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the recalcitrant employer who decided to break ranks). Almost immediately, the magistrates decided to imbibe more of the magic medicine, and legal wage rates were pushed down to 16 pence a day for master carpenters and bricklayers, and correspondingly lower for other laborers. But the economic laws of the market made e... |
and ordered all wages to be "left free and at liberty as men shall reasonably agree." But Massachusetts Bay was not to remain wise for long. By 1633 the General Court became horrified again at higher wage rates in construction and other trades and at the propensity of the working classes to rise above their supposedly ... |
by spending their wages on luxuries. Denouncing "the great extortion … by divers persons of little conscience" and the "vain and idle waste of precious time," the court enacted a comprehensive and detailed wage-control program. The law of 1633 decreed a maximum of two shillings a day without board and 14 pence with boa... |
laborers were limited to 18 pence without. These rates were approximately double those of England for skilled craftsmen and treble for unskilled laborers. Constables were to set the wages of lesser laborers. Penalties were levied on the employers and the wage earners who violated the law. Sensing that maximum controls ... |
that no idleness was to be permitted. In effect, minimum hours were decreed in order to bolster the maximum-wage law — another form of compulsory labor. Workmen were ordered to work "the whole day, allowing convenient time for food and rest." Interestingly, the General Court soon decided to make an exception for the go... |
work on its public-works projects. A combination of the carrot and the stick was used: government officials were allowed to award "such extraordinary wages as they shall judge the work to deserve." On the other hand, they were empowered to send town constables to conscript laborers as the need arose. Although merchants... |
forcing down the wage rates of laborers, they were scarcely as happy about maximum controls on selling prices. The gentry were eager, however, to force downward the prices of products they needed to buy. A blend of mercantilist fallacies and Puritan suspicion of commerce, the result was persistent attempts to force com... |
price system on the free market, the Massachusetts authorities also felt that maximum-price control would bolster the maximum-wage-rate program. There was no understanding that general movements in prices and wages are governed by the supply of and demand for money, and that this too can best work itself out on the fre... |
1630 Massachusetts set the sterling price of corn at six shillings per bushel. Failing to work, this control was repealed along with the wage laws of 1631, and corn was "left at liberty to be sold as men can agree." In 1633, however, maximum-price controls were reimposed as an auxiliary to the wage controls. The massiv... |
be a failure; once again the quiet but powerful economic laws of the market had triumphed over the dramatic decrees of the coercive state. After one year the actual wage rates were 50 percent higher than the statutory levels. At that point, the General Court repealed the penalties against paying, but retained those aga... |
no employer had ever been tried or penalized under the old act, the wage law was now an open and flagrant piece of class legislation. This was nothing new, however, as there were ample precedents in English maximum-wage laws since the early 15th century. Another change made in 1634 allowed a little flexibility in decre... |
the legal rate in case of disputes. Only a year later the General Court, despairing of the continued failure of the law to take hold, repealed the comprehensive wage controls and the auxiliary price controls. Just before this comprehensive repeal, the courts had apparently been driven by the failure to inflict ever har... |
for failure to pay. The authorities were at the crossroads: should they begin to impose on workers violating clearly unworkable economic decrees the sort of punishment meted out to heretics or to critics of the government? Happily, common sense, in this case, finally prevailed. Made wary by its thundering failure, the ... |
on, it was content to engage in annoying, but not fatal, hit-and-run harassments of the market. Penalties were made discretionary, and in 1636 wage and price regulations were transferred by the provincial government to the individual towns, as suggested by the leading Puritan divine, Rev. John Cotton. The General Court... |
town, as had been anticipated, was even more ineffective than an overall plan, because each town, bidding against the others for laborers, competitively bid wages up to their market levels. The General Court wailed that all this was "to get the great dishonor of God, the scandal of the Gospel, and the grief of divers o... |
oligarchs of the Bay colony was appointed to suggest remedies, but could think of no solution. Of the towns, Dorchester was perhaps the most eager to impose wage controls. During the Pequot War, and again in 1642, it combined maximum wages with conscription of any laborer unwilling to work and to work long enough at th... |
in 1641, and Salem was active in prosecuting wage offenders. In 1635, the year of the repeal of the wage and price plan, the Massachusetts authorities tried a new angle: under the cloak of a desire to "combat monopolizing," the Massachusetts government created a legal monopoly of nine men — one from each of the existin... |
ships. This import monopoly was to board all the ships before anyone else, decide on the prices it would pay, and then buy the goods and limit itself to resale at a fixed 5 percent profit. But this attempt to combine monopoly with maximum-price control failed also. The outlawing of competing buyers could not be enforce... |
within four months. What ensued was far better but was still not pure freedom of entry. Instead, licensing was required of all importers, with preference usually given to friends of the government. Generally, the merchants were the most progressive, worldly, and cosmopolitan element in Massachusetts life. The merchants... |
But the rest of Massachusetts remained in the hands of a right alliance of Puritan zealots and landed gentry who dominated the magistrates' council and the governorship. During the decade of the 1630s only 2 out of 22 magistrates were merchants, 1 of these being the Hutchinsonian leader William Coddington. This reflect... |
large, been minor gentry in rural England, while the merchants usually hailed from London or other urban centers. In contrast to the authoritarian and theocratic gentry, the merchants had a far more individualist and independent spirit and often opposed the Massachusetts oligarchy. It was no accident that almost all th... |
itself. In spite of the earlier failures, Massachusetts tried to resume its harassment and regulation of the merchants, but even more sporadically than in the case of wages. Millers were fined for charging what were arbitrarily termed "excessive" prices for their flour. A woodmaker was fined in 1639 for charging the Bo... |
notes in Government and Labor in Early America, the General Court "with great Puritan humor sentenced him, in addition, to sit in the stocks he himself had made." Heavy fines and Puritan denunciations were also the lot of merchants supposedly overcharging for nails, gold buttons, and other commodities. The Puritan chur... |
of God's name" in order to regain membership in the church. The most notable case of persecution of a merchant occurred in 1639. Robert Keayne, a leading Boston importer and large investor in the Massachusetts Bay Company, and the devout brother-in-law of Rev. John Wilson, was found guilty in General Court of gaining "... |
items. The authorities displayed once more their profound ignorance of the functions of profit and loss in the market economy. Keayne was especially aggrieved because there was no law on the books regulating profits. In contrast, the Maine court, in the case of Cleve v. Winter (1640), dismissed charges against a mercha... |
to regulate a man's profit in trade. So a sounder strain of thought did exist despite the official view. Massachusetts' sister colonies also tried to impose a theocratic planned economy. As we might have expected, the effort of New Haven Colony, founded in distaste for the alleged laxity of Massachusetts Puritanism, wa... |
of varying grades for different types of trade: 3 pence in the shilling, for example, for retail of English imports, and less for wholesale. Prices were supposed to be proportionate to risk for colonial products. Above all, a highly detailed list of maximum-wage rates for each occupation was issued. A year later, an am... |
But even fanatical New Haven could not conquer economic law, and only nine months later the authorities were forced to admit defeat, and the entire program was repealed. After that resounding failure, no further comprehensive controls were attempted at New Haven, although there were a few sporadic attempts to regulate ... |
wages was imposed in early 1640, but repealed later the same year. The following year Connecticut, again alarmed about "excessive" and rising wages (with men "a law unto themselves"), enacted a maximum-wage scale for each occupation. However, instead of the heavy fines imposed by Massachusetts, the only prescribed pena... |
wheat, or rye, maximum-wage legislation, to be effective, depended on minimum rates of exchange of these commodities in terms of shillings — otherwise, maximum wages in shillings would be effectively negated by declines in the shilling prices of corn. Minimum corn, wheat, and rye prices were, accordingly, fixed at lega... |
Some basic tips for drawing railroad layouts are offered in this article. These guidelines can be used for any scale layout, I’ve used HO because it’s very popular, and the scale I am most familiar with myself. If you are modeling at a different scale, I have several articles outlined the exact details them, in my Tips... |
planning your model train layout is to know what scale you are going to work at, and what the overall dimensions of your layout will be. Sketch some rough ideas on paper to get a feel for what you want and how it will work in the amount of space you have. For more great tips on setting up your model railroad, just fill |
in your name and email and I’ll send them to you. As an added bonus, you get my detailed report on using DCC to control your trains. A good idea is to establish minimum dimensions for your layout such as the minimum curve radii, switch turnout angles and maximum grades. The rolling stock you want to use, and methods of... |
design elements of your layout. If you are running short trains with just a few cars and engines, then 18″ minimum radius curves will work fine. On the other hand, for larger and longer, you may need curves of 30″ radius or larger (HO scale). What is the maximum grade you can use? A 4 or 5 percent grade is rare in prot... |
but you may need it in your model due to the amount of space you have. If you are planning for one track to cross over another, you must have enough length of track to rise 3″ to 4″ (HO scale) without getting too steep for your models. (Note – prototype railroads rarely go above a 3 percent grade. If you want your mode... |
to be completely accurate, then you will also be limited to this amount of grade.) Model Railroad Clearances Take extra care when one track comes close to another. Ensure that there is enough clearance for two trains to pass, otherwise the cars will collide and derail. This is especially critical at curves. When the ra... |
the track width. And, the middle of the car is forced to the inside of the track. The longer your rolling stock, the more offset you need between curves. You can check this visually by placing your longest and shortest rolling stock on a section of curved track to see the overlap. Set two sections side by side, place y... |
stock in them, and see for yourself. Layout Drawing Techniques A simple way to draw your ideas of a railroad layout is to begin by drawing all the outside dimensions or fixed objects (such as the outline of the room, posts, etc.). Once these fixed objects are located on the drawing, then fill in around them with the tr... |
buildings, roads, etc. If you are replicating some real place, work from maps, or perhaps even measurements you took on a scouting visit! Many modelers fine they have to “compress” space, leaving out some of the longer distances, so they can get it all in. That’s fine. Locate the major curves of your layout next. You k... |
turn on the layout. Place a circle in this corner drawn to the radius that you think you need. Place circular arcs in all the corners of the main line. You will connect the circles with your main lines later. Then select where any switching yards and sidings will be. Using your plan you can try different locations, unl... |
real place. Once the important curves, yards and other objects have been drawn in, begin connecting curves with straight lines. You may want to use broad curves to connect different areas on the layout (instead of straight lines). You can always make adjustments later. Then draw in any sidings, off the straight track. ... |
where you want it. Make a simple three dimension drawing (X, Y, Z) to ensure that grades and crossovers are adequate. Begin by locating the portion of your plan which will be the minimum elevation. This can be the lowest part of the table top, the floor or any other arbitrary point you like. The main thing is to make i... |
from. Use your three dimensional drawing to check the clearance at bridges for the train to pass under. Make sure that the grade produced by creating a rise at a bridge is not too steep for your train. A 4 percent grade is about the steepest most models can climb. Leave enough clearance at the bridge for the thickness ... |
of the cars and the height of the rails and ballasting. In HO scale this requires from 3 to 4 inches of clearance. Building Your Layout Once you have drawn a perfect layout, you will still have to build it. During construction, you may adjust for errors in the drawing when you build the layout. You want your drawing to... |
close is good enough! Some modelers make a full size drawing and trace through the paper or lay the track on top of the paper. This could be impractical for you, if it’s a large layout. You must be careful if you are printing out many pieces of small paper to draw a full size layout. Ensure you are taping them together... |
When taping paper sections together, you can measure across several pieces of paper to check the overlap at the edges. In other words, if the distance of that yard ladder is 2.52 feet on your layout, measure across all the papers taped together to make sure it’s 2.52 feet in real life while you are taping it all togeth... |
system on your bench work. Simply make an X and Y axis baseline on the bench work. Use one of your main bench edges (or the walls of the room) as the baseline. Draw this in your drawing (if its not there already). Now whenever you use a printout or coordinates to locate something on the bench work, keep “checking in” t... |
The diagram below shows the path of the Sun across the sky in Melbourne for four important dates: The outer circle on the diagram represents the horizon and the inner circles are lines of constant elevation, drawn at 15° intervals. |
The radial lines are lines of constant azimuth drawn at 15° intervals also. The position of the Sun at each hour of the day is marked and the time indicated. All times are Australian Eastern Standard Time. Add one hour |
for daylight savings. Hi, Fernando. The "Time and Date" website gives information about the length of days for several locations in regional Victoria, including Ballarat. Hope this helps! Hi there John. As in the Northern Hemisphere the Sun rises in |
the East and sets in West (due to Earth’s rotation from west to east), but its path as seen from the Southern Hemisphere is across the northern sky. You might find this link and this one useful. Hi Steve - |
The Sun is at the centre of our Solar System, and all planets revolve about the Sun. The Sun at the centre of our Solar System, is in our galaxy called the Milky Way Galaxy amongst about 400 billion other |
stars. All the stars that can be seen with the naked eye are in our galaxy. It's important to remember at this point that our sun is not at the centre of the galaxy. Because we revolve about the Sun, |
which is very close to us, all the other stars which are much further away, do not appear to move as we move around the Sun. So the constellations, such as The Southern Cross, look the same wherever we are. |
As the axis of the Earth is tilted, the south pole axis points towards the Southern Cross, so that constellation is always visible in the lower latitudes such as Victoria. Hope that helps We love receiving comments, but can’t always |
respond. Hi there Suradi - thanks for your question. According to the Museum's Planetarium Presenters, these days a Sun Path can be got using any good astronomy program or planetarium software such as Starry Night or Stellarium. Please note, if |
you would like to use our diagram for anything other than private use then MV copyright acknowledgement would be expected. The link to this section of the NASA website gives a brief insight to the history of the evolution of |
the theory of the planets movement around the sun. Hi Casper, the Sun’s path is at its lowest in the sky on the Winter Solstice – 21st June, see here for more information. Hi John,There are two websites that may |
help you determine the angle of the sun at your house on a particular date. The Rise and Set Times on the Planetarium website provides a calendar for the visibility of the sun in Melbourne. There is also an online |
resource about how to make your own Sun Angle Calculator. Hi Jim, if you were at one of the poles during a summer equinox the Sun continues to make a circle in the sky, but now it would dip below |
link may also be helpful. Try to think of it this way - If you were “on” the Southern Cross and looked towards Earth with a theoretical, highly powerful telescope, then Melbourne would always be visible, because the bottom of |
the Earth is pointing towards the Southern Cross. As the Earth spins on its axis, Melbourne would appear to rotate around the globe. As go further north from Melbourne, say to Sydney, then as the Earth spins, an observer on |
the Southern Cross would see Sydney disappear briefly on each rotation. The further you travel north the less time you will be able to see the Southern Cross, until you can never see the Southern Cross. It is like that |
the Sun is at the centre of a globe of stars, and the Earth always points to one spot in the sky which is close to the Southern Cross. In reality this is not so, but the concept is true. |
I hope this may clarify it a bit more for you. Hi Mel, the Tropic of Capricorn is technically an infinitesimally thin line, although the uncertainty in the measurement of the Earth's obliquity corresponds to an error in positioning of |
the Tropic of about 3cm. We can't locate the Tropic any better than this, so this is a kind of width. At the moment the Tropic is at 23°26'16.7" S. But the obliquity of the Earth varies and is decreasing |
around a half a second of arc per year, so the Tropic is moving slowly northwards at the same rate. This corresponds to something like 13m per year. So depending on what kind a timeframe you want to look at |
this also puts limits on how precisely you can locate the tropic. Within a decade, for example, we can't locate the Tropic more precisely than a 133m band. Hi Georgina - Several factors effect sunrise and set times, such as |
surrounding buildings or mountains, elevation above sea level, etc; however the main reason in this case is because Sydney is much further east than Melbourne, by approximately 700 km. For advice about seating, you would probably be best to check |
with MCG staff directly - MCG contact details can be found here. The only time that the Sun rises due east and sets due west is at the Spring and Autumn Equinoxes, 21st March and 21st September. After the Spring |
equinox the Sun gradually rises and sets further south until the solstice on 21st December, then starts moving northwards. So for your house to have the Sun shining on the south facing side, it needs to be between these two |
any point directly 'between' earth and the Southern Cross. An important point to consider here is that unlike Earth, the Sothern Cross does not revolve around our Sun. If you look at the diagram at the top of this page, |
you can see the path of the sun as it appears to us here in Melbourne throughout the year. If we were to factor into this diagram the relatively static position of the Southern Cross, it would be close to |
the southern horizon. Notice that the southern most path of the sun (in the Summer Solstice) does not intersect with the position of the Southern Cross. This means the Sun does not obstruct our view of the Southern Cross - |
so, we are never on 'the other side of the sun' to the Southern Cross. As we've explained previously, the Sothern Cross may not be visible during the day due to brightness of the Sun, but it is still there. |
Hello Cool - we ran this past our experts in the Planetarium, and their response is as follows: In Australia, seasons begin on the first day of a particular calendar month – March for autumn, June for winter, September for |
spring and December for summer. This is also the convention followed internationally by meteorologists. One idea for Australia following this rule, is that during the early years of Australia’s white settlement soldiers would change from their summer to winter uniforms |
on the first of the month. Indigenous Australians have a more tactile view of the seasons. They link the seasons to the local conditions and environment, and also to the activities of the birds, plants and animals around them. With |
such a diverse climate across Australia, it’s no surprise that the seasons vary greatly across Indigenous groups. Some regions have five seasons and others only three as the Bureau of Meteorology explains. In other countries, such as Britain and the |
USA, the seasons are said to begin on the equinoxes and solstices – Spring Equinox, Summer Solstice, Autumn Equinox and Winter Solstice. These are the times when Earth reaches a particular point along its orbit around the Sun. I hope |
i have my mum's passport and ticket on the orontes dated 22nd april 1940 arriving melbourne sometime may 1940 from the uk - i would like to find more inf... |
The EDX examination is a test that measures the electrical activity in your nerves and muscles. It consists of two parts: - Nerve conduction studies that measure the ability of specific nerves to transmit electrical impulses, or messages, to muscles. - Needle electrode examinations that measure the electrical activity ... |
muscles helps detect the presence, location and extent of nerve and muscle disorders. Muscle weakness, nerve pains, and numbness may be due to a problem in the brain, spinal cord, the nerve supplying the muscle, the junction between the nerve and muscle (called the neuromuscular junction) and muscle. The EDX examinatio... |
will be asked to lie on an examination table. The technician will tape several small, flat metal discs, called electrodes, on your skin. Repeated brief electrical stimuli are administered to the nerve. Electrical waveforms are recorded from muscles or from nerves and measured. You will feel a tingling sensation and twi... |
applied. Once the testing has been completed, the skin electrodes are removed. The nerve conduction studies are then followed by the needle examination by the physician. A small thin needle (about the size of a straight pin) attached by wires to a recording machine will be inserted in the specific muscles being examine... |
through this needle; they simply record your muscle activity. You will be asked to relax and contract the muscles that are being examined. The electrical activity of the muscle will be displayed as electrical waves on a screen that the physician will view. The more relaxed you are, the easier the tests will be. The phy... |
to make you as comfortable as possible. Before the EDX Examination This test should not be performed until at least three weeks (21 days) have passed since the onset of your symptoms. If it has been less than that, please notify the EMG lab at 216.444.5544, or toll free 1.800.CCF.CARE ext.45544. You may be asked to res... |
date. - Take medications as prescribed, including any for pain. - If you are taking anticoagulant medications (coumadin, heparin, lovenox, or crystalline warfarin) or medication for myasthenia gravis (mestinon or pyridostigmine bromide) and have not received instructions from your physician to discontinue your medicati... |
to discontinue these medications for several days before the test. However, DO NOT discontinue medications without first consulting your physician. - The EDX examination cannot be performed on patients with a bleeding disorder or lymphedema. - Nerve conduction studies cannot be performed on patients with internal defib... |
please call 216.444.5544 or toll free 1.800.223.2273 ext.45544. It will be necessary to assess whether the device can be turned off prior to undergoing this test. - Patients with internal nerve stimulators must be able to turn them off before nerve conduction studies can be performed If you have an internal nerve stimu... |
please call 216.444.5544. On the Day of the Test Eat a normal breakfast and/or lunch. Do not apply any lotions or oils to the skin; it could hinder the electrode connection to the skin. After the Test The Neuromuscular Staff evaluates the data collected and the final report is sent to the doctor who referred you for th... |
between 1-2 working days). Your doctor will provide you with the results. Neurology appointment office 216.636.5860, or toll free 1.800.CCF.CARE ext.65860. Desk S90, Ninth floor of the “S” building. Please call the EDX Laboratory if you have any concerns or questions or wish to speak to a technician: 216.444.5544, or t... |
No doubt Native Americans took advantage of the natural bounty of the Suwannee and the neighboring forest. By around 7500 BC the Native American population increased, and people began to settle, at least for a time, along rivers and lakes. They fished, gathered freshwater snails, and hunted deer. Within Andrews on the ... |
fishing camp. When Spanish explorer Narvarez crossed the Suwannee thousands of years later, his men called it "River of the Deer." Later, Indians escaping to Florida from other parts of the Southeast named it "Suwani," meaning "echo river" in Creek. Sound echoes from the river's limestone bluffs, especially when the wa... |
1882 - Florida Photo Archives By the 1830s the tranquil, tree-lined Suwannee became an important navigation route. Steamboats carried lumber to Cedar Key for transport by steamship to Europe and the Northeast. Much of the virgin cypress in the Suwannee floodplain was harvested in the early 1900s. Furrows created by "sn... |
the early part of the 1900s what was later to become Andrews was subject to a wide range of uncontrolled uses, including open range livestock grazing. Range hogs readily adapted to the habitat and are still present on Andrews today as hunters rediscover each fall. In 1945 the Andrews family purchased the area. They man... |
protect natural resources. Limited weekend hunts were held for deer, turkey, and squirrel, and no mining or significant timber harvest occurred. The Andrews family created four, five-acre clearings in the upland hardwoods and scattered roadside openings. In the late 1970s the deer density approached one deer per ten ac... |
of the deer. Doe harvest was initiated in the early 1980s to reduce the population and to achieve a more balanced sex ratio. The state purchased the land in 1985 through the Save Our Rivers and Conservation and Recreation Lands programs. |
Talking Points on the Environment #15 A Species Protection Plan That Works for Both Wildlife and Humans Although most Americans oppose the excesses of the Endangered Species Act, many also favor some form of species protection for the most valued species. The best way to protect these species while protecting individua... |
such a system might include: - Tax for Nature Swaps: Incentives could be offered to private property owners to create rather than destroy wildlife habitat by making changes to the tax code. Losses in federal tax receipts resulting from such tax breaks would be made up from profits generated from publicly-held natural r... |
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