonly used in the artificial intelligence and robotics domains, where th...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
more efficient and optimal way, one can use the best parameters obtained by genetic algorithm. admissible heuristic In computer science, specifically in algorithms related to pathfinding, a heuristic function is said to be admissible if it never overestimates the cost of reaching the goal, i.e. the cost it estimates to...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
engineering productivity for a repeating or continuous process. algorithmic probability In algorithmic information theory, algorithmic probability, also known as Solomonoff probability, is a mathematical method of assigning a prior probability to a given observation. It was invented by Ray Solomonoff in the 1960s. Alph...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
set of clearly defined methods of communication among various components. A good API makes it easier to develop a computer program by providing all the building blocks, which are then put together by the programmer. An API may be for a web-based system, operating system, database system, computer hardware, or software ...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
AI research is defined as the study of "intelligent agents": any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of successfully achieving its goals. Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is applied when a machine mimics "cognitive" functions that humans associate with other ...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
objects that reside in the real-world are "augmented" by computer-generated perceptual information, sometimes across multiple sensory modalities, including visual, auditory, haptic, somatosensory, and olfactory. autoencoder A type of artificial neural network used to learn efficient codings of unlabeled data (unsupervi...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
car. A vehicle that is capable of sensing its environment and moving with little or no human input. autonomous robot A robot that performs behaviors or tasks with a high degree of autonomy. Autonomous robotics is usually considered to be a subfield of artificial intelligence, robotics, and information engineering. == B...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
(BoW model) can be applied to image classification, by treating image features as words. In document classification, a bag of words is a sparse vector of occurrence counts of words; that is, a sparse histogram over the vocabulary. In computer vision, a bag of visual words is a vector of occurrence counts of a vocabular...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
tasks are implemented. BTs present some similarities to hierarchical state machines with the key difference that the main building block of a behavior is a task rather than a state. Its ease of human understanding make BTs less error-prone and very popular in the game developer community. BTs have shown to generalize s...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
invented by Paul Bachmann, Edmund Landau, and others, collectively called Bachmann–Landau notation or asymptotic notation. binary tree A tree data structure in which each node has at most two children, which are referred to as the left child and the right child. A recursive definition using just set theory notions is t...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
because one can find the values a = TRUE and b = FALSE, which make (a AND NOT b) = TRUE. In contrast, "a AND NOT a" is unsatisfiable. boosting A machine learning ensemble metaheuristic for primarily reducing bias (as opposed to variance), by training models sequentially, each one correcting the errors of its predecesso...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
program or an artificial intelligence which conducts a conversation via auditory or textual methods. cloud robotics A field of robotics that attempts to invoke cloud technologies such as cloud computing, cloud storage, and other Internet technologies centred on the benefits of converged infrastructure and shared servic...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
new object. cognitive architecture The Institute of Creative Technologies defines cognitive architecture as: "hypothesis about the fixed structures that provide a mind, whether in natural or artificial systems, and how they work together – in conjunction with knowledge and skills embodied within the architecture – to y...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty, and relating these classes to each other. A computational problem is a task solved by a computer. A computation problem is solvable by mechanical application of mathematical steps, such as an algorithm. computational creativity Also artificial c...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
a Product Configurator. Extending Computer-Aided Design (CAD), automated design and computer-automated design are concerned with a broader range of applications, such as automotive engineering, civil engineering, composite material design, control engineering, dynamic system identification and optimization, financial s...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
conditional (probabilistic or discriminative) models with declarative constraints. constraint logic programming A form of constraint programming, in which logic programming is extended to include concepts from constraint satisfaction. A constraint logic program is a logic program that contains constraints in the body o...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
genetic algorithms and evolutionary computation, a genetic operator used to combine the genetic information of two parents to generate new offspring. It is one way to stochastically generate new solutions from an existing population, and analogous to the crossover that happens during sexual reproduction in biological o...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
has become the focus of extensive theoretical work, and numerous open problems remain unsolved. data mining The process of discovering patterns in large data sets involving methods at the intersection of machine learning, statistics, and database systems. data science An interdisciplinary field that uses scientific met...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
decision boundary In the case of backpropagation-based artificial neural networks or perceptrons, the type of decision boundary that the network can learn is determined by the number of hidden layers in the network. If it has no hidden layers, then it can only learn linear problems. If it has one hidden layer, then it ...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
in a frame language about a domain such as medical research or molecular biology. For example, the names of classes, sub-classes, properties, and restrictions on allowable values. Deep Blue was a chess-playing computer developed by IBM. It is known for being the first computer chess-playing system to win both a chess g...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
non-monotonic logic proposed by Raymond Reiter to formalize reasoning with default assumptions. Density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise (DBSCAN) A clustering algorithm proposed by Martin Ester, Hans-Peter Kriegel, Jörg Sander, and Xiaowei Xu in 1996. description logic (DL) A family of formal knowled...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
latent structure of a dataset by modeling the way in which data points diffuse through the latent space. In computer vision, this means that a neural network is trained to denoise images blurred with Gaussian noise by learning to reverse the diffusion process. It mainly consists of three major components: the forward p...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
statistics and machine learning where a model with a small number of parameters and a model with an extremely large number of parameters have a small test error, but a model whose number of parameters is about the same as the number of data points used to train the model will have a large error. This phenomenon has bee...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
and weights of hidden neurons are fixed and randomly assigned. The weights of output neurons can be learned so that the network can (re)produce specific temporal patterns. The main interest of this network is that although its behaviour is non-linear, the only weights that are modified during training are for the synap...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
the best performance on the validation dataset. The largest models may train for only one epoch. ethics of artificial intelligence The part of the ethics of technology specific to artificial intelligence. evolutionary algorithm (EA) A subset of evolutionary computation, a generic population-based metaheuristic optimiza...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
a piece of information about the content of an image; typically about whether a certain region of the image has certain properties. Features may be specific structures in an image (such as points, edges, or objects), or the result of a general neighborhood operation or feature detection applied to the image. feature ex...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
a variable. This distinguishes it from propositional logic, which does not use quantifiers or relations. fluent A condition that can change over time. In logical approaches to reasoning about actions, fluents can be represented in first-order logic by predicates having an argument that depends on time. formal language ...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
capabilities of frame and object-oriented languages overlap significantly. frame problem The problem of finding adequate collections of axioms for a viable description of a robot environment. friendly artificial intelligence Also friendly AI or FAI. A hypothetical artificial general intelligence (AGI) that would have a...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
element either belongs or does not belong to the set. By contrast, fuzzy set theory permits the gradual assessment of the membership of elements in a set; this is described with the aid of a membership function valued in the real unit interval [0, 1]. Fuzzy sets generalize classical sets, since the indicator functions ...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
transformer (GPT) A large language model based on the transformer architecture that generates text. It is first pretrained to predict the next token in texts (a token is typically a word, subword, or punctuation). After their pretraining, GPT models can generate human-like text by repeatedly predicting the token that t...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
nodes or points) and each of the related pairs of vertices is called an edge (also called an arc or line). graph database (GDB) A database that uses graph structures for semantic queries with nodes, edges, and properties to represent and store data. A key concept of the system is the graph (or edge or relationship), wh...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
may approximate the exact solution. hidden layer A layer of neurons in an artificial neural network that is neither an input layer nor an output layer. hyper-heuristic A heuristic search method that seeks to automate the process of selecting, combining, generating, or adapting several simpler heuristics (or components ...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
of information from heterogeneous sources with differing conceptual, contextual and typographical representations. It is used in data mining and consolidation of data from unstructured or semi-structured resources. Typically, information integration refers to textual representations of knowledge but is sometimes applie...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
accessed by online chat (or in some cases online chat programs that are exclusively for entertainment purposes). Some virtual assistants are able to interpret human speech and respond via synthesized voices. Users can ask their assistants questions, control home automation devices and media playback via voice, and mana...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
tree. The graph is called a tree because it branches into different sections of data; nodes of variables are the branches. == K == kernel method In machine learning, kernel methods are a class of algorithms for pattern analysis, whose best known member is the support vector machine (SVM). The general task of pattern an...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
involved in building, maintaining, and using knowledge-based systems. knowledge extraction The creation of knowledge from structured (relational databases, XML) and unstructured (text, documents, images) sources. The resulting knowledge needs to be in a machine-readable and machine-interpretable format and must represe...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
from logic to automate various kinds of reasoning, such as the application of rules or the relations of sets and subsets. Examples of knowledge representation formalisms include semantic nets, systems architecture, frames, rules, and ontologies. Examples of automated reasoning engines include inference engines, theorem...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
"general purpose computer" (that is, it can compute anything that a Turing machine can). It can not only process single data points (such as images), but also entire sequences of data (such as speech or video). == M == machine vision (MV) The technology and methods used to provide imaging-based automatic inspection and...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
general field of study of algorithms and systems for audio understanding by machine. machine perception The capability of a computer system to interpret data in a manner that is similar to the way humans use their senses to relate to the world around them. mechanism design A field in economics and game theory that take...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
is a technique for automatically verifying correctness properties of finite-state systems. modus ponens In propositional logic, modus ponens is a rule of inference. It can be summarized as "P implies Q and P is asserted to be true, therefore Q must be true." modus tollens In propositional logic, modus tollens is a vali...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
algorithm chromosomes to the next. It is analogous to biological mutation. Mutation alters one or more gene values in a chromosome from its initial state. In mutation, the solution may change entirely from the previous solution. Hence GA can come to a better solution by using mutation. Mutation occurs during evolution ...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
programmer is implemented by programming languages. Binding is intimately connected with scoping, as scope determines which names bind to which objects – at which locations in the program code (lexically) and in which one of the possible execution paths (temporally). Use of an identifier id in a context that establishe...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
and human (natural) languages, in particular how to program computers to process and analyze large amounts of natural language data. natural language programming An ontology-assisted way of programming in terms of natural-language sentences, e.g. English. network motif All networks, including biological networks, socia...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
descent. An NTM with a long short-term memory (LSTM) network controller can infer simple algorithms such as copying, sorting, and associative recall from examples alone. neuro-fuzzy Combinations of artificial neural networks and fuzzy logic. neurocybernetics Also brain–computer interface (BCI), neural-control interface...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
used to classify decision problems. NP is the set of decision problems for which the problem instances, where the answer is "yes", have proofs verifiable in polynomial time. NP-completeness In computational complexity theory, a problem is NP-complete when it can be solved by a restricted class of brute force search alg...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
Online learning is a common technique used in areas of machine learning where it is computationally infeasible to train over the entire dataset, requiring the need of out-of-core algorithms. It is also used in situations where it is necessary for the algorithm to dynamically adapt to new patterns in the data, or when t...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
a prominent example of open collaboration. overfitting "The production of an analysis that corresponds too closely or exactly to a particular set of data, and may therefore fail to fit to additional data or predict future observations reliably". In other words, an overfitted model memorizes training data details but ca...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
of the shortest route between two points. It is a more practical variant on solving mazes. This field of research is based heavily on Dijkstra's algorithm for finding a shortest path on a weighted graph. pattern recognition Concerned with the automatic discovery of regularities in data through the use of computer algor...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
variance possible under the constraint that it is orthogonal to the preceding components. The resulting vectors (each being a linear combination of the variables and containing n observations) are an uncorrelated orthogonal basis set. PCA is sensitive to the relative scaling of the original variables. principle of rati...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
many other programming languages, Prolog is intended primarily as a declarative programming language: the program logic is expressed in terms of relations, represented as facts and rules. A computation is initiated by running a query over these relations. propositional calculus Also propositional logic, statement logic...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
that prevent me from achieving my intended result. It is strongly connected to, and opposite the ramification side of, the frame problem. quantifier In logic, quantification specifies the quantity of specimens in the domain of discourse that satisfy an open formula. The two most common quantifiers mean "for all" and "t...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
uses, including function approximation, time series prediction, classification, and system control. They were first formulated in a 1988 paper by Broomhead and Lowe, both researchers at the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment. random forest Also random decision forest. An ensemble learning method for classification, ...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
(RL) An area of machine learning concerned with how software agents ought to take actions in an environment so as to maximize some notion of cumulative reward. Reinforcement learning is one of three basic machine learning paradigms, alongside supervised and unsupervised learning. It differs from supervised learning in ...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
Boltzmann machine (RBM) A generative stochastic artificial neural network that can learn a probability distribution over its set of inputs. Rete algorithm A pattern matching algorithm for implementing rule-based systems. The algorithm was developed to efficiently apply many rules or patterns to many objects, or facts, ...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
a problem domain, either with discrete or continuous values. selection The stage of a genetic algorithm in which individual genomes are chosen from a population for later breeding (using the crossover operator). self-management The process by which computer systems manage their own operation without human intervention....	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
of syntactically invalid strings, the result would be non-computation. Semantics describes the processes a computer follows when executing a program in that specific language. This can be shown by describing the relationship between the input and output of a program, or an explanation of how the program will be execute...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
formalism designed for representing and reasoning about dynamical domains. Selective Linear Definite clause resolution Also simply SLD resolution. The basic inference rule used in logic programming. It is a refinement of resolution, which is both sound and refutation complete for Horn clauses. software A collection of ...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }
(SNN) An artificial neural network that more closely mimics a natural neural network. In addition to neuronal and synaptic state, SNNs incorporate the concept of time into their Operating Model. state In information technology and computer science, a program is described as stateful if it is designed to remember preced...	{ "page_id": 50336055, "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence" }

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