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Dynamic optimality Mehlhorn's approximation algorithm Optimal_binary_search_tree > Static optimality > Mehlhorn's approximation algorithm While the O(n2) time taken by Knuth's algorithm is substantially better than the exponential time required for a brute-force search, it is still too slow to be practical when the number of elements in the tree is very large. In 1975, Kurt Mehlhorn published a paper proving important properties regarding Knuth's rules. Mehlhorn's major results state that only one of Knuth's heuristics (Rule II) always produces nearly optimal binary search trees. On the other hand, the root-max rule could often lead to very "bad" search trees based on the following simple argument.Let n = 2 k − 1 , A i = 2 − k + ε i with ⁡ ∑ i = 1 n ε i = 2 − k {\textstyle {\begin{aligned}n=2^{k}-1,~~A_{i}=2^{-k}+\varepsilon _{i}~~\operatorname {with} ~~\sum _{i=1}^{n}\varepsilon _{i}=2^{-k}\end{aligned}}} and ε 1 , ε 2 , … , ε n > 0 for ⁡ 1 ≦ i ≦ n and ⁡ B j = 0 for ⁡ 0 ≦ j ≦ n .
Lightweight blockchain Summary Lightweight_blockchain A lightweight blockchain is a simplified blockchain enabling trustless, secure data transactions between nodes. A blockchain is a distributed ledger with growing lists of records (blocks) that are securely linked together via cryptographic hashes. To ensure each new block of data added to the chain is legitimate, a consensus mechanism must be used; for example, the Bitcoin blockchain uses Proof-of-Work (PoW) and the Ethereum blockchain uses Proof-of-Stake (PoS). The architecture of this blockchain-based distributed ledger technology requires intensive energy consumption and computational power.
Spherical wave transformation Relation to electrodynamics Spherical_wave_transformation > Transformation by reciprocal radii > Relation to electrodynamics This group of transformations has been discussed by S. Lie; it is the group of transformations which transform lines of curvature on a surface enveloped by spherical waves into lines of curvature on the surface enveloped by the corresponding spherical waves. Depending on λ {\displaystyle \lambda } they can be differentiated into subgroups:(a) λ = 1 {\displaystyle \lambda =1} correspond to mappings which transform not only spheres into spheres but also planes into planes. These are called Laguerre transformations/inversions forming the Laguerre group, which in physics correspond to the Lorentz transformations forming the 6-parameter Lorentz group or 10-parameter Poincaré group with translations.
Matrix transpose Transposes of linear maps and bilinear forms Transposed_matrix > Transposes of linear maps and bilinear forms As the main use of matrices is to represent linear maps between finite-dimensional vector spaces, the transpose is an operation on matrices that may be seen as the representation of some operation on linear maps. This leads to a much more general definition of the transpose that works on every linear map, even when linear maps cannot be represented by matrices (such as in the case of infinite dimensional vector spaces). In the finite dimensional case, the matrix representing the transpose of a linear map is the transpose of the matrix representing the linear map, independently of the basis choice.
Flywheel storage power system Power grid frequency control Flywheel_storage_power_system > Application examples > Power grid frequency control The plant originates from the Jülich Stornetic GmbH. The system consists of 28 flywheels and has a capacity of 100 kWh and a capacity of 600 kilovolt-amperes (kVA). The flywheels rotate at a peak speed of 45,000 rpm.In Ontario, Canada, Temporal Power Ltd.
Split gene theory Origin of introns/split genes Split_gene_theory > Testing the hypothesis > Origin of introns/split genes Moreover, the random distribution also displays a cutoff at 600 nucleotides, which suggests that the maximum size for an early polypeptide was 200 residues, again as observed in the maximum size of the eukaryotic exon. Thus, in response to evolutionary pressures to create larger and more complex genes, the RNA fragments were joined together by a splicing mechanism that removed the introns. Hence, the early existence of both introns and RNA splicing in eukaryotes appears to be very likely from a simple statistical basis. These results also agree with the linear relationship found between the number of exons in the gene for a particular protein and the length of the polypeptide chain.”
Social peer-to-peer processes Capitalism Social_peer-to-peer_processes > In the economy > Capitalism There are two important aspects to the emergence of P2P in the economic sphere. On the one hand, as a format for peer production processes, it is emerging as a 'third mode of production' based on the cooperation of autonomous agents. Indeed, if the first mode of production was laissez-faire based capitalism, and the second mode was the model of a centrally-planned economy, then the third mode is defined neither by the motor of profit, nor by central planning: to allocate resources and make decisions, it does not use market and pricing mechanisms, or managerial commands, but instead uses social relations. Peer production is a significant part of the mainstream economy, even if it is not much advertised as such in mainstream economic literature.Despite significant differences, P2P and the capitalist market are highly interconnected.
ST-124-M3 inertial platform Internal details ST-124-M3_inertial_platform > Internal details One measured any rotations about the X axis, one about the Y, and one about the Z axis. They generated signals that were shaped in feedback circuits and sent back to torquers on the inner, middle and outer gimbals that exactly countered the rotations, nulling the gyro outputs and keeping the platform stable. The inner gimbal also carried three accelerometers, two pendulums, and a pair of prisms.
COQ7 Nuclear function COQ7 > Nuclear function CLK-1 and COQ7 predominantly localise to mitochondria to participate in the ubiquinone biosynthetic pathway which is found there. However, a small pool of CLK-1 and COQ7 translocates to the nucleus in response to the production of ROS by normally functioning mitochondria in both worms and human cells, respectively. Translocation of CLK-1 and COQ7 represents a mitochondrial to nuclear retrograde signalling pathway that acts to suppress mitochondrial stress responses. The mitochondrial and nuclear pools of CLK-1 are thought to contribute independently to worm lifespan regulation. The nuclear form of CLK-1 and COQ7 is thought to regulate gene expression through an unidentified mechanism.
General anxiety disorder Motivational interviewing Generalized_anxiety_disorder > Treatment > Psychotherapy > Motivational interviewing A promising innovative approach to improving recovery rates for the treatment of GAD is to combine CBT with motivational interviewing (MI). Motivational interviewing is a strategy centered on the patient that aims to increase intrinsic motivation and decrease ambivalence about change due to the treatment. MI contains four key elements: (1) express empathy, (2) heighten dissonance between behaviors that are not desired and values that are not consistent with those behaviors, (3) move with resistance rather than direct confrontation, and (4) encourage self-efficacy. It is based on asking open-ended questions and listening carefully and reflectively to patients' answers, eliciting "change talk", and talking with patients about the pros and cons of change. Some studies have shown the combination of CBT with MI to be more effective than CBT alone.
Treble-cut filter Examples Treble-cut_filter > Examples Examples of low-pass filters occur in acoustics, optics and electronics. A stiff physical barrier tends to reflect higher sound frequencies, acting as an acoustic low-pass filter for transmitting sound. When music is playing in another room, the low notes are easily heard, while the high notes are attenuated. An optical filter with the same function can correctly be called a low-pass filter, but conventionally is called a longpass filter (low frequency is long wavelength), to avoid confusion.In an electronic low-pass RC filter for voltage signals, high frequencies in the input signal are attenuated, but the filter has little attenuation below the cutoff frequency determined by its RC time constant.
William B. Tolman Early life and education William_B._Tolman > Early life and education in chemistry in 1987.He then conducted his postdoc in the laboratory of Prof. Stephen J. Lippard at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with the support of a fellowship from the American Cancer Society. With Prof. Lippard, Tolman synthesized novel ligands for coordination complexes that model the active sites of metalloproteins. He then synthesized complexes that model nonheme diiron proteins, and studied their reactivity with O2.
Lists of mathematics topics Information theory and signal processing Lists_of_mathematics_topics > Areas of advanced mathematics > Applied mathematics > Information theory and signal processing Information theory is a branch of applied mathematics and Social science involving the quantification of information. Historically, information theory was developed to find fundamental limits on compressing and reliably communicating data. Signal processing is the analysis, interpretation, and manipulation of signals.
Oriented plane segment Geometric interpretation Bivector > Three dimensions > Geometric interpretation Like vectors these have magnitudes \|A · B\| = \|A\| \|B\| cos θ and \|A × B\| = \|A\| \|B\| sin θ, where θ is the angle between the planes. In three dimensions it is the same as the angle between the normal vectors dual to the planes, and it generalises to some extent in higher dimensions. Bivectors can be added together as areas.
Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy Summary Inelastic_electron_tunneling_spectroscopy Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy (IETS) is an experimental tool for studying the vibrations of molecular adsorbates on metal oxides. It yields vibrational spectra of the adsorbates with high resolution (< 0.5 meV) and high sensitivity (< 1013 molecules are required to provide a spectrum). An additional advantage is the fact that optically forbidden transitions may be observed as well. Within IETS, an oxide layer with molecules adsorbed on it is put between two metal plates.
Parthenogenesis Gynogenesis Parthenogenesis > Similar phenomena > Gynogenesis Some salamanders of the genus Ambystoma are gynogenetic and appear to have been so for over a million years. It is believed that the success of those salamanders may be due to rare fertilization of eggs by males, introducing new material to the gene pool, which may result from perhaps only one mating out of a million. In addition, the amazon molly is known to reproduce by gynogenesis.
Insoluble group Non-example Insoluble_group > Examples > Non-example The group S5 is not solvable — it has a composition series {E, A5, S5} (and the Jordan–Hölder theorem states that every other composition series is equivalent to that one), giving factor groups isomorphic to A5 and C2; and A5 is not abelian. Generalizing this argument, coupled with the fact that An is a normal, maximal, non-abelian simple subgroup of Sn for n > 4, we see that Sn is not solvable for n > 4. This is a key step in the proof that for every n > 4 there are polynomials of degree n which are not solvable by radicals (Abel–Ruffini theorem). This property is also used in complexity theory in the proof of Barrington's theorem.
Riemann integrability Riemann sum Lebesgue_integrability_condition > Definition > Riemann sum Let f be a real-valued function defined on the interval . The Riemann sum of f with respect to the tagged partition x0, ..., xn together with t0, ..., tn − 1 is Each term in the sum is the product of the value of the function at a given point and the length of an interval. Consequently, each term represents the (signed) area of a rectangle with height f(ti) and width xi + 1 − xi. The Riemann sum is the (signed) area of all the rectangles.
Greedy algorithm Matroids Greedy_algorithm > Theory > Matroids A matroid is a mathematical structure that generalizes the notion of linear independence from vector spaces to arbitrary sets. If an optimization problem has the structure of a matroid, then the appropriate greedy algorithm will solve it optimally.
Gamma-carboxyglutamic acid Synthesis Gamma-carboxyglutamic_acid > Synthesis In the biosynthesis of γ-carboxyglutamic acid, the γ-proton on glutamic acid is abstracted, and CO2 is subsequently added. The reaction intermediate is a γ-glutamyl carbanion. This reaction is catalyzed by a carboxylase that requires vitamin K as its cofactor. It is not exactly known how vitamin K participates, but it is hypothesized that a free cysteine residue in the carboxylase converts vitamin K into an active strong base that in turn abstracts a hydrogen from glutamic acid's γ-carbon. Then CO2 is added to the γ-carbon to form γ-carboxyglutamic acid.
Transistor–transistor logic Summary Transistor-transistor_logic Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) is a logic family built from bipolar junction transistors. Its name signifies that transistors perform both the logic function (the first "transistor") and the amplifying function (the second "transistor"), as opposed to earlier resistor–transistor logic (RTL) and diode–transistor logic (DTL). TTL integrated circuits (ICs) were widely used in applications such as computers, industrial controls, test equipment and instrumentation, consumer electronics, and synthesizers.After their introduction in integrated circuit form in 1963 by Sylvania Electric Products, TTL integrated circuits were manufactured by several semiconductor companies. The 7400 series by Texas Instruments became particularly popular.
Amortization schedule Methods of amortization Amortization_schedule > Methods of amortization There are different methods used to develop an amortization schedule. These include: Straight line (linear) Declining balance Annuity Bullet (all at once) Balloon (amortization payments and large end payment) Increasing balance (negative amortization)Amortization schedules run in chronological order. The first payment is assumed to take place one full payment period after the loan was taken out, not on the first day (the origination date) of the loan. The last payment completely pays off the remainder of the loan. Often, the last payment will be a slightly different amount than all earlier payments. In addition to breaking down each payment into interest and principal portions, an amortization schedule also indicates interest paid to date, principal paid to date, and the remaining principal balance on each payment date.
MRNA translation Basic mechanisms Peptide_chain_elongation,_translational > Basic mechanisms Initiation involves the small subunit of the ribosome binding to the 5' end of mRNA with the help of initiation factors (IF). In bacteria and a minority of archaea, initiation of protein synthesis involves the recognition of a purine-rich initiation sequence on the mRNA called the Shine-Dalgarno sequence. The Shine-Dalgarno sequence binds to a complementary pyrimidine-rich sequence on the 3' end of the 16S rRNA part of the 30S ribosomal subunit.
Useable Human processor model Useable > Evaluation methods > Cognitive modeling methods > Human processor model Sometimes it is useful to break a task down and analyze each individual aspect separately. This helps the tester locate specific areas for improvement. To do this, it is necessary to understand how the human brain processes information.
Characteristic vector analysis Software/source code Principal_components > Software/source code mlpack – Provides an implementation of principal component analysis in C++. mrmath - A high performance math library for Delphi and FreePascal can perform PCA; including robust variants. NAG Library – Principal components analysis is implemented via the g03aa routine (available in both the Fortran versions of the Library).
Psychoneuroimmunology Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) Psychoneuroimmunology > Psychoneuroimmunological effects > Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) Central mediated since peripheral administration of CRH antagonist does not affect immunosuppression. HPA axis/stress axis responds consistently to stressors that are new, unpredictable and that have low-perceived control. As cortisol reaches an appropriate level in response to the stressor, it deregulates the activity of the hippocampus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland which results in less production of cortisol.
Turing machine equivalents Wang machines Turing_machine_equivalents > Tape-based Turing machines > Single-tape machines with restricted symbols and/or restricted instructions > Wang machines In this case the tapes would be left-ended, each end marked with a single "mark" to indicate the end. He was able to reduce this to a single tape, but at the expense of introducing multi-tape-square motion equivalent to multiplication and division rather than the much simpler { SHIFT-LEFT = DECREMENT, SHIFT-RIGHT = INCREMENT }. Davis, adding an explicit HALT instruction to one of the machines discussed by Wang, used a model with the instruction-set { SHIFT-LEFT, SHIFT-RIGHT, ERASE, MARK, JUMP-IF-SQUARE-MARKED-to xxx, JUMP-to xxx, HALT }and also considered versions with tape-alphabets of size larger than 2.
Homogeneous transformation matrix Uses Matrix_transformations > Uses Matrices allow arbitrary linear transformations to be displayed in a consistent format, suitable for computation. This also allows transformations to be composed easily (by multiplying their matrices). Linear transformations are not the only ones that can be represented by matrices. Some transformations that are non-linear on an n-dimensional Euclidean space Rn can be represented as linear transformations on the n+1-dimensional space Rn+1.
Speculative Store Bypass Disable Summary Speculative_Store_Bypass_Disable In the x86 architecture, the CPUID instruction (identified by a CPUID opcode) is a processor supplementary instruction (its name derived from CPU Identification) allowing software to discover details of the processor. It was introduced by Intel in 1993 with the launch of the Pentium and SL-enhanced 486 processors.A program can use the CPUID to determine processor type and whether features such as MMX/SSE are implemented.
History of subatomic physics Higgs boson History_of_subatomic_physics > Physics goes to high energies > Higgs boson Dr. Peter Higgs was one of six physicists, working in three independent groups, who in 1964 invented the notion of the cosmic molasses, or Higgs field. The others were Tom Kibble of Imperial College, London; Carl Hagen of the University of Rochester; Gerald Guralnik of Brown University; and François Englert and Robert Brout, both of Université Libre de Bruxelles. One implication of their theory was that this Higgs field, normally invisible and, of course, odorless, would produce its own quantum particle if hit hard enough, by the right amount of energy.
Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte–associated antigen 4 Activation Cytotoxic_T_cell > Activation T cells go through different stages, depending on the number of times they have been in contact with the antigen. In the first place, naïve T-lymphocytes are those cells that have not yet encountered an antigen in the thymus. Then, T-lymphocytes become memory T cells. This type of T cells are those that have been in contact with the antigen at least once but have returned subsequently to a quiescent or inactive state, ready to respond again to the antigen against which they were stimulated.
Word (unit) Summary Word_(computer_architecture) The largest possible address size, used to designate a location in memory, is typically a hardware word (here, "hardware word" means the full-sized natural word of the processor, as opposed to any other definition used). Documentation for older computers with fixed word size commonly states memory sizes in words rather than bytes or characters.
Computer Numerical Control Summary Computer_numeric_control The program can be written by a person or, far more often, generated by graphical computer-aided design (CAD) or computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software. In the case of 3D printers, the part to be printed is "sliced" before the instructions (or the program) are generated. 3D printers also use G-Code.CNC offers greatly increased productivity over non-computerized machining for repetitive production, where the machine must be manually controlled (e.g. using devices such as hand wheels or levers) or mechanically controlled by pre-fabricated pattern guides (see pantograph mill).
Metal-organic compound Summary Metal-organic_compound Metal-organic compounds (jargon: metalorganics, metallo-organics) are a class of chemical compounds that contain metals and organic ligands, which confer solubility in organic solvents or volatility. Compounds with these properties find applications in materials science for metal organic vapor deposition (MOCVD) or sol-gel processing. The distinct term "metal organic compound" refers to metal-containing compounds lacking direct metal-carbon bonds but which contain organic ligands. Metal β-diketonates, alkoxides, dialkylamides, and metal phosphine complexes are representative members of this class. Precise definitions may vary, however the term may describe: Organometallic chemistry Metal coordination complexes of organic ligands, e.g., metal acetylacetonates, alkoxides.
Two-level grammar Motivation and history Two-level_grammar > Motivation and history (See example below.) Programming languages have the analogous notions of typing and scoping. A compiler or interpreter for the language must recognize which uses of a variable belong together (refer to the same variable).
Demodex mite D. folliculorum and D. brevis Demodex_mite > Notable species > D. folliculorum and D. brevis Each has a semitransparent, elongated body that consists of two fused segments. Eight short, segmented legs are attached to the first body segment. The body is covered with scales for anchoring itself in the hair follicle, and the mite has pin-like mouthparts for eating skin cells and oils that accumulate in the hair follicles.
VSEPR Theory Odd-electron molecules Valence_shell_electron_repulsion_theory > Odd-electron molecules The VSEPR theory can be extended to molecules with an odd number of electrons by treating the unpaired electron as a "half electron pair"—for example, Gillespie and Nyholm: 364–365 suggested that the decrease in the bond angle in the series NO+2 (180°), NO2 (134°), NO−2 (115°) indicates that a given set of bonding electron pairs exert a weaker repulsion on a single non-bonding electron than on a pair of non-bonding electrons. In effect, they considered nitrogen dioxide as an AX2E0.5 molecule, with a geometry intermediate between NO+2 and NO−2. Similarly, chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is an AX2E1.5 molecule, with a geometry intermediate between ClO+2 and ClO−2.Finally, the methyl radical (CH3) is predicted to be trigonal pyramidal like the methyl anion (CH−3), but with a larger bond angle (as in the trigonal planar methyl cation (CH+3)). However, in this case, the VSEPR prediction is not quite true, as CH3 is actually planar, although its distortion to a pyramidal geometry requires very little energy.
Antipsychotic medication Mechanism of action Antipsychotic_drug > Mechanism of action Antipsychotic drugs such as haloperidol and chlorpromazine tend to block dopamine D2 receptors in the dopaminergic pathways of the brain. This means that dopamine released in these pathways has less effect. Excess release of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway has been linked to psychotic experiences. Decreased dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex, and excess dopamine release in other pathways, are associated with psychotic episodes in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.In addition to the antagonistic effects of dopamine, antipsychotics (in particular atypical neuroleptics) also antagonize 5-HT2A receptors.
Brain metastasis Symptoms and signs Brain_metastasis > Symptoms and signs Because different parts of the brain are responsible for different functions, symptoms vary depending on the site of metastasis within the brain. However, brain metastases should be considered in any cancer patient who presents with neurological or behavioral changes.Brain metastases can cause a wide variety of symptoms which can also be present in minor, more common conditions. Neurological symptoms are often caused by increased intracranial pressure, with severe cases resulting in coma. The most common neurological symptoms include: New onset headaches: headaches occur in roughly half of brain metastasis patients, especially in those with many tumors.
Lehmer random number generator Summary Park–Miller_random_number_generator The Lehmer random number generator (named after D. H. Lehmer), sometimes also referred to as the Park–Miller random number generator (after Stephen K. Park and Keith W. Miller), is a type of linear congruential generator (LCG) that operates in multiplicative group of integers modulo n. The general formula is X k + 1 = a ⋅ X k mod m , {\displaystyle X_{k+1}=a\cdot X_{k}{\bmod {m}},} where the modulus m is a prime number or a power of a prime number, the multiplier a is an element of high multiplicative order modulo m (e.g., a primitive root modulo n), and the seed X0 is coprime to m. Other names are multiplicative linear congruential generator (MLCG) and multiplicative congruential generator (MCG).
Quantitative social research Methodological assumptions Quantitative_social_research > Methodological assumptions A theory is a systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of social life. Concepts are the basic building blocks of theory and are abstract elements representing classes of phenomena. Axioms or postulates are basic assertions assumed to be true.
Postural hypotension Signs and symptoms Dizzy_spell > Signs and symptoms Orthostatic hypotension is characterized by symptoms that occur after standing (from lying or sitting), particularly when done rapidly. Many report lightheadedness (a feeling that one might be about to faint), sometimes severe, or even actual fainting with associated fall risk. With chronic orthostatic hypotension, the condition and its effects may worsen even as fainting and many other symptoms become less frequent. Generalized weakness or tiredness may also occur.
Dimension Data Recognition Dimension_Data > Recognition In March 2013, Dimension Data was named as a Leader in the Green Quadrant® Sustainable Technology Services report by Verdantix. Dimension Data was named along with seven other companies as having a dedicated sustainability practice, a wide range of capabilities, and a strong track record in corporate sustainability. In April 2015, Dimension Data was honored with three separate Cisco Partner of the Year awards in three different regions. The following year, the company won the 2016 Microsoft Country Partner of the Year Award for Rwanda and Tanzania regions along with the Communications Partner of the Year and Cloud Productivity Partner of the Year in the Global arena.
Intuitionistic set theory Choice functions Intuitionistic_set_theory > Subtheories of ZF > Choice functions A collection of sets holding ω {\displaystyle \omega } and its elements and which is closed by taking indexed sums and products (see dependent type) is called Π Σ {\displaystyle \Pi \Sigma } -closed. While the axiom that all sets in the smallest Π Σ {\displaystyle \Pi \Sigma } -closed class are a base does need some work to formulate, it is the strongest choice principle over C Z F {\displaystyle {\mathsf {CZF}}} that holds in the type theoretical interpretation M L 1 V {\displaystyle {\mathsf {ML_{1}V}}} . Axiom of choice A C {\displaystyle {\mathrm {AC} }}: This is the choice function postulate concerning domains that are general sets { z , … } {\displaystyle \{z,\dots \}} containing inhabited sets, with the codomain given as their general union.
Island ecology Speciation Island_ecology > Ecological processes on islands > Speciation Darwin’s finches exhibited adaptive radiation by evolving different beak sizes to exploit the diversity of seeds present on the different islands. Because the distributions of these populations are limited by their island habitats, they tend to have fewer individuals than their mainland counterparts and lower genetic variation. This, along with the behavioral and ecological factors mentioned above, makes island species more vulnerable to extinction.
Coherent turbulent structure Characteristics Coherent_turbulent_structure > Characteristics For example, eddies dissipate energy by obtaining energy from the mean flow at large scales, and eventually dissipating it at the smallest scales. There is no such analogous exchange of energy between coherent structures, and any interaction such as tearing between coherent structures simply results in a new structure.
Gene Disease Database Some use cases Gene_Disease_Database > Some use cases (2014). "Using 2-node hypergraph clustering coefficients to analyze disease-gene networks". Proceedings of the 5th ACM Conference on Bioinformatics, Computational Biology, and Health Informatics - BCB '14.
Experimental evolution Synthetic biology Experimental_evolution > Modern > Synthetic biology Synthetic biology offers unique opportunities for experimental evolution, facilitating the interpretation of evolutionary changes by inserting genetic modules into host genomes and applying selection specifically targeting such modules. Synthetic biological circuits inserted into the genome of Escherichia coli or the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae degrade (lose function) during laboratory evolution. With appropriate selection, mechanisms underlying the evolutionary regain of lost biological function can be studied. Experimental evolution of mammalian cells harboring synthetic gene circuits reveals the role of cellular heterogeneity in the evolution of drug resistance, with implications for chemotherapy resistance of cancer cells.
Discriminative model Contrast in approaches Discriminative_model > Contrast with generative model > Contrast in approaches Let's say we are given the m {\displaystyle m} class labels (classification) and n {\displaystyle n} feature variables, Y: { y 1 , y 2 , … , y m } , X: { x 1 , x 2 , … , x n } {\displaystyle Y:\{y_{1},y_{2},\ldots ,y_{m}\},X:\{x_{1},x_{2},\ldots ,x_{n}\}} , as the training samples. A generative model takes the joint probability P ( x , y ) {\displaystyle P(x,y)} , where x {\displaystyle x} is the input and y {\displaystyle y} is the label, and predicts the most possible known label y ~ ∈ Y {\displaystyle {\widetilde {y}}\in Y} for the unknown variable x ~ {\displaystyle {\widetilde {x}}} using Bayes' theorem.Discriminative models, as opposed to generative models, do not allow one to generate samples from the joint distribution of observed and target variables. However, for tasks such as classification and regression that do not require the joint distribution, discriminative models can yield superior performance (in part because they have fewer variables to compute). On the other hand, generative models are typically more flexible than discriminative models in expressing dependencies in complex learning tasks.
Permutation pattern Computational complexity Permutation_pattern > Computational complexity There are several variants on the PPM problem, as surveyed by Bruner and Lackner. For example, if the match is required to consist of contiguous entries then the problem can be solved in polynomial time. A different natural variant is obtained when the pattern is restricted to a proper permutation class C {\displaystyle {\mathcal {C}}} .
Structure mining Description Structure_mining > Description These are the ability to associate an XPath statement with any data pattern and sub statements with each data node in the data pattern, and the ability to mine the presence and count of any node or set of nodes within the document. As an example, if one were to represent a family tree in XML, using these extensions one could create a data set containing all the individuals node in the tree, data items such as name and age at death, and counts of related nodes, such as number of children. More sophisticated searches could extract data such as grandparents' lifespans etc. The addition of these data types related to the structure of a document or message facilitates structure mining.
Head-driven phrase structure grammar Implementations Head-driven_phrase_structure_grammar > Implementations Large HPSG grammars of various languages are being developed in the Deep Linguistic Processing with HPSG Initiative (DELPH-IN). Wide-coverage grammars of English, German, and Japanese are available under an open-source license.
Common proper motion E Field_star > E Compare solstice. escape velocity The minimum speed that must be achieved for a free, non-propelled object to escape from the gravitational influence of a massive body, i.e. to achieve an infinite distance from it; more generally, escape velocity is the speed at which the sum of an object's kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy is equal to zero. It is a function of the mass of the body and of the distance between the object and the body's center of mass.
Linked data structure Example in C Linked_data_structure > Common types of linked data structures > Linked lists > Example in C This is an example of the structure used for implementation of linked list in C: This is an example using typedefs: Note: A structure like this which contains a member that points to the same structure is called a self-referential structure.
Electron carrier Terminal oxidases and reductases Electron_transport > Bacterial electron transport chains > Terminal oxidases and reductases When bacteria grow in aerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor (O2) is reduced to water by an enzyme called an oxidase. When bacteria grow in anaerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor is reduced by an enzyme called a reductase. In mitochondria the terminal membrane complex (Complex IV) is cytochrome oxidase. Aerobic bacteria use a number of different terminal oxidases.
Metabolic process Evolution Metabolic_reaction > Evolution These include the sequential addition of novel enzymes to a short ancestral pathway, the duplication and then divergence of entire pathways as well as the recruitment of pre-existing enzymes and their assembly into a novel reaction pathway. The relative importance of these mechanisms is unclear, but genomic studies have shown that enzymes in a pathway are likely to have a shared ancestry, suggesting that many pathways have evolved in a step-by-step fashion with novel functions created from pre-existing steps in the pathway. An alternative model comes from studies that trace the evolution of proteins' structures in metabolic networks, this has suggested that enzymes are pervasively recruited, borrowing enzymes to perform similar functions in different metabolic pathways (evident in the MANET database) These recruitment processes result in an evolutionary enzymatic mosaic.
Quasi-Monte Carlo methods in finance Monte Carlo and quasi-Monte Carlo methods Quasi-Monte_Carlo_methods_in_finance > Monte Carlo and quasi-Monte Carlo methods In Fall 1994 Paskov wrote a Columbia University Computer Science Report which appeared in slightly modified form in 1997.In Fall 1995 Paskov and Traub published a paper in the "Journal of Portfolio Management". They compared MC and two QMC methods. The two deterministic methods used Sobol and Halton points.
USB communications Protocol layer USB_communications > Protocol layer The first byte is a packet identifier (PID) byte. The PID is actually 4 bits; the byte consists of the 4-bit PID followed by its bitwise complement. This redundancy helps detect errors.
Radio transmitter design Removal of harmonics with filters Radio_transmitter_design > EMC matters > Spurious emissions > Harmonics > Removal of harmonics with filters In addition to the good design of the amplifier stages, the transmitter's output should be filtered with a low-pass filter to reduce the level of the harmonics. Typically the input and output are interchangeable and match to 50 ohms. Inductance and capacity values will vary with frequency. Many transmitters switch in a suitable filter for the frequency band being used.
Innate lymphoid cell Summary Type_1_innate_lymphoid_cell Characteristics allowing their differentiation from other immune cells include the regular lymphoid morphology, absence of rearranged antigen receptors found on T cells and B cells (due to the lack of the RAG gene), and phenotypic markers usually present on myeloid or dendritic cells.Based on the difference in developmental pathways, phenotype, and signalling molecules produced, in 2013, ILCs were divided into three groups: 1, 2 and 3, however, after further investigation, they are now divided into five groups: NK cells, ILC1s, ILC2s, ILC3s, and lymphoid tissue inducer (LTi) cells. ILCs are implicated in multiple physiological functions, including tissue homeostasis, morphogenesis, metabolism, repair, and regeneration. Many of their roles are similar to T cells, therefore they have been suggested to be the innate counterparts of T cells. The dysregulation of ILCs can lead to immune pathology such as allergy, bronchial asthma and autoimmune disease.
Multilevel Monte Carlo method Applications Multilevel_Monte_Carlo_method > Applications The first application of MLMC is attributed to Mike Giles, in the context of stochastic differential equations (SDEs) for option pricing, however, earlier traces are found in the work of Heinrich in the context of parametric integration. Here, the random variable G = f ( X ( T ) ) {\displaystyle G=f(X(T))} is known as the payoff function, and the sequence of approximations G ℓ {\displaystyle G_{\ell }} , ℓ = 0 , … , L {\displaystyle \ell =0,\ldots ,L} use an approximation to the sample path X ( t ) {\displaystyle X(t)} with time step h ℓ = 2 − ℓ T {\displaystyle h_{\ell }=2^{-\ell }T} . The application of MLMC to problems in uncertainty quantification (UQ) is an active area of research. An important prototypical example of these problems are partial differential equations (PDEs) with random coefficients. In this context, the random variable G {\displaystyle G} is known as the quantity of interest, and the sequence of approximations corresponds to a discretization of the PDE with different mesh sizes.
Squircle Summary Squircle A squircle is a shape intermediate between a square and a circle. There are at least two definitions of "squircle" in use, the most common of which is based on the superellipse. The word "squircle" is a portmanteau of the words "square" and "circle". Squircles have been applied in design and optics.
Plastid terminal oxidase Chlororespiration and electron flux Plastid_terminal_oxidase > Function > Chlororespiration and electron flux The most confirmed function of plastid terminal oxidase in developed chloroplasts is its role in chlororespiration. In this process, NADPH dehydrogenase (NDH) reduces the quinone pool and the terminal oxidase oxidizes it, serving the same function as cytochrome c oxidase from mitochondrial electron transport. In Chlamydomonas, there are two copies of the gene for the oxidase. PTOX2 significantly contributes to the flux of electrons through chlororespiration in the dark.
Genetic informatics BioCompute and BioCompute Objects Bioinformatics > Software and tools > BioCompute and BioCompute Objects Session leaders represented numerous branches of the FDA and NIH Institutes and Centers, non-profit entities including the Human Variome Project and the European Federation for Medical Informatics, and research institutions including Stanford, the New York Genome Center, and the George Washington University. It was decided that the BioCompute paradigm would be in the form of digital 'lab notebooks' which allow for the reproducibility, replication, review, and reuse, of bioinformatics protocols. This was proposed to enable greater continuity within a research group over the course of normal personnel flux while furthering the exchange of ideas between groups.
Calibration Standards required and accuracy Calibration > Basic calibration process > Standards required and accuracy If the calibration is performed at 100 units, the 1% standard would actually be anywhere between 99 and 101 units. The acceptable values of calibrations where the test equipment is at the 4:1 ratio would be 96 to 104 units, inclusive. Changing the acceptable range to 97 to 103 units would remove the potential contribution of all of the standards and preserve a 3.3:1 ratio.
Protein bound Drug interactions Protein_bound > Impact of the altered protein binding > Drug interactions This is often explained as being due to the effect of phenylbutazone ejecting warfarin from its plasma protein, thus increasing the concentration of free warfarin and increasing its anticoagulant effect. However, the real problem is that phenylbutazone interferes with the liver's ability to metabolize warfarin so free warfarin cannot be metabolized properly or excreted. This leads to an increase in free warfarin and the resulting bleeding problems.
Helen Longino Philosophical work Helen_Longino > Philosophical work Rather, the relevance of any particular data for any given hypothesis is decided by human beliefs and assumptions about what kinds of data can support what kinds of hypotheses. Moreover, even when the relevance of evidence is decided, there remains a logical gap between evidence and full justification of interesting scientific theories (the traditional philosophical problem of underdetermination of theories). This gap, too, must be bridged by beliefs and assumptions about legitimate reasoning in order for evidence to help us decide which hypotheses to accept as true.Fortunately, the use of diverse perspectives to criticize hypotheses can turn some of those hypotheses into scientific knowledge.
Social immunity Summary Social_immunity Social immunity is any antiparasite defence mounted for the benefit of individuals other than the actor. For parasites, the frequent contact, high population density and low genetic variability makes social groups of organisms a promising target for infection: this has driven the evolution of collective and cooperative anti-parasite mechanisms that both prevent the establishment of and reduce the damage of diseases among group members. Social immune mechanisms range from the prophylactic, such as burying beetles smearing their carcasses with antimicrobials or termites fumigating their nests with naphthalene, to the active defenses seen in the imprisoning of parasitic beetles by honeybees or by the miniature 'hitchhiking' leafcutter ants which travel on larger worker's leaves to fight off parasitoid flies. Whilst many specific social immune mechanisms had been studied in relative isolation (e.g. the "collective medication" of wood ants), it was not until Sylvia Cremer et al.'s 2007 paper "Social Immunity" that the topic was seriously considered.
Fatigue Testing Test article Fatigue_Testing > Full scale fatigue tests > Test article Certification requires knowing and accounting for the complete load history that has been experienced by a test article. Using test articles that have previously been used for static proof testing have caused problems where overloads have been applied and that can retard the rate of fatigue crack growth. The test loads are typically recorded using a data acquisition system acquiring data from possibly thousands of inputs from instrumentation installed on the test article, including: strain gages, pressure gauges, load cells, LVDTs, etc. Fatigue cracks typically initiate from high stress regions such as stress concentrations or material and manufacturing defects. It is important that the test article is representative of all of these features.
Systematic errors Characterization Systematic_errors > Characterization In fact, it conceptualizes its basic uncertainty categories in these terms. Random error can be caused by unpredictable fluctuations in the readings of a measurement apparatus, or in the experimenter's interpretation of the instrumental reading; these fluctuations may be in part due to interference of the environment with the measurement process. The concept of random error is closely related to the concept of precision. The higher the precision of a measurement instrument, the smaller the variability (standard deviation) of the fluctuations in its readings.
General equilibrium Stability General_equilibrium > Properties and characterization of general equilibrium > Stability In a typical general equilibrium model the prices that prevail "when the dust settles" are simply those that coordinate the demands of various consumers for various goods. But this raises the question of how these prices and allocations have been arrived at, and whether any (temporary) shock to the economy will cause it to converge back to the same outcome that prevailed before the shock. This is the question of stability of the equilibrium, and it can be readily seen that it is related to the question of uniqueness. If there are multiple equilibria, then some of them will be unstable.
Free convection Stack effect Convection_current > Examples and applications > Stack effect The Stack effect or chimney effect is the movement of air into and out of buildings, chimneys, flue gas stacks, or other containers due to buoyancy. Buoyancy occurs due to a difference in indoor-to-outdoor air density resulting from temperature and moisture differences. The greater the thermal difference and the height of the structure, the greater the buoyancy force, and thus the stack effect. The stack effect helps drive natural ventilation and infiltration. Some cooling towers operate on this principle; similarly the solar updraft tower is a proposed device to generate electricity based on the stack effect.
Bioinformatics workflow management systems Summary Bioinformatics_workflow_management_systems A bioinformatics workflow management system is a specialized form of workflow management system designed specifically to compose and execute a series of computational or data manipulation steps, or a workflow, that relate to bioinformatics. There are currently many different workflow systems. Some have been developed more generally as scientific workflow systems for use by scientists from many different disciplines like astronomy and earth science. All such systems are based on an abstract representation of how a computation proceeds in the form of a directed graph, where each node represents a task to be executed and edges represent either data flow or execution dependencies between different tasks. Each system typically provides a visual front-end, allowing the user to build and modify complex applications with little or no programming expertise.
Object Query Language Summary Object_Query_Language Object Query Language (OQL) is a query language standard for object-oriented databases modeled after SQL and developed by the Object Data Management Group (ODMG). Because of its overall complexity the complete OQL standard has not yet been fully implemented in any software. The OQL standard influenced the design of later query languages such as JDOQL and EJB QL, though none are considered to be any version of OQL.
Index of protein-related articles Summary Index_of_protein-related_articles Proteins are a class of biomolecules composed of amino acid chains.
Kepler-444d Characteristics Kepler-444c > Characteristics This implies that small, including Earth-size, planets may have readily formed at earlier epochs in the Universe's history when metals were more scarce. We report Kepler spacecraft observations of Kepler-444, a metal-poor Sun-like star from the old population of the Galactic thick disk and the host to a compact system of five transiting planets with sizes between those of Mercury and Venus. We validate this system as a true five-planet system orbiting the target star and provide a detailed characterization of its planetary and orbital parameters based on an analysis of the transit photometry.
Coding sequence Regulation Coding_DNA_sequence > Regulation The regulatory sequence will then determine the location and time that expression will occur for a protein coding region.RNA splicing ultimately determines what part of the sequence becomes translated and expressed, and this process involves cutting out introns and putting together exons. Where the RNA spliceosome cuts, however, is guided by the recognition of splice sites, in particular the 5' splicing site, which is one of the substrates for the first step in splicing. The coding regions are within the exons, which become covalently joined together to form the mature messenger RNA.
Academy of Technical Training Courses Academy_of_Technical_Training > Courses Along with class room studies a practical exercise on a simulated air accident is conducted. Marshalling & Signaling (Ramp Safety) course provides the students with knowledge to assuming their responsibilities as supervisor/manager in handling the aircraft on ground. Ops Room Management Military Base & Sqd course provides the students with knowledge to manage a military operation at the Base or Squadron level.
Proof theorist History Proof_theorist > History However, modified versions of Hilbert's program emerged and research has been carried out on related topics. This has led, in particular, to: Refinement of Gödel's result, particularly J. Barkley Rosser's refinement, weakening the above requirement of ω-consistency to simple consistency; Axiomatisation of the core of Gödel's result in terms of a modal language, provability logic; Transfinite iteration of theories, due to Alan Turing and Solomon Feferman; The discovery of self-verifying theories, systems strong enough to talk about themselves, but too weak to carry out the diagonal argument that is the key to Gödel's unprovability argument.In parallel to the rise and fall of Hilbert's program, the foundations of structural proof theory were being founded. Jan Łukasiewicz suggested in 1926 that one could improve on Hilbert systems as a basis for the axiomatic presentation of logic if one allowed the drawing of conclusions from assumptions in the inference rules of the logic.
Post-order traversal Arbitrary trees Inorder_traversal > Types > Depth-first search > Arbitrary trees Also, in practice more than one of pre-order, post-order, and in-order operations may be required. For example, when inserting into a ternary tree, a pre-order operation is performed by comparing items. A post-order operation may be needed afterwards to re-balance the tree.
Euclidean quantum gravity Application in quantum mechanics Euclidean_quantum_gravity > Introduction in layperson's terms > Application in quantum mechanics In 1966 an explicitly gauge invariant functional-integral algorithm was found by DeWitt, which extended Feynman's new rules to all orders. What is appealing in this new approach is its lack of singularities when they are unavoidable in general relativity. Another operational problem with general relativity is the computational difficulty, because of the complexity of the mathematical tools used.
ROHHAD Autonomic dysfunction treatment ROHHAD > Management > Autonomic dysfunction treatment This may require a cardiac pacemaker be placed in order to regulate heartbeat. Gastrointestinal problems, such as constipation or diarrhea, are often treated on an as-needed basis with laxatives or dietary changes. It is also important that ambient temperatures are monitored in patients who have temperature regulation issues such as hyperthermia or hypothermia.
Non-linear least squares Calculation of the Jacobian by numerical approximation Non-linear_least_squares > Computation > Calculation of the Jacobian by numerical approximation There are models for which it is either very difficult or even impossible to derive analytical expressions for the elements of the Jacobian. Then, the numerical approximation is obtained by calculation of f ( x i , β ) {\displaystyle f(x_{i},{\boldsymbol {\beta }})} for β j {\displaystyle \beta _{j}} and β j + δ β j {\displaystyle \beta _{j}+\delta \beta _{j}} . The increment, δ β j {\displaystyle \delta \beta _{j}} , size should be chosen so the numerical derivative is not subject to approximation error by being too large, or round-off error by being too small.
Psychological development Mathematical models Child_psychologist > Mathematical models Dynamic systems models illustrate how many different features of a complex system may interact to yield emergent behaviors and abilities. Nonlinear dynamics has been applied to human systems specifically to address issues that require attention to temporality such as life transitions, human development, and behavioral or emotional change over time. Nonlinear dynamic systems is currently being explored as a way to explain discrete phenomena of human development such as affect, second language acquisition, and locomotion.
Transition metal catalyst Coloured compounds Transition_element > Characteristic properties > Coloured compounds The pattern of splitting of the d orbitals can be calculated using crystal field theory. The extent of the splitting depends on the particular metal, its oxidation state and the nature of the ligands. The actual energy levels are shown on Tanabe–Sugano diagrams.In centrosymmetric complexes, such as octahedral complexes, d–d transitions are forbidden by the Laporte rule and only occur because of vibronic coupling in which a molecular vibration occurs together with a d–d transition.
Darwin Lagrangian Interacting particles Darwin_Lagrangian > Lagrangian equations of motion > Interacting particles For interacting particles, the equation of motion becomes
Discovery and development of gastrointestinal lipase inhibitors Mechanism of action Discovery_and_development_of_gastrointestinal_lipase_inhibitors > Mechanism of action This results in a conformational change in the enzyme which causes exposing of the catalytic active site. When the active site is exposed, the hydroxyl group on the serine residue is acylated. This leads to irreversible inactivation of the enzyme.
Neural network Summary Neural_network For example, an acceptable range of output is usually between 0 and 1, or it could be −1 and 1. These artificial networks may be used for predictive modeling, adaptive control and applications where they can be trained via a dataset. Self-learning resulting from experience can occur within networks, which can derive conclusions from a complex and seemingly unrelated set of information.
Statics Moment about a point Static_structure > Background > Moment of a force > Moment about a point f i 0 . . . f i j ) {\displaystyle F=\left({\begin{array}{cc}f_{00}&...&f_{0j}\\f_{01}&...&f_{1j}\\...&...&...\\f_{i0}&...&f_{ij}\\\end{array}}\right)}
Soil Moisture Velocity Equation Physical significance Soil_Moisture_Velocity_Equation > Physical significance This term is responsible for the true advection of water through the soil under the combined influences of gravity and capillarity. As such, it is called the "advection-like" term. Neglecting gravity and the scalar wetting front capillarity, we can consider only the second term on the right-hand side of the SMVE.
Nonformal learning Contested definitions Nonformal_learning > Contested definitions This has learning both in a formal setting with a learning framework and as an organised event but within a qualification. "Non-formal learning: learning that is not provided by an education or training institution and typically does not lead to certification. It is, however, structured (in terms of learning objectives, learning time or learning support).
Digital network Wireless Data_networks > Network links > Wireless Communications satellites – Satellites also communicate via microwave. The satellites are stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.
Interatomic potential Non-parametric potentials Interatomic_potentials > Classes of interatomic potentials > Non-parametric potentials E {\displaystyle E} is a machine-learning model that provides a prediction for the energy of atom i {\displaystyle i} based on the descriptor output. An accurate machine-learning potential requires both a robust descriptor and a suitable machine learning framework. The simplest descriptor is the set of interatomic distances from atom i {\displaystyle i} to its neighbours, yielding a machine-learned pair potential.
Finite Element Analysis General form of the finite element method Finite_element > Discretization > General form of the finite element method If one combines these two refinement types, one obtains an hp-method (hp-FEM). In the hp-FEM, the polynomial degrees can vary from element to element.
Intussusceptive angiogenesis Research Intussusceptive_angiogenesis > Research In a small study comparing the lungs of patients who had died from COVID-19 to those that had died from influenza A pneumonia (H1N1) to uninfected controls during autopsy; there was a significantly greater density of intussusceptive angiogenic features in the lungs of patients who had died from Covid-19 as compared to influenza A and the control group. The degree of intussusceptive angiogenic features in the lungs from the Covid-19 patients were also found to be greater as the length of hospitalization increased (which was not seen in the influenza or control groups). This suggests that increased or enhanced intussusceptive angiogenesis is seen in Covid-19 and may play a role in pathogenesis.
Gaussian Processes Summary Gaussian_Process In probability theory and statistics, a Gaussian process is a stochastic process (a collection of random variables indexed by time or space), such that every finite collection of those random variables has a multivariate normal distribution, i.e. every finite linear combination of them is normally distributed. The distribution of a Gaussian process is the joint distribution of all those (infinitely many) random variables, and as such, it is a distribution over functions with a continuous domain, e.g. time or space. The concept of Gaussian processes is named after Carl Friedrich Gauss because it is based on the notion of the Gaussian distribution (normal distribution). Gaussian processes can be seen as an infinite-dimensional generalization of multivariate normal distributions.
DNA extraction Quality control DNA_extraction > Quality control The DNA is loaded onto an agarose gel and then subjected to an electric field, which causes the DNA to migrate through the gel. The migration of the DNA can be visualized using ethidium bromide, which intercalates into the DNA and fluoresces under UV light.
Interactionist dualism Causal Overdetermination Interactionist_dualism > Objections > Causal Overdetermination However, Vilanayur S. Ramachandran and William Hirstein (1997) argue that Occam's razor is not useful for scientific discovery. They exemplify the above with the discovery of relativity in physics, which was not the product of accepting Occam's razor but rather of rejecting it and asking the question of whether it could be that a deeper generalization, not required by the currently available data, was true and allowed for unexpected predictions. Most scientific discoveries arise, these authors argue, from ontologically promiscuous conjectures that do not come from current data.While causal closure remains a key obstacle for interactionism, it is not relevant to all forms of dualism; epiphenomenalism and parallelism are unaffected as they do not posit that the mind affects the body.
Neural scaling law Neural machine translation Neural_scaling_law > Examples > Other examples > Neural machine translation In contrast, models trained on target-original datasets achieve low loss and good BLEU score in tandem (Figure 10, 11 ).The authors hypothesize that source-natural datasets have uniform and dull target sentences, and so a model that is trained to predict the target sentences would quickly overfit. trained Transformers for machine translations with sizes N ∈ {\displaystyle N\in } on dataset sizes D ∈ {\displaystyle D\in } . They found the Kaplan et al (2020) scaling law applied to machine translation: L ( N , D ) = α D {\displaystyle L(N,D)=\left^{\alpha _{D}}} . They also found the BLEU score scaling as B L E U ≈ C e − k L {\displaystyle BLEU\approx Ce^{-kL}} .
Thyroid hormone receptor THRA gene mutation Thyroid_hormone_receptor > Disease linkage > THRA gene mutation Due to the high TR-α1 expression in the heart, the cardiovascular system is highly affected by this condition. Additionally, thyroid hormone plays an important role in bone development. Thus, patients with this condition have consistently presented with short stature.

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