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on the interpretation of the Bible). As of 2020, neo-creationism underlies the intelligent-design movement, which has a "big tent" strategy making it inclusive of many Young-Earth creationists (such as Paul Nelson and Percival Davis) and some sympathetic Old-Earth creationists. === Neo-creationism and fundamentalist cl...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
have long accepted evolution, and it is increasingly finding acceptance among evangelical Christians, who strive to keep traditional Christian theology intact. Theistic evolutionists have frequently been prominent in opposing creationism (including intelligent design). Notable examples have included biologist Kenneth R...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
this claim, philosophers of science use the term methodological naturalism to refer to the long-standing convention in science of the scientific method. The methodological assumption is that observable events in nature are explained only by natural causes, without assuming the existence or non-existence of the supernat...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
and interpret facts. Facts do not go away when scientists debate rival theories to explain them. Einstein's theory of gravitation replaced Newton's, but apples did not suspend themselves in mid-air, pending the outcome. And humans evolved from ape-like ancestors whether they did so by Darwin's proposed mechanism or by ...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
magazine (July 1981): "Stephen Jay Gould states that creationists claim creation is a scientific theory. This is a false accusation. Creationists have repeatedly stated that neither creation nor evolution is a scientific theory (and each is equally religious)." Popper responded to news that his conclusions were being u...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
in his 1982 decision McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education, Judge William R. Overton used falsifiability as one basis for his ruling against the teaching of creation science in the public schools, ultimately declaring it "simply not science." === Conflation of science and religion === Creationists commonly argue agains...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
logical fallacy. Examples of these arguments include those of prominent creationists such as Ken Ham and Henry M. Morris. == Disputes relating to science == Many creationists strongly oppose certain scientific theories in a number of ways, including opposition to specific applications of scientific processes, accusatio...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
have appeared about 3.9 billion years ago. With a few exceptions (e.g. Michael Behe) the vast majority of creationists rejected this theory in favor of the belief that a common design suggests a common designer (God). Many of these same creationists through the beginning of the 21st century also held that modern specie...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
documenting the early ancestry of gibbons, fossil proto-orangutans may be represented by Sivapithecus from India and Griphopithecus from Turkey, dated to around 10 Ma. Molecular evidence further suggests that between 8 and 4 Ma, first the gorillas, and then the chimpanzee (genus Pan) split from the line leading to the ...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
the mutations required for major changes to occur would almost certainly be detrimental. However, most mutations are neutral, and the minority of mutations which are beneficial or harmful are often situational; a mutation that is harmful in one environment may be helpful in another. ==== Macroevolution ==== In biology,...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
argument has been accepted for publication in a peer-reviewed scientific journal, and both arguments have been rejected by the scientific community as pseudoscience. When taken to court in an attempt to introduce ID into the classroom, the judge wrote "The overwhelming evidence at trial established that ID is a religio...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
fossils elucidate the evolutionary transition of one life-form to another, they only exemplify snapshots of this process. Due to the special circumstances required for preservation of living beings, only a very small percentage of all life-forms that ever have existed can be expected to be discovered. Thus, the transit...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
for this "losing battle" is that many of these critics are theists who "simply don't want to see the truth." === Geology === Many believers in Young Earth creationism—a position held by the majority of proponents of 'flood geology'—accept biblical chronogenealogies (such as the Ussher chronology, which in turn is based...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
of uniformitarianism). They also point out that the "problems" that creationists publicly mentioned can be shown to either not be problems at all, are issues with known contamination, or simply the result of incorrectly evaluating legitimate data. === Other sciences === ==== Cosmology ==== While Young Earth creationist...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
used for dating.... The artificially-produced isotope, beryllium-7 has been shown to change by up to 1.5%, depending on its chemical environment. ... [H]eavier atoms are even less subject to these minute changes, so the dates of rocks made by electron-capture decays would only be off by at most a few hundredths of a pe...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
creationists. These have very often been shown to be quote mines that do not accurately reflect the evidence for evolution or the mainstream scientific community's opinion of it, or are highly out-of-date. Many of the same quotes used by creationists have appeared so frequently in Internet discussions due to the availa...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
List of statements from scientific professional organizations on the status intelligent design and other forms of creationism in the sciences. reply that there is no scientific controversy and that the controversy exists solely in terms of religion and politics. George Mason University Biology Department introduced a c...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
of inheritance and genetics. Though biological evolution of some sort had become the primary mode of discussing speciation within science by the late-19th century, it was not until the mid-20th century that evolutionary theories stabilized into the modern synthesis. Geneticist and evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobz...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
creationist audience. In Shermer's online reflection while he was explaining that he won the debate with intellectual and scientific evidence he felt it was "not an intellectual exercise," but rather it was "an emotional drama," with scientists arguing from "an impregnable fortress of evidence that converges to an unmi...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
be the scientific legitimacy of evolution" but rather should be on the lack of evidence in creationism. Stephen Jay Gould adopted a similar position, explaining: Debate is an art form. It is about the winning of arguments. It is not about the discovery of truth. There are certain rules and procedures to debate that rea...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
theory and there is the talk-radio pretend version, designed not to enlighten but to deceive and enrage. The talk-radio version had a packed town hall up in arms at the Why Evolution Is Stupid lecture. In this version of the theory, scientists supposedly believe that all life is accidental, a random crash of molecules ...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
creationism in secondary schools. In 2010, the Queensland state government introduced the topic of creationism into school classes within the "ancient history" subject where its origins and nature are discussed as a significant controversy. Public lectures have been given in rented rooms at universities, by visiting Am...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
by evangelical pastors Kim Yŏnggil and Ch'oe Yŏngsang. In South Korea, according to a 2009 survey, about 30 percent of the population believe in creation science while opposing the teaching of evolution. == See also == == Notes == == Citations == == References == == Further reading == == External links == "Ten Major Co...	{ "page_id": 1115768, "source": null, "title": "Rejection of evolution by religious groups" }
In general relativity, an absolute horizon is a boundary in spacetime, defined with respect to the external universe, inside which events cannot affect an external observer. Light emitted inside the horizon can never reach the observer, and anything that passes through the horizon from the observer's side is never seen...	{ "page_id": 6817401, "source": null, "title": "Absolute horizon" }
of an absolute horizon is sometimes referred to as teleological, meaning that it cannot be known where the absolute horizon is without knowing the entire evolution of the universe, including the future. This is both an advantage and a disadvantage. The advantage is that this notion of a horizon is mathematically conven...	{ "page_id": 6817401, "source": null, "title": "Absolute horizon" }
Photoreceptor proteins are light-sensitive proteins involved in the sensing and response to light in a variety of organisms. Some examples are rhodopsin in the photoreceptor cells of the vertebrate retina, phytochrome in plants, and bacteriorhodopsin and bacteriophytochromes in some bacteria. They mediate light respons...	{ "page_id": 10094209, "source": null, "title": "Photoreceptor protein" }
280 nm (UV-B) to 750 nm (far-red light). Plants use light of different wavelengths as environmental cues to both alter their position and to trigger important developmental transitions. The most prominent wavelength responsible for plant mechanisms is blue light, which can trigger cell elongation, plant orientation, an...	{ "page_id": 10094209, "source": null, "title": "Photoreceptor protein" }
Sir John Cunningham McLennan, (October 14, 1867 – October 9, 1935) was a Canadian physicist. Born in Ingersoll, Ontario, the son of David McLennan and Barbara Cunningham, he was the director of the physics laboratory at the University of Toronto from 1906 until 1932. McLennan was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society i...	{ "page_id": 2492040, "source": null, "title": "John Cunningham McLennan" }
Physical Review Accelerators and Beams is a monthly peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal, published by the American Physical Society. The journal focuses on accelerator physics and engineering. Its lead editor is Frank Zimmermann (CERN). The journal was established in 1998 as Physical Review Special Topics – Ac...	{ "page_id": 49022601, "source": null, "title": "Physical Review Accelerators and Beams" }
In atomic physics and quantum chemistry, the electron configuration is the distribution of electrons of an atom or molecule (or other physical structure) in atomic or molecular orbitals. For example, the electron configuration of the neon atom is 1s2 2s2 2p6, meaning that the 1s, 2s, and 2p subshells are occupied by tw...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
first shell can accommodate two electrons, the second shell eight electrons, the third shell eighteen, and so on. The factor of two arises because the number of allowed states doubles with each successive shell due to electron spin—each atomic orbital admits up to two otherwise identical electrons with opposite spin, o...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
placed as a superscript. For example, hydrogen has one electron in the s-orbital of the first shell, so its configuration is written 1s1. Lithium has two electrons in the 1s-subshell and one in the (higher-energy) 2s-subshell, so its configuration is written 1s2 2s1 (pronounced "one-s-two, two-s-one"). Phosphorus (atom...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
which electrons are removed from a given atom to form positive ions; 3d is filled before 4s in the sequence Ti4+, Ti3+, Ti2+, Ti+, Ti. The superscript 1 for a singly occupied subshell is not compulsory; for example aluminium may be written as either [Ne] 3s2 3p1 or [Ne] 3s2 3p. In atoms where a subshell is unoccupied d...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
electron-electron interactions. The configuration that corresponds to the lowest electronic energy is called the ground state. Any other configuration is an excited state. As an example, the ground state configuration of the sodium atom is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1, as deduced from the Aufbau principle (see below). The first exc...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
by the electronic structure of the atom. His proposals were based on the then current Bohr model of the atom, in which the electron shells were orbits at a fixed distance from the nucleus. Bohr's original configurations would seem strange to a present-day chemist: sulfur was given as 2.4.4.6 instead of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 ...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
valence) electrons of the atom. Pauli was able to reproduce Stoner's shell structure, but with the correct structure of subshells, by his inclusion of a fourth quantum number and his exclusion principle (1925): It should be forbidden for more than one electron with the same value of the main quantum number n to have th...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
+ l, they are filled in order of increasing n. This gives the following order for filling the orbitals: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, (8s, 5g, 6f, 7d, 8p, and 9s) In this list the subshells in parentheses are not occupied in the ground state of the heaviest atom now known (...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
is fixed, both for a given element and between different elements; in both cases this is only approximately true. It considers atomic orbitals as "boxes" of fixed energy into which can be placed two electrons and no more. However, the energy of an electron "in" an atomic orbital depends on the energies of all the other...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
calcium, most neutral atoms in the first series of transition metals (scandium through zinc) have configurations with two 4s electrons, but there are two exceptions. Chromium and copper have electron configurations [Ar] 3d5 4s1 and [Ar] 3d10 4s1 respectively, i.e. one electron has passed from the 4s-orbital to a 3d-orb...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
have the same electron configuration as the chromium atom, given that iron has two more protons in its nucleus than chromium, and that the chemistry of the two species is very different. Melrose and Eric Scerri have analyzed the changes of orbital energy with orbital occupations in terms of the two-electron repulsion i...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
consistent with the experimental fact that the complex is diamagnetic, meaning that it has no unpaired electrons. However, in a more accurate description using molecular orbital theory, the d-like orbitals occupied by the six electrons are no longer identical with the d orbitals of the free atom. === Other exceptions t...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
metals, the 4s orbital is of a higher energy than the 3d orbitals; and in the lanthanides, the 6s is higher than the 4f and 5d. The ground states can be seen in the Electron configurations of the elements (data page). However this also depends on the charge: a calcium atom has 4s lower in energy than 3d, but a Ca2+ cat...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
Electron configurations beyond this are tentative and predictions differ between models, but Madelung's rule is expected to break down due to the closeness in energy of the 5g, 6f, 7d, and 8p1/2 orbitals. That said, the filling sequence 8s, 5g, 6f, 7d, 8p is predicted to hold approximately, with perturbations due to th...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
the tendency to acquire the state of stability or a state of minimum energy, and so chemical elements take part in chemical reactions to acquire a stable electronic configuration similar to that of its nearest noble gas. An example of this tendency is two hydrogen (H) atoms reacting with one oxygen (O) atom to form wat...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
a solid, the electron states become very numerous. They cease to be discrete, and effectively blend into continuous ranges of possible states (an electron band). The notion of electron configuration ceases to be relevant, and yields to band theory. == Applications == The most widespread application of electron configur...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
which describe the different energy levels available to an atom. Term symbols can be calculated for any electron configuration, not just the ground-state configuration listed in tables, although not all the energy levels are observed in practice. It is through the analysis of atomic spectra that the ground-state electr...	{ "page_id": 67211, "source": null, "title": "Electron configuration" }
D-Mycosamine is an amino sugar found in several polyene antimycotics. Structural analogs of these agents lacking this monosaccharide component do not exhibit substantial antifungal activity. == References == Biosynthesis: [1]	{ "page_id": 69666444, "source": null, "title": "Mycosamine" }
S-matrix theory was a proposal for replacing local quantum field theory as the basic principle of elementary particle physics. It avoided the notion of space and time by replacing it with abstract mathematical properties of the S-matrix. In S-matrix theory, the S-matrix relates the infinite past to the infinite future ...	{ "page_id": 14026380, "source": null, "title": "S-matrix theory" }
Analyticity: integral relations and singularity conditions. The basic analyticity principles were also called analyticity of the first kind, and they were never fully enumerated, but they include Crossing: The amplitudes for antiparticle scattering are the analytic continuation of particle scattering amplitudes. Disper...	{ "page_id": 14026380, "source": null, "title": "S-matrix theory" }
of string theories, based on bootstrap principles. The additional assumption was the narrow resonance approximation, which started with stable particles on Regge trajectories, and added interaction loop by loop in a perturbation series. String theory was given a Feynman path-integral interpretation a little while later...	{ "page_id": 14026380, "source": null, "title": "S-matrix theory" }
The IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal on new developments and research in solid-state circuits, published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in New York City. The journal serves as a companion venue for expanding on work presented at the Inte...	{ "page_id": 52037261, "source": null, "title": "IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits" }
In human biology, the testosterone–cortisol ratio describes the ratio between testosterone, the primary male sex hormone and an anabolic steroid, and cortisol, another steroid hormone, in the human body. The ratio is often used as a biomarker of physiological stress in athletes during training, during athletic performa...	{ "page_id": 52889231, "source": null, "title": "Testosterone–cortisol ratio" }
In the anatomy of the human ear, the perilymphatic duct is where the perilymphatic space (vestibule of the ear) is connected to the subarachnoid space. This works as a type of shunt to eliminate excess perilymph fluid from the perilymphatic space around the cochlea of the ear. Perilymph is continuous with cerebrospinal...	{ "page_id": 25101970, "source": null, "title": "Perilymphatic duct" }
The manipulation of atoms using optical fields is a vital and fundamental area of research within the field of atomic physics. This research revolves around leveraging the distinct characteristics of laser light and coherent optical fields to achieve precise control over various aspects of atomic systems. These aspects...	{ "page_id": 15795860, "source": null, "title": "Optical manipulation of atoms" }
in 1997 for their groundbreaking contributions to the development of methods to laser cool and trap atoms with laser light. Chu and his colleagues developed a technique called "optical molasses", which involved using carefully tuned laser beams to slow down and cool atoms in three dimensions. This process was akin to s...	{ "page_id": 15795860, "source": null, "title": "Optical manipulation of atoms" }
significant advancements in quantum optics, quantum information processing, and precision measurements. The first step in the operation of a MOT involves the cooling of atoms using beams in an Optical Molasses configuration (discussed in the section above). However, Optical Molasses only creates a velocity-dependent da...	{ "page_id": 15795860, "source": null, "title": "Optical manipulation of atoms" }
light field. By adjusting the laser wavelength, polarization, and geometry, researchers can tailor the dimensionality (1D, 2D, or 3D) and depth of the lattice potential. Lattices are typically categorized as red-detuned (atoms trapped at intensity maxima) or blue-detuned (trapped at minima), and can be extended to more...	{ "page_id": 15795860, "source": null, "title": "Optical manipulation of atoms" }
to encode and manipulate quantum information in the quantum states of individual atoms. Laser beams and optical fields can coherently control the quantum states of atoms, enabling the creation of reliable qubits. Precision laser pulses are used to manipulate individual quantum bits, enabling operations such as single-q...	{ "page_id": 15795860, "source": null, "title": "Optical manipulation of atoms" }
the coherence time of atomic states, reducing the sensitivity of atomic clocks to external disturbances. Longer coherence times translate into increased clock stability, allowing atomic clocks to maintain their precision over longer intervals. Furthermore, lasers are used for state preparation and measurement: optical ...	{ "page_id": 15795860, "source": null, "title": "Optical manipulation of atoms" }
Planck constant and k is the magnitude of the wave vector of the laser) in the direction of the absorbed photon. Due to this momentum kick, the BEC cloud, which initially sits at the center of a trap, is split into two identical clouds. These two clouds then travel in opposite directions with a velocity proportional to...	{ "page_id": 15795860, "source": null, "title": "Optical manipulation of atoms" }
Neuropeptides are chemical messengers made up of small chains of amino acids that are synthesized and released by neurons. Neuropeptides typically bind to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) to modulate neural activity and other tissues like the gut, muscles, and heart. Neuropeptides are synthesized from large precurso...	{ "page_id": 984726, "source": null, "title": "Neuropeptide" }
Peptides are packaged into dense core vesicles, where further cleaving and processing, such as C-terminal amidation, can occur. Dense core vesicles are transported throughout the neuron and can release peptides at the synaptic cleft, cell body, and along the axon. A single animal may use hundreds of different neuropept...	{ "page_id": 984726, "source": null, "title": "Neuropeptide" }
glutamate is released, yielding fast and rapid excitation of the muscle. At high frequency activation however, dense core vesicles release proctolin, inducing prolonged contractions. Thus, neuropeptide release can be fine-tuned to modulate synaptic activity in certain contexts. Some regions of the nervous system are sp...	{ "page_id": 984726, "source": null, "title": "Neuropeptide" }
some peptide-GPCR functions are also conserved across the animal kingdom. For example, neuropeptide F/neuropeptide Y signaling is structurally and functionally conserved between insects and mammals. Although peptides mostly target metabotropic receptors, there is some evidence that neuropeptides bind to other receptor ...	{ "page_id": 984726, "source": null, "title": "Neuropeptide" }
whole animal brains and tissues and studied for their physiological effects. In 1931, von Euler and Gaddum, used a similar method to try and isolate acetylcholine but instead discovered a peptide substance that induced physiological changes including muscle contractions and depressed blood pressure. These effects were ...	{ "page_id": 984726, "source": null, "title": "Neuropeptide" }
Are Quanta Real?: A Galilean Dialogue (1973) is a book by Swiss-American physicist J.M. Jauch, in which the three main characters meet over the period of several days to discuss various interpretations and philosophical consequences of quantum mechanics. Are Quanta Real? was inspired by and written in the style of Gali...	{ "page_id": 42993306, "source": null, "title": "Are Quanta Real?" }
In statistical mechanics the Percus–Yevick approximation is a closure relation to solve the Ornstein–Zernike equation. It is also referred to as the Percus–Yevick equation. It is commonly used in fluid theory to obtain e.g. expressions for the radial distribution function. The approximation is named after Jerome K. Per...	{ "page_id": 10159772, "source": null, "title": "Percus–Yevick approximation" }
( r ) − y ( r ) = e − β u y ( r ) − y ( r ) = f ( r ) y ( r ) . {\displaystyle c(r)=g(r)-y(r)=e^{-\beta u}y(r)-y(r)=f(r)y(r).\,} This is the essence of the Percus–Yevick approximation for if we substitute this result in the Ornstein–Zernike equation, one obtains the Percus–Yevick equation: y ( r 12 ) = 1 + ρ ∫ f ( r 13...	{ "page_id": 10159772, "source": null, "title": "Percus–Yevick approximation" }
for the pair distribution function in the extensional and compressional sectors of shear flow and hence the angular-averaged radial distribution function can be obtained, as shown in Ref., which are in good parameter-free agreement with numerical data up to packing fractions η ≈ 0.5 {\displaystyle \eta \approx 0.5} . =...	{ "page_id": 10159772, "source": null, "title": "Percus–Yevick approximation" }
AFM-IR (atomic force microscope-infrared spectroscopy) or infrared nanospectroscopy is one of a family of techniques that are derived from a combination of two parent instrumental techniques. AFM-IR combines the chemical analysis power of infrared spectroscopy and the high-spatial resolution of scanning probe microscop...	{ "page_id": 44893854, "source": null, "title": "Infrared Nanospectroscopy (AFM-IR)" }
improving ease of use and expanding the range of samples that can be analysed. AFM-IR has achieved lateral spatial resolutions of ca. 10 nm, with a sensitivity down to the scale of molecular monolayer and single protein molecules with molecular weight down to 400-600 kDa. AFM-IR is related to techniques such as tip-enh...	{ "page_id": 44893854, "source": null, "title": "Infrared Nanospectroscopy (AFM-IR)" }
sample using evanescent waves, illuminate the sample directly from above etc. and different combinations of these. Fundamentally, they all exploit the photothermal effect. Different combinations of sources, methods, methods of detection and methods of illumination have benefits for different applications. Care should b...	{ "page_id": 44893854, "source": null, "title": "Infrared Nanospectroscopy (AFM-IR)" }
creation by Reading et al. in 2001 of a custom interface that allowed measurements to be made while illuminating the sample from above; this interface focused the infrared beam to a spot of circa 500μm diameter, close to the theoretical maximum. The use of top-down or top-side illumination has the important benefit tha...	{ "page_id": 44893854, "source": null, "title": "Infrared Nanospectroscopy (AFM-IR)" }
al at the University of Paris-Sud, France. Dazzi and his colleagues used a wavelength-tuneable, free electron laser at the CLIO facility in Orsay, France to provide an infrared source with short pulses. Like earlier workers, they used a conventional AFM probe to measure thermal expansion but introduced a novel optical ...	{ "page_id": 44893854, "source": null, "title": "Infrared Nanospectroscopy (AFM-IR)" }
demonstrated the ability to map chemical composition in E. coli bacteria. They could also visualize polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) vesicles inside Rhodobacter capsulatus cells and monitor the efficiency of PHB production by the cells. At the University of East Anglia in the UK, as part of an EPSRC-funded project led by M. R...	{ "page_id": 44893854, "source": null, "title": "Infrared Nanospectroscopy (AFM-IR)" }
of the laser pulses (or other waveforms). The benefit of using a broadband source is that an image can be acquired that comprises an entire spectrum or part of a spectrum for each pixel. This is much more powerful than acquiring images bases on a single wavelength. The preliminary results of Reading et al. show that di...	{ "page_id": 44893854, "source": null, "title": "Infrared Nanospectroscopy (AFM-IR)" }
samples on infrared-transparent prisms and relaxing the restriction on sample thickness, the range of samples that could be studied was greatly expanded. The CEO of Anasys Instruments recognised this achievement by calling it " an exciting major advance" in a letter written to the university and included in the final r...	{ "page_id": 44893854, "source": null, "title": "Infrared Nanospectroscopy (AFM-IR)" }
by the top-down illumination combined with a thermal probe is localized depth profiling, this is not possible using either using the Dazzi et al. configuration of AFM-IR or that of Hill et al. despite the fact the latter uses top-down illumination. Obtaining linescans and images with thermal probes has been shown to be...	{ "page_id": 44893854, "source": null, "title": "Infrared Nanospectroscopy (AFM-IR)" }
Recently, the first images using a QCL and a thermal probe have been obtained by Reading et al. A good signal to noise ratio enabled rapid imaging but sub-micron spatial resolution was not clearly demonstrated. Theory predicts improvements in spatial resolution could be achieved by confining data analysis to the early ...	{ "page_id": 44893854, "source": null, "title": "Infrared Nanospectroscopy (AFM-IR)" }
repetition rate of the QCL allows absorbed infrared light to continuously excite the AFM tip at a "contact resonance" of the AFM cantilever. This resonance-enhanced AFM-IR, in combination with electric field enhancement from metallic tips and substrates led to the demonstration of AFM-IR spectroscopy and compositional ...	{ "page_id": 44893854, "source": null, "title": "Infrared Nanospectroscopy (AFM-IR)" }
infrared absorption band. By mapping the AFM cantilever oscillation amplitude as a function of position, it is possible to map out the distribution of specific chemical components. Compositional maps can be made at different absorption bands to reveal the distribution of difference chemical species. === Complementary m...	{ "page_id": 44893854, "source": null, "title": "Infrared Nanospectroscopy (AFM-IR)" }
polymers. and vapor infiltration into polyethylene terephthalate PET fibers. === Protein science === The chemical and structural properties of protein determine their interactions, and thus their functions, in a wide variety of biochemical processes. Since Ruggeri et al. pioneering work on the aggregation pathways of t...	{ "page_id": 44893854, "source": null, "title": "Infrared Nanospectroscopy (AFM-IR)" }
local field enhancement of the plasmonics structures (~30X) at 100 nm spatial resolution. === Pharmaceutical sciences === AFM-IR has been used to study miscibility and phase separation in drug polymer blends, the chemical analysis of nanocrystalline drug particles as small 90 nm across, the interaction of chromosomes w...	{ "page_id": 44893854, "source": null, "title": "Infrared Nanospectroscopy (AFM-IR)" }
Termitophiles are macro-organisms adapted to live in association with termites or their nests. They include vertebrates, invertebrates and fungi and can either be obligate termitophiles (those that cannot live without the termites) or non-obligate termitophiles (those that can live independently and make use of the ter...	{ "page_id": 77268639, "source": null, "title": "Termitophile" }
mimic the body structure of a termite. The Australian species Austrospirachtha mimetes and Austrospirachtha carrijoi have abdomen resembling termites. Similar adaptations are seen in the South American Thyreoxenus alakazam and the African Coatonachthodes ovambolandicus. A subfamily of scarab beetles, the Termitotrogina...	{ "page_id": 77268639, "source": null, "title": "Termitophile" }
Citronellal or rhodinal (C10H18O) is a monoterpenoid aldehyde, the main component in the mixture of terpenoid chemical compounds that give citronella oil its distinctive lemon scent. Citronellal is a main isolate in distilled oils from the plants Cymbopogon (excepting C. citratus, culinary lemongrass), lemon-scented gu...	{ "page_id": 1771169, "source": null, "title": "Citronellal" }
Helix–coil transition models are formalized techniques in statistical mechanics developed to describe conformations of linear polymers in solution. The models are usually but not exclusively applied to polypeptides as a measure of the relative fraction of the molecule in an alpha helix conformation versus turn or rando...	{ "page_id": 8914599, "source": null, "title": "Helix–coil transition model" }
The genetic influences of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are not understood well due to the limitations of any genetic study of mental illness; in that, it cannot be ethically induced in selected groups. Because of this, all studies must use naturally occurring groups with genetic similarities and differences, t...	{ "page_id": 44631723, "source": null, "title": "Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder" }
encountering the same stressful life situations or stimuli as other individuals without these same underlying genetic phenotypes. === Effects of neurotransmitters and hormones === Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. A 2009 study reported a significant interaction betwee...	{ "page_id": 44631723, "source": null, "title": "Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder" }
environment to predict the severity of PTSD. Polymorphisms in FKBP5 have been associated with peritraumatic dissociation in mentally ill children. A 2008 study of highly traumatized, inner city African Americans demonstrated that four polymorphisms of the FKBP5 gene interacted with severity of childhood abuse to predic...	{ "page_id": 44631723, "source": null, "title": "Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder" }
Many genes impact the limbic-frontal neurocircuitry as a result of its complexity. The main effect of the D2A1 allele of the dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) gene has a strong association with the diagnosis of PTSD. The D2A1 allele has also shown a significant association to PTSD in those having engaged in harmful drinking....	{ "page_id": 44631723, "source": null, "title": "Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder" }
Epigenetic modification can offer insight into the importance of developmental timing of stressor exposure in producing the phenotypic changes associated with PTSD. Neuroendocrine alterations seen in animal models parallel those of PTSD in humans, where low basal cortisol and enhanced suppression of cortisol in respons...	{ "page_id": 44631723, "source": null, "title": "Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder" }
a dead and contaminated body). PTSD may correspond to and be caused by overactivation of such fear circuits. Thus, PTSD avoidance behaviors may correspond to mammal avoidance of and withdrawal from threats. Heightened memory of past threats may increase avoidance of similar situations in the future as well as be a prer...	{ "page_id": 44631723, "source": null, "title": "Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder" }
In ecology, a niche is the match of a species to a specific environmental condition. It describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of resources and competitors (for example, by growing when resources are abundant, and when predators, parasites and pathogens are scarce) and how it in turn alter...	{ "page_id": 67244, "source": null, "title": "Ecological niche" }
bird of New Zealand, which feeds on worms and other ground creatures, and lives its life in a mammal-like niche. Island biogeography can help explain island species and associated unfilled niches. == Grinnellian niche == The ecological meaning of niche comes from the meaning of niche as a recess in a wall for a statue,...	{ "page_id": 67244, "source": null, "title": "Ecological niche" }
and an Eltonian perspective may be advantageous in explaining these processes. This perspective of niche allows for the existence of both ecological equivalents and empty niches. An ecological equivalent to an organism is an organism from a different taxonomic group exhibiting similar adaptations in a similar habitat, ...	{ "page_id": 67244, "source": null, "title": "Ecological niche" }
also construct dams that alter water flow in the river where the beaver lives. Thus, the beaver affects the biotic and abiotic conditions of other species that live in and near the watershed. In a more subtle case, competitors that consume resources at different rates can lead to cycles in resource density that differ ...	{ "page_id": 67244, "source": null, "title": "Ecological niche" }
coexisting species could be within a given community, and led to the concepts of 'niche breadth' (the variety of resources or habitats used by a given species), 'niche partitioning' (resource differentiation by coexisting species), and 'niche overlap' (overlap of resource use by different species). Statistics were intr...	{ "page_id": 67244, "source": null, "title": "Ecological niche" }
its fundamental niche. However, as a result of pressure from, and interactions with, other organisms (i.e. inter-specific competition) species are usually forced to occupy a niche that is narrower than this, and to which they are mostly highly adapted; this is termed the realized niche. Hutchinson used the idea of comp...	{ "page_id": 67244, "source": null, "title": "Ecological niche" }
niche is left vacant, other organisms can fill that position. For example, the niche that was left vacant by the extinction of the tarpan has been filled by other animals (in particular a small horse breed, the konik). Also, when plants and animals are introduced into a new environment, they have the potential to occup...	{ "page_id": 67244, "source": null, "title": "Ecological niche" }

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