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scientific views of hominization and to account for the addition of a soul to humans remains a problem. Theistic evolution typically postulates a point at which a population of hominids who had (or may have) evolved by a process of natural evolution acquired souls and thus (with their descendants) became fully human in...	{ "page_id": 328815, "source": null, "title": "Theistic evolution" }
theologically accurate human. However, taxonomically accurate humans or human-like beings already existed on Earth before their arrival. Thus, it accepts the belief that modern humans share common ancestry with other life-forms on Earth, and that our lineage can be traced back to the origin of life. Non-exceptionalism:...	{ "page_id": 328815, "source": null, "title": "Theistic evolution" }
that leads to him, or whether this lineage mated with other "human-like" beings are irrelevant to science and are not obstacles to any established scientific theories. David Solomon Jalajel, an Islamic author, proclaims an Adamic exceptionalism view of evolution which encourages the theological use of tawaqquf; a tawaq...	{ "page_id": 328815, "source": null, "title": "Theistic evolution" }
include: Rana Dajani, Nidhal Guessoum, Israr Ahmed, Caner Taslaman, etc. === Acceptance === The theory of evolution is controversial in plenty of contemporary Muslim societies due to negative social views and misconceptions such as "the theory is atheistic" and lack of understanding about views such as human exceptiona...	{ "page_id": 328815, "source": null, "title": "Theistic evolution" }
The historian Edward J. Larson stated that the theory failed as an explanation in the minds of biologists from the late 19th century onwards as it broke the rules of methodological naturalism which they had grown to expect. === Non-theistic evolution === The major criticism of theistic evolution by non-theistic evoluti...	{ "page_id": 328815, "source": null, "title": "Theistic evolution" }
1877–1902. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801883897. Bowler, Peter J. (1992). The Eclipse of Darwinism: anti-Darwinian evolutionary theories in the decades around 1900. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-4391-4. Bowler, Peter J. (2003). Evolution:The History of an Idea. University of C...	{ "page_id": 328815, "source": null, "title": "Theistic evolution" }
Ghinamo; (2013) The Beautiful Scientist: a Spiritual Approach to Science ISBN 1621474623; ISBN 978-1621474623 === Accounts of the history === Appleby, R. Scott. Between Americanism and Modernism; John Zahm and Theistic Evolution, in Critical Issues in American Religious History: A Reader, Ed. by Robert R. Mathisen, 2nd...	{ "page_id": 328815, "source": null, "title": "Theistic evolution" }
God and Evolution at the TalkOrigins Archive BioLogos Perspectives on Theistic Evolution An examination of both the theological and scientific aspects of theistic evolution. The "Clergy Letter" Project signed by thousands of clergy supporting evolution and faith	{ "page_id": 328815, "source": null, "title": "Theistic evolution" }
Corpora amylacea (CA) (from the Latin meaning "starch-like bodies") is a general term for small hyaline masses found in the prostate gland, nervous system, lung, and sometimes in other organs of the body. Corpora amylacea increase in number and size with advancing age, although this increase varies from person to perso...	{ "page_id": 3343471, "source": null, "title": "Corpora amylacea" }
The molecular formula C9H14N2O (molar mass: 166.22 g/mol, exact mass: 166.1106 u) may refer to: ABT-418 3-Isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine Phenoxypropazine	{ "page_id": 26608753, "source": null, "title": "C9H14N2O" }
Prime editing is a 'search-and-replace' genome editing technology in molecular biology by which the genome of living organisms may be modified. The technology directly writes new genetic information into a targeted DNA site. It uses a fusion protein, consisting of a catalytically impaired Cas9 endonuclease fused to an ...	{ "page_id": 62129266, "source": null, "title": "Prime editing" }
which the 840th amino acid histidine is replaced by an alanine, inactivates the HNH domain. With only the RuvC functioning domain, the catalytically impaired Cas9 introduces a single strand nick, hence the name nickase. M-MLV reverse transcriptase: an enzyme that synthesizes DNA from a single-stranded RNA template. A s...	{ "page_id": 62129266, "source": null, "title": "Prime editing" }
the Cas9 H840A nickase C-terminus. Detectable editing efficiencies were observed. === Prime editor 2 === In order to enhance DNA-RNA affinity, enzyme processivity, and thermostability, five amino acid substitutions were incorporated into the M-MLV reverse transcriptase. The mutant M-MLV RT was then incorporated into PE...	{ "page_id": 62129266, "source": null, "title": "Prime editing" }
requires dual-nick at both DNA strands to induce efficient prime editing, Nuclease Prime Editor requires only a single pegRNA since the single-gRNA already creates double-strand break instead of single-strand nick. === Twin prime editing === The "twin prime editing" (twinPE) mechanism reported in 2021 allows editing la...	{ "page_id": 62129266, "source": null, "title": "Prime editing" }
retrieval of cells carrying the correct edit. The prime system introduces single-stranded DNA breaks instead of the double-stranded DNA breaks observed in other editing tools, such as base editors. Collectively, base editing and prime editing offer complementary strengths and weaknesses for making targeted transition m...	{ "page_id": 62129266, "source": null, "title": "Prime editing" }
in making larger alterations, such as targeted insertions and deletions. Larger genetic alterations would require a longer RT template, which could hinder the efficient delivery of pegRNA to target cells. Furthermore, a pegRNA containing a long RT template could become vulnerable to damage caused by cellular enzymes. P...	{ "page_id": 62129266, "source": null, "title": "Prime editing" }
may be used in gene drives. A prime editor may be incorporated into the Cleaver half of a Cleave and Rescue/ClvR system. In this case it is not meant to perform a precise alteration but instead to merely disrupt. PE is among recently introduced technologies which allow the transfer of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (S...	{ "page_id": 62129266, "source": null, "title": "Prime editing" }
Soy molasses is brown viscous syrup with a typical bittersweet flavor. A by-product of aqueous alcohol soy protein concentrate production, soy molasses is a concentrated, desolventized, aqueous alcohol extract of defatted soybean flakes. The term "soy molasses" was coined by Daniel Chajuss, the founder of Hayes Ashdod ...	{ "page_id": 6685811, "source": null, "title": "Soy molasses" }
important commercial and biological product, and a source of phytochemicals and soy sugars. == References == Daniel Chajuss, Soy Molasses: Processing and Utilization as a Functional Food, in KeShun Liu, Editor, Soybeans as Functional Foods and Ingredients, AOCS Press, Champaign. Ill., USA, pp. 201–208, 2004.	{ "page_id": 6685811, "source": null, "title": "Soy molasses" }
Silvia Elsa Braslavsky (born April 5, 1942 in Buenos Aires) is an Argentine chemist. She is the daughter of educationist Berta Perelstein de Braslavsky and biochemist Lázaro Braslavsky, and the sister of Cecilia Braslavsky, educationist and erstwhile director of the International Bureau of Education of UNESCO. She has ...	{ "page_id": 37946483, "source": null, "title": "Silvia Braslavsky" }
This is selection of her honours and awards: 1998 first women to be awarded the Research Award of the American Society for Photobiology. 2004 Elhuyar-Goldschmidt price of the Spanish and German chemical society. 2008 first woman to be awarded a Doctor Honoris Causa from the Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain. 20...	{ "page_id": 37946483, "source": null, "title": "Silvia Braslavsky" }
N. Serpone, Pure Appl. Chem. 83, 931-1014 (2011). doi:10.1351/PAC-REC-09-09-36 == References == == External links == Homepage at MPG Complete list of publications IUPAC Subcommittee on Photochemistry Homepage of 16th International Congress of Photobiology	{ "page_id": 37946483, "source": null, "title": "Silvia Braslavsky" }
Augustin-Jean Fresnel (10 May 1788 – 14 July 1827) was a French civil engineer and physicist whose research in optics led to the almost unanimous acceptance of the wave theory of light, excluding any remnant of Newton's corpuscular theory, from the late 1830s until the end of the 19th century. He is perhaps better know...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
a difference in propagation speeds for the two directions of circular polarization, and (by allowing the reflection coefficient to be complex) accounted for the change in polarization due to total internal reflection, as exploited in the Fresnel rhomb. Defenders of the established corpuscular theory could not match his...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
Commission, and helped to edit his collected works. The fourth, Fulgence Fresnel, became a linguist, diplomat, and orientalist, and occasionally assisted Augustin with negotiations. Fulgence died in Bagdad in 1855 having led a mission to explore Babylon. Madame Fresnel's younger brother, Jean François "Léonor" Mérimée,...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
and Roads, also known as "ENPC" or "École des Ponts"), from which he graduated in 1809, entering the service of the Corps des Ponts et Chaussées as an ingénieur ordinaire aspirant (ordinary engineer in training). Directly or indirectly, he was to remain in the employment of the "Corps des Ponts" for the rest of his lif...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
of duty." == Engineering assignments == Fresnel was initially posted to the western département of Vendée. There, in 1811, he anticipated what became known as the Solvay process for producing soda ash, except that recycling of the ammonia was not considered. That difference may explain why leading chemists, who learned...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
which he was eventually allowed to spend at his mother's house in Mathieu. There he used his enforced leisure to begin his optical experiments. == Contributions to physical optics == === Historical context: From Newton to Biot === The appreciation of Fresnel's reconstruction of physical optics might be assisted by an o...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
slower in denser media (those of higher refractive index). The corpuscular theory, with the hypothesis that the corpuscles were subject to forces acting perpendicular to surfaces, explained the same laws equally well, albeit with the implication that light traveled faster in denser media; that implication was wrong, bu...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
of "thin plates" (e.g., "Newton's rings", and the colors of skylight reflected in soap bubbles), on the assumption that light consists of periodic waves, with the lowest frequencies (longest wavelengths) at the red end of the spectrum, and the highest frequencies (shortest wavelengths) at the violet end. In 1672 he pub...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
supposed that rays of light passing close to obstacles were bent ("inflected"); but his explanation was only qualitative. Huygens's common-tangent construction, without modifications, could not accommodate diffraction at all. Two such modifications were proposed by Young in the same 1801 Bakerian Lecture: first, that t...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
Corpuscles could have sides (or poles, as they would later be called); but waves of light could not, because (so it seemed) any such waves would need to be longitudinal (with vibrations in the direction of propagation). Newton offered an alternative "Rule" for the extraordinary refraction, which rode on his authority t...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
on double refraction, noticed something else: when a ray of light is reflected off a non-metallic surface at the appropriate angle, it behaves like one of the two rays emerging from a calcite crystal. It was Malus who coined the term polarization to describe this behavior, although the polarizing angle became known as ...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
disappear; yet it was not ordinary ("unpolarized") light, for which the two images would be of the same color. Rotating the calcite around the line of sight changed the colors, though they remained complementary. Rotating the mica changed the saturation (not the hue) of the colors. This phenomenon became known as chrom...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
of the oscillation, with probabilities depending on the phase of the oscillation. Corpuscular optics was becoming expensive on assumptions. But in 1813, Biot reported that the case of quartz was simpler: the observable phenomenon (now called optical rotation or optical activity or sometimes rotary polarization) was a g...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
optical rotation. Concerning chromatic polarization, the wave theory explained the periodicity far better than the corpuscular theory, but had nothing to say about the role of polarization; and its explanation of the periodicity was largely ignored. And Arago had founded the study of chromatic polarization, only to los...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
of the Philosophical Transactions. Fresnel would not have ready access to these works outside Paris, and could not read English. But, in Mathieu—with a point-source of light made by focusing sunlight with a drop of honey, a crude micrometer of his own construction, and supporting apparatus made by a local locksmith—he ...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
light from one side was blocked, and concluded that "the vibrations of two rays that cross each other under a very small angle can contradict each other…" But, whereas Young took the disappearance of the internal fringes as confirmation of the principle of interference, Fresnel reported that it was the internal fringes...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
reviewer). On 8 November, Arago wrote to Fresnel: I have been instructed by the Institute to examine your memoir on the diffraction of light; I have studied it carefully, and found many interesting experiments, some of which had already been done by Dr. Thomas Young, who in general regards this phenomenon in a manner r...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
the progress of science and the prestige of the Corps would be enhanced if Fresnel could come to Paris for a time. He arrived in March 1816, and his leave was subsequently extended through the middle of the year. Meanwhile, in an experiment reported on 26 February 1816, Arago verified Fresnel's prediction that the inte...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
point. The zones on one side of the obstacle largely canceled out in pairs, except the first zone, which was represented by an "efficacious ray". This approach worked for the internal fringes, but the superposition of the efficacious ray and the direct ray did not work for the external fringes. The contribution from th...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
his regular road crew. According to Arago, with Fresnel conscientiousness was always the foremost part of his character, and he constantly performed his duties as an engineer with the most rigorous scrupulousness. The mission to defend the revenues of the state, to obtain for them the best employment possible, appeared...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
showed that the addition of sinusoidal functions of the same frequency but different phases is analogous to the addition of forces with different directions. His method was similar to the phasor representation, except that the "forces" were plane vectors rather than complex numbers; they could be added, and multiplied ...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
z^{2}{\big )}\,dz\,.} The same note included a table of the integrals, for an upper limit ranging from 0 to 5.1 in steps of 0.1, computed with a mean error of 0.0003, plus a smaller table of maxima and minima of the resulting intensity. In his final "Memoir on the diffraction of light", deposited on 29 July and bearing...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
focused by a cylindrical lens. For a variety of distances from the source to the obstacle and from the obstacle to the field point, he compared the calculated and observed positions of the fringes for diffraction by a half-plane, a slit, and a narrow strip—concentrating on the minima, which were visually sharper than t...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
options: award the prize to Fresnel ("no. 2"), or withhold it. The committee deliberated into the new year.: 144 Then Poisson, exploiting a case in which Fresnel's theory gave easy integrals, predicted that if a circular obstacle were illuminated by a point-source, there should be (according to the theory) a bright spo...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
without committing himself to a wave basis. Third, Fresnel's theory did not adequately explain the mechanism of generation of secondary waves or why they had any significant angular spread; this issue particularly bothered Poisson. Fourth, the question that most exercised optical physicists at that time was not diffrac...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
a single slit, he could not obtain the usual two-slit interference pattern, even if he compensated for the different propagation times. A more general experiment, suggested by Arago, found that if the two beams of a double-slit device were separately polarized, the interference pattern appeared and disappeared as the p...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
(this issue is revisited below). But in fact, as Arago and Biot had found, they are of complementary colors. To correct the prediction, Fresnel proposed a phase-inversion rule whereby one of the constituent waves of one of the two images suffered an additional 180° phase shift on its way through the lamina. This invers...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
in the plane of polarization, Fresnel predicted that the intensities of the ordinary and extraordinary images of the lamina were respectively proportional to I o = cos 2 ⁡ i cos 2 ⁡ ( i − s ) + sin 2 ⁡ i sin 2 ⁡ ( i − s ) + 1 2 sin ⁡ 2 i sin ⁡ 2 ( i − s ) cos ⁡ ϕ , {\displaystyle I_{o}=\cos ^{2}i\,\cos ^{2}(i{-}s)+\sin...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
ϕ , {\displaystyle \phi ,} so that the colors are complementary. Without the phase-inversion rule, there would be a plus sign in front of the last term in the second equation, so that the ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } -dependent term would be the same in both equations, implying (incorrectly) that the colors were of the same...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
wrong because when Fresnel's intensities of spectral colors were mixed according to Newton's rules, the squared cosine and sine functions varied too smoothly to account for the observed sequence of colors. That claim drew a written reply from Fresnel, who disputed whether the colors changed as abruptly as Biot claimed,...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
of vibration disappeared on polarization, and why it did not reappear when polarized light was reflected or refracted obliquely by a glass plate. Independently, on 12 January 1817, Young wrote to Arago (in English) noting that a transverse vibration would constitute a polarization, and that if two longitudinal waves cr...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
light waves are purely transverse, hence always polarized in the sense of having a particular transverse orientation, and that the "unpolarized" state of natural or "direct" light is due to rapid and random variations in that orientation, in which case two coherent portions of "unpolarized" light will still interfere b...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
of discrete, countable rays, they could not do the same with his theory of polarization. For a selectionist, the state of polarization of a beam concerned the distribution of orientations over the population of rays, and that distribution was presumed to be static. For Fresnel, the state of polarization of a beam conce...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
of the reflected intensity to the incident intensity. The predicted reflectivity was non-zero at all angles. The third installment (July 1821) was a short "postscript" in which Fresnel announced that he had found, by a "mechanical solution", a formula for the reflectivity of the p component, which predicted that the re...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
( i + r ) {\displaystyle r_{s}=-{\frac {\sin(i-r)}{\sin(i+r)}}} and r p = tan ⁡ ( i − r ) tan ⁡ ( i + r ) , {\displaystyle r_{p}={\frac {\tan(i-r)}{\tan(i+r)}}\,,} where i {\displaystyle i} and r {\displaystyle r} are the angles of incidence and refraction; these equations are known respectively as Fresnel's sine law a...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
polarization could vary in direction, and in degree (e.g., due to variation in the angle of reflection off a transparent body), and that it could be a function of color (chromatic polarization), but not that it could vary in kind. Hence it was thought that the degree of polarization was the degree to which the light co...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
of a cycle (90°). These findings were contained in a memoir submitted to the Académie on 10 November 1817 and read a fortnight later. An undated marginal note indicates that the two coupled prisms were later replaced by a single "parallelepiped in glass"—now known as a Fresnel rhomb. This was the memoir whose "suppleme...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
waves has a second-order dependence on the angle of incidence. If the slice is observed in a highly convergent cone of light, that dependence becomes significant, so that a chromatic-polarization experiment will show a pattern of concentric rings. But most minerals, when observed in this manner, show a more complicated...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
the form v o 2 − v e 2 = k sin 2 ⁡ θ , {\displaystyle v_{o}^{2\!}-v_{e}^{2}=k\sin ^{2}\theta \,,} where v o {\displaystyle v_{o}} and v e {\displaystyle v_{e}} were the ordinary and extraordinary ray velocities according to the corpuscular theory, and θ {\displaystyle \theta } was the angle between the ray and the opti...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
to biaxial birefringence, it was assumed that one of the two refractions was ordinary, even in biaxial crystals. But, in a memoir submitted on 19 November 1821, Fresnel reported two experiments on topaz showing that neither refraction was ordinary in the sense of satisfying Snell's law; that is, neither ray was the pro...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
small if, as in most cases, the birefringence is weak) was corrected in an "extract" that Fresnel read to the Académie a week later, on 26 November. Starting with Huygens's spheroid, Fresnel obtained a 4th-degree surface which, when sectioned by a plane as above, would yield the wave-normal velocities for a wavefront i...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
conditions that it must satisfy. But he doubted the feasibility of deriving the surface from those conditions. In a "second supplement", Fresnel eventually exploited two related facts: (i) the "wave surface" was also the ray-velocity surface, which could be obtained by sectioning the ellipsoid that he had initially mis...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
in the document, he noted that in a biaxial crystal, unlike a uniaxial crystal, the directions in which there is only one wave-normal velocity are not the same as those in which there is only one ray velocity. Nowadays we refer to the former directions as the optic axes or binormal axes, and the latter as the ray axes ...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
model was not dynamically rigorous; for example, it deduced the reaction to a shear strain by considering the displacement of one particle while all others were fixed, and it assumed that the stiffness determined the wave velocity as in a stretched string, whatever the direction of the wave-normal. But it was enough to...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
which would seem unpolarized when viewed through an analyzer but, when viewed through a Fresnel rhomb, would be polarized at ±45° to the plane of reflection of the rhomb (indicating that they were initially circularly polarized in opposite directions). This would show directly that optical rotation is a form of birefri...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
led him to discover a law which had escaped the cleverest, and, anticipating somewhat the judgement of posterity, declared that he placed these researches above everything that had been communicated to the Académie for a long time. Whether Laplace was announcing his conversion to the wave theory—at the age of 73—is unc...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
in the 1820s—Pouillet, Savart, Lamé, Navier, Liouville, Cauchy—seem to have adopted the theory immediately." Fresnel's other prominent French opponent, Biot, appeared to take a neutral position in 1830, and eventually accepted the wave theory—possibly by 1846 and certainly by 1858. In 1826, the British astronomer John ...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
then found to explain or predict others. In the corpuscular system there is "no unexpected success, no happy coincidence, no convergence of principles from remote quarters"; but in the wave system, "all tends to unity and simplicity." Hence, in 1850, when Foucault and Fizeau found by experiment that light travels more ...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
had been established by Napoleon in 1811 and placed under the Corps des Ponts—Fresnel's employer. By the end of August 1819, unaware of the Buffon-Condorcet-Brewster proposal, Fresnel made his first presentation to the commission, recommending what he called lentilles à échelons (lenses by steps) to replace the reflect...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
cone, reflected the light to the horizon, giving a fainter steady light between the flashes. The official test, conducted on the unfinished Arc de Triomphe on 20 August 1822, was witnessed by the commission—and by Louis XVIII and his entourage—from 32 km away. The apparatus was stored at Bordeaux for the winter, and th...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
into a narrow beam. Also in 1825, Fresnel unveiled the Carte des Phares (Lighthouse Map), calling for a system of 51 lighthouses plus smaller harbor lights, in a hierarchy of lens sizes (called orders, the first order being the largest), with different characteristics to facilitate recognition: a constant light (from a...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
patented a method of making such lenses from press-molded glass. By the 1950s, the substitution of plastic for glass made it economic to use fine-stepped Fresnel lenses as condensers in overhead projectors. Still finer steps can be found in low-cost plastic "sheet" magnifiers. == Honors == Fresnel was elected to the So...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
and Biot never gave me as much pleasure as the discovery of a theoretical truth and the confirmation of my calculations by experiment. But "the praise of English scholars" soon followed. On 9 June 1825, Fresnel was made a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London. In 1827 he was awarded the society's Rumford Medal ...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
most important duty, he resigned as an examiner at the École Polytechnique, and closed his scientific notebooks. His last note to the Académie, read on 13 June 1825, described the first radiometer and attributed the observed repulsive force to a temperature difference. Although his fundamental research ceased, his advo...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
and was printed in 1831. Until then, it was known chiefly through an extract printed in 1823 and 1825. The memoir introducing the parallelepiped form of the Fresnel rhomb, read in March 1818, was mislaid until 1846, and then attracted such interest that it was soon republished in English. Most of Fresnel's writings on ...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
second note, dated 5 July 1821, he further argued that a macroscopic current had the counterfactual implication that a permanent magnet should be hot, whereas microscopic currents circulating around the molecules might avoid the heating mechanism.: 101–104 He was not to know that the fundamental units of permanent magn...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
n 2 − 1 {\displaystyle \,n^{2}{-}1\,} , was dragged along at velocity v {\displaystyle v} , whence the average velocity of the internal aether was v ( 1 − 1 / n 2 ) {\displaystyle \,v(1-1/n^{2})} . The factor in parentheses, which Fresnel originally expressed in terms of wavelengths, became known as the Fresnel drag co...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
the variation of refractive indices with wavelength over the visible spectrum for a variety of transparent media (see Cauchy's equation). These investigations were enough to show that the wave theory was at least compatible with dispersion; if the model of dispersion was to be accurate over a wider range of frequencies...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
refraction and declared:The theory of Fresnel to which I now proceed,—and which not only embraces all the known phenomena, but has even outstripped observation, and predicted consequences which were afterwards fully verified,—will, I am persuaded, be regarded as the finest generalization in physical science which has b...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
into quanta, which were eventually identified with particles called photons. But photons did not exactly correspond to Newton's corpuscles; for example, Newton's explanation of ordinary refraction required the corpuscles to travel faster in media of higher refractive index, which photons do not. Neither did photons dis...	{ "page_id": 1141, "source": null, "title": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel" }
Criminal menopause is an informal term describing a decrease in anti-social behavior that correlates with human aging. In the United States, for example, people over 60 years are responsible for less than one percent of crime. Another study found that only two percent of convicts paroled after age 55 are ever imprisone...	{ "page_id": 73729142, "source": null, "title": "Criminal menopause" }
In 1992 a manager of Louisiana's Department of Public Safety and Corrections recommending releasing prisoners over 45 years of age who had already served 20 or more years. In 2010, a 90-year-old man who bludgeoned to death his 89-year-old wife was said the defy "the theories about criminal menopause." == See also == Fr...	{ "page_id": 73729142, "source": null, "title": "Criminal menopause" }
A retarder is a chemical agent that slows down a chemical reaction. For example, retarders are used to slow the chemical reaction hardening of plastic materials such as wallboard, concrete, and adhesives. Sugar water acts as a retarder for the curing of concrete. It can be used to retard the chemical hardening of the s...	{ "page_id": 3671160, "source": null, "title": "Retarder (chemistry)" }
Gene trapping is a high-throughput approach that is used to introduce insertional mutations across an organism's genome. == Method == Trapping is performed with gene trap vectors whose principal element is a gene trapping cassette consisting of a promoterless reporter gene and/or selectable genetic marker, flanked by a...	{ "page_id": 9634941, "source": null, "title": "Gene trapping" }
Methyl-MDA may refer to: 2-Methyl-MDA 5-Methyl-MDA 6-Methyl-MDA	{ "page_id": 59573373, "source": null, "title": "Methyl-MDA" }
Benzylacetone (IUPAC name: 4-phenylbutan-2-one) is a liquid with a sweet, flowery smell that is considered to be the most abundant attractant compound in flowers (e.g. Coyote Tobacco, Nicotiana attenuata) and one of volatile components of cocoa. It can be used as an attractant for melon flies (Bactrocera cucurbitae), i...	{ "page_id": 18613375, "source": null, "title": "Benzylacetone" }
Falk Herwig (born 1969) is a Canadian astrophysicist who is known for his researches at the University of Victoria. He has over 200 peer-reviewed articles which brought him an h-index of 37. == Research == In 1998, he and another astrophysicist, Thomas Driebe, described the evolution of helium white dwarfs and two year...	{ "page_id": 42665086, "source": null, "title": "Falk Herwig" }
The Illinois Ornithological Society (IOS) is the principal birding and bird conservation organization in the American state of Illinois. It produces a quarterly magazine, Meadowlark, A Journal of Illinois Birds. A website is also available and features updates on rare bird sightings in the state as well as profiles of ...	{ "page_id": 22807682, "source": null, "title": "Illinois Ornithological Society" }
The molecular formula C15H18N2 may refer to: N-Isopropyl-N'-phenyl-1,4-phenylenediamine Pirlindole WAY-629	{ "page_id": 26608772, "source": null, "title": "C15H18N2" }
Tryptophan aminopeptidase may refer to: Tryptophanyl aminopeptidase, an enzyme Tryptophanamidase, an enzyme	{ "page_id": 39126149, "source": null, "title": "Tryptophan aminopeptidase" }
The molecular formula C14H21NO may refer to: N-Ethylhexedrone (NEH) 4-Methyl-α-ethylaminopentiophenone (4-MEAP) 3-PPP Profadol (CI-572) Zylofuramine	{ "page_id": 26608775, "source": null, "title": "C14H21NO" }
In mathematics, an automorphism is an isomorphism from a mathematical object to itself. It is, in some sense, a symmetry of the object, and a way of mapping the object to itself while preserving all of its structure. The set of all automorphisms of an object forms a group, called the automorphism group. It is, loosely ...	{ "page_id": 1160, "source": null, "title": "Automorphism" }
The automorphism group of X is also called the symmetric group on X. In elementary arithmetic, the set of integers, ⁠ Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } ⁠, considered as a group under addition, has a unique nontrivial automorphism: negation. Considered as a ring, however, it has only the trivial automorphism. Generally spe...	{ "page_id": 1160, "source": null, "title": "Automorphism" }
by any automorphism. The field R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } of the real numbers has no automorphisms other than the identity. Indeed, the rational numbers must be fixed by every automorphism, per above; an automorphism must preserve inequalities since x < y {\displaystyle x<y} is equivalent to ∃ z ∣ y − x = z 2 , {\d...	{ "page_id": 1160, "source": null, "title": "Automorphism" }
of Riemann surfaces, an automorphism is a biholomorphic map (also called a conformal map), from a surface to itself. For example, the automorphisms of the Riemann sphere are Möbius transformations. An automorphism of a differentiable manifold M is a diffeomorphism from M to itself. The automorphism group is sometimes d...	{ "page_id": 1160, "source": null, "title": "Automorphism" }
automorphisms. The same definition holds in any unital ring or algebra where a is any invertible element. For Lie algebras the definition is slightly different. == See also == Antiautomorphism Automorphism (in Sudoku puzzles) Characteristic subgroup Endomorphism ring Frobenius automorphism Morphism Order automorphism (...	{ "page_id": 1160, "source": null, "title": "Automorphism" }
The symmetron is a hypothesized elementary particle that mediates a fifth force in particle physics. It emerged as one potential solution to the symmetron field, a hypothesized scalar field. == See also == List of hypothetical particles == References ==	{ "page_id": 70780040, "source": null, "title": "Symmetron" }
Conservation paleobiology is a field of paleontology that applies the knowledge of the geological and paleoecological record to the conservation and restoration of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Despite the influence of paleontology on ecological sciences can be traced back at least at the 18th century, the curre...	{ "page_id": 59573391, "source": null, "title": "Conservation paleobiology" }

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