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life and Earth sciences. === Narrow definition === Geochemists define the biosphere as being the total sum of living organisms (the "biomass" or "biota" as referred to by biologists and ecologists). In this sense, the biosphere is but one of four separate components of the geochemical model, the other three being geosp...	{ "page_id": 4816, "title": "Biosphere" }
Australia. In 2017, putative fossilized microorganisms (or microfossils) were announced to have been discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec, Canada that were as old as 4.28 billion years, the oldest record of life on earth, suggesting "an almost instantaneous emergence of life" ...	{ "page_id": 4816, "title": "Biosphere" }
high in the atmosphere. Marine life under many forms has been found in the deepest reaches of the world ocean while much of the deep sea remains to be explored. Under certain test conditions, microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space. The total amount of soil and subsurface bacterial carbon...	{ "page_id": 4816, "title": "Biosphere" }
the "deep biosphere" is defined by temperature rather than absolute depth. On 20 August 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living 800 m (2,600 ft; 0.50 mi) below the ice of Antarctica. Earth's biosphere is divided into several biomes, inhabited by fairly similar flora and fauna. On land, biomes ...	{ "page_id": 4816, "title": "Biosphere" }
also possible that artificial biospheres will be created in the future, for example with the terraforming of Mars. == See also == == References == == Further reading == The Biosphere (A Scientific American Book), San Francisco, W.H. Freeman and Co., 1970, ISBN 0-7167-0945-7. This book, originally the December 1970 Scie...	{ "page_id": 4816, "title": "Biosphere" }
This is a list of books which talk about things related to current day physics or physics as it would be in the future. There a number of books that have been penned about specific physics concepts, e.g. quantum mechanics or kinematics, and many other books which discuss physics in general, i.e. not focussing on a sing...	{ "page_id": 34738898, "title": "List of books on popular physics concepts" }
mysteries. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. ISBN 978-0316328197. Hawking, Stephen (1996). A Brief History of Time (Updated and expanded tenth anniversary ed.). New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0553380163. — (2006). The theory of everything : the origin and fate of the universe (Special anniversary ed.). Mumbai: Jaico Pub. H...	{ "page_id": 34738898, "title": "List of books on popular physics concepts" }
edge of time-- a journey through the wonders of physics (1st Free Press hardcover ed.). New York: Free Press. ISBN 1439108277. Talbot, Michael (1988). Beyond the quantum. Toronto: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0553344806. — (1992). Mysticism and the new physics (Rev. and updated ed.). London: Arkana. ISBN 978-0140193282. Walk...	{ "page_id": 34738898, "title": "List of books on popular physics concepts" }
Microtentacles are microtubule-based membrane protrusions that occur in detached cells. They were discovered by scientists studying metastatic breast cancer cells at the University of Maryland, Baltimore. These novel structures are distinct from classical actin based extensions of adherent cells, persist for days in br...	{ "page_id": 19862229, "title": "Microtentacle" }
(May 2010). "Antimitotic chemotherapeutics promote adhesive responses in detached and circulating tumor cells". Breast Cancer Res Treat. 121 (1): 65–78. doi:10.1007/s10549-009-0457-3. PMC 3633461. PMID 19593636. Whipple, R.A.; Balzer, E.M.; Cho, E.H; Matrone, M.A; Yoon, J.R.; Martin, S.S. (2008). "Vimentin Filaments Su...	{ "page_id": 19862229, "title": "Microtentacle" }
The mass excess of a nuclide is the difference between its actual mass and its mass number in daltons. It is one of the predominant methods for tabulating nuclear mass. The mass of an atomic nucleus is well approximated (less than 0.1% difference for most nuclides) by its mass number, which indicates that most of the m...	{ "page_id": 8262357, "title": "Mass excess" }
the proton mass is ~938.27 MeV/c2), while mass excesses range in the tens of MeV/c2. This makes tabulated mass excess less cumbersome for use in calculations. The 1/c2 factor is typically omitted when quoting mass excess values in MeV, since the interest is more often energy and not mass; if one wanted units of mass, o...	{ "page_id": 8262357, "title": "Mass excess" }
James Douglas Morrison (1924–2013) was an Australian physical chemist. Born and educated in Glasgow (BSc 1945, PhD 1948), he moved to Australia in 1949 to work with the CSIRO. There he switched from X-ray crystallography to mass spectrometry as a research topic. In 1967 he was appointed as the foundation chair of physi...	{ "page_id": 52695769, "title": "Jim Morrison (chemist)" }
Synthetic-aperture magnetometry (SAM) is a method for analysis of data obtained from magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG). SAM is a nonlinear beamforming approach which can be thought of as a spatial filter. == See also == Aperture synthesis == References ==	{ "page_id": 16257756, "title": "Synthetic-aperture magnetometry" }
Ethnomycology is the study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi and can be considered a subfield of ethnobotany or ethnobiology. Although in theory the term includes fungi used for such purposes as tinder, medicine (medicinal mushrooms) and food (including yeast), it is often used in the context of t...	{ "page_id": 3674853, "title": "Ethnomycology" }
sects of Sumerian religion, Judaism and early Christianity. Clark Heinrich claims that Amanita muscaria use in Europe was not completely wiped out by Orthodox Christianity but continued to be used (either consumed or merely symbolically) by individuals and small groups such as medieval Holy Grail myth makers, alchemist...	{ "page_id": 3674853, "title": "Ethnomycology" }
Lampman, Tzeltal ethnomycology: Naming, classification and use of mushrooms in the highlands of Chiapas, Mexico, Dissertation, ProQuest Information and Learning (2004) Jagjit Singh (ed.), From Ethnomycology to Fungal Biotechnology: Exploiting Fungi from Natural Resources for Novel Products, Springer (1999), ISBN 978-0-...	{ "page_id": 3674853, "title": "Ethnomycology" }
Noam Slonim (Hebrew: נעם סלונים; born in Jerusalem) is an Israeli computer scientist, specializing in Natural Language Processing and the application of Large language models. He is an IBM Distinguished Engineer, the founder and Principal Investigator of Project Debater, and serves as the Language Model Utilization lea...	{ "page_id": 68489959, "title": "Noam Slonim" }
2011 he proposed to develop the first Artificial Intelligence system that can meaningfully participate in a full live debate with an expert human debater. This work gave rise to Project Debater, that debated expert human debaters in several live events during 2018 and 2019. In 2020, Slonim delivered the opening keynote...	{ "page_id": 68489959, "title": "Noam Slonim" }
The Mycological Society of San Francisco (MSSF) is an amateur club based in the San Francisco Bay Area, "dedicated to promoting the understanding and enjoyment of fungi." Meetings are held every third Tuesday, and the society newsletter, Mycena News, is published once a month during the mushroom season, from September ...	{ "page_id": 11604713, "title": "Mycological Society of San Francisco" }
In physics, the n-body problem is the problem of predicting the individual motions of a group of celestial objects interacting with each other gravitationally. Solving this problem has been motivated by the desire to understand the motions of the Sun, Moon, planets, and visible stars. In the 20th century, understanding...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
and rise of the n-body "problem" in the early 17th century. These gravitational attractive forces do conform to Newton's laws of motion and to his law of universal gravitation, but the many multiple (n-body) interactions have historically made any exact solution intractable. Ironically, this conformity led to the wrong...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
problem algorithm, the latter allowing for a closed form solution for calculating those interactive forces. The problem of finding the general solution of the n-body problem was considered very important and challenging. Indeed, in the late 19th century King Oscar II of Sweden, advised by Gösta Mittag-Leffler, establis...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
given by F i j = G m i m j ‖ q j − q i ‖ 2 ⋅ ( q j − q i ) ‖ q j − q i ‖ = G m i m j ( q j − q i ) ‖ q j − q i ‖ 3 , {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{ij}={\frac {Gm_{i}m_{j}}{\left\\|\mathbf {q} _{j}-\mathbf {q} _{i}\right\\|^{2}}}\cdot {\frac {\left(\mathbf {q} _{j}-\mathbf {q} _{i}\right)}{\left\\|\mathbf {q} _{j}-\mathbf {...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
simplify the problem. Translational symmetry of the problem results in the center of mass C = ∑ i = 1 n m i q i ∑ i = 1 n m i {\displaystyle \mathbf {C} ={\frac {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}m_{i}\mathbf {q} _{i}}{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}m_{i}}}} moving with constant velocity, so that C = L0t + C0, where L0 is the...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
= ⁠1/2⁠⟨U⟩, which is an example of the virial theorem for gravitational systems. If M is the total mass and R a characteristic size of the system (for example, the radius containing half the mass of the system), then the critical time for a system to settle down to a dynamic equilibrium is t c r = ( G M R 3 ) − 1 / 2 ....	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
} +{\frac {\eta }{r^{3}}}\mathbf {r} =\mathbf {0} } Where r = r2 − r1 is the vector position of m2 relative to m1; α is the Eulerian acceleration ⁠d2r/dt2⁠; η = G(m1 + m2). The equation α + ⁠η/r3⁠r = 0 is the fundamental differential equation for the two-body problem Bernoulli solved in 1734. Notice for this approach f...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
than 330,000 miles from the solar surface, Dr. C. H. Cleminshaw of Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles has calculated. The Sun wobbles as it rotates around the Galactic Center, dragging the Solar System and Earth along with it. What mathematician Kepler did in arriving at his three famous equations was curve-fit the ap...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
the movements of three bodies subject to their mutual gravitational attractions, but his efforts resulted in verbal descriptions and geometrical sketches; see especially Book 1, Proposition 66 and its corollaries (Newton, 1687 and 1999 (transl.), see also Tisserand, 1894). In 1767, Euler found collinear motions, in whi...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
space, and the less massive body (such as Jupiter) to orbit around it, with the equilibrium points (Lagrangian points) maintaining the 60° spacing ahead of, and behind, the less massive body almost in its orbit (although in reality neither of the bodies are truly stationary, as they both orbit the center of mass of the...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
restricted problem (both circular and elliptical) was worked on extensively by many famous mathematicians and physicists, most notably by Poincaré at the end of the 19th century. Poincaré's work on the restricted three-body problem was the foundation of deterministic chaos theory. In the restricted problem, there exist...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
of star–planet Kepler problems, treating interactions among the planets as perturbations. Perturbative approximation works well as long as there are no orbital resonances in the system, that is none of the ratios of unperturbed Kepler frequencies is a rational number. Resonances appear as small denominators in the expa...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
A choreography for n = 3 was discovered by Lagrange in 1772 in which three bodies are situated at the vertices of an equilateral triangle in the rotating frame. A figure eight choreography for n = 3 was found numerically by C. Moore in 1993 and generalized and proven by A. Chenciner and R. Montgomery in 2000. Since the...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
is also known, and the Taylor series is constructed iteratively. === A generalized Sundman global solution === In order to generalize Sundman's result for the case n > 3 (or n = 3 and c = 0) one has to face two obstacles: As has been shown by Siegel, collisions which involve more than two bodies cannot be regularized a...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
bodies, the set of initial data giving rise to singularities has measure zero. == Simulation == While there are analytic solutions available for the classical (i.e. nonrelativistic) two-body problem and for selected configurations with n > 2, in general n-body problems must be solved or simulated using numerical method...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
bodies === Direct methods using numerical integration require on the order of ⁠1/2⁠n2 computations to evaluate the potential energy over all pairs of particles, and thus have a time complexity of O(n2). For simulations with many particles, the O(n2) factor makes large-scale calculations especially time-consuming. A num...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
at close range. As with particle mesh methods, adaptive meshes can increase computational efficiency. Mean field methods approximate the system of particles with a time-dependent Boltzmann equation representing the mass density that is coupled to a self-consistent Poisson equation representing the potential. It is a ty...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
that fit into this form include all-nearest-neighbors in manifold learning, kernel density estimation, and kernel machines. Alternative optimizations to reduce the O(n2) time complexity to O(n) have been developed, such as dual tree algorithms, that have applicability to the gravitational n-body problem as well. A tech...	{ "page_id": 23859945, "title": "N-body problem" }
Since the first printing of Carl Linnaeus's Species Plantarum in 1753, plants have been assigned one epithet or name for their species and one name for their genus, a grouping of related species. Thousands of plants have been named for people, including botanists and their colleagues, plant collectors, horticulturists,...	{ "page_id": 66261739, "title": "List of plant genera named for people (Q–Z)" }
Dictionary of Plant Names for Gardeners In addition, Burkhardt's Index is used as a reference for every row in the table. == Genera == == See also == List of plant genus names with etymologies: A–C, D–K, L–P, Q–Z List of plant family names with etymologies == Notes == == Citations == == References == Bayton, Ross (2020...	{ "page_id": 66261739, "title": "List of plant genera named for people (Q–Z)" }
Gledhill, David (2008). The Names of Plants. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86645-3.	{ "page_id": 66261739, "title": "List of plant genera named for people (Q–Z)" }
Solar wind turbulence refers to the complex, chaotic fluid motions and magnetic field fluctuations observed in the solar wind plasma as it flows outward from the Sun. This turbulence plays a key role in heating the solar wind and accelerating charged particles throughout the heliosphere. Solar wind turbulence displays ...	{ "page_id": 78254826, "title": "Solar wind turbulence" }
Freund's adjuvant is a solution of antigen emulsified in mineral oil and used as an immunopotentiator (booster). The complete form, Freund's Complete Adjuvant (FCA or CFA) is composed of inactivated and dried mycobacteria (usually M. tuberculosis), whereas the incomplete form (FIA or IFA) lacks the mycobacterial compon...	{ "page_id": 30872302, "title": "Freund's adjuvant" }
tumor necrosis factor, which is thought to kill the T-cells responsible for the autoimmune destruction of the pancreatic beta cells. Still in question is whether the regrowth of functional insulin-producing cells occurs due to differentiation and proliferation of existing pancreatic stem cells, or whether the injected ...	{ "page_id": 30872302, "title": "Freund's adjuvant" }
In botany, blossoms are the flowers of stone fruit trees (genus Prunus) and of some other plants with a similar appearance that flower profusely for a period of time in spring. Colloquially, flowers of orange are referred to as such as well. Peach blossoms (including nectarine), most cherry blossoms, and some almond bl...	{ "page_id": 70382, "title": "Blossom" }
traditional custom of enjoying the transient beauty of flowers; in this case almost always refer to those of the cherry (桜, sakura) or, less frequently, plum (梅, ume) trees. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the National Trust organises the environmental awareness campaign #BlossomWatch, which is designed to raise...	{ "page_id": 70382, "title": "Blossom" }
Pimascovirales is an order of viruses. The term is a portmanteau of a portmanteau of pitho-, irido-, marseille-, and ascoviruses. == Families == Pimascovirales contains six families, three of which are assigned to a suborder. This taxonomy is shown hereafter: Suborder: Ocovirineae Hydriviridae Orpheoviridae Pithovirida...	{ "page_id": 63771377, "title": "Pimascovirales" }
Nonribosomal peptides (NRP) are a class of peptide secondary metabolites, usually produced by microorganisms like bacteria and fungi. Nonribosomal peptides are also found in higher organisms, such as nudibranchs, but are thought to be made by bacteria inside these organisms. While there exist a wide range of peptides t...	{ "page_id": 1118963, "title": "Nonribosomal peptide" }
responsible for the introduction of one additional amino acid. Each module consists of several domains with defined functions, separated by short spacer regions of about 15 amino acids. The biosynthesis of nonribosomal peptides shares characteristics with the polyketide and fatty acid biosynthesis. Due to these structu...	{ "page_id": 1118963, "title": "Nonribosomal peptide" }
the PCP-domain catalyzed by the PCP-domain (thiolation). Some A domains require interaction with MbtH-like proteins for their activity. Sometimes the amino group of the bound amino acid is formylated by an F-domain or methylated by an NMT-domain. === Elongation stages === Loading: Analogous to the starting stage, each ...	{ "page_id": 1118963, "title": "Nonribosomal peptide" }
A-domain determines which amino acid is incorporated in a module. Ten amino acids that control substrate specificity and can be considered the 'codons' of nonribosomal peptide synthesis have been identified, and rational protein design has yielded methodologies to computationally switch the specificities of A-domains. ...	{ "page_id": 1118963, "title": "Nonribosomal peptide" }
Clumping is a behavior in an organism, usually sessile, in which individuals of a particular species group close to one another for beneficial purposes. Clumping can be caused by the abiotic environment surrounding an organism. Barnacles, for example, group together on rocks that are exposed for the least amount of tim...	{ "page_id": 660213, "title": "Clumping (biology)" }
is not as effective with criteria such as those groups that are clumped. Other methods instead can be utilized to measure clumped populations, such as the line-intercept method which is more popular with organisms that can be studied and identified before they move. The reasoning behind organisms clumping revolve aroun...	{ "page_id": 660213, "title": "Clumping (biology)" }
the evolution of life. The benefits of these multi-cellular lifeforms forming include further advances in efficiency to already existing ways that single-celled organisms cooperated; the creation of extracellular "public goods" is an example of organisms gaining from clumping. However, cooperation could still evolve an...	{ "page_id": 660213, "title": "Clumping (biology)" }
Extrusion in food processing consists of forcing soft mixed ingredients through an opening in a perforated plate or die designed to produce the required shape. The extruded food is then cut to a specific size by blades. The machine which forces the mix through the die is an extruder, and the mix is known as the extruda...	{ "page_id": 36442869, "title": "Food extrusion" }
residence time. Many extruded products puff and change texture as they are extruded because of the reduction of forces and release of moisture and heat. The extent to which it does so is known as the expansion ratio. The extrudate is cut to the desired length by blades at the output of the extruder, which rotate about ...	{ "page_id": 36442869, "title": "Food extrusion" }
as a result of a chemical reaction between the salt and the starches in the extrudate. Colour changes as a result of salt concentration may be caused by "the ability of salt to change the water activity of the extrudate and thus change the rate of browning reactions". Salt is also used to distribute minor ingredients, ...	{ "page_id": 36442869, "title": "Food extrusion" }
flour. It's unclear whether there has been an earlier breakfast cereal made from extruded products. Meat analogues have been made through extrusion since 1969. == Effects == Extrusion enables mass production of food via a continuous, efficient system that ensures uniformity of the final product. This is achieved by con...	{ "page_id": 36442869, "title": "Food extrusion" }
fibers into soluble fibers. Binding and volatization of flavor compounds. Gelatinization of starch. An increase in iron content due to the wearing of machine components. No significant change in zinc absorption. As of 1998, little is known about the stability or bioavailability of phytochemicals involved in extrusion. ...	{ "page_id": 36442869, "title": "Food extrusion" }
make more liquid pasta sauces adhere better; pasta made this way is labelled "bronze die" pasta to indicate a premium product. Pasta dies == Products == Extrusion has enabled the production of new processed food products and "revolutionized many conventional snack manufacturing processes". The various types of food pro...	{ "page_id": 36442869, "title": "Food extrusion" }
Onna; Brigitte van Mechelen; Matthew Stewart; Shonquis Moreno; Chris Scott; Sarah Martin Pearson; Joeri Bruyninckx; Masaaki Takahashi (1993). The technology of Extrusion Cooking. Springer. ISBN 9780834213401. Guy, R. C. E. (2003). "EXTRUSION COOKING/Principles and Practice". Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition....	{ "page_id": 36442869, "title": "Food extrusion" }
Paleodictyon is a trace fossil, usually interpreted to be a burrow, which appears in the geologic marine record beginning in the Precambrian/Early Cambrian and in modern ocean environments. Paleodictyon were first described by Giuseppe Meneghini in 1850. The origin of the trace fossil is enigmatic and numerous candidat...	{ "page_id": 13308663, "title": "Paleodictyon" }
on Paleodictyon using Euler graph theory suggest that it is unlikely to be an excavation trace fossil, and that it is more likely to be an imprint or body fossil, or to be of abiotic origin. It has been suggested that Paleodictyon may represent a body fossil of a xenophyophore, a type of giant foraminifera. The infauna...	{ "page_id": 13308663, "title": "Paleodictyon" }
A field effect is the polarization of a molecule through space. The effect is a result of an electric field produced by charge localization in a molecule. This field, which is substituent and conformation dependent, can influence structure and reactivity by manipulating the location of electron density in bonds and/or ...	{ "page_id": 56824574, "title": "Field effect (chemistry)" }
effect == A dipole can align to stabilize or destabilize the formation or loss of a charge, thereby decreasing (if stabilized) or increasing (if destabilized) the activation barrier to a chemical event. Field effects can therefore tune the acidity or basicity of bonds within their fields by donating or withdrawing char...	{ "page_id": 56824574, "title": "Field effect (chemistry)" }
withdrawing group X and an acidic functional group, which are approximately the same spatial distance apart in each compound. It is known that an electron-withdrawing substituent will decrease the pKa of a given proton (i.e. increase the acidity) inductively. If induction was the dominant effect in these compounds, aci...	{ "page_id": 56824574, "title": "Field effect (chemistry)" }
Isaac Newton's rotating bucket argument (also known as Newton's bucket) is a thought experiment that was designed to demonstrate that true rotational motion cannot be defined as the relative rotation of the body with respect to the immediately surrounding bodies. It is one of five arguments from the "properties, causes...	{ "page_id": 4864, "title": "Bucket argument" }
metaphysical impossibility because space is nothing other than the extension of matter, or, in other words, that when one speaks of the space between things one is actually making reference to the relationship that exists between those things and not to some entity that stands between them. Concordant with the above un...	{ "page_id": 4864, "title": "Bucket argument" }
== The argument == Newton discusses a bucket (Latin: situla) filled with water hung by a cord. If the cord is twisted up tightly on itself and then the bucket is released, it begins to spin rapidly, not only with respect to the experimenter, but also in relation to the water it contains. (This situation would correspon...	{ "page_id": 4864, "title": "Bucket argument" }
surface of the water will at first be plain, as before the vessel began to move; but the vessel by gradually communicating its motion to the water, will make it begin sensibly to revolve, and recede by little and little, and ascend to the sides of the vessel, forming itself into a concave figure... This ascent of the w...	{ "page_id": 4864, "title": "Bucket argument" }
earth and other celestial bodies. The degree in which Mach's hypothesis is integrated in general relativity is discussed in the article Mach's principle; it is generally held that general relativity is not entirely Machian. All observers agree that the surface of rotating water is curved. However, the explanation of th...	{ "page_id": 4864, "title": "Bucket argument" }
For example, see Knudsen and Hjorth. The analysis begins with the free body diagram in the co-rotating frame where the water appears stationary. The height of the water h = h(r) is a function of the radial distance r from the axis of rotation Ω, and the aim is to determine this function. An element of water volume on t...	{ "page_id": 4864, "title": "Bucket argument" }
analogy in the case of rotating bucket is that the element of water surface will "slide" up or down the surface unless the normal to the surface aligns with the vector resultant formed by the vector addition Fg + FCfgl.) As r increases, the centrifugal force increases according to the relation (the equations are writte...	{ "page_id": 4864, "title": "Bucket argument" }
parabolic in its dependence upon the radius. === Potential energy === The shape of the water's surface can be found in a different, very intuitive way using the interesting idea of the potential energy associated with the centrifugal force in the co-rotating frame. In a reference frame uniformly rotating at angular rat...	{ "page_id": 4864, "title": "Bucket argument" }
to occupy these positions of lower energy, inasmuch as there is no barrier to lateral movement in an ideal liquid. We might imagine deliberately upsetting this equilibrium situation by somehow momentarily altering the surface shape of the water to make it different from an equal-energy surface. This change in shape wou...	{ "page_id": 4864, "title": "Bucket argument" }
toward the periphery becomes no longer advantageous, because the reduction in potential energy from working with the centrifugal force is balanced against the increase in energy working against gravity. Thus, at a given angular rate of rotation, a concave surface represents the stable situation, and the more rapid the ...	{ "page_id": 4864, "title": "Bucket argument" }
the Bucket". The Fabric of the Cosmos: Space, Time, and the Texture of Reality. A A Knopf. ISBN 0-375-41288-3. The isotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation is another indicator that the universe does not rotate. See: R. B. Partridge (1995). 3 K: The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation. Cambridge Universi...	{ "page_id": 4864, "title": "Bucket argument" }
The Frank–Caro process, also called cyanamide process, is the nitrogen fixation reaction of calcium carbide with nitrogen gas in a reactor vessel at about 1,000 °C. The reaction is exothermic and self-sustaining once the reaction temperature is reached. Originally the reaction took place in large steel cylinders with a...	{ "page_id": 7541505, "title": "Frank–Caro process" }
million tons a year. === Patent === German patent nr. DE 88363 (1895) == See also == Odda process Birkeland–Eyde process Haber–Bosch process Linde–Frank–Caro process, a method to produce hydrogen from water gas == References == == External links == Guide to the Papers of Adolf Frank (1834–1916) Archived 2011-07-25 at t...	{ "page_id": 7541505, "title": "Frank–Caro process" }
From 1948 to 1975, the U.S. Army Chemical Corps conducted classified human subject research at the Edgewood Arsenal facility in Maryland. These experiments began after the conclusion of World War II, and continued until the public became aware of the experiments, resulting in significant outcry. The purpose was to eval...	{ "page_id": 5640964, "title": "Edgewood Arsenal human experiments" }
of chemistry at Johns Hopkins University wrote the Chemical Corps Technical Command positing the potential for the use of specialized enzymes as so called "toxicological warfare agents". He went on to suggest that with intensive research, substances that depleted certain necessary nutrients could be found, which would,...	{ "page_id": 5640964, "title": "Edgewood Arsenal human experiments" }
Defense publicly asserted that many "forms of chemical and allied warfare as more 'humane' than existing weapons. For example, certain types of 'psychochemicals' would make it possible to paralyze temporarily entire population centers without damage to homes and other structures." Soviet advances in the same field were...	{ "page_id": 5640964, "title": "Edgewood Arsenal human experiments" }
test subjects over almost three decades. A result of these experiments was that BZ was weaponized, although never deployed. According to a DOD FAQ, the Edgewood Arsenal experiments involved the following "rough breakout of volunteer hours against various experimental categories": === Acetylcholine related experiments =...	{ "page_id": 5640964, "title": "Edgewood Arsenal human experiments" }
extremely limited exposures described in the documentation is associated with no long-term effects. It is important to note however, that in the decades since their introduction to medical use, research has begun to suggest a causal relationship between long term anticholinergic drug use and later development or worsen...	{ "page_id": 5640964, "title": "Edgewood Arsenal human experiments" }
experiments ==== The LSD experiments are perhaps the best documented of the psychochemical experiments of the time, garnering at least two significant independent reports. LSD is a Psychedelic drug that acts as a dopamine and serotonin agonist precipitating a hallucinogenic effect, leading to hallucinations, euphoria, ...	{ "page_id": 5640964, "title": "Edgewood Arsenal human experiments" }
Army Chemical Corps was abandoned on or around April 1963. ==== BZ experiments ==== 3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate, or BZ is a substance that interferes with the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system by inhibiting acetylcholine. Existing documentation admits only that the substance was tested at Edgewood ...	{ "page_id": 5640964, "title": "Edgewood Arsenal human experiments" }
suicide] and to what extent they might now show these effects are not known". With regard specifically to BZ and related compounds, the IOM study concluded that "available data suggest that long-term toxic effects and/or delayed sequellae are unlikely". 2004 GAO report A Government Accounting Office report of May 2004,...	{ "page_id": 5640964, "title": "Edgewood Arsenal human experiments" }
might be expected to expire during any one-year period. By this logic, Edgewood was possibly the safest military place in the world to spend two months. As late as 2014, information was incomplete; IOM could not conduct adequate medical studies related to similar former US biowarfare programs, because relevant classifi...	{ "page_id": 5640964, "title": "Edgewood Arsenal human experiments" }
were neglected in efforts to maintain the secrecy of the tests. Finally, the command and control problems which were apparent in the CIA's programs are paralleled by a lack of clear authorization and supervision in the Army's programs.(S. Rep., at 411.[5]) In the 1990s, the law firm Morrison & Foerster agreed to take o...	{ "page_id": 5640964, "title": "Edgewood Arsenal human experiments" }
deception, and a callous disregard for the value of human life. On July 24, 2013, United States District Court Judge Claudia Wilken issued an order granting in part and denying in part plaintiffs' motion for summary judgment and granting in part and denying in part defendants' motion for summary judgment. The court res...	{ "page_id": 5640964, "title": "Edgewood Arsenal human experiments" }
Human experimentation in the United States Swords to Plowshares United States v. Stanley == References == === General sources === Two autobiographical books from psychiatrists conducting human experiments at Edgewood have been self-published: Men and Poisons: The Edgewood Volunteers and the Army Chemical Warfare Resear...	{ "page_id": 5640964, "title": "Edgewood Arsenal human experiments" }
in Army chemical and drug experiments, and that, furthermore, the tests were proceeding at Edgewood Arsenal as of the date of the article. Two TV documentaries, with different content but confusingly similar titles were broadcast: Bad Trip to Edgewood (1993) on ITV Yorkshire Bad Trip to Edgewood (1994) on A&E Investiga...	{ "page_id": 5640964, "title": "Edgewood Arsenal human experiments" }
Cold vapour atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (CVAFS) is a subset of the analytical technique known as atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (AFS). == Use for mercury detection == Used in the measurement of trace amounts of volatile heavy metals such as mercury, cold vapour AFS makes use of the unique characteristic of mercu...	{ "page_id": 5182215, "title": "Cold vapour atomic fluorescence spectroscopy" }
Pokkesviricetes is a class of viruses. == Nomenclature == The class, Pokkesviricetes, is derived from pockes, the Middle English word for pox as in referring to the disease associated to certain members of Poxviridae. == Orders == The following orders are recognized: Asfuvirales Chitovirales == References ==	{ "page_id": 63771405, "title": "Pokkesviricetes" }
Mordehai "Moti" Milgrom (Hebrew: מרדכי "מוטי" מילגרום) is an Israeli physicist and professor in the department of Particle Physics and Astrophysics at the Weizmann Institute in Rehovot, Israel. == Biography == He received his B.Sc. degree from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1966. Later he studied at the Weizmann...	{ "page_id": 660242, "title": "Mordehai Milgrom" }
Universe". YouTube. Weizmann Institute of Science. May 11, 2020. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21.	{ "page_id": 660242, "title": "Mordehai Milgrom" }
Contagium vivum fluidum (Latin: "contagious living fluid") was a phrase first used to describe a virus, and underlined its ability to slip through the finest ceramic filters then available, giving it almost liquid properties. Martinus Beijerinck (1851–1931), a Dutch microbiologist and botanist, first used the term when...	{ "page_id": 38146835, "title": "Contagium vivum fluidum" }
a contradiction in terms. However, Beijerinck only used the phrase "contagium vivum fluidum" in the title of his paper, using the word "virus" throughout. Other scientists began to identify other diseases caused by infectious agents which could pass through a porcelain filter. These became known as "filterable viruses"...	{ "page_id": 38146835, "title": "Contagium vivum fluidum" }
In orbital mechanics, a Lissajous orbit (pronounced [li.sa.ʒu]), named after Jules Antoine Lissajous, is a quasi-periodic orbital trajectory that an object can follow around a Lagrangian point of a three-body system with minimal propulsion. Lyapunov orbits around a Lagrangian point are curved paths that lie entirely in...	{ "page_id": 10228498, "title": "Lissajous orbit" }
L1. On 14 May 2009, the European Space Agency (ESA) launched into space the Herschel and Planck observatories, both of which use Lissajous orbits at Sun–Earth L2. ESA's Gaia mission also uses a Lissajous orbit at Sun–Earth L2. In 2011, NASA transferred two of its THEMIS spacecraft from Earth orbit to Lunar orbit by way...	{ "page_id": 10228498, "title": "Lissajous orbit" }

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