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) = 1 exp ( E − μ k B T ) + 1 . {\displaystyle f_{\mathrm {FD} }(E)={\frac {1}{\exp \left({\frac {E-\mu }{k_{\mathrm {B} }T}}\right)+1}}.} μ {\displaystyle \mu } is the chemical potential (also denoted as EF and called the Fermi level when T=0), k B {\displaystyle k_{\mathrm {B} }} is the Boltzmann constant, and T {\... | {
"page_id": 525887,
"source": null,
"title": "Density of states"
} |
) d E k = 1 d ∂ ∂ T ∫ E f ( E ) g ( E ) ν ( E ) Λ ( E ) d E {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}u&=\int E\,f(E)\,g(E)\,\mathrm {d} E\\[1ex]N&=V\int f(E)\,g(E)\,\mathrm {d} E\\[1ex]c&={\frac {\partial }{\partial T}}\int E\,f(E)\,g(E)\,\mathrm {d} E\\[1ex]k&={\frac {1}{d}}{\frac {\partial }{\partial T}}\int Ef(E)\,g(E)\,\nu (... | {
"page_id": 525887,
"source": null,
"title": "Density of states"
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evaluate the density of states with a high accuracy. One of these algorithms is called the Wang and Landau algorithm. Within the Wang and Landau scheme any previous knowledge of the density of states is required. One proceeds as follows: the cost function (for example the energy) of the system is discretized. Each time... | {
"page_id": 525887,
"source": null,
"title": "Density of states"
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is just a particular case and the LDOS gives a wider description with a heterogeneous density of states through the system. === Concept === Local density of states (LDOS) describes a space-resolved density of states. In materials science, for example, this term is useful when interpreting the data from a scanning tunne... | {
"page_id": 525887,
"source": null,
"title": "Density of states"
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( E , x ) = ( 1 − sin 2 k x 2 k x ) n 3 D ( E ) {\displaystyle n_{3D}(E,x)=\left(1-{\frac {\sin {2kx}}{2kx}}\right)n_{3D}(E)} In fact, we can generalise the local density of states further to n ( E , x , x ′ ) = ∑ j ϕ j ( x ) ϕ j ∗ ( x ′ ) δ ( E − ε j ) {\displaystyle n(E,x,x')=\sum _{j}\phi _{j}(x)\phi _{j}^{*}(x')\... | {
"page_id": 525887,
"source": null,
"title": "Density of states"
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path of the scattering is trivial as the LDOS can be still strongly influenced by the short details of strong disorders in the form of a strong Purcell enhancement of the emission. and finally, for the plasmonic disorder, this effect is much stronger for LDOS fluctuations as it can be observed as a strong near-field lo... | {
"page_id": 525887,
"source": null,
"title": "Density of states"
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Florencia Canelli is since 2021 the appointed Swiss scientific delegate to the CERN council, the supreme decision-making authority of the CERN Organization. From 2021-2024, she was appointed chair of the IUPAP division of particles and field (C11). From 2021-2023, she was co-coordinator of the physics program of the CM... | {
"page_id": 75236932,
"source": null,
"title": "Florencia Canelli"
} |
the CDF experiment at Fermilab from 2003-2006. During this time, she led efforts to estimate the energy scale of quarks produced in collisions, significantly contributing to the experiment’s results and improving the precision of numerous measurements. In 2006, she accepted a prestigious Wilson Fellow at Fermilab. Duri... | {
"page_id": 75236932,
"source": null,
"title": "Florencia Canelli"
} |
== Canelli is married to experimental particle physicist, Prof. Ben Kilminster. They have two children. == Recognition == 2010: IUPAP Young Scientist Prize 2009: Alfred P. Sloan Fellowship 2006: Wilson Fellowship 2005: Mitsuyoshi Tanaka Dissertation Award, APS 2004: University Research Association Thesis Award, Fermila... | {
"page_id": 75236932,
"source": null,
"title": "Florencia Canelli"
} |
In systems theory, a linear system is a mathematical model of a system based on the use of a linear operator. Linear systems typically exhibit features and properties that are much simpler than the nonlinear case. As a mathematical abstraction or idealization, linear systems find important applications in automatic con... | {
"page_id": 722503,
"source": null,
"title": "Linear system"
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H { α x 1 ( t ) + β x 2 ( t ) } {\displaystyle \alpha y_{1}(t)+\beta y_{2}(t)=H\left\{\alpha x_{1}(t)+\beta x_{2}(t)\right\}} for any scalar values α and β, for any input signals x1(t) and x2(t), and for all time t. The system is then defined by the equation H(x(t)) = y(t), where y(t) is some arbitrary function of time... | {
"page_id": 722503,
"source": null,
"title": "Linear system"
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output signals ( x 1 ( t ) {\displaystyle x_{1}(t)} , x 2 ( t ) {\displaystyle x_{2}(t)} , y 1 ( t ) {\displaystyle y_{1}(t)} , y 2 ( t ) {\displaystyle y_{2}(t)} .) This definition of a linear system is analogous to the definition of a linear differential equation in calculus, and a linear transformation in linear alg... | {
"page_id": 722503,
"source": null,
"title": "Linear system"
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y(t)=x^{2}(t)} , y ( t ) = x ( t ) {\textstyle y(t)={\sqrt {x(t)}}} , y ( t ) = | x ( t ) | {\displaystyle y(t)=|x(t)|} , and a system with odd-symmetry output consisting of a linear region and a saturation (constant) region, are non-linear because they don't always satisfy the superposition principle. The output versu... | {
"page_id": 722503,
"source": null,
"title": "Linear system"
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as the input (3 rad/s), but instead also of sinusoids of frequencies 2 rad/s and 4 rad/s; furthermore, taking the least common multiple of the fundamental period of the sinusoids of the output, it can be shown the fundamental angular frequency of the output is 1 rad/s, which is different than that of the input. == Time... | {
"page_id": 722503,
"source": null,
"title": "Linear system"
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at which it is operated then it is said to be time-invariant and h is a function only of the time difference τ = t − t' which is zero for τ < 0 (namely t < t' ). By redefinition of h it is then possible to write the input-output relation equivalently in any of the ways, y ( t ) = ∫ − ∞ t h ( t − t ′ ) x ( t ′ ) d t ′ =... | {
"page_id": 722503,
"source": null,
"title": "Linear system"
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n h [ n , m ] x [ m ] = ∑ m = − ∞ ∞ h [ n , m ] x [ m ] {\displaystyle y[n]=\sum _{m=-\infty }^{n}{h[n,m]x[m]}=\sum _{m=-\infty }^{\infty }{h[n,m]x[m]}} or equivalently for a time-invariant system on redefining h, y [ n ] = ∑ k = 0 ∞ h [ k ] x [ n − k ] = ∑ k = − ∞ ∞ h [ k ] x [ n − k ] {\displaystyle y[n]=\sum _{k=0}^... | {
"page_id": 722503,
"source": null,
"title": "Linear system"
} |
Prehydrated electrons are free electrons that occur in water under irradiation. Usually they form complexes with water molecules and become hydrated electrons. They can also react with the bases of the nucleotides dGMP and dTMP in aqueous solution. This suggests they may also react with the bases of the DNA double heli... | {
"page_id": 43845195,
"source": null,
"title": "Prehydrated electrons"
} |
Downstream processing refers to the recovery and the purification of biosynthetic products, particularly pharmaceuticals, from natural sources such as animal tissue, plant tissue or fermentation broth, including the recycling of salvageable components as well as the proper treatment and disposal of waste. It is an esse... | {
"page_id": 2819660,
"source": null,
"title": "Downstream processing"
} |
achieve this are filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation, precipitation, flocculation, electro-precipitation, and gravity settling. Additional operations such as grinding, homogenization, or leaching, required to recover products from solid sources such as plant and animal tissues, are usually included in this group.... | {
"page_id": 2819660,
"source": null,
"title": "Downstream processing"
} |
Bioseparations Engineering: Principles, Practice, and Economics. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-24476-7. Harrison, Roger G.; Paul W. Todd; Scott R. Rudge; Demetri Petrides (2003). Bioseparations science and engineering. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512340-9. Krishna Prasad, Nooralabettu (2010). Downstream Processing-A New Hor... | {
"page_id": 2819660,
"source": null,
"title": "Downstream processing"
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Vomiting agents are chemical weapon agents causing vomiting. Prolonged exposure can be lethal. They were used for the first time during WWI. == Examples == Adamsite Chloropicrin Diphenylchlorarsine Diphenylcyanoarsine Diphenylamincyanoarsine == References == | {
"page_id": 56821329,
"source": null,
"title": "Vomiting agent"
} |
Fouling communities are communities of organisms found on artificial surfaces like the sides of docks, marinas, harbors, and boats. Settlement panels made from a variety of substances have been used to monitor settlement patterns and to examine several community processes (e.g., succession, recruitment, predation, comp... | {
"page_id": 8980050,
"source": null,
"title": "Fouling community"
} |
to wherever the boat anchors. == Research history == Fouling communities were highlighted particularly in the literature of marine ecology as a potential example of alternate stable states through the work of John Sutherland in the 1970s at Duke University, although this was later called into question by Connell and So... | {
"page_id": 8980050,
"source": null,
"title": "Fouling community"
} |
Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. It should not be confused with green chemistry, which seeks to reduce potential pollution at its source. It can be defined as the study of the sources, reactions, transport, effects, and fates of chem... | {
"page_id": 656979,
"source": null,
"title": "Environmental chemistry"
} |
a receptor, whilst a sink is a chemical medium or species that retains and interacts with the pollutant such as carbon sink and its effects by microbes. == Environmental indicators == Chemical measures of water quality include dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total d... | {
"page_id": 656979,
"source": null,
"title": "Environmental chemistry"
} |
mass spectrometry: Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS) and Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission (ICP-AES) or Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometric (ICP-MS) techniques. Organic compounds, including PAHs, are commonly measured also using mass spectrometric methods, such as Gas chromatography-mass spec... | {
"page_id": 656979,
"source": null,
"title": "Environmental chemistry"
} |
reading == Johan Alfredo Linthorst, "Notes on Environmental Engagement within the American Chemical Society, 1960-1990," Bulletin for the History of Chemistry 50 (1), pp. 52-56, 2025. NCERT XI textbook.[ unit 14] == External links == List of links for Environmental Chemistry - from the WWW Virtual Library International... | {
"page_id": 656979,
"source": null,
"title": "Environmental chemistry"
} |
Sucrose acetoisobutyrate (SAIB) is an emulsifier and has E number E444. In the United States, SAIB is categorized as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) as a food additive in cocktail mixers, beer, malt beverages, or wine coolers and is a potential replacement for brominated vegetable oil. == Chemistry == SAIB can be p... | {
"page_id": 11798101,
"source": null,
"title": "Sucrose acetate isobutyrate"
} |
The molecular formula C2H2O3 (molar mass: 74.04 g/mol, exact mass: 74.0004 u) may refer to: Formic anhydride, or methanoic anhydride Glyoxylic acid, or oxoacetic acid | {
"page_id": 12387929,
"source": null,
"title": "C2H2O3"
} |
Counterion condensation is a phenomenon described by Manning's theory (Manning 1969), which assumes that counterions can condense onto polyions until the charged density between neighboring monomer charges along the polyion chain is reduced below a certain critical value. In the model the real polyion chain is replaced... | {
"page_id": 27657824,
"source": null,
"title": "Counterion condensation"
} |
theory, which was shown to give less artificial results than the counterion condensation theories. == References == Manning, G.S. (1969). "Limiting Laws and Counterion Condensation in Polyelectrolyte Solutions I. Colligative Properties". J. Chem. Phys. 51 (3): 924–933. Bibcode:1969JChPh..51..924M. doi:10.1063/1.1672157... | {
"page_id": 27657824,
"source": null,
"title": "Counterion condensation"
} |
Cold filter plugging point (CFPP) is the lowest temperature, expressed in degrees Celsius (°C), at which a given volume of diesel type of fuel still passes through a standardized filtration device in a specified time when cooled under certain conditions. This test gives an estimate for the lowest temperature that a fue... | {
"page_id": 13502050,
"source": null,
"title": "Cold filter plugging point"
} |
links == BP information | {
"page_id": 13502050,
"source": null,
"title": "Cold filter plugging point"
} |
Solar reforming is the sunlight-driven conversion of diverse carbon waste resources (including solid, liquid, and gaseous waste streams such as biomass, plastics, industrial by-products, atmospheric carbon dioxide, etc.) into sustainable fuels (or energy vectors) and value-added chemicals. It encompasses a set of ideas... | {
"page_id": 76088934,
"source": null,
"title": "Solar reforming"
} |
polymeric substrates such as condensation plastics, accounting for more than 80% of the operation costs. This was circumvented with the introduction of a new chemoenzymatic reforming pathway in 2023 by Bhattacharjee, Guo, Reisner and Hollfelder, which employed near-neutral pH, moderate temperatures for pre-treating pla... | {
"page_id": 76088934,
"source": null,
"title": "Solar reforming"
} |
by interfacing copper nanoflower catalysts on perovskite-based artificial leaves at the University of California, Berkeley. Devices can produce ethane and ethylene at high rates by coupling CO2 reduction with glycerol oxidation into value-added chemicals, which replaces the thermodynamically demanding O2 evolution. The... | {
"page_id": 76088934,
"source": null,
"title": "Solar reforming"
} |
waste recycling and upcycling processes === Solar reforming offers several advantages over conventional methods of waste management or fuel/chemical production. It offers a less energy-intensive and low-carbon alternative to methods of waste reforming such as pyrolysis and gasification which require high energy input. ... | {
"page_id": 76088934,
"source": null,
"title": "Solar reforming"
} |
kJ mol‒1), this makes the ηSTF per definition close to zero, despite the high production rates and quantum yields. However, replacing the ΔG for product formation (during solar reforming) with that of product utilisation (|ΔGuse|; such as combustion of the hydrogen fuel generated) can give a better representation of th... | {
"page_id": 76088934,
"source": null,
"title": "Solar reforming"
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where Ci and Ck are the costs of the product 'i' and substrate 'k', respectively. Cp is the pre-treatment cost for the waste substrate 'k', and ni and nk are amounts (in moles) of the product 'i' formed and substrate 'k' consumed during solar reforming, respectively. Note that the metric is adaptable and can be expande... | {
"page_id": 76088934,
"source": null,
"title": "Solar reforming"
} |
- PEC reforming involves the use of PEC systems/assemblies which consist of separated (photo)electrodes generally connected using a wire and submerged in solution (electrolyte). A photoelectrode consists of a light-absorber and additional charge transport and catalyst layers to facilitate the redox processes. While con... | {
"page_id": 76088934,
"source": null,
"title": "Solar reforming"
} |
An important concept introduced in the context of solar reforming is the 'photon economy', which, as defined by Bhattacharjee, Linley and Reisner, is the maximum utilization of all incident photons for maximizing product formation and value creation. An ideal solar reforming process is one where the light absorber can ... | {
"page_id": 76088934,
"source": null,
"title": "Solar reforming"
} |
fuel == References == | {
"page_id": 76088934,
"source": null,
"title": "Solar reforming"
} |
Most vaccines consist of viruses that have been attenuated, disabled, weakened or killed in some way so that their virulent properties are no longer effective. A simple genetically modified vaccine, based on a thymidine kinase deficient mutant of pseudorabies virus was reportedly available as early as 2001 as a commerc... | {
"page_id": 65865322,
"source": null,
"title": "Genetically modified vaccine"
} |
Marek Mlodzik is the Chair of the Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology and also holds professorships in Oncological Sciences and Ophthalmology at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City. Prior to this (from 1991 to 2000) he was a Group Leader at EMBL Heidelberg. In 1997, Mlodzik was elect... | {
"page_id": 4261485,
"source": null,
"title": "Marek Mlodzik"
} |
The Gausson is a soliton which is the solution of the logarithmic Schrödinger equation, which describes a quantum particle in a possible nonlinear quantum mechanics. The logarithmic Schrödinger equation preserves the dimensional homogeneity of the equation, i.e. the product of the independent solutions in one dimension... | {
"page_id": 42272365,
"source": null,
"title": "Gausson (physics)"
} |
E + k 2 2 + N 2 a ) Ψ {\displaystyle -{\frac {1}{2}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}\Psi }{\partial y^{2}}}+a\omega y^{2}\Psi =\left(E+{\frac {k^{2}}{2}}+N^{2}a\right)\Psi } The solution is therefore the normal ground state of the harmonic oscillator if only ( a > 0 ) {\displaystyle (a>0)} a ω = ω 2 / 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {}{}... | {
"page_id": 42272365,
"source": null,
"title": "Gausson (physics)"
} |
Ḥasan Ibn al-Haytham (Latinized as Alhazen; ; full name Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham أبو علي، الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم; c. 965 – c. 1040) was a medieval mathematician, astronomer, and physicist of the Islamic Golden Age from present-day Iraq. Referred to as "the father of modern optics", he made signif... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
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for the modern science of physical optics. == Biography == Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) was born c. 965 to a family of Arab or Persian origin in Basra, Iraq, which was at the time part of the Buyid emirate. His initial influences were in the study of religion and service to the community. At the time, society had a number ... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
In it, Ibn al-Haytham was the first to explain that vision occurs when light reflects from an object and then passes to one's eyes, and to argue that vision occurs in the brain, pointing to observations that it is subjective and affected by personal experience. Optics was translated into Latin by an unknown scholar at ... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
Galenist, or Aristotelian lines. The strongest influence on the Book of Optics was from Ptolemy's Optics, while the description of the anatomy and physiology of the eye was based on Galen's account. Alhazen's achievement was to come up with a theory that successfully combined parts of the mathematical ray arguments of ... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
of each point on an object sending many rays to the eye; if only the perpendicular ray mattered, then he had a one-to-one correspondence and the confusion could be resolved. He later asserted (in book seven of the Optics) that other rays would be refracted through the eye and perceived as if perpendicular. His argument... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
in 1858. Craig Aaen-Stockdale, while agreeing that Alhazen should be credited with many advances, has expressed some caution, especially when considering Alhazen in isolation from Ptolemy, with whom Alhazen was extremely familiar. Alhazen corrected a significant error of Ptolemy regarding binocular vision, but otherwis... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
some of his work hints that he thought the retina was also involved. Alhazen's synthesis of light and vision adhered to the Aristotelian scheme, exhaustively describing the process of vision in a logical, complete fashion. His research in catoptrics (the study of optical systems using mirrors) was centred on spherical ... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
only the formulas for the sums of squares and cubes had been stated. His method can be readily generalized to find the formula for the sum of any integral powers, although he did not himself do this (perhaps because he only needed the fourth power to calculate the volume of the paraboloid he was interested in). He used... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
follows: "The image of the sun at the time of the eclipse, unless it is total, demonstrates that when its light passes through a narrow, round hole and is cast on a plane opposite to the hole it takes on the form of a moonsickle." It is admitted that his findings solidified the importance in the history of the camera o... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
experimenting with various cases of refraction, in order to investigate the relations between the angle of incidence, the angle of refraction and the angle of deflection. This apparatus was a modified version of an apparatus used by Ptolemy for similar purpose. === Unconscious inference === Alhazen basically states the... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
that the light reflected from an object is modified by the object's color. He explained that the quality of the light and the color of the object are mixed, and the visual system separates light and color. In Book II, Chapter 3 he writes:Again the light does not travel from the colored object to the eye unaccompanied b... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
and the eye was in the choice of the perpendicular ray, since only one such ray from each point on the surface of the object could penetrate the eye. Sudanese psychologist Omar Khaleefa has argued that Alhazen should be considered the founder of experimental psychology, for his pioneering work on the psychology of visu... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
Cleomedes (c. 2nd century) gave this account (in addition to refraction), and he credited it to Posidonius (c. 135–50 BCE). Ptolemy may also have offered this explanation in his Optics, but the text is obscure. Alhazen's writings were more widely available in the Middle Ages than those of these earlier authors, and tha... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
method of varying the experimental conditions in a constant and uniform manner, in an experiment showing that the intensity of the light-spot formed by the projection of the moonlight through two small apertures onto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up." G. J. Toomer expressed... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
among the Christians of the West". Alhazen's determination to root astronomy in the realm of physical objects was important, however, because it meant astronomical hypotheses "were accountable to the laws of physics", and could be criticised and improved upon in those terms. He also wrote Maqala fi daw al-qamar (On the... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
criticism of the inherent contradictions in Ptolemy's works. He considered that some of the mathematical devices Ptolemy introduced into astronomy, especially the equant, failed to satisfy the physical requirement of uniform circular motion, and noted the absurdity of relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathe... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
the introduction and the first section, on the theory of planetary motion, surviving. (There was also a second section on astronomical calculation, and a third section, on astronomical instruments.) Following on from his Doubts on Ptolemy, Alhazen described a new, geometry-based planetary model, describing the motions ... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
a formula for summing the first 100 natural numbers, using a geometric proof to prove the formula. === Geometry === Alhazen explored what is now known as the Euclidean parallel postulate, the fifth postulate in Euclid's Elements, using a proof by contradiction, and in effect introducing the concept of motion into geome... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
used to determine the sum for any integral power. He used this to find the volume of a paraboloid. He could find the integral formula for any polynomial without having developed a general formula. == Other works == === Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals === Alhazen also wrote a Treatise on the Influence of M... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things." === Theology === Alhazen was a Muslim and most sources report that he was a Sunni and a follower of the Ash'ari school. Ziauddin Sardar says that some of the greatest Muslim scientists, such as I... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
he says, without relying on a demonstration or calling on a proof, but by pure imitation (taqlid); that is how experts in the prophetic tradition have faith in Prophets, may the blessing of God be upon them. But it is not the way that mathematicians have faith in specialists in the demonstrative sciences. Regarding the... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
optics survived only through Latin translation. During the Middle Ages his books on cosmology were translated into Latin, Hebrew and other languages. H. J. J. Winter, a British historian of science, summing up the importance of Ibn al-Haytham in the history of physics wrote: After the death of Archimedes no really grea... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
Director-General Irina Bokova dubbed Ibn al-Haytham 'the father of optics'. Amongst others, this was to celebrate Ibn Al-Haytham's achievements in optics, mathematics and astronomy. An international campaign, created by the 1001 Inventions organisation, titled 1001 Inventions and the World of Ibn Al-Haytham featuring a... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
(2007). "Ibn al-Haytham: Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan". In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 556–5567. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. (PDF version) 'A Brief Introduction on Ibn al-Haytham' based on a lecture delivered at the Royal Society in London by Nader E... | {
"page_id": 1645,
"source": null,
"title": "Ibn al-Haytham"
} |
This is a list of the tallest people, verified by Guinness World Records or other reliable sources. According to Guinness World Records, Robert Wadlow of the United States (1918–1940) was the tallest person in recorded history, measuring 272 cm (8 ft 11 in) at the time of his death. There are reports about even taller ... | {
"page_id": 11994740,
"source": null,
"title": "List of tallest people"
} |
Milićević Bradać, Ivor Karavanić (December 2015). "Phlegon of Tralles and fossils from Dalmatia". Vjesnik Za Arheologiju I Povijest Dalmatinsku. 108 (1): 109–118. ISSN 1845-7789. Marco Romano, Marco Avanzini (26 June 2017). "The skeletons of Cyclops and Lestrigons: misinterpretation of Quaternary vertebrates as remains... | {
"page_id": 11994740,
"source": null,
"title": "List of tallest people"
} |
Social behavior is behavior among two or more organisms within the same species, it encompasses any behavior in which one member affects another. Social behavior can be seen as similar to an exchange of goods, with the expectation that when you give, you will receive something similar in return. This behavior can be af... | {
"page_id": 1967733,
"source": null,
"title": "Social behavior"
} |
to grow and develop, reaching different stages of life. The development of behavior is deeply tied with the biological and cognitive changes one is experiencing at any given time. This creates general patterns of social behavior development in humans. Just as social behavior is influenced by both the situation and an i... | {
"page_id": 1967733,
"source": null,
"title": "Social behavior"
} |
to the interactions and people relevant to a certain setting, and therefore begin to intuitively know the appropriate form of social interaction depending on the situation. Therefore, behavior is constantly changing as required, and maturity brings this on. A child must learn to balance their own desires with those of ... | {
"page_id": 1967733,
"source": null,
"title": "Social behavior"
} |
groups and become aware of their own role within the group. By puberty, general relations among same and opposite sex individuals are much more salient, and individuals begin to behave according to the norms of these situations. With increasing awareness of their sex and stereotypes that go along with it, the individua... | {
"page_id": 1967733,
"source": null,
"title": "Social behavior"
} |
brain was shown to be sensitive to the fear that comes with a novel social situation, inhibiting social interaction. Another form of studying the brain regions that may be responsible for social behavior has been through looking at patients with brain injuries who have an impairment in social behavior. Lesions in the p... | {
"page_id": 1967733,
"source": null,
"title": "Social behavior"
} |
more helping behavior, cooperation, and sociability. Studies have shown that even subtly inducing positive affect within individuals caused greater social behavior and helping. This phenomenon, however, is not one-directional. Just as positive affect can influence social behavior, social behavior can have an influence ... | {
"page_id": 1967733,
"source": null,
"title": "Social behavior"
} |
model was established to study how this process of translating media into behavior works, and why. This model suggests a link between positive media with prosocial behavior and violent media with aggressive behavior, and posits that this is mediated by the characteristics of the individual watching along with the situa... | {
"page_id": 1967733,
"source": null,
"title": "Social behavior"
} |
to the group for two reasons: first, to gain acceptance from the group (normative social influence); second, to obtain important information for the group (informational social influence). == Aggressive and violent behavior == Aggression is an important social behavior that can have both negative consequences (in a soc... | {
"page_id": 1967733,
"source": null,
"title": "Social behavior"
} |
behavior include facial and body expressions that are intentionally meant to convey a message to those who are meant to receive it. Nonverbal behavior can serve a specific purpose (i.e. to convey a message), or can be more of an impulse/reflex. Paul Ekman, an influential psychologist, investigated both verbal and nonve... | {
"page_id": 1967733,
"source": null,
"title": "Social behavior"
} |
learning theory Social science Sociality Socialization Violent Behavior == References == | {
"page_id": 1967733,
"source": null,
"title": "Social behavior"
} |
The Cowardin classification system is a system for classifying wetlands, devised by Lewis M. Cowardin et al. in 1979 for the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. The system includes five main types of wetlands: Marine wetlands, which are areas exposed to the open ocean Estuarine wetlands, partially enclosed by land... | {
"page_id": 47384181,
"source": null,
"title": "Cowardin classification system"
} |
Recurring cultural, political, and theological rejection of evolution by religious groups exists regarding the origins of the Earth, of humanity, and of other life. In accordance with creationism, species were once widely believed to be fixed products of divine creation, but since the mid-19th century, evolution by nat... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
Catholic Church holds no official position on creation or evolution (see Evolution and the Catholic Church). However, Pope Francis has stated: "God is not a demiurge or a magician, but the Creator who brought everything to life...Evolution in nature is not inconsistent with the notion of creation, because evolution req... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
and Reviews (1860) largely diverted the Church of England's attention. Some of the liberal Christian authors of that work expressed support for Darwin, as did many Nonconformists. The Reverend Charles Kingsley, for instance, openly supported the idea of God working through evolution. Other Christians opposed the idea, ... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
premillennialists, who held to a prophecy of the imminent return of Christ based on a form of Biblical literalism, and were convinced that the Bible would be invalidated if any error in the Scriptures was conceded. However, hardly any of the critics of evolution at that time were as concerned about geology, freely gran... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
he insisted on creation of the soul, his acceptance of divinely guided development and of Pre-Adamite humanity meant he was thought of as a theistic evolutionist. === Creationism in theology === At the beginning of the 19th century debate had started to develop over applying historical methods to Biblical criticism, su... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
Britain and Europe. In Britain this has been attributed to their minority status leading to a more tolerant, less militant theological tradition. This continues to the present. In his speech at the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in 2014, Pope Francis declared that he accepted the Big Bang theory and the theory of evolu... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
what their children were learning about evolution. ==== British creationism ==== The main British creationist movement in this period, the Evolution Protest Movement (EPM), formed in the 1930s out of the Victoria Institute, or Philosophical Society of Great Britain (founded in 1865 in response to the publication of Dar... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
in organometallic chemistry from the University of Bristol. By the mid-1980s the CSM had formally incorporated flood geology into its "Deed of Trust" (which all officers had to sign) and condemned gap creationism and day-age creationism as unscriptural. == United States legal challenges and their consequences == In 192... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
widespread publicity galvanized proponents of evolution. Following an appeal of the case to the Tennessee Supreme Court, the Court overturned the decision on a technicality (the judge had assessed the minimum $100 fine instead of allowing the jury to assess the fine). The statute required a minimum fine of $100, and th... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
not be taught in the schools of the State, nothing contrary to that theory [such as Creationism] is required to be taught. ... It is not necessary now to determine the exact scope of the Religious Preference clause of the Constitution ... Section 3 of Article 1 is binding alike on the Legislature and the school authori... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
be tailored to the principles or prohibitions of any religious sect or dogma". But the Supreme Court decision also suggested that creationism could be taught in addition to evolution. === Daniel v. Waters (1975) === Daniel v. Waters was a 1975 legal case in which the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
operated by scientists. During this time, Morris and others who supported flood geology adopted the terms "scientific creationism" and "creation science". The "flood geology" theory effectively co-opted "the generic creationist label for their hyperliteralist views." ==== Court cases ==== ===== McLean v. Arkansas =====... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
leaving open the door for a handful of proponents of creation science to evolve their arguments into the iteration of creationism that later came to be known as intelligent design. === Intelligent design === In response to Edwards v. Aguillard, the neo-creationist intelligent design movement was formed around the Disco... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
2007, the Board voted 6 to 4 to reject the amended science standards enacted in 2005. The definition of science was once again limited to "the search for natural explanations for what is observed in the universe." ==== Dover trial ==== Following the Edwards v. Aguillard decision by the United States Supreme Court, in w... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
2009, the Texas Board of Education, by a vote of 13 to 2, voted that at least in Texas, textbooks must teach intelligent design alongside evolution, and question the validity of the fossil record. Don McLeroy, a dentist and chair of the board, said, "I think the new standards are wonderful ... dogmatism about evolution... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
between traditional literal fundamentalist religion and experimental science. Three studies of scientific attitudes since 1904 have shown that over 80% of scientists do not believe in a traditional god or the traditional belief in immortality, with disbelief stronger amongst biological scientists than physical scientis... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
opinions have crystallized regarding both the acceptance of scientific theories and religious doctrine and practice. === Young-Earth creationism === Young-Earth creationism (YEC) involves the religiously based belief that God created the Earth within the last 10,000 years, literally as described in Genesis, within the ... | {
"page_id": 1115768,
"source": null,
"title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups"
} |
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