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to infer the what best medicine to administer to the patient is based on their medical history, such as if they have a certain cancer or other conditions, simply by examining the natural language used in the patient's medical records. This would allow the first responders to quickly and efficiently search for medicine ...	{ "page_id": 12386904, "source": null, "title": "Data preprocessing" }
be used to analyze data and process results. Fuzzy preprocessing is another, more advanced technique for solving complex problems. Fuzzy preprocessing and fuzzy data mining make use of fuzzy sets. These data sets are composed of two elements: a set and a membership function for the set which comprises 0 and 1. Fuzzy pr...	{ "page_id": 12386904, "source": null, "title": "Data preprocessing" }
The lower flammability limit (LFL), usually expressed in volume per cent, is the lower end of the concentration range over which a flammable mixture of gas or vapour in air can be ignited at a given temperature and pressure. The flammability range is delineated by the upper and lower flammability limits. Outside this r...	{ "page_id": 13501019, "source": null, "title": "Lower flammability limit" }
In molecular biology mir-153 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms. == See also == MicroRNA == References == == Further reading == == External links == Page for mir-153 microRNA precursor family at Rfam	{ "page_id": 36373084, "source": null, "title": "Mir-153 microRNA precursor family" }
Bite force quotient (BFQ) is a numerical value commonly used to represent the bite force of an animal adjusted for its body mass, while also taking factors like the allometry effects. The BFQ is calculated as the regression of the quotient of an animal's bite force in newtons divided by its body mass in kilograms. The ...	{ "page_id": 28377703, "source": null, "title": "Bite force quotient" }
regression the BFQ equation: B F Q = 100 ( B F 10 0.5703 ( log 10 ⁡ B M ) + 0.1096 ) {\displaystyle BFQ=100\left({\frac {BF}{10^{0.5703(\log _{10}BM)+0.1096}}}\right)} Or equivalently B F Q = 77.7 ( B F B M 0.5703 ) {\displaystyle BFQ=77.7\left({\frac {BF}{BM^{0.5703}}}\right)} where BF = Bite Force (N), and BM = Body ...	{ "page_id": 28377703, "source": null, "title": "Bite force quotient" }
Eobard Thawne, also known as the Reverse-Flash and Professor Zoom, is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Created by John Broome and Carmine Infantino, the character first appeared in The Flash #139 (August 31st 1963) and has since endured as the archenemy of Barry Allen / The Flash...	{ "page_id": 47972968, "source": null, "title": "Eobard Thawne" }
of time travel, altered into an atomic bomb. To prevent its detonation, Barry Allen pursued and defeated Zoom, hoping he knew where the clock was. He did not, but Barry later found the clock, detonated it safely, and destroyed Thawne's costume. Blaming the Flash for his defeat, Thawne became obsessed with "replacing" B...	{ "page_id": 47972968, "source": null, "title": "Eobard Thawne" }
it is revealed that Malcolm Thawne is his ancestor and Barry's long-lost twin brother, meaning that Barry is Eobard Thawne's great-uncle. === The Flash: Rebirth === In 2009, Thawne was re-imagined as a major villain in the DC Universe by writer Geoff Johns in The Flash: Rebirth. His resurrection is foreshadowed to occu...	{ "page_id": 47972968, "source": null, "title": "Eobard Thawne" }
in and Jay activates the device, severing his connection to the negative Speed Force. As the Flashes tie him up to stop him from running, Iris discovers Thawne's weapon back in the past, which Iris keeps. In the present, he is imprisoned in Iron Heights. Hunter Zolomon speaks to him, saying they can help each other be ...	{ "page_id": 47972968, "source": null, "title": "Eobard Thawne" }
from the Speed Force following the resurrection. The Entity proclaims Thawne has completed his task and his life is restored to him, later revealing that Thawne (having fulfilled his task) is now fully purged of all trace remnants of his Black Lantern ties – both present and future. Thawne is released from Iron Heights...	{ "page_id": 47972968, "source": null, "title": "Eobard Thawne" }
alter Barry's transformation into a speedster, however, as that would effectively erase himself from existence. Instead, Thawne decides to ruin his nemesis's life during Barry's childhood, killing Nora Allen. Thawne later reveals that the Flashpoint timeline was created when Barry went back in time to stop him from kil...	{ "page_id": 47972968, "source": null, "title": "Eobard Thawne" }
to making Barry's life a living hell until his nemesis learns to "make time" for him. === The Button === Leading up to the 2017 The Button crossover, Thawne returns with his Pre-New 52 memories restored after a mysterious wave of energy strikes his alternate self, and he recalls being killed by Thomas Wayne during Flas...	{ "page_id": 47972968, "source": null, "title": "Eobard Thawne" }
implores Barry to "ditch the loser sidekicks" and become his friend and partner, but his nemesis refuses and strips him of his speed. Nevertheless, Thawne vows to regain his powers and keep coming back to torment Barry, before being killed by Iris with a vaporisation gun. === Flash War and return to Flashpoint === In t...	{ "page_id": 47972968, "source": null, "title": "Eobard Thawne" }
century. The Flash: Rebirth revealed that duplicating the accident behind Barry Allen's powers corrupted the Speed Force which created a negative version. The Reverse-Flash is therefore able to travel at superhuman speeds faster than the speed of light, deliver blows of extreme force by hitting the victim hundreds of t...	{ "page_id": 47972968, "source": null, "title": "Eobard Thawne" }
in The New 52. This version gained the ability to manipulate time after being struck by lightning. Believing himself to have been "chosen" by the Speed Force as the Flash's replacement, Thawne dons a costume similar to the hero's and begins to terrorize the Gem Cities as Zoom. An alternate universe variant of Eobard Th...	{ "page_id": 47972968, "source": null, "title": "Eobard Thawne" }
Animated Movie Universe, voiced by C. Thomas Howell. First appearing in Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox, he attempts to kill the Flash via the Rogues, but is thwarted by his nemesis and the Justice League. Despite this, Zoom taunts the Flash over Nora Allen's death before Superman takes the former to prison. Aft...	{ "page_id": 47972968, "source": null, "title": "Eobard Thawne" }
Flash in Injustice 2, voiced again by Liam O'Brien. This version was stranded in the 21st century after being trapped in a paradox due to the Regime killing one of his ancestors, leading to him joining Gorilla Grodd's Society to seek revenge on the Flash, who previously supported the Regime. Eobard Thawne / Reverse-Fla...	{ "page_id": 47972968, "source": null, "title": "Eobard Thawne" }
CIDNP (chemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization), often pronounced like "kidnip", is a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) technique that is used to study chemical reactions that involve radicals. It detects the non-Boltzmann (non-thermal) nuclear spin state distribution produced in these reactions as enhanced abso...	{ "page_id": 1901162, "source": null, "title": "CIDNP" }
Kaptein and Oosterhoff. There are, however, exceptions, and the DNP mechanism was found to be operational, for example, in many fluorine-containing radicals. The chemical bond is a pair of electrons with opposite spins. Photochemical reactions or heat can cause an electron in the bond to change its spin. The electrons ...	{ "page_id": 1901162, "source": null, "title": "CIDNP" }
relative probability of these two pathways for a given radical pair depends on the nuclear spin state and leads to the nuclear spin state sorting and observable nuclear polarization. == Applications == Detected as enhanced absorptive or emissive signals in the NMR spectra of the reaction products, CIDNP has been exploi...	{ "page_id": 1901162, "source": null, "title": "CIDNP" }
doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-6540-6_3. ISBN 978-1-4615-6542-0. Kaptein, R.; Dijkstra, K.; Nicolay, K. (1978). "Laser photo-CIDNP as a surface probe for proteins in solution". Nature. 274 (5668): 293–294. Bibcode:1978Natur.274..293K. doi:10.1038/274293a0. PMID 683312. S2CID 4162279. Hore, J.; Broadhurst, R.W. (1993). "Photo-C...	{ "page_id": 1901162, "source": null, "title": "CIDNP" }
In biochemistry, dephosphorylation is the removal of a phosphate (PO3−4) group from an organic compound by hydrolysis. It is a reversible post-translational modification. Dephosphorylation and its counterpart, phosphorylation, activate and deactivate enzymes by detaching or attaching phosphoric esters and anhydrides. A...	{ "page_id": 1704568, "source": null, "title": "Dephosphorylation" }
to neutral but polar amino acids such as serine, threonine, and tyrosine within specific target proteins is a fundamental part of the regulation of every physiologic process. Phosphorylation involves the covalent modification of the hydroxyl with a phosphate group through the nucleophilic attack of the alpha phosphate ...	{ "page_id": 1704568, "source": null, "title": "Dephosphorylation" }
kJ/mol is released, which is harnessed to drive cellular reactions. Overall, nonspontaneous reactions coupled to the dephosphorylation of ATP are spontaneous, due to the negative free energy change of the coupled reaction. This is important in driving oxidative phosphorylation. ATP is dephosphorylated to ADP and inorga...	{ "page_id": 1704568, "source": null, "title": "Dephosphorylation" }
dephosphorylation mechanisms at specific amino acids on the tau protein. Tau dephosphorylation is catalysed by protein phosphatase-2A and phosphatase-2B. Deficiency or modification of one or both proteins may be involved in abnormal phosphorylation of tau in Alzheimer's disease Dephosphorylation has also been linked to...	{ "page_id": 1704568, "source": null, "title": "Dephosphorylation" }
naturally, most commonly from calf intestine, and are abbreviated as CIP. == Underlying evolutionary forces == The natural selection power for dephosphorylation is less understood. A recent study has found that IRF9, which is from the interferon-regulatory factors family (IRFs), a critical family for anti-viral immune ...	{ "page_id": 1704568, "source": null, "title": "Dephosphorylation" }
Algae (UK: AL-ghee, US: AL-jee; sg.: alga AL-gə) is an informal term for any organisms of a large and diverse group of photosynthetic organisms that are not plants, and includes species from multiple distinct clades. Such organisms range from unicellular microalgae, such as cyanobacteria, Chlorella, and diatoms, to mul...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
many golden algae, euglenids, dinoflagellates, and other algae have become heterotrophs (also called colorless or apochlorotic algae), sometimes parasitic, relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus. Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the apicomplexans, are also...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
cosmetic rouge. The etymology is uncertain, but a strong candidate has long been some word related to the Biblical פוך (pūk), 'paint' (if not that word itself), a cosmetic eye-shadow used by the ancient Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, green, or blue. The ...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
the browns. Most of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates or amoeboids, but colonial and nonmotile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the lifecycle of a species, are Colonial: small, regular groups of...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
highly variable over geographic scales and even within species on local scales and can be difficult to identify in terms of the constituent species. Turfs have been defined as short algae, but this has been used to describe height ranges from less than 0.5 cm to more than 10 cm. In some regions, the descriptions approa...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
They are classified into 15 phyla or divisions. Some phyla are not photosynthetic, namely Picozoa and Rhodelphidia, but they are included in the database due to their close relationship with red algae. The various algal phyla can be differentiated according to several biological traits. They have distinct morphologies,...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
hot springs to polar glaciers. Some are subterranean, living via hydrogen-based lithoautotrophy instead of photosynthesis. Three lineages of cyanobacteria, Prochloraceae, Prochlorothrix and Prochlorococcus, independently evolved to have chlorophylls a and b instead of phycobilisomes. Due to their different pigmentation...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
chloroplast derived from another eukaryotic alga. Two lineages of secondary algae, chlorarachniophytes and euglenophytes have "green" chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and b. Their chloroplasts are surrounded by four and three membranes, respectively, and were probably retained from ingested green algae. Chlorarac...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
photosynthetic. The Chromerida are the closest relatives of apicomplexans, and some have retained their chloroplasts. The three alveolate groups evolved from a common myzozoan ancestor that obtained chloroplasts. == History of classification == Linnaeus, in Species Plantarum (1753), the starting point for modern botani...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
dinophytes), euglenophytes, and chlorophytes. Later, many new groups were discovered (e.g., Bolidophyceae), and others were splintered from older groups: charophytes and glaucophytes (from chlorophytes), many heterokontophytes (e.g., synurophytes from chrysophytes, or eustigmatophytes from xanthophytes), haptophytes (f...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
when photosynthetic coccoid cyanobacteria got phagocytized by a unicellular heterotrophic eukaryote (a protist), giving rise to double-membranous primary plastids. Such symbiogenic events (primary symbiogenesis) are believed to have occurred more than 1.5 billion years ago during the Calymmian period, early in Boring B...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
it is a haptophyte that became the plastid of myzozoans instead. In 2024, a third model by Filip Pietluch and coauthors proposed that there were two independent endosymbioses with red algae: one that originated the cryptophyte plastids (as in the previous models), and subsequently the haptophyte plastids; and another t...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
many vastly different habitats based on temperature and nutrient availability, resulting in phytogeographic zones, regions, and provinces. To some degree, the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as Antarctica, long distances of ocean or general land masses...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
species from the coast of KwaZulu-Natal. Some of these are duplicates, as the range extends across both coasts, and the total recorded is probably about 500 species. Most of these are listed in List of seaweeds of South Africa. These exclude phytoplankton and crustose corallines. 669 marine species from California (US)...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
with relative ease. On the basis of their habitat, algae can be categorized as: aquatic (planktonic, benthic, marine, freshwater, lentic, lotic), terrestrial, aerial (subaerial), lithophytic, halophytic (or euryhaline), psammon, thermophilic, cryophilic, epibiont (epiphytic, epizoic), endosymbiont (endophytic, endozoic...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
symbioses ==== Coral reefs are accumulated from the calcareous exoskeletons of marine invertebrates of the order Scleractinia (stony corals). These animals metabolize sugar and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including secretion of the exoskeleton, with water and carbon dioxide as byproducts....	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
other form of biomass. The break-even point for algae-based biofuels is estimated to occur by 2025. === Fertilizer === For centuries, seaweed has been used as a fertilizer; George Owen of Henllys writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in South Wales: This kind of ore they often gather and lay on great heap...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
only from Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon. Spirulina: Known otherwise as a cyanobacterium (a prokaryote or a "blue-green alga") The oils from some algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. Some varieties of algae favored by vegetarianism and veganism contain the long-chain, essential omega-3 fatty acids, docosahexa...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
use of large amounts of toxic chemicals that would otherwise be needed. Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae can be used as fertilizer. Aquaria and ponds can be filtered using algae, which absorb nutrients from the water in a device called an alg...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
Marimo algae Microbiofuels Microphyte Photobioreactor Phycotechnology Plants Toxoid – anatoxin == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == == External links == Guiry, Michael; Guiry, Wendy. "AlgaeBase". – a database of all algal names including images, nomenclature, taxonomy, distribution, bibliography, uses, extra...	{ "page_id": 633, "source": null, "title": "Algae" }
The Kohn-Sham equations are a set of mathematical equations used in quantum mechanics to simplify the complex problem of understanding how electrons behave in atoms and molecules. They introduce fictitious non-interacting electrons and use them to find the most stable arrangement of electrons, which helps scientists un...	{ "page_id": 4457082, "source": null, "title": "Kohn–Sham equations" }
. {\displaystyle \rho (\mathbf {r} )=\sum _{i}^{N}\|\varphi _{i}(\mathbf {r} )\|^{2}.} == History == The Kohn–Sham equations are named after Walter Kohn and Lu Jeu Sham, who introduced the concept at the University of California, San Diego, in 1965. Kohn received a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1998 for the Kohn–Sham equat...	{ "page_id": 4457082, "source": null, "title": "Kohn–Sham equations" }
respect to a set of Kohn-Sham orbitals subject to the constraint that they are orthogonal, this yields a time-independent Schrödinger equation with a scalar potential equal to the Kohn–Sham potential v eff ( r ) = v ext ( r ) + e 2 ∫ ρ ( r ′ ) \| r − r ′ \| d r ′ + δ E xc [ ρ ] δ ρ ( r ) , {\displaystyle v_{\text{eff}}(\...	{ "page_id": 4457082, "source": null, "title": "Kohn–Sham equations" }
In molecular biology mir-154 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms. == See also == MicroRNA == References == == Further reading == == External links == Page for mir-154 microRNA precursor family at Rfam	{ "page_id": 36373118, "source": null, "title": "Mir-154 microRNA precursor family" }
GenGIS merges geographic, ecological and phylogenetic biodiversity data in a single interactive visualization and analysis environment. A key feature of GenGIS is the testing of geographic axes that can correspond to routes of migration or gradients that influence community similarity. Data can also be explored using g...	{ "page_id": 35586688, "source": null, "title": "GenGIS" }
The Amadori rearrangement is an organic reaction describing the acid or base catalyzed isomerization or rearrangement reaction of the N-glycoside of an aldose or the glycosylamine to the corresponding 1-amino-1-deoxy-ketose. The reaction is important in carbohydrate chemistry, specifically the glycation of hemoglobin (...	{ "page_id": 7668353, "source": null, "title": "Amadori rearrangement" }
Richard Edwin Cutkosky (29 July 1928 – 17 June 1993) was a physicist, best known for the Cutkosky cutting rules in quantum field theory, which give a simple way to calculate the discontinuity of the scattering amplitude by Feynman diagrams. Richard Edwin Cutkowsky was born in Minneapolis as son of Oscar F. and Edna M. ...	{ "page_id": 43123332, "source": null, "title": "Richard E. Cutkosky" }
This page provides supplementary chemical data on Hydrochloric acid. == Material Safety Data Sheet == The handling of this chemical may incur notable safety precautions. It is highly recommend that you seek the Material Safety Datasheet (MSDS) for this chemical from a reliable source and follow its directions. [1] == S...	{ "page_id": 4194949, "source": null, "title": "Hydrochloric acid (data page)" }
Anisic acid or methoxybenzoic acid is an organic compound which is a carboxylic acid. It exists in three forms, depending on arene substitution patterns: p-Anisic acid (4-methoxybenzoic acid) m-Anisic acid (3-methoxybenzoic acid) o-Anisic acid (2-methoxybenzoic acid)	{ "page_id": 3408525, "source": null, "title": "Anisic acid" }
In chemistry, the mesomeric effect (or resonance effect) is a property of substituents or functional groups in a chemical compound. It is defined as the polarity produced in the molecule by the interaction of two pi bonds or between a pi bond and lone pair of electrons present on an adjacent atom. This change in electr...	{ "page_id": 66189, "source": null, "title": "Mesomeric effect" }
order: −O− > −NH2 > −NHR > −NR2 > −OH > −OR > −NHCOR > −OCOR > −Ph > −F > −Cl > −Br > −I > −NO === −M effect === The −M effect, also known as the negative mesomeric effect, occurs when the substituent is an electron-withdrawing group. In order for a negative mesomeric (−M) effect to occur the group must have a positive...	{ "page_id": 66189, "source": null, "title": "Mesomeric effect" }
and resonance structures, the mechanism is different. As such, the mesomeric effect is stronger than the inductive effect. The concepts of mesomeric effect, mesomerism and mesomer were introduced by Ingold in 1938 as an alternative to Pauling's synonymous concept of resonance. "Mesomerism" in this context is often enco...	{ "page_id": 66189, "source": null, "title": "Mesomeric effect" }
Codon reassignment is the biological process via which the way the genetic code of a cell is read is changed as a response to the environment. Typically codons, sets of three mRNA nucleotides, correspond to one specific amino acid. Codon reassignment is the exception to this rule. When a codon is reassigned, it codes f...	{ "page_id": 70386320, "source": null, "title": "Codon reassignment" }
protein, this means either swapping one amino acid for another, or in the case of a stop codon, adding an amino acid where there was none before. Since the primary structure determines the functionality of a protein, changing even one amino acid in this way can drastically impact what the final protein is able to do. =...	{ "page_id": 70386320, "source": null, "title": "Codon reassignment" }
related to the infection process. Exposure to outside environmental factors can alter tRNA molecules enough to result in codon reassignment. For example, after being infected with a certain virus, rat liver cells can replace the amino acid selenocysteine with cysteine, a structurally similar amino acid. == Implications...	{ "page_id": 70386320, "source": null, "title": "Codon reassignment" }
doctors to deepen humanity's understanding of cellular functions and produce more effective and efficient medicines. == See also == Expanded genetic code Transcription (biology) Translation (biology) Gene expression Cancer genome sequencing == References ==	{ "page_id": 70386320, "source": null, "title": "Codon reassignment" }
An acid is a molecule or ion capable of either donating a proton (i.e. hydrogen ion, H+), known as a Brønsted–Lowry acid, or forming a covalent bond with an electron pair, known as a Lewis acid. The first category of acids are the proton donors, or Brønsted–Lowry acids. In the special case of aqueous solutions, proton ...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive, but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid. The second category of acids are Lewis acids, which form a covalent bond with an electron pair. An example is boron trifluoride (BF3), whose boron atom has a vacant orbital that can form a covalent bond by ...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
(H+), later described as protons or hydrons. An Arrhenius acid is a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H+ ions in the water. Chemists often write H+(aq) and refer to the hydrogen ion when describing acid–base reactions but the free hydrogen nucleus, a proton, does not exist alone in wat...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
acid (CH3COOH), the organic acid that gives vinegar its characteristic taste: CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ CH3COO− + H3O+ CH3COOH + NH3 ⇌ CH3COO− + NH+4 Both theories easily describe the first reaction: CH3COOH acts as an Arrhenius acid because it acts as a source of H3O+ when dissolved in water, and it acts as a Brønsted acid by d...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
species that accepts a pair of electrons from another species; in other words, it is an electron pair acceptor. Brønsted acid–base reactions are proton transfer reactions while Lewis acid–base reactions are electron pair transfers. Many Lewis acids are not Brønsted–Lowry acids. Contrast how the following reactions are ...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
article deals mostly with Brønsted acids rather than Lewis acids. == Dissociation and equilibrium == Reactions of acids are often generalized in the form HA ⇌ H+ + A−, where HA represents the acid and A− is the conjugate base. This reaction is referred to as protolysis. The protonated form (HA) of an acid is also somet...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
Stronger acids have a smaller pKa than weaker acids. Experimentally determined pKa at 25 °C in aqueous solution are often quoted in textbooks and reference material. == Nomenclature == Arrhenius acids are named according to their anions. In the classical naming system, the ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a ne...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
discussed in terms of the stability of the conjugate base. Stronger acids have a larger acid dissociation constant, Ka and a lower pKa than weaker acids. Sulfonic acids, which are organic oxyacids, are a class of strong acids. A common example is toluenesulfonic acid (tosylic acid). Unlike sulfuric acid itself, sulfoni...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
per molecule during the process of dissociation (sometimes called ionization) as shown below (symbolized by HA): HA (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + A− (aq) Ka Common examples of monoprotic acids in mineral acids include hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO3). On the other hand, for organic acids the term mainly in...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
bicarbonate anion (HCO−3) and lose a second to form carbonate anion (CO2−3). Both Ka values are small, but Ka1 > Ka2 . A triprotic acid (H3A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3. H3A (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + H2A− (aq) Ka1 H2A− (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
] + [ A 2 − ] α HA − = [ H + ] K 1 [ H + ] 2 + [ H + ] K 1 + K 1 K 2 = [ HA − ] [ H 2 A ] + [ H A − ] + [ A 2 − ] α A 2 − = K 1 K 2 [ H + ] 2 + [ H + ] K 1 + K 1 K 2 = [ A 2 − ] [ H 2 A ] + [ H A − ] + [ A 2 − ] {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\alpha _{{\ce {H2A}}}&={\frac {{\ce {[H+]^2}}}{{\ce {[H+]^2}}+[{\ce {H+}}]K_{...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid. It is often wrongly assumed that neutralization should result in a solution with pH 7.0, which is only the case with similar acid and base strengths during a reaction. Neutralization with a base weaker than the acid results in a...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
acid titration curve, from left to right, there are two midpoints, two equivalence points, and two buffer regions. ==== Equivalence points ==== Due to the successive dissociation processes, there are two equivalence points in the titration curve of a diprotic acid. The first equivalence point occurs when all first hydr...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
removing impurities. According to the statistics data in 2011, the annual production of sulfuric acid was around 200 million tonnes in the world. For example, phosphate minerals react with sulfuric acid to produce phosphoric acid for the production of phosphate fertilizers, and zinc is produced by dissolving zinc oxide...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
dissolve in these drinks to generate carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is very unstable and tends to decompose into water and CO2 at room temperature and pressure. Therefore, when bottles or cans of these kinds of soft drinks are opened, the soft drinks fizz and effervesce as CO2 bubbles come out. Certain acids are used as ...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
Many biologically important molecules are acids. Nucleic acids, which contain acidic phosphate groups, include DNA and RNA. Nucleic acids contain the genetic code that determines many of an organism's characteristics, and is passed from parents to offspring. DNA contains the chemical blueprint for the synthesis of prot...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
acid group on one end. The cell membrane of nearly all organisms is primarily made up of a phospholipid bilayer, a micelle of hydrophobic fatty acid esters with polar, hydrophilic phosphate "head" groups. Membranes contain additional components, some of which can participate in acid–base reactions. In humans and many o...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
foods. The charged form, however, is often more soluble in blood and cytosol, both aqueous environments. When the extracellular environment is more acidic than the neutral pH within the cell, certain acids will exist in their neutral form and will be membrane soluble, allowing them to cross the phospholipid bilayer. Ac...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
stronger than acetic acid. Fluoroacetic acid Trifluoroacetic acid Chloroacetic acid Dichloroacetic acid Trichloroacetic acid === Vinylogous carboxylic acids === Normal carboxylic acids are the direct union of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl group. In vinylogous carboxylic acids, a carbon-carbon double bond separates th...	{ "page_id": 656, "source": null, "title": "Acid" }
Bitumen (UK: BIH-chuum-in, US: bih-TEW-min, by-) is an immensely viscous constituent of petroleum. Depending on its exact composition, it can be a sticky, black liquid or an apparently solid mass that behaves as a liquid over very large time scales. In American English, the material is commonly referred to as asphalt o...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
in the name of the La Brea Tar Pits. Naturally occurring bitumen is sometimes specified by the term crude bitumen. Its viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses while the material obtained from the fractional distillation of crude oil boiling at 525 °C (977 °F) is sometimes referred to as "refined bitumen". The Can...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
of "asphalt concrete" (therefore equivalent to the British "asphalt" or "tarmac"). In Canadian English, the word "bitumen" is used to refer to the vast Canadian deposits of extremely heavy crude oil, while "asphalt" is used for the oil refinery product. Diluted bitumen (diluted with naphtha to make it flow in pipelines...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
the percentage of saturated compounds in asphalt correlates with its softening point Asphaltenes, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and heterocyclic compounds Bitumen typically contains, elementally 80% by weight of carbon; 10% hydrogen; up to 6% sulfur; and molecularly, between 5 and 25% by weight of asphalt...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
use of re-refined engine oil bottoms – "REOB" or "REOBs" – the residue of recycled automotive engine oil collected from the bottoms of re-refining vacuum distillation towers, in the manufacture of asphalt. REOB contains various elements and compounds found in recycled engine oil: additives to the original oil and mater...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
in the world. Although historically it was used without refining to pave roads, nearly all of the output is now used as raw material for oil refineries in Canada and the United States. The world's largest deposit of natural bitumen, known as the Athabasca oil sands, is located in the McMurray Formation of Northern Albe...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
ancient ocean covered Alberta. They were covered by mud, buried deeply over time, and gently cooked into oil by geothermal heat at a temperature of 50 to 150 °C (120 to 300 °F). Due to pressure from the rising of the Rocky Mountains in southwestern Alberta, 80 to 55 million years ago, the oil was driven northeast hundr...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
Neanderthals during the late Middle Paleolithic into the early Upper Paleolithic between 60,000 and 35,000 years before present. It is the earliest evidence of multicomponent adhesive in Europe. === Ancient times === The use of natural bitumen for waterproofing and as an adhesive dates at least to the fifth millennium ...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
East, natural bitumen was slowly boiled to get rid of the higher fractions, leaving a thermoplastic material of higher molecular weight that, when layered on objects, became hard upon cooling. This was used to cover objects that needed waterproofing, such as scabbards and other items. Statuettes of household deities we...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
But the substance was generally neglected in France until the revolution of 1830. In the 1830s there was a surge of interest, and asphalt became widely used "for pavements, flat roofs, and the lining of cisterns, and in England, some use of it had been made of it for similar purposes". Its rise in Europe was "a sudden ...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
Claridge. Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company – formed in 1838 for the purpose of introducing to Britain "Asphalte in its natural state from the mine at Pyrimont Seysell in France", – "laid one of the first asphalt pavements in Whitehall". Trials were made of the pavement in 1838 on the footway in Whitehall, the stable ...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
to each other. In England, "Claridge's was the type most used in the 1840s and 50s". In 1914, Claridge's Company entered into a joint venture to produce tar-bound macadam, with materials manufactured through a subsidiary company called Clarmac Roads Ltd. Two products resulted, namely Clarmac, and Clarphalte, with the f...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
ocean-going canoes. Asphalt was first used to pave streets in the 1870s. At first naturally occurring "bituminous rock" was used, such as at Ritchie Mines in Macfarlan in Ritchie County, West Virginia from 1852 to 1873. In 1876, asphalt-based paving was used to pave Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington DC, in time for the...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
the model for Buffalo, Philadelphia and elsewhere. By the end of the century, American cities boasted 30 million square yards of asphalt paving, well ahead of brick. The streets became faster and more dangerous so electric traffic lights were installed. Electric trolleys (at 12 miles per hour) became the main transport...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
oil separation process and entrepreneur Robert C. Fitzsimmons built the Bitumount oil separation plant, which between 1925 and 1958 produced up to 300 barrels (50 m3) per day of bitumen using Dr. Clark's method. Most of the bitumen was used for waterproofing roofs, but other uses included fuels, lubrication oils, print...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
instance those of Delacroix. Perhaps the most famous example of the destructiveness of bitumen is Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa (1818–1819), where his use of bitumen caused the brilliant colors to degenerate into dark greens and blacks and the paint and canvas to buckle. == Modern use == === Global use === Th...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
asphalt concrete mixing plants in the US, and a similar number in Europe. Asphalt concrete pavement mixes are typically composed of 5% bitumen (known as asphalt cement in the US) and 95% aggregates (stone, sand, and gravel). Due to its highly viscous nature, bitumen must be heated so it can be mixed with the aggregates...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }
usually around 7–10% of the whole aggregate mix, as opposed to rolled asphalt concrete, which has only around 5% asphalt. This thermoplastic substance is widely used in the building industry for waterproofing flat roofs and tanking underground. Mastic asphalt is heated to a temperature of 210 °C (410 °F) and is spread ...	{ "page_id": 657, "source": null, "title": "Bitumen" }

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