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Electrorotation is the circular movement of an electrically polarized particle. Similar to the slip of an electric motor, it can arise from a phase lag between an applied rotating electric field and the respective relaxation processes and may thus be used to investigate the processes or, if these are known or can be ac...	{ "page_id": 2359746, "source": null, "title": "Electrorotation" }
2-hydroxyethylphosphonate:O2 1,2-oxidoreductase may refer to: 2-hydroxyethylphosphonate dioxygenase, an enzyme Methylphosphonate synthase, an enzyme	{ "page_id": 38339016, "source": null, "title": "2-hydroxyethylphosphonate:O2 1,2-oxidoreductase" }
In population biology and demography, generation time is the average time between two consecutive generations in the lineages of a population. In human populations, generation time typically has ranged from 20 to 30 years, with wide variation based on gender and society. Historians sometimes use this to date events, by...	{ "page_id": 9503180, "source": null, "title": "Generation time" }
R 0 n ( t ) {\displaystyle n(t+T)=R_{0}\,n(t)} , i.e. e r T = R 0 {\displaystyle e^{rT}=R_{0}} . === Average difference in age between parent and offspring === This definition is a measure of the distance between generations rather than a renewal time of the population. Since many demographic models are female-based (t...	{ "page_id": 9503180, "source": null, "title": "Generation time" }
j ) = f i j λ ∂ λ ∂ f i j {\displaystyle \textstyle e_{\lambda }(f_{ij})={\frac {f_{ij}}{\lambda }}{\frac {\partial \lambda }{\partial f_{ij}}}} are the elasticities of λ {\displaystyle \textstyle \lambda } to the fertilities. === Age at which members of a cohort are expected to reproduce === This definition is very si...	{ "page_id": 9503180, "source": null, "title": "Generation time" }
The Bjerrum length (after Danish chemist Niels Bjerrum 1879–1958 ) is the separation at which the electrostatic interaction between two elementary charges is comparable in magnitude to the thermal energy scale, k B T {\displaystyle k_{\text{B}}T} , where k B {\displaystyle k_{\text{B}}} is the Boltzmann constant and T ...	{ "page_id": 1966541, "source": null, "title": "Bjerrum length" }
Congruent melting occurs during melting of a compound when the composition of the liquid that forms is the same as the composition of the solid. It can be contrasted with incongruent melting. This generally happens in two-component systems. To take a general case, let A and B be the two components and AB a stable solid...	{ "page_id": 7864782, "source": null, "title": "Congruent melting" }
The International Primatological Society (IPS) is a scientific, educational, and charitable organization focused on non-human primates. It encourages scientific research in all areas of study, facilitates international cooperation among researchers, and promotes primate conservation. Together with the IUCN Species Surv...	{ "page_id": 28377553, "source": null, "title": "International Primatological Society" }
In molecular biology, mir-42 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms. == See also == MicroRNA == References == == Further reading == == External links == Page for mir-42 microRNA precursor family at Rfam	{ "page_id": 36372946, "source": null, "title": "Mir-42 microRNA precursor family" }
The cyclosporins are a group of macrolides isolated from fungi and used as immunosuppresant drugs, for example after transplant surgery. They are nonribosomal peptide synthesized by cyclosporin synthetase. Cyclosporin A (ciclosporin) Cyclosporin B Cyclosporin C Cyclosporin D Cyclosporin E Cyclosporin F Cyclosporin G ==...	{ "page_id": 5505493, "source": null, "title": "Cyclosporins" }
Developmental symbiosis is a biological phenomenon in which the normal development of an organism depends on interactions with symbiotic partners, often microbes, that influence gene expression, tissue formation, or physiological function. Symbiosis is the intimate relationship between one or more organisms of differen...	{ "page_id": 79167960, "source": null, "title": "Developmental symbiosis" }
had long been considered a discrete plant organism. In 1866, one researcher, Heinrich Anton de Bary, speculated that gelatinous lichens might actually form as a result of the penetration of an alga by a fungus.In 1866, one researcher, Heinrich Anton de Bary, speculated that gelatinous lichens might actually form as a r...	{ "page_id": 79167960, "source": null, "title": "Developmental symbiosis" }
Rhizobium. == Types == === Obligate symbiosis === Obligate symbiosis is a type of symbiotic relationship in which at least one organism, the symbiont, cannot survive independently and requires a host organism to survive and/or reproduce. The symbiont organism can survive by living on or inside of the host organism.A bi...	{ "page_id": 79167960, "source": null, "title": "Developmental symbiosis" }
type of symbiotic relationship where organisms do not require one another for survival or reproduction. This means they can live independently, and still participate in symbiotic interactions. Organisms that choose to have facultative symbiosis do so due to the benefits. These benefits can be mutual, commensal or paras...	{ "page_id": 79167960, "source": null, "title": "Developmental symbiosis" }
leads to genetic or physiological adaptations that make independent survival less practical. === Vertical vs. horizontal transmission === As most animals use either vertical or horizontal transmission, there are some animals that use both. As an example, holometabolous insects use both vertical and horizontal transmiss...	{ "page_id": 79167960, "source": null, "title": "Developmental symbiosis" }
the symbionts gained come from a variety of places, horizontal transmitted host tend to be diverse and allow them to adapt to new environments. It is important that hosts must encounter the right symbionts at the right time, because if the necessary symbionts are not present in the environment, the host may suffer. == ...	{ "page_id": 79167960, "source": null, "title": "Developmental symbiosis" }
Bacteroides fragilis, is a model symbiotic immunomodulatory molecule. It interacts with Toll-like receptor 1 and 2 as well as Dectin-1 to activate the phosphoinositide 3-kinase pathway in order to express the anti-inflammatory genes. Dectin-1 binds to the fungal polysaccharide, β-glucans, which then triggers a signalin...	{ "page_id": 79167960, "source": null, "title": "Developmental symbiosis" }
from receiving the mother's milk. === Role in Immune System Development === The development of a healthy microbiota is also important for an individual to remain healthy and ensure the immune system can function normally. This development of both proper digestion and the importance of the immune system introduces the i...	{ "page_id": 79167960, "source": null, "title": "Developmental symbiosis" }
result of co-evolution over millions of years. This is concluded due to the dependency that animals and bacteria have developed for each other and how important it is for one to have the other. Different animals have developed through co-evolution unique microbiomes based on their diet so that the bacteria in their gut...	{ "page_id": 79167960, "source": null, "title": "Developmental symbiosis" }
to specialize in photosynthesis. Symbionts such as these also evolve not only for the symbiotic relationship but also for themselves. Mitochondria have their own membranes that are distinct from the host cell's membranes, a remnant of their prokaryotic origin. Long-term co-evolution enables species to adapt to their en...	{ "page_id": 79167960, "source": null, "title": "Developmental symbiosis" }
costs, and computational demands can also pose challenges. === Imaging Techniques === Advanced imaging techniques can complement sequencing approaches, allowing researchers to visualize symbiotic interactions at cellular and molecular levels. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) can identify spatial localization o...	{ "page_id": 79167960, "source": null, "title": "Developmental symbiosis" }
beneficial relationship where nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form for plants, while the plants provide the bacteria with nutrients and protection. The bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into a usable forms like ammonia that plants can absorb and use to build amino acids and other...	{ "page_id": 79167960, "source": null, "title": "Developmental symbiosis" }
management. A. tabida relies on Wolbachia for oogenesis and is highly selective in its host choice, making it a valuable tool for biological control. Wolbachia can also be used to control vector-borne diseases by interfering with the reproduction and fitness of disease-carrying insects. Since the female parasitic wasps...	{ "page_id": 79167960, "source": null, "title": "Developmental symbiosis" }
development, adaptation, and evolution. == See also == Symbiosis Developmental Biology Symbiosis in Lichens Symbiogenesis == References == == Further reading ==	{ "page_id": 79167960, "source": null, "title": "Developmental symbiosis" }
The following is the list of the 286 plant communities which comprise the British National Vegetation Classification (NVC). These are grouped by major habitat category, as used in the five volumes of British Plant Communities, the standard work describing the NVC. == Woodland and scrub communities == The following 25 c...	{ "page_id": 2163161, "source": null, "title": "List of plant communities in the British National Vegetation Classification" }
in the British National Vegetation Classification system. M1 Sphagnum auriculatum bog pool community M2 Sphagnum cuspidatum/recurvum bog pool community M3 Eriophorum angustifolium bog pool community M4 Carex rostrata - Sphagnum recurvum mire M5 Carex rostrata - Sphagnum squarrosum mire M6 Carex echinata - Sphagnum recu...	{ "page_id": 2163161, "source": null, "title": "List of plant communities in the British National Vegetation Classification" }
var. glacialis spring Pohlietum glacialis McVean & Ratcliffe 1962 M34 Carex demissa - Koenigia islandica flush M35 Ranunculus omiophyllus - Montia fontana rill M36 Lowland springs and streambanks of shaded situations Cardaminion (Maas 1959) Westhoff & den Held 1969 M37 Cratoneuron commutatum - Festuca rubra spring M38 ...	{ "page_id": 2163161, "source": null, "title": "List of plant communities in the British National Vegetation Classification" }
Geranium sylvaticum grassland MG4 Alopecurus pratensis - Sanguisorba officinalis grassland MG5 Cynosurus cristatus - Centaurea nigra grassland Centaureo-Cynosuretum cristati Br.-Bl. & Tx 1952 MG6 Lolium perenne - Cynosurus cristatus grassland Lolio-Cynosuretum cristati (Br.-Bl. & De Leeuw 1936) R. Tx 1937 MG7 Lolium pe...	{ "page_id": 2163161, "source": null, "title": "List of plant communities in the British National Vegetation Classification" }
Vegetation Classification system. U1 Festuca ovina - Agrostris capillaris - Rumex acetosella grassland U2 Deschampsia flexuosa grassland U3 Agrostis curtisii grassland U4 Festuca ovina - Agrostris capillaris - Galium saxatile grassland U5 Nardus stricta - Galium saxatile grassland U6 Juncus squarrosus - Festuca ovina g...	{ "page_id": 2163161, "source": null, "title": "List of plant communities in the British National Vegetation Classification" }
fluitans community Ranunculetum fluitantis Allorge 1922 A19 Ranunculus aquatilis community Ranunculetum aquatilis Géhu 1961 A20 Ranunculus peltatus community Ranunculetum peltati Sauer 1947 A21 Ranunculus baudotii community Ranunculetum baudotii Br.-Bl. 1952 A22 Littorella uniflora - Lobelia dortmanna community A23 Iso...	{ "page_id": 2163161, "source": null, "title": "List of plant communities in the British National Vegetation Classification" }
australis Wheeler 1978 emend. S25 Phragmites australis - Eupatorium cannabinum tall-herb fen S26 Phragmites australis - Urtica dioica tall-herb fen S27 Carex rostrata - Potentilla palustris tall-herb fen Potentillo-Caricetum rostratae Wheeler 1980a S28 Phalaris arundinacea tall-herb fen Phalaridetum arundinaceae Libber...	{ "page_id": 2163161, "source": null, "title": "List of plant communities in the British National Vegetation Classification" }
Puccinellietum distantis Feekes (1934) 1945 SM24 Elymus pycnanthus salt-marsh community Atriplici-Elymetum pycnanthi Beeftink & Westhoff 1962 SM25 Suaeda vera drift-line community Elymo pycnanthi - Suaedetum verae (Arènes 1933) Géhu 1975 SM26 Inula crithmoides on salt-marshes SM27 Ephermeral salt-marsh vegetation with ...	{ "page_id": 2163161, "source": null, "title": "List of plant communities in the British National Vegetation Classification" }
rupicolae Géhu 1964 MC2 Armeria maritima - Ligusticum scoticum maritime rock-crevice community MC3 Rhodiola rosea - Armeria maritima maritime cliff-ledge community MC4 Brassica oleracea maritime cliff-ledge community MC5 Armeria maritima - Cerastium diffusum ssp. diffusum maritime therophyte community MC6 Atriplex pros...	{ "page_id": 2163161, "source": null, "title": "List of plant communities in the British National Vegetation Classification" }
Reseda lutea - Polygonum aviculare community Descurainio-Anchusetum arvensis Silverside 1977 OV18 Polygonum aviculare - Chamomilla suavolens community OV19 Poa annua - Matricaria perforata community OV20 Poa annua - Sagina procumbens community Sagino - Bryetum argentii Diemont, Sissingh & Westhoff 1940 OV21 Poa annua -...	{ "page_id": 2163161, "source": null, "title": "List of plant communities in the British National Vegetation Classification" }
In molecular biology mir-58 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms. == See also == MicroRNA == References == == Further reading == == External links == Page for mir-58 microRNA precursor family at Rfam	{ "page_id": 36372957, "source": null, "title": "Mir-58 microRNA precursor family" }
TIPTOP (fully known as The Internet Pilot to Physics) was a web site operated in collaboration between Kenneth Bodin-Holmlund at Umeå University, Mikko Karttunen at McGill University and Guenther Nowotny at the Technical University of Vienna during 1994–1998, and it was originally derived from Physics Around the World ...	{ "page_id": 2884065, "source": null, "title": "The Internet Pilot to Physics" }
Andrea Gill was President of the Senate of Belize from 2008 to 2012. Between 2008 and 2009, she served as president of the Forum of Presiding Officers of National Parliaments of Central America and the Caribbean (FOPREL). == Biography == Andrea Nicole Gill holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Biology. As part of a man...	{ "page_id": 47841763, "source": null, "title": "Andrea Gill (politician)" }
RAP6 is the abbreviation for Rab5-activating protein 6, a novel endosomal protein with a role in endocytosis. RAP6 was discovered by Alejandro Barbieri and his group of researchers (Christine Hunker, Adriana Galvis, Ivan Kruk, Hugo Giambini, Lina Torres and Maria Luisa Veisaga) working at Florida International Universi...	{ "page_id": 14942693, "source": null, "title": "RAP6" }
This is a list of notable textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics arranged according to level and surnames of the authors in alphabetical order. == Undergraduate == === Classical mechanics === Feynman, Richard P. (2005). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-8053-9...	{ "page_id": 61276647, "source": null, "title": "List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics" }
ed.). University Science Books. ISBN 978-1-891389-78-8. Zettili, Nouredine (2009). Quantum Mechanics: Concepts and Applications. Chichester, UK: Wiley. ISBN 978-0470026793. Binney, James; Skinner, David (2014). The Physics of Quantum Mechanics (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-968856-2. == Advanced unde...	{ "page_id": 61276647, "source": null, "title": "List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics" }
ed.). Oxford Science Publications. ISBN 978-0198520115. Feynman, Richard; Hibbs, Albert (2010). Styer, Daniel (ed.). Quantum Mechanics and Path Integrals. Dover Publications. ISBN 9780486477220. Landau, L. D, and Lifshitz, E. M. Course of Theoretical Physics Volume 3 - Quantum Mechanics: Non-Relativistic Theory. Edited...	{ "page_id": 61276647, "source": null, "title": "List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics" }
This is a list of estimated global populations of Marsupials species. This list is not comprehensive, as not all Marsupials have had their numbers quantified. == See also == Lists of organisms by population Lists of mammals by population Lists of elephant species by population == References ==	{ "page_id": 65470954, "source": null, "title": "List of marsupials by population" }
The molecular formula C18H30O2 may refer to: Lamenallenic acid Octadecatrienoic acid Calendic acid Catalpic acid α-Eleostearic acid β-Eleostearic acid Jacaric acid α-Linolenic acid γ-Linolenic acid Pinolenic acid Punicic acid Ximenynic acid	{ "page_id": 23593450, "source": null, "title": "C18H30O2" }
Red edge refers to the region of rapid change in reflectance of vegetation in the near infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Chlorophyll contained in vegetation absorbs most of the light in the visible part of the spectrum but becomes almost transparent at wavelengths greater than 700 nm. The cellular structu...	{ "page_id": 1966572, "source": null, "title": "Red edge" }
The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp is a 1632 oil painting on canvas by Rembrandt housed in the Mauritshuis museum in The Hague, the Netherlands. It was originally created to be displayed by the Surgeons Guild in their meeting room. The painting is regarded as one of Rembrandt's early masterpieces. In the work, Nic...	{ "page_id": 3146221, "source": null, "title": "The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp" }
amount of money to be included in the work, and the more central figures (in this case, Tulp) probably paid more, even twice as much. Rembrandt's anatomical portrait radically altered the conventions of the genre, by including a full-length corpse in the center of the image (using Christ-like iconography) and creating ...	{ "page_id": 3146221, "source": null, "title": "The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp" }
W. G. Sebald, and plays a significant role in Laird Hunt's 2006 novel The Exquisite. In her 2014 historical fiction novel The Anatomy Lesson, author and journalist Nina Siegal tells the life story of Aris Kindt, based on documents about his criminal history that she discovered in the Amsterdam city archives. Medical sp...	{ "page_id": 3146221, "source": null, "title": "The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp" }
Clinic of 1875 and The Agnew Clinic of 1889 are paintings by the American artist Thomas Eakins which treat a similar subject, operations on live patients in the presence of medical students. In 2010, Yiull Damaso created a parody of the painting depicting prominent South Africans. Nelson Mandela was the cadaver, Nkosi ...	{ "page_id": 3146221, "source": null, "title": "The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp" }
young man) and his mother during a visit to the Met in The Goldfinch, a 2013 novel by Donna Tartt. 2014's The Anatomy Lesson by Nina Siegal is a fictionalized account of the painting's creation and backstory, based on six years of historical research and archival documents about Aris Kindt's life. The 2017 video game O...	{ "page_id": 3146221, "source": null, "title": "The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp" }
Sea anemones ( ə-NEM-ə-nee) are a group of predatory marine invertebrates constituting the order Actiniaria. Because of their colourful appearance, they are named after the Anemone, a terrestrial flowering plant. Sea anemones are classified in the phylum Cnidaria, class Anthozoa, subclass Hexacorallia. As cnidarians, s...	{ "page_id": 19333613, "source": null, "title": "Sea anemone" }
beneath it by an adhesive foot, called a basal or pedal disc, with a column-shaped body topped by an oral disc. Most are from 1 to 5 cm (0.4 to 2.0 in) in diameter and 1.5 to 10 cm (0.6 to 3.9 in) in length, but they are inflatable and vary greatly in dimensions. Some are very large; Urticina columbiana and Stichodacty...	{ "page_id": 19333613, "source": null, "title": "Sea anemone" }
capture prey. Cnidocytes contain stinging nematocysts, capsule-like organelles capable of everting suddenly, giving the phylum Cnidaria its name. Each nematocyst contains a small venom vesicle filled with actinotoxins, an inner filament, and an external sensory hair. A touch to the hair mechanically triggers a cell exp...	{ "page_id": 19333613, "source": null, "title": "Sea anemone" }
groove at one or both ends. The groove, termed a siphonoglyph, is ciliated, and helps to move food particles inwards and circulate water through the gastrovascular cavity. The mouth opens into a flattened pharynx. This consists of an in-folding of the body wall, and is therefore lined by the animal's epidermis. The pha...	{ "page_id": 19333613, "source": null, "title": "Sea anemone" }
animals, although more specialised than in other cnidarians, such as corals. Cells in the outer layer (epidermis) and the inner layer (gastrodermis) have microfilaments that group into contractile fibers. These fibers are not true muscles because they are not freely suspended in the body cavity as they are in more deve...	{ "page_id": 19333613, "source": null, "title": "Sea anemone" }
to stimulate females to release eggs, and fertilization occurs, either internally in the gastrovascular cavity or in the water column. The eggs and sperm, or the larvae, usually emerge through the mouth, but in some species, such as Metridium dianthus, may be swept out from the body cavity through the cinclides. In man...	{ "page_id": 19333613, "source": null, "title": "Sea anemone" }
fragments, the pieces regenerating into new clonal individuals. Alternatively, fragments detach separately as the animal creeps across a surface. In Metridium dianthus, fragmentation rates were higher in individuals living among live mussels than among dead shells, and all the new individuals had tentacles within three...	{ "page_id": 19333613, "source": null, "title": "Sea anemone" }
from the functionally posterior portion of the foot towards the front edge, which detaches and moves forwards. Sea anemones can also cast themselves loose from the substrate and drift to a new location. Gonactinia prolifera is unusual in that it can both walk and swim; walking is by making a series of short, looping st...	{ "page_id": 19333613, "source": null, "title": "Sea anemone" }
by enfolding them in its carpet-like oral disc. A few species are parasitic on other marine organisms. One of these is Peachia quinquecapitata, the larvae of which develop inside the medusae of jellyfish, feeding on their gonads and other tissues, before being liberated into the sea as free-living juvenile anemones. ==...	{ "page_id": 19333613, "source": null, "title": "Sea anemone" }
goby, juvenile painted greenling, various crabs (such as Inachus phalangium, Mithraculus cinctimanus and Neopetrolisthes), shrimp (such as certain Alpheus, Lebbeus, Periclimenes and Thor), opossum shrimp (such as Heteromysis and Leptomysis), and various marine snails. Two of the more unusual relationships are those bet...	{ "page_id": 19333613, "source": null, "title": "Sea anemone" }
photosynthetic symbionts and the prey on which they feed. In southwestern Spain and Sardinia, the snakelocks anemone (Anemonia viridis) is consumed as a delicacy. The whole animal is marinated in vinegar, then coated in a batter similar to that used to make calamari, and deep-fried in olive oil. Anemones are also a sou...	{ "page_id": 19333613, "source": null, "title": "Sea anemone" }
the Wayback Machine Actiniaria.com Photos of various species of Sea Anemones from the Indopacific Anemone Armies Battle to a Standoff Sea anemones look like sea flowers but they are animals of the Phylum Cnidaria Information about Ricordea Florida Sea anemones & pictures Photographic Database of Cambodian Sea Anemones ...	{ "page_id": 19333613, "source": null, "title": "Sea anemone" }
In anatomy, a biaxial joint is a freely mobile joint that allows movement in two anatomical planes. An example of a biaxial joint is a metacarpophalangeal joint of the hand. The joint allows for movement along one axis to produce bending or straightening of the finger, and movement along a second axis, which allows for...	{ "page_id": 73794028, "source": null, "title": "Biaxial joint" }
The Kostanecki acylation is a method used in organic synthesis to form chromones or coumarins by acylation of O-hydroxyaryl ketones with aliphatic acid anhydrides, followed by cyclization. If benzoic anhydride (or benzoyl chloride) is used, a particular type of chromone called a flavone is obtained. It was named after ...	{ "page_id": 31916527, "source": null, "title": "Kostanecki acylation" }
The thermo-dielectric effect is the production of electric currents and charge separation during phase transition. This interesting effect was discovered by Joaquim da Costa Ribeiro in 1944. The Brazilian physicist observed that solidification and melting of many dielectrics are accompanied by charge separation. A ther...	{ "page_id": 27656682, "source": null, "title": "Thermo-dielectric effect" }
Suppose a Lorentzian manifold contains a closed timelike curve (CTC). No CTC can be continuously deformed as a CTC (is timelike homotopic) to a point, as that point would not be causally well behaved. Therefore, any Lorentzian manifold containing a CTC is said to be timelike multiply connected. A Lorentzian manifold th...	{ "page_id": 7799280, "source": null, "title": "Timelike simply connected" }
In molecular biology mir-61 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms. == See also == MicroRNA == References == == Further reading == == External links == Page for mir-61 microRNA precursor family at Rfam	{ "page_id": 36372985, "source": null, "title": "Mir-61 microRNA precursor family" }
Reactive transport modeling in porous media refers to the creation of computer models integrating chemical reaction with transport of fluids through the Earth's crust. Such models predict the distribution in space and time of the chemical reactions that occur along a flowpath. Reactive transport modeling in general can...	{ "page_id": 36307450, "source": null, "title": "Reactive transport modeling in porous media" }
alteration in batch systems, in terms of the overall reaction progress. By adopting the reference frame of a packet of fluid and treating reaction progress as travel time (or distance along a flowpath), however, a batch reaction path model could be thought of as describing advective transport through an aquifer. The mo...	{ "page_id": 36307450, "source": null, "title": "Reactive transport modeling in porous media" }
(redox) reactions, including those catalyzed by enzymes, surfaces, and microorganisms Sorption, ion exchange, and surface complexation Gas dissolution and exsolution Stable isotope fractionation Radioactive decay Mass Transport: Advection Molecular scale diffusion Hydrodynamic dispersion Colloid-facilitated transport H...	{ "page_id": 36307450, "source": null, "title": "Reactive transport modeling in porous media" }
in the coupling process, beyond those inherent to the individual processes. Valocchi and Malmstead (1992), for example, reported on the potential errors arising from the operator splitting technique. Even in the absence of numerical difficulties, the general lack of knowledge available to practitioners creates uncertai...	{ "page_id": 36307450, "source": null, "title": "Reactive transport modeling in porous media" }
Modeling. Cambridge University Press, 300 pp. ISBN 978-0521005777	{ "page_id": 36307450, "source": null, "title": "Reactive transport modeling in porous media" }
Neptunium bromide may refer to: Neptunium(III) bromide (neptunium tribromide), NpBr3 Neptunium(IV) bromide (neptunium tetrabromide), NpBr4	{ "page_id": 79495676, "source": null, "title": "Neptunium bromide" }
Male egg can refer to either: An egg that artificially contains genetic material from a male. An egg from a haplodiploid species such as an ant or bee that is unfertilized and will hatch a male A fertilized egg that a male organism is developing in This article focuses on the first definition. Male eggs are the result ...	{ "page_id": 10813955, "source": null, "title": "Male egg" }
Female sperm can refer to either: A sperm which contains an X chromosome, produced in the usual way in the testicles, referring to the occurrence of such a sperm fertilizing an egg and giving birth to a female. A sperm which artificially contains genetic material from a female. Since the late 1980s, scientists have exp...	{ "page_id": 10813956, "source": null, "title": "Female sperm" }
long enough to be converted into sperm. However, there are more serious challenges. Biologists have well established that male sperm production relies on certain genes on the Y chromosome, which, when missing or defective, lead to such males producing little to no sperm in their testicles. An analogy, then, is that XX ...	{ "page_id": 10813956, "source": null, "title": "Female sperm" }
Neurofilament light polypeptide is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NEFL gene. == Structure == Neurofilament light polypeptide is a member of the intermediate filament protein family. This protein family consists of over 50 human proteins divided into 5 major classes, the Class I and II keratins, Class III vi...	{ "page_id": 15794692, "source": null, "title": "Neurofilament light polypeptide" }
of blood or CSF NF-L have been associated with increased mortality, as would be expected as release of this protein reflects ongoing axonal loss. It is associated with Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease 1F and 2E. == Neurofilament assembly == Neurofilament light polypeptide (NF-L) is a key structural component of the neuronal...	{ "page_id": 15794692, "source": null, "title": "Neurofilament light polypeptide" }
TSC1. == References == == Further reading ==	{ "page_id": 15794692, "source": null, "title": "Neurofilament light polypeptide" }
IPS (International Pol Scale) is a price adjustment scale described in the rules of the Sugar Association of London. It defines incremental price premiums and penalties applied to sugar above 96 degrees polarisation. This scale equates that the sugar contains 96% sucrose' == References == == External links == Understan...	{ "page_id": 49283590, "source": null, "title": "International Polarisation Scale" }
In molecular biology mir-67 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms. == See also == MicroRNA == References == == Further reading == == External links == Page for mir-67 microRNA precursor family at Rfam	{ "page_id": 36372997, "source": null, "title": "Mir-67 microRNA precursor family" }
Cured fish is fish which has been cured by subjecting it to fermentation, pickling, smoking, or some combination of these before it is eaten. These food preservation processes can include adding salt, nitrates, nitrite or sugar, can involve smoking and flavoring the fish, and may include cooking it. The earliest form o...	{ "page_id": 11993608, "source": null, "title": "Cured fish" }
Salt curing == Salt (sodium chloride) is a primary ingredient used to cure fish and other foods. Removal of water and addition of salt to fish creates a solute-rich environment where osmotic pressure draws water out of microorganisms, retarding their growth. Doing this requires a concentration of salt of nearly 20%. Io...	{ "page_id": 11993608, "source": null, "title": "Cured fish" }
were posited as a possible cause. The use of either compound is carefully regulated. For example, the FDA Code of Federal Regulations states that sodium nitrite may be safely used: "As a color fixative in smoked cured tunafish products so that the level of sodium nitrite does not exceed 10 parts per million (0.001 perc...	{ "page_id": 11993608, "source": null, "title": "Cured fish" }
- Raw salmon cured with sugar, salt, and spices. Hákarl (Iceland) - Greenland or basking shark which has been cured with a particular fermentation process and hung to dry. Kipper (United Kingdom, Ireland) - Whole herring or a small, oily fish, that has been split in a butterfly fashion from tail to head, gutted, salted...	{ "page_id": 11993608, "source": null, "title": "Cured fish" }
and sun-dried mullet roe. Katsuobushi (Japan) - Skipjack tuna filleted, simmered, smoked, fermented, and then sun-dried; also known as "bonito flakes". Po (food) (Korea) - dried marine fish (especially Alaska pollock). === Southeast Asia === Cakalang fufu (Indonesia) - Skipjack tuna gutted, cured in soda powder, salt, ...	{ "page_id": 11993608, "source": null, "title": "Cured fish" }
In epigenetics, proline isomerization is the effect that cis-trans isomerization of the amino acid proline has on the regulation of gene expression. Similar to aspartic acid, the amino acid proline has the rare property of being able to occupy both cis and trans isomers of its prolyl peptide bonds with ease. Peptidyl-p...	{ "page_id": 57410053, "source": null, "title": "Proline isomerization in epigenetics" }
proline is the interactions with p53 and prolyl isomerases, specifically Pin1. The protein p53, along with p63 and p73, are responsible for ensuring that alterations to the genome are corrected and for preventing the formation and growth of tumors. proline residues are found throughout the p53 proteins and without the ...	{ "page_id": 57410053, "source": null, "title": "Proline isomerization in epigenetics" }
P38 isomerization and K36 methylation can occur. This means that isomer changes at the P38 position can affect methylation at the K36 position. In the cis position, P38 shifts the histone tail closer to the DNA, crowding the area around the tail. This can cause a decrease the ability of proteins to bind to the DNA and ...	{ "page_id": 57410053, "source": null, "title": "Proline isomerization in epigenetics" }
change in P16 and primarily promotes the trans state of P16. This trans isomer of P16 reduces K4 methylation, which results in transcription repression. Isomerization of P16 has downstream effects of controlling protein binding to acetylated K18. When P16 is in the trans conformation, Spt7 is allowed to bind to K18ac, ...	{ "page_id": 57410053, "source": null, "title": "Proline isomerization in epigenetics" }
lies in a sequence between the PHD3 finger of MLL1 and the bromeodomain of MLL1, and its isomerization mediates the bonding of the PHD3 domain and the Cyp33 RRM domain. When these two domains are bonded transcription is repressed through recruitment of histone deacetylases to MLL1 and inhibition of H3K4me3. === Phospha...	{ "page_id": 57410053, "source": null, "title": "Proline isomerization in epigenetics" }
affects many other genes in the form of gene silencing through the disruption of cell pathways, making it important in mRNA turnover by modulating RNA binding protein activity. == Difficulties with research == Currently there are no existing compounds that can mimic the peptide bond of proline to other amino acids whil...	{ "page_id": 57410053, "source": null, "title": "Proline isomerization in epigenetics" }
The molecular formula C8H15NOS2 (molar mass: 205.341 g/mol, exact mass: 205.0595 u) may refer to: Lipoamide 6-(Methylsulfinyl)hexyl isothiocyanate	{ "page_id": 23593482, "source": null, "title": "C8H15NOS2" }
ChatGPT is a generative artificial intelligence chatbot developed by the American company OpenAI and launched in 2022. It is based on large language models (LLMs) such as GPT-4o. ChatGPT can generate human-like conversational responses and enables users to refine and steer a conversation towards a desired length, forma...	{ "page_id": 72417803, "source": null, "title": "ChatGPT" }
== Training == ChatGPT is based on GPT foundation models that were fine-tuned for conversational assistance, including GPT-4o, GPT-4.5, o3, and o4-mini. The fine-tuning process leveraged supervised learning and reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF). Both approaches employed human trainers to improve model p...	{ "page_id": 72417803, "source": null, "title": "ChatGPT" }
and summarize text; emulate a Linux system; simulate entire chat rooms; play games like tic-tac-toe; or simulate an ATM. Compared to its predecessor, InstructGPT, ChatGPT attempts to reduce harmful and deceitful responses. In one example, whereas InstructGPT accepts the premise of the prompt "Tell me about when Christo...	{ "page_id": 72417803, "source": null, "title": "ChatGPT" }
is called "hallucination". The reward model of ChatGPT, designed around human oversight, can be over-optimized and thus hinder performance, in an example of an optimization pathology known as Goodhart's law. ChatGPT's knowledge is cut off when its training data is collected, so it doesn't know about recent events past ...	{ "page_id": 72417803, "source": null, "title": "ChatGPT" }
the world. When we think about them this way, such hallucinations are anything but surprising; if a compression algorithm is designed to reconstruct text after ninety-nine percent of the original has been discarded, we should expect that significant portions of what it generates will be entirely fabricated. In June 202...	{ "page_id": 72417803, "source": null, "title": "ChatGPT" }
are added to ChatGPT's training data in the hope that it learns to ignore them. == Service == === ChatGPT Plus === ChatGPT was initially free to the public, and OpenAI planned to monetize the service later. In February 2023, OpenAI launched a premium service, ChatGPT Plus, that costs US$20 per month. According to the c...	{ "page_id": 72417803, "source": null, "title": "ChatGPT" }
on October 17, 2024, and is written in web technologies by using a Framework called Electron === Software development support === As an addition to its consumer-friendly "ChatGPT Plus" package, OpenAI made its ChatGPT and Whisper model APIs available in March 2023, providing developers with an application programming i...	{ "page_id": 72417803, "source": null, "title": "ChatGPT" }
OpenAI reporting that it had leaked users' "first and last name, email address, payment address, the last four digits (only) of a credit card number, and credit card expiration date". === Languages === ChatGPT is most reliable in American English but also functions in most other languages and dialects, with varying deg...	{ "page_id": 72417803, "source": null, "title": "ChatGPT" }

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