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the universe then becomes lim z → ∞ d T ( z ) / c {\displaystyle \lim _{z\to \infty }d_{T}(z)/c} , and the time elapsed since redshift z {\displaystyle z} until now is: t ( z ) = d T ( z ) / c . {\displaystyle t(z)=d_{T}(z)/c.} === Etherington's distance duality === The Etherington's distance-duality equation is the re...	{ "page_id": 8065677, "title": "Distance measure" }
Lamé's stress ellipsoid is an alternative to Mohr's circle for the graphical representation of the stress state at a point. The surface of the ellipsoid represents the locus of the endpoints of all stress vectors acting on all planes passing through a given point in the continuum body. In other words, the endpoints of ...	{ "page_id": 27071123, "title": "Lamé's stress ellipsoid" }
2 2 σ 2 2 + T 3 2 σ 3 2 = 1 {\displaystyle n_{1}^{2}+n_{2}^{2}+n_{3}^{2}={\frac {T_{1}^{2}}{\sigma _{1}^{2}}}+{\frac {T_{2}^{2}}{\sigma _{2}^{2}}}+{\frac {T_{3}^{2}}{\sigma _{3}^{2}}}=1\,} which is the equation of an ellipsoid centered at the origin of the coordinate system, with the lengths of the semiaxes of the elli...	{ "page_id": 27071123, "title": "Lamé's stress ellipsoid" }
+ x 3 2 σ 3 = 1 {\displaystyle {\frac {x_{1}^{2}}{\sigma _{1}}}+{\frac {x_{2}^{2}}{\sigma _{2}}}+{\frac {x_{3}^{2}}{\sigma _{3}}}=1} The stress represented by a radius-vector of the stress ellipsoid acts on a plane oriented parallel to the tangent plane to the stress-director surface at the point of its intersection wi...	{ "page_id": 27071123, "title": "Lamé's stress ellipsoid" }
A bestiary (Latin: bestiarium vocabulum) is a compendium of beasts. Originating in the ancient world, bestiaries were made popular in the Middle Ages in illustrated volumes that described various animals and even rocks. The natural history and illustration of each beast was usually accompanied by a moral lesson. This r...	{ "page_id": 4757, "title": "Bestiary" }
these beasts were widely read and generally believed to be true. A few observations found in bestiaries, such as the migration of birds, were discounted by the natural philosophers of later centuries, only to be rediscovered in the modern scientific era. Medieval bestiaries are remarkably similar in sequence of the ani...	{ "page_id": 4757, "title": "Bestiary" }
with bestiaries. The most widely known volucrary in the Renaissance was Johannes de Cuba's Gart der Gesundheit which describes 122 birds and which was printed in 1485. == Bestiary content == The contents of medieval bestiaries were often obtained and created from combining older textual sources and accounts of animals,...	{ "page_id": 4757, "title": "Bestiary" }
on the theory that medieval people did not actually think such creatures existed but instead focused on the belief in the importance of the Christian morals these creatures represented, and that the importance of the moral did not change regardless if the animal existed or not. The historian of science David C. Lindber...	{ "page_id": 4757, "title": "Bestiary" }
history shows how important the church can be during this time. Much of what is covered in the article talks about how the dragon that is mentioned in some of the bestiaries shows a glimpse of the religious significance in many of these tales. These bestiaries held much content in terms of religious significance. In al...	{ "page_id": 4757, "title": "Bestiary" }
in many cases the unknown animals can be the same, as well as having meaning or significance behind them. The lists of monsters to be found in video games (such as NetHack, Dragon Quest, and Monster Hunter), as well as some tabletop role-playing games such as Pathfinder, are often termed bestiaries. == See also == Alle...	{ "page_id": 4757, "title": "Bestiary" }
András Kornai (born 1957 in Budapest), son of economist János Kornai, is a mathematical linguist. He has earned two PhDs. He earned his first in Mathematics in 1983 from Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest, where his advisor was Miklós Ajtai, and his second in Linguistics in 1991 from Stanford University, where his ad...	{ "page_id": 6558358, "title": "András Kornai" }
vi+81 pages. See related material. Extended Finite State Models of Language (editor). In the series Studies in Natural Language Processing, Cambridge University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-521-63198-X, hardbound, x+278 pages Contents, Introduction (7 pages). == Selected papers == Digital Language Death. PLoS ONE 8(10): e77056,...	{ "page_id": 6558358, "title": "András Kornai" }
Nitrospinota is a bacterial phylum. Despite only few described species, members of this phylum are major nitrite-oxidizing bacteria in surface waters in oceans. By oxidation of nitrite to nitrate they are important in the process of nitrification in marine environments. Although the genus Nitrospina is an aerobic bacte...	{ "page_id": 66458263, "title": "Nitrospinota" }
Chrysanthemum bonsai (Japanese: 菊の盆栽, romanized: Kiku no bonsai, lit. 'Chrysanthemum tray planting', ) is a Japanese art form using cultivation techniques to produce, in containers, chrysanthemum flowers that mimic the shape and scale of full size trees, called bonsai. == Cultivation and care == Bonsai cultivation and ...	{ "page_id": 14291606, "title": "Chrysanthemum bonsai" }
Big Hit: Chrysanthemum Bonsai \| Longwood Gardens	{ "page_id": 14291606, "title": "Chrysanthemum bonsai" }
Palaeontology is one of the two scientific journals of the Palaeontological Association (the other being Papers in Palaeontology). It was established in 1957 and is published on behalf of the Association by Wiley-Blackwell. The editor-in-chief is Dr Paul Taylor (Natural History Museum, London). Palaeontology publishes ...	{ "page_id": 12259996, "title": "Palaeontology (journal)" }
A maraschino cherry ( MARR-ə-SKEE-noh, -⁠SHEE-) is a preserved, sweetened cherry, typically made from light-colored sweet cherries such as the Royal Ann, Rainier, or Gold varieties. In their modern form, the cherries are first preserved in a brine solution usually containing sulfur dioxide and calcium chloride to bleac...	{ "page_id": 70311, "title": "Maraschino cherry" }
Dalmatia was quite limited, so they became known as a delicacy for royalty and the wealthy. Because of the relative scarcity of the marasca, other cherries came to be preserved in various ways and sold as "maraschino". == United States == The cherries were first introduced in the United States in the late 19th century,...	{ "page_id": 70311, "title": "Maraschino cherry" }
putting in there" (frequently not alcohol)—and turned it into a science, something replicable. When Wiegand began his research, sodium metabisulfite was being used to preserve maraschino cherries. Some accounts indicate that this preservation method was being used long before Prohibition. Some manufacturers used marasc...	{ "page_id": 70311, "title": "Maraschino cherry" }
Inborn errors of purine–pyrimidine metabolism are a class of inborn error of metabolism disorders specifically affecting purine metabolism and pyrimidine metabolism. An example is Lesch–Nyhan syndrome. Urine tests may be of use in identifying some of these disorders. == References == == External links ==	{ "page_id": 17306283, "title": "Inborn errors of purine–pyrimidine metabolism" }
Jian Ma (Chinese: 马坚) is an American computer scientist and computational biologist. He is the Ray and Stephanie Lane Professor of Computational Biology in the School of Computer Science at Carnegie Mellon University. He is a faculty member in the Ray and Stephanie Lane Computational Biology Department. His lab develop...	{ "page_id": 62460588, "title": "Jian Ma (computational biologist)" }
Talwalkar A, and Ma J. Applying interpretable machine learning in computational biology - pitfalls, recommendations and opportunities for new developments. Nature Methods, 21(8):1454-1461, 2024. Xiong K#, Zhang R#, and Ma J. scGHOST: Identifying single-cell 3D genome subcompartments. Nature Methods, 21(5):814-822, 20...	{ "page_id": 62460588, "title": "Jian Ma (computational biologist)" }
Ortho effect is an organic chemistry phenomenon where the presence of a chemical group at the at ortho position or the 1 and 2 position of a phenyl ring, relative to the carboxylic compound changes the chemical properties of the compound. This is caused by steric effects and bonding interactions along with polar effect...	{ "page_id": 60166827, "title": "Ortho effect" }
When any group is present at ortho position to an amide group (NH2) in aniline then the basic character of that compound becomes weaker. For example, see the order of basicity of following substituted aniline:- p-Toluidine > m-Toluidine > Aniline > o-Toluidine Aniline > m-Nitroaniline > p-Nitroaniline > o-Nitroaniline ...	{ "page_id": 60166827, "title": "Ortho effect" }
minor compound. Also in nitration of the nitration of 3-bromobenzoic acid 5-bromo-2-nitrobenzoic acid (83%yield) was obtained as major product and 3-bromo-2-nitrobenzoic acid (13% yield) as minor. On an interesting note the potential isomer 3-bromo-4-nitrobenzoic acid was not detected. == Diels-Alder reactions == The o...	{ "page_id": 60166827, "title": "Ortho effect" }
The law of reciprocal proportions, also called law of equivalent proportions or law of permanent ratios, is one of the basic laws of stoichiometry. It relates the proportions in which elements combine across a number of different elements. It was first formulated by Jeremias Richter in 1791. A simple statement of the l...	{ "page_id": 42472109, "title": "Law of reciprocal proportions" }
states that if two different elements combine separately with a fixed mass of a third element, the ratio of the masses in which they combine are either the same or are in simple multiple ratio of the masses in which they combine with each other . == History == The law of reciprocal proportions was proposed in essence b...	{ "page_id": 42472109, "title": "Law of reciprocal proportions" }
The molecular formula C38H42N2O6 (molar mass : 622.74 g/mol) may refer to : Cycleanine, a selective vascular calcium antagonist Rodiasine, an alkaloid Tetrandrine, a calcium channel blocker	{ "page_id": 27459313, "title": "C38H42N2O6" }
In medicinal chemistry, bioisosteres are chemical substituents or groups with similar physical or chemical properties which produce broadly similar biological properties in the same chemical compound. In drug design, the purpose of exchanging one bioisostere for another is to enhance the desired biological or physical ...	{ "page_id": 5378736, "title": "Bioisostere" }
retain the focus on providing similar sterics and electronic profile to the original functional group. Whereas classical bioisosteres commonly conserve much of the same structural properties, nonclassical bioisosteres are much more dependent on the specific binding needs of the ligand in question and may substitute a l...	{ "page_id": 5378736, "title": "Bioisostere" }
Quantum 1/f noise is an intrinsic and fundamental part of quantum mechanics. Fighter pilots, photographers, and scientists all appreciate the higher quality of images and signals resulting from the consideration of quantum 1/f noise. Engineers have battled unwanted 1/f noise since 1925, giving it poetic names (such as ...	{ "page_id": 1708719, "title": "Quantum 1/f noise" }
developed the quantum 1/f noise formulas. Aldert van der Ziel, the nestor of the electronic noise field, verified and applied it in many devices and systems, together with dozens of his PhD students. It is described in the last of his 12 books: "Noise in electronic devices and circuits" published by Wiley in 1986. He a...	{ "page_id": 1708719, "title": "Quantum 1/f noise" }
the field of noise is that, until the publication rate on the non-existent quantum 1/f noise effect stays around 1 paper/year, it is more economical to refer to the old denials than to write up new refusals. == See also == Shot noise 1/f noise White noise Johnson–Nyquist noise Signal-to-noise ratio Noise power Noise-eq...	{ "page_id": 1708719, "title": "Quantum 1/f noise" }
The Rubottom oxidation is a useful, high-yielding chemical reaction between silyl enol ethers and peroxyacids to give the corresponding α-hydroxy carbonyl product. The mechanism of the reaction was proposed in its original disclosure by A.G. Brook with further evidence later supplied by George M. Rubottom. After a Pril...	{ "page_id": 7344825, "title": "Rubottom oxidation" }
solvent followed by various hydrocarbon solvents including pentane and toluene. Notably, the reaction proceeds at relatively low temperatures and heating beyond room temperature is not necessary. Low temperatures allow the standard Rubottom oxidation conditions to be amenable with a variety of sensitive functionalities...	{ "page_id": 7344825, "title": "Rubottom oxidation" }
from their corresponding silyl enol ethers. The first example of an enantioselective Rubottom oxidation was published by F.A. Davis in 1987 and showcased the Davis chiral oxaziridine methodology (Davis oxidation) to give good yields but modest enantiomeric excesses. In 1992, K.B. Sharpless showed that the asymmetric di...	{ "page_id": 7344825, "title": "Rubottom oxidation" }
S. Rozen to oxidize a variety of electron rich silyl enol ethers, silyl ketene acetals, and bis(silyl acetals), derived from carboxylic acids, in good yields at or below room temperature. == Applications in synthesis == The following examples represent only a small portion of syntheses that highlight the use of the Rub...	{ "page_id": 7344825, "title": "Rubottom oxidation" }
to remove the hydroxyl ester moiety of pleuromutilin yielded mutilin. Subsequent treatment with lithium hexamethyldisilazide (LiHMDS) and TMSCl gave the TMS-protected silyl enol ether, which was immediately subjected to an acetic acid- (HOAc) pyridine- (Py) buffered Rubottom oxidation before acidic hydrolysis to afford...	{ "page_id": 7344825, "title": "Rubottom oxidation" }
gives a single stereoisomer due to substrate control and represents the key stereogenic step in the route to the Samadi ketone. Once synthesized, the Samadi ketone could be elaborated to (−)-ovalicin through known steps. Velutinol A was first synthesized by Isaka and coworkers. The authors show that the high regioselec...	{ "page_id": 7344825, "title": "Rubottom oxidation" }
hydrolysis. For protecting groups see ref == Problems and shortcomings == While the Rubottom oxidation generally gives good yields and is highly scalable (see 2S-hydroxymutilin synthesis), there are still some problems with the reaction. As mentioned above, the acidic reaction conditions are not tolerated by many compl...	{ "page_id": 7344825, "title": "Rubottom oxidation" }
This timeline lists notable events in the history of research into senescence or biological aging, including the research and development of life extension methods, brain aging delay methods and rejuvenation. People have long been interested in making their lives longer and healthier. The most anсient Egyptian, Indian ...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
even in the most ideal conditions a person will not live longer due to aging of the body. Some scientists believe that, even if medicine learns how to treat all major diseases, that will increase the average lifespan of people in developed countries by only about 10 years. For example, biogerontologist Leonard Hayflick...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
immortality, mainly by means of magic. He used services of various magicians. But Wu of Han was not a naive person – he thoroughly rechecked their abilities and if he identified the person as a quack, he executed him. 63 BC–14 CE — years of life of Caesar Augustus, the first Roman emperor, who is considered one of the ...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
of this, and this purpose is considered a myth by historians. 1550 — a Venetian nobleman Luigi Cornaro published the book The Art of Living Long, describing the style of life for the achievement of longevity. The book was translated into many languages. The English version of the book till the 19th century went through...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
positive effects. Some researchers work in parallel. Then at some moment the persons emerge who developed the approaches and made them public. 1825 The first publication of the Gompertz–Makeham law of mortality that in the simplest form is: p = a + bx. According to the law, the probability of death p is defined as the ...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
he claimed he felt as if he became younger by 30 years. However, 5 years later he died. But other doctors picked up this method and it created the foundation for the development of hormone replacement therapy. 1903 Ilya Mechnikov coined the term "gerontology". The term originates from the Greek γέρων, geron, "old man" ...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
sexual hormones in the formation of the first and secondary sex characteristics, enriched physiology, laid the foundation for the science of sexology, formed the basis for sex reassignment surgeries. From 1921 to 1938, Eugen Steinach was nominated for the Nobel Prize many times (according to various sources, from 6 to ...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
from human to human, the glands of executed criminals were usually used. But due to a shortage of materials, the sex glands of young healthy monkeys were widely used, which were specially grown for this purpose (usually thin sections of the glands were implanted). In some cases soon after the operation, there were inde...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
role belongs here to the Swiss physician Paul Niehans – he was not the first but he was the one who developed this approach the most. Among his patients there were many famous people (including Winston Churchill, Charles de Gaulle, Pope Pius XII). So, in 1952, about 3000 injections of about 10 cm3 of cell suspension we...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
human life expectancy still remains a question where not everything is clear and is unambiguous. 1936 The first European (and Western) journal about aging and longevity. It was published in Kishinev by Dimu Kotsovsky. During the first year of existence it was called Monatsberichte, then got the name German: Altersprobl...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
of another level appeared. Thanks to these technologies, it became understandable what really occurs inside cells and between them (for example, the model of the DNA double helix was created in 1953). At the same time, changed ethical norms did not allow cardinal experiments to be performed on humans, as had been possi...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
related theories under the general name DNA damage theory of aging. 1961 Discovery by Leonard Hayflick of the limit of divisions for somatic cells, named the Hayflick limit. Hayflick found that normal human cells, extracted from fetus, are able to divide only about 50 times, after that they enter a senescence phase. 19...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
searches for supercentenarians around the world and verifies their age. Whenever possible, the organization tries to collect data on why these people live significantly longer than the average person. The organization regularly publishes a list of the oldest verified living supercentenarians. 1992 National Archive of C...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
a shift of focus of the scientific community from the passive study of aging and theorizing to research aimed at intervening in the aging process to extend the lives of organisms beyond their genetic limits. Scientific-commercial companies appear, which aim to create practical technologies for measuring the biological ...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
was awarded. 2004 Creation of the first curated database of genes related to human ageing: GenAge. 2006 Creation of induced stem cells (iSC) from somatic cells by the simultaneous action of several factors. First produced by the Japanese scientist Shinya Yamanaka. In 2012, Shinya Yamanaka and John Gurdon received the N...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
lifespan of male mice (but not female mice). 2013 The pan-tissue Epigenetic clock is a molecular biomarker by Steve Horvath that facilitates the measurement of the age of all human tissues based on cytosine methylation. 2013 The scientific journal Cell published the article "The Hallmarks of Aging", that was translated...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
the implementation of the SENS programs, researchers managed to make two mitochondrial genes, ATP8 and ATP6, stably express from the cell nucleus in the cell culture. 2016 Scientists show that expressing Yamanaka reprogramming factors in mice with premature aging can extend their lifespan by about 20%. 2017 The discove...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
kidney disease. By combining doses of lithium, trametinib and rapamycin into a single treatment, researchers extend the lifespan of fruit flies (Drosophila) by 48%. Researchers at Harvard Medical School identify a link between neural activity and human longevity. Neural excitation is linked to shorter life, while suppr...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
Researchers report that myeloid cells are drivers of a maladaptive inflammation element of brain-ageing in mice and that this can be reversed or prevented via inhibition of their EP2 signalling. A randomized clinical trial demonstrates that a combination therapy of a short (two months) intervention of diet, phytonutrie...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
many of the same beneficial changes in adult humans as in studied organisms, potentially increasing health- and lifespan. A review published a few days later provides an overview of DR as an intervention and develops a framework for a proposed field of "precision nutrigeroscience". A study published a few days later id...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
30% caloric restriction extended life spans of male C57BL/6J mice by 10% but when combined with daily intermittent fasting and eating during the most active time of the day it extended life span by 35%. A study shows that 50+ aged users of the dietary program SNAP "had about 2 fewer years of cognitive aging over a 10-y...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
therapy of bursts of iPSC reprogramming is reported, which can reverse aspects of aging in mice, without causing cancer or other health problems. Scientists reversed aging in human skin cells for over 30 years by partially reprogramming them with the Yamanaka factors, working better than previous reprogramming methods....	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
a way by which the aging of select immune system T cells can be prevented or is slowed down, with relevance to life extension and making vaccines more durable. The discovery of "super neurons" in the entorhinal cortex of people over age 80 who show exceptional episodic memory is reported. Scientists report that some ap...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
as health behaviors and poverty – are at least as good predictors and e.g. can better predict cognitive functioning. Around February, Bryan Johnson's Project Blueprint for one of the first comprehensive, possibly largely public, self-experimentations of a comprehensive combination therapy informed by the large scientif...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
team at Harvard Medical School release a study that claims to have discovered the first known chemical approach to reprogram cells to a younger state by delivering the Yamanaka factors directly, whereas previously this had only been achievable via gene therapy. A study indicates factors contributing to the longevity of...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
cells due to impaired mitochondria is a driver of aging. A previously unknown cell mechanism involved in aging is discovered, which explains how cells 'remember' their identity when they divide – the cells' so-called epigenetic memory. A team of scientists from New York University identifies a potential cause of greyin...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
block the production of the protein and allowing others to reach middle age before giving them a drug to eliminate it from their bodies, increased their lifespans by 20–25% and reversed numerous effects of aging. Precious3GPT, an artificial intelligence model designed to assist in aging research and drug discovery, is ...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
in young cells advanced senescence. A study by scientists at University College London, Stanford University, Inserm, and the University of Helsinki found that accelerated aging in specific organs could be predictors for diseases across the entire body, not just those affecting that particular organ. A study at the Univ...	{ "page_id": 67572411, "title": "Timeline of aging research" }
The aditus to mastoid antrum (otomastoid foramen) is a large, irregular opening upon the posterior wall of the tympanic cavity by which the mastoid antrum (situated posteriorly) communicates with the epitympanic recess of the tympanic cavity (situated anteriorly). The walls of the antrum are lined by mucosa which is co...	{ "page_id": 6165180, "title": "Aditus to mastoid antrum" }
Aminopropane may refer to: Propylamine (1-aminopropane) Isopropylamine (2-aminopropane)	{ "page_id": 23728830, "title": "Aminopropane" }
Professor Bruce Harold John McKellar (born 1941) is an Australian theoretical particle physicist who is Honorary Professorial Fellow at the Centre of Excellence for Particle Physics at the Terascale (CoEPP) in the School of Physics at The University of Melbourne. The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUP...	{ "page_id": 46273214, "title": "Bruce McKellar" }
which he undertook from 1966 to 1968. He then returned to University of Sydney. In 1972, at the age of 30, McKellar was appointed as the Professor of Theoretical Physics at Melbourne University. He retired from this role in 2007. He has held visiting positions at the French Atomic Energy Commission, Saclay (France), th...	{ "page_id": 46273214, "title": "Bruce McKellar" }
its Foreign Secretary from 2004–2006. He was a founding member of the Australian Research Council, playing a key role in both its establishment and development. McKellar actively facilitates physics research, policy development and international collaboration globally, especially in the Asia-Pacific Region. He served o...	{ "page_id": 46273214, "title": "Bruce McKellar" }
The influence of Strong and Weak Interactions. Nuclear Physics A 260: 413 – 445 (1976). COON, S.A., SCADRON, M.D., McNAMEE, P.C., BARRETT, B.R., BLATT, D.W.E., and McKELLAR, B.H.J. — The Two Pion Exchange Three Nucleon Potential and Nuclear Matter. Nuclear Physics A 317: 242 — 287 (1979). This is the Tucson Melbourne F...	{ "page_id": 46273214, "title": "Bruce McKellar" }
COLD-PCR (co-amplification at lower denaturation temperature PCR) is a modified polymerase chain reaction (PCR) protocol that enriches variant alleles from a mixture of wildtype and mutation-containing DNA. The ability to preferentially amplify and identify minority alleles and low-level somatic DNA mutations in the pr...	{ "page_id": 26415811, "title": "COLD-PCR" }
the authors of the protocol took advantage of two observations: Each double-stranded DNA has a 'critical temperature' (Tc) lower than its Tm. The PCR amplification efficiency drops measurably below the Tc. The Tc is dependent on DNA sequence. Two template DNA fragments differing by only one or two nucleotide mismatches...	{ "page_id": 26415811, "title": "COLD-PCR" }
needed. Thus the denaturation can occur at the Tc, proceed to primer annealing, and then polymerase-mediated extension. Each round of amplification will include these three stages in that order. By utilizing the lower denaturation temperature, the reaction will discriminate toward the products with the lower Tm – i.e. ...	{ "page_id": 26415811, "title": "COLD-PCR" }
level (under 20% abundance) mutations that would likely have been missed using conventional methods that don't enrich for variant sequence DNA. === Pyrosequencing === Similar to its use in direct Sanger sequencing, with pyrosequencing COLD-PCR was shown to be capable of detecting mutations that had a prevalence 0.5–1% ...	{ "page_id": 26415811, "title": "COLD-PCR" }
polymerase-introduced errors Variable overall mutation enrichment dependent on DNA position and nucleotide substitution No guarantee that all low-level mutations will be preferentially enriched == History == COLD-PCR was originally described by Li et al. in a Nature Medicine paper published in 2008 from Mike Makrigiorg...	{ "page_id": 26415811, "title": "COLD-PCR" }
The void ratio ( e {\displaystyle e} ) of a mixture of solids and fluids (gases and liquids), or of a porous composite material such as concrete, is the ratio of the volume of the voids ( V V {\displaystyle V_{V}} ) filled by the fluids to the volume of all the solids ( V S {\displaystyle V_{S}} ). It is a dimensionles...	{ "page_id": 7934659, "title": "Void ratio" }
V V T = V V V S + V V = e 1 + e {\displaystyle \phi ={\frac {V_{V}}{V_{T}}}={\frac {V_{V}}{V_{S}+V_{V}}}={\frac {e}{1+e}}} where e {\displaystyle e} is the void ratio, ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } is the porosity, VV is the volume of void-space (gases and liquids), VS is the volume of solids, and VT is the total (or bulk) v...	{ "page_id": 7934659, "title": "Void ratio" }
is vulnerable to increase (swelling) under unloading – the smectite (montmorillonite, bentonite) partially dry clay particles present in an unsaturated soil can swell due to their hydration after contact with water (when the saturated/unsaturated conditions fluctuate in a soil). Control of the fluid hydraulic conductiv...	{ "page_id": 7934659, "title": "Void ratio" }
Behavior (American English) or behaviour (British English) is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems or artificial entities in some environment. These systems can include other systems or organisms as well as the inanimate physical environment. It is the computed response of the sys...	{ "page_id": 4805, "title": "Behavior" }
monogamous while, while meadow voles are more promiscuous, a difference that is strongly determined by a single gene, Avpr1a, encoding a receptor for the peptide hormone Vasopressin. === Human behavior === The endocrine system and the nervous system likely influence human behavior. Complexity in the behavior of an orga...	{ "page_id": 4805, "title": "Behavior" }
hungry, then this physical feeling of hunger will influence them so that they go and purchase a sandwich to satisfy the hunger. === Consumer decision making === Lars Perner presents a model that outlines the decision-making process involved in consumer behaviour. The process initiates with the identification of a probl...	{ "page_id": 4805, "title": "Behavior" }
making a profit. When market prices for a product are high, it will cause consumers to purchase less and use purchased goods for longer periods of time, meaning they are purchasing the product less often. Alternatively, when market prices for a product are low, consumers are more likely to purchase more of the product,...	{ "page_id": 4805, "title": "Behavior" }
due to the availability of goods online. If a customer can purchase a good from the comfort of their home instead of purchasing in-store, then the placement of products is not going to influence their purchase decision. == In management == Behavior outside of psychology includes === Organizational === In management, be...	{ "page_id": 4805, "title": "Behavior" }
a person's beliefs and actions regarding their health and well-being. Health behaviors are direct factors in maintaining a healthy lifestyle. Health behaviors are influenced by the social, cultural, and physical environments in which we live. They are shaped by individual choices and external constraints. Positive beha...	{ "page_id": 4805, "title": "Behavior" }
negative health behavior outcomes. E.g. through health promotion messages. In addition, the health belief model suggests the need to focus on the benefits of health behaviors and the fact that barriers to action are easily overcome. The theory of planned behavior suggests using persuasive messages for tackling behavior...	{ "page_id": 4805, "title": "Behavior" }
no more at Earthling Nature. behaviorinformatics.org Links to review articles by Eric Turkheimer and co-authors on behavior research Links to IJCAI2013 tutorial on behavior informatics and computing	{ "page_id": 4805, "title": "Behavior" }
6-Acetyl-2,3,4,5-tetrahydropyridine is an aroma compound and flavor that gives baked goods such as white bread, popcorn, and tortillas their typical smell, together with its structural homolog 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline. 6-Acetyl-2,3,4,5-tetrahydropyridine and 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline are usually formed by Maillard reactions dur...	{ "page_id": 15012549, "title": "6-Acetyl-2,3,4,5-tetrahydropyridine" }
Conpoy or dried scallop is a type of Cantonese dried seafood product that is made from the adductor muscle of scallops. The smell of conpoy is marine, pungent, and reminiscent of certain salt-cured meats. Its taste is rich in umami due to its high content of various free amino acids, such as glycine, alanine, and gluta...	{ "page_id": 463558, "title": "Conpoy" }
The RNA Tie Club was an informal scientific club, meant partly to be humorous, of select scientists who were interested in how proteins were synthesised from genes, specifically the genetic code. It was created by George Gamow upon a suggestion by James Watson in 1954 when the relationship between nucleic acids and ami...	{ "page_id": 26415816, "title": "RNA Tie Club" }
In early 1954, he spent several days at Woods Hole on Cape Cod with Crick, Watson and Sydney Brenner, discussing genetics. Based on the Watson-Crick model, he proposed a "direct DNA template hypothesis" stating that proteins are synthesised directly from the double-stranded grooves of DNA. The four bases of DNA were as...	{ "page_id": 26415816, "title": "RNA Tie Club" }
by Gamow. Gamow's tie pattern was delivered to a Los Angeles haberdasher on Colorado Avenue by Watson, with the shop tailor promising to make the ties for $4 each. Along with each tie, members of the club were to receive a golden tiepin with the three letter abbreviation of their club amino acid designation. Not all me...	{ "page_id": 26415816, "title": "RNA Tie Club" }
Adaptor hypothesis === Francis Crick proposed the "adaptor hypothesis" (a name given by Brenner) suggesting that some molecule ferried the amino acids around, and put them in the correct order corresponding to the nucleic acid sequence. The hypothesis contradicted Gamow's direct DNA template hypothesis, positing that D...	{ "page_id": 26415816, "title": "RNA Tie Club" }
In enzymology, an estradiol 17beta-dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.62) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction estradiol-17beta + NAD(P)+ ⇌ {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons } estrone + NAD(P)H + H+ The 3 substrates of this enzyme are estradiol-17beta, NAD+, and NADP+, whereas its 4 products are estrone, NADH, NADPH,...	{ "page_id": 13898437, "title": "Estradiol 17beta-dehydrogenase" }
The circuit topology of a folded linear polymer refers to the arrangement of its intra-molecular contacts. Examples of linear polymers with intra-molecular contacts are nucleic acids and proteins. Proteins fold via the formation of contacts of various natures, including hydrogen bonds, disulfide bonds, and beta-beta in...	{ "page_id": 43717327, "title": "Circuit topology" }
topology operations to soft and hard contacts to generate complex folds, using a bottom-up engineering approach. Both knot theory and circuit topology aim to describe chain entanglement, making it important to understand their relationship. Knot theory considers any entangled chain as a connected sum of prime knots, wh...	{ "page_id": 43717327, "title": "Circuit topology" }
The biosphere (from Ancient Greek βίος (bíos) 'life' and σφαῖρα (sphaîra) 'sphere'), also called the ecosphere (from Ancient Greek οἶκος (oîkos) 'settlement, house' and σφαῖρα (sphaîra) 'sphere'), is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems. It can also be termed the zone of life on the Earth. The biosphere (which is techni...	{ "page_id": 4816, "title": "Biosphere" }

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