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Germplasm refers to genetic resources such as seeds, tissues, and DNA sequences that are maintained for the purpose of animal and plant breeding, conservation efforts, agriculture, and other research uses. These resources may take the form of seed collections stored in seed banks, trees growing in nurseries, animal bre...	{ "page_id": 1512214, "title": "Germplasm" }
this is an issue. == Storage methods == Effective Germplasm work includes the collection, storage, analysis, documentation, and exchange of genetic information. This information can be stored as accessions, which is DNA sequence information, or live cells/tissues that can be preserved. However, only about 5% of current...	{ "page_id": 1512214, "title": "Germplasm" }
genetic resources for food and agriculture Conservation biology Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources Forest genetic resources International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture Plant genetic resources Seed saving Germ plasm == References == Day-Rubenstein, K and Heisey, P. 2003. Plant Gene...	{ "page_id": 1512214, "title": "Germplasm" }
A trinucleotide repeat expansion, also known as a triplet repeat expansion, is the DNA mutation responsible for causing any type of disorder categorized as a trinucleotide repeat disorder. These are labelled in dynamical genetics as dynamic mutations. Triplet expansion is caused by slippage during DNA replication, also...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
However, from the eyes of geneticists, this relationship was disregarded and attributed to ascertainment bias; because of this, it took almost 200 years for a link between onset of disease and trinucleotide repeats (TNR) to be acknowledged. The following findings of served as support for TNR's link to onset of disease;...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
onset in children; therefore, the lengths of TNRs are used to predict age of disease onset as well as outcome in clinical diagnosis. In addition to this finding, another aspect of the diseases, the high variability of onset, was revealed. Although the onset of HD could be predicted by examining TNR length inheritance, ...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
GAA. During DNA replication, the strand being synthesized can misalign with its template strand due to the dynamic nature and flexibility of these triplet repeats. This slippage allows for the strand to find a stable intermediate amongst itself through base pairing, forming a secondary structure other than a duplex. ==...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
the number of nucleotides present in the loop depends on if the number of triplet repeats is odd or even. An even number of repeats forms a tetraloop structure, while an odd number leads to the formation of a triloop. == Instability == === Threshold === In trinucleotide repeat expansion there is a certain threshold or ...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
trinucleotide repeat disorders. For example, research regarding the correlation between Huntington's Disease CAG trinucleotide repeat and parental transmission has found that there is a strong correlation between the two with differences in maternal and paternal transmission. Maternal transmission has been observed to ...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
unequal homologous recombination is unlikely to be the sole cause of transmitted trinucleotide repeat expansions, this homologous recombination likely plays a minor role in the length of some trinucleotide repeat expansions. === DNA replication === DNA replication errors are predicted to be the main perpetrator of trin...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
in repeat deletions. These intermediates can pause activity of the replication fork based on their interaction with DNA polymerases through strand slippage. Contractions occur when the replication fork skips over the intermediate on the Okazaki fragment. Expansions occur when the fork reverses and restarts, which forms...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
strand slippage mechanism until replication fork reversal. An endonuclease then cleaves the chicken-foot structure, which results in a one-ended double strand break. The CAG repeat of this broken daughter strand forms a hairpin and invades the CAG strand on the sister chromatid, which results in expansion of this repea...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
increases, and the mRNA levels are elevated five-fold. Research has shown that individuals with premutation alleles in the range of 59-69 repeats have about a 30% risk of developing full mutation and compared to those in the high range of ≥ 90 repeats. Fragile X syndrome carriers (those that fall within the premutation...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
manifests as symptoms such as cognitive, motor, and/or psychiatric impairment. ==== Causation ==== This autosomal dominant disorder results from the expansions of a trinucleotide repeat which involves CAG in exon 1 of the IT15 gene. The majority of all juvenile HD cases stem from the transmission of a high CAG trinucle...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
these physical ailments, individuals with Myotonic Dystrophy have been found to experience varying internalized disorders such as anxiety and mood disorders as well as cognitive delays, attention deficit disorders, autism spectrum disorders, lower IQ's, and visual-spatial difficulties. Research has shown that there is ...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
The precise timing of TNR occurrence varies by disease. Although the exact timing for FXS is not certain, research has suggested that the earliest CGG expansions for this disorder are seen in primary oocytes. It has been proposed that the repeat expansion happens in the maternal oocyte during meiotic cell cycle arrest ...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
TNR length. This process leaves the potential for TNR expansions to occur. === Huntington's disease === In Huntington's disease (HD), the exact timing has not been determined; however there are a number of proposed points during germ cell development at which expansion is thought to occur. In four HD samples examined, ...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
to target mutated gene expression by using antisense oligonucleotides (ASO) or RNA interference (RNAi) to target the messenger RNA (mRNA). While solutions for the interventions of this disease is a priority, RNAi and ASO have only reached clinical trial stages. === RNA interference (RNAi) === RNA interference is a mech...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
partial complementary pairing between the guide strand and the targeted mRNA may cause the incorrect translation or destabilization at the target sites. === Antisense oligonucleotides === Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) are small strand single stranded oligodeoxynucleotides approximately 15-20 nucleic acids in length...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
chemical modification. The goal of the ASO is to modulate the gene expression through proteins which can be done in 2 complex ways; a)the RNase H-dependent oligonucleotides, which induce the degradation of mRNA, and (b) the steric-blocker oligonucleotides, which physically prevent or inhibit the progression of splicing...	{ "page_id": 5706520, "title": "Trinucleotide repeat expansion" }
Inflammation (from Latin: inflammatio) is part of the biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. The five cardinal signs are heat, pain, redness, swelling, and loss of function (Latin calor, dolor, rubor, tumor, and functio laesa). Inflammation is a generic r...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
root comes from Old French inflammation around the 14th century, which then comes from Latin inflammatio or inflammationem. Literally, the term relates to the word "flame", as the property of being "set on fire" or "to burn". The term inflammation is not a synonym for infection. Infection describes the interaction betw...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
frostbite are some of the typical causes of acute inflammation. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) recognize microbial pathogens. Acute inflammation can be a defensive mechanism to protect tissues against injury. Inflammation lasting 2–6 weeks is designated subacute inflammation. ==== Cardinal signs ==== Inflammation is charac...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
At the onset of an infection, burn, or other injuries, these cells undergo activation (one of the PRRs recognize a PAMP or DAMP) and release inflammatory mediators responsible for the clinical signs of inflammation. Vasodilation and its resulting increased blood flow causes the redness (rubor) and increased heat (calor...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
some of the factors that promote chronic inflammation. ==== Cardinal signs ==== Common signs and symptoms that develop during chronic inflammation are: Body pain, arthralgia, myalgia Chronic fatigue and insomnia Depression, anxiety and mood disorders Gastrointestinal complications such as constipation, diarrhea, and ac...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
site – for the purpose of aiding phagocytic debridement and wound repair later on. Some of the exuded tissue fluid is also funneled by lymphatics to the regional lymph nodes, flushing bacteria along to start the recognition and attack phase of the adaptive immune system. Acute inflammation is characterized by marked va...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
bacteria, viruses, and cellular debris. Others release enzymatic granules that damage pathogenic invaders. Leukocytes also release inflammatory mediators that develop and maintain the inflammatory response. In general, acute inflammation is mediated by granulocytes, whereas chronic inflammation is mediated by mononucle...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
firm adhesion. Such activation increases the affinity of bound integrin receptors for ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 on the endothelial cell surface, firmly binding the leukocytes to the endothelium. Migration across the endothelium, known as transmigration, via the process of diapedesis: Chemokine gradients stimulate the adhered l...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
derived complement C3b and antibodies that exude into the inflamed tissue during the vascular phase bind to and coat the microbial antigens. As well as endocytic PRRs, phagocytes also express opsonin receptors Fc receptor and complement receptor 1 (CR1), which bind to antibodies and C3b, respectively. The co-stimulatio...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
epithelium can result in the necrotic loss of tissue from the surface, exposing lower layers. The subsequent excavation in the epithelium is known as an ulcer. == Disorders == Inflammatory abnormalities are a large group of disorders that underlie a vast variety of human diseases. The immune system is often involved wi...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
such as monoclonal antibodies targeting IL-1β, have been studied in large clinical trials, showing promising results in reducing cardiovascular events. These drugs offer a potential new avenue for treatment, particularly for patients who do not respond adequately to statins. However, concerns about long-term safety and...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
digest bacteria (Chédiak–Higashi syndrome), or produce microbicides (chronic granulomatous disease). In addition, diseases affecting the bone marrow may result in abnormal or few leukocytes. === Pharmacological === Certain drugs or exogenous chemical compounds are known to affect inflammation. Vitamin A deficiency, for...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
chronic inflammation. As of 2012, chronic inflammation was estimated to contribute to approximately 15% to 25% of human cancers. ==== Mediators and DNA damage in cancer ==== An inflammatory mediator is a messenger that acts on blood vessels and/or cells to promote an inflammatory response. Inflammatory mediators that c...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
cancer). Sites of oxidative damage in chromatin can recruit complexes that contain DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs), a histone deacetylase (SIRT1), and a histone methyltransferase (EZH2), and thus induce DNA methylation. DNA methylation of a CpG island in a promoter region may cause silencing of its downstream gene (see ...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
many parallels to human HIV infection. Delineating how CD4 T cells are depleted and how chronic inflammation and immune activation are induced lies at the heart of understanding HIV pathogenesis—one of the top priorities for HIV research by the Office of AIDS Research, National Institutes of Health. Recent studies demo...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
when no longer needed to prevent unnecessary "bystander" damage to tissues. Failure to do so results in chronic inflammation, and cellular destruction. Resolution of inflammation occurs by different mechanisms in different tissues. Mechanisms that serve to terminate inflammation include: Acute inflammation normally res...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
of subjects positively responding to treatment. Inflammations that lead to serious depression could be caused by common infections such as those caused by a virus, bacteria or even parasites. === Connection to delirium === There is evidence for a link between inflammation and delirium based on the results of a recent l...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
the amount of leukocytes in the blood, especially immature cells. Leukocyte numbers usually increase to between 15 000 and 20 000 cells per microliter, but extreme cases can see it approach 100 000 cells per microliter. Bacterial infection usually results in an increase of neutrophils, creating neutrophilia, whereas di...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
and damaged parenchymal cells regenerate. Such is usually the outcome when limited or short-lived inflammation has occurred. FibrosisLarge amounts of tissue destruction, or damage in tissues unable to regenerate, cannot be regenerated completely by the body. Fibrous scarring occurs in these areas of damage, forming a s...	{ "page_id": 70425, "title": "Inflammation" }
A mode of toxic action is a common set of physiological and behavioral signs that characterize a type of adverse biological response. A mode of action should not be confused with mechanism of action, which refer to the biochemical processes underlying a given mode of action. Modes of toxic action are important, widely ...	{ "page_id": 39392026, "title": "Modes of toxic action" }
lower concentrations. There are several specific acting modes of toxic action: Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation. Involves toxicants that uncouple the two processes that occur in oxidative phosphorylation: electron transfer and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors. AChE ...	{ "page_id": 39392026, "title": "Modes of toxic action" }
others. It has been proposed that modes of toxic action could be estimated by developing a data set of critical body residues (CBR). The CBR is the whole-body concentration of a chemical that is associated with a given adverse biological response and it is estimated using a partition coefficient and a bioconcentration ...	{ "page_id": 39392026, "title": "Modes of toxic action" }
environmental risk assessment is to protect the environment from adverse effects. Researchers are further developing QSAR models with the ultimate goal providing a clear insight about a mode of toxic action, but also about what the actual target site is, the concentration of the chemical at this target site, and the in...	{ "page_id": 39392026, "title": "Modes of toxic action" }
Preplasmiviricota is a phylum of viruses. Its name means "precursor of certain plasmids". == Taxonomy == The phylum contains two subphyla that contain five classes. Subphyla are suffixed with -viricotina, and classes are suffixed with -viricetes. This taxonomy is shown hereafter. Subphylum: Polisuviricotina Aquintoviri...	{ "page_id": 63771427, "title": "Preplasmiviricota" }
DD-Carboxypeptidase may refer to: Muramoylpentapeptide carboxypeptidase, an enzyme Zinc D-Ala-D-Ala carboxypeptidase, an enzyme DD-Transpeptidase, an enzyme	{ "page_id": 39260966, "title": "DD-Carboxypeptidase" }
The Human Medicines Regulations 2012 in the United Kingdom were created, under statutory authority of the European Communities Act 1972 and the Medicines Act 1968 in 2012. The body responsible for their upkeep is the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. The regulations partially repealed the Medicines A...	{ "page_id": 65344295, "title": "Human Medicines Regulations 2012" }
The MacDowell–Mansouri action (named after S. W. MacDowell and Freydoon Mansouri) is an action that is used to derive Einstein's field equations of general relativity. It can usefully be formulated in terms of Cartan geometry. == References == == Further reading == MacDowell, S. W.; Mansouri, F. (1977). "Unified geomet...	{ "page_id": 14684966, "title": "MacDowell–Mansouri action" }
A blood culture is a medical laboratory test used to detect bacteria or fungi in a person's blood. Under normal conditions, the blood does not contain microorganisms: their presence can indicate a bloodstream infection such as bacteremia or fungemia, which in severe cases may result in sepsis. By culturing the blood, m...	{ "page_id": 1250090, "title": "Blood culture" }
have been developed using technologies like polymerase chain reaction and MALDI-TOF MS. Procedures for culturing the blood were published as early as the mid-19th century, but these techniques were labour-intensive and bore little resemblance to contemporary methods. Detection of microbial growth involved visual examin...	{ "page_id": 1250090, "title": "Blood culture" }
used to detect bloodstream infections in febrile neutropenia, a common complication of chemotherapy in which fever occurs alongside a severely low count of neutrophils (white blood cells that defend against bacterial and fungal pathogens). Bacteremia is common in some types of infections, such as meningitis, septic art...	{ "page_id": 1250090, "title": "Blood culture" }
an intravenous line is not recommended, as this is associated with higher contamination rates, although cultures may be collected from both venipuncture and an intravenous line to diagnose catheter-associated infections. Prior to the blood draw, the top of each collection bottle is disinfected using an alcohol swab to ...	{ "page_id": 1250090, "title": "Blood culture" }
used anticoagulant because it does not interfere with the growth of most organisms. The exact composition of the growth medium varies, but aerobic bottles use a broth that is enriched with nutrients, such as brain-heart infusion or trypticase soy broth, and anaerobic bottles typically contain a reducing agent such as t...	{ "page_id": 1250090, "title": "Blood culture" }
=== After the blood is collected, the bottles are incubated at body temperature to encourage the growth of microorganisms. Bottles are usually incubated for up to five days in automated systems, although most common bloodstream pathogens are detected within 48 hours. The incubation time may be extended further if manua...	{ "page_id": 1250090, "title": "Blood culture" }
such as fungi, mycobacteria, and Legionella. Rather than incubating the blood in a bottle filled with growth medium, this method involves collecting blood into a tube containing an agent that destroys (lyses) red and white blood cells, then spinning the sample in a centrifuge. This process concentrates the solid conten...	{ "page_id": 1250090, "title": "Blood culture" }
as positive by automated instruments. This may represent a false positive result, but it is possible that organisms are present but cannot easily be visualized microscopically. Positive bottles with negative Gram stains are subcultured before being returned to the incubator, often using special culture media that promo...	{ "page_id": 1250090, "title": "Blood culture" }
commercially available. Some biochemical and immunologic tests can be performed directly on positive blood cultures, such as the tube coagulase test for identification of S. aureus or latex agglutination tests for Streptococcus pneumoniae, and unlike PCR and MALDI-TOF, these methods may be practical for laboratories in...	{ "page_id": 1250090, "title": "Blood culture" }
well. Rapid administration of effective antimicrobial drugs is crucial in the treatment of sepsis, so several methods have been developed to provide faster antibiotic sensitivity results. Conventional AST methods can be carried out on young growth from the subculture plate, pellets of microorganisms obtained from conce...	{ "page_id": 1250090, "title": "Blood culture" }
metabolism, so samples with high numbers of white blood cells may be reported as positive when no bacteria are present. Inspection of the growth curve produced by the instrument can help to distinguish between true and false positive cultures, but Gram staining and subculturing are still necessary for any sample that i...	{ "page_id": 1250090, "title": "Blood culture" }
blood. The volume of blood drawn is considered the most important variable in ensuring that pathogens are detected: the more blood that is collected, the more pathogens are recovered. However, if the amount of blood collected far exceeds the recommended volume, bacterial growth may be inhibited by natural inhibitors pr...	{ "page_id": 1250090, "title": "Blood culture" }
logistical issues with earlier methods. From the 1940s through the 1980s, a great deal of research was carried out on broth formulations and additives, with the goal of creating a growth medium that could accommodate all common bloodstream pathogens. In 1947, M.R. Castañeda invented a "biphasic" culture bottle for the ...	{ "page_id": 1250090, "title": "Blood culture" }
detect CO2. The BacT/ALERT system, which indirectly detects production of CO2 by measuring the decrease in the medium's pH, was approved for use in the US in 1991. Unlike the BACTEC systems available at the time, the BacT/ALERT did not require a needle to be introduced into the bottle for sampling; this reduced the fre...	{ "page_id": 1250090, "title": "Blood culture" }
Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living is a cybernetic work in systems theory and the philosophy of biology by Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela. It was first published under the title De Maquinas y Seres Vivos (English: 'On Machines and Living Beings') in 1972 in Chile by Editorial Universitaria...	{ "page_id": 62919467, "title": "Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living" }
=== Sociologist and social systems theorist Niklas Luhmann adapted the ideas from Autopoiesis to describe social systems, as did cyberneticist Stafford Beer. === Biology === The influence of Autopoiesis in mainstream biology was limited. Autopoiesis is not commonly used as the criterion for life. However, its basic pri...	{ "page_id": 62919467, "title": "Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living" }
Trophoblast glycoprotein, also known as TPBG, 5T4, Wnt-Activated Inhibitory Factor 1 or WAIF1, is a human protein encoded by a TPBG gene. TPBG is an antagonist of Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway. == Clinical significance == 5T4 is an antigen expressed in a number of carcinomas. It is an N-glycosylated transmembrane 72...	{ "page_id": 14881584, "title": "TPBG" }
Mercury is a chemical element; it has symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is commonly known as quicksilver. A heavy, silvery d-block element, mercury is the only metallic element that is known to be liquid at standard temperature and pressure; the only other element that is liquid under these conditions is the halogen b...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
effect is due to lanthanide contraction and relativistic contraction reducing the orbit radius of the outermost electrons, and thus weakening the metallic bonding in mercury. Upon freezing, the volume of mercury decreases by 3.59% and its density changes from 13.69 g/cm3 when liquid to 14.184 g/cm3 when solid. The coef...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
allowed aboard an aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming an amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft. Mercury embrittlement is the most common type of liquid metal embrittlement, as mercury is a natural component of some hydrocarbon reservoirs and will come into contact with pet...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
alchemical planetary name survives, as it was decided it was preferable to quicksilver as a chemical name. == History == Mercury was found in Egyptian tombs that date from 1500 BC; cinnabar, the most common natural source of mercury, has been in use since the Neolithic Age. In China and Tibet, mercury use was thought t...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
mercury was used to make amalgams (Medieval Latin amalgama, "alloy of mercury") with other metals. Alchemists thought of mercury as the First Matter from which all metals were formed. They believed that different metals could be produced by varying the quality and quantity of sulfur contained within the mercury. The pu...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
Spain abolished the royal mercury monopoly in 1813. Mercury poisoning in the mines left many people disabled through the early modern period but mercury itself was not the chief cause of deaths in the mines. The patio process and later pan amalgamation process continued to create great demand for mercury to treat silve...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
SO2 In 2020, China was the top producer of mercury, providing 88% of the world output (2200 out of 2500 tonnes), followed by Tajikistan (178 t), Russia (50 t) and Mexico (32 t). Because of the high toxicity of mercury, both the mining of cinnabar and refining for mercury are hazardous and historic causes of mercury poi...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
bonds. Most mercury(I) compounds are diamagnetic and feature the dimeric cation, Hg2+2. Stable derivatives include the chloride and nitrate. In aqueous solution of a mercury(I) salt, slight disproportion of Hg2+2 into Hg and Hg2+ results in >0.5% of dissolved mercury existing as Hg2+. In these solutions, complexation o...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
yielded mercury oxide instead. Being a soft metal, mercury forms very stable derivatives with the heavier chalcogens. Preeminent is mercury(II) sulfide, HgS, which occurs in nature as the ore cinnabar and is the brilliant pigment vermilion. Like ZnS, HgS crystallizes in two forms, the reddish cubic form and the black z...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
especially those used to measure high temperatures. A still increasing amount is used as gaseous mercury in fluorescent lamps, while most of the other applications are slowly being phased out due to health and safety regulations. In some applications, mercury is replaced with less toxic but considerably more expensive ...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
It is also used as a disinfectant. Blue mass, a pill or syrup in which mercury is the main ingredient, was prescribed throughout the 19th century for numerous conditions including constipation, depression, child-bearing and toothaches. In the early 20th century, mercury was administered to children yearly as a laxative...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
a brine. By-products of any such chloralkali process are hydrogen (H2) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which is commonly called caustic soda or lye. By far the largest use of mercury in the late 20th century was in the mercury cell process (also called the Castner-Kellner process) where metallic sodium is formed as an ama...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
reflecting and focusing incident light. Such liquid-mirror telescopes are cheaper than conventional large mirror telescopes by up to a factor of 100, but the mirror cannot be tilted and always points straight up. ==== Electrochemistry ==== Liquid mercury is part of a popular secondary reference electrode (called the ca...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
mercury will have dull spots and will fail to light correctly. Lighting containing mercury can be bombarded/oven pumped only once. When added to neon filled tubes, inconsistent red and blue spots are produced in the light emissions until the initial burning-in process is completed; eventually it will light a consistent...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
these date to the Classic Period of Maya civilization (c. 250–900) but one example predated this. In Islamic Spain, it was used for filling decorative pools. Later, the American artist Alexander Calder built a mercury fountain for the Spanish Pavilion at the 1937 World Exhibition in Paris. The fountain is now on displa...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
toxicity of mercury, as well as the advent of supercritical steam plants in later years. Similarly, liquid mercury was used as a coolant for some nuclear reactors; however, sodium is proposed for reactors cooled with liquid metal, because the high density of mercury requires much more energy to circulate as coolant. Me...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
1990s due to concerns about the mercury contaminating landfills. Mercury was used for preserving wood, developing daguerreotypes, silvering mirrors, anti-fouling paints, herbicides, interior latex paint, handheld maze games, cleaning, and road leveling devices in cars. Mercury compounds have been used in antiseptics, l...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
== Due to its physical properties and relative chemical inertness, liquid mercury is absorbed very poorly through intact skin and the gastrointestinal tract. Mercury vapor is the primary hazard of elemental mercury. As a result, containers of mercury are securely sealed to avoid spills and evaporation. Heating of mercu...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
mines. Hydrogeochemical release of mercury from gold-mine tailings has been accounted as a significant source of atmospheric mercury in eastern Canada. 6.8% from non-ferrous metal production, typically smelters. 6.4% from cement production. 3.0% from waste disposal, including municipal and hazardous waste, crematoria, ...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
==== Mercury spills pose an immediate threat to people handling the material, in addition to being an environmental hazard if the material is not contained properly. This is of particular concern for visible mercury, or mercury in liquid state, as its unusual appearance and behavior for a metal makes it an attractive n...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
World Health Organization, OSHA, and NIOSH all treat mercury as an occupational hazard; both OSHA and NIOSH, among other regulatory agencies, have established specific occupational exposure limits on the element and its derivative compounds in liquid and vapor form. Environmental releases and disposal of mercury are re...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
exposure. Mercury levels in aquatic species, including fish and shrimp (Macrobrachium amazonicum), indicate broader environmental contamination, particularly near mining areas. === Cosmetics === Some facial creams contain dangerous levels of mercury. Most contain comparatively non-toxic inorganic mercury, but products ...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
Treatment === Research on the treatment of mercury poisoning is limited. Currently available drugs for acute mercurial poisoning include chelators N-acetyl-D,L-penicillamine (NAP), British Anti-Lewisite (BAL), 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid (DMPS), and dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). In one small study including...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
but after a legal challenge from several states, the regulations were struck down by a federal appeals court on 8 February 2008. The rule was deemed not sufficient to protect the health of persons living near coal-fired power plants, given the negative effects documented in the EPA Study Report to Congress of 1998. How...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
Norway's Minister of Environment Development Erik Solheim said: "Mercury is among the most dangerous environmental toxins. Satisfactory alternatives to Hg in products are available, and it is therefore fitting to induce a ban." Products containing mercury were banned in Sweden in 2009, while elemental mercury has been ...	{ "page_id": 18617142, "title": "Mercury (element)" }
In linear algebra, the Gram matrix (or Gramian matrix, Gramian) of a set of vectors v 1 , … , v n {\displaystyle v_{1},\dots ,v_{n}} in an inner product space is the Hermitian matrix of inner products, whose entries are given by the inner product G i j = ⟨ v i , v j ⟩ {\displaystyle G_{ij}=\left\langle v_{i},v_{j}\righ...	{ "page_id": 987959, "title": "Gram matrix" }
, the Gram matrix G = [ G i j ] {\displaystyle G=\left[G_{ij}\right]} is: G i j = ∫ t 0 t f ℓ i ∗ ( τ ) ℓ j ( τ ) d τ . {\displaystyle G_{ij}=\int _{t_{0}}^{t_{f}}\ell _{i}^{}(\tau )\ell _{j}(\tau )\,d\tau .} where ℓ i ∗ ( τ ) {\displaystyle \ell _{i}^{}(\tau )} is the complex conjugate of ℓ i ( τ ) {\displaystyle \e...	{ "page_id": 987959, "title": "Gram matrix" }
( x , y ) ∈ U ⊂ R 2 {\displaystyle (x,y)\in U\subset \mathbb {R} ^{2}} : ∫ S f d A = ∬ U f ( ϕ ( x , y ) ) \| ∂ ϕ ∂ x × ∂ ϕ ∂ y \| d x d y . {\displaystyle \int _{S}f\ dA=\iint _{U}f(\phi (x,y))\,\left\|{\frac {\partial \phi }{\partial x}}\,{\times }\,{\frac {\partial \phi }{\partial y}}\right\|\,dx\,dy.} If the vectors ar...	{ "page_id": 987959, "title": "Gram matrix" }
x † G x = ∑ i , j x i ∗ x j ⟨ v i , v j ⟩ = ∑ i , j ⟨ x i v i , x j v j ⟩ = ⟨ ∑ i x i v i , ∑ j x j v j ⟩ = ‖ ∑ i x i v i ‖ 2 ≥ 0. {\displaystyle x^{\dagger }\mathbf {G} x=\sum _{i,j}x_{i}^{*}x_{j}\left\langle v_{i},v_{j}\right\rangle =\sum _{i,j}\left\langle x_{i}v_{i},x_{j}v_{j}\right\rangle ={\biggl \langle }\sum _{...	{ "page_id": 987959, "title": "Gram matrix" }
k-dimensional Euclidean space R k {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{k}} , in the real case). Then M i j = b ( i ) ⋅ b ( j ) {\displaystyle M_{ij}=b^{(i)}\cdot b^{(j)}} where the dot product a ⋅ b = ∑ ℓ = 1 k a ℓ ∗ b ℓ {\textstyle a\cdot b=\sum _{\ell =1}^{k}a_{\ell }^{*}b_{\ell }} is the usual inner product on C k {\display...	{ "page_id": 987959, "title": "Gram matrix" }
R k {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{k}} transforms the vectors v 1 , … , v n {\displaystyle v_{1},\dots ,v_{n}} to w 1 , … , w n {\displaystyle w_{1},\dots ,w_{n}} and 0 to 0. The same holds in the complex case, with unitary transformations in place of orthogonal ones. That is, if the Gram matrix of vectors v 1 , … , v n ...	{ "page_id": 987959, "title": "Gram matrix" }
⟨ v 1 , v 2 ⟩ … ⟨ v 1 , v n ⟩ ⟨ v 2 , v 1 ⟩ ⟨ v 2 , v 2 ⟩ … ⟨ v 2 , v n ⟩ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⟨ v n , v 1 ⟩ ⟨ v n , v 2 ⟩ … ⟨ v n , v n ⟩ \| . {\displaystyle {\bigl \|}G(v_{1},\dots ,v_{n}){\bigr \|}={\begin{vmatrix}\langle v_{1},v_{1}\rangle &\langle v_{1},v_{2}\rangle &\dots &\langle v_{1},v_{n}\rangle \\\langle v_{2},v_{1}\rangle ...	{ "page_id": 987959, "title": "Gram matrix" }
,c_{n}\in \mathbb {C} } , find a vector v {\displaystyle v} such that ⟨ v , v i ⟩ = c i {\textstyle \left\langle v,v_{i}\right\rangle =c_{i}} , for all 1 ⩽ i ⩽ n {\textstyle 1\leqslant i\leqslant n} . There exists a unique solution with minimal norm:: 38 v = − 1 G ( v 1 , v 2 , … , v n ) det [ 0 c 1 c 2 ⋯ c n v 1 ⟨ v 1...	{ "page_id": 987959, "title": "Gram matrix" }
<i_{n},} will constitute an orthonormal basis of n-dimensional volumes on the space ⁠ ⋀ n ( V ) {\displaystyle {\textstyle \bigwedge }^{\!n}(V)} ⁠. Then the Gram determinant \| G ( v 1 , … , v n ) \| {\displaystyle {\bigl \|}G(v_{1},\dots ,v_{n}){\bigr \|}} amounts to an n-dimensional Pythagorean Theorem for the volume of ...	{ "page_id": 987959, "title": "Gram matrix" }
dimension. Note that in the common case that n = m, the second term on the right-hand side will be zero. == Constructing an orthonormal basis == Given a set of linearly independent vectors { v i } {\displaystyle \{v_{i}\}} with Gram matrix G {\displaystyle G} defined by G i j := ⟨ v i , v j ⟩ {\displaystyle G_{ij}:=\la...	{ "page_id": 987959, "title": "Gram matrix" }
′ ⟩ = ∑ i ′ ∑ j ′ ( G − 1 / 2 ) i i ′ G i ′ j ′ ( G − 1 / 2 ) j ′ j = ( G − 1 / 2 G G − 1 / 2 ) i j = δ i j {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\langle u_{i},u_{j}\rangle &=\sum _{i'}\sum _{j'}{\Bigl \langle }{\bigl (}G^{-1/2}{\bigr )}_{i'i}v_{i'},{\bigl (}G^{-1/2}{\bigr )}_{j'j}v_{j'}{\Bigr \rangle }\\[10mu]&=\sum _{i'}\su...	{ "page_id": 987959, "title": "Gram matrix" }

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