id stringlengths 24 24 | question stringlengths 1 270 | answer stringlengths 1 239 | documents listlengths 1 1 |
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572908426aef0514001549d3 | Who proposed subspecies be defined by the seventy-five percent rule? | Dean Amadon | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nThis effectively means that populations of organisms must have reached a certain measurable level of difference to be recognised as subspecies. Dean Amadon proposed in 1949 that subspecies would be defined according to the seventy-five percent rule which means that 75% of a populatio... |
572908426aef0514001549d4 | What year did Dean Amadon make his proposal? | 1949 | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nThis effectively means that populations of organisms must have reached a certain measurable level of difference to be recognised as subspecies. Dean Amadon proposed in 1949 that subspecies would be defined according to the seventy-five percent rule which means that 75% of a populatio... |
572908426aef0514001549d5 | The 75% rule states how much of a population must lie outside the range of other populations for a defining set of characters? | 99% | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nThis effectively means that populations of organisms must have reached a certain measurable level of difference to be recognised as subspecies. Dean Amadon proposed in 1949 that subspecies would be defined according to the seventy-five percent rule which means that 75% of a populatio... |
572908426aef0514001549d6 | Many scholars argue what should be replaced with a ninety or ninety-five percent rule? | The seventy-five percent rule | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nThis effectively means that populations of organisms must have reached a certain measurable level of difference to be recognised as subspecies. Dean Amadon proposed in 1949 that subspecies would be defined according to the seventy-five percent rule which means that 75% of a populatio... |
572909393f37b31900477fc5 | When did Sewall Wright make his suggestion about human populations? | 1978 | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn 1978, Sewall Wright suggested that human populations that have long inhabited separated parts of the world should, in general, be considered different subspecies by the usual criterion that most individuals of such populations can be allocated correctly by inspection. Wright argue... |
572909393f37b31900477fc6 | How should populations long inhabiting separate parts of the world be considered? | different subspecies | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn 1978, Sewall Wright suggested that human populations that have long inhabited separated parts of the world should, in general, be considered different subspecies by the usual criterion that most individuals of such populations can be allocated correctly by inspection. Wright argue... |
572909393f37b31900477fc7 | What is required to allocate individuals in subspecies populations correctly? | inspection | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn 1978, Sewall Wright suggested that human populations that have long inhabited separated parts of the world should, in general, be considered different subspecies by the usual criterion that most individuals of such populations can be allocated correctly by inspection. Wright argue... |
572909393f37b31900477fc8 | What did Wright feel it wouldn't take an anthropologist to easily distinguish between of in groups? | individual | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn 1978, Sewall Wright suggested that human populations that have long inhabited separated parts of the world should, in general, be considered different subspecies by the usual criterion that most individuals of such populations can be allocated correctly by inspection. Wright argue... |
572909393f37b31900477fc9 | What term is it customary to use instead of subspecies? | race | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn 1978, Sewall Wright suggested that human populations that have long inhabited separated parts of the world should, in general, be considered different subspecies by the usual criterion that most individuals of such populations can be allocated correctly by inspection. Wright argue... |
572909d51d04691400778fb5 | What is cladistics a method of? | classification | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nCladistics is another method of classification. A clade is a taxonomic group of organisms consisting of a single common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor. Every creature produced by sexual reproduction has two immediate lineages, one maternal and one paternal. Whereas... |
572909d51d04691400778fb6 | What is a clade a taxonomic group of? | organisms | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nCladistics is another method of classification. A clade is a taxonomic group of organisms consisting of a single common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor. Every creature produced by sexual reproduction has two immediate lineages, one maternal and one paternal. Whereas... |
572909d51d04691400778fb7 | How many common ancestors does a clade have? | single | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nCladistics is another method of classification. A clade is a taxonomic group of organisms consisting of a single common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor. Every creature produced by sexual reproduction has two immediate lineages, one maternal and one paternal. Whereas... |
572909d51d04691400778fb8 | What is another term for a phylogenetic tree? | taxonomy | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nCladistics is another method of classification. A clade is a taxonomic group of organisms consisting of a single common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor. Every creature produced by sexual reproduction has two immediate lineages, one maternal and one paternal. Whereas... |
572909d51d04691400778fb9 | Which chromosome sequences are used to study ancient human migration paths? | Y | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nCladistics is another method of classification. A clade is a taxonomic group of organisms consisting of a single common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor. Every creature produced by sexual reproduction has two immediate lineages, one maternal and one paternal. Whereas... |
57290b1c6aef0514001549ec | What analysis method are taxonomists fond of using in considering a population? | phylogenetic | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nOften taxonomists prefer to use phylogenetic analysis to determine whether a population can be considered a subspecies. Phylogenetic analysis relies on the concept of derived characteristics that are not shared between groups, usually applying to populations that are allopatric (geog... |
57290b1c6aef0514001549ed | How are allopatric populations separated? | geographically | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nOften taxonomists prefer to use phylogenetic analysis to determine whether a population can be considered a subspecies. Phylogenetic analysis relies on the concept of derived characteristics that are not shared between groups, usually applying to populations that are allopatric (geog... |
57290b1c6aef0514001549ee | What is a group with a common evolutionary ancestor population called? | a clade | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nOften taxonomists prefer to use phylogenetic analysis to determine whether a population can be considered a subspecies. Phylogenetic analysis relies on the concept of derived characteristics that are not shared between groups, usually applying to populations that are allopatric (geog... |
57290b1c6aef0514001549ef | What is a tongue twister of a word that merely means "cleanly divided"? | monophyletic | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nOften taxonomists prefer to use phylogenetic analysis to determine whether a population can be considered a subspecies. Phylogenetic analysis relies on the concept of derived characteristics that are not shared between groups, usually applying to populations that are allopatric (geog... |
57290b1c6aef0514001549f0 | Who argued in 2003 that all clades are by definition monophyletic groups? | Rachel Caspari | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nOften taxonomists prefer to use phylogenetic analysis to determine whether a population can be considered a subspecies. Phylogenetic analysis relies on the concept of derived characteristics that are not shared between groups, usually applying to populations that are allopatric (geog... |
57290c2f3f37b31900477fcf | What did Lieberman and Jackon find profound problems using cladistics to support concepts of? | race | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nFor the anthropologists Lieberman and Jackson (1995), however, there are more profound methodological and conceptual problems with using cladistics to support concepts of race. They claim that \"the molecular and biochemical proponents of this model explicitly use racial categories i... |
57290c2f3f37b31900477fd0 | What would the diverse group of East Indians, North Africans and Europeans be grouped as prior to DNA analysis? | Caucasians | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nFor the anthropologists Lieberman and Jackson (1995), however, there are more profound methodological and conceptual problems with using cladistics to support concepts of race. They claim that \"the molecular and biochemical proponents of this model explicitly use racial categories i... |
57290c2f3f37b31900477fd1 | Cladistics can limit and skew what? | interpretations | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nFor the anthropologists Lieberman and Jackson (1995), however, there are more profound methodological and conceptual problems with using cladistics to support concepts of race. They claim that \"the molecular and biochemical proponents of this model explicitly use racial categories i... |
57290c2f3f37b31900477fd2 | Lieberman and Jackson suggest authors of some studies use the term race in what ways? | conceptually imprecise and careless | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nFor the anthropologists Lieberman and Jackson (1995), however, there are more profound methodological and conceptual problems with using cladistics to support concepts of race. They claim that \"the molecular and biochemical proponents of this model explicitly use racial categories i... |
57290c2f3f37b31900477fd3 | What is variation found in that can be labeled as races? | packages | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nFor the anthropologists Lieberman and Jackson (1995), however, there are more profound methodological and conceptual problems with using cladistics to support concepts of race. They claim that \"the molecular and biochemical proponents of this model explicitly use racial categories i... |
57290ceeaf94a219006a9fd7 | What did C. Loring Brace observe about about variations? | distributed along geographic gradations or clines | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nOne crucial innovation in reconceptualizing genotypic and phenotypic variation was the anthropologist C. Loring Brace's observation that such variations, insofar as it is affected by natural selection, slow migration, or genetic drift, are distributed along geographic gradations or c... |
57290ceeaf94a219006a9fd8 | Why are variations distributed along clines? | isolation by distance | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nOne crucial innovation in reconceptualizing genotypic and phenotypic variation was the anthropologist C. Loring Brace's observation that such variations, insofar as it is affected by natural selection, slow migration, or genetic drift, are distributed along geographic gradations or c... |
57290ceeaf94a219006a9fd9 | What is a problem common to phenotype-based descriptions of races? | they ignore a host of other similarities and differences | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nOne crucial innovation in reconceptualizing genotypic and phenotypic variation was the anthropologist C. Loring Brace's observation that such variations, insofar as it is affected by natural selection, slow migration, or genetic drift, are distributed along geographic gradations or c... |
57290ceeaf94a219006a9fda | What is Frank Livingstone's profession? | anthropologist | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nOne crucial innovation in reconceptualizing genotypic and phenotypic variation was the anthropologist C. Loring Brace's observation that such variations, insofar as it is affected by natural selection, slow migration, or genetic drift, are distributed along geographic gradations or c... |
57290ceeaf94a219006a9fdb | What is the conclusion from the evidence that clines cross racial boundaries? | there are no races, only clines | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nOne crucial innovation in reconceptualizing genotypic and phenotypic variation was the anthropologist C. Loring Brace's observation that such variations, insofar as it is affected by natural selection, slow migration, or genetic drift, are distributed along geographic gradations or c... |
57290dc41d04691400778fd7 | What must one be attentive to when talking about race? | how the term is being used | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn a response to Livingstone, Theodore Dobzhansky argued that when talking about race one must be attentive to how the term is being used: \"I agree with Dr. Livingstone that if races have to be 'discrete units,' then there are no races, and if 'race' is used as an 'explanation' of t... |
57290dc41d04691400778fd8 | On what point did Dobzhansky agree with Dr. Livingstone? | if races have to be 'discrete units,' then there are no races | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn a response to Livingstone, Theodore Dobzhansky argued that when talking about race one must be attentive to how the term is being used: \"I agree with Dr. Livingstone that if races have to be 'discrete units,' then there are no races, and if 'race' is used as an 'explanation' of t... |
57290dc41d04691400778fd9 | What is merely "a matter of judgement"? | "the race concept." | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn a response to Livingstone, Theodore Dobzhansky argued that when talking about race one must be attentive to how the term is being used: \"I agree with Dr. Livingstone that if races have to be 'discrete units,' then there are no races, and if 'race' is used as an 'explanation' of t... |
57290dc41d04691400778fda | While race difference possible to easily see, they need not be given what? | labels | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn a response to Livingstone, Theodore Dobzhansky argued that when talking about race one must be attentive to how the term is being used: \"I agree with Dr. Livingstone that if races have to be 'discrete units,' then there are no races, and if 'race' is used as an 'explanation' of t... |
57290dc41d04691400778fdb | Livingston and Dobzhansky disagree on whether the race concept is what? | a meaningful and useful social convention | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn a response to Livingstone, Theodore Dobzhansky argued that when talking about race one must be attentive to how the term is being used: \"I agree with Dr. Livingstone that if races have to be 'discrete units,' then there are no races, and if 'race' is used as an 'explanation' of t... |
57290ea91d04691400778ff3 | What did two biologists point out in 1964? | cases where two or more clines are distributed discordantly | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn 1964, the biologists Paul Ehrlich and Holm pointed out cases where two or more clines are distributed discordantly—for example, melanin is distributed in a decreasing pattern from the equator north and south; frequencies for the haplotype for beta-S hemoglobin, on the other hand, ... |
57290ea91d04691400778ff4 | What gene distribution decreases as you move away from the equator in either direction? | melanin | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn 1964, the biologists Paul Ehrlich and Holm pointed out cases where two or more clines are distributed discordantly—for example, melanin is distributed in a decreasing pattern from the equator north and south; frequencies for the haplotype for beta-S hemoglobin, on the other hand, ... |
57290ea91d04691400778ff5 | What do the frequencies for the haplotype for beta-5 hemogoblin do from specific points in Africa? | radiate | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn 1964, the biologists Paul Ehrlich and Holm pointed out cases where two or more clines are distributed discordantly—for example, melanin is distributed in a decreasing pattern from the equator north and south; frequencies for the haplotype for beta-S hemoglobin, on the other hand, ... |
57290ea91d04691400778ff6 | To what profession do both Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda Jackson belong? | anthropologists | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn 1964, the biologists Paul Ehrlich and Holm pointed out cases where two or more clines are distributed discordantly—for example, melanin is distributed in a decreasing pattern from the equator north and south; frequencies for the haplotype for beta-S hemoglobin, on the other hand, ... |
57290ea91d04691400778ff7 | What patterns of heterogeneity falsify any descriptions of population? | Discordant | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn 1964, the biologists Paul Ehrlich and Holm pointed out cases where two or more clines are distributed discordantly—for example, melanin is distributed in a decreasing pattern from the equator north and south; frequencies for the haplotype for beta-S hemoglobin, on the other hand, ... |
57290f651d04691400778ffd | What is the consequence of the number and geographic location ascribed to a race highly dependent on? | the importance attributed to, and quantity of, the traits considered. | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nPatterns such as those seen in human physical and genetic variation as described above, have led to the consequence that the number and geographic location of any described races is highly dependent on the importance attributed to, and quantity of, the traits considered. Scientists d... |
57290f651d04691400778ffe | What mutation did scientists discover? | skin-lighting | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nPatterns such as those seen in human physical and genetic variation as described above, have led to the consequence that the number and geographic location of any described races is highly dependent on the importance attributed to, and quantity of, the traits considered. Scientists d... |
57290f651d04691400778fff | What partially accounts for the appearance of light skin in humans? | mutation | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nPatterns such as those seen in human physical and genetic variation as described above, have led to the consequence that the number and geographic location of any described races is highly dependent on the importance attributed to, and quantity of, the traits considered. Scientists d... |
57290f651d04691400779000 | What do East Asians have to thank for their relatively light skin? | different mutations | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nPatterns such as those seen in human physical and genetic variation as described above, have led to the consequence that the number and geographic location of any described races is highly dependent on the importance attributed to, and quantity of, the traits considered. Scientists d... |
57290f651d04691400779001 | Traits and gene frequencies do not always correspond to what type of location? | geographical | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nPatterns such as those seen in human physical and genetic variation as described above, have led to the consequence that the number and geographic location of any described races is highly dependent on the importance attributed to, and quantity of, the traits considered. Scientists d... |
572910671d04691400779007 | What thing that strongly differentiates the French from some other populations be clinal across Europe? | a selected allele | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nCoop et al. (2009) found \"a selected allele that strongly differentiates the French from both the Yoruba and Han could be strongly clinal across Europe, or at high frequency in Europe and absent elsewhere, or follow any other distribution according to the geographic nature of the se... |
572910671d04691400779008 | When did Coop and others find out something about a selected allele? | 2009 | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nCoop et al. (2009) found \"a selected allele that strongly differentiates the French from both the Yoruba and Han could be strongly clinal across Europe, or at high frequency in Europe and absent elsewhere, or follow any other distribution according to the geographic nature of the se... |
572910671d04691400779009 | Something that is found at high frequency in Europe could be what elsewhere? | absent | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nCoop et al. (2009) found \"a selected allele that strongly differentiates the French from both the Yoruba and Han could be strongly clinal across Europe, or at high frequency in Europe and absent elsewhere, or follow any other distribution according to the geographic nature of the se... |
572910671d0469140077900a | How many major geographic patterns do the global distributions fall into? | three | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nCoop et al. (2009) found \"a selected allele that strongly differentiates the French from both the Yoruba and Han could be strongly clinal across Europe, or at high frequency in Europe and absent elsewhere, or follow any other distribution according to the geographic nature of the se... |
572910671d0469140077900b | What are sweeps? | major geographic patterns | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nCoop et al. (2009) found \"a selected allele that strongly differentiates the French from both the Yoruba and Han could be strongly clinal across Europe, or at high frequency in Europe and absent elsewhere, or follow any other distribution according to the geographic nature of the se... |
5729117aaf94a219006aa01d | What can one use to look at differences between groups instead of physical differences? | genetic differences | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nAnother way to look at differences between populations is to measure genetic differences rather than physical differences between groups. The mid-20th-century anthropologist William C. Boyd defined race as: \"A population which differs significantly from other populations in regard t... |
5729117aaf94a219006aa01e | Who was William C. Boyd? | mid-20th-century anthropologist | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nAnother way to look at differences between populations is to measure genetic differences rather than physical differences between groups. The mid-20th-century anthropologist William C. Boyd defined race as: \"A population which differs significantly from other populations in regard t... |
5729117aaf94a219006aa01f | Boyd felt race was based on a specific differentiation of the frequency of what in a population? | genes | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nAnother way to look at differences between populations is to measure genetic differences rather than physical differences between groups. The mid-20th-century anthropologist William C. Boyd defined race as: \"A population which differs significantly from other populations in regard t... |
5729117aaf94a219006aa020 | How numerous would the number of races be if one gene can distinguish races? | number of human couples reproducing | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nAnother way to look at differences between populations is to measure genetic differences rather than physical differences between groups. The mid-20th-century anthropologist William C. Boyd defined race as: \"A population which differs significantly from other populations in regard t... |
5729117aaf94a219006aa021 | What may people who have lived in the same area for generations have in common? | alleles | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nAnother way to look at differences between populations is to measure genetic differences rather than physical differences between groups. The mid-20th-century anthropologist William C. Boyd defined race as: \"A population which differs significantly from other populations in regard t... |
57291a91af94a219006aa075 | What did Sewall Wright develop one way of measuring? | genetic differences between populations | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nThe population geneticist Sewall Wright developed one way of measuring genetic differences between populations known as the Fixation index, which is often abbreviated to FST. This statistic is often used in taxonomy to compare differences between any two given populations by measurin... |
57291a91af94a219006aa076 | What was Wright's method known as? | the Fixation index | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nThe population geneticist Sewall Wright developed one way of measuring genetic differences between populations known as the Fixation index, which is often abbreviated to FST. This statistic is often used in taxonomy to compare differences between any two given populations by measurin... |
57291a91af94a219006aa077 | What is the often stated FST for humans? | 0.15 | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nThe population geneticist Sewall Wright developed one way of measuring genetic differences between populations known as the Fixation index, which is often abbreviated to FST. This statistic is often used in taxonomy to compare differences between any two given populations by measurin... |
57291a91af94a219006aa078 | Richard Lewontin, upon looking at the FST ratios, concluded race wasn't an appropriate or useful way to describe what? | human populations | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nThe population geneticist Sewall Wright developed one way of measuring genetic differences between populations known as the Fixation index, which is often abbreviated to FST. This statistic is often used in taxonomy to compare differences between any two given populations by measurin... |
57291a91af94a219006aa079 | Human group variation is similar to variation observed in what other species? | mammalian | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nThe population geneticist Sewall Wright developed one way of measuring genetic differences between populations known as the Fixation index, which is often abbreviated to FST. This statistic is often used in taxonomy to compare differences between any two given populations by measurin... |
57291b5a3f37b31900478023 | FST values greater than .25 represent very great what? | genetic variation | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nWright himself believed that values >0.25 represent very great genetic variation and that an FST of 0.15–0.25 represented great variation. However, about 5% of human variation occurs between populations within continents, therefore FST values between continental groups of humans (or ... |
57291b5a3f37b31900478024 | About how much human variation occurs between continental populations? | 5% | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nWright himself believed that values >0.25 represent very great genetic variation and that an FST of 0.15–0.25 represented great variation. However, about 5% of human variation occurs between populations within continents, therefore FST values between continental groups of humans (or ... |
57291b5a3f37b31900478025 | FST values as low as what amount have been found in some studies? | 0.1 | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nWright himself believed that values >0.25 represent very great genetic variation and that an FST of 0.15–0.25 represented great variation. However, about 5% of human variation occurs between populations within continents, therefore FST values between continental groups of humans (or ... |
57291b5a3f37b31900478026 | What is the name of the person who thinks FST shouldn't be used as a marker of subspecies status? | Graves | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nWright himself believed that values >0.25 represent very great genetic variation and that an FST of 0.15–0.25 represented great variation. However, about 5% of human variation occurs between populations within continents, therefore FST values between continental groups of humans (or ... |
57291b5a3f37b31900478027 | FST is used to measure the degree of differentiation between what? | populations | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nWright himself believed that values >0.25 represent very great genetic variation and that an FST of 0.15–0.25 represented great variation. However, about 5% of human variation occurs between populations within continents, therefore FST values between continental groups of humans (or ... |
57291cb21d0469140077905b | What two researchers gave a long critique regarding the application of FST to human populations in 2003? | Jeffrey Long and Rick Kittles | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nJeffrey Long and Rick Kittles give a long critique of the application of FST to human populations in their 2003 paper \"Human Genetic Diversity and the Nonexistence of Biological Races\". They find that the figure of 85% is misleading because it implies that all human populations con... |
57291cb21d0469140077905c | What do Long and Kittles think of the implication that human populations contain on average 85% of all genetic diversity? | misleading | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nJeffrey Long and Rick Kittles give a long critique of the application of FST to human populations in their 2003 paper \"Human Genetic Diversity and the Nonexistence of Biological Races\". They find that the figure of 85% is misleading because it implies that all human populations con... |
57291cb21d0469140077905d | Non-African groups of human population may only drive from what type of sample of the African population? | non-representative | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nJeffrey Long and Rick Kittles give a long critique of the application of FST to human populations in their 2003 paper \"Human Genetic Diversity and the Nonexistence of Biological Races\". They find that the figure of 85% is misleading because it implies that all human populations con... |
57291cb21d0469140077905e | What type of bottleneck did the migration out of Africa represent? | genetic | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nJeffrey Long and Rick Kittles give a long critique of the application of FST to human populations in their 2003 paper \"Human Genetic Diversity and the Nonexistence of Biological Races\". They find that the figure of 85% is misleading because it implies that all human populations con... |
57291cb21d0469140077905f | How much human genetic diversity exists in a single African population? | 100% | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nJeffrey Long and Rick Kittles give a long critique of the application of FST to human populations in their 2003 paper \"Human Genetic Diversity and the Nonexistence of Biological Races\". They find that the figure of 85% is misleading because it implies that all human populations con... |
57291d851d0469140077906b | What type of classification system for humans did A.W.F. Edwards argue for? | characteristic genetic patterns | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn his 2003 paper, \"Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin's Fallacy\", A. W. F. Edwards argued that rather than using a locus-by-locus analysis of variation to derive taxonomy, it is possible to construct a human classification system based on characteristic genetic patterns, or cluster... |
57291d851d0469140077906c | What might genetic clusters be shown to correspond to one day? | phenotypic variations between groups | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn his 2003 paper, \"Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin's Fallacy\", A. W. F. Edwards argued that rather than using a locus-by-locus analysis of variation to derive taxonomy, it is possible to construct a human classification system based on characteristic genetic patterns, or cluster... |
57291d851d0469140077906d | How is the relationship between genes and complex traits understood? | poorly | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn his 2003 paper, \"Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin's Fallacy\", A. W. F. Edwards argued that rather than using a locus-by-locus analysis of variation to derive taxonomy, it is possible to construct a human classification system based on characteristic genetic patterns, or cluster... |
57291d851d0469140077906e | Risch feels any category someone comes up with will be what? | imperfect | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn his 2003 paper, \"Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin's Fallacy\", A. W. F. Edwards argued that rather than using a locus-by-locus analysis of variation to derive taxonomy, it is possible to construct a human classification system based on characteristic genetic patterns, or cluster... |
57291d851d0469140077906f | Risch thinks imperfect categories still have what? | utility | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nIn his 2003 paper, \"Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin's Fallacy\", A. W. F. Edwards argued that rather than using a locus-by-locus analysis of variation to derive taxonomy, it is possible to construct a human classification system based on characteristic genetic patterns, or cluster... |
572920491d0469140077907d | What groups were early samples from for genetic cluster analysis? | ancestral population | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nEarly human genetic cluster analysis studies were conducted with samples taken from ancestral population groups living at extreme geographic distances from each other. It was thought that such large geographic distances would maximize the genetic variation between the groups sampled ... |
572920491d0469140077907e | Where did the groups the genetic clusters were taken from live from each other? | extreme geographic distances | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nEarly human genetic cluster analysis studies were conducted with samples taken from ancestral population groups living at extreme geographic distances from each other. It was thought that such large geographic distances would maximize the genetic variation between the groups sampled ... |
572920491d0469140077907f | What was thought might maximize the odds of finding unique cluster patterns in groups? | large geographic distances | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nEarly human genetic cluster analysis studies were conducted with samples taken from ancestral population groups living at extreme geographic distances from each other. It was thought that such large geographic distances would maximize the genetic variation between the groups sampled ... |
572920491d04691400779080 | What human activity has only recently accelerated? | migration | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nEarly human genetic cluster analysis studies were conducted with samples taken from ancestral population groups living at extreme geographic distances from each other. It was thought that such large geographic distances would maximize the genetic variation between the groups sampled ... |
572920491d04691400779081 | Human migration tends to accelerate this type of what flow? | gene | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nEarly human genetic cluster analysis studies were conducted with samples taken from ancestral population groups living at extreme geographic distances from each other. It was thought that such large geographic distances would maximize the genetic variation between the groups sampled ... |
5729225a1d04691400779091 | Randomly chosen people from different groups may be more similar to each other than with members of their own what? | cluster | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nWitherspoon et al. (2007) have argued that even when individuals can be reliably assigned to specific population groups, it may still be possible for two randomly chosen individuals from different populations/clusters to be more similar to each other than to a randomly chosen member ... |
5729225a1d04691400779092 | How many genetic markers need to be used to show people from different groups are dissimilar to each other? | thousands | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nWitherspoon et al. (2007) have argued that even when individuals can be reliably assigned to specific population groups, it may still be possible for two randomly chosen individuals from different populations/clusters to be more similar to each other than to a randomly chosen member ... |
5729225a1d04691400779093 | Studying increasing number of groups require an increasing number of what? | markers | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nWitherspoon et al. (2007) have argued that even when individuals can be reliably assigned to specific population groups, it may still be possible for two randomly chosen individuals from different populations/clusters to be more similar to each other than to a randomly chosen member ... |
5729225a1d04691400779094 | What should be used when using ancestry to make inferences about individual phenotypes? | caution | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nWitherspoon et al. (2007) have argued that even when individuals can be reliably assigned to specific population groups, it may still be possible for two randomly chosen individuals from different populations/clusters to be more similar to each other than to a randomly chosen member ... |
5729225a1d04691400779095 | People are more frequently similar to members of what populations? | other populations | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nWitherspoon et al. (2007) have argued that even when individuals can be reliably assigned to specific population groups, it may still be possible for two randomly chosen individuals from different populations/clusters to be more similar to each other than to a randomly chosen member ... |
5729234a1d046914007790a5 | Cluster structure of genetic data is dependent on what initial thing? | hypotheses | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nAnthropologists such as C. Loring Brace, the philosophers Jonathan Kaplan and Rasmus Winther, and the geneticist Joseph Graves,[page needed] have argued that while there it is certainly possible to find biological and genetic variation that corresponds roughly to the groupings normal... |
5729234a1d046914007790a6 | If one samples a continental group, what do the clusters become? | continental | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nAnthropologists such as C. Loring Brace, the philosophers Jonathan Kaplan and Rasmus Winther, and the geneticist Joseph Graves,[page needed] have argued that while there it is certainly possible to find biological and genetic variation that corresponds roughly to the groupings normal... |
5729234a1d046914007790a7 | What is not a natural taxonomy of the human species? | racial classification | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nAnthropologists such as C. Loring Brace, the philosophers Jonathan Kaplan and Rasmus Winther, and the geneticist Joseph Graves,[page needed] have argued that while there it is certainly possible to find biological and genetic variation that corresponds roughly to the groupings normal... |
5729234a1d046914007790a8 | What are objective social constructions? | racial groupings | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nAnthropologists such as C. Loring Brace, the philosophers Jonathan Kaplan and Rasmus Winther, and the geneticist Joseph Graves,[page needed] have argued that while there it is certainly possible to find biological and genetic variation that corresponds roughly to the groupings normal... |
5729234a1d046914007790a9 | What are diversity partition and clustering analysis are examples of? | methodologies | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nAnthropologists such as C. Loring Brace, the philosophers Jonathan Kaplan and Rasmus Winther, and the geneticist Joseph Graves,[page needed] have argued that while there it is certainly possible to find biological and genetic variation that corresponds roughly to the groupings normal... |
57292506af94a219006aa0ef | What word do many social scientists instead of race? | ethnicity | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nMany social scientists have replaced the word race with the word \"ethnicity\" to refer to self-identifying groups based on beliefs concerning shared culture, ancestry and history. Alongside empirical and conceptual problems with \"race\", following the Second World War, evolutionary... |
57292506af94a219006aa0f0 | What had been used to justify discrimination, apartheid, slavery and genocide in WWII? | beliefs about race | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nMany social scientists have replaced the word race with the word \"ethnicity\" to refer to self-identifying groups based on beliefs concerning shared culture, ancestry and history. Alongside empirical and conceptual problems with \"race\", following the Second World War, evolutionary... |
57292506af94a219006aa0f1 | When did the civil rights movement take place? | the 1960s | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nMany social scientists have replaced the word race with the word \"ethnicity\" to refer to self-identifying groups based on beliefs concerning shared culture, ancestry and history. Alongside empirical and conceptual problems with \"race\", following the Second World War, evolutionary... |
57292506af94a219006aa0f2 | What movement gained momentum worldwide in the 60's? | anti-colonial | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nMany social scientists have replaced the word race with the word \"ethnicity\" to refer to self-identifying groups based on beliefs concerning shared culture, ancestry and history. Alongside empirical and conceptual problems with \"race\", following the Second World War, evolutionary... |
57292506af94a219006aa0f3 | What type of reality do some believe race is a social construct corresponding to? | objective | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nMany social scientists have replaced the word race with the word \"ethnicity\" to refer to self-identifying groups based on beliefs concerning shared culture, ancestry and history. Alongside empirical and conceptual problems with \"race\", following the Second World War, evolutionary... |
5729259daf94a219006aa0f9 | What organization is Craig Venter and Francis Collins associated with? | the National Institute of Health | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nCraig Venter and Francis Collins of the National Institute of Health jointly made the announcement of the mapping of the human genome in 2000. Upon examining the data from the genome mapping, Venter realized that although the genetic variation within the human species is on the order... |
5729259daf94a219006aa0fa | What year was the announcement that the human genome had been mapped made in? | 2000 | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nCraig Venter and Francis Collins of the National Institute of Health jointly made the announcement of the mapping of the human genome in 2000. Upon examining the data from the genome mapping, Venter realized that although the genetic variation within the human species is on the order... |
5729259daf94a219006aa0fb | What doesn't the genetic variation within the human species support? | notion of genetically defined races | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nCraig Venter and Francis Collins of the National Institute of Health jointly made the announcement of the mapping of the human genome in 2000. Upon examining the data from the genome mapping, Venter realized that although the genetic variation within the human species is on the order... |
5729259daf94a219006aa0fc | What is a social concept, not a scientific one? | Race | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nCraig Venter and Francis Collins of the National Institute of Health jointly made the announcement of the mapping of the human genome in 2000. Upon examining the data from the genome mapping, Venter realized that although the genetic variation within the human species is on the order... |
5729259daf94a219006aa0fd | What happens when scientists try to apply science to sort out social differences? | it all falls apart | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nCraig Venter and Francis Collins of the National Institute of Health jointly made the announcement of the mapping of the human genome in 2000. Upon examining the data from the genome mapping, Venter realized that although the genetic variation within the human species is on the order... |
57292674af94a219006aa10d | Researchers from which university challenged the theory of race being only a social construct? | Stanford | [
"Race_(human_categorization)\n\nThe theory that race is merely a social construct has been challenged by the findings of researchers at the Stanford University School of Medicine, published in the American Journal of Human Genetics as \"Genetic Structure, Self-Identified Race/Ethnicity, and Confounding in Case-Cont... |
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