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The Effects of Catholicism on the Education of Women in Renaissance Italy According to Paul Grendler, the conservative, clerical pedagogical theorist Silvio Antoniano (1540-1603) reflected on women’s educational status in Renaissance Italy in one of his written works, claiming that “…a girl (should not) learn ‘pleading and writing poetry’; the vain sex must not reach too high…A girl should attend to sewing, cooking, and other female activities, leaving to men what was theirs”. Apparently, this was the common-held view concerning women’s education during that time. Although women were actually encouraged to literacy, their subservient social role as wives and mothers could not allow them to learn as much as men did (Grendler, 1989). Women could not have possibly been employed or held a public office. Any attainable employment did not involve independent thought; matters concerning the ruling and well-being of society were left to men (Grendler, 1995). Therefore, they were encouraged to receive the kind of education that would prove useful for their primarily domestic role. It was not enough, therefore, for them to learn how to read and write; they had to hammer their knowledge into a matrix of virtue and piety. The development and praise of literacy, the advances in printing and consequently the widespread introduction of books to the public and finally the Counter-Reformation, were factors that influenced the development of female education (Grendler, 1989). What I would like to argue in my paper is that Catholicism acted as a medium for the development of the literacy of women in Renaissance Italy. Within the Catholic church arose the need to draw people back to conservative Catholic traditions. This was, on a certain level, a response to the Protestant Reformation and to less conservative Humanist ideals that were spreading throughout Italy. After the Council of Trent, a lot of emphasis was placed on the development of Christian virtues within individuals. What better way to achieve this than indoctrination? The knowledge of religious texts and rituals as well as the adoption of monastic virtues began to be seen as imperative. Women were granted educational privileges, primarily so that they could read religious texts. Convent education for young girls became popular amidst upper and middle class families (Strocchia, 1999). The Schools of the Christian Doctrine also served as a means towards acquiring literacy. Most importantly though, these catechical schools granted educational privileges to lower-class children, who were generally excluded from the kind of education that more well off people had access to (Grendler, 1995). Thus, we see that in a sense, Catholicism acted as a catalyst in the development of female education. Paradoxically enough though, at the same time, it limited the possible level of knowledge they could attain. The thought of the supposedly foolish, sinful female sex breaking the bonds of ignorance...	<urn:uuid:78dc12f2-63d0-4f23-8c5d-15359de9ece8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-effects-of-catholicism-on-the-education-of-feamales-in-renaissance-italy	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00525.warc.gz	en	0.982111	590	3.59375	4	[ -0.004521313589066267, 0.2593017816543579, 0.16638094186782837, 0.23468029499053955, -0.31896114349365234, 0.23572014272212982, -0.4888113737106323, 0.501367449760437, 0.3027529716491699, 0.0009035269031301141, -0.2777743935585022, -0.0655946135520935, 0.23613965511322021, 0.12302426993846...	1	The Effects of Catholicism on the Education of Women in Renaissance Italy According to Paul Grendler, the conservative, clerical pedagogical theorist Silvio Antoniano (1540-1603) reflected on women’s educational status in Renaissance Italy in one of his written works, claiming that “…a girl (should not) learn ‘pleading and writing poetry’; the vain sex must not reach too high…A girl should attend to sewing, cooking, and other female activities, leaving to men what was theirs”. Apparently, this was the common-held view concerning women’s education during that time. Although women were actually encouraged to literacy, their subservient social role as wives and mothers could not allow them to learn as much as men did (Grendler, 1989). Women could not have possibly been employed or held a public office. Any attainable employment did not involve independent thought; matters concerning the ruling and well-being of society were left to men (Grendler, 1995). Therefore, they were encouraged to receive the kind of education that would prove useful for their primarily domestic role. It was not enough, therefore, for them to learn how to read and write; they had to hammer their knowledge into a matrix of virtue and piety. The development and praise of literacy, the advances in printing and consequently the widespread introduction of books to the public and finally the Counter-Reformation, were factors that influenced the development of female education (Grendler, 1989). What I would like to argue in my paper is that Catholicism acted as a medium for the development of the literacy of women in Renaissance Italy. Within the Catholic church arose the need to draw people back to conservative Catholic traditions. This was, on a certain level, a response to the Protestant Reformation and to less conservative Humanist ideals that were spreading throughout Italy. After the Council of Trent, a lot of emphasis was placed on the development of Christian virtues within individuals. What better way to achieve this than indoctrination? The knowledge of religious texts and rituals as well as the adoption of monastic virtues began to be seen as imperative. Women were granted educational privileges, primarily so that they could read religious texts. Convent education for young girls became popular amidst upper and middle class families (Strocchia, 1999). The Schools of the Christian Doctrine also served as a means towards acquiring literacy. Most importantly though, these catechical schools granted educational privileges to lower-class children, who were generally excluded from the kind of education that more well off people had access to (Grendler, 1995). Thus, we see that in a sense, Catholicism acted as a catalyst in the development of female education. Paradoxically enough though, at the same time, it limited the possible level of knowledge they could attain. The thought of the supposedly foolish, sinful female sex breaking the bonds of ignorance...	602	ENGLISH	1
What is an EA Supposed to Do? This is a really interesting question that a lot of people, including school staff, are confused about. To answer it, we should take a quick look at what we hope that school will do for our children. The Purpose of School To answer this question, one pair of researchers asked tens of thousands of parents what they thought – and their answers fit into four categories(Villa and Thousand, p. 42): - belonging (forming meaningful relationships), - mastery (of skills and learning strategies, motivation, reaching potential), - independence (having choices, taking responsibility), and - generosity (offering abilities and efforts for the benefit of others). These goals require interaction with other people. The ideas behind inclusion says that everyone has gifts and abilities that can be extended in any community for the benefit of all. Inclusion is more than being physically in the same location as others. So having a child in the same classroom (or building) as all the other students but doing his own, separate program is not an opportunity to develop most of the goals of education that parents seem to want. The question is, how can diverse students learn together? Your child’s teacher is legally responsible for your child’s education. This is for several reasons. Teachers are trained and continuous access to training. They are specialists in how best to deliver the curriculum and in ways to engage students and help them grow, academically and socially. They see the big picture, and have access to resources outside the classroom. This means that they should be connecting and relating with your child as they would with any other student, and plans to support your child’s academic and social/emotional development need to come from them. The teacher is supported by resource teachers, clinicians, and educational assistants. The EA acts under the direction and supervision of the teacher. They may also have training or access to training, but their focus is on fostering engagement with class activities. That could mean helping students take needed breaks, creating materials to allow unique learners to participate in learning activities, or supporting the class while the teacher supports one particular student. An EA is a valuable team member with much to offer. But there is an idea out there that special needs funding results in an EA being assigned to a student as their own specialized teacher. But consider this: why do we want to place the students with the greatest learning needs under the care and responsibility of the least trained professionals? Many years ago, I had a student who had some difficulty with self-regulation and who needed help managing his emotions. The plan in place at the beginning of the year was for his EA to take him from the room when he became upset, so that I as the teacher could continue to do my job uninterrupted. I went with it then, but it was probably one of the pivotal learning experiences of my career. The result was more disruption, rather than less. We were inadvertently telling this student that he was a disruption, that the needs of others were more important to me than his well-being, that he was “different.” The next year, a wiser teacher made a point of helping him directly. The EA supported her by supervising the class when she needed to step outside and consult with a student. He had a very positive experience in her class, and was much happier and focused. This story is not at all to criticize that EA – who was one of the best I have ever worked with. It’s about teachers establishing relationships with all students, because each one belongs on the same terms, as people who are growing and learning and who deserve equal opportunities for support from their teacher. So What About My Child’s Funding? The special needs funding for students with autism (or any other disability) is meant to support programs and resources that allow them to be included and educated in the least restrictive environment possible. I want my children to read and do math and think to the greatest level that their abilities allow, and so I want their teacher to be using their knowledge, experience, and resources (such as a resource teacher or additional training) to figure out how best to support their learning. A well-thought-out plan is what we should be looking for when our child is funded as a special-needs student. How can our child best be supported so that he or she is a successful learner? It may or may not be best for someone to be assigned to them all day. The solutions will look different for every child. As much as possible, their learning support should come in the same kinds of ways that all children find support – the inclusive structuring of learning experiences, the teacher, and other students. That will give them meaningful opportunities to contribute, build relationships, and learn. 1:1 Support – Some Pitfalls In fact, the research raises some questions about the assignment of educational assistants to individual students. One study interviewed high school graduates who had the support of a 1:1 EA, about their feelings and memories around that support. Themes that emerged were: - The students were treated as younger than they actually were, and were perceived and treated as immature - Although the EA often protected the students from bullies, having an EA sometimes made them a target - Students were isolated from the instructional content and interactions among the students and with the teacher in the classroom - Students were less likely to be receiving adequate instruction when paraprofessionals were doing some or all of the work assigned So What Does an EA Do? Educational assistants are necessary and valuable team members. They allow time and attention to be distributed among varied student needs. They can privately care for unique needs of some students in a respectful way. But their role is not the same as that of a teacher. As much as possible, EA’s should be considered a support to a class and teacher, rather than to individual students. In a sense, an EA’s job is to work themselves out of a job, promoting the competence and independence of the students under their care. Each student deserves the guidance and support of their teacher. The most skillful EAs know how to be a support, rather than an obstacle to growth, developing relationships, problem-solving skills, and independence. Appreciate your child’s EA – they are an important part of the team. When you’ve got questions, consult with your child’s teacher. Encourage them to build a supportive relationship with your child. It’s their job to make sure your child’s educational needs are being met, in the most inclusive way possible. In considering the roles of educational professionals, it’s important to not lose sight of the reason our students are in school – to develop their gifts and abilities, and to be contributing community members. Villa, R. and Thousand, J. (2005). Creating an Inclusive School.	<urn:uuid:527cdd22-85fe-4f58-8237-96eb7870d692>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.adaptmanitoba.ca/what-is-an-ea-supposed-to-do/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00185.warc.gz	en	0.984242	1,426	3.671875	4	[ 0.10937433689832687, -0.05324401333928108, 0.23901212215423584, -0.6622536182403564, -0.2311818152666092, 0.09912929683923721, 0.22745250165462494, -0.17997878789901733, 0.3209826350212097, -0.061475567519664764, 0.2303849458694458, -0.17189118266105652, -0.029764799401164055, 0.2791985869...	9	What is an EA Supposed to Do? This is a really interesting question that a lot of people, including school staff, are confused about. To answer it, we should take a quick look at what we hope that school will do for our children. The Purpose of School To answer this question, one pair of researchers asked tens of thousands of parents what they thought – and their answers fit into four categories(Villa and Thousand, p. 42): - belonging (forming meaningful relationships), - mastery (of skills and learning strategies, motivation, reaching potential), - independence (having choices, taking responsibility), and - generosity (offering abilities and efforts for the benefit of others). These goals require interaction with other people. The ideas behind inclusion says that everyone has gifts and abilities that can be extended in any community for the benefit of all. Inclusion is more than being physically in the same location as others. So having a child in the same classroom (or building) as all the other students but doing his own, separate program is not an opportunity to develop most of the goals of education that parents seem to want. The question is, how can diverse students learn together? Your child’s teacher is legally responsible for your child’s education. This is for several reasons. Teachers are trained and continuous access to training. They are specialists in how best to deliver the curriculum and in ways to engage students and help them grow, academically and socially. They see the big picture, and have access to resources outside the classroom. This means that they should be connecting and relating with your child as they would with any other student, and plans to support your child’s academic and social/emotional development need to come from them. The teacher is supported by resource teachers, clinicians, and educational assistants. The EA acts under the direction and supervision of the teacher. They may also have training or access to training, but their focus is on fostering engagement with class activities. That could mean helping students take needed breaks, creating materials to allow unique learners to participate in learning activities, or supporting the class while the teacher supports one particular student. An EA is a valuable team member with much to offer. But there is an idea out there that special needs funding results in an EA being assigned to a student as their own specialized teacher. But consider this: why do we want to place the students with the greatest learning needs under the care and responsibility of the least trained professionals? Many years ago, I had a student who had some difficulty with self-regulation and who needed help managing his emotions. The plan in place at the beginning of the year was for his EA to take him from the room when he became upset, so that I as the teacher could continue to do my job uninterrupted. I went with it then, but it was probably one of the pivotal learning experiences of my career. The result was more disruption, rather than less. We were inadvertently telling this student that he was a disruption, that the needs of others were more important to me than his well-being, that he was “different.” The next year, a wiser teacher made a point of helping him directly. The EA supported her by supervising the class when she needed to step outside and consult with a student. He had a very positive experience in her class, and was much happier and focused. This story is not at all to criticize that EA – who was one of the best I have ever worked with. It’s about teachers establishing relationships with all students, because each one belongs on the same terms, as people who are growing and learning and who deserve equal opportunities for support from their teacher. So What About My Child’s Funding? The special needs funding for students with autism (or any other disability) is meant to support programs and resources that allow them to be included and educated in the least restrictive environment possible. I want my children to read and do math and think to the greatest level that their abilities allow, and so I want their teacher to be using their knowledge, experience, and resources (such as a resource teacher or additional training) to figure out how best to support their learning. A well-thought-out plan is what we should be looking for when our child is funded as a special-needs student. How can our child best be supported so that he or she is a successful learner? It may or may not be best for someone to be assigned to them all day. The solutions will look different for every child. As much as possible, their learning support should come in the same kinds of ways that all children find support – the inclusive structuring of learning experiences, the teacher, and other students. That will give them meaningful opportunities to contribute, build relationships, and learn. 1:1 Support – Some Pitfalls In fact, the research raises some questions about the assignment of educational assistants to individual students. One study interviewed high school graduates who had the support of a 1:1 EA, about their feelings and memories around that support. Themes that emerged were: - The students were treated as younger than they actually were, and were perceived and treated as immature - Although the EA often protected the students from bullies, having an EA sometimes made them a target - Students were isolated from the instructional content and interactions among the students and with the teacher in the classroom - Students were less likely to be receiving adequate instruction when paraprofessionals were doing some or all of the work assigned So What Does an EA Do? Educational assistants are necessary and valuable team members. They allow time and attention to be distributed among varied student needs. They can privately care for unique needs of some students in a respectful way. But their role is not the same as that of a teacher. As much as possible, EA’s should be considered a support to a class and teacher, rather than to individual students. In a sense, an EA’s job is to work themselves out of a job, promoting the competence and independence of the students under their care. Each student deserves the guidance and support of their teacher. The most skillful EAs know how to be a support, rather than an obstacle to growth, developing relationships, problem-solving skills, and independence. Appreciate your child’s EA – they are an important part of the team. When you’ve got questions, consult with your child’s teacher. Encourage them to build a supportive relationship with your child. It’s their job to make sure your child’s educational needs are being met, in the most inclusive way possible. In considering the roles of educational professionals, it’s important to not lose sight of the reason our students are in school – to develop their gifts and abilities, and to be contributing community members. Villa, R. and Thousand, J. (2005). Creating an Inclusive School.	1,377	ENGLISH	1
Today we had inputs on Art and Music. In todays class we were introduced to the painting entitled ‘Windows in the West’ by Avril Paton. Considering this piece of artwork we were prompted to develop our analytical thinking into the story behind it. See below the video describing the painting in fuller detail: We were given a copy of this painting and bits of polystyrene and told to choose a segment of the painting to draw ourselves. Once completing this we covered the polystyrene in green paint and printed it onto a piece of red paper. This was useful as it showed a different activity to do with children and one that will encourage them to remember famous pieces of art work by creating their own representation of the piece. Today we were exploring the musical online resource ‘Charanga’ – http://www.charangascotland.co.uk/site/ This is an amazing resource as it is full of fun ways to teach music. We were looking at all of the sites different features and trying out the various activities. This was very beneficial as it gave us inspiration on what we could use with our own classes in the future and something i will definitely use more of in the next few years.	<urn:uuid:79cd1adf-939b-4f85-9f51-cca74102c9b4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blogs.glowscotland.org.uk/glowblogs/kathrynmairepdp/2017/01/05/session-9-151116/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00184.warc.gz	en	0.982936	251	3.703125	4	[ -0.17859558761119843, -0.28704366087913513, 0.5286381244659424, -0.21011079847812653, -0.17457404732704163, 0.679263710975647, -0.3821326196193695, 0.07349798828363419, 0.07200002670288086, 0.06845998764038086, -0.16425521671772003, -0.21449129283428192, -0.13821128010749817, 0.28366088867...	3	Today we had inputs on Art and Music. In todays class we were introduced to the painting entitled ‘Windows in the West’ by Avril Paton. Considering this piece of artwork we were prompted to develop our analytical thinking into the story behind it. See below the video describing the painting in fuller detail: We were given a copy of this painting and bits of polystyrene and told to choose a segment of the painting to draw ourselves. Once completing this we covered the polystyrene in green paint and printed it onto a piece of red paper. This was useful as it showed a different activity to do with children and one that will encourage them to remember famous pieces of art work by creating their own representation of the piece. Today we were exploring the musical online resource ‘Charanga’ – http://www.charangascotland.co.uk/site/ This is an amazing resource as it is full of fun ways to teach music. We were looking at all of the sites different features and trying out the various activities. This was very beneficial as it gave us inspiration on what we could use with our own classes in the future and something i will definitely use more of in the next few years.	240	ENGLISH	1
This week we are completing our main focus of the mysterious creature. Our discussions are about..... what else can we create for the creature? Why should we create this for the creature? How will it help him? Our first discussions have involved enabling the creature to find his parents - we have been looking at how he could get there and how we could help him. Imogen used the Ipad creating program to make a fantastic car and Alice then decided that she wanted to keep him healthy too so made a wonderful machine that we could put fruit on. We are then writing captions about what we think the creature is and what it's features are. In our maths work we are investigating some new maths equipment that we are able to use in our outdoor area to help with our addition and subtraction problems. Following on from our inspiration day last week where we had to investigate clues left by a mysterious creature we are developing our ideas even further..... We have created pictures, models and also a whole class representation of what we think the creature would be and we are now discussing where it could live. We have come up with many different ideas including a cave, on the ice and under the sea. In our outdoor areas we are developing these ideas further by creating homes for the creature and learning a new joining knot that Mr Lenton is teaching us. We have all decided that the creature is lost and cannot find his family and have come up with lots of ideas to make him happier: What else could you think of? HAPPY NEW YEAR! What a wonderful start to the year. The children came back to school with lots of enthusiasm and discussion about how wonderful their holidays were. We have been having discussion using the homework tasks that have been worked on - the class have compared what was the same or different to their own Christmas celebrations and have also discussed what they enjoyed best - opening presents - spending time with our families - eating lots of yummy food - playing with our toys - playing with our families. What a wonderful time - we have also been discussing how lucky we all are to have these wonderful things and experiences. We have written our favourite thing in our diaries and have amazed all the grown ups about what we have remembered. We used keywords, sounds, finger spaces and full stops! We have been working on number games and talking through the language that is used in subtraction - taking away! We have also been working with our friends - we have been listening to their ideas and trying to work out games and activities with them. Two children have been trying to create the best balance, following on from our work in PE, They worked in the block area, persevering until they were successful at the best balance yet! Well done! This week we are continuing the Christmas focus by helping Mary Poppins get ready for Christmas. We are creating lots of towns and villages that santa will have to visit. We are doing this in our block area, both inside and out. We are also creating the most amazing sleighs and then writing notices to inform our friends about them. In our maths we have been developing our awareness of positional language. Our Christmas elf is helping us! We have to find where he is each day and then say where it is using positional language. We can then play hide and seek with him - we have to then give our friends clues about where he is hidden and then see if they can find him! We have also been looking through our learning journeys and discussing what we are very proud of and giving it a gold star. Mrs Stevens gave us all gold stars for our diary writing as we have used lots of sounds to help us. We are very excited about our Christmas holidays and are looking forward to sharing our work with our families. We are also having a holiday task to bring back after the holidays - it is a discussion starter for our work after the holidays. WOW! What a week we have had. The Christmas festivities have started in force now. We loved the pantomime last week and enjoyed talking about our favourite part of it. We have also really enjoyed our school disco this week. We danced with our friends and had a really good time. We have then also been completing our Christmas printing tasks. This term we have been developing our skills in printing and have then decided to create our cards and calendars using this skill. We have used finger printing to outline a Christmas tree and a handprint for a calendar. We have also been supporting our friends in year 1. We have learnt lots of new songs and have watched them perform the nativity story. They were amazing, they had learned lots of lines and we can't wait to do it next year! In our phonics we have worked hard with our friends on our 'quickwrite' game and have used lots of our new sounds in our writing. We also found a hedgehog in our trike track. We looked after it and made lots of different homes that he might like - even adding notices to help other people know what it is for! We then continued with this focus in our classrooms. We used the making table to create pictures and homes, we used the duplo and the bricks to create wonderful habitats and we found out some facts about hedgehogs. Did you know they are nocturnal? That means that they like to come out at night and sleep in the day. If you see a hedgehog you are very lucky! We have decided to help Mary Poppins and the birds that she loves so much. As it is nearly winter we have decided to create bird feeders. We are very lucky that we have a bird hide in our outdoor area so we have looked carefully at where we can place the feeders to enable us to see the birds when they feed on them. We used cherrios and threaded them very carefully onto string. We then looked at where we could place them and tied them carefully on the trees. We then discussed how we can record the birds that we see. We have also been writing our Christmas lists! We have used our phonic knowledge to write these lists and then shared this information with our friends - talking about our likes and dislikes. We have also been using our positional language to describe where our christmas elf is hiding. What a busy week! We are making supercalifra....... istic (You know the song!) potions for Mary Poppins. They are to help the children. What will they do? What will then enable the children to do? Will it make them laugh, grow tall, fly etc. Lots of discussions took place about the different potions that could be made and how we can use different things to make them. One of our favourites was using petals. We had to count the different objects that we put in and talked about whether the potion bottle could be full, empty or half full. Once the potion was created we talked to our friends about what we had put in and what they would do. We then talked about a label that could go on the bottle and used post it notes to write the name of our potion on it. This week it is all about Addition! We have had discussions in our carpet time which was very interesting - the question was 'What is adding?' Lots of ideas took place, 'it is about numbers' 'it is about numbers getting bigger' 'you can add tomato sauce to your dinner' 'it is like blending sounds when we add them together'. We then played the sandcastle game together and talked about how we could solve the problems that it was posing. We found out that we had to add all the shells together to find the total. This meant that we had to take our time counting, say the number names in the correct order and then stop when we had counted them all. We also had the chance to play our favourite 'spotty dogs' game. In this game we had to take turns and share, count out the dogs that had the correct amount of spots and then count out the bones that were in the basket. On our second go we had to add the bones together to find the total! We have also been carrying on our Mary Poppins work. Last week we used our phonics to create a list of the objects in Mary's bag and also on Friday we talked about making kites and what to use to make them stick best. We are carrying on with these activities this week along with making labels for our creations in the outdoor area. Our Mary Poppins Challenge this week......... Mary had been to the kitchen and found lots of objects that Bert could use to create music with. Our job was to help him! We had to investigate the objects, listen to the sounds that they made and then create music with them. We made loud sounds to be heard over the cannon, quiet sounds to send the children to sleep and then decided to create a poem that we could sing when we were playing the instruments. Mary, Bert, Michel and Jane like the music and to play games pictures from chalk lots of talk Loud and quiet Lots of fun! This week it is all about money! We have created a shop for Mary Poppins and have put objects into it that Jane and Michael would enjoy working with. We then played a coin game on the computer which showed us the many different coins that we could use in our shop. We then looked at the different coins we have in our classroom and discussed their shape, colour and size. All the coins have different names - 1p, 2p, 5p, 10p, 20p, 50p, £1 and £2. In our shop the shopkeeper has one set of coins and the customer has another set. They have to then match the different coins to pay for the objects. We also used 1p coins to pay for different objects that Mary really likes. A puppet and jigsaw were our favourites. We had to look at the cost of the object, say what the number is and then count out the correct amount of 1p coins to pay for it. What a wonderful week! This week we are working on a design and technology focus. We are investigating different ways of sticking things together and talking about what works well and what doesn't. We decided to create something for Mary Poppins. We had lots of different ideas. Perhaps we could make a turtle, an umbrella, a bridge, some food or a house. We then decided on creating some penguins as they made us laugh so much in the film! We worked in our groups and listened to the ideas of our friends. We cut and created together and made some amazing penguins! A fantastic start to the new term! We have enjoyed talking about our holidays and all the wonderful things that we have been doing. At the end of last half term we started to create our own diaries and this week we have started to write in them. We have decided what we wanted to write and then listened to the sounds in the words. We then began to use the letters to create words. We have also worked hard on our PE - trying very hard to get changed on our own! We have then been finding out about Supertato's friend - Christopher Pumpkin. He is very funny! Our week then entailed investigating, counting, drawing, creating and writing using Christopher as our focus! Our last week of this half term! What an amazing first half term we have had - lots of investigating and learning new things. The evil pea has been very tricky but we have really enjoyed working on different challenges that he has set. Our favourite activities have been to create shape pictures, assemble traps, create new homes, machines to trap the pea and also vegetable printing. We have learnt the routine and expectations of being at school and Mrs Stevens is very proud of all of us. Thank you for all your support, enjoy half term and we look forward to next half term with more exciting activities. This week is all about birthdays! We are investigating two books that Floppy has sent to us - they are all about Kipper and how he enjoys birthdays. We predicted what we thought the story would be about using the front cover and the title. We then looked through the book, using the pictures as clues to help with reading. We talked about our own experiences of birthdays, what we enjoyed and what we looked forward to. We thought about all the things that we would need if we were to have a birthday - the cakes, presents, food and cards. We have been developing our awareness of writing our own names, forming the letters correctly and used this to write an invitation. We then developed our fine motor control in using scissors carefully. We have also been on many shapes hunts this week and discussed what shapes we could see in our environment - we created presents with the mobilo - did you know that we could see squares, circles and oblongs in the bricks? What a busy week! This week we are continuing with our evil pea and Supertato work. The evil pea hid all of Floppy's magic keys and we had to find them and create maps to show where they were. Floppy was so pleased with our work that he sent us a present - JELLY! We have been making jelly in our class and watching how it changed. It melted into small cubes when we added hot water. We told Mrs Stevens that she needed to be very careful when using hot water! We then watched the jelly harden again - we said that it went very watery and also then became rubbery. We were then able to play with lots of jelly in the tuff spot - it was very sticky, squidgy, slimy and smelt lovely. We were then able to take a small jelly home with us! But there were no evil peas stuck in our jelly! This week it is all about 'veggies assemble'. We are investigating different vegtables and are beginning a printing exploration! We will be printing different vegtables and discussing what we see. We will then choose our favourite and reprint on material - this will then become a whole school project! We are also developing our understanding of papermache and the different ways we can describe it - how it feels, smells and looks! Lots of wonderful language has been used. Once we have completed our paper mache work then we will create a new supertato and evil pea. We are also working on collecting and counting evil peas, saving objects from the ice and also creating different evil pea stories using the blocks. This week we have been sent a book from Supertato. We predicted what we thought the book may be about and used pictures as clues. We then investigated further and found out that it was a book about nursery rhymes. We found lots of nursery rhymes, some that we knew already and some that we found out about. We then used some actions to develop Humpty Dumpty, 5 little ducks, 10 fat sausages and Incy wincy spider! As part of our writing focus we have been recording our favourite nursery rhymes and explaining why! Ask us what our favourite was and how we have been working on them this week - we even created an evil pea game to practise! This week we have been continuing with our work on learning our new environments and have been carrying out initial phonic and maths work. One of our favourite stories so far is Supertato - we really like the evil pea! We have started to look at ways that we can help Supertato to capture the evil pea and have created jails and traps! We have really enjoyed learning how to make dens with the big blocks and how to keep safe! Welcome to Reception! What an amazing first week we have had. The children have all worked hard on investigating their new environment. Each day they have talked about what they have enjoyed and what they want to learn next. We have been into the hall and worked on our listening skills during our movement activities and had a great time! Some of the things that we have enjoyed most were discussed at the end of the sessions...... I loved working with the horses and making a station for them. I enjoyed making a story in the bridge area I enjoy building I loved working in the den area The water area is fun! I enjoy dressing up and playing in the house We have been very proud of how well the children settled in and have really enjoyed working with them. Thank you for all your help and support in settling them into school.	<urn:uuid:4ebb9621-af08-40fd-9b37-37ecdd7f0944>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.manea.cambs.sch.uk/year-r-1/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00243.warc.gz	en	0.980504	3,436	3.5625	4	[ -0.21249084174633026, -0.23907792568206787, 0.24739763140678406, -0.39771461486816406, -0.29822707176208496, -0.07528523355722427, 0.16173940896987915, 0.2776457667350769, -0.27234530448913574, 0.006660326849669218, 0.043338555842638016, -0.24786695837974548, 0.09535442292690277, 0.4200752...	1	This week we are completing our main focus of the mysterious creature. Our discussions are about..... what else can we create for the creature? Why should we create this for the creature? How will it help him? Our first discussions have involved enabling the creature to find his parents - we have been looking at how he could get there and how we could help him. Imogen used the Ipad creating program to make a fantastic car and Alice then decided that she wanted to keep him healthy too so made a wonderful machine that we could put fruit on. We are then writing captions about what we think the creature is and what it's features are. In our maths work we are investigating some new maths equipment that we are able to use in our outdoor area to help with our addition and subtraction problems. Following on from our inspiration day last week where we had to investigate clues left by a mysterious creature we are developing our ideas even further..... We have created pictures, models and also a whole class representation of what we think the creature would be and we are now discussing where it could live. We have come up with many different ideas including a cave, on the ice and under the sea. In our outdoor areas we are developing these ideas further by creating homes for the creature and learning a new joining knot that Mr Lenton is teaching us. We have all decided that the creature is lost and cannot find his family and have come up with lots of ideas to make him happier: What else could you think of? HAPPY NEW YEAR! What a wonderful start to the year. The children came back to school with lots of enthusiasm and discussion about how wonderful their holidays were. We have been having discussion using the homework tasks that have been worked on - the class have compared what was the same or different to their own Christmas celebrations and have also discussed what they enjoyed best - opening presents - spending time with our families - eating lots of yummy food - playing with our toys - playing with our families. What a wonderful time - we have also been discussing how lucky we all are to have these wonderful things and experiences. We have written our favourite thing in our diaries and have amazed all the grown ups about what we have remembered. We used keywords, sounds, finger spaces and full stops! We have been working on number games and talking through the language that is used in subtraction - taking away! We have also been working with our friends - we have been listening to their ideas and trying to work out games and activities with them. Two children have been trying to create the best balance, following on from our work in PE, They worked in the block area, persevering until they were successful at the best balance yet! Well done! This week we are continuing the Christmas focus by helping Mary Poppins get ready for Christmas. We are creating lots of towns and villages that santa will have to visit. We are doing this in our block area, both inside and out. We are also creating the most amazing sleighs and then writing notices to inform our friends about them. In our maths we have been developing our awareness of positional language. Our Christmas elf is helping us! We have to find where he is each day and then say where it is using positional language. We can then play hide and seek with him - we have to then give our friends clues about where he is hidden and then see if they can find him! We have also been looking through our learning journeys and discussing what we are very proud of and giving it a gold star. Mrs Stevens gave us all gold stars for our diary writing as we have used lots of sounds to help us. We are very excited about our Christmas holidays and are looking forward to sharing our work with our families. We are also having a holiday task to bring back after the holidays - it is a discussion starter for our work after the holidays. WOW! What a week we have had. The Christmas festivities have started in force now. We loved the pantomime last week and enjoyed talking about our favourite part of it. We have also really enjoyed our school disco this week. We danced with our friends and had a really good time. We have then also been completing our Christmas printing tasks. This term we have been developing our skills in printing and have then decided to create our cards and calendars using this skill. We have used finger printing to outline a Christmas tree and a handprint for a calendar. We have also been supporting our friends in year 1. We have learnt lots of new songs and have watched them perform the nativity story. They were amazing, they had learned lots of lines and we can't wait to do it next year! In our phonics we have worked hard with our friends on our 'quickwrite' game and have used lots of our new sounds in our writing. We also found a hedgehog in our trike track. We looked after it and made lots of different homes that he might like - even adding notices to help other people know what it is for! We then continued with this focus in our classrooms. We used the making table to create pictures and homes, we used the duplo and the bricks to create wonderful habitats and we found out some facts about hedgehogs. Did you know they are nocturnal? That means that they like to come out at night and sleep in the day. If you see a hedgehog you are very lucky! We have decided to help Mary Poppins and the birds that she loves so much. As it is nearly winter we have decided to create bird feeders. We are very lucky that we have a bird hide in our outdoor area so we have looked carefully at where we can place the feeders to enable us to see the birds when they feed on them. We used cherrios and threaded them very carefully onto string. We then looked at where we could place them and tied them carefully on the trees. We then discussed how we can record the birds that we see. We have also been writing our Christmas lists! We have used our phonic knowledge to write these lists and then shared this information with our friends - talking about our likes and dislikes. We have also been using our positional language to describe where our christmas elf is hiding. What a busy week! We are making supercalifra....... istic (You know the song!) potions for Mary Poppins. They are to help the children. What will they do? What will then enable the children to do? Will it make them laugh, grow tall, fly etc. Lots of discussions took place about the different potions that could be made and how we can use different things to make them. One of our favourites was using petals. We had to count the different objects that we put in and talked about whether the potion bottle could be full, empty or half full. Once the potion was created we talked to our friends about what we had put in and what they would do. We then talked about a label that could go on the bottle and used post it notes to write the name of our potion on it. This week it is all about Addition! We have had discussions in our carpet time which was very interesting - the question was 'What is adding?' Lots of ideas took place, 'it is about numbers' 'it is about numbers getting bigger' 'you can add tomato sauce to your dinner' 'it is like blending sounds when we add them together'. We then played the sandcastle game together and talked about how we could solve the problems that it was posing. We found out that we had to add all the shells together to find the total. This meant that we had to take our time counting, say the number names in the correct order and then stop when we had counted them all. We also had the chance to play our favourite 'spotty dogs' game. In this game we had to take turns and share, count out the dogs that had the correct amount of spots and then count out the bones that were in the basket. On our second go we had to add the bones together to find the total! We have also been carrying on our Mary Poppins work. Last week we used our phonics to create a list of the objects in Mary's bag and also on Friday we talked about making kites and what to use to make them stick best. We are carrying on with these activities this week along with making labels for our creations in the outdoor area. Our Mary Poppins Challenge this week......... Mary had been to the kitchen and found lots of objects that Bert could use to create music with. Our job was to help him! We had to investigate the objects, listen to the sounds that they made and then create music with them. We made loud sounds to be heard over the cannon, quiet sounds to send the children to sleep and then decided to create a poem that we could sing when we were playing the instruments. Mary, Bert, Michel and Jane like the music and to play games pictures from chalk lots of talk Loud and quiet Lots of fun! This week it is all about money! We have created a shop for Mary Poppins and have put objects into it that Jane and Michael would enjoy working with. We then played a coin game on the computer which showed us the many different coins that we could use in our shop. We then looked at the different coins we have in our classroom and discussed their shape, colour and size. All the coins have different names - 1p, 2p, 5p, 10p, 20p, 50p, £1 and £2. In our shop the shopkeeper has one set of coins and the customer has another set. They have to then match the different coins to pay for the objects. We also used 1p coins to pay for different objects that Mary really likes. A puppet and jigsaw were our favourites. We had to look at the cost of the object, say what the number is and then count out the correct amount of 1p coins to pay for it. What a wonderful week! This week we are working on a design and technology focus. We are investigating different ways of sticking things together and talking about what works well and what doesn't. We decided to create something for Mary Poppins. We had lots of different ideas. Perhaps we could make a turtle, an umbrella, a bridge, some food or a house. We then decided on creating some penguins as they made us laugh so much in the film! We worked in our groups and listened to the ideas of our friends. We cut and created together and made some amazing penguins! A fantastic start to the new term! We have enjoyed talking about our holidays and all the wonderful things that we have been doing. At the end of last half term we started to create our own diaries and this week we have started to write in them. We have decided what we wanted to write and then listened to the sounds in the words. We then began to use the letters to create words. We have also worked hard on our PE - trying very hard to get changed on our own! We have then been finding out about Supertato's friend - Christopher Pumpkin. He is very funny! Our week then entailed investigating, counting, drawing, creating and writing using Christopher as our focus! Our last week of this half term! What an amazing first half term we have had - lots of investigating and learning new things. The evil pea has been very tricky but we have really enjoyed working on different challenges that he has set. Our favourite activities have been to create shape pictures, assemble traps, create new homes, machines to trap the pea and also vegetable printing. We have learnt the routine and expectations of being at school and Mrs Stevens is very proud of all of us. Thank you for all your support, enjoy half term and we look forward to next half term with more exciting activities. This week is all about birthdays! We are investigating two books that Floppy has sent to us - they are all about Kipper and how he enjoys birthdays. We predicted what we thought the story would be about using the front cover and the title. We then looked through the book, using the pictures as clues to help with reading. We talked about our own experiences of birthdays, what we enjoyed and what we looked forward to. We thought about all the things that we would need if we were to have a birthday - the cakes, presents, food and cards. We have been developing our awareness of writing our own names, forming the letters correctly and used this to write an invitation. We then developed our fine motor control in using scissors carefully. We have also been on many shapes hunts this week and discussed what shapes we could see in our environment - we created presents with the mobilo - did you know that we could see squares, circles and oblongs in the bricks? What a busy week! This week we are continuing with our evil pea and Supertato work. The evil pea hid all of Floppy's magic keys and we had to find them and create maps to show where they were. Floppy was so pleased with our work that he sent us a present - JELLY! We have been making jelly in our class and watching how it changed. It melted into small cubes when we added hot water. We told Mrs Stevens that she needed to be very careful when using hot water! We then watched the jelly harden again - we said that it went very watery and also then became rubbery. We were then able to play with lots of jelly in the tuff spot - it was very sticky, squidgy, slimy and smelt lovely. We were then able to take a small jelly home with us! But there were no evil peas stuck in our jelly! This week it is all about 'veggies assemble'. We are investigating different vegtables and are beginning a printing exploration! We will be printing different vegtables and discussing what we see. We will then choose our favourite and reprint on material - this will then become a whole school project! We are also developing our understanding of papermache and the different ways we can describe it - how it feels, smells and looks! Lots of wonderful language has been used. Once we have completed our paper mache work then we will create a new supertato and evil pea. We are also working on collecting and counting evil peas, saving objects from the ice and also creating different evil pea stories using the blocks. This week we have been sent a book from Supertato. We predicted what we thought the book may be about and used pictures as clues. We then investigated further and found out that it was a book about nursery rhymes. We found lots of nursery rhymes, some that we knew already and some that we found out about. We then used some actions to develop Humpty Dumpty, 5 little ducks, 10 fat sausages and Incy wincy spider! As part of our writing focus we have been recording our favourite nursery rhymes and explaining why! Ask us what our favourite was and how we have been working on them this week - we even created an evil pea game to practise! This week we have been continuing with our work on learning our new environments and have been carrying out initial phonic and maths work. One of our favourite stories so far is Supertato - we really like the evil pea! We have started to look at ways that we can help Supertato to capture the evil pea and have created jails and traps! We have really enjoyed learning how to make dens with the big blocks and how to keep safe! Welcome to Reception! What an amazing first week we have had. The children have all worked hard on investigating their new environment. Each day they have talked about what they have enjoyed and what they want to learn next. We have been into the hall and worked on our listening skills during our movement activities and had a great time! Some of the things that we have enjoyed most were discussed at the end of the sessions...... I loved working with the horses and making a station for them. I enjoyed making a story in the bridge area I enjoy building I loved working in the den area The water area is fun! I enjoy dressing up and playing in the house We have been very proud of how well the children settled in and have really enjoyed working with them. Thank you for all your help and support in settling them into school.	3,337	ENGLISH	1
Union County Townships The Union County flag was designed by Fairbanks High School student Jeremy Bolin. It was adopted by the Union County Commissioners on December 1, 2002. Union County was established by an act of the Ohio Legislature on January 10, 1820. The creation of Union County was due largely to the efforts of Colonel James Curry of Jerome Township who served as a member of the Ohio Legislature for the 1819-1820 session. Upon the establishment of Union County, Milford was named the seat of justice. Marysville was named the county seat prior to May 15, 1821. When formed, Union County included three townships. By 1849 Union County contained fourteen townships. Though in later years township lines would be extensively resurveyed, no new townships were ever created. Darby Township was formed on May 10, 1803 as the second township of Franklin County. The other two original townships of the county were Mill Creek and Union. Mill Creek and Union Townships were formed upon the creation of Union County on January 10, 1820. On March 12, 1821 the township boundaries were redefined, creating five townships. These five townships were Union, Darby, Jerome, Paris, and Mill Creek. In June of 1822 Liberty Township became the sixth township in Union County. Leesburg Township was officially created in 1825 as the seventh township in the county, however its boundaries were not clearly defined at that time. Allen Township was created as the eighth township from the southern division of Liberty Township on June 5, 1827. On March 3, 1829, Ebenezer Cheney successfully petitioned the Union County Commissioners for the creation of a township from the northern part of Leesburg Township to be called Jackson Township. On March 4, 1833 Cyperian Lee presented a petition to the Union County Commissioners requesting that Jackson Township be divided into two townships with the southern division being called Claibourne. While this petition was granted, it appears that no action was made until March 5, 1834 when another petition was made for the formation of Claibourne Township. York Township was created on December 3, 1833 from the northern section of Liberty Township. Officially York Township was formed prior to Claibourne Township. Washington Township was formed as the twelfth township in the county from the northern section of York Township on June 9, 1836. The thirteenth township formed in Union County was Dover Township. It was officially formed by the county commissioners from a section of Mill Creek Township on March 5, 1839, though its boundaries had been established by December of 1838. The fourteenth and final township to be formed in Union County was Taylor Township. It was formed December 5, 1849 by granting a petition from R. L Judy. This final township encompassed lands taken from York, Liberty, and Leesburg Townships. Information in this section of our website has been found in many sources, primarily Beers' History of Union County (1883), Ohio Ghost Towns: No. 42 - Union County by Richard N. and Virginia G. Helwig, and the U. S. Postal Service. Some information was also provided by Marie Bouic from her presentation of Ghost Towns of Union County	<urn:uuid:37f73319-e8ec-4716-8715-73b837171d93>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.uccogs.org/county-townships	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00318.warc.gz	en	0.984848	673	3.359375	3	[ -0.4653576612472534, -0.24314165115356445, 0.14555391669273376, 0.03552984446287155, -0.23343050479888916, 0.2503812313079834, 0.02495197206735611, 0.08026053756475449, 0.12240251898765564, -0.3906711935997009, -0.10634870827198029, -0.09095218777656555, 0.28897562623023987, 0.085685268044...	16	Union County Townships The Union County flag was designed by Fairbanks High School student Jeremy Bolin. It was adopted by the Union County Commissioners on December 1, 2002. Union County was established by an act of the Ohio Legislature on January 10, 1820. The creation of Union County was due largely to the efforts of Colonel James Curry of Jerome Township who served as a member of the Ohio Legislature for the 1819-1820 session. Upon the establishment of Union County, Milford was named the seat of justice. Marysville was named the county seat prior to May 15, 1821. When formed, Union County included three townships. By 1849 Union County contained fourteen townships. Though in later years township lines would be extensively resurveyed, no new townships were ever created. Darby Township was formed on May 10, 1803 as the second township of Franklin County. The other two original townships of the county were Mill Creek and Union. Mill Creek and Union Townships were formed upon the creation of Union County on January 10, 1820. On March 12, 1821 the township boundaries were redefined, creating five townships. These five townships were Union, Darby, Jerome, Paris, and Mill Creek. In June of 1822 Liberty Township became the sixth township in Union County. Leesburg Township was officially created in 1825 as the seventh township in the county, however its boundaries were not clearly defined at that time. Allen Township was created as the eighth township from the southern division of Liberty Township on June 5, 1827. On March 3, 1829, Ebenezer Cheney successfully petitioned the Union County Commissioners for the creation of a township from the northern part of Leesburg Township to be called Jackson Township. On March 4, 1833 Cyperian Lee presented a petition to the Union County Commissioners requesting that Jackson Township be divided into two townships with the southern division being called Claibourne. While this petition was granted, it appears that no action was made until March 5, 1834 when another petition was made for the formation of Claibourne Township. York Township was created on December 3, 1833 from the northern section of Liberty Township. Officially York Township was formed prior to Claibourne Township. Washington Township was formed as the twelfth township in the county from the northern section of York Township on June 9, 1836. The thirteenth township formed in Union County was Dover Township. It was officially formed by the county commissioners from a section of Mill Creek Township on March 5, 1839, though its boundaries had been established by December of 1838. The fourteenth and final township to be formed in Union County was Taylor Township. It was formed December 5, 1849 by granting a petition from R. L Judy. This final township encompassed lands taken from York, Liberty, and Leesburg Townships. Information in this section of our website has been found in many sources, primarily Beers' History of Union County (1883), Ohio Ghost Towns: No. 42 - Union County by Richard N. and Virginia G. Helwig, and the U. S. Postal Service. Some information was also provided by Marie Bouic from her presentation of Ghost Towns of Union County	747	ENGLISH	1
About Fannin Memorial Monument Images The Fannin Memorial Monument is the final resting place of the remains of the Texans who were killed by Mexican forces in Goliad in March of 1836 during the Texas Revolution. After the group and their commander, Colonel James Fannin, were forced to surrender at the Battle of Coleto, they were taken back to Presidio la Bahía in Goliad, where they had been stationed before beginning a retreat to Victoria. After about a week being held as prisoners, the men were marched from the Presidio in three groups and executed, upon the order of General Antonio López de Santa Anna. The event became known as the Goliad Massacre and "Remember Goliad!" would later be a rallying cry of the Texan forces, who eventually defeated the Mexicans and won the Revolution at the Battle of San Jacinto almost a month later.	<urn:uuid:aa4664b3-c7f6-4535-b03e-6172b4f8ef83>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.jasonmerlo.com/gallery/fannin-memorial-monument-images/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00501.warc.gz	en	0.987062	184	3.5	4	[ 0.06077784299850464, 0.21876825392246246, 0.8530206084251404, 0.1438966691493988, -0.11879858374595642, 0.45328590273857117, 0.07705766707658768, 0.17164906859397888, -0.2992841601371765, -0.5638105869293213, -0.0010360745945945382, -0.0989077016711235, 0.2572326958179474, 0.16504612565040...	8	About Fannin Memorial Monument Images The Fannin Memorial Monument is the final resting place of the remains of the Texans who were killed by Mexican forces in Goliad in March of 1836 during the Texas Revolution. After the group and their commander, Colonel James Fannin, were forced to surrender at the Battle of Coleto, they were taken back to Presidio la Bahía in Goliad, where they had been stationed before beginning a retreat to Victoria. After about a week being held as prisoners, the men were marched from the Presidio in three groups and executed, upon the order of General Antonio López de Santa Anna. The event became known as the Goliad Massacre and "Remember Goliad!" would later be a rallying cry of the Texan forces, who eventually defeated the Mexicans and won the Revolution at the Battle of San Jacinto almost a month later.	186	ENGLISH	1
On January 17, 1781, the Battle of Cowpens took place just north of the town of Cowpens, South Carolina. The American forces were led by Daniel Morgan, an experienced Brigadier General who participated in some other battles such as Battle of Quebec and the Battle of Saratoga. The British soldiers were led by Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton, a young officer with rather very bad reputation (brutal treatment of enemy soldiers) and his rather aggressive tactics during the War of Independence. The battle that lasted less than an hour, was a decisive victory for the American forces. They had minimal casualties while the British suffered 110 dead, over 200 wounded, and hundreds more taken prisoner. Colonel Tarleton managed to escape with most of his cavalry. The Battle of Cowpens was the crucial turning point of the Revolutionary War. After losing several battles in the South, the Continental Army defeated the British in a decisive victory at Cowpens. The Americans forced the British to retreat, which gave them confidence that they could win the war. Ten months later, the Americans were victorious in the Revolutionary War — the British forces had to surrender at Yorktown.	<urn:uuid:d52186b0-d7b0-47a2-9485-e235ee5f5c4c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://tall-white-aliens.com/?p=10421	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00181.warc.gz	en	0.986211	241	4.03125	4	[ -0.16685374081134796, 0.5087206959724426, 0.13715258240699768, 0.2650231122970581, -0.30700623989105225, -0.17480051517486572, 0.15979212522506714, 0.20936642587184906, -0.1168719157576561, -0.011402873322367668, -0.023898251354694366, -0.2523261308670044, 0.2863112986087799, 0.31562188267...	4	On January 17, 1781, the Battle of Cowpens took place just north of the town of Cowpens, South Carolina. The American forces were led by Daniel Morgan, an experienced Brigadier General who participated in some other battles such as Battle of Quebec and the Battle of Saratoga. The British soldiers were led by Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton, a young officer with rather very bad reputation (brutal treatment of enemy soldiers) and his rather aggressive tactics during the War of Independence. The battle that lasted less than an hour, was a decisive victory for the American forces. They had minimal casualties while the British suffered 110 dead, over 200 wounded, and hundreds more taken prisoner. Colonel Tarleton managed to escape with most of his cavalry. The Battle of Cowpens was the crucial turning point of the Revolutionary War. After losing several battles in the South, the Continental Army defeated the British in a decisive victory at Cowpens. The Americans forced the British to retreat, which gave them confidence that they could win the war. Ten months later, the Americans were victorious in the Revolutionary War — the British forces had to surrender at Yorktown.	246	ENGLISH	1
We finished up our unit on ” Life on the Pond” today by playing a game with frogs , lilly pads and a dice . Each child had a lilly pad and would roll the dice . What ever number it landed on they would place that many frogs on the lilly pad. One dice had dots they had to count and the other had numbers. Both dice are excellent math tools. During circle time we read ” The Frog and The Princess.” The kids really enjoyed the story of the frog that did a favor for the princess and then she promised to kiss him. But, she wouldnt because she thought it would turn her into a troll. In the end she did kiss the frog and he of course turned into a handsome prince . We did a graph of who would kiss a frog and who would not. Two of the girls said they would if he wasnt slimy.	<urn:uuid:b5b12151-cdfb-4fb7-92ec-c9163ede094c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://siloampreschool.com/2014/05/frogs-on-a-lilly-pad/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00034.warc.gz	en	0.990762	184	3.34375	3	[ -0.5414829254150391, -0.24251948297023773, 0.6220247745513916, -0.5388815402984619, -0.5598371028900146, 0.30410635471343994, 0.6020286679267883, 0.383507639169693, 0.2050015777349472, 0.42146754264831543, 0.03415381908416748, -0.09381930530071259, 0.43713194131851196, 0.07006066292524338,...	7	We finished up our unit on ” Life on the Pond” today by playing a game with frogs , lilly pads and a dice . Each child had a lilly pad and would roll the dice . What ever number it landed on they would place that many frogs on the lilly pad. One dice had dots they had to count and the other had numbers. Both dice are excellent math tools. During circle time we read ” The Frog and The Princess.” The kids really enjoyed the story of the frog that did a favor for the princess and then she promised to kiss him. But, she wouldnt because she thought it would turn her into a troll. In the end she did kiss the frog and he of course turned into a handsome prince . We did a graph of who would kiss a frog and who would not. Two of the girls said they would if he wasnt slimy.	178	ENGLISH	1
Raziya Sultan 1205-1240 With a royal blow, she tore away the veil; She showed her face’s sun from behind the screen. The lioness showed so much force that brave men bent low before her. — Amir Khusrau Raziya Sultan was the Sultan of Delhi in India for four years from 1236 to 1240, as the first female ruler in Muslim and Indian history. Her father was Shamsuddin Iltutmish. Born into slavery as a Seljuk Turk, he was son-in-law to Aibak, founder of the Delhi Sultanate whom he served as a regional governor. After Aibak’s own son was deemed incompetent, the Chihalgani – a council of 40 Turkish nobles – placed Iltutmush in the role of Sultan, when Raziya was five years old. Iltutmush governed the region after Aibak’s death, establishing a tolerant, multicultural state in Delhi and expanding his realm into India, while avoiding confrontations with the powerful Mongol Empire in Afghanistan. His eldest son died in 1229 while governing the province of Bengal, and Iltutumish considered his other sons dissolute and unfit for governance. Instead, he chose Raziya, a well-educated and capable woman to succeed him, becoming the first Sultan to choose a female heir. According to historian Minhaj-us-Siraj, he stated that his daughter Raziya was the equal of 20 sons. Her youth had involved training in warfare and diplomacy by her father, and a trusted Abyssinian slave called Malik Yaqut. She had not been raised in a harem and lacked the modesty of her female contemporaries. This decision was unpopular with the conservative and sexist Chihalgani. When Iltutumish died in April 1236, they defied his wishes and appointed her half-brother Ruknuddin in her place. Ruknuddin’s interests lay more in indulging his hedonism than ruling the state. He delegated this responsibility to his mother, a co-wife of Raziya’s mother. Within less than a year of this disastrous rule, both he and his mother had been assassinated. Raziya became ruler, taking the title of Sultan in November – insisting on taking a male title rather than one associated with being the wife of the true ruler. Coins struck in her name bore the inscription ‘Pillar of Women, Queen of the Times, Sultan Raziya, daughter of Shamsuddin Iltumish’ reinforcing her claim to the throne. Like her father, she was tolerant of divergent religions and allowed Hindus to practice their religion freely. She wore male attire – a turban and trousers, with a sword at her hip – and is described as carrying out the affairs of state ‘in the manner of kings’. This included leading her armies into battle on the back of an elephant. When critics asked her to veil, she told them she could not, as she needed to be approachable to her people. Indeed, Raziya held open meetings to show accountability to the people she ruled over. She was also a canny political operator, deposing or neutralising rival leaders in Lahore and Multan, as well as her treacherous Grand Vizier. She followed her father in expanding the borders of their territory, which grew to include parts of present-day Pakistan, Bangladesh and India under her rule. She also developed her state through building schools, academies, research centres and libraries, seeding the intellectual culture of the region. She left Turkic influences within the culture of the Indian subcontinent, including aspects of Sufi philosophy. These educational establishments were also indicative of her tolerant attitude to diversity: Hindu studies of sciences and literature were taught alongside the Qur’an and Islamic philosophy. However, male resentment over a woman assuming a monarch’s power had not diminished. Rumours circulated that Raziya had taken an Abyssinian slave called Jamal Yaqut, the commander of her horses, as a lover, likely to disparage her ‘honour’. She was forced to quell successive revolts from her rivals. In the last of these, one of the nobles – a former childhood friend called Altunia – conspired to replace her with her step-brother. Yaqut was assassinated, and Raziya was imprisoned whilst her step-brother declared himself Sultan. Some accounts state that Razia married Altunia and that the couple attempted to reclaim the Sultanate, but were forced to flee after this proved unsuccessful. If so, he would have been with her when she was captured, robbed and murdered by Hindu Jats after her escape. Her step-brother, having none of her acumen for politics or warfare, was dethroned for incompetence, and the Sultanate of Delhi entered into a succession crisis that would bring Iltutmish’s brief dynasty to an end. She is believed to have been buried at Turkman Gate in Delhi. According to Ibn Battuta, ‘A small shrine was erected over her grave, which is visited by pilgrims, and is considered a place of sanctity. It is situated on the banks of the Jumna, about a parasang from Delhi.’ More recently, a fictionalised version of her life was the topic of a TV series in 2015 showing her enduring importance in sub-Contintental and Muslim culture.	<urn:uuid:6bcc6be8-212a-436b-876a-d19cba74abe7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sister-hood.com/sister-hood-staff/raziya-sultan-1205-1240/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00312.warc.gz	en	0.983652	1,133	3.578125	4	[ -0.03567082807421684, 0.5389209985733032, -0.001574584050104022, -0.02406204119324684, -0.6669518947601318, -0.18143877387046814, 0.6268872618675232, 0.08370506763458252, -0.06158578768372536, -0.13441775739192963, 0.0962555781006813, -0.303875207901001, -0.000042920466512441635, 0.1767264...	11	Raziya Sultan 1205-1240 With a royal blow, she tore away the veil; She showed her face’s sun from behind the screen. The lioness showed so much force that brave men bent low before her. — Amir Khusrau Raziya Sultan was the Sultan of Delhi in India for four years from 1236 to 1240, as the first female ruler in Muslim and Indian history. Her father was Shamsuddin Iltutmish. Born into slavery as a Seljuk Turk, he was son-in-law to Aibak, founder of the Delhi Sultanate whom he served as a regional governor. After Aibak’s own son was deemed incompetent, the Chihalgani – a council of 40 Turkish nobles – placed Iltutmush in the role of Sultan, when Raziya was five years old. Iltutmush governed the region after Aibak’s death, establishing a tolerant, multicultural state in Delhi and expanding his realm into India, while avoiding confrontations with the powerful Mongol Empire in Afghanistan. His eldest son died in 1229 while governing the province of Bengal, and Iltutumish considered his other sons dissolute and unfit for governance. Instead, he chose Raziya, a well-educated and capable woman to succeed him, becoming the first Sultan to choose a female heir. According to historian Minhaj-us-Siraj, he stated that his daughter Raziya was the equal of 20 sons. Her youth had involved training in warfare and diplomacy by her father, and a trusted Abyssinian slave called Malik Yaqut. She had not been raised in a harem and lacked the modesty of her female contemporaries. This decision was unpopular with the conservative and sexist Chihalgani. When Iltutumish died in April 1236, they defied his wishes and appointed her half-brother Ruknuddin in her place. Ruknuddin’s interests lay more in indulging his hedonism than ruling the state. He delegated this responsibility to his mother, a co-wife of Raziya’s mother. Within less than a year of this disastrous rule, both he and his mother had been assassinated. Raziya became ruler, taking the title of Sultan in November – insisting on taking a male title rather than one associated with being the wife of the true ruler. Coins struck in her name bore the inscription ‘Pillar of Women, Queen of the Times, Sultan Raziya, daughter of Shamsuddin Iltumish’ reinforcing her claim to the throne. Like her father, she was tolerant of divergent religions and allowed Hindus to practice their religion freely. She wore male attire – a turban and trousers, with a sword at her hip – and is described as carrying out the affairs of state ‘in the manner of kings’. This included leading her armies into battle on the back of an elephant. When critics asked her to veil, she told them she could not, as she needed to be approachable to her people. Indeed, Raziya held open meetings to show accountability to the people she ruled over. She was also a canny political operator, deposing or neutralising rival leaders in Lahore and Multan, as well as her treacherous Grand Vizier. She followed her father in expanding the borders of their territory, which grew to include parts of present-day Pakistan, Bangladesh and India under her rule. She also developed her state through building schools, academies, research centres and libraries, seeding the intellectual culture of the region. She left Turkic influences within the culture of the Indian subcontinent, including aspects of Sufi philosophy. These educational establishments were also indicative of her tolerant attitude to diversity: Hindu studies of sciences and literature were taught alongside the Qur’an and Islamic philosophy. However, male resentment over a woman assuming a monarch’s power had not diminished. Rumours circulated that Raziya had taken an Abyssinian slave called Jamal Yaqut, the commander of her horses, as a lover, likely to disparage her ‘honour’. She was forced to quell successive revolts from her rivals. In the last of these, one of the nobles – a former childhood friend called Altunia – conspired to replace her with her step-brother. Yaqut was assassinated, and Raziya was imprisoned whilst her step-brother declared himself Sultan. Some accounts state that Razia married Altunia and that the couple attempted to reclaim the Sultanate, but were forced to flee after this proved unsuccessful. If so, he would have been with her when she was captured, robbed and murdered by Hindu Jats after her escape. Her step-brother, having none of her acumen for politics or warfare, was dethroned for incompetence, and the Sultanate of Delhi entered into a succession crisis that would bring Iltutmish’s brief dynasty to an end. She is believed to have been buried at Turkman Gate in Delhi. According to Ibn Battuta, ‘A small shrine was erected over her grave, which is visited by pilgrims, and is considered a place of sanctity. It is situated on the banks of the Jumna, about a parasang from Delhi.’ More recently, a fictionalised version of her life was the topic of a TV series in 2015 showing her enduring importance in sub-Contintental and Muslim culture.	1,137	ENGLISH	1
“In Search of a Room of One’s Own” In the Elizabeth era of History performing arts was everything. Society did not have DVDs to watch and iPods to listen to; they went to plays and operas for leisure. A time of history when some of the best play writers and considerably authors were discovered. In Virginia Wolf’s “In Search of a Room of One’s Own” she emphasizes the difference between the lifestyle of a man compared to the lifestyle of a women during the Elizabeth era, in how a man had so many more opportunities to become a writer than a woman did. Women could have never been outstanding poets, because they were never able to acquire the skills necessary. “A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction.”(pg.386) In order for a woman to be able to write she must have money in her family. Money was crucial to have, because it was needed to receive an education. A woman also needed a room of their own, in order to write and the only way for a woman to have a room of their own was if her parents were extremely wealthy. Having a personal room allowed the writer to relax and think by their selves without any disturbances. Woolf created Judith Shakespeare to show the reader the difference in opportunities compared to her brother William. Judith never had time to sit and relax to write in a room, because she was always being asked to complete chores around the house. When she was able to find ten minutes to spare for writing she had to burn the evidence of her secretive passion, because she couldn’t chance being caught by her father. So even though “She had the quickest fancy, a gift like her brother’s for the tune of words.”(pg. 386) she couldn’t put her great talent to use. Everyday lifestyle for William Shakespeare was much different and much better than Judith’s. William was able to receive a daily education, because during that time the family would always give the privileges of education to the son in the family. The father believed... Please join StudyMode to read the full document	<urn:uuid:30bb191f-e6bb-4fb7-8756-eadd3ae9df90>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studymode.com/essays/In-Search-Of-a-Room-Of-63720961.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00150.warc.gz	en	0.989414	448	3.609375	4	[ -0.2080530822277069, 0.10126468539237976, 0.46299222111701965, -0.08880753070116043, -0.46241840720176697, 0.22801589965820312, -0.03370765224099159, -0.11383522301912308, 0.004919678438454866, -0.1910017877817154, -0.049937278032302856, 0.36150479316711426, -0.11637594550848007, 0.1257493...	1	“In Search of a Room of One’s Own” In the Elizabeth era of History performing arts was everything. Society did not have DVDs to watch and iPods to listen to; they went to plays and operas for leisure. A time of history when some of the best play writers and considerably authors were discovered. In Virginia Wolf’s “In Search of a Room of One’s Own” she emphasizes the difference between the lifestyle of a man compared to the lifestyle of a women during the Elizabeth era, in how a man had so many more opportunities to become a writer than a woman did. Women could have never been outstanding poets, because they were never able to acquire the skills necessary. “A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction.”(pg.386) In order for a woman to be able to write she must have money in her family. Money was crucial to have, because it was needed to receive an education. A woman also needed a room of their own, in order to write and the only way for a woman to have a room of their own was if her parents were extremely wealthy. Having a personal room allowed the writer to relax and think by their selves without any disturbances. Woolf created Judith Shakespeare to show the reader the difference in opportunities compared to her brother William. Judith never had time to sit and relax to write in a room, because she was always being asked to complete chores around the house. When she was able to find ten minutes to spare for writing she had to burn the evidence of her secretive passion, because she couldn’t chance being caught by her father. So even though “She had the quickest fancy, a gift like her brother’s for the tune of words.”(pg. 386) she couldn’t put her great talent to use. Everyday lifestyle for William Shakespeare was much different and much better than Judith’s. William was able to receive a daily education, because during that time the family would always give the privileges of education to the son in the family. The father believed... Please join StudyMode to read the full document	426	ENGLISH	1
The UK is not known for its earthquakes, but this week - near the small Somerset village of Culmhead - the earth shook as huge amounts of subterranean pressure caused tremors about 5km underground. Approximately 200,000 homes felt the tremor, which measured 3.2 on the Richter local magnitude scale and started at exactly 10.49pm and 18 seconds. With the epicentre some 4.3 miles south of Taunton, the quake was felt strongly in places such as Tiverton, Uffculme and Honiton. Reports sent in to the British Geological Survey (BGS) reported people's houses 'rattling', 'cracking' sounds and houses being given 'a definite shove'. So how big was the tremor in comparison to other seismic events seen in both the South West and the UK? And what exactly is an earthquake? What is an earthquake? Movements within the Earth’s crust cause stress to build up at points of weakness and rocks to deform. Stored energy builds up in the same way as energy builds up in the spring of a watch when it is wound. When the stress finally exceeds the strength of the rock, the rock fractures along a fault, often at a zone of existing weakness within the rock. The stored energy that is suddenly released as an earthquake! Intense vibrations, or seismic waves, spread out from the initial point of rupture, the focus, like ripples on a pond. These waves are what makes the ground shake and can travel large distances in all directions. 'We get about three or four in the UK of this size every year' "It is not too unusual - we get about 250 earthquakes in the UK each year," said Davie Galloway, a seismologist at the BGS. "Only about 10 per cent of those are felt though as normally they are too small. "They don’t happen all the time at this size, but they do happen. We get about three or four in the UK of this size every year. "On world terms it was a very small earthquake, but in the UK it was quite significant. To the people who felt it, it was probably very significant." To put it into more context, the largest known British earthquake occurred near the Dogger Bank in 1931, with a magnitude of 6.1. Fortunately, it was 60 miles offshore but was still powerful enough to cause minor damage to buildings on the east coast of England. The most damaging UK earthquake was in the Colchester area in 1884. Some 1200 buildings needed repairs, chimneys collapsed and walls were cracked. At least three people were killed. "The one by the Dogger Bank, which is just offshore near East Anglia, was 6.1," continued Mr Galloway. "That knocked a few chimneys down on the east coast." Most of the earthquakes in the UK do occur in on the western side of the mainland. Both eastern Scotland and north-east England are almost totally devoid of the tremors, although the North Sea is actually more active than the mainland. What about the South West? "Generally speaking, the South West has had its fair share of earthquakes," said Mr Galloway. "It is not he most seismically active place in the UK – that is probably the Welsh border area or north-west Scotland. "Back in 2004, there were four events in the Bridgwater area in just one day. They were similar magnitudes to the one yestrday. "They do happen down there but it is just not the most active area." As Mr Galloway said earlier, the UK will see quakes of this magnitude three or four times a year. The location of the earthquake also has a bearing on how widely reported the episode is. Mr Galloway continued: "If you get 3.2 in the Highlands in the UK, there are more sheep and cows than people so it will not get many reports. "Obviously there are plenty of people around Taunton and Bridgwater so there were a lot of reports." An aftershock is a smaller earthquake that follows a larger quake, in the same area of the main shock, caused as the displaced crust adjusts to the effects of the main shock. Some media outlets have reported aftershocks being felt in Torquay, but Mr Galloway said this was not the case. "There have not been any aftershocks so far. People tend to think after a large earthquake there will be aftershocks but that is not always the case," he said. "There is still a chance there could be one or two aftershocks but we have not recorded any. "I can’t say for definite though – if I say there will not be any, there will be one in an hour. "They tend to be small so they might be so small they will not be felt by anyone." Just how big is a big earthquake? When asked how big an earthquake has to be to be felt, Mr Galloway replied: "It depends on a lot of things. If it had happened at 20km depth, fewer people would have felt it than at 2km, so it depends on the depth. "If you are in the realms of 2-2.5km the it will probably be felt by a few people in the immediate area." The world's largest earthquake with an instrumentally documented magnitude occurred on May 22, 1960 near Valdivia, in southern Chile. It was assigned a magnitude of 9.5 by the United States Geological Survey. It is referred to as the Great Chilean Earthquake and the 1960 Valdivia Earthquake. The Chilean government estimated that about 2,000,000 people were left homeless. It was fortunate that the earthquake occurred in the middle of the afternoon and was preceded by a powerful foreshock. That 'foreshock' frightened most people from their buildings, placing them outside when the main earthquake occurred. The death toll is not clear, particularly as lives were lost in subsequent tsunamis, but it is estimated as being between 1,000 and 7,000 lives.	<urn:uuid:3b936d37-7a8c-4c7f-8e01-b966d4200b61>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.devonlive.com/news/devon-news/expert-confirms-true-impact-earthquakes-3617646	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00111.warc.gz	en	0.980663	1,280	3.796875	4	[ 0.05368480831384659, -0.3099898099899292, 0.3610863983631134, -0.0940985381603241, 0.0963621437549591, 0.20230650901794434, -0.18076151609420776, -0.23770351707935333, 0.045418981462717056, 0.23181360960006714, 0.1487186849117279, -0.5744096636772156, 0.37210237979888916, 0.192419409751892...	11	The UK is not known for its earthquakes, but this week - near the small Somerset village of Culmhead - the earth shook as huge amounts of subterranean pressure caused tremors about 5km underground. Approximately 200,000 homes felt the tremor, which measured 3.2 on the Richter local magnitude scale and started at exactly 10.49pm and 18 seconds. With the epicentre some 4.3 miles south of Taunton, the quake was felt strongly in places such as Tiverton, Uffculme and Honiton. Reports sent in to the British Geological Survey (BGS) reported people's houses 'rattling', 'cracking' sounds and houses being given 'a definite shove'. So how big was the tremor in comparison to other seismic events seen in both the South West and the UK? And what exactly is an earthquake? What is an earthquake? Movements within the Earth’s crust cause stress to build up at points of weakness and rocks to deform. Stored energy builds up in the same way as energy builds up in the spring of a watch when it is wound. When the stress finally exceeds the strength of the rock, the rock fractures along a fault, often at a zone of existing weakness within the rock. The stored energy that is suddenly released as an earthquake! Intense vibrations, or seismic waves, spread out from the initial point of rupture, the focus, like ripples on a pond. These waves are what makes the ground shake and can travel large distances in all directions. 'We get about three or four in the UK of this size every year' "It is not too unusual - we get about 250 earthquakes in the UK each year," said Davie Galloway, a seismologist at the BGS. "Only about 10 per cent of those are felt though as normally they are too small. "They don’t happen all the time at this size, but they do happen. We get about three or four in the UK of this size every year. "On world terms it was a very small earthquake, but in the UK it was quite significant. To the people who felt it, it was probably very significant." To put it into more context, the largest known British earthquake occurred near the Dogger Bank in 1931, with a magnitude of 6.1. Fortunately, it was 60 miles offshore but was still powerful enough to cause minor damage to buildings on the east coast of England. The most damaging UK earthquake was in the Colchester area in 1884. Some 1200 buildings needed repairs, chimneys collapsed and walls were cracked. At least three people were killed. "The one by the Dogger Bank, which is just offshore near East Anglia, was 6.1," continued Mr Galloway. "That knocked a few chimneys down on the east coast." Most of the earthquakes in the UK do occur in on the western side of the mainland. Both eastern Scotland and north-east England are almost totally devoid of the tremors, although the North Sea is actually more active than the mainland. What about the South West? "Generally speaking, the South West has had its fair share of earthquakes," said Mr Galloway. "It is not he most seismically active place in the UK – that is probably the Welsh border area or north-west Scotland. "Back in 2004, there were four events in the Bridgwater area in just one day. They were similar magnitudes to the one yestrday. "They do happen down there but it is just not the most active area." As Mr Galloway said earlier, the UK will see quakes of this magnitude three or four times a year. The location of the earthquake also has a bearing on how widely reported the episode is. Mr Galloway continued: "If you get 3.2 in the Highlands in the UK, there are more sheep and cows than people so it will not get many reports. "Obviously there are plenty of people around Taunton and Bridgwater so there were a lot of reports." An aftershock is a smaller earthquake that follows a larger quake, in the same area of the main shock, caused as the displaced crust adjusts to the effects of the main shock. Some media outlets have reported aftershocks being felt in Torquay, but Mr Galloway said this was not the case. "There have not been any aftershocks so far. People tend to think after a large earthquake there will be aftershocks but that is not always the case," he said. "There is still a chance there could be one or two aftershocks but we have not recorded any. "I can’t say for definite though – if I say there will not be any, there will be one in an hour. "They tend to be small so they might be so small they will not be felt by anyone." Just how big is a big earthquake? When asked how big an earthquake has to be to be felt, Mr Galloway replied: "It depends on a lot of things. If it had happened at 20km depth, fewer people would have felt it than at 2km, so it depends on the depth. "If you are in the realms of 2-2.5km the it will probably be felt by a few people in the immediate area." The world's largest earthquake with an instrumentally documented magnitude occurred on May 22, 1960 near Valdivia, in southern Chile. It was assigned a magnitude of 9.5 by the United States Geological Survey. It is referred to as the Great Chilean Earthquake and the 1960 Valdivia Earthquake. The Chilean government estimated that about 2,000,000 people were left homeless. It was fortunate that the earthquake occurred in the middle of the afternoon and was preceded by a powerful foreshock. That 'foreshock' frightened most people from their buildings, placing them outside when the main earthquake occurred. The death toll is not clear, particularly as lives were lost in subsequent tsunamis, but it is estimated as being between 1,000 and 7,000 lives.	1,295	ENGLISH	1
Roper’s Narrative was one of the first to visually depict the horrors of slavery. Throughout this lecturing tours in the British Isles, countless Britons accused him of exaggerating the violence enslaved individuals faced, to which Roper responded: I’ll tell you my story. The statement given by Roper was really harrowing to the mind. The sufferings he endured when under the wretched system of slavery, were intolerable great. His object in stirring up British benevolence is to enable him to purchase the emancipation of his mother and sister who are now in bondage in that boasted land of freedom, America. Roper was born enslaved in North Carolina around 1815. As with thousands of other enslaved individuals, his father was also his white slaveowner andm as a result, Roper had a fair complexion. He was severely punished for his numerous escape attempts (by his count around 16). Whilst enslaved he witnessed brutal violence: a neighbouring plantation master forced enslaved men and women into barrels, nailed them shut so the nails protruded in the inside, and rolled them down the hill. On other occasion, he watched from a jail cell as 28 Black men jumped into the Charleston River and drowned themselves rather than be separated and sold from their families. Roper remarked in one speech that this event was as deeply traumatic to him as the parting with his own mother. Remarkably, Roper escaped from Florida (where he had been sold to another slaveowner) and travelled to New York. Eventually, he visited Britain and attracted large crowds in London and towns in the North. He was educated at University of London in 1836-37, and published his slave narrative. From 1837, he spent several years travelling around the British Isles: discover his speaking locations map using the link above, and you will see his extraordinary activism - reaching from Penzance to Inverness. He exhibited whips and chains, sometimes putting them on to illustrate how they worked, and was unrelenting in his descriptions of violence. Unfortunately, his unwillingness to compromise to Victorian sensibilities meant he faced severe criticism. Newspaper correspondents accused him of lying in his descriptions, as they could not believe such horrors could exist: even one abolitionist begged him to curtail his graphic language, but Roper replied “I shall tell the truth.” Roper married an Englishwoman and had four children, briefly settling in Canada. He returned to the UK during the mid 1840s, and again in the mid 1850s. At this point he returned to the US alone, and continued lecturing into the 1880s. In 1891, he died in a Boston hospital, with his loyal dog Pete by his side. He was very fluent in his language and eloquent in his description, but it was quite plain, even to the most casual and unreflecting observer, that his mind was often recalled to far distant climes and painful memories, when referring to his early days to the homes of his childhood and his awful hair-breadth escapes, through woods and wilds, over lake and river, now etched up a tree to escape the ruthless pursuit of men and now immersed in water to evade the scent of blood-hounds, with one of which he gave palpable proofs of a sanguinary encounter. And no wonder he should be depressed when he knows that his mother, if living, besides nine brothers and sisters are all still at the mercy of the overseer’s lash.	<urn:uuid:599fa16f-bfbb-43af-8db3-e086edac2e81>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://frederickdouglassinbritain.com/abolitionists/MosesRoper/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00071.warc.gz	en	0.990212	703	3.40625	3	[ 0.03696639835834503, 0.3532460033893585, 0.19060952961444855, 0.08807554841041565, -0.0008744383230805397, -0.02928406372666359, 0.1327427178621292, 0.03149273246526718, -0.018733374774456024, -0.15769444406032562, 0.130334734916687, -0.22995012998580933, -0.373460590839386, 0.381610989570...	5	Roper’s Narrative was one of the first to visually depict the horrors of slavery. Throughout this lecturing tours in the British Isles, countless Britons accused him of exaggerating the violence enslaved individuals faced, to which Roper responded: I’ll tell you my story. The statement given by Roper was really harrowing to the mind. The sufferings he endured when under the wretched system of slavery, were intolerable great. His object in stirring up British benevolence is to enable him to purchase the emancipation of his mother and sister who are now in bondage in that boasted land of freedom, America. Roper was born enslaved in North Carolina around 1815. As with thousands of other enslaved individuals, his father was also his white slaveowner andm as a result, Roper had a fair complexion. He was severely punished for his numerous escape attempts (by his count around 16). Whilst enslaved he witnessed brutal violence: a neighbouring plantation master forced enslaved men and women into barrels, nailed them shut so the nails protruded in the inside, and rolled them down the hill. On other occasion, he watched from a jail cell as 28 Black men jumped into the Charleston River and drowned themselves rather than be separated and sold from their families. Roper remarked in one speech that this event was as deeply traumatic to him as the parting with his own mother. Remarkably, Roper escaped from Florida (where he had been sold to another slaveowner) and travelled to New York. Eventually, he visited Britain and attracted large crowds in London and towns in the North. He was educated at University of London in 1836-37, and published his slave narrative. From 1837, he spent several years travelling around the British Isles: discover his speaking locations map using the link above, and you will see his extraordinary activism - reaching from Penzance to Inverness. He exhibited whips and chains, sometimes putting them on to illustrate how they worked, and was unrelenting in his descriptions of violence. Unfortunately, his unwillingness to compromise to Victorian sensibilities meant he faced severe criticism. Newspaper correspondents accused him of lying in his descriptions, as they could not believe such horrors could exist: even one abolitionist begged him to curtail his graphic language, but Roper replied “I shall tell the truth.” Roper married an Englishwoman and had four children, briefly settling in Canada. He returned to the UK during the mid 1840s, and again in the mid 1850s. At this point he returned to the US alone, and continued lecturing into the 1880s. In 1891, he died in a Boston hospital, with his loyal dog Pete by his side. He was very fluent in his language and eloquent in his description, but it was quite plain, even to the most casual and unreflecting observer, that his mind was often recalled to far distant climes and painful memories, when referring to his early days to the homes of his childhood and his awful hair-breadth escapes, through woods and wilds, over lake and river, now etched up a tree to escape the ruthless pursuit of men and now immersed in water to evade the scent of blood-hounds, with one of which he gave palpable proofs of a sanguinary encounter. And no wonder he should be depressed when he knows that his mother, if living, besides nine brothers and sisters are all still at the mercy of the overseer’s lash.	727	ENGLISH	1
Help Now > St. Joan of Arc FREE Catholic School Enroll Now St. Joan of Arc is the patroness of soldiers and of France. On January 6, 1412, Joan of Arc was born to pious parents of the French peasant class in the obscure village of Domremy, near the province of Lorraine. At a very early age, she was said to have heard the voices of St. Michael, St. Catherine, and St. Margaret. At first the messages were personal and general, but when she was 13-years-old, she was in her father's garden and had visions of Saint Michael, Saint Catherine, and Saint Margaret, each of whom told her to drive the English from French territory. They also asked that she bring the Dauphin to Reims for his coronation. After their messages were delivered and the saints departed, Joan cried, as "they were so beautiful." When she was sixteen-years-old, she asked her relative, Durand Lassois, to take her to Vaucouleurs, where she petitioned Robert de Baudricourt, the garrison commander, for permission to visit the French Royal Court in Chinon. Despite Baudricourt's sarcastic response to her request, Joan returned the following January and left with the support of two of Baudricourt's soldiers: Jean de Metz and Bertrand de Poulengy. Jean de Metz admitted Joan had confided in him, saying, "I must be at the King's side ... there will be no help if not from me. Although I would rather have remained spinning [wool] at my mother's side ... yet must I go and must I do this thing, for my Lord wills that I do so." With Metz and Poulengy at her side, Joan met Baudricourt and predicted a military reversal at the Battle of Rouvray near Orléans, which were confirmed several days later by a messenger's report. When Baudricourt realized the distance of the battle's location and the time it would have taken Joan to make the journey, he concluded she had seen the reversal by Divine revelation, which caused him to believe her words. Once she had Baudricourt's belief, Joan was granted an escort to Chinon through hostile Burgundian territory. For her safety, she was escorted while dressed as a male soldier, which later led to charges of cross-dressing, but her escorts viewed as a sound precaution. Two members of her escort confirmed they and the people of Vaucouleurs gave her the clothing and had been the ones to suggest she don the outfit. When she arrived in the Royal Court, she met in a private conference with Charles VII and won his trust. Yolande of Aragon, Charles' mother-in-law, planned a finance relief expedition to Orléans and Joan asked to travel with the army while wearing armor, which the Royal government agreed to. They also provided Joan's armor and she depended on donations for everything she took with her. With a donated horse, sword, banner, armor, and more, Joan arrived to Orléans and quickly turned the Anglo-French conflict into a religious war. Charles' advisors worried Joan's claims of doing God's work could be twisted by his enemies, who could easily claim she was a sorceress, which would link his crown to works of the devil. To prevent accusations, the Dauphin ordered background inquiries and a theological exam at Poitiers to verify Joan's claims. In April 1429, the commission of inquiry "declared her to be of irreproachable life, a good Christian, possessed of the virtues of humility, honesty and simplicity." Rather than deciding on whether or not Joan was acting on the basis of divine inspiration, theologians at Poitiers told the Dauphin there was a "favorable presumption" on the divine nature of her mission. Charles was satisfied with the report but theologians reminded him Joan must be tested. They claimed, "[t]o doubt or abandon her without suspicion of evil would be to repudiate the Holy Spirit and to become unworthy of God's aid." They suggested her test should be a test of her claim to lift the siege of Orléans, as she originally predicted would happen. In response to the test, Joan arrived at Orléans on April 29, 1429, where Jean d'Orléans, the acting head of the ducal family of Orléans, ensured she was excluded from war councils and kept ignorant of battles. During the five months prior to Joan's arrival to Orléans, the French had only attempted one offensive assault, which resulted in their defeat, but after her arrival, things began to change. Though Joan claimed the army was always commanded by a nobleman and that she never killed anyone in battle since she preferred only to carry her banner, which she preferred "forty times" better than a sword, several noblemen claimed she greatly effected their decisions since they accepted she gave Divinely inspired advice. On May 4, the Armagnacs captured the fortress of Saint Loup and the next day led to fortress Saint-Jean-le-Blanc, which was deserted. With Joan at the army's side, English troops approached the army to stop their advance but a cavalry charge was all it took to turn the English away without a fight. The Armagnacs captured an English fortress build around the Les Augustins monastery and attacked the English stronghold Les Tourelles on May 7. Joan was shot with an arrow between her neck and shoulder as she held her banner outside Les Tourelles, but returned to encourage the final assault to take the fortress. The next day, the English retreated from Orléans and the siege was over. When Joan was in Chinon and Poitiers, she had declared she would show a sign at Orléans, which many believe was the end of the siege. Following the departure of the English, prominent clergymen began to support her, including the Archbishop of Embrun and the theologian Jean Gerson, each of which wrote supportive treatises. After the Orléans victory, Joan was able to persuade Charles VII to allow her to march into other battles to reclaim cities, each of which ended in victory. When the military supplies began to dwindle, they reached Troyes, where Brother Richard, a wandering friar, had warned the city about the end of the world and was able to convince them to plant beans, which yields an early harvest. Just as the beans ripened, Joan and the army arrived and was able to restore their supplies. Following their march to Troyes, Joan and the French military made its way to Paris, where politicians failed to secure Duke Philip of Burgundy's agreement to a truce. Joan was present at the following battles and suffered a leg wound from a crossbow bolt. Despite one failed mission - taking La-Charité-sur-Loire" - Joan and her family were ennobled by Charles VII in reward of her actions on the battlefield. A truce with England came following Joan's ennoblement but was quickly broken. When Joan traveled to Compičgne to help defend against an English and Burgundian siege, she was captured by Burgundian troops and held for a ransom of 10,000 livres tournois. There were several attempts to free her and Joan made many excape attempts, including jumping from her 70-foot (21m) tower, landing on the soft earth of a dry moat, but to no avail. She was eventually sold to the English for 10,000 gold coins and was then tried as a heretic and witch in a trial that violated the legal process of the time. Clerical notary Nicolas Bailly, who was responsible to collect testimony against Joan, was unable to find any evidence against her. Without evidence, the courts lacked grounds to initiate trial but one was opened anyway. They denied Joan the right to a legal advisor and filled the tribunal with pro-English clergy rather than meeting the medieval Church's requirement to balance the group with impartial clerics. When the first public examination opened, Joan pointed out that the partisans were against her and she asked for "ecclesiastics of the French side" to provide balance, but her request was denied. Jean Lemaitre, the Vice-Inquisitor of Northern France, objected to the trial from the beginning and many eyewitnesses later reported he was forced to cooperate after the English threatened to kill him. Other members of the clergy were threatened when they refused as well, so the trial continued. The trial record includes statements from Joan that eyewitnesses later claimed astonished the court since she was an illiterate peasant who was able to escape theological traps. The most well-known exchange was when Joan was "[a]sked if she knew she was in God's grace, she answered: 'If I am not, may God put me there; and if I am, may God so keep me.'" The question is a trap because the church doctrine was that no one could be certain of being in God's grace. If she answered yes, she would have been charged with heresy, but if she answered no, she would have been confessing her own guilt. Notary Boisguillaume later testified that "[t]hose who were interrogating her were stupefied." Many members of the tribunal later testified important parts of the transcript were altered. Joan was held in a secular prison guarded by English soldiers, instead of being in an ecclesiastical prison with nuns as her guards per Inquisitorial guidelines. When Joan appealed to the Council of Basel and the Pope to be placed in a proper prison, Bishop Cauchon denied her request, which would have stopped his proceeding. While imprisoned, Joan wore military clothing so she could tie her clothing together, making it harder to be raped. There was no protection in a dress, and a few days after she started wearing one she told a tribunal member that "a great English lord had entered her prison and tried to take her by force." Following the attempted rape, Joan returned to wearing male clothing as a precaution and to raise her defenses against molestation. Jean Massieu testified her dress had been taken by the guards and she had nothing else to wear. When she returned to male clothing, she was given another count of hersy for cross-dressing, though it was later disputed by the inquisitor presiding over court appeals after the war. He found that cross-dressing should be evaluated based on context, including the use of clothing as protection against rape if it offered protection. In accordance to the inquisitor's doctrine, Joan would have been justified in wearing armor on a battlefield, men's clothing in prison and dressing as a pageboy when traveling through enemy territory. The Chronique de la Pucelle states it deterred molestation when Joan was camped in the field but she donned a dress when men's garments were unnecessary. Clergy who testified at the posthumous appellate trial confirmed that she wore male clothing in prison to deter molestation. Though the Poitiers record did not survive the test of time, Joan had referred the court to the Poitiers inquiry when questioned about her clothing and circumstances indicate the Poitiers clerics approved the practive. She had also kept her hair short through the military campaigns and during her imprisonment, which Inquisitor Brehal, theologian Jean Gerson and all of Joan's supporters understood was for practical reasons. Despite the lack of incriminating evidence, Joan was condemned and sentenced to die in 1431. Eyewitness accounts of Joan's execution by burning on May 30, 1431 describe how she was tied to a tall pillar at the Vieux-Marché in Rouen. She asked Fr. Martin Ladvenu and Fr. Isambart de la Pierre to hold a crucifix before her and an English soldier made a small cross she put in the front of her dress. After she died, the English raked the coals to expose her body so no one could spread rumors of her escaping alive, then they burned her body two more times to reduce it to ashes so no one could collect relics. After burning her body to ash, the English threw her remains into the Seine River and the executioner, Geoffroy Thérage, later said he "... greatly feared to be damned." FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything In 1452, during an investigation into Joan's execution, the Church declared a religious play in her honor at Orléans would let attendees gain an indulgence by making a pilgrimage to the event. A posthumous retrial opened following the end of the war. Pope Callixtus III authorized the proceeding, which has also been called the "nullification trial," after Inquisitor-General Jean Bréhal and Joan's mother Isabelle Romée requested it. The trial was meant to determine if Joan's condemnation was justly handled, and of course at the end of the investication Joan received a formal appeal in November 1455 and the appellate court declared Joan innocent on July 7 1456. Joan of Arc was a symbol of the Catholic League during the 16th century and when Félix Dupanloup was made bishop of Orléans in 1849, he pronounced a panegyric on Joan of Arc and led efforts leading to Joan of Arc's beatification in 1909. On May 16, 1920, Pope Benedict XV canonized her. Centuries after her death, Joan became known as a semi-legendary figure. There were several sources of information about her life, time on the battlefield and trials, with the main sources being chronicles. Many women have seen Joan as a brave and active woman who operated within a religious tradition that believed a person of any class could receive a divine calling. Joan of Arc has been depicted in several works by famous writers such as William Shakespeare (Henry VI, Part 1), Voltaire (The Maid of Orleans), Mark Twain (Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc), and many many more. Images depicting Joan of Arc often show her with short hair adorned in armor. There are several prayers to Joan of Arc, including the "Prayer of Thanks and Gratitude to St. Joan of Arc," written by Andrea Rau: Dear Patron Saint, Thank you for accompanying me throughout the day, and in the work that I did. Thank you also for your guidance and your counsel. Please help me to listen to God and to you, dear Saint, that I may do what I am called to do. Please intercede on my behalf and beg God to take all my faults and turn them into virtues. I thank you for all you have done for me, and all the things you have interceded for on my behalf. Please continue to pray for me and for all the souls who need it. St. Joan of Arc, Pray for us. St. Gabriel, the Archangel Find SaintsPopular Saints Saints by Alphabet Saint of the Day Saint Feast Days by Month Patron Saints by Alphabet Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	<urn:uuid:07265c20-2d68-401e-a2e8-b9484fcabe63>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=295	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00306.warc.gz	en	0.981041	3,280	3.28125	3	[ -0.5186511278152466, 0.229898601770401, 0.5028459429740906, -0.4699026942253113, -0.1784552037715912, -0.23939840495586395, 0.028876906260848045, 0.35754239559173584, 0.1200096383690834, -0.3752484917640686, 0.3832786977291107, -0.5808873176574707, -0.028111901134252548, 0.0461906976997852...	1	Help Now > St. Joan of Arc FREE Catholic School Enroll Now St. Joan of Arc is the patroness of soldiers and of France. On January 6, 1412, Joan of Arc was born to pious parents of the French peasant class in the obscure village of Domremy, near the province of Lorraine. At a very early age, she was said to have heard the voices of St. Michael, St. Catherine, and St. Margaret. At first the messages were personal and general, but when she was 13-years-old, she was in her father's garden and had visions of Saint Michael, Saint Catherine, and Saint Margaret, each of whom told her to drive the English from French territory. They also asked that she bring the Dauphin to Reims for his coronation. After their messages were delivered and the saints departed, Joan cried, as "they were so beautiful." When she was sixteen-years-old, she asked her relative, Durand Lassois, to take her to Vaucouleurs, where she petitioned Robert de Baudricourt, the garrison commander, for permission to visit the French Royal Court in Chinon. Despite Baudricourt's sarcastic response to her request, Joan returned the following January and left with the support of two of Baudricourt's soldiers: Jean de Metz and Bertrand de Poulengy. Jean de Metz admitted Joan had confided in him, saying, "I must be at the King's side ... there will be no help if not from me. Although I would rather have remained spinning [wool] at my mother's side ... yet must I go and must I do this thing, for my Lord wills that I do so." With Metz and Poulengy at her side, Joan met Baudricourt and predicted a military reversal at the Battle of Rouvray near Orléans, which were confirmed several days later by a messenger's report. When Baudricourt realized the distance of the battle's location and the time it would have taken Joan to make the journey, he concluded she had seen the reversal by Divine revelation, which caused him to believe her words. Once she had Baudricourt's belief, Joan was granted an escort to Chinon through hostile Burgundian territory. For her safety, she was escorted while dressed as a male soldier, which later led to charges of cross-dressing, but her escorts viewed as a sound precaution. Two members of her escort confirmed they and the people of Vaucouleurs gave her the clothing and had been the ones to suggest she don the outfit. When she arrived in the Royal Court, she met in a private conference with Charles VII and won his trust. Yolande of Aragon, Charles' mother-in-law, planned a finance relief expedition to Orléans and Joan asked to travel with the army while wearing armor, which the Royal government agreed to. They also provided Joan's armor and she depended on donations for everything she took with her. With a donated horse, sword, banner, armor, and more, Joan arrived to Orléans and quickly turned the Anglo-French conflict into a religious war. Charles' advisors worried Joan's claims of doing God's work could be twisted by his enemies, who could easily claim she was a sorceress, which would link his crown to works of the devil. To prevent accusations, the Dauphin ordered background inquiries and a theological exam at Poitiers to verify Joan's claims. In April 1429, the commission of inquiry "declared her to be of irreproachable life, a good Christian, possessed of the virtues of humility, honesty and simplicity." Rather than deciding on whether or not Joan was acting on the basis of divine inspiration, theologians at Poitiers told the Dauphin there was a "favorable presumption" on the divine nature of her mission. Charles was satisfied with the report but theologians reminded him Joan must be tested. They claimed, "[t]o doubt or abandon her without suspicion of evil would be to repudiate the Holy Spirit and to become unworthy of God's aid." They suggested her test should be a test of her claim to lift the siege of Orléans, as she originally predicted would happen. In response to the test, Joan arrived at Orléans on April 29, 1429, where Jean d'Orléans, the acting head of the ducal family of Orléans, ensured she was excluded from war councils and kept ignorant of battles. During the five months prior to Joan's arrival to Orléans, the French had only attempted one offensive assault, which resulted in their defeat, but after her arrival, things began to change. Though Joan claimed the army was always commanded by a nobleman and that she never killed anyone in battle since she preferred only to carry her banner, which she preferred "forty times" better than a sword, several noblemen claimed she greatly effected their decisions since they accepted she gave Divinely inspired advice. On May 4, the Armagnacs captured the fortress of Saint Loup and the next day led to fortress Saint-Jean-le-Blanc, which was deserted. With Joan at the army's side, English troops approached the army to stop their advance but a cavalry charge was all it took to turn the English away without a fight. The Armagnacs captured an English fortress build around the Les Augustins monastery and attacked the English stronghold Les Tourelles on May 7. Joan was shot with an arrow between her neck and shoulder as she held her banner outside Les Tourelles, but returned to encourage the final assault to take the fortress. The next day, the English retreated from Orléans and the siege was over. When Joan was in Chinon and Poitiers, she had declared she would show a sign at Orléans, which many believe was the end of the siege. Following the departure of the English, prominent clergymen began to support her, including the Archbishop of Embrun and the theologian Jean Gerson, each of which wrote supportive treatises. After the Orléans victory, Joan was able to persuade Charles VII to allow her to march into other battles to reclaim cities, each of which ended in victory. When the military supplies began to dwindle, they reached Troyes, where Brother Richard, a wandering friar, had warned the city about the end of the world and was able to convince them to plant beans, which yields an early harvest. Just as the beans ripened, Joan and the army arrived and was able to restore their supplies. Following their march to Troyes, Joan and the French military made its way to Paris, where politicians failed to secure Duke Philip of Burgundy's agreement to a truce. Joan was present at the following battles and suffered a leg wound from a crossbow bolt. Despite one failed mission - taking La-Charité-sur-Loire" - Joan and her family were ennobled by Charles VII in reward of her actions on the battlefield. A truce with England came following Joan's ennoblement but was quickly broken. When Joan traveled to Compičgne to help defend against an English and Burgundian siege, she was captured by Burgundian troops and held for a ransom of 10,000 livres tournois. There were several attempts to free her and Joan made many excape attempts, including jumping from her 70-foot (21m) tower, landing on the soft earth of a dry moat, but to no avail. She was eventually sold to the English for 10,000 gold coins and was then tried as a heretic and witch in a trial that violated the legal process of the time. Clerical notary Nicolas Bailly, who was responsible to collect testimony against Joan, was unable to find any evidence against her. Without evidence, the courts lacked grounds to initiate trial but one was opened anyway. They denied Joan the right to a legal advisor and filled the tribunal with pro-English clergy rather than meeting the medieval Church's requirement to balance the group with impartial clerics. When the first public examination opened, Joan pointed out that the partisans were against her and she asked for "ecclesiastics of the French side" to provide balance, but her request was denied. Jean Lemaitre, the Vice-Inquisitor of Northern France, objected to the trial from the beginning and many eyewitnesses later reported he was forced to cooperate after the English threatened to kill him. Other members of the clergy were threatened when they refused as well, so the trial continued. The trial record includes statements from Joan that eyewitnesses later claimed astonished the court since she was an illiterate peasant who was able to escape theological traps. The most well-known exchange was when Joan was "[a]sked if she knew she was in God's grace, she answered: 'If I am not, may God put me there; and if I am, may God so keep me.'" The question is a trap because the church doctrine was that no one could be certain of being in God's grace. If she answered yes, she would have been charged with heresy, but if she answered no, she would have been confessing her own guilt. Notary Boisguillaume later testified that "[t]hose who were interrogating her were stupefied." Many members of the tribunal later testified important parts of the transcript were altered. Joan was held in a secular prison guarded by English soldiers, instead of being in an ecclesiastical prison with nuns as her guards per Inquisitorial guidelines. When Joan appealed to the Council of Basel and the Pope to be placed in a proper prison, Bishop Cauchon denied her request, which would have stopped his proceeding. While imprisoned, Joan wore military clothing so she could tie her clothing together, making it harder to be raped. There was no protection in a dress, and a few days after she started wearing one she told a tribunal member that "a great English lord had entered her prison and tried to take her by force." Following the attempted rape, Joan returned to wearing male clothing as a precaution and to raise her defenses against molestation. Jean Massieu testified her dress had been taken by the guards and she had nothing else to wear. When she returned to male clothing, she was given another count of hersy for cross-dressing, though it was later disputed by the inquisitor presiding over court appeals after the war. He found that cross-dressing should be evaluated based on context, including the use of clothing as protection against rape if it offered protection. In accordance to the inquisitor's doctrine, Joan would have been justified in wearing armor on a battlefield, men's clothing in prison and dressing as a pageboy when traveling through enemy territory. The Chronique de la Pucelle states it deterred molestation when Joan was camped in the field but she donned a dress when men's garments were unnecessary. Clergy who testified at the posthumous appellate trial confirmed that she wore male clothing in prison to deter molestation. Though the Poitiers record did not survive the test of time, Joan had referred the court to the Poitiers inquiry when questioned about her clothing and circumstances indicate the Poitiers clerics approved the practive. She had also kept her hair short through the military campaigns and during her imprisonment, which Inquisitor Brehal, theologian Jean Gerson and all of Joan's supporters understood was for practical reasons. Despite the lack of incriminating evidence, Joan was condemned and sentenced to die in 1431. Eyewitness accounts of Joan's execution by burning on May 30, 1431 describe how she was tied to a tall pillar at the Vieux-Marché in Rouen. She asked Fr. Martin Ladvenu and Fr. Isambart de la Pierre to hold a crucifix before her and an English soldier made a small cross she put in the front of her dress. After she died, the English raked the coals to expose her body so no one could spread rumors of her escaping alive, then they burned her body two more times to reduce it to ashes so no one could collect relics. After burning her body to ash, the English threw her remains into the Seine River and the executioner, Geoffroy Thérage, later said he "... greatly feared to be damned." FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything In 1452, during an investigation into Joan's execution, the Church declared a religious play in her honor at Orléans would let attendees gain an indulgence by making a pilgrimage to the event. A posthumous retrial opened following the end of the war. Pope Callixtus III authorized the proceeding, which has also been called the "nullification trial," after Inquisitor-General Jean Bréhal and Joan's mother Isabelle Romée requested it. The trial was meant to determine if Joan's condemnation was justly handled, and of course at the end of the investication Joan received a formal appeal in November 1455 and the appellate court declared Joan innocent on July 7 1456. Joan of Arc was a symbol of the Catholic League during the 16th century and when Félix Dupanloup was made bishop of Orléans in 1849, he pronounced a panegyric on Joan of Arc and led efforts leading to Joan of Arc's beatification in 1909. On May 16, 1920, Pope Benedict XV canonized her. Centuries after her death, Joan became known as a semi-legendary figure. There were several sources of information about her life, time on the battlefield and trials, with the main sources being chronicles. Many women have seen Joan as a brave and active woman who operated within a religious tradition that believed a person of any class could receive a divine calling. Joan of Arc has been depicted in several works by famous writers such as William Shakespeare (Henry VI, Part 1), Voltaire (The Maid of Orleans), Mark Twain (Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc), and many many more. Images depicting Joan of Arc often show her with short hair adorned in armor. There are several prayers to Joan of Arc, including the "Prayer of Thanks and Gratitude to St. Joan of Arc," written by Andrea Rau: Dear Patron Saint, Thank you for accompanying me throughout the day, and in the work that I did. Thank you also for your guidance and your counsel. Please help me to listen to God and to you, dear Saint, that I may do what I am called to do. Please intercede on my behalf and beg God to take all my faults and turn them into virtues. I thank you for all you have done for me, and all the things you have interceded for on my behalf. Please continue to pray for me and for all the souls who need it. St. Joan of Arc, Pray for us. St. Gabriel, the Archangel Find SaintsPopular Saints Saints by Alphabet Saint of the Day Saint Feast Days by Month Patron Saints by Alphabet Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	3,309	ENGLISH	1
A little of History: Peru Before the Spanish Conquest Spanning back hundreds of years, Peru has a deep history that intertwines with local and foreign cultures. It’s common to hear indigenous languages being spoken in the busy streets of Cusco, a stark contrast to the colonial architecture in the Plaza de Armas. Scattered throughout the countryside are ruins of a grand civilization that had once ruled a large portion of South America. Before the Spanish invasion, the Incan Empire was far and away the largest empire in pre-Colombian America. Cusco being the capital, this society had sophisticated political, governmental, and economic structures that led to its near century long dominance. The story of Incan society begins in the 12th century. Beginning as a pastoral tribe, early Incans were nomadic people who moved with their herds. Oral history recalls the tale of a man named Manco Cápac who is widely considered the founder of Cusco. It was under his guidance in which the city-state of Cusco was formed. In 1438, after hundreds of years of development, the Incan Empire went through a period of extreme expansion. Still visible today are the ruins of Sacsayhuamán, a citadel located on the northern outskirts of Cusco. With a labyrinth of stone walls, whoever held this fortress would have a great position of control. Also located within this site is a large plaza capable of holding thousands of people. It’s speculated that many ceremonial activities and rituals were held in this area. Above all, the most impressive feature of the citadel is the precision of the terrace system. The stone walls are so well spaced that not even a piece of paper will fit between them. Leading this mass expansion was Pachacuti. A native from Cusco, Pachacuti had visions of conquering large territories and their ethnic groups. While the Spanish Conquest of Peru led to conflict, Pachacuti was able to peacefully achieve the growth of his empire. One of the tactics he used was to send spies to the regions he wanted to take over. Once he had sufficient information about that region, he would send carefully composed letters to the leaders of those areas detailing the benefits of joining his empire. The leaders of those areas would then be indoctrinated to impose Incan administration systems in their native lands. Due to his achievements in growing the empire, he was hailed as an exceptional leader and was identified as a deity by many people. Following Pachacuti’s death in 1471/72, his son Túpac Inca took over. As dominate as the Incan Empire was, they still had the occasional rival. The Kingdom of Chimor held a significant amount of land on the Peruvian coast and was the only force large enough to stop the Incans. Unfortunately for them, the strength of the Incan army proved to be too great for Chimor to handle as they became assimilated into the empire. Now at its peak, the empire spanned from modern day Colombia to Chile and incorporated large parts of Bolivia and Ecuador. In terms of population, it’s speculated that there were anywhere between 6-14 million people living within the Empire. These people communicated in Quechua but did not have a written form of communication, opting to maintain records through ceramics and textiles. Though involved in outside trading, the Incans relied on central planning to allocate resources within their own boundaries. Classified as a federalist system, the empire was split into 4 self-governing provinces that intersected at Cusco. Much is still unknown about the political structure but we do know that it was common practice for the citizens to pay taxes in exchange for protection from the government. Up until the arrival of the Spanish in 1528, the Incan Empire was a massive powerhouse with close to 2 million km2 of territory. Still do this day, millions of people flock to Peru to see the remnants of a once mystic society that has undoubtedly left its mark in various fields and cultures.	<urn:uuid:7b0f659a-12e9-4b89-a1a3-b6ff0b0bfa04>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://luxuryincatrailtours.com/a-little-of-history-peru-before-the-spanish-conquest/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00502.warc.gz	en	0.980351	831	3.71875	4	[ 0.1148323267698288, 0.10201728343963623, 0.6348133683204651, 0.36955156922340393, -0.4805544316768646, -0.021531622856855392, 0.27598583698272705, -0.10472973436117172, 0.27683839201927185, -0.15152278542518616, -0.022177396342158318, -0.5280260443687439, 0.11598780751228333, 0.48878577351...	6	A little of History: Peru Before the Spanish Conquest Spanning back hundreds of years, Peru has a deep history that intertwines with local and foreign cultures. It’s common to hear indigenous languages being spoken in the busy streets of Cusco, a stark contrast to the colonial architecture in the Plaza de Armas. Scattered throughout the countryside are ruins of a grand civilization that had once ruled a large portion of South America. Before the Spanish invasion, the Incan Empire was far and away the largest empire in pre-Colombian America. Cusco being the capital, this society had sophisticated political, governmental, and economic structures that led to its near century long dominance. The story of Incan society begins in the 12th century. Beginning as a pastoral tribe, early Incans were nomadic people who moved with their herds. Oral history recalls the tale of a man named Manco Cápac who is widely considered the founder of Cusco. It was under his guidance in which the city-state of Cusco was formed. In 1438, after hundreds of years of development, the Incan Empire went through a period of extreme expansion. Still visible today are the ruins of Sacsayhuamán, a citadel located on the northern outskirts of Cusco. With a labyrinth of stone walls, whoever held this fortress would have a great position of control. Also located within this site is a large plaza capable of holding thousands of people. It’s speculated that many ceremonial activities and rituals were held in this area. Above all, the most impressive feature of the citadel is the precision of the terrace system. The stone walls are so well spaced that not even a piece of paper will fit between them. Leading this mass expansion was Pachacuti. A native from Cusco, Pachacuti had visions of conquering large territories and their ethnic groups. While the Spanish Conquest of Peru led to conflict, Pachacuti was able to peacefully achieve the growth of his empire. One of the tactics he used was to send spies to the regions he wanted to take over. Once he had sufficient information about that region, he would send carefully composed letters to the leaders of those areas detailing the benefits of joining his empire. The leaders of those areas would then be indoctrinated to impose Incan administration systems in their native lands. Due to his achievements in growing the empire, he was hailed as an exceptional leader and was identified as a deity by many people. Following Pachacuti’s death in 1471/72, his son Túpac Inca took over. As dominate as the Incan Empire was, they still had the occasional rival. The Kingdom of Chimor held a significant amount of land on the Peruvian coast and was the only force large enough to stop the Incans. Unfortunately for them, the strength of the Incan army proved to be too great for Chimor to handle as they became assimilated into the empire. Now at its peak, the empire spanned from modern day Colombia to Chile and incorporated large parts of Bolivia and Ecuador. In terms of population, it’s speculated that there were anywhere between 6-14 million people living within the Empire. These people communicated in Quechua but did not have a written form of communication, opting to maintain records through ceramics and textiles. Though involved in outside trading, the Incans relied on central planning to allocate resources within their own boundaries. Classified as a federalist system, the empire was split into 4 self-governing provinces that intersected at Cusco. Much is still unknown about the political structure but we do know that it was common practice for the citizens to pay taxes in exchange for protection from the government. Up until the arrival of the Spanish in 1528, the Incan Empire was a massive powerhouse with close to 2 million km2 of territory. Still do this day, millions of people flock to Peru to see the remnants of a once mystic society that has undoubtedly left its mark in various fields and cultures.	831	ENGLISH	1
How Ableism Affects People with Disabilities Ableism is a form of discrimination against people with disabilities, being seen as lesser or having their access controlled based on their abilities. In 2015, then presidential candidate Donald Trump mocked a reporter with a disability at a rally by pretending to suffer from muscle spasms. Ableism is still prominent in society. DO-IT Ambassadors and Scholars were eager to share their experiences in this regard. “I have experienced ableism on the UW campus because of all the stairs,” said Lindsey, who uses a power chair. She also said the sidewalks are in bad shape, making traveling take longer and planning how to get around campus a challenge. Lindsey and Vanessa, a fellow wheelchair user, also have had negative experiences with societal expectations. Waiters in restaurants have asked their parents or friends what they want. “I have experienced ableism because of the way people look at me. They look at me like a baby when I’m an adult,” said Vanessa. Izzy has dyslexia, a learning disability that makes it hard to read, write, and spell. “In 3rd grade I asked this kid how to spell a word,” Izzy said, “and he wouldn’t spell it for me. He called me an idiot.” This can be a common misconception, as disabilities like attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, dyslexia, and dysgraphia can be confused with general ignorance. Takashi, who has impaired vision, said his disability is usually invisible, but when it is noticed or mentioned, he is told he is an inspiration. Some people are inspired by seeing people with disabilities simply their normal life. Often the bar is set so low for people with disabilities, just getting up in the morning is celebrated as inspirational. Cheyann, who is blind, uses a cane and often asks people for directions. “People see me as fragile,” she said. “I was walking in the pool and my hands were out to protect me. A man ran out, screaming at me, trying to grab my hands,” she described an experience that stood out to her. “It just annoyed me that people assume I’m doing something wrong.” People with disabilities are often not taken seriously or treated as equals to “normal” people. While it is usually a subconscious bias, it is obvious there is a divide between disabled and non-disabled people. The media continues to propagate a narrative that people with disabilities are to be pitied or inspirational rather than just normal human beings. The more we refuse to recognize the potential of disabled people, the more everyday people become ignorant of reality. Change starts with everyone working together. Ableism is defeated by actually talking to people with disabilities and realizing they are people first.	<urn:uuid:f12ab320-caca-40dd-ace9-a23ebadf9962>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.washington.edu/doit/how-ableism-affects-people-disabilities	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00223.warc.gz	en	0.985134	588	3.296875	3	[ -0.15254202485084534, -0.08368594944477081, 0.22468461096286774, 0.33732369542121887, -0.3616862893104553, 0.5001175403594971, 0.6577327251434326, 0.4142606854438782, -0.2202187478542328, -0.10958117246627808, 0.10508423298597336, 0.42920833826065063, -0.022719543427228928, -0.030977793037...	6	How Ableism Affects People with Disabilities Ableism is a form of discrimination against people with disabilities, being seen as lesser or having their access controlled based on their abilities. In 2015, then presidential candidate Donald Trump mocked a reporter with a disability at a rally by pretending to suffer from muscle spasms. Ableism is still prominent in society. DO-IT Ambassadors and Scholars were eager to share their experiences in this regard. “I have experienced ableism on the UW campus because of all the stairs,” said Lindsey, who uses a power chair. She also said the sidewalks are in bad shape, making traveling take longer and planning how to get around campus a challenge. Lindsey and Vanessa, a fellow wheelchair user, also have had negative experiences with societal expectations. Waiters in restaurants have asked their parents or friends what they want. “I have experienced ableism because of the way people look at me. They look at me like a baby when I’m an adult,” said Vanessa. Izzy has dyslexia, a learning disability that makes it hard to read, write, and spell. “In 3rd grade I asked this kid how to spell a word,” Izzy said, “and he wouldn’t spell it for me. He called me an idiot.” This can be a common misconception, as disabilities like attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, dyslexia, and dysgraphia can be confused with general ignorance. Takashi, who has impaired vision, said his disability is usually invisible, but when it is noticed or mentioned, he is told he is an inspiration. Some people are inspired by seeing people with disabilities simply their normal life. Often the bar is set so low for people with disabilities, just getting up in the morning is celebrated as inspirational. Cheyann, who is blind, uses a cane and often asks people for directions. “People see me as fragile,” she said. “I was walking in the pool and my hands were out to protect me. A man ran out, screaming at me, trying to grab my hands,” she described an experience that stood out to her. “It just annoyed me that people assume I’m doing something wrong.” People with disabilities are often not taken seriously or treated as equals to “normal” people. While it is usually a subconscious bias, it is obvious there is a divide between disabled and non-disabled people. The media continues to propagate a narrative that people with disabilities are to be pitied or inspirational rather than just normal human beings. The more we refuse to recognize the potential of disabled people, the more everyday people become ignorant of reality. Change starts with everyone working together. Ableism is defeated by actually talking to people with disabilities and realizing they are people first.	557	ENGLISH	1
There were two types of flail that were used in medieval times, the one handed military flail and the two-handed Great flail, both weapons had different origins. The two-handed flail actually had ancient origins, it started life as an agricultural tool used by peasants for threshing corn in the fields, is was about 6ft long with a 2ft swindle, in effect a wooden club hinged by rope or chain to a long wooden staff. This peasants tool was also used by peasants to quickly defend their land, it was then adapted by replacing the wooden end used for threshing the crops to a metal one, now it could be used for threshing human heads. One-handed military Flail Weapon The one handed military flail weapon was specifically designed as a combat weapon and was not used for any other purpose. It was also known as the ball and chain and was very popular especially in eastern europe and Russia in medieval times. The one handed flail weapon is instantly recognizable, you will have seen Medieval knights using this weapon in jousting competitions and battles in books and movies, they were mainly used by knights and infantrymen. One-handed flail weapons had short handles 1-3 feet that were made from wood, a staple attached to a chain, attached to a spike weight at the end of the chains that were usually lumps of metal that would cause great impact damage, the most recognisable would be the spiked metal balls that you would associate with Medieval knights. Safety chains and ropes were also added to these military flail weapons as they were easily lost in battle and this stopped them flying off at the wrong moment. Medieval Flail Weapon Types of one-handed flail weapons There are different variations of the one-handed flail such as the morning Star and Mace which is a Swiss weapon and had a longer handle than the standard flails and long chains, at the end of the chains was a large heavy spiked metal ball designed to cause maximum impact damage. Most Medieval flails were designed towards the end of the medieval period in the high medieval times; in fact they were also several variations that were introduced in the 16th century. All the different types of one-handed flails that had been designed in medieval times were similar, the only real difference was the length of handles and chains and the piece of metal used for the head at the end which was usually some type of spiked ball. Some Flails could have two chains with two heavy spiked balls at the end for double the impact, however these were very heavy, hard to control and would leave you feeling exhausted quickly. Two-handed flail weapon The two-handed flail was a tool that was used in agriculture as a threshing device in the fields on crops to separate cereals from crops by peasants. Sometimes peasants armies were needed in popular uprisings and they had a ready-made weapon in the flail to use in battle, however sometimes the end of the flails were changed to make them more vicious in attack by adding spiked balls etc however this was not an easy task and many peasants just used the flails that they used on the crops with rectangle shaped heads. Flail weapon Fighting technique To be effective and to have any kind of control using a flail weapon you had to keep it moving constantly at speed with your arms extended, if you didn’t you could easily lose control and the flail weapon could actually hit you. At high speeds the flail weapon was easy to control, at low speeds it was difficult and at low speeds the enemy also had more of a chance of a counter attack. Defending against a Flail weapon Make no mistake a Flail weapons was a terrifying weapon to face, you needed total concentration as you had to watch the enemy and the circling ball of the flail weapon at the same time, one lapse in concentration and you were as dead as a Dodo, the only real options you had were to avoid it, deflect it with your shield or try to get underneath it, however it was a very difficult medieval weapon to defend against. Advantages of the flail weapon The flail weapon was a fairly lightweight weapon that could be maneuvered quickly, a medieval soldier could get a lot of force into a strike using a Medieval flail weapon the lump of metal at the end which was usually a ball and spikes caused a lot of impact damage on the human body. Also the medieval flail weapon could wraparound enemy Shields and hit its target, so the flail could sometimes get past defences other weapons were unable to do. A Templar Knight holds a medieval flail weapon Disadvantages of the flail weapon For all its advantages the flail weapon was not a popular Medieval weapon used by knights, there were many other weapons more popular than the medieval flail. The flail had a lot of disadvantages for example you were unable to direct a flail as efficiently as a sword and on many occasions the flail did not land where the attacker wanted it to. Flails weapons were poor defensive weapons generally as you had to keep them circling at a high speed, as soon as the speed dropped for a second you were in trouble, they also left you exhausted which left you vulnerable. Wielding a flail weapon use a lot of energy and the speed of the attack could be slower than with other weapons. This allowed the enemy to protect themselves from attacks with a Flail weapon more easily than other weapons and many knights were able to use a shield effectively against a flail attack. Medieval flail summary The medieval flail did have some advantages and was commonly used by peasant soldiers as they were easily available. Even though the one-handed flail was a dedicated Medieval weapon they were not popular and there were other weapons such as swords that had many advantages over them such as accuracy and energy used in their use. Medieval flails were fearsome looking weapons they mainly used by Knights and foot soldiers but they will not go down in history as one of the better weapons used in medieval battles. Flail weapon facts The most popular flail was the one handed short handled flail There were two types of Medieval flail weapons – one-handed and two-handed flails	<urn:uuid:6abac20e-794d-466c-93a5-93722f513d76>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-weapons/flail-weapon/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00111.warc.gz	en	0.991182	1,286	3.421875	3	[ -0.5034790635108948, 0.11558382958173752, -0.0049371784552931786, -0.1215132400393486, 0.20727591216564178, -0.2690490484237671, 0.18330378830432892, -0.016830263659358025, -0.31356924772262573, -0.18540745973587036, -0.21494756639003754, -0.14865443110466003, -0.18050649762153625, 0.02553...	4	There were two types of flail that were used in medieval times, the one handed military flail and the two-handed Great flail, both weapons had different origins. The two-handed flail actually had ancient origins, it started life as an agricultural tool used by peasants for threshing corn in the fields, is was about 6ft long with a 2ft swindle, in effect a wooden club hinged by rope or chain to a long wooden staff. This peasants tool was also used by peasants to quickly defend their land, it was then adapted by replacing the wooden end used for threshing the crops to a metal one, now it could be used for threshing human heads. One-handed military Flail Weapon The one handed military flail weapon was specifically designed as a combat weapon and was not used for any other purpose. It was also known as the ball and chain and was very popular especially in eastern europe and Russia in medieval times. The one handed flail weapon is instantly recognizable, you will have seen Medieval knights using this weapon in jousting competitions and battles in books and movies, they were mainly used by knights and infantrymen. One-handed flail weapons had short handles 1-3 feet that were made from wood, a staple attached to a chain, attached to a spike weight at the end of the chains that were usually lumps of metal that would cause great impact damage, the most recognisable would be the spiked metal balls that you would associate with Medieval knights. Safety chains and ropes were also added to these military flail weapons as they were easily lost in battle and this stopped them flying off at the wrong moment. Medieval Flail Weapon Types of one-handed flail weapons There are different variations of the one-handed flail such as the morning Star and Mace which is a Swiss weapon and had a longer handle than the standard flails and long chains, at the end of the chains was a large heavy spiked metal ball designed to cause maximum impact damage. Most Medieval flails were designed towards the end of the medieval period in the high medieval times; in fact they were also several variations that were introduced in the 16th century. All the different types of one-handed flails that had been designed in medieval times were similar, the only real difference was the length of handles and chains and the piece of metal used for the head at the end which was usually some type of spiked ball. Some Flails could have two chains with two heavy spiked balls at the end for double the impact, however these were very heavy, hard to control and would leave you feeling exhausted quickly. Two-handed flail weapon The two-handed flail was a tool that was used in agriculture as a threshing device in the fields on crops to separate cereals from crops by peasants. Sometimes peasants armies were needed in popular uprisings and they had a ready-made weapon in the flail to use in battle, however sometimes the end of the flails were changed to make them more vicious in attack by adding spiked balls etc however this was not an easy task and many peasants just used the flails that they used on the crops with rectangle shaped heads. Flail weapon Fighting technique To be effective and to have any kind of control using a flail weapon you had to keep it moving constantly at speed with your arms extended, if you didn’t you could easily lose control and the flail weapon could actually hit you. At high speeds the flail weapon was easy to control, at low speeds it was difficult and at low speeds the enemy also had more of a chance of a counter attack. Defending against a Flail weapon Make no mistake a Flail weapons was a terrifying weapon to face, you needed total concentration as you had to watch the enemy and the circling ball of the flail weapon at the same time, one lapse in concentration and you were as dead as a Dodo, the only real options you had were to avoid it, deflect it with your shield or try to get underneath it, however it was a very difficult medieval weapon to defend against. Advantages of the flail weapon The flail weapon was a fairly lightweight weapon that could be maneuvered quickly, a medieval soldier could get a lot of force into a strike using a Medieval flail weapon the lump of metal at the end which was usually a ball and spikes caused a lot of impact damage on the human body. Also the medieval flail weapon could wraparound enemy Shields and hit its target, so the flail could sometimes get past defences other weapons were unable to do. A Templar Knight holds a medieval flail weapon Disadvantages of the flail weapon For all its advantages the flail weapon was not a popular Medieval weapon used by knights, there were many other weapons more popular than the medieval flail. The flail had a lot of disadvantages for example you were unable to direct a flail as efficiently as a sword and on many occasions the flail did not land where the attacker wanted it to. Flails weapons were poor defensive weapons generally as you had to keep them circling at a high speed, as soon as the speed dropped for a second you were in trouble, they also left you exhausted which left you vulnerable. Wielding a flail weapon use a lot of energy and the speed of the attack could be slower than with other weapons. This allowed the enemy to protect themselves from attacks with a Flail weapon more easily than other weapons and many knights were able to use a shield effectively against a flail attack. Medieval flail summary The medieval flail did have some advantages and was commonly used by peasant soldiers as they were easily available. Even though the one-handed flail was a dedicated Medieval weapon they were not popular and there were other weapons such as swords that had many advantages over them such as accuracy and energy used in their use. Medieval flails were fearsome looking weapons they mainly used by Knights and foot soldiers but they will not go down in history as one of the better weapons used in medieval battles. Flail weapon facts The most popular flail was the one handed short handled flail There were two types of Medieval flail weapons – one-handed and two-handed flails	1,261	ENGLISH	1
Born in 1770 in Bonn, Germany, died in 1827 in Vienna, Austria. A musician himself his father started Beethoven’s early musical education, nurturing the ambition of educating a child prodigy. When Ludwig van Beethoven was 12 years old his father had almost ruined the family because of his severe alcoholism. Ludwig had to work to support the family, first as an assistant to his teacher, court organist Christian Gottlob Neefe, then as an assistant organist earning a salary of 150 guilders. At the age of 17 Beethoven traveled to Vienna, at that time the cultural and musical center of Europe, taking up studies with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart who predicted him a successful future. After only a few weeks Beethoven was informed that his mother was critically ill and he returned to Bonn. The grief about his mother’s death and the disappointment about the missed chance in Vienna was further aggravated as in the meantime the father had gone bankrupt and Beethoven had now to provide for the family alone. Nevertheless his unusual talent called the attention of Austrian composer Joseph Haydn who invited him back to Vienna. Beethoven arrived in Vienna in 1792 and studied with Haydn for about one year. The arrangement proved to be a disappointment to Beethoven, so he turned to other teachers when Haydn went on a trip to London. Beethoven quickly established a very good reputation and the Viennese were ready to pay for his compositions and his lessons whatever he asked. Slowly Beethoven noted that his hearing became worse. The verdict of the doctors he consulted was unanimous: The illness was incurable and would result in complete deafness. A traumatic prospect for a composer that nearly drove him to suicide in 1802. Beethoven became sullen and distrustful, more and more inclined to pointless fits of anger, and withdrew increasingly from people. In 1809, at the invitation of Jérome Bonaparte, Beethoven wanted to leave Vienna. His friend of many years, the Countess Anna Marie Erdödy, kept him at Vienna with the help of his wealthiest admirers: the Archbishop Rudolph, the Prince Lobkowitz and the Prince Kinsky. These men gave Beethoven an annual grant of 4,000 florins, allowing him to live without financial constraint. The only condition was that Beethoven was not to leave Vienna which he accepted. This grant made Beethoven the first independent composer, free to write what he wanted, when he wanted, just as he pleased. Organized by Bettina Brentano Beethoven met Goethe at the end of July 1812. These two great men admired but did not understand each other. The composer found the poet too servile, and the poet thought Beethoven "completely untamed". Despite his deafness he still conducted his own compositions even though he was not able to even hear the applause. With all the music in his head the deafness did not prevent him from composing many of his best known masterpieces. Beethoven died on March 26th 1827. On the day of his burial 20,000 people gave him his last escort. Along with other musicians Franz Schubert, a huge admirer of Beethoven, was one of the coffin bearers.	<urn:uuid:badd7681-08f1-4682-86e7-f1ca4ec760ee>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.musicaneo.com/pt/composers/biography/287_ludwig_van_beethoven.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00122.warc.gz	en	0.9898	682	3.40625	3	[ 0.13827666640281677, 0.4439064860343933, 0.12384654581546783, -0.12206146866083145, -0.7703108191490173, 0.04491531103849411, -0.07711844891309738, 0.1333574503660202, 0.22490853071212769, -0.41957399249076843, 0.2502437233924866, -0.26033955812454224, -0.16222484409809113, -0.008169254288...	2	Born in 1770 in Bonn, Germany, died in 1827 in Vienna, Austria. A musician himself his father started Beethoven’s early musical education, nurturing the ambition of educating a child prodigy. When Ludwig van Beethoven was 12 years old his father had almost ruined the family because of his severe alcoholism. Ludwig had to work to support the family, first as an assistant to his teacher, court organist Christian Gottlob Neefe, then as an assistant organist earning a salary of 150 guilders. At the age of 17 Beethoven traveled to Vienna, at that time the cultural and musical center of Europe, taking up studies with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart who predicted him a successful future. After only a few weeks Beethoven was informed that his mother was critically ill and he returned to Bonn. The grief about his mother’s death and the disappointment about the missed chance in Vienna was further aggravated as in the meantime the father had gone bankrupt and Beethoven had now to provide for the family alone. Nevertheless his unusual talent called the attention of Austrian composer Joseph Haydn who invited him back to Vienna. Beethoven arrived in Vienna in 1792 and studied with Haydn for about one year. The arrangement proved to be a disappointment to Beethoven, so he turned to other teachers when Haydn went on a trip to London. Beethoven quickly established a very good reputation and the Viennese were ready to pay for his compositions and his lessons whatever he asked. Slowly Beethoven noted that his hearing became worse. The verdict of the doctors he consulted was unanimous: The illness was incurable and would result in complete deafness. A traumatic prospect for a composer that nearly drove him to suicide in 1802. Beethoven became sullen and distrustful, more and more inclined to pointless fits of anger, and withdrew increasingly from people. In 1809, at the invitation of Jérome Bonaparte, Beethoven wanted to leave Vienna. His friend of many years, the Countess Anna Marie Erdödy, kept him at Vienna with the help of his wealthiest admirers: the Archbishop Rudolph, the Prince Lobkowitz and the Prince Kinsky. These men gave Beethoven an annual grant of 4,000 florins, allowing him to live without financial constraint. The only condition was that Beethoven was not to leave Vienna which he accepted. This grant made Beethoven the first independent composer, free to write what he wanted, when he wanted, just as he pleased. Organized by Bettina Brentano Beethoven met Goethe at the end of July 1812. These two great men admired but did not understand each other. The composer found the poet too servile, and the poet thought Beethoven "completely untamed". Despite his deafness he still conducted his own compositions even though he was not able to even hear the applause. With all the music in his head the deafness did not prevent him from composing many of his best known masterpieces. Beethoven died on March 26th 1827. On the day of his burial 20,000 people gave him his last escort. Along with other musicians Franz Schubert, a huge admirer of Beethoven, was one of the coffin bearers.	690	ENGLISH	1
Guanxiu (simplified Chinese: 贯休; traditional Chinese: 貫休; pinyin: Guànxiū; Wade–Giles: Kuan-hsiu) was a celebrated Buddhist monk, painter, poet, and calligrapher. His greatest works date from the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The collapse of the central Tang government in 907, meant artists and craftsmen lost their most powerful patrons. The imperial tang court had inspired a golden age of literature and art at its apogee. The various provincial courts who claimed to represent a continuation of the tradition of Tang government also claimed continuity in the arts and culture. The state of the Former Shu had acted as the traditional western sanctuary ever since the Emperor Xuanzong had sought refuge there during the An Shi Rebellion in 755. By the collapse of the Tang Dynasty something like a miniature Tang court existed at Chengdu. Guanxiu arrived in chengdu in 901, and remained there until his death. Wang Jian, the founding emperor of the Former Shu, bestowed upon him the honorific title Great Master of the Chan Moon (Chanyue dashi), however he is still known by his monk's name Guanxiu, which means "a string of blessings". He is famed for his depiction of arhats, disciples of historical Buddha, who lived harsh ascetic lives. He is however also known for his works in poetry and calligraphy as well; extroardinarily extant works exist for all three forms. After Guanxiu's death, Shi Ke rose to prominence as Chan painter. In particular Guanxiu is known for his depiction of the eighteen arhats particular to Chinese Buddhism. Chinese artists had been depicting them with great expressiveness and power since the sixth century, however Guanxiu's interpretations are often seen to have captured another dimension. A set of sixteen arhats is preserved in the Japanese Imperial Household Collection. This collection bears an inscription dated to 894. It states Guanxiu began the set while living in Lanxi, Zhejiang province. Legend has it that the arhats, or "Luohans", knew of Guan Xiu's expert calligraphy and painting skills, and so appeared to the monk in a dream to request that he paint their portraits. The paintings depicted them as foreigners having bushy eyebrows, large eyes, hanging cheeks and high noses. They were seated in landscapes, leaning against pine trees and stones. An additional theme in these paintings were that they were portrayed as being unkempt and "eccentric" which emphasizes that they are vagabonds and beggars who have left all worldly desires behind. When Guan Xiu was asked how he came up with the depictions, he answered: "It was in a dream that I saw these Gods and Buddhas. After I woke up, I painted what I saw in the dream. So, I guess I can refer to these Luohans as 'Luohans in a dream'." These portraits painted by Guan Xiu has become the definitive images for the 18 Luohans in Chinese Buddhist iconography, although in modern depiction they bear more Sinitic features and at the same time lost their exaggerated foreign features in exchange for more exaggerated expressions. The paintings were donated by Guan Xiu to the Shengyin Temple in Qiantang (present day Hangzhou) where they are preserved with great care and ceremonious respect. The Chan Buddhist tradition of painting sought to express the immediacy and intensity of the artists intuition as well as to record moments of truth in the form of Buddhas or arhats. Even by the end of the Tang Dynasty Chan painters were practicing wildly eccentric works, which unfortunately have only survived through contemporary descriptions. His depiction of the arhats exhibit an exaggeration of features that borders on perversity, this style is typically Chan. The paintings display an emphasis on the arhat's skeletal bodies, and bony faces, as well as the incredible age of the sages. According to Max Loehr, Guanxiu's arhats represent the physical embodiment of Buddhist persecution in eighth-century China. This persecution nearly obliterated the Buddhist establishment. The tormented faces are depicted as if the arhats themselves were survivors of the death and destruction. In Chinese painting the themes of pain, suffering, and death are depicted rarely outside of Buddhist art.	<urn:uuid:5031cdf6-65d7-41ff-8649-312242583216>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alchetron.com/Guanxiu	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00047.warc.gz	en	0.980557	909	3.328125	3	[ -0.39428749680519104, 0.25152963399887085, 0.25202563405036926, -0.1019970029592514, -0.01310441829264164, 0.07307299226522446, 0.4016120135784149, -0.3743949830532074, 0.14306427538394928, -0.04048972576856613, -0.13655835390090942, -0.5105732083320618, 0.5624202489852905, 0.3494961857795...	1	Guanxiu (simplified Chinese: 贯休; traditional Chinese: 貫休; pinyin: Guànxiū; Wade–Giles: Kuan-hsiu) was a celebrated Buddhist monk, painter, poet, and calligrapher. His greatest works date from the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The collapse of the central Tang government in 907, meant artists and craftsmen lost their most powerful patrons. The imperial tang court had inspired a golden age of literature and art at its apogee. The various provincial courts who claimed to represent a continuation of the tradition of Tang government also claimed continuity in the arts and culture. The state of the Former Shu had acted as the traditional western sanctuary ever since the Emperor Xuanzong had sought refuge there during the An Shi Rebellion in 755. By the collapse of the Tang Dynasty something like a miniature Tang court existed at Chengdu. Guanxiu arrived in chengdu in 901, and remained there until his death. Wang Jian, the founding emperor of the Former Shu, bestowed upon him the honorific title Great Master of the Chan Moon (Chanyue dashi), however he is still known by his monk's name Guanxiu, which means "a string of blessings". He is famed for his depiction of arhats, disciples of historical Buddha, who lived harsh ascetic lives. He is however also known for his works in poetry and calligraphy as well; extroardinarily extant works exist for all three forms. After Guanxiu's death, Shi Ke rose to prominence as Chan painter. In particular Guanxiu is known for his depiction of the eighteen arhats particular to Chinese Buddhism. Chinese artists had been depicting them with great expressiveness and power since the sixth century, however Guanxiu's interpretations are often seen to have captured another dimension. A set of sixteen arhats is preserved in the Japanese Imperial Household Collection. This collection bears an inscription dated to 894. It states Guanxiu began the set while living in Lanxi, Zhejiang province. Legend has it that the arhats, or "Luohans", knew of Guan Xiu's expert calligraphy and painting skills, and so appeared to the monk in a dream to request that he paint their portraits. The paintings depicted them as foreigners having bushy eyebrows, large eyes, hanging cheeks and high noses. They were seated in landscapes, leaning against pine trees and stones. An additional theme in these paintings were that they were portrayed as being unkempt and "eccentric" which emphasizes that they are vagabonds and beggars who have left all worldly desires behind. When Guan Xiu was asked how he came up with the depictions, he answered: "It was in a dream that I saw these Gods and Buddhas. After I woke up, I painted what I saw in the dream. So, I guess I can refer to these Luohans as 'Luohans in a dream'." These portraits painted by Guan Xiu has become the definitive images for the 18 Luohans in Chinese Buddhist iconography, although in modern depiction they bear more Sinitic features and at the same time lost their exaggerated foreign features in exchange for more exaggerated expressions. The paintings were donated by Guan Xiu to the Shengyin Temple in Qiantang (present day Hangzhou) where they are preserved with great care and ceremonious respect. The Chan Buddhist tradition of painting sought to express the immediacy and intensity of the artists intuition as well as to record moments of truth in the form of Buddhas or arhats. Even by the end of the Tang Dynasty Chan painters were practicing wildly eccentric works, which unfortunately have only survived through contemporary descriptions. His depiction of the arhats exhibit an exaggeration of features that borders on perversity, this style is typically Chan. The paintings display an emphasis on the arhat's skeletal bodies, and bony faces, as well as the incredible age of the sages. According to Max Loehr, Guanxiu's arhats represent the physical embodiment of Buddhist persecution in eighth-century China. This persecution nearly obliterated the Buddhist establishment. The tormented faces are depicted as if the arhats themselves were survivors of the death and destruction. In Chinese painting the themes of pain, suffering, and death are depicted rarely outside of Buddhist art.	919	ENGLISH	1
\|Warfare Home History Glossary Guides Publishers Artists Techniques Topicals Blog Contact\| Belligerents and Participants Unlike their German ally, the Austro-Hungarian empire had an elaborate censorship bureaucracy. Not only did Austria and Hungry have separate commissions supervising censorship, these offices were further separated by home front and front line duties. The War Press Office (Kriegpressequartier) that served directly under the Ministry of War was organized in August 1914. At first they primarily kept reporters away from the front lines so that only an official version of the news that supported the war effort would reach the public. Much of this lacked the subtlety needed to be believable as the achievements of the empire’s troops were always aggrandized. Eventually they came to embed reporters in the field under close supervision, and even chose war artists and photographers to capture events closer to the front. Artists were organized into their own department within the press office (Kunstgruppe) under the direction of Dr. Wilhelm John, the director of the Army Museum in Vienna. Photographers were divided up among various units. Censorship within the empire was supervised by the War Surveillance Office (Kriegsuberwachungsamt in Vienna, and Kriegsuberwachungskommission in Budapest). These commissions however were not in charge of producing propaganda, only supervising it. While Austro-Hungarian publishers generated a lot of military postcards, the amount of propaganda produced pales when compared to that of Allied nations. Austria had a strong printing industry before the War that was concentrated in Vienna. Many artists made this city their home and it flourished as a center of postcard production. Despite wartime shortages, many of its publishers continued to produce postcards in large numbers covering the Balkan, Russian, and Italian Fronts as well as the naval war in the Adriatic. These are some of the best military cards produced during the Great War from an artistic point of view. The number of cards manufactured fell off as the War dragged on, possibly as a combination of war weariness with men in the printing trades being called up for service. German publishers also captured many actions involving Austria-Hungary. The artist John Quincy Adams was the great grandson of the United States President, John Quincy Adams. He lived his early life in Boston but moved to Vienna in 1891 to study art. By 1903 he was a member of the Vienna Kunstlerhaus where he exhibited his paintings regularly. He worked as a war artist during the First World War, and a number of his paintings were placed on postcards by the publisher Bruder Kohn. P.M. Anders paintings captured the fighting on all battlefronts. His somewhat impressionist style however makes many of these images difficult to read when reduced to postcard size. Richard Assmann was a painter, muralist and illustrator who produced many drawings and paintings during World War One on the Austro-Hungarian fronts with Italy, Serbia, and Russia. Many of his war illustrations were published on postcards by E.P. & Co. of Liepzig. Albert Berger was a noted fine art publisher and printer in Vienna who produced many chromolithographic posters and prints, including some postcards for the Wiener Werkstatte. During World War One he continued to print high quality propaganda and regimental cards. One of Alber Berger’s notable artists was Hermann Grot-Rottmayer, a landscape and figure painter from Vienna who provided illustrations for postcards during World War One. Hans Bertle descended from a long line of painters. Born in the Tyrolean Alps, they would provide the subject for many of his paintings. During the First World War he captured many quiet and dramatic military scenes during the fighting over this region. He would also produce illustrations for propaganda. His images were used by both Austro-Hungarian and German publishers. Mihály Bíró, a Hungarian Jew attended the Budapest School of Applied Arts but was most influenced by the Arts & Crafts movement while studying in London. On his return to Budapest in 1908, he became heavily involved with the Social Democratic Party and began producing graphic work for their newspaper, Népszava (People’s Voice). By 1912 he was designing costumes, stage sets and bold political posters. Bíró served on the Serbian Front during the Great War, but he was discharged in 1917 after developing serious heart and lung problems that plagued him the rest of his life. Before the conflict ended, Bíró designed magazine covers as well as a number of charity and war loan posters. While he produced theater posters in the postwar years, he was most heavily involved in creating political propaganda for the new Hungarian Soviet Republic. Once the campaign of terror was launched against Communists and Jews, Biro was forced to flee. In 1920 he took up residence in Vienna where he published a series of lithographs, the Horthy Album that depicted the horrors of the White Terror. These images also appear on a postcard set published by Arbelter-Buchhandlung. Klemens Brosch had served on the Galician Front early in the conflict where he made numerous sketches in pencil and ink depicting the horrors of war in a Goya-like fashion. He was soon discharged from military service when his treatment for a lung ailment had left him a morphine addict. He had a successful but brief art career afterwards in which many of his moody wartime sketches were reproduced on postcards. When the War opened, Vienna based Bruder Kohn was the largest publisher in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. They were especially well known for working with many well known illustrators. One of their favorites was B. Betavazy who produced many cavalry scenes in a soft atmospheric style. Another of Bruder Kohn’s artists was Hans Larwin, long noted for his landscapes and portraits. Though he was interested in capturing daily life out on the streets, and painted in a somewhat academic style, many of his paintings were often fused with symbolic content. This was especial true of the patriotic and military subjects he represented during the First World War. On other cards the power of the landscape overwhelms the military narrative. Carl Otto Czeschka was an artist of many trades including graphic designs of all sorts including prints, posters, calendars, book designs, fonts and postcards. His postcards were printed in thematic sets from 1899 until his military set in 1915. They all exhibit a strong sense of design. He was a contributor to the Wiener Werkstatte. Josef von Diveky was a Hungarian artist that made a career as an etcher, illustrator and graphic designer. He initially found work in a number of foreign countries, but in 1914 he returned to Vienna to exhibit with the Secession. There he produce work for the Cabaret Fledermaus, Wiener Werkstatte, and various magazines. Much of his work wound up on posters and postcards. He continued to illustrate charity and propaganda cards during World War One. While his line drawings differ substantially from the look of his paintings, they all contain a nervous energy. Josef Danilowatz was a popular painter of landscapes before the Great War, with a propensity for industrial scenes. He produced a number of pieces of the Austro-Hungarian navy once the conflict began. Some of these cards portray straight forward marine scenes while others are infused with patriotic symbolism. Felice Desclabissac was a Viennese artist who studied in Krakow and Munich. Most of here work revolved around the lives of women who she usually painted in interior settings. The postcards she illustrated for Bruder Kohn during the Great War carry on this theme, only now they are related to the conflict. The Viennese painter and illustrator, Karl Fahringer is best known for his depictions of animals in traditional rural settings was well as exotic beasts of prey. His somewhat impressionist style carried over into the work he produced as a war artist in in the First Balkan War. He continued to serve in this capacity during World War One on both the Russian and Italian Fronts. A number of his works were reproduced on postcards by Bruder Kohn. The purpose of the German School Association in Vienna was to promote pan-Germanic solidarity. They built and staffed private schools since 1880 with a curriculum that stressed Germanic ideals. They also produced a lot of propaganda which eventually took the form of charity cards that were printed in great number by Joseph Eberle. Most of these cards promote some aspect of German culture from composers to romantic landscapes, a model they did not break at the outset of World War One. The only military themed cards to be found are those that reference the Liberation Wars. In addition to charity cards, the German School Association also sold charity stamps to raise additional funds. These were placed on the back of the card to the left, opposite the postage stamp. If both card and stamp were purchased through the association, it could be postmarked with the local chapters seal. Many of these stamps reproduced their logo, which was often printed on their cards. J.J.Gertmayer was an important lithographer in Vienna who produced many artist drawn military postcards that covered many fronts of the War. They are distinct in that they almost consistently include the year of publication on their backs, though their logo of a mounted knight is often the only indication given of this publisher. These cards were issued in German, Hungarian, and Czech to appeal to a wider audience. The prolific painter, F. Hollerer seemed to be Gertmayer’s favorite war artist who produced battle scenes from all three Fronts. Sometimes it is the figures that dominate his scenes, at other times it is the landscape. He seems to have had a preference for capturing cavalry action. Hollerer also produced many images for Red Cross cards. Lajos Gimes was a Hungarian painter of landscapes and cityscapes in which he captured everyday life. He illustrated postcards during World War One capturing the same ordinary subjects while making great use of light to further their appeal. Although Marie Grengg is best known today for her inter-war writing on nativist aesthetics, she also had an early career illustrating children’s books. Her strong Germanic leanings were evident in the watercolors she produced for propaganda postcards during World War One. These were printed by Chwala in Vienna. While Karl Hayd painted still lives, cityscapes and rural scenes in a rather brushy style, he also produced a great deal of prints and commercial graphic work for posters and postcards. He became a war artist during the Great War serving with the Austro-Hungarian army in Galicia, the Dolomites, and the Trentino. The images he created at this time range from ordinary scenes of soldier life to the macabre. He returned to painting military subjects during World War Two. Hermes was a printer in Vienna who produced military and propaganda postcards throughout the War. They are most noted for a large set of postcards in Hungarian that revolve around specifically named military units. Often placed in winter settings, the action is close up and the immediacy this provides gives these cards a very contemporary look. Hermes also printed an unusual set entitled Marine Schauspiel by Gustav Bitterlich depicting paintings of warships and U-boats. The naval war on the Adriatic was also covered by Austrian publishers, largely on subset of Red Cross cards. The best of these were by the marine painter Heinrich Heusser, better known as Harry. He grew up in Pola, which was home for an important Austrian naval base on the Adriatic, which no doubt inspired his subject matter. His work captures dramatic events as well as the quiet moodiness of the sea. Hans von Hayek was a landscape painter, especially noted for his work in Indonesia. He produced military themed paintings during World War One, and some of his drawings were used by German publishers to illustrate postcards. Rudolf Alfred Hoger was primarily a painter of sentimental narrative subjects from his studio in Vienna. During World War One he painted scenes that captured the more human side of the conflict though they are often fraught with emotion. A number of his images were used to illustrate postcards. Max Jaffe was one of Vienna’s most notable fine art printers that produced a variety of products in lithography and collotype including postcards. He was responsible for many fine art reproductions and fine portfolio prints for photographers. He would turn out a number of cards illustrated with military subjects during the Great War. Albert Janesch was a Vienese painter who worked in an academic style. After joining the Austrian army in 1915, he was sent to the Italian Front at the Izonzo River as an official war artist. He would also produce images of the Balkan Front that are reminiscent of Orientalism. Janesch would also work as a war artist during World War Two. His artwork was used to illustrate postcards published during World War One, but a number of these pieces are now in art museums and have been placed on postcards again as art reproductions.	<urn:uuid:2107e8e8-52b7-4534-ae2d-4b6dc3d593ed>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.metropostcard.com/war7b-austria2.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00231.warc.gz	en	0.986199	2,730	3.5625	4	[ 0.13324491679668427, 0.717452347278595, 0.14788611233234406, -0.11168816685676575, 0.04730723798274994, -0.11174844205379486, -0.07908855378627777, 0.17398476600646973, -0.18887177109718323, -0.009950765408575535, 0.005718277767300606, -0.05533157289028168, -0.00845304224640131, 0.63239598...	2	\|Warfare Home History Glossary Guides Publishers Artists Techniques Topicals Blog Contact\| Belligerents and Participants Unlike their German ally, the Austro-Hungarian empire had an elaborate censorship bureaucracy. Not only did Austria and Hungry have separate commissions supervising censorship, these offices were further separated by home front and front line duties. The War Press Office (Kriegpressequartier) that served directly under the Ministry of War was organized in August 1914. At first they primarily kept reporters away from the front lines so that only an official version of the news that supported the war effort would reach the public. Much of this lacked the subtlety needed to be believable as the achievements of the empire’s troops were always aggrandized. Eventually they came to embed reporters in the field under close supervision, and even chose war artists and photographers to capture events closer to the front. Artists were organized into their own department within the press office (Kunstgruppe) under the direction of Dr. Wilhelm John, the director of the Army Museum in Vienna. Photographers were divided up among various units. Censorship within the empire was supervised by the War Surveillance Office (Kriegsuberwachungsamt in Vienna, and Kriegsuberwachungskommission in Budapest). These commissions however were not in charge of producing propaganda, only supervising it. While Austro-Hungarian publishers generated a lot of military postcards, the amount of propaganda produced pales when compared to that of Allied nations. Austria had a strong printing industry before the War that was concentrated in Vienna. Many artists made this city their home and it flourished as a center of postcard production. Despite wartime shortages, many of its publishers continued to produce postcards in large numbers covering the Balkan, Russian, and Italian Fronts as well as the naval war in the Adriatic. These are some of the best military cards produced during the Great War from an artistic point of view. The number of cards manufactured fell off as the War dragged on, possibly as a combination of war weariness with men in the printing trades being called up for service. German publishers also captured many actions involving Austria-Hungary. The artist John Quincy Adams was the great grandson of the United States President, John Quincy Adams. He lived his early life in Boston but moved to Vienna in 1891 to study art. By 1903 he was a member of the Vienna Kunstlerhaus where he exhibited his paintings regularly. He worked as a war artist during the First World War, and a number of his paintings were placed on postcards by the publisher Bruder Kohn. P.M. Anders paintings captured the fighting on all battlefronts. His somewhat impressionist style however makes many of these images difficult to read when reduced to postcard size. Richard Assmann was a painter, muralist and illustrator who produced many drawings and paintings during World War One on the Austro-Hungarian fronts with Italy, Serbia, and Russia. Many of his war illustrations were published on postcards by E.P. & Co. of Liepzig. Albert Berger was a noted fine art publisher and printer in Vienna who produced many chromolithographic posters and prints, including some postcards for the Wiener Werkstatte. During World War One he continued to print high quality propaganda and regimental cards. One of Alber Berger’s notable artists was Hermann Grot-Rottmayer, a landscape and figure painter from Vienna who provided illustrations for postcards during World War One. Hans Bertle descended from a long line of painters. Born in the Tyrolean Alps, they would provide the subject for many of his paintings. During the First World War he captured many quiet and dramatic military scenes during the fighting over this region. He would also produce illustrations for propaganda. His images were used by both Austro-Hungarian and German publishers. Mihály Bíró, a Hungarian Jew attended the Budapest School of Applied Arts but was most influenced by the Arts & Crafts movement while studying in London. On his return to Budapest in 1908, he became heavily involved with the Social Democratic Party and began producing graphic work for their newspaper, Népszava (People’s Voice). By 1912 he was designing costumes, stage sets and bold political posters. Bíró served on the Serbian Front during the Great War, but he was discharged in 1917 after developing serious heart and lung problems that plagued him the rest of his life. Before the conflict ended, Bíró designed magazine covers as well as a number of charity and war loan posters. While he produced theater posters in the postwar years, he was most heavily involved in creating political propaganda for the new Hungarian Soviet Republic. Once the campaign of terror was launched against Communists and Jews, Biro was forced to flee. In 1920 he took up residence in Vienna where he published a series of lithographs, the Horthy Album that depicted the horrors of the White Terror. These images also appear on a postcard set published by Arbelter-Buchhandlung. Klemens Brosch had served on the Galician Front early in the conflict where he made numerous sketches in pencil and ink depicting the horrors of war in a Goya-like fashion. He was soon discharged from military service when his treatment for a lung ailment had left him a morphine addict. He had a successful but brief art career afterwards in which many of his moody wartime sketches were reproduced on postcards. When the War opened, Vienna based Bruder Kohn was the largest publisher in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. They were especially well known for working with many well known illustrators. One of their favorites was B. Betavazy who produced many cavalry scenes in a soft atmospheric style. Another of Bruder Kohn’s artists was Hans Larwin, long noted for his landscapes and portraits. Though he was interested in capturing daily life out on the streets, and painted in a somewhat academic style, many of his paintings were often fused with symbolic content. This was especial true of the patriotic and military subjects he represented during the First World War. On other cards the power of the landscape overwhelms the military narrative. Carl Otto Czeschka was an artist of many trades including graphic designs of all sorts including prints, posters, calendars, book designs, fonts and postcards. His postcards were printed in thematic sets from 1899 until his military set in 1915. They all exhibit a strong sense of design. He was a contributor to the Wiener Werkstatte. Josef von Diveky was a Hungarian artist that made a career as an etcher, illustrator and graphic designer. He initially found work in a number of foreign countries, but in 1914 he returned to Vienna to exhibit with the Secession. There he produce work for the Cabaret Fledermaus, Wiener Werkstatte, and various magazines. Much of his work wound up on posters and postcards. He continued to illustrate charity and propaganda cards during World War One. While his line drawings differ substantially from the look of his paintings, they all contain a nervous energy. Josef Danilowatz was a popular painter of landscapes before the Great War, with a propensity for industrial scenes. He produced a number of pieces of the Austro-Hungarian navy once the conflict began. Some of these cards portray straight forward marine scenes while others are infused with patriotic symbolism. Felice Desclabissac was a Viennese artist who studied in Krakow and Munich. Most of here work revolved around the lives of women who she usually painted in interior settings. The postcards she illustrated for Bruder Kohn during the Great War carry on this theme, only now they are related to the conflict. The Viennese painter and illustrator, Karl Fahringer is best known for his depictions of animals in traditional rural settings was well as exotic beasts of prey. His somewhat impressionist style carried over into the work he produced as a war artist in in the First Balkan War. He continued to serve in this capacity during World War One on both the Russian and Italian Fronts. A number of his works were reproduced on postcards by Bruder Kohn. The purpose of the German School Association in Vienna was to promote pan-Germanic solidarity. They built and staffed private schools since 1880 with a curriculum that stressed Germanic ideals. They also produced a lot of propaganda which eventually took the form of charity cards that were printed in great number by Joseph Eberle. Most of these cards promote some aspect of German culture from composers to romantic landscapes, a model they did not break at the outset of World War One. The only military themed cards to be found are those that reference the Liberation Wars. In addition to charity cards, the German School Association also sold charity stamps to raise additional funds. These were placed on the back of the card to the left, opposite the postage stamp. If both card and stamp were purchased through the association, it could be postmarked with the local chapters seal. Many of these stamps reproduced their logo, which was often printed on their cards. J.J.Gertmayer was an important lithographer in Vienna who produced many artist drawn military postcards that covered many fronts of the War. They are distinct in that they almost consistently include the year of publication on their backs, though their logo of a mounted knight is often the only indication given of this publisher. These cards were issued in German, Hungarian, and Czech to appeal to a wider audience. The prolific painter, F. Hollerer seemed to be Gertmayer’s favorite war artist who produced battle scenes from all three Fronts. Sometimes it is the figures that dominate his scenes, at other times it is the landscape. He seems to have had a preference for capturing cavalry action. Hollerer also produced many images for Red Cross cards. Lajos Gimes was a Hungarian painter of landscapes and cityscapes in which he captured everyday life. He illustrated postcards during World War One capturing the same ordinary subjects while making great use of light to further their appeal. Although Marie Grengg is best known today for her inter-war writing on nativist aesthetics, she also had an early career illustrating children’s books. Her strong Germanic leanings were evident in the watercolors she produced for propaganda postcards during World War One. These were printed by Chwala in Vienna. While Karl Hayd painted still lives, cityscapes and rural scenes in a rather brushy style, he also produced a great deal of prints and commercial graphic work for posters and postcards. He became a war artist during the Great War serving with the Austro-Hungarian army in Galicia, the Dolomites, and the Trentino. The images he created at this time range from ordinary scenes of soldier life to the macabre. He returned to painting military subjects during World War Two. Hermes was a printer in Vienna who produced military and propaganda postcards throughout the War. They are most noted for a large set of postcards in Hungarian that revolve around specifically named military units. Often placed in winter settings, the action is close up and the immediacy this provides gives these cards a very contemporary look. Hermes also printed an unusual set entitled Marine Schauspiel by Gustav Bitterlich depicting paintings of warships and U-boats. The naval war on the Adriatic was also covered by Austrian publishers, largely on subset of Red Cross cards. The best of these were by the marine painter Heinrich Heusser, better known as Harry. He grew up in Pola, which was home for an important Austrian naval base on the Adriatic, which no doubt inspired his subject matter. His work captures dramatic events as well as the quiet moodiness of the sea. Hans von Hayek was a landscape painter, especially noted for his work in Indonesia. He produced military themed paintings during World War One, and some of his drawings were used by German publishers to illustrate postcards. Rudolf Alfred Hoger was primarily a painter of sentimental narrative subjects from his studio in Vienna. During World War One he painted scenes that captured the more human side of the conflict though they are often fraught with emotion. A number of his images were used to illustrate postcards. Max Jaffe was one of Vienna’s most notable fine art printers that produced a variety of products in lithography and collotype including postcards. He was responsible for many fine art reproductions and fine portfolio prints for photographers. He would turn out a number of cards illustrated with military subjects during the Great War. Albert Janesch was a Vienese painter who worked in an academic style. After joining the Austrian army in 1915, he was sent to the Italian Front at the Izonzo River as an official war artist. He would also produce images of the Balkan Front that are reminiscent of Orientalism. Janesch would also work as a war artist during World War Two. His artwork was used to illustrate postcards published during World War One, but a number of these pieces are now in art museums and have been placed on postcards again as art reproductions.	2,704	ENGLISH	1
The children have been into reading a lot more. I think it’s the cold weather and them feeling the need to be close to us. Today as we were plopped in the floor I thought what a good time to do a skill assessment. I told the children to warm up their ears that I was going to read them a story and then ask them a lot of questions. The book we read was “The Snowy Day” by Ezra Jack Keats. I asked them questions like “what did the little boy find?” “Where did he put the snowball ?” “Who helped the little boy get undressed? ” “When did the little boy take a bath ?” “Why was the snow ball no longer in the little boys pocket? ” Asking questions after reading a book helps children to organize their thoughts about what they just heard. It’s different to listen to the three-year-olds versus the almost 5-year-olds. The three-year-olds make up things as they answer your questions. The five-year-olds work hard to remember details from your read aloud. Sometimes asking questions like this encourages children to think beyond what they actually heard. Another assessment that can be done during this time is watching for kiddos that completely shut down when asked a question. Our kiddos know they are absolutely safe in our place and should be completely comfortable answering questions from us. When they don’t – that shows a lack of confidence. That’s ok! So with those kiddos, we will continue to grow our relationships and build their strong voice.	<urn:uuid:f7d27048-3b13-497a-af27-5240cced0447>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://siloampreschool.com/2020/01/the-5-ws/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00281.warc.gz	en	0.982131	404	3.390625	3	[ -0.11546198278665543, -0.27977094054222107, 0.24892495572566986, -0.16205137968063354, -0.13410580158233643, 0.1503654271364212, 0.17472095787525177, 0.06663856655359268, -0.33033475279808044, 0.030272679403424263, 0.16844190657138824, 0.15953989326953888, 0.31244972348213196, 0.4366068542...	8	The children have been into reading a lot more. I think it’s the cold weather and them feeling the need to be close to us. Today as we were plopped in the floor I thought what a good time to do a skill assessment. I told the children to warm up their ears that I was going to read them a story and then ask them a lot of questions. The book we read was “The Snowy Day” by Ezra Jack Keats. I asked them questions like “what did the little boy find?” “Where did he put the snowball ?” “Who helped the little boy get undressed? ” “When did the little boy take a bath ?” “Why was the snow ball no longer in the little boys pocket? ” Asking questions after reading a book helps children to organize their thoughts about what they just heard. It’s different to listen to the three-year-olds versus the almost 5-year-olds. The three-year-olds make up things as they answer your questions. The five-year-olds work hard to remember details from your read aloud. Sometimes asking questions like this encourages children to think beyond what they actually heard. Another assessment that can be done during this time is watching for kiddos that completely shut down when asked a question. Our kiddos know they are absolutely safe in our place and should be completely comfortable answering questions from us. When they don’t – that shows a lack of confidence. That’s ok! So with those kiddos, we will continue to grow our relationships and build their strong voice.	352	ENGLISH	1
Giuseppe Garibaldi was a patriot, military commander and a popular hero of the nineteenth century Italy. He has been hailed as one of the ‘Fathers of the Fatherland’ for his contribution to the Italian Risorgimento, which unified the fractured nation under one rule. His conquest of Sicily and Naples, which had hitherto been held by France, hastened the unification process and made him a national hero. In the beginning, he wanted to set up a free republican government in the unified Italy. Later he gave up this dream and fought only to unify Italy. His struggle was mainly aimed at the Austrian Empire and the House of Habsburg, who held large tracts of land in the north and central part of Italy respectively. He also waged several wars to abolish papacy. To defeat their much larger army, Garibaldi used guerilla warfare techniques, which he had learnt while fighting the imperialistic forces in Brazil and Uruguay. Later on in his life he advocated universal franchise and led a pacifist life in his farm in the island of Caprera. - Giuseppe Garibaldi was born on July 4, 1807 in a family of coastal traders in Nice in present day France. His father Domenico Garibaldi was a pilot in a trading ship. His mother Maria Rosa Nicoletta Raimondo was a pious woman, who wanted Giuseppe Garibaldi to join priesthood. However, Garibaldi followed his father’s footstep and went to the sea at the age of fifteen.In 1832, he received certification as a merchant marine captain. In 1833, he sailed to Russian port of Taganrog. There he met Giovanni Battista Cuneo, a member of the La Giovine Italia movement of Giuseppe Mazzini. He joined the group and took oath to unify Italy and free his homeland from foreign dominance.Garibaldi met Mazzini in 1834. In 1835, he took part in a mutiny that aimed to establish a republic in Piedmont. However, it failed and Garibaldi was condemned to death by a Genoese court in absentia. He then fled to Brazil.Continue Reading BelowRecommended Lists: Recommended Lists:Life in Exile - Garibaldi lived in South America from 1836 to 1848. At this time, the continent was going through political turmoil. In Brazil, Garibaldi volunteered as a naval captain for Republic of Rio Grande do Sul, which was then trying to break away from Brazil. However, the endeavor did not succeed.Garibaldi had by that time met his future wife Ana Ribeiro da Silvaor or Anita. In 1841, the couple moved to Uruguay and tried to settle down to a civilian life. However, it did not suit him and so in 1842, he took command of Uruguayan fleet and raised an Italian Legion to fight against the Argentinean dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas.From 1842 to 1848, Garibaldi’s troop defended Montevideo; managed to occupy Colonia del Sacramento and Isla Martín García; won the Battle of Cerro and the Battle of San Antonio del Santo (1846). Tales about his heroic deeds reached Europe and engaged the attention of many renowned men.His struggle in South America taught him the techniques in guerilla warfare. They came handy while fighting the French and Austrian troops, who were not trained in this type of combat. He decided to go back to Italy with the election of Pope Pius IX, known to be a liberal.Back in ItalyIn 1848, Garibaldi went back to Italy with sixty members of Italian Legions. Earlier he had offered his service to Pope Pius IX, but had been refused. Now he offered to fight for Charles Albert, the King of Piedmont-Sardinia; but was rebuffed for his 1832 conviction.Garibaldi then went to Lombardy with his men and offered assistance to the provincial government of Milan, which had rebelled against the occupation by Austria. Although he was able to defeat the much larger Austrian army in Luino and Morazzone he had to retreat to Switzerland in the end of August.Threatened by the liberals, Pope Pius IX fled Rome in November 1848. On March 23, 1849, the Austrian Army defeated Charles Albert, the King of Piedmont-Sardinia, at the Battle of Novara. Hearing the news, Garibaldi set out for Rome in support of the Roman Republic and on Mazzani’s instruction took command of the city.Napoleon III also sent French forces to Rome. On April 30, 1849 Garibaldi defeated much larger French Amy at Velletri outside Rome. However, with the arrival of fresh reinforcement the siege of Rome began on June 1, 1849 and continued through the month. Garibaldi played an important role in the defense of the city during this period.Continue Reading BelowVery soon, the leaders realized that they could not hold the city much longer. Consequently, they decided to withdraw from Rome and continue their fight from the mountains. On July 2, 1849 Garibaldi left the city with 4000 men and reached San Marino, which was neutral to the ongoing conflict.However, Garibaldi and his men did not get asylum anywhere in Europe. Finally, he reached Tangier in Morocco. His wife and comrade Anita died on the way. Most of his men also deserted him. Yet, because of his tenacity and courage he began to be known as ‘The Hero of Two World’ from now on.Recommended Lists: Recommended Lists:The Interlude - On realizing that his political goal was at that point unreachable, Garibaldi decided to go back to sea and earn his living, as a temporary measure. In 1851, he went To New York to procure a ship. However, he did not have enough money for the purchase and so he tried his hands in other trades; but did not succeed.On April 1851, he left New York with a friend and reached Lima, the capital of Peru, in the end of the year. The residences of the city welcomed him warmly. Here he gained employment as a commander of a trading ship and travelled to different parts of the world.Later, he bought a ship with collaboration of another Italian merchant and set sail for England in November 1853 and arrived at Newcastle on March 10, 1854. At the end of April, he set sail for Genoa, Italy, arriving there on May 10, 1854.Recommended Lists: Recommended Lists:Second Italian War of Independence - In Italy, Garibaldi bought land in the island of Caprera and stated farming. However, he went back to military life as the Second War of Italian Independence broke out in 1859.By now, Garibaldi was disillusioned with Mazzani’s republican idea and began to believe that unification could be achieved only under the King of Piedmont. A chance meeting in 1858 with Camillo di Cavour, the Prime minister of King of Piedmont, had convinced him about that.On the advice of Cavour, Garibaldi formed a volunteer unit called ‘Cacciatori delle Alpi’ and was designated as Major General in the Piedmont’s army. The unit won a decisive victory over Austria and captured places like Verse and Como. By the end of the war, Lombardy was also acquired by Piedmont and peace returned to north Italy.Garibaldi next turned his attention to Central Italy. The uprisings in Messina and Palermo provided the opportunity he was waiting for. He gathered a thousand volunteers and landed at Marsala on the western most point of Sicily with two shiploads of men on May 11, 1860.Continue Reading BelowOn May 15, 1860 Garibaldi’s army crushed much larger French army at Calatafimi. He then proclaimed himself the Dictator in the name of Victor Emmanuel, the King of Italy. By end of the month Palermo, the capital city of Sicily was under his occupation.He then moved towards Messina in the east and won a ferocious battle at Milazzo. Whole of Sicily was under his rule now. Swiftly, he crossed the Straits of Messina to enter Naples. He then entered its capital city on September 7, 1860 amid great celebration.French resistance was ultimately crushed at the Battle of Volturno on September 30, 1860 with the help of Piedmont’s army. Although Garibaldi next wanted to March to Rome he was stopped by the king. The city remained under papal control and was protected by the French. The king did not want another war.Later Years - Garibaldi next handed over the territories he had captured to Piedmont and retired to Caprera, which he considered his home. However, he was still disturbed because the Rome was under papal control and in June 1862, he raised an army of volunteers and made another attempt on Rome.Contrary to his expectation, the government of Victor Emmanuel intervened and Garibaldi was wounded and captured. However, he was held honorably and was allowed to go only after his wounds had been treated and healed.In 1864, he visited England, where he received a warm welcome. When Austria-Prussian War broke out in 1866 Garibaldi raised an army of 40,000 volunteers and defeated the Austrians in Bezzecca. As a result of this war Venetia was ceded to Italy.In 1867, he marched to Rome once again. At the Battle of Mantana, he was again shot and wounded. This time too, the Italian government imprisoned him, but released him soon after.Garibaldi kept on advocating abolition of papacy and establishment of republic. In 1870-71, he went as far as to assist the French Republic against Prussia and won many battles. He was later elected a member of French National Assembly.Back home Garibaldi was elected to the Italian Parliament. In 1879, he founded ‘League of Democracy’, which advocated universal suffrage, emancipation of women and creation of a standing army. He also supported land reclamation projects in marshy areas.Personal Life & LegacyGiuseppe Garibaldi got married thrice. His met his first wife Ana Ribeiro da Silvaor, popularly known as Anita, in 1834 in Brazil. They got married in 1842 and had four children. She died during their epic march after the siege of Rome in 1849. She was at that time carrying their fifth child.Garibaldi next married an 18-year-old Lombard woman, Giuseppina Raimondi on January 24, 1860. However, soon after the ceremony he learnt that she was pregnant with somebody else’s child and left her.He next married his longtime companion Francesca Armosino in 1880 and had four children with her. Three of these children were born before their marriage.As he grew old, he became crippled with arthritis and finally died on June 2, 1882. He was almost 75 then and was buried in his farm at Caprera.He also wrote three novels; Clelia or Il governo dei preti (1867), Cantoni il volontario (1870) and I Mille (1873). In addition he had left an autobiography, which was later translated in English.Italian Navy has three ships named after him. Besides, his statues have been erected in many Italian towns. More importantly, Garibaldi served as an inspiration to many well known revolutionists and is revered by many even today. How To CiteArticle Title- Giuseppe Garibaldi BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/giuseppe-garibaldi-6796.phpLast Updated- October 23, 2017 People Also Viewed	<urn:uuid:06c03ad6-54c8-4ef3-b74b-531ad13e2bc4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/giuseppe-garibaldi-6796.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00388.warc.gz	en	0.986939	2,479	3.65625	4	[ -0.04069839417934418, 0.487806499004364, 0.2777279019355774, -0.13714934885501862, -0.4925653338432312, -0.3549884259700775, 0.49975085258483887, 0.1577359139919281, -0.1516861617565155, -0.31774264574050903, -0.15107586979866028, -0.34256303310394287, 0.3847210705280304, 0.480988800525665...	1	Giuseppe Garibaldi was a patriot, military commander and a popular hero of the nineteenth century Italy. He has been hailed as one of the ‘Fathers of the Fatherland’ for his contribution to the Italian Risorgimento, which unified the fractured nation under one rule. His conquest of Sicily and Naples, which had hitherto been held by France, hastened the unification process and made him a national hero. In the beginning, he wanted to set up a free republican government in the unified Italy. Later he gave up this dream and fought only to unify Italy. His struggle was mainly aimed at the Austrian Empire and the House of Habsburg, who held large tracts of land in the north and central part of Italy respectively. He also waged several wars to abolish papacy. To defeat their much larger army, Garibaldi used guerilla warfare techniques, which he had learnt while fighting the imperialistic forces in Brazil and Uruguay. Later on in his life he advocated universal franchise and led a pacifist life in his farm in the island of Caprera. - Giuseppe Garibaldi was born on July 4, 1807 in a family of coastal traders in Nice in present day France. His father Domenico Garibaldi was a pilot in a trading ship. His mother Maria Rosa Nicoletta Raimondo was a pious woman, who wanted Giuseppe Garibaldi to join priesthood. However, Garibaldi followed his father’s footstep and went to the sea at the age of fifteen.In 1832, he received certification as a merchant marine captain. In 1833, he sailed to Russian port of Taganrog. There he met Giovanni Battista Cuneo, a member of the La Giovine Italia movement of Giuseppe Mazzini. He joined the group and took oath to unify Italy and free his homeland from foreign dominance.Garibaldi met Mazzini in 1834. In 1835, he took part in a mutiny that aimed to establish a republic in Piedmont. However, it failed and Garibaldi was condemned to death by a Genoese court in absentia. He then fled to Brazil.Continue Reading BelowRecommended Lists: Recommended Lists:Life in Exile - Garibaldi lived in South America from 1836 to 1848. At this time, the continent was going through political turmoil. In Brazil, Garibaldi volunteered as a naval captain for Republic of Rio Grande do Sul, which was then trying to break away from Brazil. However, the endeavor did not succeed.Garibaldi had by that time met his future wife Ana Ribeiro da Silvaor or Anita. In 1841, the couple moved to Uruguay and tried to settle down to a civilian life. However, it did not suit him and so in 1842, he took command of Uruguayan fleet and raised an Italian Legion to fight against the Argentinean dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas.From 1842 to 1848, Garibaldi’s troop defended Montevideo; managed to occupy Colonia del Sacramento and Isla Martín García; won the Battle of Cerro and the Battle of San Antonio del Santo (1846). Tales about his heroic deeds reached Europe and engaged the attention of many renowned men.His struggle in South America taught him the techniques in guerilla warfare. They came handy while fighting the French and Austrian troops, who were not trained in this type of combat. He decided to go back to Italy with the election of Pope Pius IX, known to be a liberal.Back in ItalyIn 1848, Garibaldi went back to Italy with sixty members of Italian Legions. Earlier he had offered his service to Pope Pius IX, but had been refused. Now he offered to fight for Charles Albert, the King of Piedmont-Sardinia; but was rebuffed for his 1832 conviction.Garibaldi then went to Lombardy with his men and offered assistance to the provincial government of Milan, which had rebelled against the occupation by Austria. Although he was able to defeat the much larger Austrian army in Luino and Morazzone he had to retreat to Switzerland in the end of August.Threatened by the liberals, Pope Pius IX fled Rome in November 1848. On March 23, 1849, the Austrian Army defeated Charles Albert, the King of Piedmont-Sardinia, at the Battle of Novara. Hearing the news, Garibaldi set out for Rome in support of the Roman Republic and on Mazzani’s instruction took command of the city.Napoleon III also sent French forces to Rome. On April 30, 1849 Garibaldi defeated much larger French Amy at Velletri outside Rome. However, with the arrival of fresh reinforcement the siege of Rome began on June 1, 1849 and continued through the month. Garibaldi played an important role in the defense of the city during this period.Continue Reading BelowVery soon, the leaders realized that they could not hold the city much longer. Consequently, they decided to withdraw from Rome and continue their fight from the mountains. On July 2, 1849 Garibaldi left the city with 4000 men and reached San Marino, which was neutral to the ongoing conflict.However, Garibaldi and his men did not get asylum anywhere in Europe. Finally, he reached Tangier in Morocco. His wife and comrade Anita died on the way. Most of his men also deserted him. Yet, because of his tenacity and courage he began to be known as ‘The Hero of Two World’ from now on.Recommended Lists: Recommended Lists:The Interlude - On realizing that his political goal was at that point unreachable, Garibaldi decided to go back to sea and earn his living, as a temporary measure. In 1851, he went To New York to procure a ship. However, he did not have enough money for the purchase and so he tried his hands in other trades; but did not succeed.On April 1851, he left New York with a friend and reached Lima, the capital of Peru, in the end of the year. The residences of the city welcomed him warmly. Here he gained employment as a commander of a trading ship and travelled to different parts of the world.Later, he bought a ship with collaboration of another Italian merchant and set sail for England in November 1853 and arrived at Newcastle on March 10, 1854. At the end of April, he set sail for Genoa, Italy, arriving there on May 10, 1854.Recommended Lists: Recommended Lists:Second Italian War of Independence - In Italy, Garibaldi bought land in the island of Caprera and stated farming. However, he went back to military life as the Second War of Italian Independence broke out in 1859.By now, Garibaldi was disillusioned with Mazzani’s republican idea and began to believe that unification could be achieved only under the King of Piedmont. A chance meeting in 1858 with Camillo di Cavour, the Prime minister of King of Piedmont, had convinced him about that.On the advice of Cavour, Garibaldi formed a volunteer unit called ‘Cacciatori delle Alpi’ and was designated as Major General in the Piedmont’s army. The unit won a decisive victory over Austria and captured places like Verse and Como. By the end of the war, Lombardy was also acquired by Piedmont and peace returned to north Italy.Garibaldi next turned his attention to Central Italy. The uprisings in Messina and Palermo provided the opportunity he was waiting for. He gathered a thousand volunteers and landed at Marsala on the western most point of Sicily with two shiploads of men on May 11, 1860.Continue Reading BelowOn May 15, 1860 Garibaldi’s army crushed much larger French army at Calatafimi. He then proclaimed himself the Dictator in the name of Victor Emmanuel, the King of Italy. By end of the month Palermo, the capital city of Sicily was under his occupation.He then moved towards Messina in the east and won a ferocious battle at Milazzo. Whole of Sicily was under his rule now. Swiftly, he crossed the Straits of Messina to enter Naples. He then entered its capital city on September 7, 1860 amid great celebration.French resistance was ultimately crushed at the Battle of Volturno on September 30, 1860 with the help of Piedmont’s army. Although Garibaldi next wanted to March to Rome he was stopped by the king. The city remained under papal control and was protected by the French. The king did not want another war.Later Years - Garibaldi next handed over the territories he had captured to Piedmont and retired to Caprera, which he considered his home. However, he was still disturbed because the Rome was under papal control and in June 1862, he raised an army of volunteers and made another attempt on Rome.Contrary to his expectation, the government of Victor Emmanuel intervened and Garibaldi was wounded and captured. However, he was held honorably and was allowed to go only after his wounds had been treated and healed.In 1864, he visited England, where he received a warm welcome. When Austria-Prussian War broke out in 1866 Garibaldi raised an army of 40,000 volunteers and defeated the Austrians in Bezzecca. As a result of this war Venetia was ceded to Italy.In 1867, he marched to Rome once again. At the Battle of Mantana, he was again shot and wounded. This time too, the Italian government imprisoned him, but released him soon after.Garibaldi kept on advocating abolition of papacy and establishment of republic. In 1870-71, he went as far as to assist the French Republic against Prussia and won many battles. He was later elected a member of French National Assembly.Back home Garibaldi was elected to the Italian Parliament. In 1879, he founded ‘League of Democracy’, which advocated universal suffrage, emancipation of women and creation of a standing army. He also supported land reclamation projects in marshy areas.Personal Life & LegacyGiuseppe Garibaldi got married thrice. His met his first wife Ana Ribeiro da Silvaor, popularly known as Anita, in 1834 in Brazil. They got married in 1842 and had four children. She died during their epic march after the siege of Rome in 1849. She was at that time carrying their fifth child.Garibaldi next married an 18-year-old Lombard woman, Giuseppina Raimondi on January 24, 1860. However, soon after the ceremony he learnt that she was pregnant with somebody else’s child and left her.He next married his longtime companion Francesca Armosino in 1880 and had four children with her. Three of these children were born before their marriage.As he grew old, he became crippled with arthritis and finally died on June 2, 1882. He was almost 75 then and was buried in his farm at Caprera.He also wrote three novels; Clelia or Il governo dei preti (1867), Cantoni il volontario (1870) and I Mille (1873). In addition he had left an autobiography, which was later translated in English.Italian Navy has three ships named after him. Besides, his statues have been erected in many Italian towns. More importantly, Garibaldi served as an inspiration to many well known revolutionists and is revered by many even today. How To CiteArticle Title- Giuseppe Garibaldi BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/giuseppe-garibaldi-6796.phpLast Updated- October 23, 2017 People Also Viewed	2,589	ENGLISH	1
View This Storyboard as a Slide Show! Create your own! Copy this storyboard Like What You See? This storyboard was created with Abraham Lincoln was born to Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks. When he was nine, his mother died. Thomas Lincoln married Sarah Bush Johnston. She supported Abe throughout his childhood. Lincoln announced that he would be running for Illinois state legislature. He did not make it, but he began studying law and become more known throughout the local area. People began to agree with his political views and platform. His stance against slavery was desired by many northerners. Lincoln and Stephen Douglas had a series of debates on current issues of the country. These debates got Lincoln on the map and made him known all along the country. Lincoln won the 1860 with the reputation he got from the debates. Over 12 Million Create My First Storyboard	<urn:uuid:29ff6335-68b1-431b-af67-e98e96e301eb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/5baf6964/charles-sumner-gets-folded	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00382.warc.gz	en	0.98569	187	3.453125	3	[ -0.2664235532283783, 0.26604902744293213, 0.08712486177682877, -0.24580450356006622, -0.5007222890853882, 0.449955552816391, 0.12864090502262115, 0.0027802016120404005, -0.19144874811172485, -0.0954853892326355, -0.29418280720710754, -0.08413559198379517, 0.07063733786344528, 0.39252597093...	1	View This Storyboard as a Slide Show! Create your own! Copy this storyboard Like What You See? This storyboard was created with Abraham Lincoln was born to Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks. When he was nine, his mother died. Thomas Lincoln married Sarah Bush Johnston. She supported Abe throughout his childhood. Lincoln announced that he would be running for Illinois state legislature. He did not make it, but he began studying law and become more known throughout the local area. People began to agree with his political views and platform. His stance against slavery was desired by many northerners. Lincoln and Stephen Douglas had a series of debates on current issues of the country. These debates got Lincoln on the map and made him known all along the country. Lincoln won the 1860 with the reputation he got from the debates. Over 12 Million Create My First Storyboard	182	ENGLISH	1
Every country has a history that both builds and defines its nation. It is composed of various events and people that greatly impact the participants and their surroundings. The events occur in countless of ways, some are positive and form an immense sense of pride, while others are negative and are therefore shameful. Canada has an elaborate mix of such events but, due to the research gathered, it has become apparent that Canada does not have a history to be proud of. Like every country, positive events such as the establishment of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the founding of the Co Operative Commonwealth Federation, and the War in Air during World War 2 are remembered proudly by those who call themselves Canadians. Unfortunately, the focus on positive events such as these tends to overshadow the various of negative ones that plague Canadian history such as the residential schools that Aboriginal children were forced to go to, the segregation African-Americans faced in Africville, as well as the relief camps that were established by Prime Minister R.B. Bennett. These events are prime examples of Canada’s shameful history as they consist of Canada treating it’s citizens badly and revoking their rights in almost inhumane ways. Canada must recognize the dark side of its history. Canada is responsible for the basic genocide of an entire culture. In the early 19th century, the federal government began pushing the european way of life on the aboriginal people of Canada. Canada established the Residential School System as an attempt to help aboriginals make the transition from the traditional lifestyle they lived for thousands of years to a more alternative, different way of life, with a more European influence. The residential schools were a complete immersion program, where children were prohibited from speaking their native language, practicing their spirituality, or displaying any form of aboriginal tradition. Aboriginal children were taken hundreds of miles from their families, only to rarely see them if they were lucky. The goal was to turn these children into english speaking, christian farmers. Those who did not obey were often punished severely. Physical and sexual abuse ran rampant in these schools, while mortality rates soared in this environment. An incredibly large amount of native kids were thrown into the harsh, unfamiliar system against their will or the wishes of their parents and were forced to endure substandard conditions and endured physical and emotional abuse. The last residential school was only closed in 1996, twelve years after the Canadian constitution and the Charter of Rights had been changed to accommodate the various different races that lived in Canada. Although the intention was to integrate the Native Canadian population into the European-Canadian society, under the assumption they were unable to adapt to a rapidly modernizing society, the whole process was far from positive for those families as thousands were separated from their families and communities due to a policy issued by the Canadian government. Canadian citizen may wish to remember their history and be proud, but events such as the residential school system prove that, though Canada has various achievements both in the country and out, it had failed its own citizens by not tolerating any native culture and ignoring the rights and freedoms they had issued in order to prevent such horrors.	<urn:uuid:4393927f-e5de-4fbd-9701-5b383f0493e7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://irvinebusinessdirectory.net/every-various-of-negative-ones-that-plague-canadian-history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00476.warc.gz	en	0.986924	622	3.296875	3	[ 0.01944127306342125, 0.73195481300354, 0.4390450119972229, -0.04612136259675026, -0.38530588150024414, 0.1726558655500412, 0.11814144253730774, 0.23188495635986328, 0.11688187718391418, 0.38960567116737366, 0.08949271589517593, -0.08329418301582336, 0.029417145997285843, 0.1746220588684082...	1	Every country has a history that both builds and defines its nation. It is composed of various events and people that greatly impact the participants and their surroundings. The events occur in countless of ways, some are positive and form an immense sense of pride, while others are negative and are therefore shameful. Canada has an elaborate mix of such events but, due to the research gathered, it has become apparent that Canada does not have a history to be proud of. Like every country, positive events such as the establishment of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the founding of the Co Operative Commonwealth Federation, and the War in Air during World War 2 are remembered proudly by those who call themselves Canadians. Unfortunately, the focus on positive events such as these tends to overshadow the various of negative ones that plague Canadian history such as the residential schools that Aboriginal children were forced to go to, the segregation African-Americans faced in Africville, as well as the relief camps that were established by Prime Minister R.B. Bennett. These events are prime examples of Canada’s shameful history as they consist of Canada treating it’s citizens badly and revoking their rights in almost inhumane ways. Canada must recognize the dark side of its history. Canada is responsible for the basic genocide of an entire culture. In the early 19th century, the federal government began pushing the european way of life on the aboriginal people of Canada. Canada established the Residential School System as an attempt to help aboriginals make the transition from the traditional lifestyle they lived for thousands of years to a more alternative, different way of life, with a more European influence. The residential schools were a complete immersion program, where children were prohibited from speaking their native language, practicing their spirituality, or displaying any form of aboriginal tradition. Aboriginal children were taken hundreds of miles from their families, only to rarely see them if they were lucky. The goal was to turn these children into english speaking, christian farmers. Those who did not obey were often punished severely. Physical and sexual abuse ran rampant in these schools, while mortality rates soared in this environment. An incredibly large amount of native kids were thrown into the harsh, unfamiliar system against their will or the wishes of their parents and were forced to endure substandard conditions and endured physical and emotional abuse. The last residential school was only closed in 1996, twelve years after the Canadian constitution and the Charter of Rights had been changed to accommodate the various different races that lived in Canada. Although the intention was to integrate the Native Canadian population into the European-Canadian society, under the assumption they were unable to adapt to a rapidly modernizing society, the whole process was far from positive for those families as thousands were separated from their families and communities due to a policy issued by the Canadian government. Canadian citizen may wish to remember their history and be proud, but events such as the residential school system prove that, though Canada has various achievements both in the country and out, it had failed its own citizens by not tolerating any native culture and ignoring the rights and freedoms they had issued in order to prevent such horrors.	624	ENGLISH	1
Dissecting a frog was once a rite of passage for high school students (and sometimes junior high students) across the country. Coming up through the grades you’d hear fellow students talking about it, and whether you loved the idea or hated it, you were going to have your date with an unfortunate frog sooner or later. Many schools carry on the tradition in their science courses today, although some have scaled back things a bit. The students at J.W. Mitchell High School in Florida recently got their hands on some frogs just waiting to be sliced open, but these weren’t any ordinary amphibians. The frogs were lifelike synthetic replicas of their real-life counterparts, complete with internal organs and fake tissue. The “SynFrogs,” as they are called, are created by a company called SynDaver. Slicing one open and digging through their guts isn’t nearly as stomach-churning as diving into a real amphibian, but it offers students the same kind of glimpse into the inner workings of an animal’s body. The frog models are the same size as the real thing, but they don’t come cheap. A single synthetic frog costs a whopping $150. That might seem prohibitively expensive, especially for a school district that would need to buy several of them for a class, but the catch here is that they are reusable. They can be reassembled over and over again, meaning that a school could buy as many as they need for a single class and have each class dissect the same frogs. Over the course of several years, the fake frogs essentially pay for themselves. As an added bonus, it puts a small dent in the number of real frogs that have to be harvested just so students can poke around in their guts before throwing them away.	<urn:uuid:ca366ee6-69f0-4f3a-aa1a-85afe45a9481>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bgr.com/2019/12/02/frog-dissection-high-school-florida-synfrog/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00119.warc.gz	en	0.983531	378	3.40625	3	[ -0.23503774404525757, -0.2196303755044937, 0.5090327858924866, -0.5350247025489807, -0.41585999727249146, -0.16664308309555054, -0.12795382738113403, 0.40966352820396423, 0.07548685371875763, 0.040513139218091965, 0.3579801023006439, 0.12357407808303833, 0.02059251442551613, 0.308533817529...	6	Dissecting a frog was once a rite of passage for high school students (and sometimes junior high students) across the country. Coming up through the grades you’d hear fellow students talking about it, and whether you loved the idea or hated it, you were going to have your date with an unfortunate frog sooner or later. Many schools carry on the tradition in their science courses today, although some have scaled back things a bit. The students at J.W. Mitchell High School in Florida recently got their hands on some frogs just waiting to be sliced open, but these weren’t any ordinary amphibians. The frogs were lifelike synthetic replicas of their real-life counterparts, complete with internal organs and fake tissue. The “SynFrogs,” as they are called, are created by a company called SynDaver. Slicing one open and digging through their guts isn’t nearly as stomach-churning as diving into a real amphibian, but it offers students the same kind of glimpse into the inner workings of an animal’s body. The frog models are the same size as the real thing, but they don’t come cheap. A single synthetic frog costs a whopping $150. That might seem prohibitively expensive, especially for a school district that would need to buy several of them for a class, but the catch here is that they are reusable. They can be reassembled over and over again, meaning that a school could buy as many as they need for a single class and have each class dissect the same frogs. Over the course of several years, the fake frogs essentially pay for themselves. As an added bonus, it puts a small dent in the number of real frogs that have to be harvested just so students can poke around in their guts before throwing them away.	358	ENGLISH	1
A PLACE that is covered in graffiti and festooned with rubbish makes people feel uneasy. And with good reason, according to a group of researchers in the Netherlands. Kees Keizer and his colleagues at the University of Groningen deliberately created such settings as a part of a series of experiments designed to discover if signs of vandalism, litter and low-level lawbreaking could change the way people behave. They found that they could, by a lot: doubling the number who are prepared to litter and steal. The idea that observing disorder can have a psychological effect on people has been around for a while. In the late 1980s George Kelling, a former probation officer who now works at Rutgers University, initiated what became a vigorous campaign to remove graffiti from New York City's subway system, which was followed by a reduction in petty crime. This idea also underpinned the “zero tolerance” which Rudy Giuliani subsequently brought to the city's streets when he became mayor. Many cities and communities around the world now try to get on top of anti-social behaviour as a way of deterring crime. But the idea remains a controversial one, not least because it is often difficult to account for other factors that could influence crime reduction, such as changes in poverty levels, housing conditions and sentencing policy—even, some people have argued, the removal of lead from petrol. An experimental test of the “broken windows theory”, as Dr Kelling and his colleague James Wilson later called the idea, is therefore long overdue. And that is what Dr Keizer and his colleagues have provided. The writing's on the wall Dr Kelling's theory takes its name from the observation that a few broken windows in an empty building quickly lead to more smashed panes, more vandalism and eventually to break-ins. The tendency for people to behave in a particular way can be strengthened or weakened depending on what they observe others to be doing. This does not necessarily mean that people will copy bad behaviour exactly, reaching for a spray can when they see graffiti. Rather, says Dr Keizer, it can foster the “violation” of other norms of behaviour. It was this effect that his experiments, which have just been published in Science, set out to test. His group's first study was conducted in an alley that is frequently used to park bicycles. As in all of their experiments, the researchers created two conditions: one of order and the other of disorder. In the former, the walls of the alley were freshly painted; in the latter, they were tagged with graffiti (but not elaborately, to avoid the perception that it might be art). In both states a large sign prohibiting graffiti was put up, so that it would not be missed by anyone who came to collect a bicycle. All the bikes then had a flyer promoting a non-existent sports shop attached to their handlebars. This needed to be removed before a bicycle could be ridden. When owners returned, their behaviour was secretly observed. There were no rubbish bins in the alley, so a cyclist had three choices. He could take the flyer with him, hang it on another bicycle (which the researchers counted as littering) or throw it to the floor. When the alley contained graffiti, 69% of the riders littered compared with 33% when the walls were clean. To remove one possible bias—that litter encourages more litter—the researchers inconspicuously picked up each castaway flyer. Nor, they say, could the effect be explained by litterers assuming that because the spraying of graffiti had not been prevented, it was also unlikely that they would be caught. Littering, Dr Keizer observes, is generally tolerated by the police in Groningen. The other experiments were carried out in a similar way. In one, a temporary fence was used to close off a short cut to a car park, except for a narrow gap. Two signs were erected, one telling people there was no throughway and the other saying that bicycles must not be left locked to the fence. In the “order” condition (with four bicycles parked nearby, but not locked to the fence) 27% of people were prepared to trespass by stepping through the gap, whereas in the disorder condition (with the four bikes locked to the fence, in violation of the sign) 82% took the short cut. Nor were the effects limited to visual observation of petty criminal behaviour. It is against the law to let off fireworks in the Netherlands for several weeks before New Year's Eve. So two weeks before the festival the researchers randomly let off firecrackers near a bicycle shed at a main railway station and watched what happened using their flyer technique. With no fireworks, 48% of people took the flyers with them when they collected their bikes. With fireworks, this fell to 20%. The most dramatic result, though, was the one that showed a doubling in the number of people who were prepared to steal in a condition of disorder. In this case an envelope with a €5 ($6) note inside (and the note clearly visible through the address window) was left sticking out of a post box. In a condition of order, 13% of those passing took the envelope (instead of leaving it or pushing it into the box). But if the post box was covered in graffiti, 27% did. Even if the post box had no graffiti on it, but the area around it was littered with paper, orange peel, cigarette butts and empty cans, 25% still took the envelope. The researchers' conclusion is that one example of disorder, like graffiti or littering, can indeed encourage another, like stealing. Dr Kelling was right. The message for policymakers and police officers is that clearing up graffiti or littering promptly could help fight the spread of crime. This article appeared in the Science and technology section of the print edition under the headline "Can the can"	<urn:uuid:97eca324-4077-4d07-8f59-df184a0c65ea>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2008/11/20/can-the-can	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00492.warc.gz	en	0.980132	1,199	3.375	3	[ -0.05012311786413193, 0.18813645839691162, 0.684720516204834, 0.0890461727976799, 0.10888175666332245, 0.0696740373969078, 0.6579543352127075, 0.057415034621953964, 0.0082355672493577, 0.04441221058368683, 0.2667267620563507, -0.07487024366855621, -0.21859031915664673, 0.29453781247138977,...	1	A PLACE that is covered in graffiti and festooned with rubbish makes people feel uneasy. And with good reason, according to a group of researchers in the Netherlands. Kees Keizer and his colleagues at the University of Groningen deliberately created such settings as a part of a series of experiments designed to discover if signs of vandalism, litter and low-level lawbreaking could change the way people behave. They found that they could, by a lot: doubling the number who are prepared to litter and steal. The idea that observing disorder can have a psychological effect on people has been around for a while. In the late 1980s George Kelling, a former probation officer who now works at Rutgers University, initiated what became a vigorous campaign to remove graffiti from New York City's subway system, which was followed by a reduction in petty crime. This idea also underpinned the “zero tolerance” which Rudy Giuliani subsequently brought to the city's streets when he became mayor. Many cities and communities around the world now try to get on top of anti-social behaviour as a way of deterring crime. But the idea remains a controversial one, not least because it is often difficult to account for other factors that could influence crime reduction, such as changes in poverty levels, housing conditions and sentencing policy—even, some people have argued, the removal of lead from petrol. An experimental test of the “broken windows theory”, as Dr Kelling and his colleague James Wilson later called the idea, is therefore long overdue. And that is what Dr Keizer and his colleagues have provided. The writing's on the wall Dr Kelling's theory takes its name from the observation that a few broken windows in an empty building quickly lead to more smashed panes, more vandalism and eventually to break-ins. The tendency for people to behave in a particular way can be strengthened or weakened depending on what they observe others to be doing. This does not necessarily mean that people will copy bad behaviour exactly, reaching for a spray can when they see graffiti. Rather, says Dr Keizer, it can foster the “violation” of other norms of behaviour. It was this effect that his experiments, which have just been published in Science, set out to test. His group's first study was conducted in an alley that is frequently used to park bicycles. As in all of their experiments, the researchers created two conditions: one of order and the other of disorder. In the former, the walls of the alley were freshly painted; in the latter, they were tagged with graffiti (but not elaborately, to avoid the perception that it might be art). In both states a large sign prohibiting graffiti was put up, so that it would not be missed by anyone who came to collect a bicycle. All the bikes then had a flyer promoting a non-existent sports shop attached to their handlebars. This needed to be removed before a bicycle could be ridden. When owners returned, their behaviour was secretly observed. There were no rubbish bins in the alley, so a cyclist had three choices. He could take the flyer with him, hang it on another bicycle (which the researchers counted as littering) or throw it to the floor. When the alley contained graffiti, 69% of the riders littered compared with 33% when the walls were clean. To remove one possible bias—that litter encourages more litter—the researchers inconspicuously picked up each castaway flyer. Nor, they say, could the effect be explained by litterers assuming that because the spraying of graffiti had not been prevented, it was also unlikely that they would be caught. Littering, Dr Keizer observes, is generally tolerated by the police in Groningen. The other experiments were carried out in a similar way. In one, a temporary fence was used to close off a short cut to a car park, except for a narrow gap. Two signs were erected, one telling people there was no throughway and the other saying that bicycles must not be left locked to the fence. In the “order” condition (with four bicycles parked nearby, but not locked to the fence) 27% of people were prepared to trespass by stepping through the gap, whereas in the disorder condition (with the four bikes locked to the fence, in violation of the sign) 82% took the short cut. Nor were the effects limited to visual observation of petty criminal behaviour. It is against the law to let off fireworks in the Netherlands for several weeks before New Year's Eve. So two weeks before the festival the researchers randomly let off firecrackers near a bicycle shed at a main railway station and watched what happened using their flyer technique. With no fireworks, 48% of people took the flyers with them when they collected their bikes. With fireworks, this fell to 20%. The most dramatic result, though, was the one that showed a doubling in the number of people who were prepared to steal in a condition of disorder. In this case an envelope with a €5 ($6) note inside (and the note clearly visible through the address window) was left sticking out of a post box. In a condition of order, 13% of those passing took the envelope (instead of leaving it or pushing it into the box). But if the post box was covered in graffiti, 27% did. Even if the post box had no graffiti on it, but the area around it was littered with paper, orange peel, cigarette butts and empty cans, 25% still took the envelope. The researchers' conclusion is that one example of disorder, like graffiti or littering, can indeed encourage another, like stealing. Dr Kelling was right. The message for policymakers and police officers is that clearing up graffiti or littering promptly could help fight the spread of crime. This article appeared in the Science and technology section of the print edition under the headline "Can the can"	1,197	ENGLISH	1
William Clark was an American explorer who along with Meriwether Lewis led an epic expedition to the Pacific Northwest. Named after these great explorers, the Lewis and Clark Expedition was undertaken following the Louisiana Purchase and aimed at claimed the Pacific Northwest for the United States before any of the European powers did. Before being selected for the expedition Clark served in a militia. Born into a large family of tobacco planters in Virginia, he enjoyed an adventurous childhood filled with fox hunts, cockfights, and shooting tournaments. His five older brothers fought in the American Revolutionary War but William was too young at that time. On growing up he joined a volunteer militia force under Major John Hardin to fight in the American Indian conflicts of the Ohio frontier. He then entered the U.S. Army and commanded a company of riflemen at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, playing an important role in the decisive U.S. victory that brought the Northwest Indian War to an end. He eventually retired from the army due to poor health. After a few years he was invited by his friend Meriwether Lewis to join him on an expedition to the Pacific Northwest. The expedition which took several long months to complete was a resounding success which catapulted both Clark and Lewis to the status of legendary explorers. - William Clark was born on August 1, 1770, in Virginia, to John and Ann Rogers Clark. He was the ninth of their ten children.He was primarily tutored at home and did not receive any formal schooling. When he was a child his family regularly participated in activities such as fox hunts, cockfights, and shooting tournaments.His five elder brothers fought in the American Revolutionary War where his oldest brother, Jonathan, served as a colonel, and another brother, George, rose to the rank of general. After the war the two brothers arranged for their parents and siblings to relocate to Kentucky in 1785.Continue Reading BelowCareer - As a 19 year old William Clark joined a volunteer militia force under Major John Hardin in 1789. The next year, General Arthur St. Clair, governor of the Northwest Territory, commissioned him as a captain in the Clarksville, Indiana militia.He served as an ensign and acting lieutenant under generals Charles Scott and James Wilkinson in 1791. In 1792, he enlisted in the Legion of the United States and was commissioned by President George Washington as a lieutenant of infantry under General Anthony Wayne.Clark commanded the Chosen Rifle Company, which participated in the Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794) and successfully drove back the enemy securing a resounding victory for the U.S.He was sent on a mission to New Madrid, Missouri, in 1795. However, his health began to suffer and he resigned from his commission in July 1796 and returned home to manage his parents’ estates.During his years in the army he had become friends with a fellow army man, Meriwether Lewis, with whom he regularly corresponded in the years following his retirement. In 1803 he received a letter from Lewis that would completely change the course of his life.The U.S. Army had newly formed the Corps of Discovery with the mission of exploring the territories of the Louisiana Purchase and claiming the territory for the U.S. before European nations did. President Thomas Jefferson who commissioned the Corps of Discovery had chosen Lewis as its leader who in turn asked Clark to join him.The perilous expedition lasted for over two years from May 1804 to September 1806. Clark was given equal authority along with Lewis on the mission. He also brought his slave York who proved to be a great help on the journey. A skilled hunter, Clark led the hunting expeditions and managed the expedition’s supplies. He also drew the maps required for the journey.The expedition was a success—the Corps reached the Pacific and established their presence for a legal claim to the land, and formed diplomatic relations and trade with at least two dozen indigenous nations. The explorers returned to a triumphant welcome back home in 1806.William Clark was suitably awarded for his efforts and In 1807 Thomas Jefferson appointed him brigadier general of militia for the Louisiana Territory.He played a very active role during the War of 1812. He led several campaigns and when the Missouri Territory was formed in 1813, Clark was appointed as the governor by President Madison. He was reappointed to the position in 1816 and in 1820.He was made the Superintendent of Indian Affairs by President James Monroe in 1822, a post he served in until his death. In this position, Clark was the most important man on Native American matters west of the Mississippi. He also served as the surveyor general of Illinois, Missouri and the Territory of Arkansaw in 1824-25.Major Expeditions - William Clark was one of the leaders of the Lewis and Clark Expedition commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson shortly after the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. The expedition which took over two years to complete was a huge success and immortalized both Clark and Lewis as major figures in the history of American exploration.Awards & Achievements - Clark was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814.Personal Life & Legacy - William Clark married Julia Hancock, a girl several years his junior, in 1808. They had five children. He named his eldest son Meriwether Lewis Clark, Sr. in the honor of his friend.Julia died in 1820. He then married her cousin, Harriet Kennerly Radford. This marriage produced three more children. Harriet died in 1831, leaving him a widower for the second time.He spent the last months of his life with his eldest son and died on September 1, 1838 at age 68.The Clarks River in western Kentucky, the Clark Fork in Montana and Idaho, and the Clarks Fork Yellowstone River in Montana and Wyoming are named for him. How To CiteArticle Title- William Clark BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/william-clark-6487.phpLast Updated- November 01, 2017 People Also Viewed	<urn:uuid:9fa7dd14-4f02-471e-b079-58748014d0e2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/william-clark-6487.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00314.warc.gz	en	0.980974	1,251	3.484375	3	[ -0.39508065581321716, 0.3287028670310974, 0.26972052454948425, -0.08698244392871857, -0.5544399619102478, -0.35476526618003845, -0.10571566224098206, 0.2976405620574951, -0.3951733410358429, 0.007448562420904636, 0.329061359167099, -0.26066017150878906, 0.08994036912918091, 0.1030337661504...	1	William Clark was an American explorer who along with Meriwether Lewis led an epic expedition to the Pacific Northwest. Named after these great explorers, the Lewis and Clark Expedition was undertaken following the Louisiana Purchase and aimed at claimed the Pacific Northwest for the United States before any of the European powers did. Before being selected for the expedition Clark served in a militia. Born into a large family of tobacco planters in Virginia, he enjoyed an adventurous childhood filled with fox hunts, cockfights, and shooting tournaments. His five older brothers fought in the American Revolutionary War but William was too young at that time. On growing up he joined a volunteer militia force under Major John Hardin to fight in the American Indian conflicts of the Ohio frontier. He then entered the U.S. Army and commanded a company of riflemen at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, playing an important role in the decisive U.S. victory that brought the Northwest Indian War to an end. He eventually retired from the army due to poor health. After a few years he was invited by his friend Meriwether Lewis to join him on an expedition to the Pacific Northwest. The expedition which took several long months to complete was a resounding success which catapulted both Clark and Lewis to the status of legendary explorers. - William Clark was born on August 1, 1770, in Virginia, to John and Ann Rogers Clark. He was the ninth of their ten children.He was primarily tutored at home and did not receive any formal schooling. When he was a child his family regularly participated in activities such as fox hunts, cockfights, and shooting tournaments.His five elder brothers fought in the American Revolutionary War where his oldest brother, Jonathan, served as a colonel, and another brother, George, rose to the rank of general. After the war the two brothers arranged for their parents and siblings to relocate to Kentucky in 1785.Continue Reading BelowCareer - As a 19 year old William Clark joined a volunteer militia force under Major John Hardin in 1789. The next year, General Arthur St. Clair, governor of the Northwest Territory, commissioned him as a captain in the Clarksville, Indiana militia.He served as an ensign and acting lieutenant under generals Charles Scott and James Wilkinson in 1791. In 1792, he enlisted in the Legion of the United States and was commissioned by President George Washington as a lieutenant of infantry under General Anthony Wayne.Clark commanded the Chosen Rifle Company, which participated in the Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794) and successfully drove back the enemy securing a resounding victory for the U.S.He was sent on a mission to New Madrid, Missouri, in 1795. However, his health began to suffer and he resigned from his commission in July 1796 and returned home to manage his parents’ estates.During his years in the army he had become friends with a fellow army man, Meriwether Lewis, with whom he regularly corresponded in the years following his retirement. In 1803 he received a letter from Lewis that would completely change the course of his life.The U.S. Army had newly formed the Corps of Discovery with the mission of exploring the territories of the Louisiana Purchase and claiming the territory for the U.S. before European nations did. President Thomas Jefferson who commissioned the Corps of Discovery had chosen Lewis as its leader who in turn asked Clark to join him.The perilous expedition lasted for over two years from May 1804 to September 1806. Clark was given equal authority along with Lewis on the mission. He also brought his slave York who proved to be a great help on the journey. A skilled hunter, Clark led the hunting expeditions and managed the expedition’s supplies. He also drew the maps required for the journey.The expedition was a success—the Corps reached the Pacific and established their presence for a legal claim to the land, and formed diplomatic relations and trade with at least two dozen indigenous nations. The explorers returned to a triumphant welcome back home in 1806.William Clark was suitably awarded for his efforts and In 1807 Thomas Jefferson appointed him brigadier general of militia for the Louisiana Territory.He played a very active role during the War of 1812. He led several campaigns and when the Missouri Territory was formed in 1813, Clark was appointed as the governor by President Madison. He was reappointed to the position in 1816 and in 1820.He was made the Superintendent of Indian Affairs by President James Monroe in 1822, a post he served in until his death. In this position, Clark was the most important man on Native American matters west of the Mississippi. He also served as the surveyor general of Illinois, Missouri and the Territory of Arkansaw in 1824-25.Major Expeditions - William Clark was one of the leaders of the Lewis and Clark Expedition commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson shortly after the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. The expedition which took over two years to complete was a huge success and immortalized both Clark and Lewis as major figures in the history of American exploration.Awards & Achievements - Clark was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814.Personal Life & Legacy - William Clark married Julia Hancock, a girl several years his junior, in 1808. They had five children. He named his eldest son Meriwether Lewis Clark, Sr. in the honor of his friend.Julia died in 1820. He then married her cousin, Harriet Kennerly Radford. This marriage produced three more children. Harriet died in 1831, leaving him a widower for the second time.He spent the last months of his life with his eldest son and died on September 1, 1838 at age 68.The Clarks River in western Kentucky, the Clark Fork in Montana and Idaho, and the Clarks Fork Yellowstone River in Montana and Wyoming are named for him. How To CiteArticle Title- William Clark BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/william-clark-6487.phpLast Updated- November 01, 2017 People Also Viewed	1,326	ENGLISH	1
Sleep is essential for good health, but too much or too little of it can be detrimental, according to a new report. To do so, they examined the self-reported sleep habits and medical records of about 461,000 people aged 40 to 69. The participants had never had a heart attack at the beginning of the assessment and were followed for seven years. After analyzing the results, the scientists found those who slept fewer than six hours nightly were 20% more likely to have a heart attack during the study period, compared to those who got six to nine hours of shuteye. Those who slept more than nine hours nightly were 34% more likely. The team also evaluated those who were genetically susceptible to heart disease. Those in that group who slept six to nine hours a night were 18% less likely to have a heart attack. "It's kind of a hopeful message, that regardless of what your inherited risk for heart attack is, sleeping a healthy amount may cut that risk, just like eating a healthy diet, not smoking and other lifestyle approaches can," lead author Iyas Daghlas said. The team did not explore why sleeping too little or too much negatively affected heart health. However, they said previous studies explained too much slumber can boost inflammation in the body, which has been linked to cardiovascular disease, while not enough rest can impact the lining of the arteries. © 2020 Cox Media Group	<urn:uuid:c631803d-a19a-489d-a359-d3325221fc24>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.boston25news.com/news/trending-now/heres-how-much-sleep-you-should-get-a-night-to-avoid-heart-attacks-according-to-new-study/982759905/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00188.warc.gz	en	0.980478	289	3.328125	3	[ 0.2347574084997177, 0.179021418094635, -0.05330801010131836, 0.205168217420578, 0.09645459800958633, 0.3327706456184387, -0.18679207563400269, 0.14406618475914001, 0.31090766191482544, -0.02451767399907112, -0.16411322355270386, -0.05189838260412216, 0.029844390228390694, 0.288469344377517...	1	Sleep is essential for good health, but too much or too little of it can be detrimental, according to a new report. To do so, they examined the self-reported sleep habits and medical records of about 461,000 people aged 40 to 69. The participants had never had a heart attack at the beginning of the assessment and were followed for seven years. After analyzing the results, the scientists found those who slept fewer than six hours nightly were 20% more likely to have a heart attack during the study period, compared to those who got six to nine hours of shuteye. Those who slept more than nine hours nightly were 34% more likely. The team also evaluated those who were genetically susceptible to heart disease. Those in that group who slept six to nine hours a night were 18% less likely to have a heart attack. "It's kind of a hopeful message, that regardless of what your inherited risk for heart attack is, sleeping a healthy amount may cut that risk, just like eating a healthy diet, not smoking and other lifestyle approaches can," lead author Iyas Daghlas said. The team did not explore why sleeping too little or too much negatively affected heart health. However, they said previous studies explained too much slumber can boost inflammation in the body, which has been linked to cardiovascular disease, while not enough rest can impact the lining of the arteries. © 2020 Cox Media Group	298	ENGLISH	1
Every culture throughout history and around the world has their concept of beauty. During the Song dynasty up to the late 19th century in China, one of the physical features that women must have to be beautiful is by having small and doll-like feet. Humans have relatively large feet as theyallow us to move around while being able to support our weight. But the people during the said era resorted in taking extreme measures to achieve the doll feet that they wanted, and the most prominent method that they used is called foot binding. Foot binding is a practice wherein someone, commonly the eldest woman of the family, would bind the feet of young girls tightly to alter their shape and size. Feet that were modified to become smaller are commonly called lotus feet due to their flower-like shape. It was a custom that was first popular for the nobles and elites during the Song dynasty, but the common people soon copied the practice so that they can imitate the look and beauty of noblewomen. The Process of Foot Binding The practice of foot binding begins when young girls reach the age of four to nine, where their feet are not yet fully developed and are flexible enough to manipulate into a different shape. Their grandmothers, or sometimes other people, are the ones that will do the foot binding, as their mothers may sympathize with them and stop the process immediately. The feet will first be soaked in warm water that is mixed with animal blood and herbs. The added ingredients to the foot soak are there to soften the foot faster. Afterward, the young girls’ toenails will be cut deeply so that they won’t grow quickly once the feet are bound. These toes will then be pushed towards the sole or the bottom of the foot tightly until their bones break. After breaking the bones of the toes, the front part foot will then be pulled downwards and pushed towards the heel, breaking the bones that make up the arch of the foot. Bandages will then be wrapped tightly around the foot to prevent it from going back to its original shape. The wrapping typically starts at the instep or the middle part of the foot, which will then go around the toes, the sole, and finally the heel. Young girls wouldn’t be able to move their toes and some parts of their feet while bound, which hinders their movement. To prevent them from taking off the binding, the one who did the procedure would sew the ends of the cloth used to bind the foot together. The foot would have to be unbound regularly in order to clean it. The unbound foot is generally cleaned and checked for any infections or wounds, and then it will be bound again. The binding would get tighter and tighter each time the process is repeated. People of the upper class will repeat the procedure once a day, while the lower class would repeat the process at least twice or thrice a week. After the foot has fully healed from the process and has completely transformed into a lotus foot, any attempts to alter it back to its natural shape can be painful. Those with lotus feet would have them for the rest of their lives as they would not want to experience the pain of manipulating the shape of their foot or they don’t have enough money to pay a doctor to perform a surgery. No one knows exactly how the practice of foot binding came to be, but it was generally believed that Emperor Li Yu, the ruler of the Southern Tang state during the Five Kingdoms period in China, invented the custom. According to the story that happened before the Song dynasty, specifically during the 10th century, Emperor Li Yu built a statue of a golden lotus that is six feet tall and is adorned with different stones. After creating the golden lotus, Li Yu asked his concubine Yao Niang to perform a dance on the lotus while her feet are bound in silk. Yao Niang’s movements were so elegant that women from the upper class started wrapping their feet in silk as well to imitate Yao Niang’s graceful moves and beauty. The foot binding custom quickly spread in China as more and more women wanted to become just like Yao Niang. However, there are several scholars who have opposed the practice during the 13th century, and one of these scholars is CheRuoshui, who wrote that young girls are not supposed to suffer pain and suffering that is brought by foot binding, which is a senseless practice. It was widely accepted by historians that the popularity of foot binding reached its peaked during the Song dynasty when archaeologists discovered two remains that have bound feet. The remains belong to women who have most likely lived during the said dynasty. During the Yuan dynasty, it was believed that men would often drink alcoholic beverages from the shoe worn by women with lotus feet, and this was often called “toast to the golden lotus,” which may be connected to Emperor Li Yu’s story. This tradition of drinking on lotus feet shoes became popular until the end of the Qing dynasty. When Hong Taiji founded the Qing dynasty, he proposed to ban the practice of foot binding in 1636, but it was unsuccessful. He tried to impose a ban again in 1638, and then the emperor who succeeded him issued another edict to ban foot binding in 1664. The Chinese people during that time did not comply with the bans and still continued to bind the foot of young girls, which prompted the government to stop their effort to ban foot binding in 1668. Historians have found out that 40 to 50% of women in China have bound feet during the 19th century, and most of the women with lotus feet came from the upper class. Foot binding became prominent in China due to the fact that many people consider it as a symbol of being and as a way for lower-class women to marry upper-class men, who will only marry women with lotus feet. The number of people who oppose the practice of foot binding started to increase during the 19th century when Christian missionaries convinced the elite and the lower class people that foot binding is a barbaric custom that should be abolished. However, convincing the people of China to band foot binding is a difficult task, and as such, the missionaries have used many methods to increase the knowledge of the people in the harmful effects of foot binding in one’s body. Some of these methods include providing education, giving out pamphlets, and setting up meetings with the court. Through the missionaries’ efforts, several anti-foot binding societies have been formed 1874 to 1993, including the Natural Foot Society and the Woman’s Christian Temperance Movement. Almost all members of these anti-foot binding societies have promised never to let their daughters get their feet bound and discourage their sons from marrying a woman with lotus feet. When the Republic of China was formed in 1912, the government sought to educate the people that foot binding is a sign of China’s backwardness, and those who don’t comply with the ban are the ones who refuse to accept progress and change in the nation. Yan Xishan, a warlord in the province of Shanxi, implemented a campaign that penalizes people who practice foot binding. The success of the campaign in the area led to other regions implementing the anti-foot binding campaign as well. During this period, it was reported that only 2.3% of women living in one province had bound feet. By 1957, the custom of foot binding has disappeared entirely, as all women who were born after 1949 did not have lotus feet. Only a few women who have lived before World War II have bound feet, and they won’t be able to get new shoes anymore as the last factory in China to produce lotus feet shoes closed in 1999.	<urn:uuid:db879ae7-f70f-46b4-99e9-0ba82254b7cd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://footgood.com/what-is-foot-binding/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00190.warc.gz	en	0.981602	1,590	3.53125	4	[ -0.018764007836580276, -0.14817501604557037, 0.8928108811378479, -0.16315004229545593, -0.06141567975282669, 0.29354140162467957, 0.17056475579738617, -0.04790474474430084, -0.02041742578148842, 0.06925226747989655, 0.30737975239753723, 0.10240443795919418, 0.16084159910678864, 0.146006256...	8	Every culture throughout history and around the world has their concept of beauty. During the Song dynasty up to the late 19th century in China, one of the physical features that women must have to be beautiful is by having small and doll-like feet. Humans have relatively large feet as theyallow us to move around while being able to support our weight. But the people during the said era resorted in taking extreme measures to achieve the doll feet that they wanted, and the most prominent method that they used is called foot binding. Foot binding is a practice wherein someone, commonly the eldest woman of the family, would bind the feet of young girls tightly to alter their shape and size. Feet that were modified to become smaller are commonly called lotus feet due to their flower-like shape. It was a custom that was first popular for the nobles and elites during the Song dynasty, but the common people soon copied the practice so that they can imitate the look and beauty of noblewomen. The Process of Foot Binding The practice of foot binding begins when young girls reach the age of four to nine, where their feet are not yet fully developed and are flexible enough to manipulate into a different shape. Their grandmothers, or sometimes other people, are the ones that will do the foot binding, as their mothers may sympathize with them and stop the process immediately. The feet will first be soaked in warm water that is mixed with animal blood and herbs. The added ingredients to the foot soak are there to soften the foot faster. Afterward, the young girls’ toenails will be cut deeply so that they won’t grow quickly once the feet are bound. These toes will then be pushed towards the sole or the bottom of the foot tightly until their bones break. After breaking the bones of the toes, the front part foot will then be pulled downwards and pushed towards the heel, breaking the bones that make up the arch of the foot. Bandages will then be wrapped tightly around the foot to prevent it from going back to its original shape. The wrapping typically starts at the instep or the middle part of the foot, which will then go around the toes, the sole, and finally the heel. Young girls wouldn’t be able to move their toes and some parts of their feet while bound, which hinders their movement. To prevent them from taking off the binding, the one who did the procedure would sew the ends of the cloth used to bind the foot together. The foot would have to be unbound regularly in order to clean it. The unbound foot is generally cleaned and checked for any infections or wounds, and then it will be bound again. The binding would get tighter and tighter each time the process is repeated. People of the upper class will repeat the procedure once a day, while the lower class would repeat the process at least twice or thrice a week. After the foot has fully healed from the process and has completely transformed into a lotus foot, any attempts to alter it back to its natural shape can be painful. Those with lotus feet would have them for the rest of their lives as they would not want to experience the pain of manipulating the shape of their foot or they don’t have enough money to pay a doctor to perform a surgery. No one knows exactly how the practice of foot binding came to be, but it was generally believed that Emperor Li Yu, the ruler of the Southern Tang state during the Five Kingdoms period in China, invented the custom. According to the story that happened before the Song dynasty, specifically during the 10th century, Emperor Li Yu built a statue of a golden lotus that is six feet tall and is adorned with different stones. After creating the golden lotus, Li Yu asked his concubine Yao Niang to perform a dance on the lotus while her feet are bound in silk. Yao Niang’s movements were so elegant that women from the upper class started wrapping their feet in silk as well to imitate Yao Niang’s graceful moves and beauty. The foot binding custom quickly spread in China as more and more women wanted to become just like Yao Niang. However, there are several scholars who have opposed the practice during the 13th century, and one of these scholars is CheRuoshui, who wrote that young girls are not supposed to suffer pain and suffering that is brought by foot binding, which is a senseless practice. It was widely accepted by historians that the popularity of foot binding reached its peaked during the Song dynasty when archaeologists discovered two remains that have bound feet. The remains belong to women who have most likely lived during the said dynasty. During the Yuan dynasty, it was believed that men would often drink alcoholic beverages from the shoe worn by women with lotus feet, and this was often called “toast to the golden lotus,” which may be connected to Emperor Li Yu’s story. This tradition of drinking on lotus feet shoes became popular until the end of the Qing dynasty. When Hong Taiji founded the Qing dynasty, he proposed to ban the practice of foot binding in 1636, but it was unsuccessful. He tried to impose a ban again in 1638, and then the emperor who succeeded him issued another edict to ban foot binding in 1664. The Chinese people during that time did not comply with the bans and still continued to bind the foot of young girls, which prompted the government to stop their effort to ban foot binding in 1668. Historians have found out that 40 to 50% of women in China have bound feet during the 19th century, and most of the women with lotus feet came from the upper class. Foot binding became prominent in China due to the fact that many people consider it as a symbol of being and as a way for lower-class women to marry upper-class men, who will only marry women with lotus feet. The number of people who oppose the practice of foot binding started to increase during the 19th century when Christian missionaries convinced the elite and the lower class people that foot binding is a barbaric custom that should be abolished. However, convincing the people of China to band foot binding is a difficult task, and as such, the missionaries have used many methods to increase the knowledge of the people in the harmful effects of foot binding in one’s body. Some of these methods include providing education, giving out pamphlets, and setting up meetings with the court. Through the missionaries’ efforts, several anti-foot binding societies have been formed 1874 to 1993, including the Natural Foot Society and the Woman’s Christian Temperance Movement. Almost all members of these anti-foot binding societies have promised never to let their daughters get their feet bound and discourage their sons from marrying a woman with lotus feet. When the Republic of China was formed in 1912, the government sought to educate the people that foot binding is a sign of China’s backwardness, and those who don’t comply with the ban are the ones who refuse to accept progress and change in the nation. Yan Xishan, a warlord in the province of Shanxi, implemented a campaign that penalizes people who practice foot binding. The success of the campaign in the area led to other regions implementing the anti-foot binding campaign as well. During this period, it was reported that only 2.3% of women living in one province had bound feet. By 1957, the custom of foot binding has disappeared entirely, as all women who were born after 1949 did not have lotus feet. Only a few women who have lived before World War II have bound feet, and they won’t be able to get new shoes anymore as the last factory in China to produce lotus feet shoes closed in 1999.	1,594	ENGLISH	1
THE Inman Line was instrumental in improving conditions for emigrants crossing the Atlantic to new lives in America. The shipping line operated under several names from 1850 until being taken over by the American Line in 1893. William Inman (1825 – 1881) was a partner in the company who was quick to embrace new technology and services. He was instrumental in founding the business as the Liverpool and Philadelphia Steamship Company in 1850. Other partners were John Grubb Richardson and several of his brothers. The Richardsons were Ulster Quakers who were concerned about poor shipboard conditions and wanted to make things better. The Inman Line was among the three largest British passenger shipping lines operating on the North Atlantic along with Cunard and White Star. Inman, originally from Leicester, was just 27 when he started transporting steerage (Third Class) passengers under steam in 1852. Previously they had only been carried on sailing ships in very basic accomm-odation – even having to provide their own food. Steerage passengers sometimes ran out of supplies and had to go hungry. There were instances when some had died of starvation. For example 17 steerage passengers died on the Diamond in 1836. Change gradually came about and Inman responded to a Parliamentary Committee by providing cooked meals in steerage – 80 per cent of the line’s passengers. Improved steerage quarters were also provided. Many Inman ships were named after cities. The City of Paris, perhaps the best known, is depicted in an 1874 oil painting by W Williams on display at Merseyside Maritime Museum. She was built in 1865 for the Liverpool to New York emigrant trade. Williams depicts her passing through a choppy sea with colours flapping in the wind. The red swallow-tail pennant on the mainmast probably means the ship is carrying mail. A life-sized reconstruction of steerage accommodation on an emigrant sailing ship gives an indication of what conditions were like before Inman’s innovations. An Inman liner sank at the mouth of the River Mersey. The 3,081-ton City of Brussels, built in 1869, was on the Liverpool to New York run for many years. She was heading for Liverpool from New York in January 1883 when she was wrecked. The City of Brussels was stationery in thick fog before being rammed by the Kirby Hall, another steamer. The Inman liner sank in 20 minutes but most of those on board, including the captain, were rescued. However, eight members of the crew and two steerage passengers died. The City of Brussels is probably the most visited shipwreck for diving enthusiasts in Liverpool Bay. Buy the Maritime Tales book (£3.99) at the Merseyside Maritime Museum open seven days a week, admission free, and at bookshops, newsagents and merseyshop.com.	<urn:uuid:ad25dde0-0068-4878-8c00-ef7e3832deba>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/nostalgia/inman-line-improves-conditions-board-3386432	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00542.warc.gz	en	0.983763	591	3.265625	3	[ -0.013087419793009758, -0.07006657123565674, 0.644797146320343, -0.027088697999715805, -0.3259028196334839, -0.4005190134048462, 0.05409276485443115, 0.09167701005935669, -0.39110279083251953, -0.15745843946933746, 0.15098273754119873, -0.5226595401763916, -0.23510968685150146, -0.00952615...	1	THE Inman Line was instrumental in improving conditions for emigrants crossing the Atlantic to new lives in America. The shipping line operated under several names from 1850 until being taken over by the American Line in 1893. William Inman (1825 – 1881) was a partner in the company who was quick to embrace new technology and services. He was instrumental in founding the business as the Liverpool and Philadelphia Steamship Company in 1850. Other partners were John Grubb Richardson and several of his brothers. The Richardsons were Ulster Quakers who were concerned about poor shipboard conditions and wanted to make things better. The Inman Line was among the three largest British passenger shipping lines operating on the North Atlantic along with Cunard and White Star. Inman, originally from Leicester, was just 27 when he started transporting steerage (Third Class) passengers under steam in 1852. Previously they had only been carried on sailing ships in very basic accomm-odation – even having to provide their own food. Steerage passengers sometimes ran out of supplies and had to go hungry. There were instances when some had died of starvation. For example 17 steerage passengers died on the Diamond in 1836. Change gradually came about and Inman responded to a Parliamentary Committee by providing cooked meals in steerage – 80 per cent of the line’s passengers. Improved steerage quarters were also provided. Many Inman ships were named after cities. The City of Paris, perhaps the best known, is depicted in an 1874 oil painting by W Williams on display at Merseyside Maritime Museum. She was built in 1865 for the Liverpool to New York emigrant trade. Williams depicts her passing through a choppy sea with colours flapping in the wind. The red swallow-tail pennant on the mainmast probably means the ship is carrying mail. A life-sized reconstruction of steerage accommodation on an emigrant sailing ship gives an indication of what conditions were like before Inman’s innovations. An Inman liner sank at the mouth of the River Mersey. The 3,081-ton City of Brussels, built in 1869, was on the Liverpool to New York run for many years. She was heading for Liverpool from New York in January 1883 when she was wrecked. The City of Brussels was stationery in thick fog before being rammed by the Kirby Hall, another steamer. The Inman liner sank in 20 minutes but most of those on board, including the captain, were rescued. However, eight members of the crew and two steerage passengers died. The City of Brussels is probably the most visited shipwreck for diving enthusiasts in Liverpool Bay. Buy the Maritime Tales book (£3.99) at the Merseyside Maritime Museum open seven days a week, admission free, and at bookshops, newsagents and merseyshop.com.	618	ENGLISH	1
But the T. rex does have one thing going for it—size. The science suggests these beasts were probably a lot bigger than we thought. Researchers last week announced the discovery of the remains of what is believed to be the heaviest T. rex on record. Its fossils were found in Saskatchewan, Canada, and the paleontologists who uncovered it have nicknamed it “Scotty.” The creature is estimated to have weighed about 19,500 lbs (8,845 kgs), which is a good deal heavier than the average African bush elephant. The discovery was unveiled in the journal The Anatomical Record. Through their discovery, and close inspection of Scotty’s super-strong, 8-inch-thick femurs, scientists have surmised that future fossils might also reveal similarly-sized dinos. That means it’s possible that the T. rex of our imaginations might actually have been smaller than in reality. Back when “Scotty” roamed the earth, the area of Canada around which the fossils were found looked a bit different than it does today. It was subtropical, scientists say, and probably a pretty wild place. The bones left behind by Scotty from 68 million years ago suggest the dino had gotten into at least one pretty bad fight: A few of its teeth showed signs of infection, it had broken and healing ribs, and its tailbone was broken. It is possible, scientists told National Geographic, that their interpretation of Scotty’s weight might be incorrect. Perhaps it had bigger femurs not to support a lot of weight, but to withstand the pressures of running as it hunted down prey. Until more fossils are uncovered and studied, that much will remain a mystery.	<urn:uuid:876b8101-95d9-4e09-b12f-4512e459e6c7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://qz.com/1582254/the-t-rex-was-probably-bigger-than-we-thought/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00200.warc.gz	en	0.98236	362	3.59375	4	[ -0.18699492514133453, 0.11777952313423157, 0.42154815793037415, 0.033583734184503555, -0.14850419759750366, 0.2295968234539032, 0.10989270359277725, 0.2986937463283539, -0.15070556104183197, 0.11423938721418381, 0.37408724427223206, -0.2681564688682556, 0.34434106945991516, 0.4756169021129...	11	But the T. rex does have one thing going for it—size. The science suggests these beasts were probably a lot bigger than we thought. Researchers last week announced the discovery of the remains of what is believed to be the heaviest T. rex on record. Its fossils were found in Saskatchewan, Canada, and the paleontologists who uncovered it have nicknamed it “Scotty.” The creature is estimated to have weighed about 19,500 lbs (8,845 kgs), which is a good deal heavier than the average African bush elephant. The discovery was unveiled in the journal The Anatomical Record. Through their discovery, and close inspection of Scotty’s super-strong, 8-inch-thick femurs, scientists have surmised that future fossils might also reveal similarly-sized dinos. That means it’s possible that the T. rex of our imaginations might actually have been smaller than in reality. Back when “Scotty” roamed the earth, the area of Canada around which the fossils were found looked a bit different than it does today. It was subtropical, scientists say, and probably a pretty wild place. The bones left behind by Scotty from 68 million years ago suggest the dino had gotten into at least one pretty bad fight: A few of its teeth showed signs of infection, it had broken and healing ribs, and its tailbone was broken. It is possible, scientists told National Geographic, that their interpretation of Scotty’s weight might be incorrect. Perhaps it had bigger femurs not to support a lot of weight, but to withstand the pressures of running as it hunted down prey. Until more fossils are uncovered and studied, that much will remain a mystery.	349	ENGLISH	1
As the days are passing by, birds are becoming smaller in size and shape. The particular analysis has been brought to the surface by the scientists who examined it on a migratory bird that died after colliding into buildings in Chicago. Since the year 1978, the Field Museum ornithologist, David Willard has been measuring the Windy City’s dead birds. From the reports that surfaced from his research says that their legs are continuously getting shorter, their body weight is steadily falling, and their wings are getting slightly longer. According to the study, such changes are considered to be quite common among the other species of birds. Thus, some scientists have derived the conclusion that it is happening due to a change in the climate. The temperatures are becoming warmer with the passing time, and this is the major factor that is affecting the birds.	<urn:uuid:8a81b272-e82b-4dba-879b-98af8da324bc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://vulomedia.com/scientists-say-that-birds-are-shrinking-as-a-result-of-global-consequence/49/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00325.warc.gz	en	0.986021	171	3.28125	3	[ -0.022319171577692032, -0.13351397216320038, 0.46228304505348206, 0.25273165106773376, 0.371541827917099, 0.7329246997833252, 0.2605079710483551, 0.27887293696403503, 0.052995432168245316, -0.15263250470161438, -0.2028406262397766, -0.4048405587673187, -0.05596812441945076, 0.2799073755741...	13	As the days are passing by, birds are becoming smaller in size and shape. The particular analysis has been brought to the surface by the scientists who examined it on a migratory bird that died after colliding into buildings in Chicago. Since the year 1978, the Field Museum ornithologist, David Willard has been measuring the Windy City’s dead birds. From the reports that surfaced from his research says that their legs are continuously getting shorter, their body weight is steadily falling, and their wings are getting slightly longer. According to the study, such changes are considered to be quite common among the other species of birds. Thus, some scientists have derived the conclusion that it is happening due to a change in the climate. The temperatures are becoming warmer with the passing time, and this is the major factor that is affecting the birds.	170	ENGLISH	1
The news from Fort Sumter spread throughout the country, and its coming awakened a restless energy in the North. That energy ignited patriotism and a new sense of collectivism throughout northern cities and states that would lead to a then-unparalleled war effort directed against the Confederacy. Continue reading “The Awakened Giant” By 1776, indentured servitude had become a widespread and prominent part of English life. By the 1810s, however, indentured servitude was seen by most Americans as inherently at conflict with the “natural rights of man.” Gordon Wood, Empire of Liberty, 346. Some Americans concluded that servitude as a whole was “highly anti-republican.” Id. However, as indentured servitude became less prominent, black slavery took its place. The servants who continued to work were quick to differentiate themselves from the black slaves, often times not admitting that they were servants but instead classifying themselves as merely “help,” who was “staying in the house.” Id. It is plausible to hypothesize that the decline of indentured servitude led to the increase in using slaves. As repulsive and disgusting as it may seem now, early Americans did not view the slaves as individuals, instead classifying them as property. Servants had a different role altogether, sometimes sitting at the table with their “bosses.” Notably, slaves did not use the word “boss,” but instead used the word “master” typically. While this issue gets to a broader piece of American history rife with controversy and hypocrisy, it also reflects perhaps a reason that slavery grew to become such a staple of American life in the decades leading up to the Civil War. With the increase of “human rights” came a decrease in the use of servants in Americans’ lives, which ultimately appears to have led, at least partially, to an increase in the use of slaves. This development in American history is troubling, as it shows the profound misplacement of belief that the early Americans had in what human rights meant. While some were opposed to the idea of slavery altogether in the earliest years of the Republic, many tolerated it, despite also proclaiming to be Republicans concerned with the rights of all humans. Fortunately, as the decades wore on, it became increasingly clear to Americans that human rights inherently must include slaves. One wonders what would have been had the indentured servants not so readily been replaced by slaves, and if widespread slavery could have been prevented altogether before it came to dominate the Southern economy.	<urn:uuid:e12da34a-1ea7-434b-8076-cca6854cd783>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lastbesthopeofearth.com/tag/south/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00358.warc.gz	en	0.985814	532	3.734375	4	[ -0.09016115963459015, 0.4055466651916504, 0.20693236589431763, -0.05664020776748657, 0.011893128976225853, 0.03117009997367859, 0.07638627290725708, -0.2932100296020508, -0.15630695223808289, 0.09494592994451523, 0.22895240783691406, 0.19592595100402832, -0.1151595264673233, 0.331619530916...	1	The news from Fort Sumter spread throughout the country, and its coming awakened a restless energy in the North. That energy ignited patriotism and a new sense of collectivism throughout northern cities and states that would lead to a then-unparalleled war effort directed against the Confederacy. Continue reading “The Awakened Giant” By 1776, indentured servitude had become a widespread and prominent part of English life. By the 1810s, however, indentured servitude was seen by most Americans as inherently at conflict with the “natural rights of man.” Gordon Wood, Empire of Liberty, 346. Some Americans concluded that servitude as a whole was “highly anti-republican.” Id. However, as indentured servitude became less prominent, black slavery took its place. The servants who continued to work were quick to differentiate themselves from the black slaves, often times not admitting that they were servants but instead classifying themselves as merely “help,” who was “staying in the house.” Id. It is plausible to hypothesize that the decline of indentured servitude led to the increase in using slaves. As repulsive and disgusting as it may seem now, early Americans did not view the slaves as individuals, instead classifying them as property. Servants had a different role altogether, sometimes sitting at the table with their “bosses.” Notably, slaves did not use the word “boss,” but instead used the word “master” typically. While this issue gets to a broader piece of American history rife with controversy and hypocrisy, it also reflects perhaps a reason that slavery grew to become such a staple of American life in the decades leading up to the Civil War. With the increase of “human rights” came a decrease in the use of servants in Americans’ lives, which ultimately appears to have led, at least partially, to an increase in the use of slaves. This development in American history is troubling, as it shows the profound misplacement of belief that the early Americans had in what human rights meant. While some were opposed to the idea of slavery altogether in the earliest years of the Republic, many tolerated it, despite also proclaiming to be Republicans concerned with the rights of all humans. Fortunately, as the decades wore on, it became increasingly clear to Americans that human rights inherently must include slaves. One wonders what would have been had the indentured servants not so readily been replaced by slaves, and if widespread slavery could have been prevented altogether before it came to dominate the Southern economy.	512	ENGLISH	1
Athenian democracy developed around the fifth century BC in the Greek city-state (known as a polis) of Athens, comprising the city of Athens and the surrounding territory of Attica and is the first known democracy in the world. Other Greek cities set up democracies, most following the Athenian model, but none are as well documented as Athens.It was a system of direct democracy, in which participating citizens voted directly on legislation and executive bills. Participation was not open to all residents: to vote one had to be an adult, male citizen, and the number of these ""varied between 30,000 and 50,000 out of a total population of around 250,000 to 300,000.""The longest-lasting democratic leader was Pericles. After his death, Athenian democracy was twice briefly interrupted by oligarchic revolutions towards the end of the Peloponnesian War. It was modified somewhat after it was restored under Eucleides; and the most detailed accounts of the system are of this fourth-century modification rather than the Periclean system. Democracy was suppressed by the Macedonians in 322 BC. The Athenian institutions were later revived, but how close they were to a real democracy is debatable. Solon (594 BC), Cleisthenes (508/7 BC), an aristocrat, and Ephialtes (462 BC) contributed to the development of Athenian democracy.	<urn:uuid:02ce46bb-dd95-46f2-83ce-672461007aab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studyres.com/concepts/2623/athenian-democracy	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00043.warc.gz	en	0.981746	287	4.46875	4	[ -0.46754544973373413, 0.14173074066638947, 0.4121970534324646, -0.5572428703308105, -0.5711849331855774, -0.18537084758281708, -0.11828259378671646, 0.5115976333618164, -0.1473264992237091, 0.2086300551891327, -0.40183860063552856, -0.19422578811645508, -0.14951303601264954, 0.204092964529...	3	Athenian democracy developed around the fifth century BC in the Greek city-state (known as a polis) of Athens, comprising the city of Athens and the surrounding territory of Attica and is the first known democracy in the world. Other Greek cities set up democracies, most following the Athenian model, but none are as well documented as Athens.It was a system of direct democracy, in which participating citizens voted directly on legislation and executive bills. Participation was not open to all residents: to vote one had to be an adult, male citizen, and the number of these ""varied between 30,000 and 50,000 out of a total population of around 250,000 to 300,000.""The longest-lasting democratic leader was Pericles. After his death, Athenian democracy was twice briefly interrupted by oligarchic revolutions towards the end of the Peloponnesian War. It was modified somewhat after it was restored under Eucleides; and the most detailed accounts of the system are of this fourth-century modification rather than the Periclean system. Democracy was suppressed by the Macedonians in 322 BC. The Athenian institutions were later revived, but how close they were to a real democracy is debatable. Solon (594 BC), Cleisthenes (508/7 BC), an aristocrat, and Ephialtes (462 BC) contributed to the development of Athenian democracy.	310	ENGLISH	1
According to the ancient Slavic folklore, vampires are dead people or corpses that come alive at night, or simply, are said to rise from their graves to feed on the blood of the living. It is also said that they visit the vicinity of where they lived when they were alive. Vampire legends have been recorded in almost all the cultures and regions of the world. However, in modern times, these myths have been believed to be fictitious. Various reasons like porphyria, premature burial, and contagion are said to be the cause of such vampirism among people. Bram Stoker's Dracula is considered as a quintessential vampire novel that was published in 1897, from which the modern legend of Dracula, the most popular of all the vampires, was born. Origin of Vampire Myths Although, there have been many superstitions and beliefs about the origin of such theories, the Slavic vampire myths interpenetrate all the others. Such beliefs in Slavic culture stem from practices and beliefs during the pre-Christian era. People have sustained these pagan spiritual beliefs even in the modern times, though no written records are available. One such example of these pagan beliefs is believing in the soul after death. In Slavic culture, some ghosts and spirits were considered beneficent, while some were considered harmful. These demons could appear in any animal or human form. The malevolent activities in which they were said to be involved in, included harming the harvest, or sucking the blood of livestock and human beings. Hence, because of these activities, the Slavs were often obliged to placate the spirits. They believed that a vampire was a person who abducted a decomposing dead body and sought to feed on the blood for their own survival. To clear these superstitions and ghost stories, several explanations were made. A major explanation was that vampires suffered from a disease of porphyria, which caused pale skin, sensitivity to light and made the incisors look bigger. However, the theory has been snubbed, as it was said that these symptoms were based on the misunderstandings of the disease. Sometimes, the dead body did not decompose as quickly as expected, and vampire hunters concluded that this was a sign of vampirism. Also, there are theories which suggest that these legends were influenced by the fact that people were buried alive, due to lack of medical knowledge. Vampire legends have existed all around the world. The famous Dracula is thought to be from the Transylvania region of Romania. Different vampires from different regions differed in their appearances. For example, the ones from Bulgaria had one nostril; whereas, those from Transylvania were pale and had long fingernails. In Chinese culture, it was believed that if a cat or dog jumped over a dead body, the body would turn into an undead. In Russian folklore, vampires were witches who once rebelled against the church, when they were alive. In Indian mythology, there have been mentions of ghoul-like beings in Baital Pachisi and Goddess Kali, who wear a garland of skulls and are said to drink blood. In Egyptian mythology, Goddess Sekhmet was said to be blood thirsty. The Persian civilization was the first to have had stories of blood-drinking creatures. Popular Facts Related to Vampires They have always been portrayed in the human form, but with some unique physical features like long incisors, red eyes, etc. Some of their characteristics are as follows: They hate sunlight and fire. They are immortal and can be killed, only if beheaded. They have no reflection. They are afraid of crucifixes, holy water, etc. People turn into vampires, if they are bitten by one. A wooden stake through a vampire's heart will kill it. They sleep during the day. They are said to be charming. Movies like Blade: Trinity, Interview with the Vampire, and TV serials like Buffy the Vampire Slayer are the pop culture associated with the belief. These beliefs and stories have been around for a long time, and will continue to fascinate people in the future too. Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/vampire-myths-and-legends.html	<urn:uuid:e8fc380c-c9b2-44f2-8383-f79b88b5ddf1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://darkforums.123.st/t50-well-what-do-you-think	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00503.warc.gz	en	0.982217	876	3.265625	3	[ -0.31861475110054016, 0.6538101434707642, 0.041563257575035095, 0.33895596861839294, 0.08537395298480988, -0.1344025433063507, 0.3157137930393219, 0.21243420243263245, 0.41193389892578125, 0.037585847079753876, 0.25818443298339844, -0.0669117420911789, -0.4591484069824219, 0.17989128828048...	1	According to the ancient Slavic folklore, vampires are dead people or corpses that come alive at night, or simply, are said to rise from their graves to feed on the blood of the living. It is also said that they visit the vicinity of where they lived when they were alive. Vampire legends have been recorded in almost all the cultures and regions of the world. However, in modern times, these myths have been believed to be fictitious. Various reasons like porphyria, premature burial, and contagion are said to be the cause of such vampirism among people. Bram Stoker's Dracula is considered as a quintessential vampire novel that was published in 1897, from which the modern legend of Dracula, the most popular of all the vampires, was born. Origin of Vampire Myths Although, there have been many superstitions and beliefs about the origin of such theories, the Slavic vampire myths interpenetrate all the others. Such beliefs in Slavic culture stem from practices and beliefs during the pre-Christian era. People have sustained these pagan spiritual beliefs even in the modern times, though no written records are available. One such example of these pagan beliefs is believing in the soul after death. In Slavic culture, some ghosts and spirits were considered beneficent, while some were considered harmful. These demons could appear in any animal or human form. The malevolent activities in which they were said to be involved in, included harming the harvest, or sucking the blood of livestock and human beings. Hence, because of these activities, the Slavs were often obliged to placate the spirits. They believed that a vampire was a person who abducted a decomposing dead body and sought to feed on the blood for their own survival. To clear these superstitions and ghost stories, several explanations were made. A major explanation was that vampires suffered from a disease of porphyria, which caused pale skin, sensitivity to light and made the incisors look bigger. However, the theory has been snubbed, as it was said that these symptoms were based on the misunderstandings of the disease. Sometimes, the dead body did not decompose as quickly as expected, and vampire hunters concluded that this was a sign of vampirism. Also, there are theories which suggest that these legends were influenced by the fact that people were buried alive, due to lack of medical knowledge. Vampire legends have existed all around the world. The famous Dracula is thought to be from the Transylvania region of Romania. Different vampires from different regions differed in their appearances. For example, the ones from Bulgaria had one nostril; whereas, those from Transylvania were pale and had long fingernails. In Chinese culture, it was believed that if a cat or dog jumped over a dead body, the body would turn into an undead. In Russian folklore, vampires were witches who once rebelled against the church, when they were alive. In Indian mythology, there have been mentions of ghoul-like beings in Baital Pachisi and Goddess Kali, who wear a garland of skulls and are said to drink blood. In Egyptian mythology, Goddess Sekhmet was said to be blood thirsty. The Persian civilization was the first to have had stories of blood-drinking creatures. Popular Facts Related to Vampires They have always been portrayed in the human form, but with some unique physical features like long incisors, red eyes, etc. Some of their characteristics are as follows: They hate sunlight and fire. They are immortal and can be killed, only if beheaded. They have no reflection. They are afraid of crucifixes, holy water, etc. People turn into vampires, if they are bitten by one. A wooden stake through a vampire's heart will kill it. They sleep during the day. They are said to be charming. Movies like Blade: Trinity, Interview with the Vampire, and TV serials like Buffy the Vampire Slayer are the pop culture associated with the belief. These beliefs and stories have been around for a long time, and will continue to fascinate people in the future too. Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/vampire-myths-and-legends.html	853	ENGLISH	1
The use of slaves was widespread in America though there were some opposition from certain groups. They were used as domestics, artisans or field workers. These Africans were imported via the Arab slave traders in what had become a lucrative trade. With the American War of Independence slavery was maintained. The Southern States had the greatest numbers as their agricultural practices of growing tobacco, cotton and rice was very labour intensive. In 1808 an act came in prohibiting the importation of slaves. The Northern States began abolishing slavery. In 1830 abolitionists such as John Brown favoured armed force to forment riots among black slaves. Baptists and Methodists preached for the abolition of slavery. It all came to a head in 1860 with the civil war. The Northern States renounced slavery and the Southern States supported it. In 1863 Lincoln’s proclamation of Emancipation promised freedom for slaves. At the end of the war in 1865 the proclamation was enforced throughout America and slaves were freed. Unfortunately that was not the end of the matter. The aftermath of slavery is still felt today with a legacy of racism that pervades many parts of the States. Up until the civil rights movements of the 1960s blacks in the South were not permitted to vote, were forced to use second rate facilities and institutions and treated as second-class citizens. The White Supremacists of the Klu Klux Klan maintained an apartheid system through force and terror. In the modern age this racism, which still persists, is intolerable. The hope that the election of a black president signalled the dawn of a new age is still perhaps premature. There is a way to go. Freedom is won through the bravery of men like Medgar Evans and Martin Luther King and the determined struggle of those white and black activists and people who stood up to be counted, protested and marched despite the intimidation and threats. Many were killed in that struggle. It still is not complete.	<urn:uuid:800d4bf8-77a2-45e6-8513-de48dcfd32f7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ophersworld.com/2019/12/30/democracy-the-long-and-often-bloody-fight-for-freedom-the-abolition-of-slavery-in-the-united-states-of-america-5/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00453.warc.gz	en	0.982586	390	4.09375	4	[ -0.362309992313385, 0.3307605981826782, -0.00026332607376389205, 0.0694870725274086, -0.02483750320971012, 0.23068051040172577, -0.10318843275308609, -0.37908509373664856, -0.31440097093582153, 0.16569972038269043, 0.33169180154800415, 0.22623637318611145, -0.3949460983276367, 0.0681344494...	3	The use of slaves was widespread in America though there were some opposition from certain groups. They were used as domestics, artisans or field workers. These Africans were imported via the Arab slave traders in what had become a lucrative trade. With the American War of Independence slavery was maintained. The Southern States had the greatest numbers as their agricultural practices of growing tobacco, cotton and rice was very labour intensive. In 1808 an act came in prohibiting the importation of slaves. The Northern States began abolishing slavery. In 1830 abolitionists such as John Brown favoured armed force to forment riots among black slaves. Baptists and Methodists preached for the abolition of slavery. It all came to a head in 1860 with the civil war. The Northern States renounced slavery and the Southern States supported it. In 1863 Lincoln’s proclamation of Emancipation promised freedom for slaves. At the end of the war in 1865 the proclamation was enforced throughout America and slaves were freed. Unfortunately that was not the end of the matter. The aftermath of slavery is still felt today with a legacy of racism that pervades many parts of the States. Up until the civil rights movements of the 1960s blacks in the South were not permitted to vote, were forced to use second rate facilities and institutions and treated as second-class citizens. The White Supremacists of the Klu Klux Klan maintained an apartheid system through force and terror. In the modern age this racism, which still persists, is intolerable. The hope that the election of a black president signalled the dawn of a new age is still perhaps premature. There is a way to go. Freedom is won through the bravery of men like Medgar Evans and Martin Luther King and the determined struggle of those white and black activists and people who stood up to be counted, protested and marched despite the intimidation and threats. Many were killed in that struggle. It still is not complete.	404	ENGLISH	1
Behind the Christmas Carol: There’s A Star in the East There’s A Star in the East is a Christmas Carol. Reginald Heber is credited with writing the song. He was in 1783 England and named after his father. He professed his admiration of the hymns of John Newton and William Cower and one of the first High Church Anglicans to write his own hymns. In 1811, he was appointed Bishop of Calcutta. He wrote 57 hymns between 1811 an 1821. He began preparing his hymns for publication but was unable to complete his arrangements before traveling to India in 1823. He died in 1826 and a collection of his hymns were published the following year as Hymns Written and Adapted to the Weekly Church Service of the Year. A handful of his hymns survive today. The arrangement known and used today was written by John H. Hickok in 1832. John Hoyt Hickok was born in 1792. He was a teacher, publisher, and music compiler, arranger and composer. He married Mary Lockwood in 1814. In 1823, the family moved to Lewistown, Pennsylvania. He died in 1841. The tune is a traditional American tune. The first verse of the hymn were published in Gardiner Spring’s Brick Church hymns. The tune is a traditional tune. The one undisputed fact is the music was arranged by William Walker in 1835. Walker was an American Baptist song leader and shape note singing master. He was born near Cross Keys, South Carolina in 1809 and grew up near Spartanburg. His nickname was Singing Billy. He married Amy Golightly. He would publish the songbook The Southern Harmony, using four-shape note system of notation. He died in 1875. This hymn should not be confused with two versions of the hymn Star of the East.	<urn:uuid:0ec3382f-1199-464f-9a99-0452d29a2b16>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://dianaleaghmatthews.com/star-in-the-east/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00053.warc.gz	en	0.989697	408	3.453125	3	[ -0.07159057259559631, 0.03795396536588669, 0.19375856220722198, -0.4815942943096161, -0.10228563845157623, -0.19103030860424042, -0.14392352104187012, 0.11616214364767075, 0.17333023250102997, 0.24416470527648926, -0.016252068802714348, 0.3792302906513214, 0.13059599697589874, -0.295850574...	9	Behind the Christmas Carol: There’s A Star in the East There’s A Star in the East is a Christmas Carol. Reginald Heber is credited with writing the song. He was in 1783 England and named after his father. He professed his admiration of the hymns of John Newton and William Cower and one of the first High Church Anglicans to write his own hymns. In 1811, he was appointed Bishop of Calcutta. He wrote 57 hymns between 1811 an 1821. He began preparing his hymns for publication but was unable to complete his arrangements before traveling to India in 1823. He died in 1826 and a collection of his hymns were published the following year as Hymns Written and Adapted to the Weekly Church Service of the Year. A handful of his hymns survive today. The arrangement known and used today was written by John H. Hickok in 1832. John Hoyt Hickok was born in 1792. He was a teacher, publisher, and music compiler, arranger and composer. He married Mary Lockwood in 1814. In 1823, the family moved to Lewistown, Pennsylvania. He died in 1841. The tune is a traditional American tune. The first verse of the hymn were published in Gardiner Spring’s Brick Church hymns. The tune is a traditional tune. The one undisputed fact is the music was arranged by William Walker in 1835. Walker was an American Baptist song leader and shape note singing master. He was born near Cross Keys, South Carolina in 1809 and grew up near Spartanburg. His nickname was Singing Billy. He married Amy Golightly. He would publish the songbook The Southern Harmony, using four-shape note system of notation. He died in 1875. This hymn should not be confused with two versions of the hymn Star of the East.	430	ENGLISH	1
A Brief History on Life with Cats It's suspected that cats were first domesticated around 12,000 years ago, right as the first agricultural societies began to take hold in the Middle East. They were domesticated after dogs, since dogs were needed for their hunting abilities, and cats were needed to keep pests out of food stores once agriculture took its place as the root of civilization. Like you'd expect of cats, there is a bit of a consensus or thought among the scientific community that cats essentially domesticated themselves-inviting themselves into our lives for the ready access to foods, and developing tamer characteristics to remain there peaceably. As most people know, cats were revered and worshiped in Ancient Egypt. One of their gods, Bastet, had the head of a cat. She was the goddess of "home, domesticity, women's secrets, cats, fertility, and childbirth. She protected the home from evil spirits and disease, [particularly those] associated with women and children." A cat appears as the protector of agriculture in Norse and Chinese mythology as well. In many cultures they were revered in both their domesticated and wild big-cat forms, but some cultures and time periods throughout history took equal opportunity to demonize them. This was particularly rampant during the middle ages, claiming the cat was a form of the devil, comparing cats catching mice to the devil snaring souls. If a cat was spotted in a woman's home, it was evidence of witchcraft. The templars were accused of "allowing cats to be a part of the worship service and even praying to cats." Despite their ups and downs in cultural perceptions, cats have remained among us, and in the past several decades have made their home more often inside our walls (after the invention of air conditioning and litter boxes) rather than roaming the outdoors. One of the curious things is the rate of adaption we've seen in cats. Biologically they've remained the same for some time, and while their needs remain the same as a hundred years ago, humans and cats have worked together to try and accommodate those needs while in the luxury of a domicile.	<urn:uuid:a5a73df7-86bb-4a6d-909e-0c3fa9af6f8f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.poochieheaven.com/blog/a-brief-history-on-life-with-cats/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00203.warc.gz	en	0.987927	435	3.265625	3	[ 0.2681125998497009, 0.090754434466362, 0.343550443649292, 0.4029079079627991, -0.1381506472826004, 0.10354504734277725, 0.4980933368206024, 0.46728092432022095, 0.09502165019512177, 0.29574674367904663, -0.13119037449359894, -0.33257439732551575, 0.06488803774118423, 0.378524512052536, 0...	2	A Brief History on Life with Cats It's suspected that cats were first domesticated around 12,000 years ago, right as the first agricultural societies began to take hold in the Middle East. They were domesticated after dogs, since dogs were needed for their hunting abilities, and cats were needed to keep pests out of food stores once agriculture took its place as the root of civilization. Like you'd expect of cats, there is a bit of a consensus or thought among the scientific community that cats essentially domesticated themselves-inviting themselves into our lives for the ready access to foods, and developing tamer characteristics to remain there peaceably. As most people know, cats were revered and worshiped in Ancient Egypt. One of their gods, Bastet, had the head of a cat. She was the goddess of "home, domesticity, women's secrets, cats, fertility, and childbirth. She protected the home from evil spirits and disease, [particularly those] associated with women and children." A cat appears as the protector of agriculture in Norse and Chinese mythology as well. In many cultures they were revered in both their domesticated and wild big-cat forms, but some cultures and time periods throughout history took equal opportunity to demonize them. This was particularly rampant during the middle ages, claiming the cat was a form of the devil, comparing cats catching mice to the devil snaring souls. If a cat was spotted in a woman's home, it was evidence of witchcraft. The templars were accused of "allowing cats to be a part of the worship service and even praying to cats." Despite their ups and downs in cultural perceptions, cats have remained among us, and in the past several decades have made their home more often inside our walls (after the invention of air conditioning and litter boxes) rather than roaming the outdoors. One of the curious things is the rate of adaption we've seen in cats. Biologically they've remained the same for some time, and while their needs remain the same as a hundred years ago, humans and cats have worked together to try and accommodate those needs while in the luxury of a domicile.	432	ENGLISH	1
In the 21st century, in a world of privileges and advancements, everything seems achievable. The very act of hard work today may be just as vigorous as it has been down the ages, but the willingness to learn through all kinds of disabilities is what one can gather from the life of the ever mortal Helen Keller. Helen Adams Keller was born in Tuscumbia, Alabama, on June 27, 1880. At the age of 19 months she was stricken with a form of scarlet fever or meningitis, and even though she was cured of the illness, she was left crippled in sight and hearing. Keller from the age of diagnosis, took it as a struggle to understand and be understood, and the by the age of seven years, she could communicate with her family using 50 different home signs and could recognize people with the vibrations of the footsteps. A major figure of strength in Keller’s life was her instructor, Anne Sullivan, who herself was visually impaired. It was the beginning of a 49-year-long relationship during which Sullivan evolved into Keller’s governess and eventually her companion. She was formally educated from 1888 after being admitted to the Perkins Institute for the Blind. In 1894, Keller and Anne Sullivan moved to New York to attend the Wright-Humason School for the Deaf, and began learning from Sarah Fuller at the Horace Mann School for the Deaf. In 1896, Keller entered The Cambridge School for Young Ladies before gaining admittance, in 1900, to Radcliffe College of Harvard University. Most of her education was funded by industrialist Henry Huttleston Rogers and his wife Abbie. In 1904, Helen Keller became the first deaf-blind person to earn a Bachelor’s of Arts degree. Apart from her own unending battle for the struggle of survival, she was considered an advocate for people with disabilities, amid numerous other causes. The deaf-blind community was widely impacted by her. She traveled to 25 different countries giving motivational speeches about deaf people and their unforeseen conditions. She was a pacifist, radical socialist,suffragette and birth control supporter. In the years 1909 to 1921, Keller was a member of the Socialist Party and actively wrote in support of the working class. Helen Keller wrote a total of 12 published books and several articles, including her biography- ‘The Story of My Life’. Keller has not only, during the years of her existence, been the driving force and strength for several disabled people, but even after her death she is still a symbol of immense hope and optimism. In her life of misery, she found a world built of faith and willingness. Here’s wishing Keller on her 139th Birthday. For viral videos and Latest trends subscribe to NewsMobile YouTube Channel and Follow us on Instagram	<urn:uuid:c9f10dda-d80e-4b3b-af4f-ff712715e037>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://newsmobile.in/articles/2019/06/27/remembering-the-symbol-of-will-and-strength-helen-keller-on-her-birthday/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00259.warc.gz	en	0.980191	579	3.390625	3	[ -0.3954770863056183, 0.030522966757416725, 0.27893590927124023, 0.07818493992090225, -0.6861288547515869, 0.32662928104400635, 0.1360679715871811, 0.2261599898338318, -0.292380154132843, -0.40736502408981323, 0.4356979429721832, -0.2801443934440613, 0.17958354949951172, 0.03244861960411072...	2	In the 21st century, in a world of privileges and advancements, everything seems achievable. The very act of hard work today may be just as vigorous as it has been down the ages, but the willingness to learn through all kinds of disabilities is what one can gather from the life of the ever mortal Helen Keller. Helen Adams Keller was born in Tuscumbia, Alabama, on June 27, 1880. At the age of 19 months she was stricken with a form of scarlet fever or meningitis, and even though she was cured of the illness, she was left crippled in sight and hearing. Keller from the age of diagnosis, took it as a struggle to understand and be understood, and the by the age of seven years, she could communicate with her family using 50 different home signs and could recognize people with the vibrations of the footsteps. A major figure of strength in Keller’s life was her instructor, Anne Sullivan, who herself was visually impaired. It was the beginning of a 49-year-long relationship during which Sullivan evolved into Keller’s governess and eventually her companion. She was formally educated from 1888 after being admitted to the Perkins Institute for the Blind. In 1894, Keller and Anne Sullivan moved to New York to attend the Wright-Humason School for the Deaf, and began learning from Sarah Fuller at the Horace Mann School for the Deaf. In 1896, Keller entered The Cambridge School for Young Ladies before gaining admittance, in 1900, to Radcliffe College of Harvard University. Most of her education was funded by industrialist Henry Huttleston Rogers and his wife Abbie. In 1904, Helen Keller became the first deaf-blind person to earn a Bachelor’s of Arts degree. Apart from her own unending battle for the struggle of survival, she was considered an advocate for people with disabilities, amid numerous other causes. The deaf-blind community was widely impacted by her. She traveled to 25 different countries giving motivational speeches about deaf people and their unforeseen conditions. She was a pacifist, radical socialist,suffragette and birth control supporter. In the years 1909 to 1921, Keller was a member of the Socialist Party and actively wrote in support of the working class. Helen Keller wrote a total of 12 published books and several articles, including her biography- ‘The Story of My Life’. Keller has not only, during the years of her existence, been the driving force and strength for several disabled people, but even after her death she is still a symbol of immense hope and optimism. In her life of misery, she found a world built of faith and willingness. Here’s wishing Keller on her 139th Birthday. For viral videos and Latest trends subscribe to NewsMobile YouTube Channel and Follow us on Instagram	601	ENGLISH	1
5 June 1964: a launch took place signalling the start of Europe's cooperative venture into space - the first test flight of a Europa-1 first stage (F1), a repurposed British Blue Streak missile, from Woomera, Australia. The Europa rocket was an early launch system of the European Launcher Development Organisation (ELDO), which was one of the precursors to ESA and its family of Ariane launchers. Europa was built to develop Europe's access to space and put European scientific satellites into orbit. This task was expanded later to include telecommunications and meteorological satellites. It was composed of three stages (the UK’s Blue Streak, the French Coralie and German Astris stages). The first Europa firing using all three stages took place on 30 November 1968. F1 was the first test flight in Phase 1 of the ELDO launcher development programme, launching a Europa first stage. The F1 vehicle had arrived in Adelaide, Australia, on 18 January 1964 and was transported to Woomera for launch preparations. It was installed on its launch pad in March and underwent static firing tests in April. Launch was planned for 25 May, but unsettled weather at Woomera caused some delays. After several launch attempts, another firing was set for 5 June. At dawn on 5 June, the weather was excellent and after an extremely smooth and efficient final countdown, the vehicle lifted off successfully at 9.11 a.m. It followed its programmed course downrange, with its flight path and projected impact point being as planned. At about 130 seconds into the flight, however, telemetry records indicated that the vehicle was becoming unstable. This became marked at 140 seconds, developing into an uncontrolled corkscrew at 145 seconds. At 147.5 seconds the engine ceased thrusting, only six seconds before the planned time for engine cut-off. The termination of powered flight was diagnosed as caused by fuel starvation owing to the manoeuvres of the vehicle during its final period of instability. The instability was caused by fuel sloshing in its propellant tanks. Although the vehicle broke up near the end of the flight, the launch was classed as a success. Telemetry records and radar tracking were excellent. The good visibility enabled observers to obtain data on the flight up to its highest point, at about 4 minutes, when break-up was observed. Except for some loss of camera coverage around the period of engine cut-off because of the long ranges involved, the data obtained from range instrumentation were excellent, and the performance of the vehicle was well up to theoretical expectations.	<urn:uuid:8d8d4332-6f30-4f9d-a314-48bcf4fd36e1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.esa.int/About_Us/ESA_history/Fifty_years_since_first_ELDO_launch	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00281.warc.gz	en	0.981922	527	3.828125	4	[ -0.4163423180580139, 0.17453932762145996, 0.2068634033203125, -0.44589394330978394, -0.5301104187965393, 0.16426615417003632, -0.6327395439147949, 0.4965883493423462, 0.3722151517868042, -0.16494911909103394, 0.1242799311876297, -0.5644077062606812, -0.20397749543190002, 0.4207013249397278...	4	5 June 1964: a launch took place signalling the start of Europe's cooperative venture into space - the first test flight of a Europa-1 first stage (F1), a repurposed British Blue Streak missile, from Woomera, Australia. The Europa rocket was an early launch system of the European Launcher Development Organisation (ELDO), which was one of the precursors to ESA and its family of Ariane launchers. Europa was built to develop Europe's access to space and put European scientific satellites into orbit. This task was expanded later to include telecommunications and meteorological satellites. It was composed of three stages (the UK’s Blue Streak, the French Coralie and German Astris stages). The first Europa firing using all three stages took place on 30 November 1968. F1 was the first test flight in Phase 1 of the ELDO launcher development programme, launching a Europa first stage. The F1 vehicle had arrived in Adelaide, Australia, on 18 January 1964 and was transported to Woomera for launch preparations. It was installed on its launch pad in March and underwent static firing tests in April. Launch was planned for 25 May, but unsettled weather at Woomera caused some delays. After several launch attempts, another firing was set for 5 June. At dawn on 5 June, the weather was excellent and after an extremely smooth and efficient final countdown, the vehicle lifted off successfully at 9.11 a.m. It followed its programmed course downrange, with its flight path and projected impact point being as planned. At about 130 seconds into the flight, however, telemetry records indicated that the vehicle was becoming unstable. This became marked at 140 seconds, developing into an uncontrolled corkscrew at 145 seconds. At 147.5 seconds the engine ceased thrusting, only six seconds before the planned time for engine cut-off. The termination of powered flight was diagnosed as caused by fuel starvation owing to the manoeuvres of the vehicle during its final period of instability. The instability was caused by fuel sloshing in its propellant tanks. Although the vehicle broke up near the end of the flight, the launch was classed as a success. Telemetry records and radar tracking were excellent. The good visibility enabled observers to obtain data on the flight up to its highest point, at about 4 minutes, when break-up was observed. Except for some loss of camera coverage around the period of engine cut-off because of the long ranges involved, the data obtained from range instrumentation were excellent, and the performance of the vehicle was well up to theoretical expectations.	550	ENGLISH	1
Generalmajor Otto Ruge in the summer of 1945 \|Born\|\|19 January 1882\| \|Died\|\|15 August 1961 (aged 79)\| \|Years of service\|\|1902-1948\| \|Commands held\|\|Chief of Defence of Norway\| \|Battles/wars\|\|World War II\| Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav Grand cross with collar Ruge grew up in Kristiania (Oslo) in a family with strong military traditions. He attended Oslo Cathedral School. Already 20 years old, he was a military officer. He attended the Norwegian Military College (1905) and took the General Staff exam (1915). Colonel Otto Ruge became chief of the General Staff in 1933. In 1938 he resigned from the position and was appointed as inspector general of infantry. In 1940, Colonel Ruge was promoted to Major General and assumed command after the former C-in-C, Generalmajor Kristian Laake, who was supposed to go into retirement a few days after the German attack on Norway, displayed a defeatist attitude and consequently was relieved of command. General Ruge persuaded the government to fight the German invaders. He was convinced that fighting would be vital to the country and the nation's self-respect, but pragmatic enough to realize that a need for Allied help was crucial to succeed. Ruge had a hard task on his hands: he received command over an only partly mobilised army. Norway had already lost all major cities to the Germans, moreover the Germans had established air superiority. The loss of one of the few infantry regiments available, the Norwegian third infantry regiment, its commander surrendering without a shot being fired, falsely believing that he was surrounded, made the situation even worse. Ruge's main strategy was to slowly retreat northward and to establish a defence line south of Trondheim while waiting for the Allies to reconquer that city. However, the Allies launched their pincers toward Trondheim too late, and too far away from their destination. As a result of this several of the pincer forces became entangled in combat before the attack against the city could be launched. Ruge's choices have later been criticised. Retired Major General Torkel Hovland claims that General Ruge to a large degree was responsible for the ease of which German forces were able to occupy Norway. This was partly due to his appeasement with the Labor party and their razing of the Norwegian Army during the 1930s and partly due to his failure to mount a more active, determined defense in central Norway. However, other military historians have contested these views. Of them are Terje Holm and Kjetil Skogrand, both with ties to the Norwegian Labour Party. Terje Holm at the Norwegian Armed Forces Museum claims that the Norwegian Mobilization Army had the necessary arms, but that the Army never became mobilized because of misunderstandings and the surprise of the German attack, and that the ad hoc nature of the randomly mobilized Norwegian units drastically hampered their operations as well as their ability to counterattack. Kjetil Skogrand, former State Secretary at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, perceive Hovland's criticism of Ruge as comments on present-day Norwegian defence policies than related to Otto Ruge's actual strategies. Skogrand has also criticized Hovland for comparing General Carl Gustav Fleischer's more active fighting style around Narvik with Ruge's more defensive style further south. Fleischer, because of northern Norway's geographical distance from Germany, is seen as enjoying the advantage of more time to train and mobilise his forces, and being less disturbed by the Luftwaffe. Partially in contrast to what Terje Holm as well as Torkel Hovland claim, military historian Tom Kristiansen emphasizes that even though Otto Ruge participated in the downsizing of the Norwegian Army during the early 1930s, he also warned against the renewed threat after 1935 and pointed to the weakness of the Norwegian mobilization system. Ruge was evacuated after the fall of southern Norway and participated in the Battle of Narvik. After the withdrawal of Allied forces he remained in Norway to negotiate the surrender of the remains of the Norwegian Army. Subsequently, he was arrested by the Germans and sent to Germany for the rest of the war. After the war, Ruge was promoted to Lt. General and briefly reinstated as Commander-in-Chief, but fell out with his political superiors. His memoirs from the 1940 campaign was published in Norway under the title Felttoget 1940. General Otto Ruge was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav and awarded the Collar of the same order for his service to the nation during World War II. He was also given the residence of the commandant quarters of Høytorp fort at Mysen in Østfold until his death in 1961.	<urn:uuid:a6247072-89fb-4d3e-a004-b634dc0553fc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Otto_Ruge	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00375.warc.gz	en	0.983337	1,003	3.5	4	[ -0.014062494970858097, 0.7297866344451904, 0.48467403650283813, -0.4469943940639496, 0.21411378681659698, -0.053931429982185364, -0.18790268898010254, -0.10249098390340805, -0.18174538016319275, -0.0593075193464756, -0.04171137511730194, -0.1917397379875183, 0.44756460189819336, 0.63403427...	1	Generalmajor Otto Ruge in the summer of 1945 \|Born\|\|19 January 1882\| \|Died\|\|15 August 1961 (aged 79)\| \|Years of service\|\|1902-1948\| \|Commands held\|\|Chief of Defence of Norway\| \|Battles/wars\|\|World War II\| Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav Grand cross with collar Ruge grew up in Kristiania (Oslo) in a family with strong military traditions. He attended Oslo Cathedral School. Already 20 years old, he was a military officer. He attended the Norwegian Military College (1905) and took the General Staff exam (1915). Colonel Otto Ruge became chief of the General Staff in 1933. In 1938 he resigned from the position and was appointed as inspector general of infantry. In 1940, Colonel Ruge was promoted to Major General and assumed command after the former C-in-C, Generalmajor Kristian Laake, who was supposed to go into retirement a few days after the German attack on Norway, displayed a defeatist attitude and consequently was relieved of command. General Ruge persuaded the government to fight the German invaders. He was convinced that fighting would be vital to the country and the nation's self-respect, but pragmatic enough to realize that a need for Allied help was crucial to succeed. Ruge had a hard task on his hands: he received command over an only partly mobilised army. Norway had already lost all major cities to the Germans, moreover the Germans had established air superiority. The loss of one of the few infantry regiments available, the Norwegian third infantry regiment, its commander surrendering without a shot being fired, falsely believing that he was surrounded, made the situation even worse. Ruge's main strategy was to slowly retreat northward and to establish a defence line south of Trondheim while waiting for the Allies to reconquer that city. However, the Allies launched their pincers toward Trondheim too late, and too far away from their destination. As a result of this several of the pincer forces became entangled in combat before the attack against the city could be launched. Ruge's choices have later been criticised. Retired Major General Torkel Hovland claims that General Ruge to a large degree was responsible for the ease of which German forces were able to occupy Norway. This was partly due to his appeasement with the Labor party and their razing of the Norwegian Army during the 1930s and partly due to his failure to mount a more active, determined defense in central Norway. However, other military historians have contested these views. Of them are Terje Holm and Kjetil Skogrand, both with ties to the Norwegian Labour Party. Terje Holm at the Norwegian Armed Forces Museum claims that the Norwegian Mobilization Army had the necessary arms, but that the Army never became mobilized because of misunderstandings and the surprise of the German attack, and that the ad hoc nature of the randomly mobilized Norwegian units drastically hampered their operations as well as their ability to counterattack. Kjetil Skogrand, former State Secretary at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, perceive Hovland's criticism of Ruge as comments on present-day Norwegian defence policies than related to Otto Ruge's actual strategies. Skogrand has also criticized Hovland for comparing General Carl Gustav Fleischer's more active fighting style around Narvik with Ruge's more defensive style further south. Fleischer, because of northern Norway's geographical distance from Germany, is seen as enjoying the advantage of more time to train and mobilise his forces, and being less disturbed by the Luftwaffe. Partially in contrast to what Terje Holm as well as Torkel Hovland claim, military historian Tom Kristiansen emphasizes that even though Otto Ruge participated in the downsizing of the Norwegian Army during the early 1930s, he also warned against the renewed threat after 1935 and pointed to the weakness of the Norwegian mobilization system. Ruge was evacuated after the fall of southern Norway and participated in the Battle of Narvik. After the withdrawal of Allied forces he remained in Norway to negotiate the surrender of the remains of the Norwegian Army. Subsequently, he was arrested by the Germans and sent to Germany for the rest of the war. After the war, Ruge was promoted to Lt. General and briefly reinstated as Commander-in-Chief, but fell out with his political superiors. His memoirs from the 1940 campaign was published in Norway under the title Felttoget 1940. General Otto Ruge was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav and awarded the Collar of the same order for his service to the nation during World War II. He was also given the residence of the commandant quarters of Høytorp fort at Mysen in Østfold until his death in 1961.	1,050	ENGLISH	1
The best way to teach solving equations? I think this is one of the things that maths teachers argue over the most. There's the "move it to the other side" method, the "do it to both sides method" and (one I'd not heard of until recently) the "cover up method". Method 1 is what I was taught and what I use myself. I knew that it was not a very good method as it does not explain why you're doing that and how it works. I defended this method forcefully, sure that my way of thinking must be the best way (I'm arrogant like that). But since teaching both methods at my placement school, and teaching different methods to my one-to-one tutees, I've come to realise that the second method is much less confusing, more intuitive, and more memorable. Here is how I would write a model solution: 3x + 5 = 10 - 5 -5 3x = 5 3x/3 = 5/3 (written as fractions) And then I'd cross out the two threes in the fraction on the left because they cancel each other out. Writing the -5 underneath makes it really easy for pupils to see what they're doing and it's really hard to make a mistake. Doing the dividing bit as fractions is good because it encourages pupils to leave things as fractions, it makes division easier (instead of actually dividing, just cancel down the fraction as far as you can in easy steps), and it means that the whole side will be divided and not just the last term. That is the method I would recommend for higher-tier pupils. The cover-up method is one I cam across recently and I think it's really good because it's the way a pupil would intuitively try to work out the answer. In equations like 10 - x =7, most pupils can just "see" that the answer is 3. In equations like 3x + 4 = 10, it's harder to just seei it, but using the cover up method you can. Cover up the 3x, and say "what add 4 gives you 10?" They'll say 6. Then you uncover the 3x and say, "well then 3x must be 6. So what's one x?" And they'll say 2 (after painstakingly counting on their fingers, if they're anything like my pupils!) I wouldn't teach higher tier pupils this because it's hard to apply it to more complicated equations (although it obviously still works). But for lower ability pupils it seems to be less confusing. I'm glad I'm starting to realise what methods I'm going to be teaching because I want to be consistent, so that pupils don't get confused with lots of different methods.	<urn:uuid:c4d83972-fc64-4c5e-a3ee-f1d55336e0ff>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blogs.warwick.ac.uk/emmacooke/entry/the_best_way	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00435.warc.gz	en	0.980928	573	3.390625	3	[ -0.5762313008308411, -0.314511775970459, -0.010487661696970463, -0.29649150371551514, -0.21272282302379608, -0.0852971076965332, -0.3731437921524048, 0.06050482392311096, 0.38628292083740234, -0.004916521720588207, -0.12732823193073273, -0.17637991905212402, -0.044425491243600845, 0.122718...	5	The best way to teach solving equations? I think this is one of the things that maths teachers argue over the most. There's the "move it to the other side" method, the "do it to both sides method" and (one I'd not heard of until recently) the "cover up method". Method 1 is what I was taught and what I use myself. I knew that it was not a very good method as it does not explain why you're doing that and how it works. I defended this method forcefully, sure that my way of thinking must be the best way (I'm arrogant like that). But since teaching both methods at my placement school, and teaching different methods to my one-to-one tutees, I've come to realise that the second method is much less confusing, more intuitive, and more memorable. Here is how I would write a model solution: 3x + 5 = 10 - 5 -5 3x = 5 3x/3 = 5/3 (written as fractions) And then I'd cross out the two threes in the fraction on the left because they cancel each other out. Writing the -5 underneath makes it really easy for pupils to see what they're doing and it's really hard to make a mistake. Doing the dividing bit as fractions is good because it encourages pupils to leave things as fractions, it makes division easier (instead of actually dividing, just cancel down the fraction as far as you can in easy steps), and it means that the whole side will be divided and not just the last term. That is the method I would recommend for higher-tier pupils. The cover-up method is one I cam across recently and I think it's really good because it's the way a pupil would intuitively try to work out the answer. In equations like 10 - x =7, most pupils can just "see" that the answer is 3. In equations like 3x + 4 = 10, it's harder to just seei it, but using the cover up method you can. Cover up the 3x, and say "what add 4 gives you 10?" They'll say 6. Then you uncover the 3x and say, "well then 3x must be 6. So what's one x?" And they'll say 2 (after painstakingly counting on their fingers, if they're anything like my pupils!) I wouldn't teach higher tier pupils this because it's hard to apply it to more complicated equations (although it obviously still works). But for lower ability pupils it seems to be less confusing. I'm glad I'm starting to realise what methods I'm going to be teaching because I want to be consistent, so that pupils don't get confused with lots of different methods.	578	ENGLISH	1
An event of far-reaching implications for the New Testament Church had occurred about 25 years prior to John's writing. This event was the destruction of Jerusalem by the Roman legions under Titus in 70ad. The Jerusalem Church of God, under the leadership of James' successor, Simeon (first cousin of James and Christ), fled Jerusalem shortly before 70ad and went to Pella, a remote desert community. Following Simeon's death, the Jerusalem Church of God experienced great instability, having 13 leaders in the next 28 years. Many previously promulgated heresies now emerged in full bloom. In addition, many in the Church were discouraged and confused. Events had not gone as had been generally expected. The Church was increasingly becoming a mix of new Gentile converts and second or even third generation members. During the last part of the first century and the beginning of the second, the Roman world became increasingly hostile to the Jews. Extremely oppressive laws and heavy taxes were directed against them by the Roman Empire as punishment. Between the first (66-73ad) and second (132-135ad) Jewish revolts, there were many violent anti-Jewish pogroms in places such as Alexandria and Antioch. Reacting to this, the Jews rioted in Mesopotamia, Palestine and Egypt. Frequently, Christians suffered as victims of these outbursts because they were regarded by the authorities as a Jewish sect. However, they were considered by Jewish revolutionaries to be traitors to Judaism and to Jewish political aspirations because they would not fight the Romans. During these times, hundreds of thousands of synagogue and church members—those who worshipped on Sabbath days and studied the Scriptures—perished at Roman hands or by mobs. During this dangerous era, the Roman church under its Bishop Sixtus (ca. 116-126ad) began holding Sunday worship services and ceased observing the annual Passover, substituting Easter Sunday and "Eucharist" in its place. This is the clear record preserved by Eusebius of Caesarea, a late third and early fourth century ad scholar, who became known as the "father of church history." Eusebius quoted his information from a letter of Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons (ca. 130-202ad) to Bishop Victor of Rome. Dr. Samuele Bacchiocchi, in his book, From Sabbath to Sunday, acknowledges: "There is a wide consensus of opinion among scholars that Rome is indeed the birthplace of Easter-Sunday. Some, in fact, rightly label it as 'Roman-Easter'" (p. 201). Of course, what is not generally realized by the speakers of non-Latin languages is that the Romans did not use the name "Easter" for their new celebration; they continued to call it by the Latin word for Passover, paschalis. This official break from the law of God was the natural outgrowth of the "mystery of iniquity," which confused grace with law lessness and taught that obedience to the law was unnecessary. When a practice is not deemed necessary, it is only a matter of time until convenience will dictate either its modification or its abolition. As the conflict between Judaism and the Empire heightened, many "Christians" in Rome, under the leadership of Bishop Sixtus, took steps to avoid any possibility of being considered Jews and thereby suffer persecution with them. In 135ad, at the end of the Second Jewish Revolt, the Roman Emperor Hadrian (Publius Aelius Hadrianus) took drastic steps against the Jews. He renamed Jerusalem after himself and the "god" Jupiter Capitolinus—Aelia Capitolina—and imposed the death penalty on anyone called a "Jew" who would dare enter the city. At this point Marcus, an Italian, became bishop of Jerusalem, as Edward Gibbon records in the fifteenth chapter of his famous Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: "At his [Marcus'] persuasion, the most considerable part of the congregation renounced the Mosaic law, in the practice of which they had persevered above a century. By this sacrifice of their habits and prejudices they purchased free admission into the colony of Hadrian, and more firmly cemented their union with the Catholic church" (vol. 1, p. 390). What of those who continued to regard the law of God as binding for Christians? Gibbon writes: "The crimes of heresy and schism were imputed to the obscure remnant of the Nazarenes which refused to accompany their Latin bishop In a few years after the return of the church of Jerusalem, it became a matter of doubt and controversy whether a man who sincerely acknowledged Jesus as the Messiah, but who still continued to observe the law of Moses, could possibly hope for salvation" (p. 390). It was only a matter of time until professing Christians who had ceased observing the Sabbath "excluded their Judaizing brethren from the hope of salvation. [and] declined any intercourse with them in the common offices of friendship, hospitality, and social life." Incredible! This happened even though, just a few years earlier, they had all observed God's Festivals together. Yet after Bishop Marcus brought in "new truth," most professing Christians joined him in condemning those faithful Christians who held fast to the historic faith that they had all been taught. Those who remained loyal to the truth were soon shunned as a source of "division" by a majority seeking to replace historic Christianity with something different. Was this article helpful?	<urn:uuid:7a436392-97c1-4212-84f5-3a82ce4af131>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wilmingtonfavs.com/true-church/the-church-in-transition.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00500.warc.gz	en	0.98116	1,131	3.484375	3	[ -0.030403833836317062, 0.3334238529205322, 0.12050309777259827, 0.018145035952329636, -0.022041352465748787, 0.17006826400756836, -0.5117542743682861, 0.34591948986053467, 0.15812057256698608, 0.07674016058444977, -0.18820291757583618, 0.2484140545129776, 0.22974780201911926, 0.12211111187...	1	An event of far-reaching implications for the New Testament Church had occurred about 25 years prior to John's writing. This event was the destruction of Jerusalem by the Roman legions under Titus in 70ad. The Jerusalem Church of God, under the leadership of James' successor, Simeon (first cousin of James and Christ), fled Jerusalem shortly before 70ad and went to Pella, a remote desert community. Following Simeon's death, the Jerusalem Church of God experienced great instability, having 13 leaders in the next 28 years. Many previously promulgated heresies now emerged in full bloom. In addition, many in the Church were discouraged and confused. Events had not gone as had been generally expected. The Church was increasingly becoming a mix of new Gentile converts and second or even third generation members. During the last part of the first century and the beginning of the second, the Roman world became increasingly hostile to the Jews. Extremely oppressive laws and heavy taxes were directed against them by the Roman Empire as punishment. Between the first (66-73ad) and second (132-135ad) Jewish revolts, there were many violent anti-Jewish pogroms in places such as Alexandria and Antioch. Reacting to this, the Jews rioted in Mesopotamia, Palestine and Egypt. Frequently, Christians suffered as victims of these outbursts because they were regarded by the authorities as a Jewish sect. However, they were considered by Jewish revolutionaries to be traitors to Judaism and to Jewish political aspirations because they would not fight the Romans. During these times, hundreds of thousands of synagogue and church members—those who worshipped on Sabbath days and studied the Scriptures—perished at Roman hands or by mobs. During this dangerous era, the Roman church under its Bishop Sixtus (ca. 116-126ad) began holding Sunday worship services and ceased observing the annual Passover, substituting Easter Sunday and "Eucharist" in its place. This is the clear record preserved by Eusebius of Caesarea, a late third and early fourth century ad scholar, who became known as the "father of church history." Eusebius quoted his information from a letter of Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons (ca. 130-202ad) to Bishop Victor of Rome. Dr. Samuele Bacchiocchi, in his book, From Sabbath to Sunday, acknowledges: "There is a wide consensus of opinion among scholars that Rome is indeed the birthplace of Easter-Sunday. Some, in fact, rightly label it as 'Roman-Easter'" (p. 201). Of course, what is not generally realized by the speakers of non-Latin languages is that the Romans did not use the name "Easter" for their new celebration; they continued to call it by the Latin word for Passover, paschalis. This official break from the law of God was the natural outgrowth of the "mystery of iniquity," which confused grace with law lessness and taught that obedience to the law was unnecessary. When a practice is not deemed necessary, it is only a matter of time until convenience will dictate either its modification or its abolition. As the conflict between Judaism and the Empire heightened, many "Christians" in Rome, under the leadership of Bishop Sixtus, took steps to avoid any possibility of being considered Jews and thereby suffer persecution with them. In 135ad, at the end of the Second Jewish Revolt, the Roman Emperor Hadrian (Publius Aelius Hadrianus) took drastic steps against the Jews. He renamed Jerusalem after himself and the "god" Jupiter Capitolinus—Aelia Capitolina—and imposed the death penalty on anyone called a "Jew" who would dare enter the city. At this point Marcus, an Italian, became bishop of Jerusalem, as Edward Gibbon records in the fifteenth chapter of his famous Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: "At his [Marcus'] persuasion, the most considerable part of the congregation renounced the Mosaic law, in the practice of which they had persevered above a century. By this sacrifice of their habits and prejudices they purchased free admission into the colony of Hadrian, and more firmly cemented their union with the Catholic church" (vol. 1, p. 390). What of those who continued to regard the law of God as binding for Christians? Gibbon writes: "The crimes of heresy and schism were imputed to the obscure remnant of the Nazarenes which refused to accompany their Latin bishop In a few years after the return of the church of Jerusalem, it became a matter of doubt and controversy whether a man who sincerely acknowledged Jesus as the Messiah, but who still continued to observe the law of Moses, could possibly hope for salvation" (p. 390). It was only a matter of time until professing Christians who had ceased observing the Sabbath "excluded their Judaizing brethren from the hope of salvation. [and] declined any intercourse with them in the common offices of friendship, hospitality, and social life." Incredible! This happened even though, just a few years earlier, they had all observed God's Festivals together. Yet after Bishop Marcus brought in "new truth," most professing Christians joined him in condemning those faithful Christians who held fast to the historic faith that they had all been taught. Those who remained loyal to the truth were soon shunned as a source of "division" by a majority seeking to replace historic Christianity with something different. Was this article helpful?	1,165	ENGLISH	1
The conclusion of the book of Bereshith sets the stage for all of the remaining history of the Jewish people. Jacob and his family have settled in the land of Egypt, and live under the most favorable of circumstances. Their son and brother, Joseph, is the de facto ruler of the country that has provided them with prosperity. However, Joseph himself warns them that the situation is only temporary and that there are troubled days ahead. He tells them that they will leave the land of Egypt, whether they wish to or not, and that when they leave they should remember him and take his bones with them, to be buried in the land of Israel, the home from which he was so brutally taken when he was about 17 years old. I would imagine that the family of Jacob, when hearing these predictions of Joseph, were amazed, and probably were unable to fathom how their situation could change so drastically from greatness and wealth to slavery and persecution. The Jewish people are by nature an optimistic people. We always believe that somehow things will turn out well, no matter how bleak the present circumstances may appear to be. Yet, only by remembering Joseph’s words would the eventual redemption from Egyptian bondage be realized. Joseph’s warnings would accompany them with his remains through the 40-year sojourn in the desert of Sinai. It would remind them to be aware of the historical dangers they would always have to face. The conditions under which Jews have lived in exile and in the diaspora for millennia have always varied and fluctuated. But the basic message was that we were we were not really at home. We continually ignored warning signs, and somehow believed that things would get better. Ignoring the warnings of Joseph, many times in our history we doomed ourselves to tragedy and disaster. If Joseph, the viceroy of Egypt, warned us that Egypt is not our home, then that message could not have been clearer to Jews in the coming millennia. But as the story of Egypt and the Jews unfolds in the book of Shemot, the majority of Jews forgot Joseph’s message. And it remained only for Moshe himself to bring Joseph’s bones out if Egypt for eventual burial in the Land of Israel. The Torah will record for us that later Egyptian pharaohs and the Egyptian nation forgot about Joseph and his great accomplishments. The ironic tragedy is that much of the Jewish people as well forgot about Joseph and his message to them. In the annals of Jewish history, this forgetfulness on the part of Jews has often been repeated – and always with dire consequences. The story of Joseph and of the Jewish settlement in Egypt provides the prototype for all future Jewish history. We always need to ask ourselves what Joseph would have to say about our current Jewish world. This is worthy of contemplation. Rabbi Berel Wein	<urn:uuid:944e62ff-527c-481f-85e5-f01790955c75>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://torah.org/torah-portion/rabbiwein-5780-vayechi/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00419.warc.gz	en	0.981108	577	3.28125	3	[ -0.10269787907600403, 0.5534259080886841, 0.22161194682121277, 0.1710074543952942, -0.2865150272846222, 0.29668551683425903, 0.0169399194419384, 0.26055681705474854, 0.035010047256946564, 0.05918855220079422, 0.03972453251481056, -0.18126723170280457, 0.018083631992340088, 0.38284084200859...	6	The conclusion of the book of Bereshith sets the stage for all of the remaining history of the Jewish people. Jacob and his family have settled in the land of Egypt, and live under the most favorable of circumstances. Their son and brother, Joseph, is the de facto ruler of the country that has provided them with prosperity. However, Joseph himself warns them that the situation is only temporary and that there are troubled days ahead. He tells them that they will leave the land of Egypt, whether they wish to or not, and that when they leave they should remember him and take his bones with them, to be buried in the land of Israel, the home from which he was so brutally taken when he was about 17 years old. I would imagine that the family of Jacob, when hearing these predictions of Joseph, were amazed, and probably were unable to fathom how their situation could change so drastically from greatness and wealth to slavery and persecution. The Jewish people are by nature an optimistic people. We always believe that somehow things will turn out well, no matter how bleak the present circumstances may appear to be. Yet, only by remembering Joseph’s words would the eventual redemption from Egyptian bondage be realized. Joseph’s warnings would accompany them with his remains through the 40-year sojourn in the desert of Sinai. It would remind them to be aware of the historical dangers they would always have to face. The conditions under which Jews have lived in exile and in the diaspora for millennia have always varied and fluctuated. But the basic message was that we were we were not really at home. We continually ignored warning signs, and somehow believed that things would get better. Ignoring the warnings of Joseph, many times in our history we doomed ourselves to tragedy and disaster. If Joseph, the viceroy of Egypt, warned us that Egypt is not our home, then that message could not have been clearer to Jews in the coming millennia. But as the story of Egypt and the Jews unfolds in the book of Shemot, the majority of Jews forgot Joseph’s message. And it remained only for Moshe himself to bring Joseph’s bones out if Egypt for eventual burial in the Land of Israel. The Torah will record for us that later Egyptian pharaohs and the Egyptian nation forgot about Joseph and his great accomplishments. The ironic tragedy is that much of the Jewish people as well forgot about Joseph and his message to them. In the annals of Jewish history, this forgetfulness on the part of Jews has often been repeated – and always with dire consequences. The story of Joseph and of the Jewish settlement in Egypt provides the prototype for all future Jewish history. We always need to ask ourselves what Joseph would have to say about our current Jewish world. This is worthy of contemplation. Rabbi Berel Wein	566	ENGLISH	1
can seem like such an abstract term that you don’t practically use. However, this could not be farther from the truth. Critical thinking is frequently used in nursing. Let me give you a few examples from my career in which critical thinking helped me take better care of my patient. The truth is, that as nurses we can’t escape critical thinking . . . I know you hate the word . . . but let me show you how it actually works! Critical Thinking in Nursing: Example 1 I had a patient that was scheduled to go to get a pacemaker placed at 0900. The physician wanted the patient to get 2 units of blood before going downstairs to the procedure. I administered it per protocol. About 30 minutes after that second unit got started, I noticed his oxygen went from 95% down to 92% down to 90%. I put 2L of O2 on him and it came up to 91%. But it just sort of hung around the low 90’s on oxygen. I stopped. And thought. What the heck is going on? I looked at his history. Congestive heart failure. I looked at his intake and output. He was positive 1.5 liters. I thought about how he’s got extra fluid in general, and because of his CHF he can’t really pump out the fluid he already has, let alone this additional fluid. Maybe I should listen to his lungs.. His lungs were clear earlier. I heard crackles throughout both lungs. OK, so he’s got extra fluid that he can’t get out of his body.. What do I know that will get rid of extra fluid and make him pee? Maybe some lasix? I ran over my thought process with a coworker before calling the doc. They agreed. I called the doc and before I could suggest anything, he said.. “Give him 20 mg IV lasix one time.. I’ll put the order in.” CLICK. I gave the lasix. He peed like a racehorse (and was NOT happy with me for making that happen!). And he was off of oxygen before he went down to get his pacemaker. RELATED ARTICLE: How to Use the Nursing Process to ACE Nursing School Exams Critical Thinking in Nursing: Example 2 My patient just had her right leg amputated above her knee. She was on a dilaudid PCA and still complaining of awful pain. She maxed it out every time, still saying she was in horrible pain. The told the doctor when he rounded that morning that the meds weren’t doing anything. He added some oral opioids as well and wrote an order that it was okay for me to give both the oral and PCA dosings, with a goal of weaning off PCA. “How am I going to do that?” I thought. She kept requiring more and more meds and I’m supposed to someone wean her off? I asked her to describe her pain. She said it felt like nerve pain. Deep burning and tingling. She said the pain meds would just knock her out and she’d sleep for a little while but wake up in even worse pain. She was at the end of her rope. I thought about nerve pain. I thought about other patients that report similar pain. Diabetics with neuropathy would talk about similar pain… “What did they do for it? ” I thought. Then I remembered that many of my patients with diabetic neuropathy were taking gabapentin daily for pain. “So if this works for their nerve pain, could it work for a patient who has had an amputation?” I thought. I called the PA for the surgeon and asked them what they thought about trying something like gabapentin for her pain, after I described my patient’s type of pain and thought process. “That’s a really good idea, Kati. I’ll write for it and we’ll see if we can get her off the opioids sooner.” She wrote for it. I gave it. It takes a few days to really kick in and once it did, the patient’s pain and discomfort was significantly reduced. She said to get rid of those other pain meds because they “didn’t do a damn thing,” and to “just give her that nerve pain pill because it’s the only thing that works”. And that we did! She was able to work with therapy more because her pain was tolerable and was finally able to get rest. Critical thinking is something you’ll do every day as a nurse and honestly you probably do it in your regular non-nurse life as well. It’s basically stopping, looking at a situation, identifying a solution and trying it out. Critical thinking in nursing is just that, but in a clinical setting. We’ve written a MASSIVE post on careplans and critical thinking:Read More on Critical Thinking	<urn:uuid:16cda689-0ed5-44d7-87ff-cbc27e4173e5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nursing.com/blog/2-examples-used-critical-thinking-care-patient-real-life-nursing-stories/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00484.warc.gz	en	0.984993	1,067	3.46875	3	[ -0.576513409614563, -0.0374724455177784, 0.13280926644802094, -0.2536705732345581, 0.03051542304456234, 0.22567567229270935, 0.7060538530349731, 0.5228919386863708, 0.09192417562007904, 0.15593625605106354, -0.16195791959762573, -0.07547609508037567, -0.254472017288208, 0.06368312239646912...	2	can seem like such an abstract term that you don’t practically use. However, this could not be farther from the truth. Critical thinking is frequently used in nursing. Let me give you a few examples from my career in which critical thinking helped me take better care of my patient. The truth is, that as nurses we can’t escape critical thinking . . . I know you hate the word . . . but let me show you how it actually works! Critical Thinking in Nursing: Example 1 I had a patient that was scheduled to go to get a pacemaker placed at 0900. The physician wanted the patient to get 2 units of blood before going downstairs to the procedure. I administered it per protocol. About 30 minutes after that second unit got started, I noticed his oxygen went from 95% down to 92% down to 90%. I put 2L of O2 on him and it came up to 91%. But it just sort of hung around the low 90’s on oxygen. I stopped. And thought. What the heck is going on? I looked at his history. Congestive heart failure. I looked at his intake and output. He was positive 1.5 liters. I thought about how he’s got extra fluid in general, and because of his CHF he can’t really pump out the fluid he already has, let alone this additional fluid. Maybe I should listen to his lungs.. His lungs were clear earlier. I heard crackles throughout both lungs. OK, so he’s got extra fluid that he can’t get out of his body.. What do I know that will get rid of extra fluid and make him pee? Maybe some lasix? I ran over my thought process with a coworker before calling the doc. They agreed. I called the doc and before I could suggest anything, he said.. “Give him 20 mg IV lasix one time.. I’ll put the order in.” CLICK. I gave the lasix. He peed like a racehorse (and was NOT happy with me for making that happen!). And he was off of oxygen before he went down to get his pacemaker. RELATED ARTICLE: How to Use the Nursing Process to ACE Nursing School Exams Critical Thinking in Nursing: Example 2 My patient just had her right leg amputated above her knee. She was on a dilaudid PCA and still complaining of awful pain. She maxed it out every time, still saying she was in horrible pain. The told the doctor when he rounded that morning that the meds weren’t doing anything. He added some oral opioids as well and wrote an order that it was okay for me to give both the oral and PCA dosings, with a goal of weaning off PCA. “How am I going to do that?” I thought. She kept requiring more and more meds and I’m supposed to someone wean her off? I asked her to describe her pain. She said it felt like nerve pain. Deep burning and tingling. She said the pain meds would just knock her out and she’d sleep for a little while but wake up in even worse pain. She was at the end of her rope. I thought about nerve pain. I thought about other patients that report similar pain. Diabetics with neuropathy would talk about similar pain… “What did they do for it? ” I thought. Then I remembered that many of my patients with diabetic neuropathy were taking gabapentin daily for pain. “So if this works for their nerve pain, could it work for a patient who has had an amputation?” I thought. I called the PA for the surgeon and asked them what they thought about trying something like gabapentin for her pain, after I described my patient’s type of pain and thought process. “That’s a really good idea, Kati. I’ll write for it and we’ll see if we can get her off the opioids sooner.” She wrote for it. I gave it. It takes a few days to really kick in and once it did, the patient’s pain and discomfort was significantly reduced. She said to get rid of those other pain meds because they “didn’t do a damn thing,” and to “just give her that nerve pain pill because it’s the only thing that works”. And that we did! She was able to work with therapy more because her pain was tolerable and was finally able to get rest. Critical thinking is something you’ll do every day as a nurse and honestly you probably do it in your regular non-nurse life as well. It’s basically stopping, looking at a situation, identifying a solution and trying it out. Critical thinking in nursing is just that, but in a clinical setting. We’ve written a MASSIVE post on careplans and critical thinking:Read More on Critical Thinking	990	ENGLISH	1
Karl Marx was born on 5 May 1818 in Trier, an "ancient Cathedral town in the German Rhineland." Both Marx's parents were Jewish. However his father, a successful legal officer, converted to Lutheran Christianity in 1817 in order to "evade a degree excluding Jews from public office." Marx grew up in a comfortable middle class home and after being educated at Trier High School went to Bonn University in 1835 to study law. In the summer of 1836 he became secretly engaged to Jenny von Westphalen. The move was opposed by both sets of parents. Indeed some of the Westphalen's were "extreme reactionaries" and Jenny's brother became a Prussian cabinet minister in the 1850's. Given this, it is little surprise that they didn't actually marry until June 1843. In October '36 Marx also moved to Berlin University. The original aim was to continue his legal studies but he was increasingly drawn to philosophy an din particular to the work of Hegel. Hegel had been an "enthusiast for the French Revolution and for Napoleon." Later he became pessimistic and reactionary even describing the absolutist Prussian state as the embodiment of reason! A number of young philosophers began to interpret Hegel in a radical way. Those were Young or Left Hegelians. They congregated in Berlin's Doctors' Club. Marx joined and was a close friend of Bruno Bauer, one of the leading left Hegelians.	<urn:uuid:96d755d6-1d96-491a-88f0-6a2f7361eb1c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.srsm.scot/forum-1/untitled-category/the-young-karl-marx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00327.warc.gz	en	0.987888	301	3.65625	4	[ -0.012875985354185104, 0.9516103267669678, -0.4146355092525482, 0.09269379824399948, -0.06059033051133156, -0.1427401304244995, -0.23550128936767578, 0.3975137174129486, -0.15749716758728027, -0.344612717628479, -0.03993682935833931, -0.14334191381931305, 0.35373416543006897, -0.0862745493...	5	Karl Marx was born on 5 May 1818 in Trier, an "ancient Cathedral town in the German Rhineland." Both Marx's parents were Jewish. However his father, a successful legal officer, converted to Lutheran Christianity in 1817 in order to "evade a degree excluding Jews from public office." Marx grew up in a comfortable middle class home and after being educated at Trier High School went to Bonn University in 1835 to study law. In the summer of 1836 he became secretly engaged to Jenny von Westphalen. The move was opposed by both sets of parents. Indeed some of the Westphalen's were "extreme reactionaries" and Jenny's brother became a Prussian cabinet minister in the 1850's. Given this, it is little surprise that they didn't actually marry until June 1843. In October '36 Marx also moved to Berlin University. The original aim was to continue his legal studies but he was increasingly drawn to philosophy an din particular to the work of Hegel. Hegel had been an "enthusiast for the French Revolution and for Napoleon." Later he became pessimistic and reactionary even describing the absolutist Prussian state as the embodiment of reason! A number of young philosophers began to interpret Hegel in a radical way. Those were Young or Left Hegelians. They congregated in Berlin's Doctors' Club. Marx joined and was a close friend of Bruno Bauer, one of the leading left Hegelians.	322	ENGLISH	1
Schwalm girls and women wore their hair long without a fringe (bangs). The hair was styled into a knot, which in the Schwalm is known as Schnatz. To create such a hairstyle, women needed certain accoutrements: a long, thin band or cord (like a shoestring), rubber bands, and some hairpins. The hair was combed from all sides and pulled firmly upward to be bound on top of the head. This is easily achieved by quickly throwing the head downward. The hair was divided into two plaits. The band was worked into one of the plaits. Both plaits were twirled up from the head as high as the finished knot should reach. One of the plaits (the one with the band) was held up while the other was wrapped downwards around the twirled part and fastened at the head with hairpins. Now the second plait – the one with the band – was wrapped around the established knot. Because the band is longer than the plait, it is wrapped around the bottom of the knot and fastened with hairpins. With some practice a perfect and fancy hairdressing was achieved. It was placed on top of the head, approximately in the middle between the ears. The Schwalm women needed this somewhat curious hairstyle to be able to wear their special headdresses. The little caps were placed over the knots.	<urn:uuid:58b3700d-9641-48ca-b18b-6234f6e40fbf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.luzine-happel.de/?p=14771&lang=en	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00235.warc.gz	en	0.984286	301	3.40625	3	[ 0.09354573488235474, -0.22516585886478424, 0.13911280035972595, 0.019115706905722618, -0.46403226256370544, 0.4841160178184509, 0.10152117908000946, -0.20551961660385132, -0.14098936319351196, -0.07311391830444336, 0.5327423810958862, -0.07973387092351913, 0.28718656301498413, -0.058436438...	13	Schwalm girls and women wore their hair long without a fringe (bangs). The hair was styled into a knot, which in the Schwalm is known as Schnatz. To create such a hairstyle, women needed certain accoutrements: a long, thin band or cord (like a shoestring), rubber bands, and some hairpins. The hair was combed from all sides and pulled firmly upward to be bound on top of the head. This is easily achieved by quickly throwing the head downward. The hair was divided into two plaits. The band was worked into one of the plaits. Both plaits were twirled up from the head as high as the finished knot should reach. One of the plaits (the one with the band) was held up while the other was wrapped downwards around the twirled part and fastened at the head with hairpins. Now the second plait – the one with the band – was wrapped around the established knot. Because the band is longer than the plait, it is wrapped around the bottom of the knot and fastened with hairpins. With some practice a perfect and fancy hairdressing was achieved. It was placed on top of the head, approximately in the middle between the ears. The Schwalm women needed this somewhat curious hairstyle to be able to wear their special headdresses. The little caps were placed over the knots.	283	ENGLISH	1
The ‘Burning Times’ was a period of history when around 60,000 people were tried and convicted as witches. The majority of these trials took place between 1550 and 1650 CE, however most of the victims of the witch-hysteria were not actually Pagan, and they most certainly were not Wiccan as this is a much newer form of Paganism. In reality, most of them were Christians who had the misfortune to be in the wrong situation, at the wrong time. In an attempt to answer the question of why these people died, I’ll give you a brief look at the factors that combined to open the way for witch burnings to occur. These factors can be seen to stretch as far back in time as the year 400 CE, when Pope Damascus decreed that anyone who did not hold Christian beliefs should be punished by death. Emperor Theodosius I ordered the same for anyone practising magic, and demanded that all Pagan temples should be destroyed. Even the Library of Alexandria was caught up in the destruction as the Serapeum of Alexandria, which held part of its works, was plundered. “Wherever they burn books, they will also, in the end, burn people.” – Heinrich Heine These may have happened centuries before the Burning Times, but they so obviously paved the way that it is impossible to disregard them. These nebulous laws were completely open to interpretation, and made it possible for those who would accuse others of witchcraft to do so with no actual evidence to prove their case. A witch could be identified by any arbitrary sign that an accuser decided on; a mole or birthmark, a relationship with another convicted witch, appearing unafraid while being interrogated or being able to keep from crying out while under torture. These tortures were so brutal, and so effective that many so-called witches were convicted on the basis of a confession wrenched out of them through unimaginable cruelty. While the centuries-old laws were a contributing factor, a more immediate cause was the unsettled and angry climate that came in the wake of war, plague and revolt. The ruling classes were afraid of another peasants’ revolt and so they used the idea of a common enemy – witches and witchcraft – to unite the people and trick them into focussing their attention on this, instead of on the real causes of their dissatisfaction. Religion has long been used as a tool to distract the working class from their situation, and the Church’s denouncement of witchcraft made it an acceptable target for the people to vent their frustration against. As long as people were hunting for witches they would ignore the flaws of the church or the inequality between classes. They would avoid their ‘evil’ body, try not to think impure thoughts, and keep telling themselves that they loved their church. In the end they would have no time or emotional fortitude to demand the truth. As well as providing a welcome smokescreen for the church and ruling classes, other people saw ways to use the witch-hunts for their own ends. It wasn’t a huge leap between venting their feelings against those accused of witchcraft to accusing particular people of witchcraft in order to benefit from that person’s punishment. Women found themselves particularly susceptible to accusations of witchcraft, partly because capitalism was taking its first tentative steps, and they found themselves unable to compete with men in the economic world. Women who were once tavern owners, money lenders and doctors were forced into poverty and then accused of witchcraft by neighbours who wanted their land, or people who wanted their power in the community. Women who were midwives, healers or beggars were easy to blame for illness and injuries and it was easier to point the finger at someone else than accept misfortune or personal responsibility. Women also suffered the bad luck of being ‘daughters of Eve’. Eve was an evil temptress, and so if a man found a woman arousing, it must have been because she’d cast a spell on him. Widows were the worst to deal with, as they were sexually experienced, and yet no longer under the control of a man. In the end, sexuality almost became an expression of witchcraft. As well as this, a major law reform had just been passed. The previous system needed an accusing party to bring about a trial. This person could be punished themselves if the person they accused was found to be innocent. The new system replaced the accuser with an ‘inquisitor’ – someone who would ask questions about any matter brought to their attention, and with the power to take the case to court if they thought it necessary. This made it much easier to point fingers freely with no risk of repercussions. The freedom to make these accusations also gave people a way to solve a psychological phenomenon known as ‘cognitive dissonance‘. This is the holding of two conflicting beliefs and trying to believe them both. You might recognise this idea as ‘doublethink’ from 1984 by George Orwell. An example of the concept would be when you believe you are a good person, but you have unfriendly thoughts about someone, and you believe those thoughts make you a bad person. This kind of dilemma leads to high levels of stress, but instead of abandoning one or both of the ideas, there is an easier solution; those bad ideas are not your own, you are under a spell, or someone has put those thoughts into your head. That makes everything much simpler, and clearer-cut; you are good, and they are bad, and any harm coming to them is deserved. For the rich upper classes, this way of thinking also allowed them to alleviate their guilt over their wealth and the poverty of the working classes by subconsciously depicting them as unworthy. In conclusion, the most unsettling thing about the Burning Times is the fact that it was simply an excuse for people to indulge their own selfishness and hatred. The hysteria was engineered to distract people from the truth of their situation, and further distorted to serve the whims of people who were not above benefitting from persecution of the innocent, and even murder. Worse than that even, it justified their actions in the name of the same God the so called ‘witches’ believed in. “An age is called Dark, not because the light fails to shine, but because people refuse to see it.” – James Albert Michener The Burning Times – Religious Tolerance Witch-Hunt – Wikipedia Falsehoods of the Burning Times – The Wiccan / Pagan Times The Burning Times – Wicca: For The Rest Of Us How Many Witches? – The Holocaust History Project The Burning Times – Spotlight Ministries The Decline and End of Witch Trials in Europe – Bede’s Library	<urn:uuid:d5dcceea-3879-4d8e-a944-4a5ecf83f4d8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://paganroots.com/information/basics/the-burning-times/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00025.warc.gz	en	0.980899	1,396	3.484375	3	[ -0.1757776141166687, 0.8519042134284973, 0.17837445437908173, 0.1539073884487152, 0.16095758974552155, 0.07155363261699677, 0.10044938325881958, -0.05382458493113518, -0.00015788129530847073, -0.19252386689186096, -0.26935258507728577, 0.0684511661529541, -0.35074132680892944, 0.4884510934...	9	The ‘Burning Times’ was a period of history when around 60,000 people were tried and convicted as witches. The majority of these trials took place between 1550 and 1650 CE, however most of the victims of the witch-hysteria were not actually Pagan, and they most certainly were not Wiccan as this is a much newer form of Paganism. In reality, most of them were Christians who had the misfortune to be in the wrong situation, at the wrong time. In an attempt to answer the question of why these people died, I’ll give you a brief look at the factors that combined to open the way for witch burnings to occur. These factors can be seen to stretch as far back in time as the year 400 CE, when Pope Damascus decreed that anyone who did not hold Christian beliefs should be punished by death. Emperor Theodosius I ordered the same for anyone practising magic, and demanded that all Pagan temples should be destroyed. Even the Library of Alexandria was caught up in the destruction as the Serapeum of Alexandria, which held part of its works, was plundered. “Wherever they burn books, they will also, in the end, burn people.” – Heinrich Heine These may have happened centuries before the Burning Times, but they so obviously paved the way that it is impossible to disregard them. These nebulous laws were completely open to interpretation, and made it possible for those who would accuse others of witchcraft to do so with no actual evidence to prove their case. A witch could be identified by any arbitrary sign that an accuser decided on; a mole or birthmark, a relationship with another convicted witch, appearing unafraid while being interrogated or being able to keep from crying out while under torture. These tortures were so brutal, and so effective that many so-called witches were convicted on the basis of a confession wrenched out of them through unimaginable cruelty. While the centuries-old laws were a contributing factor, a more immediate cause was the unsettled and angry climate that came in the wake of war, plague and revolt. The ruling classes were afraid of another peasants’ revolt and so they used the idea of a common enemy – witches and witchcraft – to unite the people and trick them into focussing their attention on this, instead of on the real causes of their dissatisfaction. Religion has long been used as a tool to distract the working class from their situation, and the Church’s denouncement of witchcraft made it an acceptable target for the people to vent their frustration against. As long as people were hunting for witches they would ignore the flaws of the church or the inequality between classes. They would avoid their ‘evil’ body, try not to think impure thoughts, and keep telling themselves that they loved their church. In the end they would have no time or emotional fortitude to demand the truth. As well as providing a welcome smokescreen for the church and ruling classes, other people saw ways to use the witch-hunts for their own ends. It wasn’t a huge leap between venting their feelings against those accused of witchcraft to accusing particular people of witchcraft in order to benefit from that person’s punishment. Women found themselves particularly susceptible to accusations of witchcraft, partly because capitalism was taking its first tentative steps, and they found themselves unable to compete with men in the economic world. Women who were once tavern owners, money lenders and doctors were forced into poverty and then accused of witchcraft by neighbours who wanted their land, or people who wanted their power in the community. Women who were midwives, healers or beggars were easy to blame for illness and injuries and it was easier to point the finger at someone else than accept misfortune or personal responsibility. Women also suffered the bad luck of being ‘daughters of Eve’. Eve was an evil temptress, and so if a man found a woman arousing, it must have been because she’d cast a spell on him. Widows were the worst to deal with, as they were sexually experienced, and yet no longer under the control of a man. In the end, sexuality almost became an expression of witchcraft. As well as this, a major law reform had just been passed. The previous system needed an accusing party to bring about a trial. This person could be punished themselves if the person they accused was found to be innocent. The new system replaced the accuser with an ‘inquisitor’ – someone who would ask questions about any matter brought to their attention, and with the power to take the case to court if they thought it necessary. This made it much easier to point fingers freely with no risk of repercussions. The freedom to make these accusations also gave people a way to solve a psychological phenomenon known as ‘cognitive dissonance‘. This is the holding of two conflicting beliefs and trying to believe them both. You might recognise this idea as ‘doublethink’ from 1984 by George Orwell. An example of the concept would be when you believe you are a good person, but you have unfriendly thoughts about someone, and you believe those thoughts make you a bad person. This kind of dilemma leads to high levels of stress, but instead of abandoning one or both of the ideas, there is an easier solution; those bad ideas are not your own, you are under a spell, or someone has put those thoughts into your head. That makes everything much simpler, and clearer-cut; you are good, and they are bad, and any harm coming to them is deserved. For the rich upper classes, this way of thinking also allowed them to alleviate their guilt over their wealth and the poverty of the working classes by subconsciously depicting them as unworthy. In conclusion, the most unsettling thing about the Burning Times is the fact that it was simply an excuse for people to indulge their own selfishness and hatred. The hysteria was engineered to distract people from the truth of their situation, and further distorted to serve the whims of people who were not above benefitting from persecution of the innocent, and even murder. Worse than that even, it justified their actions in the name of the same God the so called ‘witches’ believed in. “An age is called Dark, not because the light fails to shine, but because people refuse to see it.” – James Albert Michener The Burning Times – Religious Tolerance Witch-Hunt – Wikipedia Falsehoods of the Burning Times – The Wiccan / Pagan Times The Burning Times – Wicca: For The Rest Of Us How Many Witches? – The Holocaust History Project The Burning Times – Spotlight Ministries The Decline and End of Witch Trials in Europe – Bede’s Library	1,382	ENGLISH	1
The story of Jesus’ birth actually begins in the little town of Nazareth, where Joseph and Mary lived. The angel Gabriel appeared to Mary there and announced to her that she would give birth to the Messiah and that she was to name him Jesus. Soon after this Mary traveled to visit her relative Elizabeth in the hill country of Judea, perhaps near Bethlehem, a 70-mile journey that would have taken Mary about 3 days on foot. Mary stayed with Elizabeth, who was also pregnant and would give birth to John the Baptist, for three months before returning to Nazareth. As the time drew near for Jesus to be born, Mary and Joseph were required to travel to Bethlehem, the town of their ancestor David, to be counted in a Roman census. There Mary gave birth to Jesus.	<urn:uuid:d5ca30dd-2b7e-48d2-a770-ab78cd73aa4a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://biblemapper.com/blog/index.php/2019/12/15/the-story-of-jesus-birth/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00060.warc.gz	en	0.989677	159	3.34375	3	[ -0.054560914635658264, 0.10348008573055267, 0.2906469404697418, 0.28917500376701355, -0.11133109778165817, 0.4303809106349945, -0.2142687737941742, 0.22034025192260742, 0.06625361740589142, 0.09519949555397034, -0.1458979994058609, 0.0048248060047626495, -0.23341798782348633, 0.07279909402...	4	The story of Jesus’ birth actually begins in the little town of Nazareth, where Joseph and Mary lived. The angel Gabriel appeared to Mary there and announced to her that she would give birth to the Messiah and that she was to name him Jesus. Soon after this Mary traveled to visit her relative Elizabeth in the hill country of Judea, perhaps near Bethlehem, a 70-mile journey that would have taken Mary about 3 days on foot. Mary stayed with Elizabeth, who was also pregnant and would give birth to John the Baptist, for three months before returning to Nazareth. As the time drew near for Jesus to be born, Mary and Joseph were required to travel to Bethlehem, the town of their ancestor David, to be counted in a Roman census. There Mary gave birth to Jesus.	160	ENGLISH	1
The at the time, Thomas Jefferson issued The War of 1812 was a war that was fought in North America which saw participation in three nations: the newly formed Americans, the Canadians, and lastly, the great British Empire. The war, having been dragged for more than two years was seen as a defining war for Canadians. However, for the Americans, it is a forgotten war, a war that is forgotten because of America’s defeat. There can be three main reasons why the Americans lost. The first reason was that the Americans had a divided opinion regarding the war. The second reason was poor military. The last reason was that the Americans alienated themselves from potential allies and underestimated Great Britain. The United States of America in 1812 was a new country. It has been a mere 36 years since the Declaration of Independence was signed. There were many causes leading up to the War of 1812, with the most primary reason being the British impressment of American soldiers. At that time, Britain and France were fighting the Napoleonic Wars and in order to recruit soldiers, the British frequently stopped American ships and searched them for British naval deserters. This was a pain in the neck for the Americans since often, the British would seize actually Americans instead of deserters. The most famous of these incidents was the Chesapeake Incident of 1807. To search for potential deserters, the USS Chesapeake was boarded by the British, led by commander Salusbury Pryce Humphreys. The ship was searched and four members of the crew were captured. In addition to the British, the French also violated American neutrality by restricting and seizing American ships. In order to keep peace with these two superpowers, the president at the time, Thomas Jefferson issued an embargo which restricted trade between the Americans and foreign countries until the foreign countries respected America’s neutrality. This embargo created the first divide between Americans after the Revolutionary War. Because of the embargo’s nature, New England merchants were heavily affected. According to Dr. Danny Vickers from the Memorial University of New Found Land, “Dried codfish was the first of North America’s great export staples and no colony prospered as impressively from codfish as did Massachusetts. After the embargo of 1807, however, the ban on all naval export hurt the American economy, which was largely dependent on the export of produced goods at the time.” (Vickers) In contrast with the Americans from the eastern border, the Americans who settled in the western parts had little to no connections with British. These westerners and southerners formed the main body of the War Hawks who advocated for war against the British. Since most of the westerners were native-born Americans, they felt a national integrity and felt that their rights should not be violated by other foreign countries. On June 1st, 1812, President James Madison initiated the debate over declaring war and over the next few weeks meetings were held to choose the fate of the war. On June 4, the House of Representatives voted 79 to 49 for war but in the next week, at the passing of the declaration, the vote was 19 to 13 for war. This closeness between the votes clearly exemplifies America’s internal rift between the issues of war. Therefore, as one can see, it was clear that America was divided between itself from the start. As Abraham Lincoln famously quoted, “A house divided against itself cannot stand” and can be seen as a factor to why America lost the War of 1812. The second reason why America lost the war was because they had numerous faults and deficiencies in their military. In 1812, as stated earlier, there was a lack of union between the states and most citizen’s loyalty was to their state. There was not much of a sense of Americanism as of yet and because of this during the War of 1812, America’s military was consisted only from volunteers. These volunteers did not volunteer for the sake of patriotism. Instead, they took this as a financial opportunity. In 1812, the US government offered $31.00 and 160 acres of land and paid $5 per month to a private. By 1814, because a lack of soldiers, Congress was offering cash bounties of $124 and 320 acres of land. (Hickey) Because of this system of volunteering, the Americans were disadvantaged from the start with their military only having 35,800 men while Canada and its allies boasted a military of 48,000 men. Furthermore, there were many abuses of localism- favoring those from one area over another (Carleton 71). Election of military officers looked similar to that of a political campaign in many cases (Carleton 71). To make matters worse, the militia men who did volunteer were of very poor quality. Over 70% of all the state’s militiamen were illiterate and had little to no formal education at all. (Morgan) In addition, because there was no central agency which governed America’s military at the time, often the states did not follow through with the training protocol which resulted in militia men who lacked discipline and any training. The commitment once one volunteered was often just for a year. Many would serve and then as soon as their term was over, would just leave. Enlistees believed, “I’ve served my time, now let the other fellow serve his” (Carleton, 71). This poor military can be attributed to why the Americans lost control of Fort Detroit. When General Hull took his forces to attack Upper Canada, it took him months to stage his men to leave Ohio for Michigan country. In consequence, supplies ran low, disease started to spread, and morale declined. (Hickey) When these men were near the border of Canada, they refused to move forward and this clearly shows the lack of discipline the American soldiers had at that time. Not only did the Americans have a poor military, they also lacked the communication within their military. The most famous example of this was the Battle of New Orleans. On December 24, 1814 Britain and America signed the Treaty of Ghent which officially ended the war in a status quo ante bellum. However, the Battle of New Orleans was fought on January 8th, 1815. The battle, led by future American president, Andrew Jackson was one of the biggest battles in the War of 1812 with more than 3,000 casualties. If Andrew Jackson heard of the news that the War was over, the Americans would have had the opportunity to save their men and prevent needless deaths. As seen, the American military lacked in many different aspects from discipline, training to communication between each other. This overall culminated to result in a catastrophic result for the Americans and can be seen as a pushing factor to why the Americans lost. The last reason why the Americans lost the War of 1812 was because they alienated themselves from potential allies and underestimated the British. On the onset of the War of 1812, General William Henry Harrison decided to break up the large Shawnee confederacy that occupied present day Indiana. In the Battle of Tippecanoe, Harrison and his men fought against the Shawnees and captured Prophets Town, later burning it. When Tecumseh came back to the town he found, “the bodies of my friends laying in the dust, and our villages burnt to the ground, and all our kettles carried off.” This sparked fury within Tecumseh and was the key moment in which allowed the Shawnees to ally themselves with Canada and Britain. Even though the Shawnees were a tribe native to America and that which could have been a potential ally, because of America’s tendency for expansion under manifest destiny, the Americans lost a crucial ally which would later back fire at them when the Shawnees ally themselves with Britain. At the start of the War of 1812, Britain was busy fighting the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. The Americans took this as an opportunity since Britain only considered the War of 1812 as a side war, a war that is not as important. The Americans took this chance to invade parts of Upper and Lower Canada but as the war dragged on, the tables started to turn in favor for the British. By 1814, Napoleon’s forces were diminishing and the British now had the supply and manpower to support the war effort in North America. In retaliation for the Americans’ attack on York, the British sent the troops to Washington where they burned the White House. Furthermore, the increase in British presence in North America strongly diminished American’s morale and this miscalculation of the British’s presence can be seen as one of the reasons why the Americans lost the War of 1812. In conclusion, the Americans were fighting a losing war. With its people having divided opinions on the war, there was no unity within the country. Its military was of poor quality with many men serving for their own interests and lacking basic training. Furthermore, the miscalculation regarding the British and the alienation from potential native allies proved detrimental for the Americans as these became the driving factor for their defeat. There is a reason why the War of 1812 is a forgotten war. It is because it was a war in which Canada, a growing British colony defeated the Americans. The War of 1812 was a humiliating chapter in American history	<urn:uuid:c14f6f1f-6f55-4bef-8209-81e53fdfc54a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://niagarafallshypnosiscenter.com/the-at-the-time-thomas-jefferson-issued/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00143.warc.gz	en	0.984608	1,915	4.0625	4	[ -0.13346388936042786, 0.24269425868988037, 0.5112465620040894, -0.2466103434562683, 0.016564304009079933, -0.22080644965171814, 0.038212694227695465, 0.39707690477371216, -0.056181564927101135, 0.07297256588935852, 0.2752048373222351, -0.05191749706864357, -0.3134297728538513, 0.2220293730...	1	The at the time, Thomas Jefferson issued The War of 1812 was a war that was fought in North America which saw participation in three nations: the newly formed Americans, the Canadians, and lastly, the great British Empire. The war, having been dragged for more than two years was seen as a defining war for Canadians. However, for the Americans, it is a forgotten war, a war that is forgotten because of America’s defeat. There can be three main reasons why the Americans lost. The first reason was that the Americans had a divided opinion regarding the war. The second reason was poor military. The last reason was that the Americans alienated themselves from potential allies and underestimated Great Britain. The United States of America in 1812 was a new country. It has been a mere 36 years since the Declaration of Independence was signed. There were many causes leading up to the War of 1812, with the most primary reason being the British impressment of American soldiers. At that time, Britain and France were fighting the Napoleonic Wars and in order to recruit soldiers, the British frequently stopped American ships and searched them for British naval deserters. This was a pain in the neck for the Americans since often, the British would seize actually Americans instead of deserters. The most famous of these incidents was the Chesapeake Incident of 1807. To search for potential deserters, the USS Chesapeake was boarded by the British, led by commander Salusbury Pryce Humphreys. The ship was searched and four members of the crew were captured. In addition to the British, the French also violated American neutrality by restricting and seizing American ships. In order to keep peace with these two superpowers, the president at the time, Thomas Jefferson issued an embargo which restricted trade between the Americans and foreign countries until the foreign countries respected America’s neutrality. This embargo created the first divide between Americans after the Revolutionary War. Because of the embargo’s nature, New England merchants were heavily affected. According to Dr. Danny Vickers from the Memorial University of New Found Land, “Dried codfish was the first of North America’s great export staples and no colony prospered as impressively from codfish as did Massachusetts. After the embargo of 1807, however, the ban on all naval export hurt the American economy, which was largely dependent on the export of produced goods at the time.” (Vickers) In contrast with the Americans from the eastern border, the Americans who settled in the western parts had little to no connections with British. These westerners and southerners formed the main body of the War Hawks who advocated for war against the British. Since most of the westerners were native-born Americans, they felt a national integrity and felt that their rights should not be violated by other foreign countries. On June 1st, 1812, President James Madison initiated the debate over declaring war and over the next few weeks meetings were held to choose the fate of the war. On June 4, the House of Representatives voted 79 to 49 for war but in the next week, at the passing of the declaration, the vote was 19 to 13 for war. This closeness between the votes clearly exemplifies America’s internal rift between the issues of war. Therefore, as one can see, it was clear that America was divided between itself from the start. As Abraham Lincoln famously quoted, “A house divided against itself cannot stand” and can be seen as a factor to why America lost the War of 1812. The second reason why America lost the war was because they had numerous faults and deficiencies in their military. In 1812, as stated earlier, there was a lack of union between the states and most citizen’s loyalty was to their state. There was not much of a sense of Americanism as of yet and because of this during the War of 1812, America’s military was consisted only from volunteers. These volunteers did not volunteer for the sake of patriotism. Instead, they took this as a financial opportunity. In 1812, the US government offered $31.00 and 160 acres of land and paid $5 per month to a private. By 1814, because a lack of soldiers, Congress was offering cash bounties of $124 and 320 acres of land. (Hickey) Because of this system of volunteering, the Americans were disadvantaged from the start with their military only having 35,800 men while Canada and its allies boasted a military of 48,000 men. Furthermore, there were many abuses of localism- favoring those from one area over another (Carleton 71). Election of military officers looked similar to that of a political campaign in many cases (Carleton 71). To make matters worse, the militia men who did volunteer were of very poor quality. Over 70% of all the state’s militiamen were illiterate and had little to no formal education at all. (Morgan) In addition, because there was no central agency which governed America’s military at the time, often the states did not follow through with the training protocol which resulted in militia men who lacked discipline and any training. The commitment once one volunteered was often just for a year. Many would serve and then as soon as their term was over, would just leave. Enlistees believed, “I’ve served my time, now let the other fellow serve his” (Carleton, 71). This poor military can be attributed to why the Americans lost control of Fort Detroit. When General Hull took his forces to attack Upper Canada, it took him months to stage his men to leave Ohio for Michigan country. In consequence, supplies ran low, disease started to spread, and morale declined. (Hickey) When these men were near the border of Canada, they refused to move forward and this clearly shows the lack of discipline the American soldiers had at that time. Not only did the Americans have a poor military, they also lacked the communication within their military. The most famous example of this was the Battle of New Orleans. On December 24, 1814 Britain and America signed the Treaty of Ghent which officially ended the war in a status quo ante bellum. However, the Battle of New Orleans was fought on January 8th, 1815. The battle, led by future American president, Andrew Jackson was one of the biggest battles in the War of 1812 with more than 3,000 casualties. If Andrew Jackson heard of the news that the War was over, the Americans would have had the opportunity to save their men and prevent needless deaths. As seen, the American military lacked in many different aspects from discipline, training to communication between each other. This overall culminated to result in a catastrophic result for the Americans and can be seen as a pushing factor to why the Americans lost. The last reason why the Americans lost the War of 1812 was because they alienated themselves from potential allies and underestimated the British. On the onset of the War of 1812, General William Henry Harrison decided to break up the large Shawnee confederacy that occupied present day Indiana. In the Battle of Tippecanoe, Harrison and his men fought against the Shawnees and captured Prophets Town, later burning it. When Tecumseh came back to the town he found, “the bodies of my friends laying in the dust, and our villages burnt to the ground, and all our kettles carried off.” This sparked fury within Tecumseh and was the key moment in which allowed the Shawnees to ally themselves with Canada and Britain. Even though the Shawnees were a tribe native to America and that which could have been a potential ally, because of America’s tendency for expansion under manifest destiny, the Americans lost a crucial ally which would later back fire at them when the Shawnees ally themselves with Britain. At the start of the War of 1812, Britain was busy fighting the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. The Americans took this as an opportunity since Britain only considered the War of 1812 as a side war, a war that is not as important. The Americans took this chance to invade parts of Upper and Lower Canada but as the war dragged on, the tables started to turn in favor for the British. By 1814, Napoleon’s forces were diminishing and the British now had the supply and manpower to support the war effort in North America. In retaliation for the Americans’ attack on York, the British sent the troops to Washington where they burned the White House. Furthermore, the increase in British presence in North America strongly diminished American’s morale and this miscalculation of the British’s presence can be seen as one of the reasons why the Americans lost the War of 1812. In conclusion, the Americans were fighting a losing war. With its people having divided opinions on the war, there was no unity within the country. Its military was of poor quality with many men serving for their own interests and lacking basic training. Furthermore, the miscalculation regarding the British and the alienation from potential native allies proved detrimental for the Americans as these became the driving factor for their defeat. There is a reason why the War of 1812 is a forgotten war. It is because it was a war in which Canada, a growing British colony defeated the Americans. The War of 1812 was a humiliating chapter in American history	1,982	ENGLISH	1
Progress tracking tools for students FREE Video Lesson Worth $20! 10,000 Math Questions From P1 to P6! Access 300 Hours of Video Explanations! Video Tutorials to Tough PSLE Questions! Step-by-step worked solutions Your questions answered, explained e.g. straight line,distance,algebra showing results for "grade 4" difficulty: [ALL] There were three times as many apples as pears in a stall. After 102 pears were sold, the number of apples became 9 times the number of pears that were left. Find the total number of fruits in the stall in the end. Lawrence had 480 stamps and Shirley had 320 stamps. Each of them gave away an equal number of stamps to their friend, Jason. As a result, Shirley now had `1/5` as many stamps left as Lawrence. How many stamps did each of them give to Jason? Tank B contained `4/9` as much petrol as tank A. A mechanic poured an equal amount of petrol into both the tanks. As a consequence, tank B now had 1250 litres of petrol and tank A had 2270 litres of petrol. Find the quantity of petrol poured into each tank. Robert has some ducks and cows on his farm. The total number of legs of all the ducks and cows is 32. (a) If there were 6 ducks on his farm, find the number of legs the cows have. (b) If there are 5 cows , how many legs do the ducks have in total ? Notes to students: If the question above has parts, (e.g. ... In the parking space of a shopping mall, there are some motorcycles and some cars. All these vehicles have 42 wheels in total. (a) If there were 4 cars, find the total number of wheels on the motorcycles. (b) If there are 11 motorcycles, what is the total number of wheels that can be found on the cars ? A charitable organization decides to give $38 to some poor people. It plans to give $2 to a poor man and $4 to a poor woman. (a) If the women received $24, how many men benefitted from the charity ? (b) If the men received $10 in all , how many women were given money ? Notes to students: ... Johnson wishes to buy some paint boxes and paint brushes. Each paint box costs $2 and each paint brush costs $1 less. He has a total of $22. (a) If Johnson decides to buy $10 worth of paint brushes, how many paint boxes can be buy ? (b) If he pays $20 for the paint boxes, find the number of paint brushes that he is able to buy. ... Basket A had three times as many fruits as basket B. 160 fruits were then added to basket B. As a result, basket B now had 3 times as many fruits as basket A. Find the total number of fruits in both the baskets now. Park Y had `1/4` as many benches as park X. 66 new benches were then placed in park Y. As a result, park Y now had 3 times as many benches as park X. Find the total number of benches in both the parks now.	<urn:uuid:a032c1de-690c-45e6-be36-02585ef842f1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.singaporemathguru.com/question_bank?key=grade%204	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00313.warc.gz	en	0.982555	671	3.5625	4	[ -0.37251925468444824, 0.003292732872068882, 0.04838940501213074, -0.33394700288772583, -0.3539489805698395, 0.24179241061210632, 0.07479560375213623, 0.36711493134498596, 0.1206197440624237, 0.2644810676574707, 0.08404889702796936, -0.4245058596134186, -0.01080823689699173, 0.0966847836971...	1	Progress tracking tools for students FREE Video Lesson Worth $20! 10,000 Math Questions From P1 to P6! Access 300 Hours of Video Explanations! Video Tutorials to Tough PSLE Questions! Step-by-step worked solutions Your questions answered, explained e.g. straight line,distance,algebra showing results for "grade 4" difficulty: [ALL] There were three times as many apples as pears in a stall. After 102 pears were sold, the number of apples became 9 times the number of pears that were left. Find the total number of fruits in the stall in the end. Lawrence had 480 stamps and Shirley had 320 stamps. Each of them gave away an equal number of stamps to their friend, Jason. As a result, Shirley now had `1/5` as many stamps left as Lawrence. How many stamps did each of them give to Jason? Tank B contained `4/9` as much petrol as tank A. A mechanic poured an equal amount of petrol into both the tanks. As a consequence, tank B now had 1250 litres of petrol and tank A had 2270 litres of petrol. Find the quantity of petrol poured into each tank. Robert has some ducks and cows on his farm. The total number of legs of all the ducks and cows is 32. (a) If there were 6 ducks on his farm, find the number of legs the cows have. (b) If there are 5 cows , how many legs do the ducks have in total ? Notes to students: If the question above has parts, (e.g. ... In the parking space of a shopping mall, there are some motorcycles and some cars. All these vehicles have 42 wheels in total. (a) If there were 4 cars, find the total number of wheels on the motorcycles. (b) If there are 11 motorcycles, what is the total number of wheels that can be found on the cars ? A charitable organization decides to give $38 to some poor people. It plans to give $2 to a poor man and $4 to a poor woman. (a) If the women received $24, how many men benefitted from the charity ? (b) If the men received $10 in all , how many women were given money ? Notes to students: ... Johnson wishes to buy some paint boxes and paint brushes. Each paint box costs $2 and each paint brush costs $1 less. He has a total of $22. (a) If Johnson decides to buy $10 worth of paint brushes, how many paint boxes can be buy ? (b) If he pays $20 for the paint boxes, find the number of paint brushes that he is able to buy. ... Basket A had three times as many fruits as basket B. 160 fruits were then added to basket B. As a result, basket B now had 3 times as many fruits as basket A. Find the total number of fruits in both the baskets now. Park Y had `1/4` as many benches as park X. 66 new benches were then placed in park Y. As a result, park Y now had 3 times as many benches as park X. Find the total number of benches in both the parks now.	704	ENGLISH	1
Blog February 2017 This week we have begun looking at a new story from a different culture. The story is called The Catch. We watched a little bit of the story and then we had to write about what we thought would happen next in the story. We had lots of great ideas but we particularly enjoyed finding out what actually happened in the story. In maths we have been working on multiplying and dividing using lots of apparatus to support our learning. It was quite tricky to begin with but once we started using counters and number squares we understood what we needed to do. In Science we went for a walk around the school grounds to see if we could see any animals or any signs of animals. We managed to see a few birds and found a hole where a badger had been digging. In RE we have been looking at the Good Samaritan story. We discussed it in lots of detail and thought about the message of the story and how important it is. This week Year 1 have had a very exciting week. In Literacy we have begun to write our own version of The Catch story and some of our ideas are very creative. In maths we have been looking at fractions and how to split shapes in halves and quarters. This was really successful and the children really enjoyed seeing how the shapes were split using the different fractions. We had Safer Internet Day on Tuesday this was very successful. The children were mixed into family groups for the day and worked with a variety of children from all year groups. Each teacher had a different activity on how to be safe online with particular focus on images that are shared online. We talked about the importance of keeping personal information private because lots of people may be able to see it. We also talked about images that are safe to share. We then had an assembly where the children shared what they had been doing for the day with parents. The children seem refreshed after the half term break and have come back to school ready to continue their learning for this term. This week in Literacy we have begun looking at instructions. We started by following instructions to make a paper airplane and then we got to fly them in the playground. This was very fun. We then had to order instructions for washing our hands. In Maths we have started looking at time and telling the time to the hour and half hour. We started this by making our own clocks. This is really helping us to know different times of the day especially lunch time! In PE we have started doing gymnastics and have begun balances. We were using beanbags to balance on different parts of our body. We then started to use a partner to make a joint balance. In Art this week the children have been learning about using sketching to draw animals. We concentrated really hard and the sketches look really good.	<urn:uuid:f6288640-ffae-47c1-af15-857334c27063>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.stmarysdorchester.dorset.sch.uk/website/blog_february_2017/263803	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00044.warc.gz	en	0.987342	571	3.296875	3	[ 0.02804490737617016, -0.30969470739364624, 0.3302558362483978, -0.5553303360939026, -0.20517534017562866, 0.2504524886608124, -0.11153335869312286, 0.13090801239013672, -0.020105278119444847, -0.05166100710630417, 0.2200341820716858, -0.20200854539871216, 0.12449616193771362, 0.38570338487...	2	Blog February 2017 This week we have begun looking at a new story from a different culture. The story is called The Catch. We watched a little bit of the story and then we had to write about what we thought would happen next in the story. We had lots of great ideas but we particularly enjoyed finding out what actually happened in the story. In maths we have been working on multiplying and dividing using lots of apparatus to support our learning. It was quite tricky to begin with but once we started using counters and number squares we understood what we needed to do. In Science we went for a walk around the school grounds to see if we could see any animals or any signs of animals. We managed to see a few birds and found a hole where a badger had been digging. In RE we have been looking at the Good Samaritan story. We discussed it in lots of detail and thought about the message of the story and how important it is. This week Year 1 have had a very exciting week. In Literacy we have begun to write our own version of The Catch story and some of our ideas are very creative. In maths we have been looking at fractions and how to split shapes in halves and quarters. This was really successful and the children really enjoyed seeing how the shapes were split using the different fractions. We had Safer Internet Day on Tuesday this was very successful. The children were mixed into family groups for the day and worked with a variety of children from all year groups. Each teacher had a different activity on how to be safe online with particular focus on images that are shared online. We talked about the importance of keeping personal information private because lots of people may be able to see it. We also talked about images that are safe to share. We then had an assembly where the children shared what they had been doing for the day with parents. The children seem refreshed after the half term break and have come back to school ready to continue their learning for this term. This week in Literacy we have begun looking at instructions. We started by following instructions to make a paper airplane and then we got to fly them in the playground. This was very fun. We then had to order instructions for washing our hands. In Maths we have started looking at time and telling the time to the hour and half hour. We started this by making our own clocks. This is really helping us to know different times of the day especially lunch time! In PE we have started doing gymnastics and have begun balances. We were using beanbags to balance on different parts of our body. We then started to use a partner to make a joint balance. In Art this week the children have been learning about using sketching to draw animals. We concentrated really hard and the sketches look really good.	563	ENGLISH	1
As the final part of the Rivers topic, Year 4 spent the first two days of the Spring term exploring, reveiwing and celebrating the work they had already undertaken. In the Science Crest activity they were required to build rafts from A4 paper. The rafts were tested for the best load carrying capacity. They also reflected on their knowledge of rivers by producing a poem based on the three stages of a river and a pointallism picture. Mr Edwards tooks groups to explore the stream above Spout Force where the effects of erosion and deposition were clear to see. Working together, the children measured the flow of the stream by timing how long it took an orange to float along 50m of stream. (Some groups also experienced some very heavy rain!) Over the two days we had lots of parent help for which we would like to thank you.	<urn:uuid:aa27e948-a0e1-4b30-9957-164c2a0a69ad>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://fairfieldprimary.co.uk/news/2018-01-05-year-4-rivers-visit	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00253.warc.gz	en	0.987872	174	3.78125	4	[ -0.04524143412709236, -0.02551499754190445, 0.18048933148384094, -0.12375587970018387, -0.15158648788928986, -0.0033526516053825617, -0.08420173823833466, 0.1745741218328476, -0.49235281348228455, 0.04319039359688759, 0.13010257482528687, -0.5151792764663696, -0.022542685270309448, 0.09697...	4	As the final part of the Rivers topic, Year 4 spent the first two days of the Spring term exploring, reveiwing and celebrating the work they had already undertaken. In the Science Crest activity they were required to build rafts from A4 paper. The rafts were tested for the best load carrying capacity. They also reflected on their knowledge of rivers by producing a poem based on the three stages of a river and a pointallism picture. Mr Edwards tooks groups to explore the stream above Spout Force where the effects of erosion and deposition were clear to see. Working together, the children measured the flow of the stream by timing how long it took an orange to float along 50m of stream. (Some groups also experienced some very heavy rain!) Over the two days we had lots of parent help for which we would like to thank you.	174	ENGLISH	1
Africa was long been a mysterious, magical, and downright frightening place. The northern parts were explored first, leaving the rest of the land long shrouded in superstition, story, myth, and legend. Venturing into this uncharted land was no small endeavor, and some incredible stories arose as a result of doing so. Early map-making was far from an exact science. Some of the earliest maps we have provide an interesting look into just what we thought about unexplored lands. The earliest map we have of the entire continent of Africa was done by Sebastian Munster —a German scholar and Hebrew professor—around 1554. He got his information from interviewing German scholars and immigrants, collecting and compiling different maps they carried into one. Before dying of the Black Plague, he was one of the most influential mapmakers of the day, and what his map of Africa included gives us an interesting look into just what people told him the continent was like. In the middle of the continent—where we now know the Sahara Desert lies—is a massive forest. South of that, in the area of what’s now Nigeria, is a drawing of a cyclops, meant to represent the mythical Monoculi tribe. The sources of the Nile are lakes in the Mountains of the Moon. Nestled in the valley of the rivers is the kingdom of Prester John , a Christian missionary whose mythical, magical land was the driving force behind many expeditions into Africa. Just north of Prester John’s supposed kingdom is Meroe, which was said to be the final resting place of ancient Nubian kings. There are also a handful of islands around the continent, and some of the rivers are surprisingly accurate, even though they would disappear off subsequent maps only to be re-discovered in the early 19th century. 2. Henry The Navigator The man who was almost single-handedly responsible for opening up exploration into Africa, and who allowed Portugal to start staking their claims on this newly discovered continent, never actually set sail on an expedition in his life. Henry the Navigator was the son of King John I of Portugal and Phillippa of Lancaster; his first foray into Africa happened before he was 21, when he was sent to drive the Spanish out of the northern African city of Cetua. Seeing a massive opportunity for Portugal to expand its territory, he organized the first school for sailors; in 1416, adventurous souls from all over the country could go to the School of Sagres and learn the finer points of exploration from mathematicians, map-makers, and astronomers. Just as important as the expansion of Portuguese territory was Henry’s desire to find Prester John’s mythical kingdom, which had eluded explorers for centuries. He also had to overcome something very, very powerful— sailors’ superstitions about what would happen to them if they ventured into the waters of southern Africa. According to one such superstition, sailing past Cape Bojador (in the present-day territory of Western Sahara) would send them into waters infested with sea monsters, where their entire ship would be eaten—but only after their skin turned black. Once they realized their fears were pure superstition, explorers began bringing back a wealth of treasures from the new lands. Ostriches, ostrich eggs, gold, and sealskin were only some of the finds—in the decades following Portuguese construction of a fort at the Bay of Argium, they would begin exporting African slaves to Europe. 3. Henry Stanley And Emin Pasha Henry Stanley is perhaps best known for his expedition into Africa to find Dr. David Livingstone, but that’s not the only rescue mission he undertook. In December 1886, Stanley set off into Africa on what would be his last journey: an attempt to find and bring home a German zoologist named Eduard Schnitzer. Schnitzer had taken the name “ Emin Pasha,” in an attempt to be better received by those he was living among. Pasha was cataloging a host of recently-discovered plant and animal lifeforms when fighting broke out in the Sudan. Pasha and his party retreated to Equatoria, at about the same time the Emin Pasha Relief Committee (pictured above) was formed. In addition to the goal of bringing Pasha home, Stanley was also under orders from the King of Belgium to open up some new trade routes in the area. The roundabout route the Committee ended up taking meant that by the time they finally found Pasha, many members of the expedition were dead. Those that did survive were worn, ill, and starving by the time they found Pasha who, in comparison, was well-dressed, clean, and—by some accounts—smoking a three-year-old cigar when they finally found him. He was in need of some support and supplies, but he had neither intent nor desire to leave the area. Arguments ensued, cementing a firm hatred between Stanley and Pasha. Stanley finally convinced Pasha to leave with the remains of the expedition, setting off on a grueling trip back through Africa. They finally met up with some German explorers, and made it back to the port town of Bagamoyo in 1889. During the party they threw to celebrate their return to civilization, Pasha fell off a balcony and fractured his skull. Stanley returned to Europe to commendations and congratulations, while Pasha slowly recovered from his unwanted rescue. 4. Paul du Chaillu And The Pygmies Frenchman Paul du Chaillu was born in 1835. Raised on the west coast of Africa by his father, du Chaillu had the benefits of knowing many of the local languages, and he put his knowledge to good use. He is thought to be the first European to actually see a gorilla—until then, they had been regarded as mythical creatures. He was also the first to meet, interact with, and document the natives now known as Pygmies. Pygmies had existed in literature and letters for centuries but, like the gorilla, they were viewed as existing somewhere between the real world and the mythical one. Egyptian letters between traders dating back to 2276 B.C. call them the “dancing dwarf of the god from the land of spirits,” and they’re also featured in the Iliad, where they wage war on a flock of cranes. According to du Chaillu, his first impressions of Pygmies were of people who could move through the forest with incredible speed, grace, and silence. They amazed him with their perfect smallness, and he earned their trust through the presentation of food. His guides instructed him to always be kind to them, as they had always treated visitors with kindness and hospitality. Sadly, we did not hold onto that sentiment for long. By 1904, pygmies were being exhibited at fairs in St. Louis and the Bronx Zoo. 5. The Hamitic Hypothesis The exploration of Africa and slavery sadly go hand-in-hand, with the two impossible to separate. But there needed to be a justification for why enslaving the African people was perfectly acceptable. The Hamitic Hypothesis was just such an excuse. Even though the phrase “Hamitic Hypothesis” was only coined in 1959 , the theory is often credited to John Hanning Speke (pictured), one of its most vocal supporters throughout the latter half of the 19th century. The theory said all things good and valuable in Africa had been brought there by the Hamites, or the descendants of Ham. According to Biblical tradition, Ham was cursed after he looked upon his naked father. The curse stated that he and his descendants would be the brothers of slaves—those descendants eventually made their way to Africa and became the lighter-skinned people of the northern continent. With them, it was thought, came education and civilization. They soon took up places of authority over the darker, lesser native people who were put on Earth to be slaves to the higher races. It was this tragically misguided hypothesis that, in large part, made it an acceptable thing to enslave African natives. Not only was it their lot in life, but any traces of civilization found there only existed thanks to the lighter-skinned people who migrated into the area. 6. Robert Drury’s Mysterious Account Of Madagascar Madagascar is one of the most exotic places on Earth, with natives and an ecosystem unlike anything found anywhere else. It’s mysterious even today, meaning it was downright scary in the early 1700s. Robert Drury’s tale of shipwreck, kidnap, bid for freedom, and return to Africa is a truly amazing one, and it didn’t end when he made his incredible escape from slavery and headed back to Europe. In 1729, Drury released a book, Madagascar: or Robert Drury’s Journal During 15 Years of Captivity on that Island , dramatically detailing the years he spent enslaved by the local people. If living through it wasn’t bad enough, no one believed it was real. It was released only a few years after Robinson Crusoe, which undoubtedly added a “you won’t fool us twice” factor to Drury’s tale. Drury died in 1735 (having spent his last years haunting coffee houses in London insisting to disbelievers that his tale was true), and it wasn’t until almost 275 years later that determined researchers discovered he had been telling the truth all along. British archaeologist Mike Parker Pearson decided to retrace the steps outlined in the book, to see if there was any truth to it. Pearson and his crew discovered the descriptions in the book were very, very accurate, from the locations of mountains and rivers to the towns Drury claimed to have lived in. There were also plenty of strangely specific details that only someone who lived there would know, like beekeeping techniques, ways of finding food, and cultural traditions (like feet-licking) that have since been phased out but have left their mark in the native lexicon. In addition, Pearson excavated villages and homes, examined tombs, and found that many of the native peoples still knew of ruined, extinct villages by the old names that Drury used. Ultimately, Pearson found the wreck of Drury’s ship, leaving only one major question unanswered. Critics had long argued that Drury—a largely uneducated sailor—couldn’t possibly have written the book himself, and wondered who the mystery author was. According to Pearson and other scholars, the likely author is the man responsible for most of the controversy in the first place: Daniel Defoe , the author of Robinson Crusoe. 7. Mary Kingsley’s Study Of Witchcraft And Twin Killing Mary Kingsley was born in 1862, into an English society that was very much about constricting women’s duties to nothing more than care of the household. At age 30, Kingsley lost both her parents to sudden illness. With nobody to care for, Kingsley decided she wanted to see the world she’d read so much about. So, she set off on a journey to West Africa. Her trip wasn’t just a sightseeing holiday, as she wanted to study the native people, their beliefs, and their religion—termed “fetish,” or “juju.” Amid her treks up and down mountains, through swamps, and down rivers, Kingsley recorded massive amounts of detail and data on the native people. While many of her observances sound savage and critical today, there’s one thing that stands out among the practices she was both amazed and horrified by: twin-killing . In some places, it was thought that a woman who gave birth to twins had been marked as having had intercourse with a demon or spirits, an offense that meant death for the mother and the babies. In other areas, twins were viewed as magical, and were to be kept alive and handled carefully. If one was to die, they would return for the souls of others. Kingsley bore witness to a horrific case of the former , where a slave-woman had given birth to twins and was quickly driven out of her village. The natives stuffed the poor children in a wooden chest and threw them to the mother. Unfortunately, one child died in the process, while the other made it out of town and to safety, thanks to a well-meaning missionary who took pity on the mother. When Kingsley returned to England to publish papers on those she had met and the things she had seen, she faced overwhelming resistance from polite society. Many places didn’t even allow her to speak in public, allowing her work to be presented only if it was read by a man. Eventually she returned to Africa, acting as a nurse during the Second Boer War. She died in 1900 from typhoid, but not before she brought a new level of enlightenment to European society. 8. Diamonds, DeBeers, And A Secret Society A single discovery by a 15-year-old South African boy playing with the rocks on his family farm in 1867 changed the face of his country forever. Erasmus Jacobs picked up a particularly shiny rock, and it caught the eye of a neighbor. That neighbor knew a traveling man who knew a little bit about everything, who took the rock to Hopetown. Someone there then passed it on to the Colonial Secretary, who sold it to the Governor of the Cape. It was the Eureka Diamond , a massive, yellowish diamond determined to be 21.19 carats. Enter Cecil Rhodes (pictured), both one of the most hated and most celebrated of all British statesmen. Rhodes (who would later found the Rhodes Scholarships), headed to South Africa and started buying diamond mines on the cheap, after the miners that had been working them thought their claims to the diamonds had run out. Rhodes then consolidated all the mines he owned—and those that he didn’t—into the Rhodes DeBeers Consolidated Mines. By the time he was done, he owned or controlled about 90 percent of the world’s diamond mines . He did this not just for personal wealth, but to help realize his dream of absolute British rule. Years before, he had written works outlining his goals of uniting the entire world under the eye of his Queen. While in South Africa, he took it upon himself to try and instigate rebellions that would lead to the installation of an English government. When he died, it took several wills to distribute his massive fortune. Many of his writings direct his fortune—amassed by kicking down the door of South Africa’s diamond mines—to be spent toward the development of a secret society. This society would be comprised of Britain’s richest and most powerful people, about whom he was often quoted as saying could do for England what Jesus did for the Catholics. Thus, his true intentions were made perfectly clear: He wanted his money to ultimately go toward advancing the British race , one he claimed was the greatest on Earth (the Americans and Germans could tag along, too.) 9. Rene Caillie Enters Timbuktu Timbuktu had long been surrounded by a certain mystique. Sitting on the edge of the Sahara Desert, this Muslim capital was long off-limits to non-Muslims. Because mankind hasn’t really changed that much over the centuries, that made it the place that Europeans absolutely wanted to see. Britain’s Gordon Laing was the first person to enter the city in 1826, but he was killed before he could make it far out again. After five weeks in the city, he was given permission to leave, but he was attacked, strangled, and decapitated on his way out (his personal servant lived to tell the story). Four years later, Rene Caillie, the son of a French baker, decided to give Timbuktu a go . He chose to do so without the typical retinue of soldiers, guards, and servants most explorers traveled with. Instead, he read and studied the Quran, learned Arabic, wore traditional dress, followed traditions and cultural norms, and went undercover as an Egyptian-born Arab. We can’t help but think that actually arriving in Timbuktu had to have been the biggest disappointment ever. Instead of an exotic city filled with strange people, beautiful animals, exotic spices, and archetypal walls made of solid gold, he encountered a small, muddy, desolate world. If he had made it there several centuries earlier, when the city was at its cultural peak, then his observations of the magical, mystical city might have been on par with his expectations (aside from the golden walls thing, obviously). Instead, he came away thinking everything there felt rather sad. He lived with a man named Sheikh Al Bekay while in the city, always keeping up his disguise even while being shown the house his predecessor lived in. His hosts were ultimately loath to let him leave the city, but eventually he did so, with more success than Laing. As disappointing a place as Timbuktu had been, making it back home still earned him the 10,000 francs promised by the French government to the first person to visit the city and make it back. Yet, Caillie still battled naysayers for the rest of his life, who argued that he never truly made it to the city. Perhaps they simply refused to believe that the beautiful golden city of legend was just a dreary place where people slept in doorways. 10. Nathaniel Isaacs And The Wrongful Condemnation Of Shaka Zulu Nathaniel Isaacs was born in Canterbury, England in 1808. By all accounts, he was destined for a life working in an office. He found the work stuffy and boring though, and ultimately ended up accepting a position on a ship called the Mary , captained by a man he’d made friends with. Upon finding out that another friend had journeyed into the uncharted territories of East Africa, they decided to go looking for him. The Mary was wrecked near Port Natal, and while she was salvageable, it would take three years to make her seaworthy again. During those three years, Isaacs and a handful of crew members made their way inland, where they were received by the Zulu warrior chief Shaka. The chief was not only friendly and welcoming to Isaacs and his companions, but after the Europeans joined with the Zulus during a raid and demonstrated the effectiveness of muskets, Shaka granted Isaacs a land claim. Later, Isaacs would publish his writings about his experiences and observances of the Zulu camps, in Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa, published in 1836. For a long time, it was one of the most complete works written on Shaka and his successor, and it was considered one of the most authoritative sources on life in Eastern Africa. Only, it wasn’t all that true. Letters between Isaacs and one of his companions, Henry Francis Fynn (who was also writing a book about the Zulu), advised that embellishments be added in order to make their books more popular and sell more copies. While not all of the stories and legends of Shaka Zulu have been debunked, researchers from Rhodes University suggest that many of the bloodier stories about Shaka served another purpose: to popularize the idea that European settlers and explorers had the right to carve up the barbaric Africa into colonies. Stories were told of Shaka cutting apart pregnant women, murdering indiscriminately, and inventing new, brutal battle tactics. It’s since been shown that these “new” tactics were really hunting strategies that had been used for generations, and it’s unknown if Shaka ever had a formal army at all. Researchers know he was largely responsible for the Zulu rise to power in South Africa, but beyond that, Shaka Zulu is remaining stubbornly in the shadows of mystery. 11. Theodore Roosevelt And The Smithsonian’s African Expedition Long after the Scramble for Africa, and even after our maps were pretty spot-on accurate, African expeditions didn’t stop. They simply turned into more scientific-minded endeavors, with goals of learning more about plant and animal life that previous explorers had skipped past in their attempts to get back home alive. In 1909, the Smithsonian Institution sponsored an expedition to collect both living and dead specimens for examination, cataloging, and inclusion in what’s now known as the National Museum of Natural History. Theodore Roosevelt—along with his son and a handful of representatives from the Smithsonian—left for Africa on March 23, 1909 to spearhead this project. Exploring the great unknown was a longtime passion of Roosevelt’s (plus, since he had recently stepped down from the United States presidency, he didn’t have much else to do), so he eagerly jumped on board. Roosevelt and company enjoyed a luxury earlier explorers could have only dreamed of: a railway journey into the heart of Africa. Once they assembled the various pieces of their force (which included 250 native-born porters and guides to help manage Roosevelt’s tent, bathtub, and library, along with several tons of salt for preserving whatever animals they found along the way), they embarked on a year-long tour of the continent. In the end, they had 23,151 specimens for the museum, including plants, insects, birds, and even live animals that were bound for the National Zoological Park. Even today, visitors to the National Museum can see the square-lipped rhinoceros that Roosevelt brought back. The American Museum of Natural History also has an exhibit that features Roosevelt’s kills—the elephants in the Akeley Hall of African Mammals . Interestingly, Roosevelt’s connection with the Smithsonian predates both his presidency and his explorations. While in his twenties, he donated his childhood collection of 250 mounted animals and birds that he had been collecting while traveling the world in his teens. Join the conversation.. Follow us on Facebook or Twitter So you don't miss out on our posts. You can also Subscribe to receive daily updates.	<urn:uuid:d15efa4f-8445-4f91-a23a-17d8db00df4e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://listwand.com/10-incredible-stories-about-the-exploration-of-africa/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00487.warc.gz	en	0.983754	4,610	3.6875	4	[ -0.30534207820892334, 0.6246386766433716, 0.280720055103302, -0.03256315365433693, 0.013623770326375961, -0.2366008162498474, 0.11008457839488983, -0.25033658742904663, 0.13555380702018738, 0.27945345640182495, 0.14437143504619598, -0.459514319896698, -0.0966440737247467, 0.472220927476882...	1	Africa was long been a mysterious, magical, and downright frightening place. The northern parts were explored first, leaving the rest of the land long shrouded in superstition, story, myth, and legend. Venturing into this uncharted land was no small endeavor, and some incredible stories arose as a result of doing so. Early map-making was far from an exact science. Some of the earliest maps we have provide an interesting look into just what we thought about unexplored lands. The earliest map we have of the entire continent of Africa was done by Sebastian Munster —a German scholar and Hebrew professor—around 1554. He got his information from interviewing German scholars and immigrants, collecting and compiling different maps they carried into one. Before dying of the Black Plague, he was one of the most influential mapmakers of the day, and what his map of Africa included gives us an interesting look into just what people told him the continent was like. In the middle of the continent—where we now know the Sahara Desert lies—is a massive forest. South of that, in the area of what’s now Nigeria, is a drawing of a cyclops, meant to represent the mythical Monoculi tribe. The sources of the Nile are lakes in the Mountains of the Moon. Nestled in the valley of the rivers is the kingdom of Prester John , a Christian missionary whose mythical, magical land was the driving force behind many expeditions into Africa. Just north of Prester John’s supposed kingdom is Meroe, which was said to be the final resting place of ancient Nubian kings. There are also a handful of islands around the continent, and some of the rivers are surprisingly accurate, even though they would disappear off subsequent maps only to be re-discovered in the early 19th century. 2. Henry The Navigator The man who was almost single-handedly responsible for opening up exploration into Africa, and who allowed Portugal to start staking their claims on this newly discovered continent, never actually set sail on an expedition in his life. Henry the Navigator was the son of King John I of Portugal and Phillippa of Lancaster; his first foray into Africa happened before he was 21, when he was sent to drive the Spanish out of the northern African city of Cetua. Seeing a massive opportunity for Portugal to expand its territory, he organized the first school for sailors; in 1416, adventurous souls from all over the country could go to the School of Sagres and learn the finer points of exploration from mathematicians, map-makers, and astronomers. Just as important as the expansion of Portuguese territory was Henry’s desire to find Prester John’s mythical kingdom, which had eluded explorers for centuries. He also had to overcome something very, very powerful— sailors’ superstitions about what would happen to them if they ventured into the waters of southern Africa. According to one such superstition, sailing past Cape Bojador (in the present-day territory of Western Sahara) would send them into waters infested with sea monsters, where their entire ship would be eaten—but only after their skin turned black. Once they realized their fears were pure superstition, explorers began bringing back a wealth of treasures from the new lands. Ostriches, ostrich eggs, gold, and sealskin were only some of the finds—in the decades following Portuguese construction of a fort at the Bay of Argium, they would begin exporting African slaves to Europe. 3. Henry Stanley And Emin Pasha Henry Stanley is perhaps best known for his expedition into Africa to find Dr. David Livingstone, but that’s not the only rescue mission he undertook. In December 1886, Stanley set off into Africa on what would be his last journey: an attempt to find and bring home a German zoologist named Eduard Schnitzer. Schnitzer had taken the name “ Emin Pasha,” in an attempt to be better received by those he was living among. Pasha was cataloging a host of recently-discovered plant and animal lifeforms when fighting broke out in the Sudan. Pasha and his party retreated to Equatoria, at about the same time the Emin Pasha Relief Committee (pictured above) was formed. In addition to the goal of bringing Pasha home, Stanley was also under orders from the King of Belgium to open up some new trade routes in the area. The roundabout route the Committee ended up taking meant that by the time they finally found Pasha, many members of the expedition were dead. Those that did survive were worn, ill, and starving by the time they found Pasha who, in comparison, was well-dressed, clean, and—by some accounts—smoking a three-year-old cigar when they finally found him. He was in need of some support and supplies, but he had neither intent nor desire to leave the area. Arguments ensued, cementing a firm hatred between Stanley and Pasha. Stanley finally convinced Pasha to leave with the remains of the expedition, setting off on a grueling trip back through Africa. They finally met up with some German explorers, and made it back to the port town of Bagamoyo in 1889. During the party they threw to celebrate their return to civilization, Pasha fell off a balcony and fractured his skull. Stanley returned to Europe to commendations and congratulations, while Pasha slowly recovered from his unwanted rescue. 4. Paul du Chaillu And The Pygmies Frenchman Paul du Chaillu was born in 1835. Raised on the west coast of Africa by his father, du Chaillu had the benefits of knowing many of the local languages, and he put his knowledge to good use. He is thought to be the first European to actually see a gorilla—until then, they had been regarded as mythical creatures. He was also the first to meet, interact with, and document the natives now known as Pygmies. Pygmies had existed in literature and letters for centuries but, like the gorilla, they were viewed as existing somewhere between the real world and the mythical one. Egyptian letters between traders dating back to 2276 B.C. call them the “dancing dwarf of the god from the land of spirits,” and they’re also featured in the Iliad, where they wage war on a flock of cranes. According to du Chaillu, his first impressions of Pygmies were of people who could move through the forest with incredible speed, grace, and silence. They amazed him with their perfect smallness, and he earned their trust through the presentation of food. His guides instructed him to always be kind to them, as they had always treated visitors with kindness and hospitality. Sadly, we did not hold onto that sentiment for long. By 1904, pygmies were being exhibited at fairs in St. Louis and the Bronx Zoo. 5. The Hamitic Hypothesis The exploration of Africa and slavery sadly go hand-in-hand, with the two impossible to separate. But there needed to be a justification for why enslaving the African people was perfectly acceptable. The Hamitic Hypothesis was just such an excuse. Even though the phrase “Hamitic Hypothesis” was only coined in 1959 , the theory is often credited to John Hanning Speke (pictured), one of its most vocal supporters throughout the latter half of the 19th century. The theory said all things good and valuable in Africa had been brought there by the Hamites, or the descendants of Ham. According to Biblical tradition, Ham was cursed after he looked upon his naked father. The curse stated that he and his descendants would be the brothers of slaves—those descendants eventually made their way to Africa and became the lighter-skinned people of the northern continent. With them, it was thought, came education and civilization. They soon took up places of authority over the darker, lesser native people who were put on Earth to be slaves to the higher races. It was this tragically misguided hypothesis that, in large part, made it an acceptable thing to enslave African natives. Not only was it their lot in life, but any traces of civilization found there only existed thanks to the lighter-skinned people who migrated into the area. 6. Robert Drury’s Mysterious Account Of Madagascar Madagascar is one of the most exotic places on Earth, with natives and an ecosystem unlike anything found anywhere else. It’s mysterious even today, meaning it was downright scary in the early 1700s. Robert Drury’s tale of shipwreck, kidnap, bid for freedom, and return to Africa is a truly amazing one, and it didn’t end when he made his incredible escape from slavery and headed back to Europe. In 1729, Drury released a book, Madagascar: or Robert Drury’s Journal During 15 Years of Captivity on that Island , dramatically detailing the years he spent enslaved by the local people. If living through it wasn’t bad enough, no one believed it was real. It was released only a few years after Robinson Crusoe, which undoubtedly added a “you won’t fool us twice” factor to Drury’s tale. Drury died in 1735 (having spent his last years haunting coffee houses in London insisting to disbelievers that his tale was true), and it wasn’t until almost 275 years later that determined researchers discovered he had been telling the truth all along. British archaeologist Mike Parker Pearson decided to retrace the steps outlined in the book, to see if there was any truth to it. Pearson and his crew discovered the descriptions in the book were very, very accurate, from the locations of mountains and rivers to the towns Drury claimed to have lived in. There were also plenty of strangely specific details that only someone who lived there would know, like beekeeping techniques, ways of finding food, and cultural traditions (like feet-licking) that have since been phased out but have left their mark in the native lexicon. In addition, Pearson excavated villages and homes, examined tombs, and found that many of the native peoples still knew of ruined, extinct villages by the old names that Drury used. Ultimately, Pearson found the wreck of Drury’s ship, leaving only one major question unanswered. Critics had long argued that Drury—a largely uneducated sailor—couldn’t possibly have written the book himself, and wondered who the mystery author was. According to Pearson and other scholars, the likely author is the man responsible for most of the controversy in the first place: Daniel Defoe , the author of Robinson Crusoe. 7. Mary Kingsley’s Study Of Witchcraft And Twin Killing Mary Kingsley was born in 1862, into an English society that was very much about constricting women’s duties to nothing more than care of the household. At age 30, Kingsley lost both her parents to sudden illness. With nobody to care for, Kingsley decided she wanted to see the world she’d read so much about. So, she set off on a journey to West Africa. Her trip wasn’t just a sightseeing holiday, as she wanted to study the native people, their beliefs, and their religion—termed “fetish,” or “juju.” Amid her treks up and down mountains, through swamps, and down rivers, Kingsley recorded massive amounts of detail and data on the native people. While many of her observances sound savage and critical today, there’s one thing that stands out among the practices she was both amazed and horrified by: twin-killing . In some places, it was thought that a woman who gave birth to twins had been marked as having had intercourse with a demon or spirits, an offense that meant death for the mother and the babies. In other areas, twins were viewed as magical, and were to be kept alive and handled carefully. If one was to die, they would return for the souls of others. Kingsley bore witness to a horrific case of the former , where a slave-woman had given birth to twins and was quickly driven out of her village. The natives stuffed the poor children in a wooden chest and threw them to the mother. Unfortunately, one child died in the process, while the other made it out of town and to safety, thanks to a well-meaning missionary who took pity on the mother. When Kingsley returned to England to publish papers on those she had met and the things she had seen, she faced overwhelming resistance from polite society. Many places didn’t even allow her to speak in public, allowing her work to be presented only if it was read by a man. Eventually she returned to Africa, acting as a nurse during the Second Boer War. She died in 1900 from typhoid, but not before she brought a new level of enlightenment to European society. 8. Diamonds, DeBeers, And A Secret Society A single discovery by a 15-year-old South African boy playing with the rocks on his family farm in 1867 changed the face of his country forever. Erasmus Jacobs picked up a particularly shiny rock, and it caught the eye of a neighbor. That neighbor knew a traveling man who knew a little bit about everything, who took the rock to Hopetown. Someone there then passed it on to the Colonial Secretary, who sold it to the Governor of the Cape. It was the Eureka Diamond , a massive, yellowish diamond determined to be 21.19 carats. Enter Cecil Rhodes (pictured), both one of the most hated and most celebrated of all British statesmen. Rhodes (who would later found the Rhodes Scholarships), headed to South Africa and started buying diamond mines on the cheap, after the miners that had been working them thought their claims to the diamonds had run out. Rhodes then consolidated all the mines he owned—and those that he didn’t—into the Rhodes DeBeers Consolidated Mines. By the time he was done, he owned or controlled about 90 percent of the world’s diamond mines . He did this not just for personal wealth, but to help realize his dream of absolute British rule. Years before, he had written works outlining his goals of uniting the entire world under the eye of his Queen. While in South Africa, he took it upon himself to try and instigate rebellions that would lead to the installation of an English government. When he died, it took several wills to distribute his massive fortune. Many of his writings direct his fortune—amassed by kicking down the door of South Africa’s diamond mines—to be spent toward the development of a secret society. This society would be comprised of Britain’s richest and most powerful people, about whom he was often quoted as saying could do for England what Jesus did for the Catholics. Thus, his true intentions were made perfectly clear: He wanted his money to ultimately go toward advancing the British race , one he claimed was the greatest on Earth (the Americans and Germans could tag along, too.) 9. Rene Caillie Enters Timbuktu Timbuktu had long been surrounded by a certain mystique. Sitting on the edge of the Sahara Desert, this Muslim capital was long off-limits to non-Muslims. Because mankind hasn’t really changed that much over the centuries, that made it the place that Europeans absolutely wanted to see. Britain’s Gordon Laing was the first person to enter the city in 1826, but he was killed before he could make it far out again. After five weeks in the city, he was given permission to leave, but he was attacked, strangled, and decapitated on his way out (his personal servant lived to tell the story). Four years later, Rene Caillie, the son of a French baker, decided to give Timbuktu a go . He chose to do so without the typical retinue of soldiers, guards, and servants most explorers traveled with. Instead, he read and studied the Quran, learned Arabic, wore traditional dress, followed traditions and cultural norms, and went undercover as an Egyptian-born Arab. We can’t help but think that actually arriving in Timbuktu had to have been the biggest disappointment ever. Instead of an exotic city filled with strange people, beautiful animals, exotic spices, and archetypal walls made of solid gold, he encountered a small, muddy, desolate world. If he had made it there several centuries earlier, when the city was at its cultural peak, then his observations of the magical, mystical city might have been on par with his expectations (aside from the golden walls thing, obviously). Instead, he came away thinking everything there felt rather sad. He lived with a man named Sheikh Al Bekay while in the city, always keeping up his disguise even while being shown the house his predecessor lived in. His hosts were ultimately loath to let him leave the city, but eventually he did so, with more success than Laing. As disappointing a place as Timbuktu had been, making it back home still earned him the 10,000 francs promised by the French government to the first person to visit the city and make it back. Yet, Caillie still battled naysayers for the rest of his life, who argued that he never truly made it to the city. Perhaps they simply refused to believe that the beautiful golden city of legend was just a dreary place where people slept in doorways. 10. Nathaniel Isaacs And The Wrongful Condemnation Of Shaka Zulu Nathaniel Isaacs was born in Canterbury, England in 1808. By all accounts, he was destined for a life working in an office. He found the work stuffy and boring though, and ultimately ended up accepting a position on a ship called the Mary , captained by a man he’d made friends with. Upon finding out that another friend had journeyed into the uncharted territories of East Africa, they decided to go looking for him. The Mary was wrecked near Port Natal, and while she was salvageable, it would take three years to make her seaworthy again. During those three years, Isaacs and a handful of crew members made their way inland, where they were received by the Zulu warrior chief Shaka. The chief was not only friendly and welcoming to Isaacs and his companions, but after the Europeans joined with the Zulus during a raid and demonstrated the effectiveness of muskets, Shaka granted Isaacs a land claim. Later, Isaacs would publish his writings about his experiences and observances of the Zulu camps, in Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa, published in 1836. For a long time, it was one of the most complete works written on Shaka and his successor, and it was considered one of the most authoritative sources on life in Eastern Africa. Only, it wasn’t all that true. Letters between Isaacs and one of his companions, Henry Francis Fynn (who was also writing a book about the Zulu), advised that embellishments be added in order to make their books more popular and sell more copies. While not all of the stories and legends of Shaka Zulu have been debunked, researchers from Rhodes University suggest that many of the bloodier stories about Shaka served another purpose: to popularize the idea that European settlers and explorers had the right to carve up the barbaric Africa into colonies. Stories were told of Shaka cutting apart pregnant women, murdering indiscriminately, and inventing new, brutal battle tactics. It’s since been shown that these “new” tactics were really hunting strategies that had been used for generations, and it’s unknown if Shaka ever had a formal army at all. Researchers know he was largely responsible for the Zulu rise to power in South Africa, but beyond that, Shaka Zulu is remaining stubbornly in the shadows of mystery. 11. Theodore Roosevelt And The Smithsonian’s African Expedition Long after the Scramble for Africa, and even after our maps were pretty spot-on accurate, African expeditions didn’t stop. They simply turned into more scientific-minded endeavors, with goals of learning more about plant and animal life that previous explorers had skipped past in their attempts to get back home alive. In 1909, the Smithsonian Institution sponsored an expedition to collect both living and dead specimens for examination, cataloging, and inclusion in what’s now known as the National Museum of Natural History. Theodore Roosevelt—along with his son and a handful of representatives from the Smithsonian—left for Africa on March 23, 1909 to spearhead this project. Exploring the great unknown was a longtime passion of Roosevelt’s (plus, since he had recently stepped down from the United States presidency, he didn’t have much else to do), so he eagerly jumped on board. Roosevelt and company enjoyed a luxury earlier explorers could have only dreamed of: a railway journey into the heart of Africa. Once they assembled the various pieces of their force (which included 250 native-born porters and guides to help manage Roosevelt’s tent, bathtub, and library, along with several tons of salt for preserving whatever animals they found along the way), they embarked on a year-long tour of the continent. In the end, they had 23,151 specimens for the museum, including plants, insects, birds, and even live animals that were bound for the National Zoological Park. Even today, visitors to the National Museum can see the square-lipped rhinoceros that Roosevelt brought back. The American Museum of Natural History also has an exhibit that features Roosevelt’s kills—the elephants in the Akeley Hall of African Mammals . Interestingly, Roosevelt’s connection with the Smithsonian predates both his presidency and his explorations. While in his twenties, he donated his childhood collection of 250 mounted animals and birds that he had been collecting while traveling the world in his teens. Join the conversation.. Follow us on Facebook or Twitter So you don't miss out on our posts. You can also Subscribe to receive daily updates.	4,550	ENGLISH	1
(Last Updated on : 13/02/2012) Pallu Plays in Tamil Literature refers to those plays, drama and folk songs of the Tamil country that were composed for the farmers and peasants. The Tamil word Pal refers to both the low lying wet lands and cultivation. Thus the term Pallu refers to folk songs of the Tamil farmers. As farming was the major occupation of the Tamil people, several songs must have been created for the farmers; but there is no mention of such peasant songs in Cilappatikaram , which was composed by Ilanko Atikal . Adequate information about the theme or form of peasant songs is not available even from the later period. Only in the last 3 centuries, some authors and poets have tried to explain the Tamil folk songs of the farmers. The Mokanap Pallu was the first work in this genre and was composed in the 17th century. Only some of the verses from the Mokanap Pallu are still in existence. These poems were written in the form of musical compositions, which narrates the flood in the Kaveri River , sowing, weeding and the various kinds of cattle utilised in farming. The Mukkutar Pallu is perhaps the most important works in the Pallu genre that are still available. It was composed by a poet who was a follower of Vaishnavism and lived in the 18th century. The work depicts the story of a farmer in the form of a play. The work mentions the tale of an agricultural worker or farmer, known as a Pallan in Tamil language. The story deals with the various complications related to the farmer and his two wives and the landlord. The jealousy between the wives regarding the farmer gives rise to various problems which are sorted out in the end. This is the basic summary of the plot described in Mukkutar Pallu. Even other pallu plays composed during that period also dealt with similar type of stories. In the 17th century, a lot of religious animosity existed between the Vaishnavites and the Shaivites. This rivalry was illustrated through the characters in the Pallu plays. The wives of the farmer usually belonged to different religious sects, particularly, Shaiva and Vaishnava. During the fights between the two wives both parties would criticize the other's religious belief and attack Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu. As a Vaishnava poet composed the work of Mukkutar Pallu, Vaisnavism received the most importance in the poetic work. Puranic tales which are based on Lord Shiva and the Vaishnava mythology are generally found in the Pallu plays and poems. As Mukkutar Pallu is a folk play, almost all of the events mentioned in the work depict the life in villages and rural areas. The flooding of the river, the various types of cattle, different kinds of seeds, planting and harvesting, the habits and customs of the farmers and their manner of conversation are narrated in the Tamil work. The Pallu Plays in Tamil Literature that arrived in the later periods were mostly composed in the venpa and akaval metres that are appropriate for literary works. The style is literary and does not contain any colloquial expressions. Thus the new pallu works are devoid of realism. Other than these other works of Pallu plays were written to eulogise and honour a particular town or to cater for the local people or to please a rich man. Therefore these pallu works are similar to the talapuranams . Some works in pallu plays were also constructed to praise the greatness of certain shrines. Among them the most notable works are the Kurukurp Pallu, the Katiraimalaip Pallu and the Paralai Vinayakar Pallu. Arunacalak Kavirayar composed the Cikalip Pallu to eulogise of the shrines at Cikali. Only five verses of this works are now available. The Tamil poet Ennayinar composed a dramatized version of the Mukkutar Pallu at a much later period, which was known as Mukkutar Pallu Natakam. The work was especially created for plays and dramas and thus many changes were made to the original work in order to make it interesting to the spectators.	<urn:uuid:7755828c-2fbd-41e7-9dea-fd67c4c13c52>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.indianetzone.com/58/pallu_plays_tamil_literature.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00324.warc.gz	en	0.981516	894	3.375	3	[ -0.08261245489120483, -0.000968653941527009, -0.16995857656002045, -0.21676892042160034, 0.04004888981580734, 0.05846291407942772, 0.05199454352259636, -0.16270104050636292, 0.24179497361183167, 0.21841299533843994, -0.37074440717697144, -0.21530623733997345, 0.4265814423561096, 0.36119401...	1	(Last Updated on : 13/02/2012) Pallu Plays in Tamil Literature refers to those plays, drama and folk songs of the Tamil country that were composed for the farmers and peasants. The Tamil word Pal refers to both the low lying wet lands and cultivation. Thus the term Pallu refers to folk songs of the Tamil farmers. As farming was the major occupation of the Tamil people, several songs must have been created for the farmers; but there is no mention of such peasant songs in Cilappatikaram , which was composed by Ilanko Atikal . Adequate information about the theme or form of peasant songs is not available even from the later period. Only in the last 3 centuries, some authors and poets have tried to explain the Tamil folk songs of the farmers. The Mokanap Pallu was the first work in this genre and was composed in the 17th century. Only some of the verses from the Mokanap Pallu are still in existence. These poems were written in the form of musical compositions, which narrates the flood in the Kaveri River , sowing, weeding and the various kinds of cattle utilised in farming. The Mukkutar Pallu is perhaps the most important works in the Pallu genre that are still available. It was composed by a poet who was a follower of Vaishnavism and lived in the 18th century. The work depicts the story of a farmer in the form of a play. The work mentions the tale of an agricultural worker or farmer, known as a Pallan in Tamil language. The story deals with the various complications related to the farmer and his two wives and the landlord. The jealousy between the wives regarding the farmer gives rise to various problems which are sorted out in the end. This is the basic summary of the plot described in Mukkutar Pallu. Even other pallu plays composed during that period also dealt with similar type of stories. In the 17th century, a lot of religious animosity existed between the Vaishnavites and the Shaivites. This rivalry was illustrated through the characters in the Pallu plays. The wives of the farmer usually belonged to different religious sects, particularly, Shaiva and Vaishnava. During the fights between the two wives both parties would criticize the other's religious belief and attack Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu. As a Vaishnava poet composed the work of Mukkutar Pallu, Vaisnavism received the most importance in the poetic work. Puranic tales which are based on Lord Shiva and the Vaishnava mythology are generally found in the Pallu plays and poems. As Mukkutar Pallu is a folk play, almost all of the events mentioned in the work depict the life in villages and rural areas. The flooding of the river, the various types of cattle, different kinds of seeds, planting and harvesting, the habits and customs of the farmers and their manner of conversation are narrated in the Tamil work. The Pallu Plays in Tamil Literature that arrived in the later periods were mostly composed in the venpa and akaval metres that are appropriate for literary works. The style is literary and does not contain any colloquial expressions. Thus the new pallu works are devoid of realism. Other than these other works of Pallu plays were written to eulogise and honour a particular town or to cater for the local people or to please a rich man. Therefore these pallu works are similar to the talapuranams . Some works in pallu plays were also constructed to praise the greatness of certain shrines. Among them the most notable works are the Kurukurp Pallu, the Katiraimalaip Pallu and the Paralai Vinayakar Pallu. Arunacalak Kavirayar composed the Cikalip Pallu to eulogise of the shrines at Cikali. Only five verses of this works are now available. The Tamil poet Ennayinar composed a dramatized version of the Mukkutar Pallu at a much later period, which was known as Mukkutar Pallu Natakam. The work was especially created for plays and dramas and thus many changes were made to the original work in order to make it interesting to the spectators.	896	ENGLISH	1
« ForrigeFortsett » Pendleton Bill. (See Civil Service Reform.) Pennsylvania was one of the original States of tha Union. The capital is Harrisburg. The population in 1880 was 4,282,891, and in the last census (1890) 5,258,014. Pennsylvania is entitled to twenty-eight seats in the House of Representatives and to thirty electoral votes. It is Republican in national politics. It was named after William Penn, its founder. Popularly it is called the Keystone State, because it occupies the place of the keystone in an arch representing the thirteen original States. (See Governors; Legislatures.) Pennsylvania of the West.—A name applied to the State of Missouri. People's Party.—In 1884 Benjamin F. Butler, of Massachusetts, was nominated for the presidency by the Anti-Monopoly party at Chicago, May 14th, and by the Greenback-Labor party at its convention in Indianapolis, May 27th and 28th. This common ticket of the two parties was known as the People's party. Pensions.—A pension is a regular payment of money to a person by the government in consideration of past services in its employ. Pensions were formerly granted in the United States only to enlisted men of the army or navy who had suffered during our various wars, except in a few special instances. But in 1869 an act was passed providing pensions at the rate of their salary to United States judges who have served ten years and resigned at seventy years or upward. Pensions have also been granted to the widows of former Presidents, Mrs. Lincoln, Mrs. Garfield, Mrs. Polk and Mrs. Tyler. Employes in the life-saving service, in the quartermasters and paymaster's departments, and nurses have also received them. Private pension bills are often passed, but by far the largest number of pensioners of the United States are such under general laws. As early as 1806 the United States had adopted a system of pensions for those who had become disabled in its military and naval services. In 1818 the system was extended to persons in reduced circumstances who had served at least nine months at any period of the Revolutiou, whether disabled or not. Abuses at once began to be apparent, and many persons received money who were not entitled to it. From that time till the period of the Civil War, the general rule in the many successive pension acts that were passed was to extend the government's bounty. Since 1862 the pension laws have been more numerous and generous than ever, especially for the last few years, when a surplus in the national treasury has made Congress liberal in the extreme. One of the most conspicuous of these laws was the "Arrears of Pensions Act," approved by President Hayes on January 25, 1879. It provided for the payment of pensions from the date of discharge or disability, and not from the date of application, as previous laws had provided in ease the claim was not made within a certain time. The political parties seem of late years to be afraid of alienating the votes of soldiers if they refuse to pass the most extravagant laws. This particular bill was a measure rushed through by the claim agents almost without debate, and has given rise to countless abuses. Widows (till remarriage) of soldiers or sailors who have died of wounds contracted in the line of duty in the United States service, children under sixteen, and mothers, and sisters under sixteen, who were dependent on the deceased, are entitled to a pension in the above order of priority. Only one full pension is allowed, and if it goes to childEen or to sisters, it is equally divided between them. It is impossible to enumerate all the causes for which pensions are granted, or the circumstances under which they are allowed. The United States is probably the most liberal nation in the world in this respect. The Forty-ninth Congress passed a multitude of private pension bills, most of which were vetoed by President Cleveland, and only one of which was passed over his veto. The amount paid by the government in pensions in 1791 was $175,813.88. The smallest amount paid in one year was $62,902.10, in 1803; the largest was $118,548,959.71, in 1891. The largest amount paid up to the Civil War was $4,589,152.40, in 1833. The following table shows the number of pensioners on the roll, and the disbursements on account of pensions since 1861: Pernicious Activity.—On July 14, 1886, President Cleveland directed a circular letter "to the head3 of departments in the service of the general government," warning them and their subordinates against using "their official positions in attempts to control political movements in their localities." The letter contained the following sentence: "Office-holders are neither disfranchised nor forbidden the exercise of political privileges; but their privileges are not enlarged, nor is their duty to party increased to pernicious activity by office-holding." Personal Liberty Laws.—A name given to laws passed by many of the Northern States for the purpose of impeding the operation of "fugitive slave laws." They generally forbade the use of State jails for the purposes of the fugitive slave laws; forbade the State magistrates to act under them; provided counsel for the fugitives, and secured to them trial by jury and the benefit of "habeas corpus." The fugitive slave law of 1850 placed its operation entirely in the hands of federal officers. Changes were made in the personal liberty laws to correspond to the increased stringency of the laws of 1850. Most of the Northern States passed acts of this nature, and thus was the Compromise of 1850 met in the North. This was one of the main grievances that at this time so increased Southern bitterness against the North. Personal Liberty Party.—The strict enforcement in New York of laws directed against the sale of liquor on Sundays, caused the formation there of an organization favoring the abolition of such restrictions on the sale of liquor as are deemed to conflict with the liberty of the individual, that is, the total prohibition of its sale on Sunday. This organization took the name of Personal Liberty Party, and in New York, on October 6, 1887, adopted a platform declaring that laws of the above description have notoriously failed to improve morality while they interfere with the personal liberty of the individual, and citing as people whose habits of life are thus interfered with the German element of our population who are "assiduous, temperate and law abiding people." Personation is a fraud practiced in elections and consists in voting under different names at the same polling place. Peruvian Guano Troubles.—In the early part of 1881 Chili had practically brought Peru to her feet in a war which the two countries had been waging against each other. Chili seemed inclined to press for a cession of the southern part of Peru as part of the war indemnity. This region is especially rich in guano deposits which have been found to be very valuable. Claims for discovering these deposits—the two principal ones being known as the Landreau and Cochet Claims—had for many years been pressed on the Peruvian government without success, though the government had virtually acknowledged their justice. At this- time they were owned hy Americans, who, fearing that their claims would be hopeless if the territory should be transferred to Chili, sought the aid oi our government to prevent Chili from acquiring the territory; it is asserted that the diplomacy of Blaine, Secretary of State at the time, was exerted in favor of this scheme, by reason of which fact he is sometimes referred to as the "guano statesman," and his foreign plans as a "guano policy." Our Minister to Peru, General Stephen A. Hurlbut, seems to have threatened the displeasure of the United States should Chili insist on the cession. This was unwarranted, even by Blaine's instructions, and of course unjustified by the rules of international comity in a war with which we had nothing to do. When, however, Chili arrested Calderon, the President of that one of the two conflicting governments in Peru which we had recognized, President Arthur in December, 1881, sent a special envoy, William H. Trescott, of South Carolina, accompanied by Walker Blaine, son of the Secretary of State, to the scene of the difficulties. Blaine's instructions to Trescott implied that the administration felt some reason to suppose that Chili had intentionally offended us by the arrest of Calderon, and that we had determined to assume a severer tone with Chili. About this time Frelinghuysen succeeded Blaine. He revoked part of Blaine's instructions to Trescott and ordered a more pacific course, and Trescott was soon recalled. Chili subsequently secured the coveted territory. It is asserted by some that government officials were interested in the guano claims and secured the following of a policy, so long as Blaine was Secretary, that must soon have plunged us into a war with Chili, had not a more pacific tone been adopted and our interference with Chili been brought to an end.	<urn:uuid:7c604f2e-efed-4d46-bb22-db1d47798f3d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://books.google.no/books?id=PXEqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA376&vq=prohibited&dq=editions:ISBN1361829923&hl=no&output=html_text&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00379.warc.gz	en	0.980643	1,881	3.4375	3	[ -0.4303222894668579, 0.08105260133743286, 0.21877261996269226, -0.13078440725803375, -0.3780423104763031, -0.11613087356090546, 0.13770513236522675, -0.15889976918697357, -0.4340648949146271, -0.04953534156084061, 0.3271653354167938, 0.1952386498451233, -0.24474090337753296, 0.020328385755...	2	« ForrigeFortsett » Pendleton Bill. (See Civil Service Reform.) Pennsylvania was one of the original States of tha Union. The capital is Harrisburg. The population in 1880 was 4,282,891, and in the last census (1890) 5,258,014. Pennsylvania is entitled to twenty-eight seats in the House of Representatives and to thirty electoral votes. It is Republican in national politics. It was named after William Penn, its founder. Popularly it is called the Keystone State, because it occupies the place of the keystone in an arch representing the thirteen original States. (See Governors; Legislatures.) Pennsylvania of the West.—A name applied to the State of Missouri. People's Party.—In 1884 Benjamin F. Butler, of Massachusetts, was nominated for the presidency by the Anti-Monopoly party at Chicago, May 14th, and by the Greenback-Labor party at its convention in Indianapolis, May 27th and 28th. This common ticket of the two parties was known as the People's party. Pensions.—A pension is a regular payment of money to a person by the government in consideration of past services in its employ. Pensions were formerly granted in the United States only to enlisted men of the army or navy who had suffered during our various wars, except in a few special instances. But in 1869 an act was passed providing pensions at the rate of their salary to United States judges who have served ten years and resigned at seventy years or upward. Pensions have also been granted to the widows of former Presidents, Mrs. Lincoln, Mrs. Garfield, Mrs. Polk and Mrs. Tyler. Employes in the life-saving service, in the quartermasters and paymaster's departments, and nurses have also received them. Private pension bills are often passed, but by far the largest number of pensioners of the United States are such under general laws. As early as 1806 the United States had adopted a system of pensions for those who had become disabled in its military and naval services. In 1818 the system was extended to persons in reduced circumstances who had served at least nine months at any period of the Revolutiou, whether disabled or not. Abuses at once began to be apparent, and many persons received money who were not entitled to it. From that time till the period of the Civil War, the general rule in the many successive pension acts that were passed was to extend the government's bounty. Since 1862 the pension laws have been more numerous and generous than ever, especially for the last few years, when a surplus in the national treasury has made Congress liberal in the extreme. One of the most conspicuous of these laws was the "Arrears of Pensions Act," approved by President Hayes on January 25, 1879. It provided for the payment of pensions from the date of discharge or disability, and not from the date of application, as previous laws had provided in ease the claim was not made within a certain time. The political parties seem of late years to be afraid of alienating the votes of soldiers if they refuse to pass the most extravagant laws. This particular bill was a measure rushed through by the claim agents almost without debate, and has given rise to countless abuses. Widows (till remarriage) of soldiers or sailors who have died of wounds contracted in the line of duty in the United States service, children under sixteen, and mothers, and sisters under sixteen, who were dependent on the deceased, are entitled to a pension in the above order of priority. Only one full pension is allowed, and if it goes to childEen or to sisters, it is equally divided between them. It is impossible to enumerate all the causes for which pensions are granted, or the circumstances under which they are allowed. The United States is probably the most liberal nation in the world in this respect. The Forty-ninth Congress passed a multitude of private pension bills, most of which were vetoed by President Cleveland, and only one of which was passed over his veto. The amount paid by the government in pensions in 1791 was $175,813.88. The smallest amount paid in one year was $62,902.10, in 1803; the largest was $118,548,959.71, in 1891. The largest amount paid up to the Civil War was $4,589,152.40, in 1833. The following table shows the number of pensioners on the roll, and the disbursements on account of pensions since 1861: Pernicious Activity.—On July 14, 1886, President Cleveland directed a circular letter "to the head3 of departments in the service of the general government," warning them and their subordinates against using "their official positions in attempts to control political movements in their localities." The letter contained the following sentence: "Office-holders are neither disfranchised nor forbidden the exercise of political privileges; but their privileges are not enlarged, nor is their duty to party increased to pernicious activity by office-holding." Personal Liberty Laws.—A name given to laws passed by many of the Northern States for the purpose of impeding the operation of "fugitive slave laws." They generally forbade the use of State jails for the purposes of the fugitive slave laws; forbade the State magistrates to act under them; provided counsel for the fugitives, and secured to them trial by jury and the benefit of "habeas corpus." The fugitive slave law of 1850 placed its operation entirely in the hands of federal officers. Changes were made in the personal liberty laws to correspond to the increased stringency of the laws of 1850. Most of the Northern States passed acts of this nature, and thus was the Compromise of 1850 met in the North. This was one of the main grievances that at this time so increased Southern bitterness against the North. Personal Liberty Party.—The strict enforcement in New York of laws directed against the sale of liquor on Sundays, caused the formation there of an organization favoring the abolition of such restrictions on the sale of liquor as are deemed to conflict with the liberty of the individual, that is, the total prohibition of its sale on Sunday. This organization took the name of Personal Liberty Party, and in New York, on October 6, 1887, adopted a platform declaring that laws of the above description have notoriously failed to improve morality while they interfere with the personal liberty of the individual, and citing as people whose habits of life are thus interfered with the German element of our population who are "assiduous, temperate and law abiding people." Personation is a fraud practiced in elections and consists in voting under different names at the same polling place. Peruvian Guano Troubles.—In the early part of 1881 Chili had practically brought Peru to her feet in a war which the two countries had been waging against each other. Chili seemed inclined to press for a cession of the southern part of Peru as part of the war indemnity. This region is especially rich in guano deposits which have been found to be very valuable. Claims for discovering these deposits—the two principal ones being known as the Landreau and Cochet Claims—had for many years been pressed on the Peruvian government without success, though the government had virtually acknowledged their justice. At this- time they were owned hy Americans, who, fearing that their claims would be hopeless if the territory should be transferred to Chili, sought the aid oi our government to prevent Chili from acquiring the territory; it is asserted that the diplomacy of Blaine, Secretary of State at the time, was exerted in favor of this scheme, by reason of which fact he is sometimes referred to as the "guano statesman," and his foreign plans as a "guano policy." Our Minister to Peru, General Stephen A. Hurlbut, seems to have threatened the displeasure of the United States should Chili insist on the cession. This was unwarranted, even by Blaine's instructions, and of course unjustified by the rules of international comity in a war with which we had nothing to do. When, however, Chili arrested Calderon, the President of that one of the two conflicting governments in Peru which we had recognized, President Arthur in December, 1881, sent a special envoy, William H. Trescott, of South Carolina, accompanied by Walker Blaine, son of the Secretary of State, to the scene of the difficulties. Blaine's instructions to Trescott implied that the administration felt some reason to suppose that Chili had intentionally offended us by the arrest of Calderon, and that we had determined to assume a severer tone with Chili. About this time Frelinghuysen succeeded Blaine. He revoked part of Blaine's instructions to Trescott and ordered a more pacific course, and Trescott was soon recalled. Chili subsequently secured the coveted territory. It is asserted by some that government officials were interested in the guano claims and secured the following of a policy, so long as Blaine was Secretary, that must soon have plunged us into a war with Chili, had not a more pacific tone been adopted and our interference with Chili been brought to an end.	1,980	ENGLISH	1
A large unit of soldiers in the Roman army. With Augustus’s reorganization of the Roman army a legion was composed of 5,400 to 6,000 men and a like number of auxiliary troops. The auxiliary regiments consisted of infantry cohorts and cavalry recruited from among the subject peoples. They were sometimes commanded by Roman officers and sometimes by their own tribal leaders. “Legion” also appears as the name of a demon exorcised by Jesus in (Mark 5:9 , Luke 8:30 ). Jesus at his capture claimed God would send more than twelve legions of angels to rescue him if he so desired (Matt 26:53 9Then Jesus asked him, “What is your name?” He replied, “My name is Legion; for we are many.” 30Jesus then asked him, “What is your name?” He said, “Legion”; for many demons had entered him. 53Do you think that I cannot appeal to my Father, and he will at once send me more than twelve legions of angels?	<urn:uuid:308ab5db-b9ae-4005-9e97-5db8fb374d9d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://bibleodyssey.org/en/HarperCollinsBibleDictionary/l/legion	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00446.warc.gz	en	0.98209	225	3.65625	4	[ -0.44396263360977173, 0.33086833357810974, 0.1475190371274948, -0.15941974520683289, -0.255039244890213, -0.12999340891838074, 0.06305013597011566, 0.2807461619377136, 0.5692423582077026, -0.2804318070411682, 0.25274184346199036, -0.5033988356590271, -0.3349187672138214, -0.013554029166698...	7	A large unit of soldiers in the Roman army. With Augustus’s reorganization of the Roman army a legion was composed of 5,400 to 6,000 men and a like number of auxiliary troops. The auxiliary regiments consisted of infantry cohorts and cavalry recruited from among the subject peoples. They were sometimes commanded by Roman officers and sometimes by their own tribal leaders. “Legion” also appears as the name of a demon exorcised by Jesus in (Mark 5:9 , Luke 8:30 ). Jesus at his capture claimed God would send more than twelve legions of angels to rescue him if he so desired (Matt 26:53 9Then Jesus asked him, “What is your name?” He replied, “My name is Legion; for we are many.” 30Jesus then asked him, “What is your name?” He said, “Legion”; for many demons had entered him. 53Do you think that I cannot appeal to my Father, and he will at once send me more than twelve legions of angels?	225	ENGLISH	1
How Butternut canker disease has spread in the Macoun Study Area The Butternut was usually an infrequent tree in the Macoun Club’s nature study area just outside Ottawa, Ontario, but in places it grew abundantly — around the edges of old fields, along outcrops, and in maple forests, particularly where they are moist. We know it as a small to medium-sized tree, but one that sometimes grows as big as any other species here. It is almost absent from the eastern third of the Study Area. It is related to Walnut trees, and like them, produces a large, edible nut. All across North Amerca, a fungal plague called Butternut canker is sweeping through the Butternut population. This disease was first noted in 1967, and identified in 1979. The fungus, Sirococcus clavigignenti-juglandacearum, kills small patches of bark and causes wounds, called cankers, to appear. The black stain on the bark at left indicates an active canker, while beside it is a canker that the tree’s resistance defeated, and healed over. Such resistance raises hope for the species. But cankers may multiply to the point where they choke off the flow of sap. This is what was happening to the 25-cm diameter tree above right, before it was cut down. Though the tree was leafing out that spring, reddish brown rot had already eaten into the trunk where cankers had exposed the wood. The large annual rings show that the tree had been growing vigorously up until the end. (It was actually cut down by mistake — it was slow to leaf out and work crews thought it was dead. They didn’t even know it was a Butternut.) In the winter of 1993/94, Macoun Club leaders Rob Lee and Barbara Gaertner carried out a fairly complete survey of Butternut trees in the Study Area, recording which trees had the disease (below left). After 10 years, they resurveyed the species. How much was there in 1994, and how much now? For an explanation of the colour-coded vegetation, see the main map. Basically: light green (deciduous woods); dark green (coniferous forest); pastel orange (pine or spruce plantations on former farmland). The map at left shows how in 1994, only 35 of the 415 trees then found (8%) had fungal cankers. Only 2 seemed seriously diseased, and just one had died of the disease. In 2004, as they revisited each tree, it was added to a new map, above right. They found a much higher rate of infection (474 of 616 trunks, or about 77%). About 50 of the trees appeared to have died from the disease, often because cankers at the moist base of the tree allow the roots to rot out even while the crown is still healthy. (Another 50 were broken down by the ice storm of 1998, and had died as a result of that damage.) A very few trees had overcome the infection, at least above ground, and showed healed cankers on their trunks. In 2009, Butternut trees seemed to be dying at the fastest rate yet. Rob and Barbara resurveyed a few years earlier than planned, because so many trees were falling down that they doubted they’d be able to find them all if they waited until 2014. In the early summer of 2010, they were finding that almost exactly 50% of the trees that were alive in 2004 are now dead. Few people notice that this has happened, because the Butternuts are immersed in the forest of maples and other trees, but there was one grove — near the “waterfall”, for Macouners who know the place — where the bare limbs stood starkly against the sky. The Study Area’s very biggest Butternut died in 2009, and in 2010 the second-biggest had cankers on its trunk and roots; only 30% of the crown was still alive. Many of the survivors have healthy looking crowns, but their roots are rotting out. Roots are often exposed to the air and fungal infection by the soil deflation caused by a high population of introduced invasive earthworms. Cankers on the roots occur as much as 8 feet (2.1 m) out from the trunk. Many trees are more obviously in faltering health, with just a few branches bearing leaves. All photos donated or provided by members and leaders, past and present. Created May 2002; updated June 4 and Dec. 16, 2003, and July 19 and Dec. 5, 2010. Coding revised June 2016.	<urn:uuid:c93a6581-9fbc-4699-8e88-1e42e47ba132>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ofnc.ca/programs/macoun-field-club/study-area/butternut-canker-disease	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00018.warc.gz	en	0.983589	973	3.4375	3	[ -0.13160957396030426, -0.2809520959854126, 0.08925046026706696, 0.0017440528608858585, 0.4657963812351227, -0.35919010639190674, 0.22897741198539734, 0.22048264741897583, -0.3699817359447479, 0.20113837718963623, 0.28876641392707825, -0.8158460259437561, 0.10835456848144531, -0.22858135402...	1	How Butternut canker disease has spread in the Macoun Study Area The Butternut was usually an infrequent tree in the Macoun Club’s nature study area just outside Ottawa, Ontario, but in places it grew abundantly — around the edges of old fields, along outcrops, and in maple forests, particularly where they are moist. We know it as a small to medium-sized tree, but one that sometimes grows as big as any other species here. It is almost absent from the eastern third of the Study Area. It is related to Walnut trees, and like them, produces a large, edible nut. All across North Amerca, a fungal plague called Butternut canker is sweeping through the Butternut population. This disease was first noted in 1967, and identified in 1979. The fungus, Sirococcus clavigignenti-juglandacearum, kills small patches of bark and causes wounds, called cankers, to appear. The black stain on the bark at left indicates an active canker, while beside it is a canker that the tree’s resistance defeated, and healed over. Such resistance raises hope for the species. But cankers may multiply to the point where they choke off the flow of sap. This is what was happening to the 25-cm diameter tree above right, before it was cut down. Though the tree was leafing out that spring, reddish brown rot had already eaten into the trunk where cankers had exposed the wood. The large annual rings show that the tree had been growing vigorously up until the end. (It was actually cut down by mistake — it was slow to leaf out and work crews thought it was dead. They didn’t even know it was a Butternut.) In the winter of 1993/94, Macoun Club leaders Rob Lee and Barbara Gaertner carried out a fairly complete survey of Butternut trees in the Study Area, recording which trees had the disease (below left). After 10 years, they resurveyed the species. How much was there in 1994, and how much now? For an explanation of the colour-coded vegetation, see the main map. Basically: light green (deciduous woods); dark green (coniferous forest); pastel orange (pine or spruce plantations on former farmland). The map at left shows how in 1994, only 35 of the 415 trees then found (8%) had fungal cankers. Only 2 seemed seriously diseased, and just one had died of the disease. In 2004, as they revisited each tree, it was added to a new map, above right. They found a much higher rate of infection (474 of 616 trunks, or about 77%). About 50 of the trees appeared to have died from the disease, often because cankers at the moist base of the tree allow the roots to rot out even while the crown is still healthy. (Another 50 were broken down by the ice storm of 1998, and had died as a result of that damage.) A very few trees had overcome the infection, at least above ground, and showed healed cankers on their trunks. In 2009, Butternut trees seemed to be dying at the fastest rate yet. Rob and Barbara resurveyed a few years earlier than planned, because so many trees were falling down that they doubted they’d be able to find them all if they waited until 2014. In the early summer of 2010, they were finding that almost exactly 50% of the trees that were alive in 2004 are now dead. Few people notice that this has happened, because the Butternuts are immersed in the forest of maples and other trees, but there was one grove — near the “waterfall”, for Macouners who know the place — where the bare limbs stood starkly against the sky. The Study Area’s very biggest Butternut died in 2009, and in 2010 the second-biggest had cankers on its trunk and roots; only 30% of the crown was still alive. Many of the survivors have healthy looking crowns, but their roots are rotting out. Roots are often exposed to the air and fungal infection by the soil deflation caused by a high population of introduced invasive earthworms. Cankers on the roots occur as much as 8 feet (2.1 m) out from the trunk. Many trees are more obviously in faltering health, with just a few branches bearing leaves. All photos donated or provided by members and leaders, past and present. Created May 2002; updated June 4 and Dec. 16, 2003, and July 19 and Dec. 5, 2010. Coding revised June 2016.	1,045	ENGLISH	1
Nelson Mandela was the first black president of South Africa, a political prisoner, and a vastly known revolutionary. His advances to gain freedom in South Africa was and still is influential to many politicians, activists and revolutionaries throughout time. We will be taking a close look at the life of Mandela, analyzing his use of violence and comparing it to Frantz Fanon’s k0 On Violence chapter from his widely known novel, The Wretched of the Earth, and critiquing the glamorization of passive resistance through Mandela. Rolihlahla Mandela was born 18 July 1918 into the Madiba clan in the village of Mvezo, South Africa. He was raised by his mother, Nonqaphi Nosekeni, and his father Nkosi Mphakanyiswa Gadla Mandela. His father was the principal counsellor to the Acting King of the Thembu people. His name, Rolihlahla, means pulling the branch of a tree, but colloquially it means troublemaker. In 1925, he attends school in Qunu, South Africa and his teacher, Miss Mtingane, had asked him what his name was and he gave her his African name, and she refused and asked him again what his Christian name was and he had told her he does not have a Christian name. She had then told him from that day forward his name would be Nelson. In 1930, at just 12 years old, his father passed away from a lung illness.Shortly after, his mother let him go to attend a ritual where a boy becomes a man, this was also called initiation. The king takes him under his wing. Due to his father’s status and living with the king, Nelson was given the best education a black South African could get. He attended middle school at Clarkebury Boarding Institute and went on to Healdtown, a Wesleyan high school. By 1939, Mandela began his studies for a Bachelor of Arts degree at the University College of Fort Hare but did not complete his degree due to being expelled for joining in on a student protest. On his arrival back to the Palace, the king was furious with him. The king had suggested he ought to be married, Mandela believed he was not ready to be married and so he ran away with his cousin Justice to Johannesburg where they worked as mine security officers. After meeting Walter Sisulu, an estate agent, he was introduced to Lazer Sidelsky. He then did his articles through a firm of attorneys Witkin, Eidelman and Sidelsky.Mandela then begins to informally attend ANC meetings. Finally, in 1943 Mandela completed his BA at the University of South Africa and had decided to go back to Fort Hare for his graduation. In 1944, he helped to form the ANC Youth League (ANCYL). Later on in that year, Mandela fell in love and married Walter Sisulu’s cousin, Evelyn Mase, a nurse. The couple had two sons, Madiba Thembekile “Thembi” and Makgatho, and two daughters both called Makaziwe, the first of whom died in infancy. Evelyn and Mandela’s marriage began to fall apart once he spent a lot of his time with the ANC. His wife believed he was neglecting his fatherly duties and their relationship became rocky. It has also been reported that Mandela had affairs with other women during their marriage and that he got physical with Evelyn at some point. He and his wife divorced in 1958. Later on in the year he meets Nomzamo Winnie Madikizela and they fall in love and get married. The couple have two daughters: Zenani and Zindzi. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Mandela’s Violence: the Glamorization of Passive Resistance" essay for youCreate order On March 21, 1960, an incident in the black township of Sharpeville, South Africa, police fired on a crowd of black South Africans, killing or wounding some 250 of them. It was one of the first and most violent demonstrations against apartheid in South Africa. A member of the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) organized the anti- apartheid protest. In order to reduce the possibility of violence, he wrote a letter to the Sharpeville police commissioner announcing the upcoming protest and emphasizing that its participants would be non-violent. Around 7,000 South Africans gathered at the Sharpeville police station. At the scene, there were about 300 police officers. A police officer was knocked down and protesters began moving forward to see what had happened. Police quickly began shooting at the protesters without a warning shot. 69 Africans were killed and 186 were wounded, with most shot in the back. Tensions between authorities and Black South Africans arose. The Sharpeville Massacre awakened the international community to the horrors of apartheid. The massacre also sparked hundreds of mass protests by black South Africans, many of which were ruthlessly and violently crushed by the South African police and military. On March 30, the South African government declared a state of emergency which made any protest illegal. The ban remained in effect until August 31, 1960. During those five months, roughly 25,000 people were arrested throughout the nation including Mandela.The South African government then created the Unlawful Organizations Act of 1960 which banned anti-apartheid groups such as the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) and the African National Congress (ANC). Days before the end of the Treason Trial, Mandela travelled to Pietermaritzburg to speak at the All-in Africa Conference. The conference resolved that he should write to Prime Minister Verwoerd requesting a national convention on a non-racial constitution. He also warned the prime minister that if he did not agree there will be a national strike that would make South Africa a republic. After he and his colleagues were acquitted in the Treason Trial, Mandela was forced to go underground. No one knew of his whereabouts except his colleagues and wife Winnie. While Mandela was underground, he began planning a national strike for the 29th, 30th and 31st of March. The strike was called off in face of massive mobilization of state security. In June of 1961 Nelson Mandela was asked to lead the armed struggle and helped establish Umkhonto weSizwe (Spear of the Nation), which launched on December 16th, 1961 with a series of explosions. Mandela adopted the name David Motsamayi and had secretly travelled all over Africa and also travelled to England to gain support for the armed struggle. On his trip, he had gained military training in Ethiopia and Morocco and finally returned back to South Africa in July of 1962. Mandela was in a car returning back from KwaZulu-Natal where he had met with ANC President Albert Luthuli to speak about his trip and inform them of new knowledge he had gained. Mandela was road blocked by police outside of Howick and arrested him for illegally leaving the country and attempting to incite a worker’s strike on August 5th, 1962. He was sentenced to five years which he began to serve at Pretoria Local Prison. . He was then transferred to Robben Island on May 27th, 1963 and returned to Pretoria by June. Within that month the ANC hideout, Liliesleaf, in Rivonia, Johannesburg was raided and arrested ANC/ Communist party members, Walter Sisulu, Denis Goldberg, Govan Mbeki, Ahmed Kathrada, Lionel ‘Rusty’ Bernstein, Raymond Mhlaba, James Kantor, Elias Motsoaledi and Andrew Mlangeni.The trial is called the Rivonia trial and on December 3rd Mandela pleads not guilty in the accusation of attempting to overthrow the government. At the courthouse, he gives his famous Rivonia speech in which he states This then is what the ANC is fighting. Their struggle is a truly national one. It is a struggle of the African people, inspired by their own suffering and their own experience. It is a struggle for the right to live. During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle of the African people. I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.(Mandela, 1964). He and seven other men were sent to life imprisonment at Robben Island whereas, their white comrade Denis Goldberg was sent to a white prison. During Mandela’s imprisonment, his wife Winnie was being harassed by authorities. They would arrest her right before her two daughters would come home from school so they would come to an empty home. One of Winnie’s arrests lasted longer than the others. She was in prison for a total of 491 days where she was tortured and treated inhumanely. Her husband on the other hand, was only allowed to visits a year and was allowed to also send two letters a year. He was not allowed to have any physical contact with his visitors until many years later. When Mandela was arrested his daughters were toddlers when he was arrested and were not allowed to visit him until they turned 16. Mandela’s mother passed away in 1968, and his eldest son Thembekile was killed in a car accident along with ten others. He was not allowed to attend either of the funerals.In 1982, he was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison in Cape Town with Sisulu, Mhlaba and Mlangeni. Kathrada joined them in later on in October. Mandela is offered to be released from prison by President PW Botha’s if he renounces violence and he declines the offer through his daughter Zindzi. From 1985-1988 Mandela deals with a series of health issues from getting prostate surgery to being diagnosed with tuberculosis. He then is Moved to Victor Verster Prison in Paarl where he is held for 14 months in a cottage. He begin to meet with President de Klerk to resolve the race war taking place on the streets of South Africa. In 1990, the ANC is unbanned and shorty after on on February 11th, Mandela is finally free. In 1993, he is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize with President de Klerk. Mandela urges the people to vote in the upcoming election, he hoped it would be how the people would finally gain their freedom. On May 10th, 1994 Nelson Mandela is inaugurated as South Africa’s first democratically elected President and Apartheid is finally banned. In contrast, Mandela’s politics leading up the Rivonia trial has been heavily critiqued. Mandela himself believes that his politics at the time were not very effective. He was described as violent but I believe otherwise and so would Fanon. We have seen how the government agent uses a language of pure violence. The agent does not alleviate oppression or mask domination. He displays and demonstrates the with the clear conscious of the law enforcer, and brings violence into the homes and minds of the colonized subject. (Fanon, 4). Frantz Fanon was a psychiatrist, philosopher, writer and revolutionary from the French colony of Martinique in the Caribbean ocean. He analyzed the psychology of the colonized subject and endorsed armed resistance. Fanon believed that in order for violence to take place, it always comes from those in power. Apartheid was a violence act against the African people therefore, the African people are incapable of being violent it only makes sense to be armed in defense of the oppressed subject. Decolonization is always a violent event. (Fanon, 1). In this case, decolonization he speaks of is the walk to freedom from Apartheid. Mandela And his brethren were captured and put in prison for treason but was it truly treason? They were simply freeing themselves from the violent and oppressive system of Apartheid and reciprocating the energy as their oppressors. One must fight for his country. Because nonviolence worked so well as a tactic for effecting change and was demonstrably improving their lives, some black people chose to use weapons to defend the nonviolent Freedom Movement. (Cobbs, 1). After Mandela was released from prison he adopted the nonviolent love thy oppressors mentality. For the oppressed, it is nearly impossible to show love to those who have put your people through a living hell. Despite seeing potentiality in violence, Fanon does not think that violence should be used lightly or as an end unto itself. Fanon also documents the dangerous and negative effects of violence. The physical aspect of violence is obviously harmful to the the oppressed. Fanon is not saying that in order to free oneself, the oppressed should burn everything down, he is simply stating that the at of freeing the oppressed, there is always violence and it is a violent act. In today’s world, many non violent activists are overly glamorized. The oppressed adopt the love thy oppressor that will never bring them true freedom and liberation. Passive resistance has been overly glamorized by mainly white liberals. Civil Rights icons like Martin Luther King is seen as a true freedom fighter and an example of what activism should truly look like. Not everything is solved by holding hands and singing Kumbaya. Nonviolence recognizes that evildoers are also victims and are not evil people. This ideology does not makes sense because an evildoer is essentially, evil. We have seen that this violence throughout the colonial period, although constantly on edge, runs on empty. We have seen it channelled through the emotional release of dance or possession. We have seen it exhaust itself in fratricidal struggles. The challenge now is to seize this violence as it realigns itself. Whereas it once revealed in myths and contrived ways to commit collective suicide, a fresh set of circumstances will now enable it to change directions. (Fanon, 21). Furthermore, Nelson Mandela has influenced thousands of marginalized and privileged people worldwide. His politics may be critiqued in whichever aspect of his life, whether he was violent or peaceful. He will always be the father of South Africa, a human rights advocate and the best of teachers. The life Mandela lead showed the world that he was our king. Our black, shining king that was willing to die for the liberation of his people because he loved them so much. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	<urn:uuid:84f06ea1-027d-463e-83fe-f74d485d31f2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studydriver.com/mandelas-violence-the-glamorization-of-passive-resistance/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00166.warc.gz	en	0.98629	2,985	3.3125	3	[ -0.32029756903648376, 1.1394230127334595, 0.01583101600408554, -0.1399068981409073, 0.043250922113657, 0.06326217204332352, 0.47638940811157227, -0.35896217823028564, -0.06929729878902435, 0.37522780895233154, 0.6108253598213196, -0.09890985488891602, 0.2560105323791504, 0.3507471382617950...	1	Nelson Mandela was the first black president of South Africa, a political prisoner, and a vastly known revolutionary. His advances to gain freedom in South Africa was and still is influential to many politicians, activists and revolutionaries throughout time. We will be taking a close look at the life of Mandela, analyzing his use of violence and comparing it to Frantz Fanon’s k0 On Violence chapter from his widely known novel, The Wretched of the Earth, and critiquing the glamorization of passive resistance through Mandela. Rolihlahla Mandela was born 18 July 1918 into the Madiba clan in the village of Mvezo, South Africa. He was raised by his mother, Nonqaphi Nosekeni, and his father Nkosi Mphakanyiswa Gadla Mandela. His father was the principal counsellor to the Acting King of the Thembu people. His name, Rolihlahla, means pulling the branch of a tree, but colloquially it means troublemaker. In 1925, he attends school in Qunu, South Africa and his teacher, Miss Mtingane, had asked him what his name was and he gave her his African name, and she refused and asked him again what his Christian name was and he had told her he does not have a Christian name. She had then told him from that day forward his name would be Nelson. In 1930, at just 12 years old, his father passed away from a lung illness.Shortly after, his mother let him go to attend a ritual where a boy becomes a man, this was also called initiation. The king takes him under his wing. Due to his father’s status and living with the king, Nelson was given the best education a black South African could get. He attended middle school at Clarkebury Boarding Institute and went on to Healdtown, a Wesleyan high school. By 1939, Mandela began his studies for a Bachelor of Arts degree at the University College of Fort Hare but did not complete his degree due to being expelled for joining in on a student protest. On his arrival back to the Palace, the king was furious with him. The king had suggested he ought to be married, Mandela believed he was not ready to be married and so he ran away with his cousin Justice to Johannesburg where they worked as mine security officers. After meeting Walter Sisulu, an estate agent, he was introduced to Lazer Sidelsky. He then did his articles through a firm of attorneys Witkin, Eidelman and Sidelsky.Mandela then begins to informally attend ANC meetings. Finally, in 1943 Mandela completed his BA at the University of South Africa and had decided to go back to Fort Hare for his graduation. In 1944, he helped to form the ANC Youth League (ANCYL). Later on in that year, Mandela fell in love and married Walter Sisulu’s cousin, Evelyn Mase, a nurse. The couple had two sons, Madiba Thembekile “Thembi” and Makgatho, and two daughters both called Makaziwe, the first of whom died in infancy. Evelyn and Mandela’s marriage began to fall apart once he spent a lot of his time with the ANC. His wife believed he was neglecting his fatherly duties and their relationship became rocky. It has also been reported that Mandela had affairs with other women during their marriage and that he got physical with Evelyn at some point. He and his wife divorced in 1958. Later on in the year he meets Nomzamo Winnie Madikizela and they fall in love and get married. The couple have two daughters: Zenani and Zindzi. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Mandela’s Violence: the Glamorization of Passive Resistance" essay for youCreate order On March 21, 1960, an incident in the black township of Sharpeville, South Africa, police fired on a crowd of black South Africans, killing or wounding some 250 of them. It was one of the first and most violent demonstrations against apartheid in South Africa. A member of the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) organized the anti- apartheid protest. In order to reduce the possibility of violence, he wrote a letter to the Sharpeville police commissioner announcing the upcoming protest and emphasizing that its participants would be non-violent. Around 7,000 South Africans gathered at the Sharpeville police station. At the scene, there were about 300 police officers. A police officer was knocked down and protesters began moving forward to see what had happened. Police quickly began shooting at the protesters without a warning shot. 69 Africans were killed and 186 were wounded, with most shot in the back. Tensions between authorities and Black South Africans arose. The Sharpeville Massacre awakened the international community to the horrors of apartheid. The massacre also sparked hundreds of mass protests by black South Africans, many of which were ruthlessly and violently crushed by the South African police and military. On March 30, the South African government declared a state of emergency which made any protest illegal. The ban remained in effect until August 31, 1960. During those five months, roughly 25,000 people were arrested throughout the nation including Mandela.The South African government then created the Unlawful Organizations Act of 1960 which banned anti-apartheid groups such as the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) and the African National Congress (ANC). Days before the end of the Treason Trial, Mandela travelled to Pietermaritzburg to speak at the All-in Africa Conference. The conference resolved that he should write to Prime Minister Verwoerd requesting a national convention on a non-racial constitution. He also warned the prime minister that if he did not agree there will be a national strike that would make South Africa a republic. After he and his colleagues were acquitted in the Treason Trial, Mandela was forced to go underground. No one knew of his whereabouts except his colleagues and wife Winnie. While Mandela was underground, he began planning a national strike for the 29th, 30th and 31st of March. The strike was called off in face of massive mobilization of state security. In June of 1961 Nelson Mandela was asked to lead the armed struggle and helped establish Umkhonto weSizwe (Spear of the Nation), which launched on December 16th, 1961 with a series of explosions. Mandela adopted the name David Motsamayi and had secretly travelled all over Africa and also travelled to England to gain support for the armed struggle. On his trip, he had gained military training in Ethiopia and Morocco and finally returned back to South Africa in July of 1962. Mandela was in a car returning back from KwaZulu-Natal where he had met with ANC President Albert Luthuli to speak about his trip and inform them of new knowledge he had gained. Mandela was road blocked by police outside of Howick and arrested him for illegally leaving the country and attempting to incite a worker’s strike on August 5th, 1962. He was sentenced to five years which he began to serve at Pretoria Local Prison. . He was then transferred to Robben Island on May 27th, 1963 and returned to Pretoria by June. Within that month the ANC hideout, Liliesleaf, in Rivonia, Johannesburg was raided and arrested ANC/ Communist party members, Walter Sisulu, Denis Goldberg, Govan Mbeki, Ahmed Kathrada, Lionel ‘Rusty’ Bernstein, Raymond Mhlaba, James Kantor, Elias Motsoaledi and Andrew Mlangeni.The trial is called the Rivonia trial and on December 3rd Mandela pleads not guilty in the accusation of attempting to overthrow the government. At the courthouse, he gives his famous Rivonia speech in which he states This then is what the ANC is fighting. Their struggle is a truly national one. It is a struggle of the African people, inspired by their own suffering and their own experience. It is a struggle for the right to live. During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle of the African people. I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.(Mandela, 1964). He and seven other men were sent to life imprisonment at Robben Island whereas, their white comrade Denis Goldberg was sent to a white prison. During Mandela’s imprisonment, his wife Winnie was being harassed by authorities. They would arrest her right before her two daughters would come home from school so they would come to an empty home. One of Winnie’s arrests lasted longer than the others. She was in prison for a total of 491 days where she was tortured and treated inhumanely. Her husband on the other hand, was only allowed to visits a year and was allowed to also send two letters a year. He was not allowed to have any physical contact with his visitors until many years later. When Mandela was arrested his daughters were toddlers when he was arrested and were not allowed to visit him until they turned 16. Mandela’s mother passed away in 1968, and his eldest son Thembekile was killed in a car accident along with ten others. He was not allowed to attend either of the funerals.In 1982, he was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison in Cape Town with Sisulu, Mhlaba and Mlangeni. Kathrada joined them in later on in October. Mandela is offered to be released from prison by President PW Botha’s if he renounces violence and he declines the offer through his daughter Zindzi. From 1985-1988 Mandela deals with a series of health issues from getting prostate surgery to being diagnosed with tuberculosis. He then is Moved to Victor Verster Prison in Paarl where he is held for 14 months in a cottage. He begin to meet with President de Klerk to resolve the race war taking place on the streets of South Africa. In 1990, the ANC is unbanned and shorty after on on February 11th, Mandela is finally free. In 1993, he is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize with President de Klerk. Mandela urges the people to vote in the upcoming election, he hoped it would be how the people would finally gain their freedom. On May 10th, 1994 Nelson Mandela is inaugurated as South Africa’s first democratically elected President and Apartheid is finally banned. In contrast, Mandela’s politics leading up the Rivonia trial has been heavily critiqued. Mandela himself believes that his politics at the time were not very effective. He was described as violent but I believe otherwise and so would Fanon. We have seen how the government agent uses a language of pure violence. The agent does not alleviate oppression or mask domination. He displays and demonstrates the with the clear conscious of the law enforcer, and brings violence into the homes and minds of the colonized subject. (Fanon, 4). Frantz Fanon was a psychiatrist, philosopher, writer and revolutionary from the French colony of Martinique in the Caribbean ocean. He analyzed the psychology of the colonized subject and endorsed armed resistance. Fanon believed that in order for violence to take place, it always comes from those in power. Apartheid was a violence act against the African people therefore, the African people are incapable of being violent it only makes sense to be armed in defense of the oppressed subject. Decolonization is always a violent event. (Fanon, 1). In this case, decolonization he speaks of is the walk to freedom from Apartheid. Mandela And his brethren were captured and put in prison for treason but was it truly treason? They were simply freeing themselves from the violent and oppressive system of Apartheid and reciprocating the energy as their oppressors. One must fight for his country. Because nonviolence worked so well as a tactic for effecting change and was demonstrably improving their lives, some black people chose to use weapons to defend the nonviolent Freedom Movement. (Cobbs, 1). After Mandela was released from prison he adopted the nonviolent love thy oppressors mentality. For the oppressed, it is nearly impossible to show love to those who have put your people through a living hell. Despite seeing potentiality in violence, Fanon does not think that violence should be used lightly or as an end unto itself. Fanon also documents the dangerous and negative effects of violence. The physical aspect of violence is obviously harmful to the the oppressed. Fanon is not saying that in order to free oneself, the oppressed should burn everything down, he is simply stating that the at of freeing the oppressed, there is always violence and it is a violent act. In today’s world, many non violent activists are overly glamorized. The oppressed adopt the love thy oppressor that will never bring them true freedom and liberation. Passive resistance has been overly glamorized by mainly white liberals. Civil Rights icons like Martin Luther King is seen as a true freedom fighter and an example of what activism should truly look like. Not everything is solved by holding hands and singing Kumbaya. Nonviolence recognizes that evildoers are also victims and are not evil people. This ideology does not makes sense because an evildoer is essentially, evil. We have seen that this violence throughout the colonial period, although constantly on edge, runs on empty. We have seen it channelled through the emotional release of dance or possession. We have seen it exhaust itself in fratricidal struggles. The challenge now is to seize this violence as it realigns itself. Whereas it once revealed in myths and contrived ways to commit collective suicide, a fresh set of circumstances will now enable it to change directions. (Fanon, 21). Furthermore, Nelson Mandela has influenced thousands of marginalized and privileged people worldwide. His politics may be critiqued in whichever aspect of his life, whether he was violent or peaceful. He will always be the father of South Africa, a human rights advocate and the best of teachers. The life Mandela lead showed the world that he was our king. Our black, shining king that was willing to die for the liberation of his people because he loved them so much. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	3,094	ENGLISH	1
Women in Maths Article by Jill Howard Ever wondered why stories about mathematicians always seem to be about men? Is it because men are better at maths than women? Absolutely not, it's because until very recently society dictated that it wasn't very respectable for women to be mathematicians. Unfair as it was, it was very difficult for a woman to make herself heard and to be accepted by other mathematicians. It just wasn't the done thing in polite society. But there were a few women who dared to go against the flow, and their achievements demonstrate that women have as much to contribute to mathematics as any of their male counterparts. This article is about just a handful of the most famous women in the history of maths, but there are plenty more successful women out there. Caroline Herschel was the sister of a very famous astronomer, William Herschel who was credited with discovering the planet Uranus. Caroline assisted her brother with his astronomical observations, and did most of the complicated mathematical calculations that were involved in working out the position of stars and planets. Before long she was conducting observations of her own, and discovered several new comets, which was a major achievement for any astronomer. When King George III gave her an annual salary for her astronomical work, Caroline became the first woman ever to be paid for doing a scientific job. The Royal Astronomical Society awarded her a Gold Medal in 1828 and she was honoured throughout Europe. Another famous woman in mathematics was Mary Somerville who was born in 1780. She taught herself maths at home because at that time girls didn't learn maths at school. She was married twice, and her second husband was interested in maths and science. He introduced her to all kinds of famous mathematicians who were amazed to find that she understood their work extremely well, which was more than could be said for a lot of the men working in maths at the time. A friend asked her to translate a very important work by a French mathematician called Laplace and she not only translated it, but added some original work and made it much easier for other people to understand. She wrote several other books that made maths and science accessible to a much wider audience. Ada Lovelace was the daughter of the famous poet Lord Byron, though she never met her father. She was taught by Mary Somerville and through her family and friends she met several influential mathematicians and scientists, one of whom was Charles Babbage. Together, Lovelace and Babbage worked on the theoretical principles of the Analytical Engine, a machine which Babbage had designed but which was never finished in their lifetime. The engine was designed to perform vast quantities of complex calculations using a complicated mechanism of wheels and cogs, saving mathematicians a lot of time and effort. Lovelace contributed some highly original ideas to how it could be used to automate very difficult mathematical processes. Lovelace realised that a calculating machine could be programmed in the same way as a weaving machine, using cards with holes punched in them in a specific arrangement. She is now regarded as one of the earliest pioneers of computer programming. Did you know that Florence Nightingale was a mathematician as well as a nurse? She developed systems of collecting, analysing, interpreting and displaying data about diseases and patients' deaths that are now considered to be quite advanced statistical methods. Because she presented her statistics so clearly and persuasively, civil servants could understand them and were more easily convinced by her arguments for improved healthcare and sanitation. She was the first woman to be elected a member of the Royal Statistical Society, and her work contributed to the improvement of medical care in India as well as Britain. Many of the women featured in this article were still quite restricted in what they were allowed to do and often depended on male collaborators to make their work seem respectable. Thanks to their success and determination opinions have changed, although it happened very slowly. Today there are hundreds of thousands of women working in mathematics, pushing the boundaries of knowledge and doing award-winning research. Who knows what the next generation of female mathematicians will achieve? Will you be one of them....? You can find out more about women in maths at http://www.agnesscott.edu/lriddle/women/women.htm Ressursen er utviklet av NRICH	<urn:uuid:2432845c-8f23-4b3d-bf7b-4db889a76fed>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mattelist.no/355	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00203.warc.gz	en	0.989452	874	3.375	3	[ -0.09879565238952637, -0.04495696350932121, -0.21289829909801483, -0.05436130613088608, -0.4381268620491028, 0.0035352730192244053, 0.35771894454956055, 0.3062920570373535, 0.14736326038837433, -0.0876932367682457, -0.040692038834095, -0.18290859460830688, 0.2607072591781616, -0.0537605397...	3	Women in Maths Article by Jill Howard Ever wondered why stories about mathematicians always seem to be about men? Is it because men are better at maths than women? Absolutely not, it's because until very recently society dictated that it wasn't very respectable for women to be mathematicians. Unfair as it was, it was very difficult for a woman to make herself heard and to be accepted by other mathematicians. It just wasn't the done thing in polite society. But there were a few women who dared to go against the flow, and their achievements demonstrate that women have as much to contribute to mathematics as any of their male counterparts. This article is about just a handful of the most famous women in the history of maths, but there are plenty more successful women out there. Caroline Herschel was the sister of a very famous astronomer, William Herschel who was credited with discovering the planet Uranus. Caroline assisted her brother with his astronomical observations, and did most of the complicated mathematical calculations that were involved in working out the position of stars and planets. Before long she was conducting observations of her own, and discovered several new comets, which was a major achievement for any astronomer. When King George III gave her an annual salary for her astronomical work, Caroline became the first woman ever to be paid for doing a scientific job. The Royal Astronomical Society awarded her a Gold Medal in 1828 and she was honoured throughout Europe. Another famous woman in mathematics was Mary Somerville who was born in 1780. She taught herself maths at home because at that time girls didn't learn maths at school. She was married twice, and her second husband was interested in maths and science. He introduced her to all kinds of famous mathematicians who were amazed to find that she understood their work extremely well, which was more than could be said for a lot of the men working in maths at the time. A friend asked her to translate a very important work by a French mathematician called Laplace and she not only translated it, but added some original work and made it much easier for other people to understand. She wrote several other books that made maths and science accessible to a much wider audience. Ada Lovelace was the daughter of the famous poet Lord Byron, though she never met her father. She was taught by Mary Somerville and through her family and friends she met several influential mathematicians and scientists, one of whom was Charles Babbage. Together, Lovelace and Babbage worked on the theoretical principles of the Analytical Engine, a machine which Babbage had designed but which was never finished in their lifetime. The engine was designed to perform vast quantities of complex calculations using a complicated mechanism of wheels and cogs, saving mathematicians a lot of time and effort. Lovelace contributed some highly original ideas to how it could be used to automate very difficult mathematical processes. Lovelace realised that a calculating machine could be programmed in the same way as a weaving machine, using cards with holes punched in them in a specific arrangement. She is now regarded as one of the earliest pioneers of computer programming. Did you know that Florence Nightingale was a mathematician as well as a nurse? She developed systems of collecting, analysing, interpreting and displaying data about diseases and patients' deaths that are now considered to be quite advanced statistical methods. Because she presented her statistics so clearly and persuasively, civil servants could understand them and were more easily convinced by her arguments for improved healthcare and sanitation. She was the first woman to be elected a member of the Royal Statistical Society, and her work contributed to the improvement of medical care in India as well as Britain. Many of the women featured in this article were still quite restricted in what they were allowed to do and often depended on male collaborators to make their work seem respectable. Thanks to their success and determination opinions have changed, although it happened very slowly. Today there are hundreds of thousands of women working in mathematics, pushing the boundaries of knowledge and doing award-winning research. Who knows what the next generation of female mathematicians will achieve? Will you be one of them....? You can find out more about women in maths at http://www.agnesscott.edu/lriddle/women/women.htm Ressursen er utviklet av NRICH	875	ENGLISH	1
Woodward field was dedicated to a pilot who crashed in a snowstorm. At 106 acres, Woodward field was one of the largest Post Office airfields in the United States. This airfield had many runways, and hangar big enough for eight planes, and an office building. This airfield was later renamed Salt Lake City Airport. One characteristic that made this airport stand out from others were giant concrete arrows. These arrows were movable and provided guidance for pilots in the sky. These arrows were typically around 50 feet long and had lanterns that made them visible at night. Originally, the Post Office transported mail with assistance from the U. S. Army. This changed with the Air Mail Act of 1925. This allowed government contracts to be auctioned off to private carriers. Early private companies included Varney Speed Lines and Western Air Express. Because of these companies, Salt Lake City became a major connection stop. Many Los Angeles businessmen were unhappy with the mailing services in their city. This led to the creation of a route between LA and Salt Lake City. Soon after this route was created, the first passengers were carried from California to Utah. Carriers were allowed to have passengers on planes as long as they gave priority to the cargo. In the late 1920s aviation rapidly expanded in Utah. Many routes now included Salt Lake City in their stops. Passengers quickly became a major part of flight. In 1931, three airlines formed together to create United Airlines, the first airline dedicated completely to passengers. Salt Lake City Airport had a major role in the advancement of airmail and now passenger flights. This airport also provided major economical opportunities that were previously unavailable in Utah.	<urn:uuid:7c3593d0-a4c1-4c35-9af2-b002e7c70568>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/56064	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00253.warc.gz	en	0.986907	336	3.859375	4	[ 0.13088729977607727, -0.17746467888355255, 0.24672995507717133, -0.262136846780777, 0.0663137286901474, 0.5600528120994568, 0.07584399729967117, 0.24323242902755737, -0.27648887038230896, 0.1466687172651291, 0.26353079080581665, 0.44248223304748535, 0.46778786182403564, 0.2105800360441208,...	2	Woodward field was dedicated to a pilot who crashed in a snowstorm. At 106 acres, Woodward field was one of the largest Post Office airfields in the United States. This airfield had many runways, and hangar big enough for eight planes, and an office building. This airfield was later renamed Salt Lake City Airport. One characteristic that made this airport stand out from others were giant concrete arrows. These arrows were movable and provided guidance for pilots in the sky. These arrows were typically around 50 feet long and had lanterns that made them visible at night. Originally, the Post Office transported mail with assistance from the U. S. Army. This changed with the Air Mail Act of 1925. This allowed government contracts to be auctioned off to private carriers. Early private companies included Varney Speed Lines and Western Air Express. Because of these companies, Salt Lake City became a major connection stop. Many Los Angeles businessmen were unhappy with the mailing services in their city. This led to the creation of a route between LA and Salt Lake City. Soon after this route was created, the first passengers were carried from California to Utah. Carriers were allowed to have passengers on planes as long as they gave priority to the cargo. In the late 1920s aviation rapidly expanded in Utah. Many routes now included Salt Lake City in their stops. Passengers quickly became a major part of flight. In 1931, three airlines formed together to create United Airlines, the first airline dedicated completely to passengers. Salt Lake City Airport had a major role in the advancement of airmail and now passenger flights. This airport also provided major economical opportunities that were previously unavailable in Utah.	350	ENGLISH	1
Biography of Archaeologist Howard Carter The Beginnings of a Famous Archaeologist Howard Carter, the famous archaeologist who discovered King Tut's tomb, had little formal education. His principal study was that of art since his father was an artist and illustrator. He was born in Kensington, London, on March 9, 1874, and the youngest of eight children, although he grew up in Swaffham, which was north of Norfolk, England. He was a very talented artist, but he wanted something different out of life. He first stepped out into the field of archaeology in the fall of 1891, where he began his career with the Egyptian Exploration Fund as a tracer, which means he copied drawings and inscriptions on paper for further studying. He was only 17 years old at the time. He proved to be hardworking and faithful to his work, which led him into 31 years of digging and discovering before he found many treasures. One of these discoveries included one of the most valuable treasures ever uncovered - King Tut's tomb. Photo of Howard Carter Facts about Howard Carter: His Early Discoveries Howard Carter worked on his first project at the age of 17 in Bani Hassan, which was the gravesite of the Sovereign Princes of Middle Egypt during 2000 B.C. He was not the head archaeologist, and was responsible for recording and copying the drawings on the walls of the tomb, which was an excellent task for him due to his studies in art. His passion for archeology grew through this project. While working as a tracer, he would work all day long, only stopping to sleep inside the tomb itself. He went on to work for Flinders Petrie, who did not have confidence in Carter's ability as an excavator. Petrie was a well-respected archaeologist; therefore, his opinion would have meant quite a bit to Carter. Instead of being discouraged by this opinion, Carter proved him wrong. Carter found many vital finds in El-Amama where they were digging. Although he continued to sketch many of the more unusual artifacts found there, Petrie began training him to be an archaeologist, as well. One man who did have confidence in him was George Edward Stanhope Molyneux Herbert, the fifth Earl of Carnarvon, also known as Lord Carnarvon. Although he was the principal excavator, after having an accident in a newly invented machine - the automobile, his health began to fail him. He knew Carter would be able to accomplish a lot more than he could due to his failing health. He then appointed Carter to lead the excavations. Due to Carter's hard work, he was appointed Principal Artist to the Egyptian Exploration Fund, where they began excavating at the burial place of Queen Hatshepsut. The knowledge he acquired during this project helped him earn respect, and was eventually offered the job of First Chief Inspector General of Monuments in Upper Egypt. He was in charge of the excavation along the Nile Valley. Archaeologist: Howard Carter Howard Carter and King Tut Carter's most famous find was one that he was uncertain truly existed. Fortunately for him, and all of us, Lord Carnarvon supported his belief that the Valley of the Kings still held an undiscovered tomb, despite that all former excavators abandoned the area because they discovered everything worth discovering. Carter had been working for 31 years as an archaeologist in Egypt when he finally uncovered the legendary tomb in November 1922. He had decided this would be his final season as an archaeologist. Four days into his last season on November 4th, he uncovered a step cut into stone. By the following day, they had found eleven more, which led to a blocked entrance. Even in his writings, he seemed confident he was stumbling on a significant find, noting it to be from the Eighteenth Dynasty. He hoped it would be significant, such as a tomb of a king. Little did he know what was coming. Due to the preciousness of the find, he had to contact Lord Carnarvon. To protect it, he buried the steps and set up guards until he was allowed to continue. On November 23rd, Carnarvon and his daughter, Lady Evelyn Herbert arrived, and his team was allowed to proceed. This time they uncovered a total of 16 steps and a door. They then noticed that the door had been broken through, which was most likely the result of tomb robbers, but the robbers attempted to cover it up by resealing the tomb. The resealing of the door meant that the tomb was most likely not empty. It would be quite a while before he would realize this was, in fact, King Tut's tomb, which had been left undisturbed for 3,300 years before finally being uncovered. Howard Carter Opening Tomb To read Carter's transcripts, you would realize how exciting this venture was. Those few steps led to way more than they ever expected. Once they uncovered the steps a second time, they removed the door, which gave way to a 26-foot-long passageway filled with limestone chips. Beyond that yet, another door was found almost identical to the first. They began to doubt their first instinct about it being a tomb at this point but knew it would be a rare find whatever lay ahead. Behind the second door was the antechamber that contained strange animals, statues, gold chairs, couches, boxes, and other treasures. On the right wall, there stood two life-size statues of King Tut, acting as guardians to yet another door, which led to the Annexe. In the Annexe, everything was scattered. Since evidence revealed that the tomb had been raided twice (once occurred before the door was sealed, while the second time after, which only allowed for smaller items to be removed), he assumed that the officials had attempted to straighten the Antechamber, but left the Annexe alone. To get to the door between the statues, they needed to empty the room. By this point, they had to remove things very carefully to preserve every last find, documenting everything with sketches, photographs, and numbering details, which took much care and has revealed so much to us about Egyptian history. Carter hired many specialists as this was too great of a project for himself. On February 17, 1923, they finally began dismantling the door between the statues to get to the burial chamber. In the Burial Chamber stood a shrine that was over 16 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 9 feet tall. The walls surrounding the shrine were plastered and painted yellow, unlike the other walls of the tomb that were just plain rock. Once they broke into the room, they learned that this had been just an outer shrine, with four shrines in total. It was not until the fourth shrine was taken apart when they found the king's sarcophagus, kind of like a coffin but much fancier. Once they opened the sarcophagus, they uncovered a coffin that was 7 feet 4 inches in length. It was quite fancy. It took a year and a half before they were able to open this coffin, which revealed yet a smaller coffin inside, then a third one made entirely of gold inside that one. Inside the third coffin was the mummy of King Tut. It was not as well preserved as they would have liked, nor was the things within his wrapping, yet still one of the most priceless findings ever found in Egypt. Because of Howard Carter's dedication, we have a rare gift of knowledge about the history of the Egyptians. He is one of the most notable Egyptian archaeologists there ever was, because of his unique findings. King Tut Documentary - "Archaeology - Howard Carter &The Tomb of Tutankhamun." Howard Carter Archaeologist Tomb of Tutankhamun Archaeology. Accessed March 27, 2018. http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/archaeology/howard_carter.html. - "Biography of Howard Carter." Biography of Howard Carter. Accessed March 27, 2018. http://www.king-tut.org.uk/curse-of-king-tut/biography-of-howard-carter.htm - Rosenberg, Jennifer. "Get the Full Story and Learn How King Tuts Tomb Was Discovered." ThoughtCo. Accessed March 27, 2018. http://history1900s.about.com/od/1920s/a/kingtut.htm. Questions & Answers Who was with Howard Carter when he found the Tutankhamun's tomb? That is an excellent question. I have been unable to find a clear answer as to who his crew was. I read "his crew" or "his workmen," with no clear naming of who these workers were. Without them, he would not be well known. I did find a picture that listed several who played a part in it, but I am unsure to what extent. Their names were named as follows (unfortunately not all were given full names) Mr. Luce, Hon R Bethall, Mr. Callender, Lady Evelyn Herbert, Howard Carter, Lord Carnarvon, Mr. Lucas and Mr. Burton. I do know that Lord Carnarvon sponsored the trip. I wish there was a complete list, as they all played a great role in the success of this mission. © 2013 Angela Michelle Schultz	<urn:uuid:c1350369-c11f-4a8f-b577-5811d09baec9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://owlcation.com/humanities/Biography-of-Archaeologist-Howard-Carter	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00323.warc.gz	en	0.987017	1,932	3.328125	3	[ -0.14578072726726532, 0.6735317707061768, 0.6298887729644775, 0.05077364668250084, -0.32383212447166443, 0.355009526014328, 0.6310416460037231, -0.29600656032562256, -0.3224925994873047, 0.12186072766780853, 0.3450988233089447, -0.5422940254211426, 0.07929112017154694, 0.6492660641670227, ...	3	Biography of Archaeologist Howard Carter The Beginnings of a Famous Archaeologist Howard Carter, the famous archaeologist who discovered King Tut's tomb, had little formal education. His principal study was that of art since his father was an artist and illustrator. He was born in Kensington, London, on March 9, 1874, and the youngest of eight children, although he grew up in Swaffham, which was north of Norfolk, England. He was a very talented artist, but he wanted something different out of life. He first stepped out into the field of archaeology in the fall of 1891, where he began his career with the Egyptian Exploration Fund as a tracer, which means he copied drawings and inscriptions on paper for further studying. He was only 17 years old at the time. He proved to be hardworking and faithful to his work, which led him into 31 years of digging and discovering before he found many treasures. One of these discoveries included one of the most valuable treasures ever uncovered - King Tut's tomb. Photo of Howard Carter Facts about Howard Carter: His Early Discoveries Howard Carter worked on his first project at the age of 17 in Bani Hassan, which was the gravesite of the Sovereign Princes of Middle Egypt during 2000 B.C. He was not the head archaeologist, and was responsible for recording and copying the drawings on the walls of the tomb, which was an excellent task for him due to his studies in art. His passion for archeology grew through this project. While working as a tracer, he would work all day long, only stopping to sleep inside the tomb itself. He went on to work for Flinders Petrie, who did not have confidence in Carter's ability as an excavator. Petrie was a well-respected archaeologist; therefore, his opinion would have meant quite a bit to Carter. Instead of being discouraged by this opinion, Carter proved him wrong. Carter found many vital finds in El-Amama where they were digging. Although he continued to sketch many of the more unusual artifacts found there, Petrie began training him to be an archaeologist, as well. One man who did have confidence in him was George Edward Stanhope Molyneux Herbert, the fifth Earl of Carnarvon, also known as Lord Carnarvon. Although he was the principal excavator, after having an accident in a newly invented machine - the automobile, his health began to fail him. He knew Carter would be able to accomplish a lot more than he could due to his failing health. He then appointed Carter to lead the excavations. Due to Carter's hard work, he was appointed Principal Artist to the Egyptian Exploration Fund, where they began excavating at the burial place of Queen Hatshepsut. The knowledge he acquired during this project helped him earn respect, and was eventually offered the job of First Chief Inspector General of Monuments in Upper Egypt. He was in charge of the excavation along the Nile Valley. Archaeologist: Howard Carter Howard Carter and King Tut Carter's most famous find was one that he was uncertain truly existed. Fortunately for him, and all of us, Lord Carnarvon supported his belief that the Valley of the Kings still held an undiscovered tomb, despite that all former excavators abandoned the area because they discovered everything worth discovering. Carter had been working for 31 years as an archaeologist in Egypt when he finally uncovered the legendary tomb in November 1922. He had decided this would be his final season as an archaeologist. Four days into his last season on November 4th, he uncovered a step cut into stone. By the following day, they had found eleven more, which led to a blocked entrance. Even in his writings, he seemed confident he was stumbling on a significant find, noting it to be from the Eighteenth Dynasty. He hoped it would be significant, such as a tomb of a king. Little did he know what was coming. Due to the preciousness of the find, he had to contact Lord Carnarvon. To protect it, he buried the steps and set up guards until he was allowed to continue. On November 23rd, Carnarvon and his daughter, Lady Evelyn Herbert arrived, and his team was allowed to proceed. This time they uncovered a total of 16 steps and a door. They then noticed that the door had been broken through, which was most likely the result of tomb robbers, but the robbers attempted to cover it up by resealing the tomb. The resealing of the door meant that the tomb was most likely not empty. It would be quite a while before he would realize this was, in fact, King Tut's tomb, which had been left undisturbed for 3,300 years before finally being uncovered. Howard Carter Opening Tomb To read Carter's transcripts, you would realize how exciting this venture was. Those few steps led to way more than they ever expected. Once they uncovered the steps a second time, they removed the door, which gave way to a 26-foot-long passageway filled with limestone chips. Beyond that yet, another door was found almost identical to the first. They began to doubt their first instinct about it being a tomb at this point but knew it would be a rare find whatever lay ahead. Behind the second door was the antechamber that contained strange animals, statues, gold chairs, couches, boxes, and other treasures. On the right wall, there stood two life-size statues of King Tut, acting as guardians to yet another door, which led to the Annexe. In the Annexe, everything was scattered. Since evidence revealed that the tomb had been raided twice (once occurred before the door was sealed, while the second time after, which only allowed for smaller items to be removed), he assumed that the officials had attempted to straighten the Antechamber, but left the Annexe alone. To get to the door between the statues, they needed to empty the room. By this point, they had to remove things very carefully to preserve every last find, documenting everything with sketches, photographs, and numbering details, which took much care and has revealed so much to us about Egyptian history. Carter hired many specialists as this was too great of a project for himself. On February 17, 1923, they finally began dismantling the door between the statues to get to the burial chamber. In the Burial Chamber stood a shrine that was over 16 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 9 feet tall. The walls surrounding the shrine were plastered and painted yellow, unlike the other walls of the tomb that were just plain rock. Once they broke into the room, they learned that this had been just an outer shrine, with four shrines in total. It was not until the fourth shrine was taken apart when they found the king's sarcophagus, kind of like a coffin but much fancier. Once they opened the sarcophagus, they uncovered a coffin that was 7 feet 4 inches in length. It was quite fancy. It took a year and a half before they were able to open this coffin, which revealed yet a smaller coffin inside, then a third one made entirely of gold inside that one. Inside the third coffin was the mummy of King Tut. It was not as well preserved as they would have liked, nor was the things within his wrapping, yet still one of the most priceless findings ever found in Egypt. Because of Howard Carter's dedication, we have a rare gift of knowledge about the history of the Egyptians. He is one of the most notable Egyptian archaeologists there ever was, because of his unique findings. King Tut Documentary - "Archaeology - Howard Carter &The Tomb of Tutankhamun." Howard Carter Archaeologist Tomb of Tutankhamun Archaeology. Accessed March 27, 2018. http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/archaeology/howard_carter.html. - "Biography of Howard Carter." Biography of Howard Carter. Accessed March 27, 2018. http://www.king-tut.org.uk/curse-of-king-tut/biography-of-howard-carter.htm - Rosenberg, Jennifer. "Get the Full Story and Learn How King Tuts Tomb Was Discovered." ThoughtCo. Accessed March 27, 2018. http://history1900s.about.com/od/1920s/a/kingtut.htm. Questions & Answers Who was with Howard Carter when he found the Tutankhamun's tomb? That is an excellent question. I have been unable to find a clear answer as to who his crew was. I read "his crew" or "his workmen," with no clear naming of who these workers were. Without them, he would not be well known. I did find a picture that listed several who played a part in it, but I am unsure to what extent. Their names were named as follows (unfortunately not all were given full names) Mr. Luce, Hon R Bethall, Mr. Callender, Lady Evelyn Herbert, Howard Carter, Lord Carnarvon, Mr. Lucas and Mr. Burton. I do know that Lord Carnarvon sponsored the trip. I wish there was a complete list, as they all played a great role in the success of this mission. © 2013 Angela Michelle Schultz	1,960	ENGLISH	1
Old Sarum - a very Rotten Borough indeed Before the Reform Act of 1832 there was no uniformity in the distribution of English parliamentary constituencies. By the 1780s, in Cornwall and Devon, 1050 people voted for 53 MPs but growing northern industrial towns had no representation. For example, in 1831, Manchester had a population of a quarter of a million but no representation in parliament. Each county had two MPs, regardless of the size of the county. There were two types of MP: County MPs had to own land worth £600 p.a. and usually were from the great landed families of the country; Borough MPs had to own land worth £300 p.a. Often they were local squires, landed gentry or the sons of the aristocracy. For the County Franchise, each elector had to own land worth 40 shillings, freehold. This had been a national standard since 1429/30 but because of devaluation and increased wealth, the number of electors had increased. Also, if a man was a tenant of land worth 40 shillings freehold, he was allowed to vote. This meant that many tenant farmers had to vote the way the landowner told them. The Borough Franchise had no uniformity whatsoever because the system had grown haphazardly. There were 203 boroughs with 402 MPs between them. There were a number of different types of borough franchises. Old Sarum was a Burgage borough, of which many became known as 'Pocket Boroughs' because one person would buy the majority of the burgages in the locality. (Expression "He has it in his pocket" = has total control.) In 1691 Thomas Pitt bought the Manor of Stratford and Old Sarum for £1,000 from the Trustees of James Cecil, 4th Earl of Salisbury, and thus obtained control of this nomination/burgage borough of Old Sarum. Other members of the Pitt family later held the seat, most notable William Pitt, (the Elder) Lord Chatham, who became Prime Minister of England in 1766. Voting took place under an ancient tree (variously described as an oak or an elm) situated on the southern slopes of Old Sarum. The tree became known as The Parliament Tree and survived until 1902. A commemorative board (image left) mounted on a sarsen stone can be found adjacent to a footpath between The Portway and Castle Road and marks what is believed to have been the site of the tree. The Parliamentary Reform Act of 1832 disenfranchised Old Sarum but its reputation lives on. As recently as 2007, Old Sarum was mentioned in the House of Lords by Lord Avebury: "Before 1832, there were the rotten boroughs, of which perhaps the most notorious was Old Sarum in Wiltshire " www.historyhome.co.uk/c-eight/constitu/parlrep.htm accessed 5 April 2017 www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotten_and_pocket_boroughs Accessed 5 April 2017 www.parliament.uk accessed 5 April 2017 www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200607/ldhansrd/text/70518-0003.htm Accessed 5 April 2017	<urn:uuid:6fbaf66a-6e77-4858-bdee-23432f393e84>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.stratfordsubcastle.org.uk/old-sarum-rotten-borough	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00541.warc.gz	en	0.982459	682	3.546875	4	[ 0.12739036977291107, -0.09338865429162979, 0.19023120403289795, -0.28791680932044983, 0.13313156366348267, 0.12753307819366455, -0.08178973942995071, -0.3770061135292053, -0.19021005928516388, 0.09801599383354187, -0.18187721073627472, -0.6531580686569214, 0.18632647395133972, 0.0974428579...	2	Old Sarum - a very Rotten Borough indeed Before the Reform Act of 1832 there was no uniformity in the distribution of English parliamentary constituencies. By the 1780s, in Cornwall and Devon, 1050 people voted for 53 MPs but growing northern industrial towns had no representation. For example, in 1831, Manchester had a population of a quarter of a million but no representation in parliament. Each county had two MPs, regardless of the size of the county. There were two types of MP: County MPs had to own land worth £600 p.a. and usually were from the great landed families of the country; Borough MPs had to own land worth £300 p.a. Often they were local squires, landed gentry or the sons of the aristocracy. For the County Franchise, each elector had to own land worth 40 shillings, freehold. This had been a national standard since 1429/30 but because of devaluation and increased wealth, the number of electors had increased. Also, if a man was a tenant of land worth 40 shillings freehold, he was allowed to vote. This meant that many tenant farmers had to vote the way the landowner told them. The Borough Franchise had no uniformity whatsoever because the system had grown haphazardly. There were 203 boroughs with 402 MPs between them. There were a number of different types of borough franchises. Old Sarum was a Burgage borough, of which many became known as 'Pocket Boroughs' because one person would buy the majority of the burgages in the locality. (Expression "He has it in his pocket" = has total control.) In 1691 Thomas Pitt bought the Manor of Stratford and Old Sarum for £1,000 from the Trustees of James Cecil, 4th Earl of Salisbury, and thus obtained control of this nomination/burgage borough of Old Sarum. Other members of the Pitt family later held the seat, most notable William Pitt, (the Elder) Lord Chatham, who became Prime Minister of England in 1766. Voting took place under an ancient tree (variously described as an oak or an elm) situated on the southern slopes of Old Sarum. The tree became known as The Parliament Tree and survived until 1902. A commemorative board (image left) mounted on a sarsen stone can be found adjacent to a footpath between The Portway and Castle Road and marks what is believed to have been the site of the tree. The Parliamentary Reform Act of 1832 disenfranchised Old Sarum but its reputation lives on. As recently as 2007, Old Sarum was mentioned in the House of Lords by Lord Avebury: "Before 1832, there were the rotten boroughs, of which perhaps the most notorious was Old Sarum in Wiltshire " www.historyhome.co.uk/c-eight/constitu/parlrep.htm accessed 5 April 2017 www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotten_and_pocket_boroughs Accessed 5 April 2017 www.parliament.uk accessed 5 April 2017 www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200607/ldhansrd/text/70518-0003.htm Accessed 5 April 2017	736	ENGLISH	1
Educational Approach in Constructivism and Behaviorism Sep 16, 2017 Teaching Methodology 4396 Views Educational practices are incredibly diverse not only around the world, but even within a given school. What some might view as the best approach to educating children, others might see as a mediocre attempt to do so. The video "Pre-school in Three Different Cultures" illustrates this diversity in educational styles to the viewer. The documentary consists of the filming of three different pre-schools in different countries during the span of a normal day. The summaries of the day's activities given in the video for each of the pre-schools let the viewer analyze both the social and academic aspects of the children's experience throughout the day. The pre-schools included in the video are Komatsudani from Japan, Dong-feng from China, and St.Timothy from the U.S. (Hawaii). The following paper will shed light on what is known as constructivism and behaviorism, and describe which one of the schools falls under each category. Constructivism is the theory that views children as little individual scientists. When following the theory of constructivism, students are allowed to explore their environment, interact with it, and learn from it. The constructivist teacher acts as a support pillar for students to lean on when they are in need, not the leader that everyone must follow. Constructivism also sees differences amongst the children and the things they learn from their interactions; not everyone learns the same things at the same rate or with the same ease. After watching the video, the school that seems to have the most constructivist approach is St.Timothy. When it came time for the students to partake on an activity, the teacher gave them the opportunity to choose the activity they preferred instead of assigning them one or making the whole class do the same thing. This approach allows the students to participate on an activity that they find stimulating, which tends to let students learn much more than an activity that they find boring. It is also worth mentioning that when the students chose an activity by pointing at the representative objects the teacher would let the student know that she wanted them to indicate it by using spoken language. The teacher used a constructivist approach when doing this since she did not guide the student on how to form the sentence, but rather let them construct their own sentences and correcting them if necessary. One of the activities, and the teacher's comment regarding the activity, shows the constructivist ideal beyond any other thing seen in the video. The activity being referred to is the block building activity, during which the students are allowed to rearrange the blocks in any way he choose to. This is a very different approach to the one used in one of the other schools in which students are given specific guidelines to follow when using the blocks. When asked about the difference in approaches, the teacher in St.Timothy responded that she thought their approach was better because when you let children build their own structures they will sometimes come up with things that the teacher would never even think of. This is a great example of the idea that children are like little scientists with very different approaches to learning through their environment. Another aspect in which St.Timothy's approaches were very constructivists was behavior and discipline. There is an instance during the day during which a student refuses to clean up the materials even after the teacher has asked him to do so directly. Instead of ordering the student to pick up the materials by using her authority like many teachers tend to do, the teacher talks to him at an equal level. She doesn't just boss him into putting the things away, but rather tries to make the student think of the consequences that might come about from not picking up the materials. She explains to the student that if the materials are not picked up some of his fellow students might end up injured. After he refuses to comply once again, the teacher gives him two choices. The student has to choose between spending time alone or picking up the materials. It does not take more than a minute before the student decides to comply. Some people might dispute that the Japanese approach regarding behavior and discipline at Komatsudani is more constructivists because it has less teacher involvement, but the teacher's approach seems to be more negligence than constructivism. The principal of the school is quoted saying that it is normal and even necessary for boys to fight because it is the way that they learn how to resolve problems that might arise later in life. The statement might have some truth to it, but as his own statement says, the children are learning and therefore don't have the required skills to resolve these problems yet. As a teacher, one can let them try to solve the problem by themselves but always keeping very close surveillance. It is not a good approach to simply ignore the situation or tell a child "why don't you do something about it?", like one of the teachers at Komatsudani was quoted saying when told about another child's misbehavior. Behaviorism is the theory that states that people can be taught through the use of reward and/or punishment. The theory is also seen as the more repetitive of the two theories because it often involves the use of drill-and-practice as the main form of instruction. In behaviorism the teacher is the main focus of the class and all the students must often follow the directions exactly as they are given. The school that most resembles the ideals of the behaviorist theory in the video was Dong-feng from China. One of the first examples of this is when the 4:2:1 phenomenon is explained. The 4:2:1 phenomenon occurs due to the attempts of lowering China's population. According to the school officials, the problem is that now more than ever a lot of children are single children that are showered with attention from two parents and four grandparents. Behaviorism is shown when the school staff claims that they must correct the mistakes done by the parents and grandparents regarding the children's behavior due to excessive attention and spoiling. Another instance in which the school's behaviorist approach was obvious was the bathroom usage. The school's bathroom usage approach was weird to say the least, all students were to go to the bathroom at the same time and in the same place. The teachers claimed that if a student really needed to use the facilities he or she was allowed to go at another time than the one scheduled, but that it was good for students to become familiar with the concept of scheduling and should try their best to become accustomed to the time guidelines. The school's behaviorist approach was also evident during formal instruction and before meals. Before every meal, the students must always participate in giving thanks for their food by reciting a chant in unison that goes something like "this food sure smells good, I bet it's delicious, I am so thankful for my dad and mom". The repetition of this chant serves as a way to reinforce the idea that the students should be thankful for their parents and whatever their parents were able to give them as a meal. When it comes to formal instruction their approach is very behaviorist and completely different from the approach taken by St.Timothy. In Dong-feng the students are given specific instructions on how to work with the wooden blocks and must set up the materials in a certain way before they are even allowed to start. Once they start building their wooden structures, they must follow the guidelines, and will not be given any positive reinforcement if they deviate from them by doing something different or creative. Instead of rewarding creativity like the staff in St.Timothy, the staff at Dong-feng seems to only care about the students' ability to follow directions. When it comes to educating and teaching students with cultural and linguistic diversity, one must always keep the lessons interesting and original. As a future teacher, my area of expertise will most probably be math. My lessons will contain as many visual components as possible and as much student participation as the lesson allows. I will motivate the students to take risks by making a constructivism-behaviorism-constructivism sandwich. The students will be given a task to complete, which they don't yet have the skills for. During this time the students will be encouraged to brainstorm ideas on how the task might be completed; both right and wrong approaches will be celebrated as achievements, the important thing is that they are willing to try new things. Once the brainstorming period is done, I will instruct them on how the task is most commonly completed. The students will then be given some time to practice following the specific steps that allow them to complete the task. After they seem confident enough using these steps, they will be given the freedom to experiment with other approaches that they might have thought of after being taught the steps. They will be encouraged to use any methods that make the task easier for them as long as it gets them to the right answer. They will also be told that it is perfectly fine to use the steps taught by the teacher, but that the approach might not be the only or easiest one. To conclude, I believe that in education neither constructivism nor behaviorism have all the answers. As a teacher, one must find a midpoint, a way to combine the best aspects of the two in order to provide the best learning environment and results. It is my opinion that St.Timothy was the better school among the three when it came to formal instruction and correcting misbehavior. I also find it worth mentioning that both Komatsudani's staff's lack of action disciplining the students and Dong-feng's bathroom routine were somewhat disconcerting.	<urn:uuid:a2b09c78-d0d8-4712-881b-654435596b62>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://eslarticle.com/pub/teaching-methodology/139589-Educational-Approach-in-Constructivism-and-Behaviorism.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00008.warc.gz	en	0.98009	1,955	3.546875	4	[ 0.2636537551879883, 0.017635982483625412, -0.06614772975444794, -0.21632175147533417, -0.1707352101802826, 0.19230782985687256, -0.42643141746520996, 0.14617055654525757, 0.4014261066913605, 0.042450275272130966, 0.26360884308815, -0.3166024088859558, -0.1663151979446411, 0.251485407352447...	1	Educational Approach in Constructivism and Behaviorism Sep 16, 2017 Teaching Methodology 4396 Views Educational practices are incredibly diverse not only around the world, but even within a given school. What some might view as the best approach to educating children, others might see as a mediocre attempt to do so. The video "Pre-school in Three Different Cultures" illustrates this diversity in educational styles to the viewer. The documentary consists of the filming of three different pre-schools in different countries during the span of a normal day. The summaries of the day's activities given in the video for each of the pre-schools let the viewer analyze both the social and academic aspects of the children's experience throughout the day. The pre-schools included in the video are Komatsudani from Japan, Dong-feng from China, and St.Timothy from the U.S. (Hawaii). The following paper will shed light on what is known as constructivism and behaviorism, and describe which one of the schools falls under each category. Constructivism is the theory that views children as little individual scientists. When following the theory of constructivism, students are allowed to explore their environment, interact with it, and learn from it. The constructivist teacher acts as a support pillar for students to lean on when they are in need, not the leader that everyone must follow. Constructivism also sees differences amongst the children and the things they learn from their interactions; not everyone learns the same things at the same rate or with the same ease. After watching the video, the school that seems to have the most constructivist approach is St.Timothy. When it came time for the students to partake on an activity, the teacher gave them the opportunity to choose the activity they preferred instead of assigning them one or making the whole class do the same thing. This approach allows the students to participate on an activity that they find stimulating, which tends to let students learn much more than an activity that they find boring. It is also worth mentioning that when the students chose an activity by pointing at the representative objects the teacher would let the student know that she wanted them to indicate it by using spoken language. The teacher used a constructivist approach when doing this since she did not guide the student on how to form the sentence, but rather let them construct their own sentences and correcting them if necessary. One of the activities, and the teacher's comment regarding the activity, shows the constructivist ideal beyond any other thing seen in the video. The activity being referred to is the block building activity, during which the students are allowed to rearrange the blocks in any way he choose to. This is a very different approach to the one used in one of the other schools in which students are given specific guidelines to follow when using the blocks. When asked about the difference in approaches, the teacher in St.Timothy responded that she thought their approach was better because when you let children build their own structures they will sometimes come up with things that the teacher would never even think of. This is a great example of the idea that children are like little scientists with very different approaches to learning through their environment. Another aspect in which St.Timothy's approaches were very constructivists was behavior and discipline. There is an instance during the day during which a student refuses to clean up the materials even after the teacher has asked him to do so directly. Instead of ordering the student to pick up the materials by using her authority like many teachers tend to do, the teacher talks to him at an equal level. She doesn't just boss him into putting the things away, but rather tries to make the student think of the consequences that might come about from not picking up the materials. She explains to the student that if the materials are not picked up some of his fellow students might end up injured. After he refuses to comply once again, the teacher gives him two choices. The student has to choose between spending time alone or picking up the materials. It does not take more than a minute before the student decides to comply. Some people might dispute that the Japanese approach regarding behavior and discipline at Komatsudani is more constructivists because it has less teacher involvement, but the teacher's approach seems to be more negligence than constructivism. The principal of the school is quoted saying that it is normal and even necessary for boys to fight because it is the way that they learn how to resolve problems that might arise later in life. The statement might have some truth to it, but as his own statement says, the children are learning and therefore don't have the required skills to resolve these problems yet. As a teacher, one can let them try to solve the problem by themselves but always keeping very close surveillance. It is not a good approach to simply ignore the situation or tell a child "why don't you do something about it?", like one of the teachers at Komatsudani was quoted saying when told about another child's misbehavior. Behaviorism is the theory that states that people can be taught through the use of reward and/or punishment. The theory is also seen as the more repetitive of the two theories because it often involves the use of drill-and-practice as the main form of instruction. In behaviorism the teacher is the main focus of the class and all the students must often follow the directions exactly as they are given. The school that most resembles the ideals of the behaviorist theory in the video was Dong-feng from China. One of the first examples of this is when the 4:2:1 phenomenon is explained. The 4:2:1 phenomenon occurs due to the attempts of lowering China's population. According to the school officials, the problem is that now more than ever a lot of children are single children that are showered with attention from two parents and four grandparents. Behaviorism is shown when the school staff claims that they must correct the mistakes done by the parents and grandparents regarding the children's behavior due to excessive attention and spoiling. Another instance in which the school's behaviorist approach was obvious was the bathroom usage. The school's bathroom usage approach was weird to say the least, all students were to go to the bathroom at the same time and in the same place. The teachers claimed that if a student really needed to use the facilities he or she was allowed to go at another time than the one scheduled, but that it was good for students to become familiar with the concept of scheduling and should try their best to become accustomed to the time guidelines. The school's behaviorist approach was also evident during formal instruction and before meals. Before every meal, the students must always participate in giving thanks for their food by reciting a chant in unison that goes something like "this food sure smells good, I bet it's delicious, I am so thankful for my dad and mom". The repetition of this chant serves as a way to reinforce the idea that the students should be thankful for their parents and whatever their parents were able to give them as a meal. When it comes to formal instruction their approach is very behaviorist and completely different from the approach taken by St.Timothy. In Dong-feng the students are given specific instructions on how to work with the wooden blocks and must set up the materials in a certain way before they are even allowed to start. Once they start building their wooden structures, they must follow the guidelines, and will not be given any positive reinforcement if they deviate from them by doing something different or creative. Instead of rewarding creativity like the staff in St.Timothy, the staff at Dong-feng seems to only care about the students' ability to follow directions. When it comes to educating and teaching students with cultural and linguistic diversity, one must always keep the lessons interesting and original. As a future teacher, my area of expertise will most probably be math. My lessons will contain as many visual components as possible and as much student participation as the lesson allows. I will motivate the students to take risks by making a constructivism-behaviorism-constructivism sandwich. The students will be given a task to complete, which they don't yet have the skills for. During this time the students will be encouraged to brainstorm ideas on how the task might be completed; both right and wrong approaches will be celebrated as achievements, the important thing is that they are willing to try new things. Once the brainstorming period is done, I will instruct them on how the task is most commonly completed. The students will then be given some time to practice following the specific steps that allow them to complete the task. After they seem confident enough using these steps, they will be given the freedom to experiment with other approaches that they might have thought of after being taught the steps. They will be encouraged to use any methods that make the task easier for them as long as it gets them to the right answer. They will also be told that it is perfectly fine to use the steps taught by the teacher, but that the approach might not be the only or easiest one. To conclude, I believe that in education neither constructivism nor behaviorism have all the answers. As a teacher, one must find a midpoint, a way to combine the best aspects of the two in order to provide the best learning environment and results. It is my opinion that St.Timothy was the better school among the three when it came to formal instruction and correcting misbehavior. I also find it worth mentioning that both Komatsudani's staff's lack of action disciplining the students and Dong-feng's bathroom routine were somewhat disconcerting.	1,941	ENGLISH	1
September 26, 2013 Foreign Immigration in the Late 19th Century In the late Nineteenth Century immigrants from all over the world were coming to settling in North America. Between 1850 and 1880 approximately seven million new immigrants reached American soil in hopes of new, successful lives. These foreign immigrants had overcome struggles by building small communities within the American cities while defeating diseases and lacking education. When the immigrants landed on the shores of America they did well in adjusting themselves. They built ethnic organizations that were supported and mended together into established farming communities. Most of the immigrants were illiterate and impoverished. They lived in tight communities of their own which has churches or synagogues, depending on their beliefs. The immigrants were only accepted as American if they were natural-born. Any children that the immigrants had were automatically considered American. And those who were “American” still lived amongst themselves with their traditional cultural beliefs. In the 1880’s, the “new” immigrants came from Eastern and Southern Europe. Ranging from the Slovaks, Poles, Italians, Greeks, Croats, and Jews. These immigrants came from countries with little history of democratic government; had few opportunities for advancement. At this time the new immigrants populated about nineteen percent of the American population. By 1900, it increased to sixty-six percent. Most of the populations came from cities that they “hived” in such as New York and Chicago. Was America a dumping ground or a melting pot? The reasoning for the Europeans leaving their home countries was due to the fact that there were no jobs because of the over population. There was “no room” for everyone to have houses and to have jobs, too. At this time, the Europeans had what they called “American fever”. They received letters from loved one already living in America talking about their opportunities and how they love living in a “free” country. This is when American would bring those Europeans, who wanted to, to America for cheap labor. To build railroads and to populate states. It was somewhat easier for the Jews to get settled and to struggle less having tailoring and shop keeping experience from “home”. Once some Europeans had the “American experience”, they would decide to return to their homelands. These individuals were called “Birds of Passage”. The immigrants who did this had a harder time keeping their traditional culture alive within them. As the population increased exponentially over the next several years, the government did not do anything to control the incoming immigrants. Space was running out. It came down to the cities unofficial “government” to minister a political machine. This was led by “bosses”. The boss provided jobs for the immigrants in return for votes. They also helped with providing houses, food, and clothing. Bosses promised to build parks, schools and hospitals within the immigrants’ neighborhoods. Jane Addams was a middle-class American who was dedicated on uprising the urban masses. She opened a settlement house, or Hull House, which she helped the immigrants with learning English, any counseling that the immigrants needed, child care services for the working mothers, along with putting together traditional cultural activities for the neighborhoods. Other settlement houses were founded throughout America for womans activism and of social reform. In 1893, an Illinois antisweatershop law was passed to protect woman workers, who were mostly single, and to prohibit child labor. This also opened up new frontier opportunities. More than a million women joined the workforce. Although I there were social codes that determined which jobs certain woman could have depending on race, ethnicity, and class, it did not hold them back. Most white-collar jobs such as secretary…	<urn:uuid:9e596655-2c71-4810-bdf5-2ea64e689b84>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Immigration-And-Nineteenth-Century-Immigrants-609622.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00378.warc.gz	en	0.987019	763	3.515625	4	[ 0.1283816397190094, -0.08993282914161682, 0.17567946016788483, -0.12389592826366425, 0.12023171037435532, -0.05152633786201477, -0.4097122550010681, -0.09109099954366684, -0.06419834494590759, -0.15757372975349426, 0.09932051599025726, 0.23021699488162994, -0.047805044800043106, -0.0485068...	1	September 26, 2013 Foreign Immigration in the Late 19th Century In the late Nineteenth Century immigrants from all over the world were coming to settling in North America. Between 1850 and 1880 approximately seven million new immigrants reached American soil in hopes of new, successful lives. These foreign immigrants had overcome struggles by building small communities within the American cities while defeating diseases and lacking education. When the immigrants landed on the shores of America they did well in adjusting themselves. They built ethnic organizations that were supported and mended together into established farming communities. Most of the immigrants were illiterate and impoverished. They lived in tight communities of their own which has churches or synagogues, depending on their beliefs. The immigrants were only accepted as American if they were natural-born. Any children that the immigrants had were automatically considered American. And those who were “American” still lived amongst themselves with their traditional cultural beliefs. In the 1880’s, the “new” immigrants came from Eastern and Southern Europe. Ranging from the Slovaks, Poles, Italians, Greeks, Croats, and Jews. These immigrants came from countries with little history of democratic government; had few opportunities for advancement. At this time the new immigrants populated about nineteen percent of the American population. By 1900, it increased to sixty-six percent. Most of the populations came from cities that they “hived” in such as New York and Chicago. Was America a dumping ground or a melting pot? The reasoning for the Europeans leaving their home countries was due to the fact that there were no jobs because of the over population. There was “no room” for everyone to have houses and to have jobs, too. At this time, the Europeans had what they called “American fever”. They received letters from loved one already living in America talking about their opportunities and how they love living in a “free” country. This is when American would bring those Europeans, who wanted to, to America for cheap labor. To build railroads and to populate states. It was somewhat easier for the Jews to get settled and to struggle less having tailoring and shop keeping experience from “home”. Once some Europeans had the “American experience”, they would decide to return to their homelands. These individuals were called “Birds of Passage”. The immigrants who did this had a harder time keeping their traditional culture alive within them. As the population increased exponentially over the next several years, the government did not do anything to control the incoming immigrants. Space was running out. It came down to the cities unofficial “government” to minister a political machine. This was led by “bosses”. The boss provided jobs for the immigrants in return for votes. They also helped with providing houses, food, and clothing. Bosses promised to build parks, schools and hospitals within the immigrants’ neighborhoods. Jane Addams was a middle-class American who was dedicated on uprising the urban masses. She opened a settlement house, or Hull House, which she helped the immigrants with learning English, any counseling that the immigrants needed, child care services for the working mothers, along with putting together traditional cultural activities for the neighborhoods. Other settlement houses were founded throughout America for womans activism and of social reform. In 1893, an Illinois antisweatershop law was passed to protect woman workers, who were mostly single, and to prohibit child labor. This also opened up new frontier opportunities. More than a million women joined the workforce. Although I there were social codes that determined which jobs certain woman could have depending on race, ethnicity, and class, it did not hold them back. Most white-collar jobs such as secretary…	757	ENGLISH	1
Vasco da Gama was born in 1460 to a wealthy Portuguese family in Sines, Portugal. Vasco’s father was also an explorer and was supposed to make the epic journey from Portugal to India that would eventually make his son famous. He died, however, before he could successfully complete the journey. In the late 1400s, Portugal was desperately trying to find a sea route to Asia so they could obtain spices for cheap prices. Explorers such as Bartholomeu Dias had made some progress in making the journey, but none had been able to sail around the southern tip of Africa at the Cape of Good Hope (where the Atlantic and Indian Oceans met) and into the Indian Ocean. da Gama leaving Lisbon, Portugal Sailing to India In 1497, Portuguese King Manuel I financed a voyage led by Vasco da Gama. Many, however, still believed the trip to be impossible because they did not think the Atlantic Ocean connected with the Indian Ocean. Da Gama believed it was possible and left Lisbon, Portugal, on July 8, 1497, with four ships full of criminals and set sail on the Atlantic. After five months on the Atlantic, da Gama and his crew successfully sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and into the Indian Ocean on November 22. After making several stops along ports in the eastern African nations of Kenya, Mozambique, and others, and after struggling with Muslim traders in the Indian Ocean who did not take kindly to interference with their trade routes, da Gama reached Calicut, India, on May 20, 1498. da Gama's route Back to Portugal In India, da Gama traded extensively for Asian products and spices. Although he was initially well received in India, he eventually wore out his welcome. Da Gama left India in August of 1498, after he was told to pay a heavy tax and to leave the goods he traded for. Da Gama refused to leave the goods and only left India after taking Indian hostages. By the time da Gama returned to Lisbon in 1499, many of his crew members had died of scurvy (a disease caused by a lack of vitamin C), and he had become a hero. King Manuel I made him an admiral. In 1502, King Manuel sent da Gama back to India. This time, however, da Gama came with 20 armed ships to prevent problems with Muslim traders. In one case, da Gama ordered the massacre of a Muslim vessel with 380 people on board. When he reached India, he brutally murdered many Muslims to demonstrate his power and bombarded Calicut to force the Portuguese will on Asian trading markets. Da Gama’s conquests paved the way for future conquests in Asia. Da Gama returned to Portugal in 1503. He died in India in 1524 from an illness.	<urn:uuid:ef6d6333-f657-4efd-820d-46823ea9d613>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mrnussbaum.com/vasco-da-gama-biography	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00226.warc.gz	en	0.98267	587	3.671875	4	[ 0.09790612757205963, 0.47151994705200195, 0.2772752642631531, -0.2226557731628418, -0.30916863679885864, -0.2486703246831894, 0.2561646103858948, -0.11680321395397186, -0.033348120748996735, -0.08797042071819305, 0.005329198203980923, -0.6189876794815063, -0.2650454342365265, 0.44759121537...	2	Vasco da Gama was born in 1460 to a wealthy Portuguese family in Sines, Portugal. Vasco’s father was also an explorer and was supposed to make the epic journey from Portugal to India that would eventually make his son famous. He died, however, before he could successfully complete the journey. In the late 1400s, Portugal was desperately trying to find a sea route to Asia so they could obtain spices for cheap prices. Explorers such as Bartholomeu Dias had made some progress in making the journey, but none had been able to sail around the southern tip of Africa at the Cape of Good Hope (where the Atlantic and Indian Oceans met) and into the Indian Ocean. da Gama leaving Lisbon, Portugal Sailing to India In 1497, Portuguese King Manuel I financed a voyage led by Vasco da Gama. Many, however, still believed the trip to be impossible because they did not think the Atlantic Ocean connected with the Indian Ocean. Da Gama believed it was possible and left Lisbon, Portugal, on July 8, 1497, with four ships full of criminals and set sail on the Atlantic. After five months on the Atlantic, da Gama and his crew successfully sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and into the Indian Ocean on November 22. After making several stops along ports in the eastern African nations of Kenya, Mozambique, and others, and after struggling with Muslim traders in the Indian Ocean who did not take kindly to interference with their trade routes, da Gama reached Calicut, India, on May 20, 1498. da Gama's route Back to Portugal In India, da Gama traded extensively for Asian products and spices. Although he was initially well received in India, he eventually wore out his welcome. Da Gama left India in August of 1498, after he was told to pay a heavy tax and to leave the goods he traded for. Da Gama refused to leave the goods and only left India after taking Indian hostages. By the time da Gama returned to Lisbon in 1499, many of his crew members had died of scurvy (a disease caused by a lack of vitamin C), and he had become a hero. King Manuel I made him an admiral. In 1502, King Manuel sent da Gama back to India. This time, however, da Gama came with 20 armed ships to prevent problems with Muslim traders. In one case, da Gama ordered the massacre of a Muslim vessel with 380 people on board. When he reached India, he brutally murdered many Muslims to demonstrate his power and bombarded Calicut to force the Portuguese will on Asian trading markets. Da Gama’s conquests paved the way for future conquests in Asia. Da Gama returned to Portugal in 1503. He died in India in 1524 from an illness.	618	ENGLISH	1
Dina Gilio-Whitaker: Native American Heritage Month history Posted: Tuesday, November 20, 2012 "The Bureau of Indian Affairs website chronicles the history leading up to the establishment of Native American Heritage Month, connecting it to the early 1900’s and the efforts of Dr. Arthur Caswell Parker, a Seneca Indian (and great-nephew of General Ely S. Parker who had served as Secretary to Ulysses S. Grant during the Civil War), who was the first to advocate for a date to be set aside to honor Native people. Like his uncle before him, Parker was a staunch supporter of Indian citizenship at a time when the Dawes Act mandate of forced assimilation had a stranglehold on Indian country. Citizenship was a tool of assimilation and during the Dawes years it was a tool for alienating Indians from their lands. Under the Dawes Act, allotments were held in federal trust for 25 years, during which time they were prohibited from sale. In 1906 the Burke Act amended the Dawes Act by lifting the 25-year restriction to those deemed “competent and capable of managing his own or her own affairs” and has “adopted the habits of civilized life.” Competency was associated with European ancestry (meaning the more white ancestry one had the more competent they were considered), determined by competency commissions, whether requested or not. After the lifting of the restriction, lands could be sold and citizenship was conferred. The granting of citizenship took the form of an elaborate ritual in which Indians publicly rejected their Indian identities for their American citizenship. During the Dawes years, as Vine Deloria put it in his book American Indians, American Justice, “citizenship, which is supposed to be a personal right of the individual, was really a function of the status of whatever real estate the Indian might possess.”" Get the Story: Native American Heritage Month: Reconciling the Contentious History of a Nation (Indian Country Today 11/19) Join the Conversation	<urn:uuid:744e4d85-dede-44f6-b263-09579a6d3100>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://indianz.com/News/2012/007778.asp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00175.warc.gz	en	0.981464	422	3.625	4	[ -0.17363418638706207, 0.6309071779251099, 0.16782791912555695, -0.11392703652381897, -0.7157056331634521, -0.18738387525081635, 0.31827300786972046, -0.30738726258277893, -0.5041962265968323, 0.05579164996743202, 0.061780352145433426, -0.050637613981962204, 0.02862105332314968, 0.387891113...	2	Dina Gilio-Whitaker: Native American Heritage Month history Posted: Tuesday, November 20, 2012 "The Bureau of Indian Affairs website chronicles the history leading up to the establishment of Native American Heritage Month, connecting it to the early 1900’s and the efforts of Dr. Arthur Caswell Parker, a Seneca Indian (and great-nephew of General Ely S. Parker who had served as Secretary to Ulysses S. Grant during the Civil War), who was the first to advocate for a date to be set aside to honor Native people. Like his uncle before him, Parker was a staunch supporter of Indian citizenship at a time when the Dawes Act mandate of forced assimilation had a stranglehold on Indian country. Citizenship was a tool of assimilation and during the Dawes years it was a tool for alienating Indians from their lands. Under the Dawes Act, allotments were held in federal trust for 25 years, during which time they were prohibited from sale. In 1906 the Burke Act amended the Dawes Act by lifting the 25-year restriction to those deemed “competent and capable of managing his own or her own affairs” and has “adopted the habits of civilized life.” Competency was associated with European ancestry (meaning the more white ancestry one had the more competent they were considered), determined by competency commissions, whether requested or not. After the lifting of the restriction, lands could be sold and citizenship was conferred. The granting of citizenship took the form of an elaborate ritual in which Indians publicly rejected their Indian identities for their American citizenship. During the Dawes years, as Vine Deloria put it in his book American Indians, American Justice, “citizenship, which is supposed to be a personal right of the individual, was really a function of the status of whatever real estate the Indian might possess.”" Get the Story: Native American Heritage Month: Reconciling the Contentious History of a Nation (Indian Country Today 11/19) Join the Conversation	428	ENGLISH	1
Typically a child in the fifth grade is nine or ten years old, which is why these are the ages I will be focusing on in this post. It has been an interest of mine to understand the thinking and doings of my fifth graders as a way to understand how learning occurs for them. When we look at some of their social and emotional stages we see that typically nine and ten-year-olds enjoy their family, peers, and teachers. I have seen this in the way that they love to work with their friends and when we share stories with each other during circle time, most of the time their stories are about what they love most: family and friends. Though they are generally happy kids they do tend to anger quickly, however, their forgiveness seems to follow shortly after! This shows me that they are more sensitive to resolve friendships as well as fairness challenges. Taking a look at the “thinking” or the cognitive stages I have noticed that fifth graders are very eager to learn. They pay close attention to details and enjoy rules and logic, which is what makes them great problem solvers! Even though they can be detail-oriented they tend to jump quickly between interests which could lead to somewhat sloppy work until they learn to integrate these skills. By taking note of these skills, I believe that fifth graders will benefit greatly from student-choice options with their learning as well as working collaboratively during class assignments. While I have just generalized the children in fifth grade, it is important to recognize that each student is an individual and so these observations will vary from student to student. In being the guiding piece for my students’ academic life I am able to provide the necessary tools that they need to thrive in and out of the classroom. With providing student choice to my fifth graders, it allows them to feel a sense of value for their work. They are able to find their understanding and express it in a way that is unique to them, and that is where they bring their value to this classroom community. Ojose, B. (2008). Retrieved from http://math.coe.uga.edu/tme/issues/v18n1/v18n1_Ojose.pdf Wood, C. (2015). Yardsticks: children in the classroom, ages 4-14. Turners Falls, MA: Center for Responsive Schools, Inc	<urn:uuid:82991ba5-0a77-4d97-80bb-7083425baa08>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://nicolelondot.com/2019/12/02/what-you-may-or-may-not-know/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00556.warc.gz	en	0.981195	487	3.515625	4	[ -0.22488155961036682, -0.3179479241371155, 0.27213066816329956, -0.6170004606246948, -0.6314384937286377, 0.1345064789056778, -0.026891015470027924, 0.2750962972640991, 0.09287339448928833, -0.4836162030696869, 0.5500055551528931, 0.34452489018440247, 0.1101318895816803, 0.4295659065246582...	1	Typically a child in the fifth grade is nine or ten years old, which is why these are the ages I will be focusing on in this post. It has been an interest of mine to understand the thinking and doings of my fifth graders as a way to understand how learning occurs for them. When we look at some of their social and emotional stages we see that typically nine and ten-year-olds enjoy their family, peers, and teachers. I have seen this in the way that they love to work with their friends and when we share stories with each other during circle time, most of the time their stories are about what they love most: family and friends. Though they are generally happy kids they do tend to anger quickly, however, their forgiveness seems to follow shortly after! This shows me that they are more sensitive to resolve friendships as well as fairness challenges. Taking a look at the “thinking” or the cognitive stages I have noticed that fifth graders are very eager to learn. They pay close attention to details and enjoy rules and logic, which is what makes them great problem solvers! Even though they can be detail-oriented they tend to jump quickly between interests which could lead to somewhat sloppy work until they learn to integrate these skills. By taking note of these skills, I believe that fifth graders will benefit greatly from student-choice options with their learning as well as working collaboratively during class assignments. While I have just generalized the children in fifth grade, it is important to recognize that each student is an individual and so these observations will vary from student to student. In being the guiding piece for my students’ academic life I am able to provide the necessary tools that they need to thrive in and out of the classroom. With providing student choice to my fifth graders, it allows them to feel a sense of value for their work. They are able to find their understanding and express it in a way that is unique to them, and that is where they bring their value to this classroom community. Ojose, B. (2008). Retrieved from http://math.coe.uga.edu/tme/issues/v18n1/v18n1_Ojose.pdf Wood, C. (2015). Yardsticks: children in the classroom, ages 4-14. Turners Falls, MA: Center for Responsive Schools, Inc	479	ENGLISH	1
From the past until now men play a significant role as a dominant gender while women are a minority in many countries. Before the industrialization men have to go out to work and support the family but women suppose to stay at home to take care of the children and do all the housework. Women were being harassed and barely had their rights to stood up for themselves. But over a period of time when society changed, a lot of things has changed, in modern society woman can also go out and get a job or men can stay at home and take care of the children. According to AEI 2017, at US universities, women receive a majority in the doctoral degree in 2016 which means that nowadays the literacy in the woman has increased so they will be more confident to fight for them with their knowledge. However, gender inequality still exists in this latest era and the three major form of discrimination in gender are the stereotype for women, women in the work field and the pay gap between the two genders.	<urn:uuid:8e83459d-fb51-48e7-9516-21aab8d6068f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://myssec.com/from-the-past-until-now-men-play-a-significant-role-as-a-dominant-gender-while-women-are-a-minority-in-many-countries/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00082.warc.gz	en	0.981506	199	3.59375	4	[ -0.07556574046611786, 0.25526323914527893, 0.04830481484532356, -0.1303200125694275, -0.007998592220246792, 0.5629153251647949, 0.06239087134599686, -0.09909649193286896, 0.0697055459022522, -0.07106555998325348, 0.18713441491127014, 0.14261996746063232, -0.033472009003162384, 0.0066379606...	3	From the past until now men play a significant role as a dominant gender while women are a minority in many countries. Before the industrialization men have to go out to work and support the family but women suppose to stay at home to take care of the children and do all the housework. Women were being harassed and barely had their rights to stood up for themselves. But over a period of time when society changed, a lot of things has changed, in modern society woman can also go out and get a job or men can stay at home and take care of the children. According to AEI 2017, at US universities, women receive a majority in the doctoral degree in 2016 which means that nowadays the literacy in the woman has increased so they will be more confident to fight for them with their knowledge. However, gender inequality still exists in this latest era and the three major form of discrimination in gender are the stereotype for women, women in the work field and the pay gap between the two genders.	207	ENGLISH	1
Week 2 Theme This week's theme: “Determined people working together can accomplish anything.” In addition to our house identities, we work to establish routines that keep everyone on task, successful, and safe. Kids thrive in a structured environment where they have some say and choice. We spend a lot of time working to ensure that our routines work for the students in our classroom. Kids have a say. When things aren't going well, they have input into the changes we make. In the first two weeks we do a lot to establish a culture where students take risks, where it is okay to be wrong, and where students put forth their best effort and strive to meet their potentials. The "turn and talk" followed by an expectation to get their voices in the room gives kids an opportunity to practice, build confidence, and then take a risk. We practice argumentation so that students know how to disagree with their classmates and so that classmates are able to hear opposing ideas as an effort to help them refine their ideas versus personal opposition. In the first two weeks, content takes a back seat to community building. If it is done well, the learning of content and skill acquisition, is more effective due to the community building. Students quickly learn that they will not be left behind. My job, in the opening weeks of school, is to connect with my students. I use a lot of different strategies here. First, I ask the kids to fill out a student survey which really allows me to learn about them as individuals in addition to learning about them as students. I also place a call to every household during the first week (two days) of school. This helps kids to quickly learn that I am going to be on their side, bragging about what they do well, and asking how I can support them through the tough times. Finally, I make time to touch base with every single kid during the first couple of weeks. I ask a very open question like, "how is school?" or "how is your life?" Kids generally want to get away with a two or three word response. I'll follow up with a, "tell me more about that", or "can you give me some reasons." When I have to intervene due to social or behavioral issues I first ask the child to explain what has happened and I just listen. Then I ask, "how can I help?" It is interesting to see the eyes of the kid who thinks he or she is in trouble bug out of his or her head. The kids never expect me to ask how I can help. It sure does send the message that they won't be left behind. Even though I'm delivering the message that our classroom is a place where we're one for all and all for one and no one will be left behind, it is hard to know that the message has been clearly received. One way to be sure that the message is being received is to ask kids. When I have the opportunity to talk with a student on his or her own I can ask them if they know how dedicated I am to their success. When I have to have conversations with kids after they've made a poor choice, I end that conversation by saying, "I will never give up on you, never stop believing in you. You can't give up or stop believing in yourself, Got it? Kids need to hear this message in many different ways and they need to keep hearing it. I spent more time this year talking about how we build community and how important it was to develop a culture in our classroom so that every child feels like he or she belongs. Belonging and feeling like you are a kid who measures up is important. We talked about the negative impact of stress and specific ways that we would work together to avoid it. I asked that they contact me right away should they have any concerns so that we can trouble-shoot together. I could not do what I do without the support that I receive from my colleagues. I know they feel the same. There is not a single day that goes by that we don't collaborate on a project, brainstorm about how to best reach a student, share our personal stress and troubleshoot so that we can be our best selves for our students, for our families, and for ourselves. My colleagues are my friends. They are my people. My colleagues and I are determined. We are determined to give our students the best possible educations. We are determined to create a classroom culture where everyone belongs We're determined to cheer each other on and support on another so that we can stay mentally healthy enough to continue doing this important work.	<urn:uuid:df53c905-8317-4025-9418-ce15e16c4036>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://theartofbeingcurious.weebly.com/the-art-of-being-curious/a-penguin-mentality	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00067.warc.gz	en	0.980617	944	3.578125	4	[ -0.32437601685523987, -0.17774224281311035, -0.21726635098457336, -0.33696234226226807, -0.6017164587974548, 0.15315108001232147, 0.017864253371953964, 0.04972135275602341, -0.29147183895111084, -0.28012359142303467, 0.06485399603843689, 0.2684992551803589, 0.2706912159919739, 0.2291429042...	3	Week 2 Theme This week's theme: “Determined people working together can accomplish anything.” In addition to our house identities, we work to establish routines that keep everyone on task, successful, and safe. Kids thrive in a structured environment where they have some say and choice. We spend a lot of time working to ensure that our routines work for the students in our classroom. Kids have a say. When things aren't going well, they have input into the changes we make. In the first two weeks we do a lot to establish a culture where students take risks, where it is okay to be wrong, and where students put forth their best effort and strive to meet their potentials. The "turn and talk" followed by an expectation to get their voices in the room gives kids an opportunity to practice, build confidence, and then take a risk. We practice argumentation so that students know how to disagree with their classmates and so that classmates are able to hear opposing ideas as an effort to help them refine their ideas versus personal opposition. In the first two weeks, content takes a back seat to community building. If it is done well, the learning of content and skill acquisition, is more effective due to the community building. Students quickly learn that they will not be left behind. My job, in the opening weeks of school, is to connect with my students. I use a lot of different strategies here. First, I ask the kids to fill out a student survey which really allows me to learn about them as individuals in addition to learning about them as students. I also place a call to every household during the first week (two days) of school. This helps kids to quickly learn that I am going to be on their side, bragging about what they do well, and asking how I can support them through the tough times. Finally, I make time to touch base with every single kid during the first couple of weeks. I ask a very open question like, "how is school?" or "how is your life?" Kids generally want to get away with a two or three word response. I'll follow up with a, "tell me more about that", or "can you give me some reasons." When I have to intervene due to social or behavioral issues I first ask the child to explain what has happened and I just listen. Then I ask, "how can I help?" It is interesting to see the eyes of the kid who thinks he or she is in trouble bug out of his or her head. The kids never expect me to ask how I can help. It sure does send the message that they won't be left behind. Even though I'm delivering the message that our classroom is a place where we're one for all and all for one and no one will be left behind, it is hard to know that the message has been clearly received. One way to be sure that the message is being received is to ask kids. When I have the opportunity to talk with a student on his or her own I can ask them if they know how dedicated I am to their success. When I have to have conversations with kids after they've made a poor choice, I end that conversation by saying, "I will never give up on you, never stop believing in you. You can't give up or stop believing in yourself, Got it? Kids need to hear this message in many different ways and they need to keep hearing it. I spent more time this year talking about how we build community and how important it was to develop a culture in our classroom so that every child feels like he or she belongs. Belonging and feeling like you are a kid who measures up is important. We talked about the negative impact of stress and specific ways that we would work together to avoid it. I asked that they contact me right away should they have any concerns so that we can trouble-shoot together. I could not do what I do without the support that I receive from my colleagues. I know they feel the same. There is not a single day that goes by that we don't collaborate on a project, brainstorm about how to best reach a student, share our personal stress and troubleshoot so that we can be our best selves for our students, for our families, and for ourselves. My colleagues are my friends. They are my people. My colleagues and I are determined. We are determined to give our students the best possible educations. We are determined to create a classroom culture where everyone belongs We're determined to cheer each other on and support on another so that we can stay mentally healthy enough to continue doing this important work.	934	ENGLISH	1
Source: US State of Connecticut A trip to Ridgefield, nestled along the New York border, is a journey back in time, with its picture-perfect array of historic buildings, homes, and greens. And no historic event is more important to this Fairfield County town than the Battle of Ridgefield during the American Revolution in April of 1777. The events of that battle are still evident here in town, sometimes quite literally, as with the British cannonball lodged into a corner post of the Keeler Tavern Museum on Main Street. And recently, a team of researchers from UConn assisted in a discovery that could have direct ties to that battle: the discovery of human skeletal remains that might have belonged to participants in the conflict. Discovered when a construction company was digging into the dirt floor of a home here that dates back to the 1790s, the remains were excavated by a team that includes two UConn doctoral students and adjunct professor of anthropology Nick Bellantoni, who serves as Connecticut state archeologist and who retired from a full-time faculty position at UConn in 2014. Now, the remains will be studied and examined to try and determine whether they were casualties of the Revolutionary battle, and possibly whether they were American or British. “Fortunately, the contractor recognized these are human and called the Ridgefield police,” says Bellantoni. “They secured the site and contacted the State Medical Examiner. The first concern in a case like this is whether this deals with a modern criminal investigation. When the medical examiners and forensic anthropologists determined these were older bones, I was contacted as the State Archeologist.” After the discovery of the first skeleton, another was discovered about 15 feet away, and now a total of four have been found. “The first thing we ask about human remains is if they can be left alone, but that is difficult in this case because of the construction activity,” said Bellantoni. “They would have been crushed. So, our immediate procedure was to do field excavations and have them removed in a professional and respectful way.” Bellantoni brought UConn anthropology graduate students Megan Willison and Elic Weitzel into the effort to excavate the remains. This work is a very slow and deliberate process, which required a great deal of patience and care. “Once we got the entire individual exposed, we photographed them and drew maps,” says Weitzel. “We took measurements of them while they were still in the ground and then very slowly began to uncover each bone using wooden and bamboo tools. Metal tools are too sharp, because they will scratch bone. After all this time, bone can be pretty degraded and weathered. We would slowly move the sediment away from the bones before removing them.” Bellantoni compares the process to a dentist removing tartar from the teeth of a patient. “These excavations were very difficult, one of the hardest digs I have ever had,” says Bellantoni. “These bones were laid in a very compact loam soil with pockets of clay. We needed to remove the soil in a way that was going to ensure as full a recovery as possible. “The UConn students were just terrific. It was painstaking and took us over month, but we could not do it any quicker.” Now that the bones have been fully removed from the ground, a multidisciplinary group of scientists from all over the country, including some at UConn, will attempt to find out as much about them as possible. A diagnostic image that produced a 3-D image will be taken of each bone. “We would like to figure out who these people were and what their life histories were,” says Bellantoni. “We might even be lucky enough to get to the point to be able to identify some of them in terms of actual family names.” Another help in the identification process will be the examination of about 30 clothing buttons that were discovered with the bones. Taking place mostly on April 27, 1777, the Battle of Ridgefield involved a force of about 700 soldiers of the Continental Army and local militias fighting British troops returning from a successful raid on a patriot supply depot in Danbury. Most of the fighting occurred at a barricade in the center of town erected by American troops under the command of Gen. Benedict Arnold, who distinguished himself with his bravery during the battle. Ironically, Arnold would also be a participant in another famous Revolutionary War engagement in Connecticut, the Battle of Groton Heights in 1781 – as the leader of British forces. During the excavation process in Ridgefield, there was always respect for the people whose bones were discovered, the researchers emphasize. “You want to keep things as intact as possible to preserve their integrity,” says Willison. “These are people who died and, in this case, seemingly during the Battle of Ridgefield, so we were always thinking about who they were, where they were coming from and what they were doing,” says Weitzel. The full scientific study of the bones will take approximately one year, and it is not known exactly how much can be found out about them. “When I got there, I knew these could be soldiers, either British or American,” says Bellantoni. “As we kept working, we really became aware of the historical significance going on. We still aren’t 100 percent sure, but with the burials being haphazard, there were no coffins, and the discovery of buttons that appear to have come from uniforms, we have a good hypothesis. These were bodies of robust young men, the bones aren’t from women and children like you would see in a family burial ground.” As in all cases when human remains are excavated in Connecticut, there will be a reburial following the scientific investigation. Bellantoni said that family members would be contacted if possible and if it is determined that they died in battle, the reburials would include full military honors. “This was really a once-in-a-lifetime experience,” says Willison. “I hadn’t had any experience excavating skeleton remains before and it was wonderful opportunity to be part of it because of the history.”	<urn:uuid:a231b13d-0ccc-4faa-a1ea-8aeebc604d66>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://global.foreignaffairs.co.nz/2020/01/16/mil-osi-usa-skeletal-remains-found-in-ridgefield-may-be-revolutionary-war-soldiers/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00244.warc.gz	en	0.981867	1,317	3.328125	3	[ -0.4056910574436188, 0.06349977850914001, 0.4483214020729065, -0.0018715744372457266, -0.19359947741031647, 0.4217689633369446, -0.14312046766281128, 0.22751383483409882, -0.4273982346057892, -0.07184001058340073, 0.07694926857948303, -0.002777392277494073, -0.05052885413169861, 0.62077391...	1	Source: US State of Connecticut A trip to Ridgefield, nestled along the New York border, is a journey back in time, with its picture-perfect array of historic buildings, homes, and greens. And no historic event is more important to this Fairfield County town than the Battle of Ridgefield during the American Revolution in April of 1777. The events of that battle are still evident here in town, sometimes quite literally, as with the British cannonball lodged into a corner post of the Keeler Tavern Museum on Main Street. And recently, a team of researchers from UConn assisted in a discovery that could have direct ties to that battle: the discovery of human skeletal remains that might have belonged to participants in the conflict. Discovered when a construction company was digging into the dirt floor of a home here that dates back to the 1790s, the remains were excavated by a team that includes two UConn doctoral students and adjunct professor of anthropology Nick Bellantoni, who serves as Connecticut state archeologist and who retired from a full-time faculty position at UConn in 2014. Now, the remains will be studied and examined to try and determine whether they were casualties of the Revolutionary battle, and possibly whether they were American or British. “Fortunately, the contractor recognized these are human and called the Ridgefield police,” says Bellantoni. “They secured the site and contacted the State Medical Examiner. The first concern in a case like this is whether this deals with a modern criminal investigation. When the medical examiners and forensic anthropologists determined these were older bones, I was contacted as the State Archeologist.” After the discovery of the first skeleton, another was discovered about 15 feet away, and now a total of four have been found. “The first thing we ask about human remains is if they can be left alone, but that is difficult in this case because of the construction activity,” said Bellantoni. “They would have been crushed. So, our immediate procedure was to do field excavations and have them removed in a professional and respectful way.” Bellantoni brought UConn anthropology graduate students Megan Willison and Elic Weitzel into the effort to excavate the remains. This work is a very slow and deliberate process, which required a great deal of patience and care. “Once we got the entire individual exposed, we photographed them and drew maps,” says Weitzel. “We took measurements of them while they were still in the ground and then very slowly began to uncover each bone using wooden and bamboo tools. Metal tools are too sharp, because they will scratch bone. After all this time, bone can be pretty degraded and weathered. We would slowly move the sediment away from the bones before removing them.” Bellantoni compares the process to a dentist removing tartar from the teeth of a patient. “These excavations were very difficult, one of the hardest digs I have ever had,” says Bellantoni. “These bones were laid in a very compact loam soil with pockets of clay. We needed to remove the soil in a way that was going to ensure as full a recovery as possible. “The UConn students were just terrific. It was painstaking and took us over month, but we could not do it any quicker.” Now that the bones have been fully removed from the ground, a multidisciplinary group of scientists from all over the country, including some at UConn, will attempt to find out as much about them as possible. A diagnostic image that produced a 3-D image will be taken of each bone. “We would like to figure out who these people were and what their life histories were,” says Bellantoni. “We might even be lucky enough to get to the point to be able to identify some of them in terms of actual family names.” Another help in the identification process will be the examination of about 30 clothing buttons that were discovered with the bones. Taking place mostly on April 27, 1777, the Battle of Ridgefield involved a force of about 700 soldiers of the Continental Army and local militias fighting British troops returning from a successful raid on a patriot supply depot in Danbury. Most of the fighting occurred at a barricade in the center of town erected by American troops under the command of Gen. Benedict Arnold, who distinguished himself with his bravery during the battle. Ironically, Arnold would also be a participant in another famous Revolutionary War engagement in Connecticut, the Battle of Groton Heights in 1781 – as the leader of British forces. During the excavation process in Ridgefield, there was always respect for the people whose bones were discovered, the researchers emphasize. “You want to keep things as intact as possible to preserve their integrity,” says Willison. “These are people who died and, in this case, seemingly during the Battle of Ridgefield, so we were always thinking about who they were, where they were coming from and what they were doing,” says Weitzel. The full scientific study of the bones will take approximately one year, and it is not known exactly how much can be found out about them. “When I got there, I knew these could be soldiers, either British or American,” says Bellantoni. “As we kept working, we really became aware of the historical significance going on. We still aren’t 100 percent sure, but with the burials being haphazard, there were no coffins, and the discovery of buttons that appear to have come from uniforms, we have a good hypothesis. These were bodies of robust young men, the bones aren’t from women and children like you would see in a family burial ground.” As in all cases when human remains are excavated in Connecticut, there will be a reburial following the scientific investigation. Bellantoni said that family members would be contacted if possible and if it is determined that they died in battle, the reburials would include full military honors. “This was really a once-in-a-lifetime experience,” says Willison. “I hadn’t had any experience excavating skeleton remains before and it was wonderful opportunity to be part of it because of the history.”	1,255	ENGLISH	1
Margaret Plantagenet was born during one of the most unstable periods in English royal history. The daughter of George, Duke of Clarence, brother to King Edward IV, and Isabel Neville, daughter of the powerful Earl of Warwick, Margaret was destined for a future of privilege and power. She was born a Princess, into the royal house of Plantagenet, and, not having the benefit of hindsight, would never have guessed her Plantagenet blood would cause such a number of life changing events. In 1478, her father Clarence was executed by her uncle the king on grounds of treason. By the tender age of 5, Margaret had lost both of her parents, and her future was uncertain. What would become of this young princess? 1485, the Battle of Bosworth. Richard III, the last Plantagenet king was defeated in battle by the Lancastrian Henry Tudor. Henry had now founded an entirely new dynasty, and sat on the throne as the first Tudor Monarch. Margaret must have felt insecure. She and her brother, Edward, were next in line to the throne through their Yorkist blood, which the new Tudor king was fully aware of. The young Edward of Warwick, younger brother of Margaret, was hastily detained and kept under house arrest before being incarcerated into the Tower of London. His claim to the throne made him too much of a threat to be freely living in society, therefore the new Tudor king had no alternative but to confine the young aristocrat. Henry arranged a series of clever marriages for the daughters of the previous king and also for Margaret. The Yorkist princesses were married off to allies of Henry, who he knew could be trustworthy, indeed ensuring the princesses did not marry men who could pose a threat to Henry’s throne. Margaret was paired with Sir Richard Pole, an unlikely match in status, Margaret being of royal birth and Richard only a member of the gentry, hardly a suitable match.	<urn:uuid:ece75686-9d33-4493-a5d4-f094ca2265f8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.tudorsociety.com/tag/margaret-pole/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00155.warc.gz	en	0.983652	398	3.59375	4	[ -0.4142991602420807, -0.048052046447992325, 0.21550914645195007, -0.016403207555413246, -0.26422253251075745, 0.08636721223592758, 0.13183338940143585, -0.014310228638350964, -0.07345190644264221, 0.10970920324325562, 0.16823710501194, -0.45871374011039734, 0.31461799144744873, 0.281169295...	3	Margaret Plantagenet was born during one of the most unstable periods in English royal history. The daughter of George, Duke of Clarence, brother to King Edward IV, and Isabel Neville, daughter of the powerful Earl of Warwick, Margaret was destined for a future of privilege and power. She was born a Princess, into the royal house of Plantagenet, and, not having the benefit of hindsight, would never have guessed her Plantagenet blood would cause such a number of life changing events. In 1478, her father Clarence was executed by her uncle the king on grounds of treason. By the tender age of 5, Margaret had lost both of her parents, and her future was uncertain. What would become of this young princess? 1485, the Battle of Bosworth. Richard III, the last Plantagenet king was defeated in battle by the Lancastrian Henry Tudor. Henry had now founded an entirely new dynasty, and sat on the throne as the first Tudor Monarch. Margaret must have felt insecure. She and her brother, Edward, were next in line to the throne through their Yorkist blood, which the new Tudor king was fully aware of. The young Edward of Warwick, younger brother of Margaret, was hastily detained and kept under house arrest before being incarcerated into the Tower of London. His claim to the throne made him too much of a threat to be freely living in society, therefore the new Tudor king had no alternative but to confine the young aristocrat. Henry arranged a series of clever marriages for the daughters of the previous king and also for Margaret. The Yorkist princesses were married off to allies of Henry, who he knew could be trustworthy, indeed ensuring the princesses did not marry men who could pose a threat to Henry’s throne. Margaret was paired with Sir Richard Pole, an unlikely match in status, Margaret being of royal birth and Richard only a member of the gentry, hardly a suitable match.	401	ENGLISH	1
Since there is no code of laws or morals that govern human beings, people are guided by their own personal instincts of what is right and wrong. There are no established rules that human beings have to abide by. This in a essence highlights that there is no rule of law, or governmental authority to take charge of the states affairs. For John Locke, government was a social contract between those who are governed and those who were appointed to be in authority to govern others. It was a form of understanding made between the two parties. . John Locke argued that there can be a peaceful co-existence among citizens without necessarily having to be controlled by a person or group of persons. There can be order without control being exercised by an individual. One does not have to take charge of the people for order to be reached. People will then behave according to the "laws of nature" which according to him include natural freedom and moral equality (also called their natural rights). According to Locke, people would act freely without being restrained by any set up rules or laws that would curtail their freedom and happiness. If this is the case, then it would degenerate to chaos as everybody would be doing all manner of acts including stealing, killing each other in order to satisfy their needs. Also in the state of law, all men have the equal right to reprimand others who go against the laws of nature. . John Locke also conceptualized the property rights idea. In this concept, he states, "if an individual spends his time and energy to improve certain property, which originally had no owner, he can claim ownership of that property." When this is applied to the state of nature where there is probably no law; such rights cannot be defended or even claimed. This therefore led to a proposal by "Locke" from the initial state of nature to a situation where people form a government (social contract) to try and defend the rights and claims of the property.	<urn:uuid:8bbeae05-86a7-4bff-84cb-4d6c912a55e3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/200722.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00441.warc.gz	en	0.983112	391	3.8125	4	[ -0.3613350987434387, -0.003763764863833785, -0.14901195466518402, -0.5698168873786926, -0.20069058239459991, 0.056917015463113785, 0.8561704754829407, -0.3444637656211853, -0.056862764060497284, 0.4476819336414337, -0.018392041325569153, 0.18550333380699158, 0.07369451969861984, 0.25136315...	3	Since there is no code of laws or morals that govern human beings, people are guided by their own personal instincts of what is right and wrong. There are no established rules that human beings have to abide by. This in a essence highlights that there is no rule of law, or governmental authority to take charge of the states affairs. For John Locke, government was a social contract between those who are governed and those who were appointed to be in authority to govern others. It was a form of understanding made between the two parties. . John Locke argued that there can be a peaceful co-existence among citizens without necessarily having to be controlled by a person or group of persons. There can be order without control being exercised by an individual. One does not have to take charge of the people for order to be reached. People will then behave according to the "laws of nature" which according to him include natural freedom and moral equality (also called their natural rights). According to Locke, people would act freely without being restrained by any set up rules or laws that would curtail their freedom and happiness. If this is the case, then it would degenerate to chaos as everybody would be doing all manner of acts including stealing, killing each other in order to satisfy their needs. Also in the state of law, all men have the equal right to reprimand others who go against the laws of nature. . John Locke also conceptualized the property rights idea. In this concept, he states, "if an individual spends his time and energy to improve certain property, which originally had no owner, he can claim ownership of that property." When this is applied to the state of nature where there is probably no law; such rights cannot be defended or even claimed. This therefore led to a proposal by "Locke" from the initial state of nature to a situation where people form a government (social contract) to try and defend the rights and claims of the property.	391	ENGLISH	1
Lyndon Baines Johnson has been credited with being one of the most important figures in the civil rights movement. Johnson does have some distracters who believe that he was merely an unprincipled politician who used the civil rights issue when he realised the worth of the “Black Vote”. However Johnson himself claimed to be an idealist who dreamed of making America a “Great Society”. It was Johnson who put the presidential signature to the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act. Lydon Baines Johnson with John F Kennedy Lyndon Johnson’s work for minorities began in 1928 when he obtained his first job as an elementary school teacher; it was, of course, at this time a segregated school attended by only Mexican Americans. Johnson had 28 pupils who he recalled were “mired in the slums”, “lashed by prejudice” and “buried half- alive in illiteracy”. Johnson believed that their only way out was by education and he bribed, bullied, cajoled and encouraged his pupils, and they adored him. During the Great Depression, Johnson worked for one of Roosevelt’s New Deal Agencies, the National Youth Administration. Johnson was ordered by Washington to have a black leader as a close advisor, Johnson feared he would be “run out of Texas”, feeling implementation had to be slow as so to not upset deep- rooted customs. Despite this Johnson made great efforts to alleviate black unemployment; 50% by 1932. Despite privately referring to African Americans as “niggers”, he sometimes stayed at black colleges and the African American community found him unusually helpful. Johnson however did little to help other minorities such as Hispanics because, there was little political pressure from Washington and Johnson stood to politically gain little from helping them. When Johnson became a Congressman, he wanted to gain the minority vote and so he considered employing a Mexican or Spanish-American to show his “appreciation” of his Mexican supporters; cynical Texans called his behaviour a publicity stunt. Many felt that any Texan who wanted to represent the segregated state had to appear to be a segregationist and his gesture didn’t. It was however beneficial to Johnson as it won him the minority vote and made him, a politician with national ambitions, look free from sectional prejudices. Johnson however, due to political expediency, was forced to vote with his fellow Southern Democrats in Congress, against civil rights measures such as banning lynching, eliminating poll taxes and denying federal funding to segregated schools, measures which later would make up ground breaking legislation. As a senator, Johnson’s opposition to Truman’s civil rights programme disgusted Texas blacks. His explanations were clearly within the contemporary Southern political context; he claimed the bills would never have passed anyway. Johnson also claimed he would be more helpful in another place and position, showing his political ambition and recognising he could only go so far in Texas. He also trotted out the standard Southern excuse for not helping African Americans, that he was “not against blacks rights but for states rights”. Johnson, like Eisenhower, thought civil rights legislation would try to force people to change and lead to violence. Despite this politically correct (in Southern eyes) action, Johnson was behind the scenes working to get black farmers and schoolchildren equal treatment in his congressional district, believing small, but real developments would be better than ground- breaking legislation. In 1938 Johnson secured federal funding for housing in Austin, Texas to benefit Mexican, African American and White slum dwellers. Johnson softened this for racist southerners by stating “This country won’t have to worry about isms [communism and fascism] when it gives its people a decent, clean place to live and a job. They’ll believe in the government.” This behaviour may make Lyndon Johnson seem a Jekyll and Hyde character on race relations, his African American servants were treated well by Johnson in private until other racists visited Johnson and he put on a show for them to gain their support for his political ambitions. By the mid-1950’s, Senator Johnson was clearly altering his stance on civil rights issues, being one of few Southern politicians who supported the 1954 BROWN decision by the Supreme Court. He did so because he felt it important to uphold the American Constitution and the Supreme Court’s place in that. Johnson felt that the debate of BROWN was merely weakening the Democrats and the whole country. Johnson wanted the South to accept it in order for the South to make economic advances, knowing racial tensions made the area unattractive to investors. By this time Johnson’s presidential aspirations meant he couldn’t appear too narrowly Southern and he was one of only three Southern politicians who refused to sign the Southern Manifesto in protest of BROWN. Johnson’s motivation over this stance was subject to debate; some thinking it was an act of “political valour” and others thinking he used it for political gain. Johnson continued to remain careful and appeased the Southern racists, such as in 1956 when he killed a civil rights bill in Congress. Again, in keeping with his Jekyll and Hyde stance he changed his opinion in 1957. Whilst assuring Texans that there was “no foundation” to rumours he was promoting a civil rights bill, and stating he was “strongly and irrevocably opposed to forced integration of the races” he orchestrated, though diluted parts which would be offensive to southerners, the 1957 Civil Rights Act. This dilution made fellow Southerner President Eisenhower’s bill into a largely unenforceable voting rights law. The part of the bill, which allowed federal government to promote integration in schools, was lost, due to the hostility BROWN and BROWN II had received in the South. Despite Johnson’s dilution of the act to make it merely a token gesture, the bill symbolised greater federal interest in civil rights and their enforcing; it also paved the way for more civil rights legislation. Johnson was also important in the passage of Eisenhower’s second Civil Rights Act in 1960. During his period as John F. Kennedy’s Vice- President, racism became an increasingly important political issue. Vice- President Johnson knew something had to be done “The Negro fought in the war [World War Two], and….he’s not gonna keep taking the shit we’re dishing out. We’re in a race with time. If we don’t act, we’re gonna have blood in the streets.” As Vice- President Johnson’s greatest challenge was chairing Kennedy’s Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (CEEO). Johnson didn’t want the job and Kennedy knew it was a ‘hot potato’. Johnson told Kennedy that the CEEO lacked the money and power to be effective, but Kennedy insisted and did his best. He did so because he considered discrimination as ‘un-American’ and damaging to America’s reputation, especially in the Cold War world. James Farmer of CORE, believed Johnson’s motivation to be real and both he and Roy Wilkins of the NAACP rated Johnson higher than President Kennedy on civil rights issues. The CEEO failed to win many plaudits and shortly before Kennedy was assassinated, Johnson urged him to make a ‘moral commitment’ to civil rights. Johnson became President of the USA, in November 1963 after the assassination of Kennedy. It was then that Lyndon Johnson announced his vision of a “Great Society” for America, with “an end to poverty and racial injustice”. Johnson felt he and Congress owed it to the late president to see his civil rights bill passed. However Johnson was warned by other Southerners that he was staking his political career on passing this bill into law. Johnson was convinced that discrimination was morally wrong and wanted change to lead to economic, political and spiritual reintegration of the South within the nation. The bill didn’t pass unhindered. There were doubters in Congress and it also had to overcome the longest obstruction in Senate history. Its final passing owed much to Kennedy, who had won over the Republican minority before his death. Johnson was sure the bill would have passed if Kennedy were still alive but that it would have been diluted like Eisenhower’s bills. Johnson must also receive credit as he devoted a staggering amount of his time, energy and political capital to ensure the passage of the bill in it original state. He used Kennedy’s Kennedy’s death, appeals to Southerner’s self- interest and his Southern background to get what has been described as the most important piece of civil rights legislation passed. The Act has been described by Irving Bernstein as “a rare and glittering moment in the history of American democracy”. However everything wasn’t content in America, there were signs of a northern working-class backlash, shown by the increase in popularity for racist presidential hopefuls, in the presidential primaries. Blacks were also dissatisfied saying it hadn’t gone far enough. The result was riots in black ghettos in East Coast cities. The blacks Johnson thought he was helping, repaid him by embarrassing him and the Democrat Party. Despite this, Johnson bravely planned more civil rights legislation. Johnson hoped his Elementary and Secondary Education Act in 1965 would help children to get out of the ghettos. The poorer states like Mississippi benefited greatly from the federal funding and by the end of the 1960’s the percentage of African Americans obtaining a high school diploma rose from 40% to 60%. However, a combination of ghetto peer pressure and traditions and reluctant officials limited the Act’s effectiveness. Johnson’s 1965 Higher Education Act was more successful as it gave significant aid to poor black colleges; it led the number of African American college students to quadruple within a decade. Lyndon Johnson’s introduction of Medicare and Medicaid helped to address the issue of poor health in the minorities, African American infant mortality halved within a decade. It soon became clear to Johnson that there were still gaps that had been left by the 1964 Civil Rights Act, but Johnson feared attempts to close them would be hindered by uncooperative Southern Congressmen. After Martin Luther King’s campaign in Selma, Alabama to get African Americans to register to vote Johnson felt he could act, reminding Americans that one individual’s disenfranchisement “undermines the freedom of every citizen”. The 1965 Voting Rights Act had a dramatic effect on the South, changing the political complexion of the area, to make it more racially integrated. Lyndon Johnson’s own Democratic Party achieved political gain as a result of the act, the enlarged black vote helped to counteract the loss of Southern whites for the Democratic Party. After this legislation it became increasingly difficult to obtain reforming acts, the 1968 Civil Rights Act doing little more to help the African American community. Many believe that Johnson was able to pass the 1964 and 1965 Acts because of an exceptional set of circumstances. During his 24 years in Congress Johnson had gained unprecedented experience in getting legislation through Congress. He also had an unusual two- thirds of Congress in his favour and Congressmen felt particularly after Kennedy’s assassination that they should be righting national wrongs. Johnson was himself exceptionally persuasive and determined and had a lifelong commitment to helping the poor. Lyndon Johnson followed Kennedy’s example in using his executive authority to help the African Americans. 1965-6 Johnson worked to help African Americans through manipulation of federal funding, such as offering federal subsidies to southern states, which co-operated in school desegregation (despite it being 11 years after the BROWN decision!) so he was using the immense power of the federal purse. Johnson was also seen to be pro-African Americans in other ways, by appointing an African American Supreme Court judge, Thurgood Marshall. Johnson also had African American advisors, hoping this would counteract the images of lawless African American rioters. Johnson’s positive discrimination, which later became known as ‘affirmative action’ was met with the expected attacks from white bigots, who felt Johnson had done more than enough for African Americans. His attempts were also hampered by the riots in Watts, Los Angeles in August 1965. These were caused by de facto segregation and discrimination, which was unspoken and therefore almost impossible to legislate against. The result of the riots was a white backlash as the purchasing of guns by suburban whites in California soared and many whites turned against Johnson’s reform programme. He himself couldn’t understand how the African Americans could be so politically naïve, failing to realise that their action had undermined his efforts. After the events in Watts, Johnson kept a lower profile on the civil rights legislation. Johnson was also stopped from doing more by an increasingly awkward Congress which rejected an administration civil rights bill, one aim of which was to prohibit housing discrimination, the basis of the 1968 Civil Rights Act. Johnson’s attempts to integrate housing were hampered by the Watts riots and Stokely Carmichael’s call for “Black Power“. Local and State authorities also showed their reluctance to co-operate with Johnson’s programmes, meaning that whilst Acts passed into law, they were still not implemented. The summer of 1966 saw riots in 38 major American cities. This harmed the image Johnson was trying to mould of the African American community. He tried to excuse them by stating the cause of the riots were poverty and despair, what he had been trying to combat. Another major distraction to Johnson was the Vietnam War, which goes much of the way in explaining why like Kennedy and his distraction of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Johnson was unable to devote more time to America’s domestic affairs. Johnson was also aware that he wasn’t a miracle worker and that the situation was “too critical to our future for any one man or any one administration to ever resolve.” Johnson didn’t stand for re-election in 1968 and ironically his last public appearance was at a civil rights symposium. When he died a few weeks later, 60% of the people who filed passed his coffin to pay their respects were African Americans. What had Johnson actually achieved? He played an important role in ending de jure segregation. His 1965 Voting Rights Act transformed Southern politics and gave African Americans the chance to vote without fear; it also saw more African Americans enter politics. Johnson’s Education Acts sped up the process of school desegregation, which had lagged after the initial BROWN decision and also helped African American colleges. Johnson had not only passed the 1964 Civil Rights Act but had also been instrumental in the 1957 and 1960 Acts, all three had given African Americans more political and economic opportunities. Black unemployment had decreased by 34% and in that way he had contributed to his dream of a “Great Society”. However, Lyndon Johnson did not solve all as most African Americans continued to live in poor housing and suffer above average unemployment. His Great Society programmes soon became unpopular with local politicians, who resented federal intervention and ordinary Americans who disliked the redistribution of resources needed to combat poverty. De facto segregation continued especially in the South and the 1968 Civil Rights Act has been attacked as an ‘empty gesture’ and critics say Johnson’s ‘Great Society’ created a welfare dependent culture. Some African Americans were dissatisfied with Johnson’s achievements, leading to the riots at Watts in 1965 and during the summer of 1966, which displayed their desire for faster progress. However it is argued that without Johnson’s actions, Black Power would have a larger following. Above all, it must be remembered that Johnson was a politician and therefore always looking out for votes and being cautious not to antagonise too many people. The advances made during Johnson’s presidency can naturally be attributed to his passing of legislation but it must also be remembered that events such as the assassinations of President Kennedy and Martin Luther King also acted as a catalyst for change. Johnson like Eisenhower and Truman before him was a Southerner and whether or not he accepted it his roots were inherently racist. Many would look at him and Kennedy and predict that Irish American Kennedy, whose own family had been discriminated against, would be a champion of the civil rights movement. However that was not the case and like his Southern counterparts, it was Johnson who passed the major civil rights legislation. Many have asked why did Johnson take civil rights so seriously and what was his motivation? Lyndon Johnson was motivated by memories of his own poverty ridden childhood and also his strong belief that helping minorities would be of spiritual and economic benefit to all Americans. Johnson also believed that racial discrimination was ironically damaging the economy of his beloved South and that the area would have to abandon its racist attitudes to gain economic prosperity. Despite Johnson’s ambitions he was also a caring and compassionate man. Naturally as a politician Johnson was constantly aware of the need to be popular to secure support, that is why he diluted the 1957 Civil Rights Act in order to win support to run instead of John F Kennedy as the Democrat presidential candidate. Lyndon Johnson however didn’t want to be seen as a conservative Southerner and so to prove his ability to rise above his roots, he felt it would be advantageous to promote civil rights legislation. He hoped to stem the flow of African American voters switching to the Republicans. Johnson also acknowledged that in the late 1950’s against the backdrop of BROWN and the Montgomery Bus Boycott the time was right for change. Many genuinely believe and the legislation proves that Johnson did really want to improve life for minorities and build a “Great Society”. By Sarah Heasman, London University - The 1965 Voting Rights Act was a natural follow on to the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Ironically, the 1964 Act had resulted in an outbreak… - The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was born in the presidency of John F Kennedy who was elected president in 1960. His support of civil…	<urn:uuid:b3bb35b1-0a7b-43c5-894e-4c7004825feb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/the-civil-rights-movement-in-america-1945-to-1968/lyndon-johnson/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00146.warc.gz	en	0.984291	3,717	4.3125	4	[ -0.2119406759738922, 0.13621661067008972, 0.1695021092891693, -0.3306032419204712, 0.0022870316170156, 0.35658028721809387, 0.07022461295127869, 0.24996310472488403, -0.33648839592933655, -0.06636232137680054, 0.06569242477416992, 0.36508095264434814, 0.0371328741312027, 0.2686998844146728...	9	Lyndon Baines Johnson has been credited with being one of the most important figures in the civil rights movement. Johnson does have some distracters who believe that he was merely an unprincipled politician who used the civil rights issue when he realised the worth of the “Black Vote”. However Johnson himself claimed to be an idealist who dreamed of making America a “Great Society”. It was Johnson who put the presidential signature to the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act. Lydon Baines Johnson with John F Kennedy Lyndon Johnson’s work for minorities began in 1928 when he obtained his first job as an elementary school teacher; it was, of course, at this time a segregated school attended by only Mexican Americans. Johnson had 28 pupils who he recalled were “mired in the slums”, “lashed by prejudice” and “buried half- alive in illiteracy”. Johnson believed that their only way out was by education and he bribed, bullied, cajoled and encouraged his pupils, and they adored him. During the Great Depression, Johnson worked for one of Roosevelt’s New Deal Agencies, the National Youth Administration. Johnson was ordered by Washington to have a black leader as a close advisor, Johnson feared he would be “run out of Texas”, feeling implementation had to be slow as so to not upset deep- rooted customs. Despite this Johnson made great efforts to alleviate black unemployment; 50% by 1932. Despite privately referring to African Americans as “niggers”, he sometimes stayed at black colleges and the African American community found him unusually helpful. Johnson however did little to help other minorities such as Hispanics because, there was little political pressure from Washington and Johnson stood to politically gain little from helping them. When Johnson became a Congressman, he wanted to gain the minority vote and so he considered employing a Mexican or Spanish-American to show his “appreciation” of his Mexican supporters; cynical Texans called his behaviour a publicity stunt. Many felt that any Texan who wanted to represent the segregated state had to appear to be a segregationist and his gesture didn’t. It was however beneficial to Johnson as it won him the minority vote and made him, a politician with national ambitions, look free from sectional prejudices. Johnson however, due to political expediency, was forced to vote with his fellow Southern Democrats in Congress, against civil rights measures such as banning lynching, eliminating poll taxes and denying federal funding to segregated schools, measures which later would make up ground breaking legislation. As a senator, Johnson’s opposition to Truman’s civil rights programme disgusted Texas blacks. His explanations were clearly within the contemporary Southern political context; he claimed the bills would never have passed anyway. Johnson also claimed he would be more helpful in another place and position, showing his political ambition and recognising he could only go so far in Texas. He also trotted out the standard Southern excuse for not helping African Americans, that he was “not against blacks rights but for states rights”. Johnson, like Eisenhower, thought civil rights legislation would try to force people to change and lead to violence. Despite this politically correct (in Southern eyes) action, Johnson was behind the scenes working to get black farmers and schoolchildren equal treatment in his congressional district, believing small, but real developments would be better than ground- breaking legislation. In 1938 Johnson secured federal funding for housing in Austin, Texas to benefit Mexican, African American and White slum dwellers. Johnson softened this for racist southerners by stating “This country won’t have to worry about isms [communism and fascism] when it gives its people a decent, clean place to live and a job. They’ll believe in the government.” This behaviour may make Lyndon Johnson seem a Jekyll and Hyde character on race relations, his African American servants were treated well by Johnson in private until other racists visited Johnson and he put on a show for them to gain their support for his political ambitions. By the mid-1950’s, Senator Johnson was clearly altering his stance on civil rights issues, being one of few Southern politicians who supported the 1954 BROWN decision by the Supreme Court. He did so because he felt it important to uphold the American Constitution and the Supreme Court’s place in that. Johnson felt that the debate of BROWN was merely weakening the Democrats and the whole country. Johnson wanted the South to accept it in order for the South to make economic advances, knowing racial tensions made the area unattractive to investors. By this time Johnson’s presidential aspirations meant he couldn’t appear too narrowly Southern and he was one of only three Southern politicians who refused to sign the Southern Manifesto in protest of BROWN. Johnson’s motivation over this stance was subject to debate; some thinking it was an act of “political valour” and others thinking he used it for political gain. Johnson continued to remain careful and appeased the Southern racists, such as in 1956 when he killed a civil rights bill in Congress. Again, in keeping with his Jekyll and Hyde stance he changed his opinion in 1957. Whilst assuring Texans that there was “no foundation” to rumours he was promoting a civil rights bill, and stating he was “strongly and irrevocably opposed to forced integration of the races” he orchestrated, though diluted parts which would be offensive to southerners, the 1957 Civil Rights Act. This dilution made fellow Southerner President Eisenhower’s bill into a largely unenforceable voting rights law. The part of the bill, which allowed federal government to promote integration in schools, was lost, due to the hostility BROWN and BROWN II had received in the South. Despite Johnson’s dilution of the act to make it merely a token gesture, the bill symbolised greater federal interest in civil rights and their enforcing; it also paved the way for more civil rights legislation. Johnson was also important in the passage of Eisenhower’s second Civil Rights Act in 1960. During his period as John F. Kennedy’s Vice- President, racism became an increasingly important political issue. Vice- President Johnson knew something had to be done “The Negro fought in the war [World War Two], and….he’s not gonna keep taking the shit we’re dishing out. We’re in a race with time. If we don’t act, we’re gonna have blood in the streets.” As Vice- President Johnson’s greatest challenge was chairing Kennedy’s Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (CEEO). Johnson didn’t want the job and Kennedy knew it was a ‘hot potato’. Johnson told Kennedy that the CEEO lacked the money and power to be effective, but Kennedy insisted and did his best. He did so because he considered discrimination as ‘un-American’ and damaging to America’s reputation, especially in the Cold War world. James Farmer of CORE, believed Johnson’s motivation to be real and both he and Roy Wilkins of the NAACP rated Johnson higher than President Kennedy on civil rights issues. The CEEO failed to win many plaudits and shortly before Kennedy was assassinated, Johnson urged him to make a ‘moral commitment’ to civil rights. Johnson became President of the USA, in November 1963 after the assassination of Kennedy. It was then that Lyndon Johnson announced his vision of a “Great Society” for America, with “an end to poverty and racial injustice”. Johnson felt he and Congress owed it to the late president to see his civil rights bill passed. However Johnson was warned by other Southerners that he was staking his political career on passing this bill into law. Johnson was convinced that discrimination was morally wrong and wanted change to lead to economic, political and spiritual reintegration of the South within the nation. The bill didn’t pass unhindered. There were doubters in Congress and it also had to overcome the longest obstruction in Senate history. Its final passing owed much to Kennedy, who had won over the Republican minority before his death. Johnson was sure the bill would have passed if Kennedy were still alive but that it would have been diluted like Eisenhower’s bills. Johnson must also receive credit as he devoted a staggering amount of his time, energy and political capital to ensure the passage of the bill in it original state. He used Kennedy’s Kennedy’s death, appeals to Southerner’s self- interest and his Southern background to get what has been described as the most important piece of civil rights legislation passed. The Act has been described by Irving Bernstein as “a rare and glittering moment in the history of American democracy”. However everything wasn’t content in America, there were signs of a northern working-class backlash, shown by the increase in popularity for racist presidential hopefuls, in the presidential primaries. Blacks were also dissatisfied saying it hadn’t gone far enough. The result was riots in black ghettos in East Coast cities. The blacks Johnson thought he was helping, repaid him by embarrassing him and the Democrat Party. Despite this, Johnson bravely planned more civil rights legislation. Johnson hoped his Elementary and Secondary Education Act in 1965 would help children to get out of the ghettos. The poorer states like Mississippi benefited greatly from the federal funding and by the end of the 1960’s the percentage of African Americans obtaining a high school diploma rose from 40% to 60%. However, a combination of ghetto peer pressure and traditions and reluctant officials limited the Act’s effectiveness. Johnson’s 1965 Higher Education Act was more successful as it gave significant aid to poor black colleges; it led the number of African American college students to quadruple within a decade. Lyndon Johnson’s introduction of Medicare and Medicaid helped to address the issue of poor health in the minorities, African American infant mortality halved within a decade. It soon became clear to Johnson that there were still gaps that had been left by the 1964 Civil Rights Act, but Johnson feared attempts to close them would be hindered by uncooperative Southern Congressmen. After Martin Luther King’s campaign in Selma, Alabama to get African Americans to register to vote Johnson felt he could act, reminding Americans that one individual’s disenfranchisement “undermines the freedom of every citizen”. The 1965 Voting Rights Act had a dramatic effect on the South, changing the political complexion of the area, to make it more racially integrated. Lyndon Johnson’s own Democratic Party achieved political gain as a result of the act, the enlarged black vote helped to counteract the loss of Southern whites for the Democratic Party. After this legislation it became increasingly difficult to obtain reforming acts, the 1968 Civil Rights Act doing little more to help the African American community. Many believe that Johnson was able to pass the 1964 and 1965 Acts because of an exceptional set of circumstances. During his 24 years in Congress Johnson had gained unprecedented experience in getting legislation through Congress. He also had an unusual two- thirds of Congress in his favour and Congressmen felt particularly after Kennedy’s assassination that they should be righting national wrongs. Johnson was himself exceptionally persuasive and determined and had a lifelong commitment to helping the poor. Lyndon Johnson followed Kennedy’s example in using his executive authority to help the African Americans. 1965-6 Johnson worked to help African Americans through manipulation of federal funding, such as offering federal subsidies to southern states, which co-operated in school desegregation (despite it being 11 years after the BROWN decision!) so he was using the immense power of the federal purse. Johnson was also seen to be pro-African Americans in other ways, by appointing an African American Supreme Court judge, Thurgood Marshall. Johnson also had African American advisors, hoping this would counteract the images of lawless African American rioters. Johnson’s positive discrimination, which later became known as ‘affirmative action’ was met with the expected attacks from white bigots, who felt Johnson had done more than enough for African Americans. His attempts were also hampered by the riots in Watts, Los Angeles in August 1965. These were caused by de facto segregation and discrimination, which was unspoken and therefore almost impossible to legislate against. The result of the riots was a white backlash as the purchasing of guns by suburban whites in California soared and many whites turned against Johnson’s reform programme. He himself couldn’t understand how the African Americans could be so politically naïve, failing to realise that their action had undermined his efforts. After the events in Watts, Johnson kept a lower profile on the civil rights legislation. Johnson was also stopped from doing more by an increasingly awkward Congress which rejected an administration civil rights bill, one aim of which was to prohibit housing discrimination, the basis of the 1968 Civil Rights Act. Johnson’s attempts to integrate housing were hampered by the Watts riots and Stokely Carmichael’s call for “Black Power“. Local and State authorities also showed their reluctance to co-operate with Johnson’s programmes, meaning that whilst Acts passed into law, they were still not implemented. The summer of 1966 saw riots in 38 major American cities. This harmed the image Johnson was trying to mould of the African American community. He tried to excuse them by stating the cause of the riots were poverty and despair, what he had been trying to combat. Another major distraction to Johnson was the Vietnam War, which goes much of the way in explaining why like Kennedy and his distraction of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Johnson was unable to devote more time to America’s domestic affairs. Johnson was also aware that he wasn’t a miracle worker and that the situation was “too critical to our future for any one man or any one administration to ever resolve.” Johnson didn’t stand for re-election in 1968 and ironically his last public appearance was at a civil rights symposium. When he died a few weeks later, 60% of the people who filed passed his coffin to pay their respects were African Americans. What had Johnson actually achieved? He played an important role in ending de jure segregation. His 1965 Voting Rights Act transformed Southern politics and gave African Americans the chance to vote without fear; it also saw more African Americans enter politics. Johnson’s Education Acts sped up the process of school desegregation, which had lagged after the initial BROWN decision and also helped African American colleges. Johnson had not only passed the 1964 Civil Rights Act but had also been instrumental in the 1957 and 1960 Acts, all three had given African Americans more political and economic opportunities. Black unemployment had decreased by 34% and in that way he had contributed to his dream of a “Great Society”. However, Lyndon Johnson did not solve all as most African Americans continued to live in poor housing and suffer above average unemployment. His Great Society programmes soon became unpopular with local politicians, who resented federal intervention and ordinary Americans who disliked the redistribution of resources needed to combat poverty. De facto segregation continued especially in the South and the 1968 Civil Rights Act has been attacked as an ‘empty gesture’ and critics say Johnson’s ‘Great Society’ created a welfare dependent culture. Some African Americans were dissatisfied with Johnson’s achievements, leading to the riots at Watts in 1965 and during the summer of 1966, which displayed their desire for faster progress. However it is argued that without Johnson’s actions, Black Power would have a larger following. Above all, it must be remembered that Johnson was a politician and therefore always looking out for votes and being cautious not to antagonise too many people. The advances made during Johnson’s presidency can naturally be attributed to his passing of legislation but it must also be remembered that events such as the assassinations of President Kennedy and Martin Luther King also acted as a catalyst for change. Johnson like Eisenhower and Truman before him was a Southerner and whether or not he accepted it his roots were inherently racist. Many would look at him and Kennedy and predict that Irish American Kennedy, whose own family had been discriminated against, would be a champion of the civil rights movement. However that was not the case and like his Southern counterparts, it was Johnson who passed the major civil rights legislation. Many have asked why did Johnson take civil rights so seriously and what was his motivation? Lyndon Johnson was motivated by memories of his own poverty ridden childhood and also his strong belief that helping minorities would be of spiritual and economic benefit to all Americans. Johnson also believed that racial discrimination was ironically damaging the economy of his beloved South and that the area would have to abandon its racist attitudes to gain economic prosperity. Despite Johnson’s ambitions he was also a caring and compassionate man. Naturally as a politician Johnson was constantly aware of the need to be popular to secure support, that is why he diluted the 1957 Civil Rights Act in order to win support to run instead of John F Kennedy as the Democrat presidential candidate. Lyndon Johnson however didn’t want to be seen as a conservative Southerner and so to prove his ability to rise above his roots, he felt it would be advantageous to promote civil rights legislation. He hoped to stem the flow of African American voters switching to the Republicans. Johnson also acknowledged that in the late 1950’s against the backdrop of BROWN and the Montgomery Bus Boycott the time was right for change. Many genuinely believe and the legislation proves that Johnson did really want to improve life for minorities and build a “Great Society”. By Sarah Heasman, London University - The 1965 Voting Rights Act was a natural follow on to the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Ironically, the 1964 Act had resulted in an outbreak… - The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was born in the presidency of John F Kennedy who was elected president in 1960. His support of civil…	3,690	ENGLISH	1
An Olive Branch in Troubled Times. In the midst of the Cold War newly elected president, John F Kennedy delivered his inaugural address on January 20, 1961. The conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union had caused much division in the United States, election resulting in his narrow victory Kennedy at the time was the youngest president and the first Roman-Catholic ever elected to the office. These two factors caused even more speculation on whether Kennedy was a fit president, especially at such a conflicted time. With this tension in mind, Kennedy sought to unite the divided country and reinvigorate patriotism in the new generation of Americans. He accomplished this task by using diction rhetorical tropes and modes of persuasion in his inaugural address when he took the office. Despite his young age Kennedy confidently takes the presidential office by using archaic and abstract diction in his inaugural address. Wanting to assure his country that he is a leader who his country can trust Kennedy implements words such as asunder forebears and anew to set a formal and old fashioned tone to his speech. These words carry a heavy and powerful aura about them and thus make them effective in persuasion. By using these outdated words Kennedy effectively conveys that his age does not undermine his authoritative abilities nor define his skills as a politician.	<urn:uuid:c9f82d33-fda5-4867-8fe2-9579baf4b6ed>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://noplag.com/free-essays/cold-war/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00095.warc.gz	en	0.982801	253	3.8125	4	[ -0.3755582571029663, 0.13944469392299652, 0.4652527868747711, -0.0586932934820652, 0.024902021512389183, 0.5811877250671387, 0.04237321764230728, 0.16097943484783173, -0.04946485534310341, -0.18443652987480164, 0.20896878838539124, 0.5100879073143005, 0.36799362301826477, 0.418315678834915...	20	An Olive Branch in Troubled Times. In the midst of the Cold War newly elected president, John F Kennedy delivered his inaugural address on January 20, 1961. The conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union had caused much division in the United States, election resulting in his narrow victory Kennedy at the time was the youngest president and the first Roman-Catholic ever elected to the office. These two factors caused even more speculation on whether Kennedy was a fit president, especially at such a conflicted time. With this tension in mind, Kennedy sought to unite the divided country and reinvigorate patriotism in the new generation of Americans. He accomplished this task by using diction rhetorical tropes and modes of persuasion in his inaugural address when he took the office. Despite his young age Kennedy confidently takes the presidential office by using archaic and abstract diction in his inaugural address. Wanting to assure his country that he is a leader who his country can trust Kennedy implements words such as asunder forebears and anew to set a formal and old fashioned tone to his speech. These words carry a heavy and powerful aura about them and thus make them effective in persuasion. By using these outdated words Kennedy effectively conveys that his age does not undermine his authoritative abilities nor define his skills as a politician.	264	ENGLISH	1
Despite great obstacles, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners. They faced overwhelming odds and desperate scenarios, including lack of weapons and training, operating in hostile zones, parting from family members, and facing an ever-present Nazi terror. Yet thousands resisted by joining or forming partisan units. Among them was Samuel Levi. Samuel Levi was born in 1922 in Sofia, Bulgaria. His father was a grocer in their tight-knit community. Samuel was a student at the Komsomol (Communist Youth League) attending political and cultural classes in 1940, shortly before the Germans invaded Bulgaria. Forced into a labor camp near the border with Greece, Samuel watched as Greek Jews were marched to concentration camps. The conditions in the labor camp were harsh, and as food began to run out, Samuel knew he must escape. He followed a group of Greek Jews being marched through his camp, and escaped outside the camp walls. Rejoining the Komsomol, Samuel was in a band of partisans called La Chevdad that roamed Bulgaria, near the border with Yugoslavia. The group stayed in the high mountains or forests, to avoid capture. Conditions were difficult for the Komsomol partisans, as Samuel remembers: “We were constantly starving. We had some corn flour and water and that’s what we ate for an entire month. But we trained and we were on guard.” It was unusual for partisans to get a full night’s rest, because of the constant dangers. The group would sleep out in the rain in the summer, but the partisans liked this, because for once they could speak to each other out loud and sing, the noise of their voices drowned out by the lighting and thunder. Remembering a common partisan action, Samuel comments on the partisans’ cunning, “We would take their (police) uniforms in order to confuse the enemy during an operation. We would descend into the villages and they would think that we were officers and we would act.” These partisan groups helped tremendously to prepare the groundwork for the Russians, who entered Bulgaria in 1944. Samuel recounts his feeling of impending death as a partisan: “For the one year and four months when I was a partisan, I never thought that I would remain alive. No partisan did. We knew that we could all die but die proud that we did something against the fascists.” Samuel lives today in Israel with his wife and has a son, a daughter, four grandchildren and two great grandchildren. Critical Thinking Questions - What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance? - What pressures and motivations may have influenced Samuel Levi's decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal? - How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others?	<urn:uuid:6a5e9383-b43e-4076-9a89-bab98d3c81ff>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/samuel-levi	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00352.warc.gz	en	0.981869	586	3.296875	3	[ -0.5231363773345947, 0.3843631148338318, -0.35043832659721375, 0.10183970630168915, 0.29146265983581543, 0.32984495162963867, 0.010041716508567333, 0.6362766027450562, -0.09055459499359131, -0.05904330685734749, 0.13290508091449738, -0.03485630452632904, 0.055363547056913376, 0.36676359176...	12	Despite great obstacles, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners. They faced overwhelming odds and desperate scenarios, including lack of weapons and training, operating in hostile zones, parting from family members, and facing an ever-present Nazi terror. Yet thousands resisted by joining or forming partisan units. Among them was Samuel Levi. Samuel Levi was born in 1922 in Sofia, Bulgaria. His father was a grocer in their tight-knit community. Samuel was a student at the Komsomol (Communist Youth League) attending political and cultural classes in 1940, shortly before the Germans invaded Bulgaria. Forced into a labor camp near the border with Greece, Samuel watched as Greek Jews were marched to concentration camps. The conditions in the labor camp were harsh, and as food began to run out, Samuel knew he must escape. He followed a group of Greek Jews being marched through his camp, and escaped outside the camp walls. Rejoining the Komsomol, Samuel was in a band of partisans called La Chevdad that roamed Bulgaria, near the border with Yugoslavia. The group stayed in the high mountains or forests, to avoid capture. Conditions were difficult for the Komsomol partisans, as Samuel remembers: “We were constantly starving. We had some corn flour and water and that’s what we ate for an entire month. But we trained and we were on guard.” It was unusual for partisans to get a full night’s rest, because of the constant dangers. The group would sleep out in the rain in the summer, but the partisans liked this, because for once they could speak to each other out loud and sing, the noise of their voices drowned out by the lighting and thunder. Remembering a common partisan action, Samuel comments on the partisans’ cunning, “We would take their (police) uniforms in order to confuse the enemy during an operation. We would descend into the villages and they would think that we were officers and we would act.” These partisan groups helped tremendously to prepare the groundwork for the Russians, who entered Bulgaria in 1944. Samuel recounts his feeling of impending death as a partisan: “For the one year and four months when I was a partisan, I never thought that I would remain alive. No partisan did. We knew that we could all die but die proud that we did something against the fascists.” Samuel lives today in Israel with his wife and has a son, a daughter, four grandchildren and two great grandchildren. Critical Thinking Questions - What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance? - What pressures and motivations may have influenced Samuel Levi's decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal? - How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others?	579	ENGLISH	1
The artwork of an overlooked 19th century ornithologist inspired, and now graces, a modern book on raptors. It is said that you should never judge a book by its cover. However, it was indeed the half a dozen beautiful early Victorian illustrations of birds of prey perching on the lettering of the book’s title that first attracted me to James Macdonald Lockhart’s debut work, Raptor: A Journey Through Birds. These images by William MacGillivray are merely a few examples of the extraordinary work of a man who was once deemed Scotland’s greatest field naturalist and an outstanding ornithological artist, yet to this day he remains largely unrecognised. MacGillivray was born in Aberdeen in 1796, the illegitimate son of a father he never knew, and he grew up on the Island of Harris, raised by his uncle. Inspired by MacGillivray’s approach to field studies whilst working on his book Raptor, Lockhart became absorbed by the brilliance and sensitivity of the artist’s work and in particular by his nature journals. These were written by MacGillivray on an arduous walk of 838 miles from Aberdeen to London where he visited the British Museum, notes Lockhart. ‘I came to lean heavily on MacGillivray and his methods of studying birds in the field and was often surprised by what I found – perhaps the best example was the sea eagle, a bird that seems sluggish but of course this is not the case.’ Lockhart began a similar approach, governed by painstaking observation on his almost spiritual mission to explore each of the UK’s 15 species of raptors. ‘I wanted to find raptors in all parts of the country,’ said Lockhart. ‘MacGillivray’s approach took over the book, adding ballast to my writing. His work is quite exceptional. He studied medicine in Aberdeen and was a trained anatomist. People sent him specimens from all over the country. During the holidays he would walk from Aberdeen to the west to get a boat back to Harris, where his heart always lay.’ In 1830 MacGillivray published his first book but was also working on a major five volume series A History of British Birds. It was during this time that he met the renowned American bird artist J.J. Audubon in Edinburgh and the two men found much in common and became close friends. Audubon was working on the accompanying text to his illustrated, The Birds of America, and asked MacGillivray to help him edit and correct his shaky English, as well as add scientific detail. Although Audubon always recognised the incredible artistic skills of his friend and helped give him the confidence to pursue his own painting, Audubon’s work eventually began to overshadow MacGillivray’s. Lockhart, however, describes the pair as an ‘ornithological dream team.’ MacGillivray’s largely untold story runs like a silver thread through Lockhart’s movingly poetic prose in Raptor, but for this reader, the discovery that the author Lockhart is the great-grandson of another outstanding and revered Scots naturalist, photographer and folklorist Seton Gordon, is fascinating. The prolific author-naturalist Denys Watkins Pitchford – better known as BB – wrote of Gordon: ‘No living writer can capture the spirit of the remote Highlands of Scotland as well as Seton Gordon. There can be few hills and glens where he has not walked and no lochs or river he has not seen, however remote. His writing has a subtle charm which conjures up, in a wonderfully vivid way, the atmosphere of the far northern land, and with his keen sensitivity he links the all-seeing eye of the naturalist which notes the flight of the eagle and ptarmigan, and the wildfowl on the lonely shores.’ Gordon died in 1977 at the age of 90, and although I never met him, his many books were a constant inspiration to my own nature writing, in particular his Days with the Golden Eagle, Highland Days and Hebridean Memories. He wrote 27 books in total. It is surprising to reread them and discover that most remain blissfully timeless, as fresh as they ever were. Seton Gordon was renowned as the golden eagle man and many of the eyries and remote locations he described still retain the ancestors of the very birds he knew and loved. He was a pioneer, a true Highland gentleman who strode across the hills in his tattered kilt speaking on the same level to people whether they were an earl or a shepherd. Like MacGillivray, his field knowledge was extensive but his colourful stories and shrewd observations, leached to an eagerly growing public as he lured them to view mammals and birds through the vignette of a telescope rather than at the end of a gun, were largely unheard of at the time. For Lockhart, following in the footsteps of two such great naturalists must have seemed weighty indeed. He describes it as: ‘A long journey south, clambering down the tall spiny island, which is as vast and wondrous to me as any galaxy.’ Gordon was a brilliant nature photographer, particularly given that the equipment of the time was cumbersome and unwieldy and had to be carted miles across impossible terrain to where he set up his hides. Thought to be the first person to photograph snow buntings and whooper swans on their nests, Gordon’s famous image of a greenshank and its mate changing over during incubation was brilliantly captured, a poignant tribute to this intensely shy wader that frequents the wildest environments during the brief breeding season. ‘I grew up surrounded by my great-grandfather’s black and white photographs: greenshanks, golden eagles, gannets and dotterels all peering down at me from their teak frames,’ writes Lockhart. ‘I liked to take them off the wall, wipe the dust from the glass and then turn the pictures over to read the captions he wrote on the back. Whenever I move house the fi rst pictures I hang are two small photographs; one of a jackdaw pair – black and pewter – the other of a hooded crow in a sleeveless silver waistcoat.’ Though Lockhart never knew his great-grandfather, his own love of natural history and growing knowledge on the subject has been greatly driven by his work and the stories his grandmother – Gordon’s daughter Catriona – revealed about him. Whilst Seton Gordon received the accolades and notoriety that he richly deserved, not so William MacGillivray. He never had enough money to finance the production of his brilliant artwork in his own volumes, although many of his works were published subsequently. He received awards and became Regius Professor of Natural History at Aberdeen, but many of his outstanding paintings were never given the recognition they deserved. After MacGillivray’s death at the age of 56, Queen Victoria had his Natural History of Deeside published, an accolade indeed. In comparison, the works by the American Audubon sell for millions of pounds and are still seen and reproduced all over the world to this day. Was it merely that MacGillivray was in the wrong place at the wrong time? ‘MacGillivray’s writing, for me is a way of seeing,’ explains Lockhart. ‘He misses nothing. And he misses nothing out in his descriptions of the birds. Sometimes I just want to hand everything – how to find the birds, identify them, how to write about them – over to him.’ Lockhart seems shy and full of self-doubt, yet he has put William MacGillivray firmly back on the ornithological map. His great-grandfather, Seton Gordon, would surely revel in his great-grandson’s glorious celebration of the rapacious birds of the British Isles in this stunning book. Through Birds – James Macdonald Lockhart, published by Fourth Estate, £16.99	<urn:uuid:540b5fe8-28aa-4e92-bc76-6fe7a1ac2fb4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.scottishfield.co.uk/outdoors/wildlifeandconservation/birds-of-a-feather/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00499.warc.gz	en	0.980704	1,730	3.28125	3	[ -0.004330717492848635, -0.1578557789325714, 0.3234736919403076, 0.21233880519866943, 0.13112378120422363, 0.15450778603553772, 0.004875317215919495, 0.1902943253517151, -0.2976419925689697, -0.003502883715555072, -0.19332057237625122, -0.2611466646194458, -0.20832836627960205, 0.2317343652...	3	The artwork of an overlooked 19th century ornithologist inspired, and now graces, a modern book on raptors. It is said that you should never judge a book by its cover. However, it was indeed the half a dozen beautiful early Victorian illustrations of birds of prey perching on the lettering of the book’s title that first attracted me to James Macdonald Lockhart’s debut work, Raptor: A Journey Through Birds. These images by William MacGillivray are merely a few examples of the extraordinary work of a man who was once deemed Scotland’s greatest field naturalist and an outstanding ornithological artist, yet to this day he remains largely unrecognised. MacGillivray was born in Aberdeen in 1796, the illegitimate son of a father he never knew, and he grew up on the Island of Harris, raised by his uncle. Inspired by MacGillivray’s approach to field studies whilst working on his book Raptor, Lockhart became absorbed by the brilliance and sensitivity of the artist’s work and in particular by his nature journals. These were written by MacGillivray on an arduous walk of 838 miles from Aberdeen to London where he visited the British Museum, notes Lockhart. ‘I came to lean heavily on MacGillivray and his methods of studying birds in the field and was often surprised by what I found – perhaps the best example was the sea eagle, a bird that seems sluggish but of course this is not the case.’ Lockhart began a similar approach, governed by painstaking observation on his almost spiritual mission to explore each of the UK’s 15 species of raptors. ‘I wanted to find raptors in all parts of the country,’ said Lockhart. ‘MacGillivray’s approach took over the book, adding ballast to my writing. His work is quite exceptional. He studied medicine in Aberdeen and was a trained anatomist. People sent him specimens from all over the country. During the holidays he would walk from Aberdeen to the west to get a boat back to Harris, where his heart always lay.’ In 1830 MacGillivray published his first book but was also working on a major five volume series A History of British Birds. It was during this time that he met the renowned American bird artist J.J. Audubon in Edinburgh and the two men found much in common and became close friends. Audubon was working on the accompanying text to his illustrated, The Birds of America, and asked MacGillivray to help him edit and correct his shaky English, as well as add scientific detail. Although Audubon always recognised the incredible artistic skills of his friend and helped give him the confidence to pursue his own painting, Audubon’s work eventually began to overshadow MacGillivray’s. Lockhart, however, describes the pair as an ‘ornithological dream team.’ MacGillivray’s largely untold story runs like a silver thread through Lockhart’s movingly poetic prose in Raptor, but for this reader, the discovery that the author Lockhart is the great-grandson of another outstanding and revered Scots naturalist, photographer and folklorist Seton Gordon, is fascinating. The prolific author-naturalist Denys Watkins Pitchford – better known as BB – wrote of Gordon: ‘No living writer can capture the spirit of the remote Highlands of Scotland as well as Seton Gordon. There can be few hills and glens where he has not walked and no lochs or river he has not seen, however remote. His writing has a subtle charm which conjures up, in a wonderfully vivid way, the atmosphere of the far northern land, and with his keen sensitivity he links the all-seeing eye of the naturalist which notes the flight of the eagle and ptarmigan, and the wildfowl on the lonely shores.’ Gordon died in 1977 at the age of 90, and although I never met him, his many books were a constant inspiration to my own nature writing, in particular his Days with the Golden Eagle, Highland Days and Hebridean Memories. He wrote 27 books in total. It is surprising to reread them and discover that most remain blissfully timeless, as fresh as they ever were. Seton Gordon was renowned as the golden eagle man and many of the eyries and remote locations he described still retain the ancestors of the very birds he knew and loved. He was a pioneer, a true Highland gentleman who strode across the hills in his tattered kilt speaking on the same level to people whether they were an earl or a shepherd. Like MacGillivray, his field knowledge was extensive but his colourful stories and shrewd observations, leached to an eagerly growing public as he lured them to view mammals and birds through the vignette of a telescope rather than at the end of a gun, were largely unheard of at the time. For Lockhart, following in the footsteps of two such great naturalists must have seemed weighty indeed. He describes it as: ‘A long journey south, clambering down the tall spiny island, which is as vast and wondrous to me as any galaxy.’ Gordon was a brilliant nature photographer, particularly given that the equipment of the time was cumbersome and unwieldy and had to be carted miles across impossible terrain to where he set up his hides. Thought to be the first person to photograph snow buntings and whooper swans on their nests, Gordon’s famous image of a greenshank and its mate changing over during incubation was brilliantly captured, a poignant tribute to this intensely shy wader that frequents the wildest environments during the brief breeding season. ‘I grew up surrounded by my great-grandfather’s black and white photographs: greenshanks, golden eagles, gannets and dotterels all peering down at me from their teak frames,’ writes Lockhart. ‘I liked to take them off the wall, wipe the dust from the glass and then turn the pictures over to read the captions he wrote on the back. Whenever I move house the fi rst pictures I hang are two small photographs; one of a jackdaw pair – black and pewter – the other of a hooded crow in a sleeveless silver waistcoat.’ Though Lockhart never knew his great-grandfather, his own love of natural history and growing knowledge on the subject has been greatly driven by his work and the stories his grandmother – Gordon’s daughter Catriona – revealed about him. Whilst Seton Gordon received the accolades and notoriety that he richly deserved, not so William MacGillivray. He never had enough money to finance the production of his brilliant artwork in his own volumes, although many of his works were published subsequently. He received awards and became Regius Professor of Natural History at Aberdeen, but many of his outstanding paintings were never given the recognition they deserved. After MacGillivray’s death at the age of 56, Queen Victoria had his Natural History of Deeside published, an accolade indeed. In comparison, the works by the American Audubon sell for millions of pounds and are still seen and reproduced all over the world to this day. Was it merely that MacGillivray was in the wrong place at the wrong time? ‘MacGillivray’s writing, for me is a way of seeing,’ explains Lockhart. ‘He misses nothing. And he misses nothing out in his descriptions of the birds. Sometimes I just want to hand everything – how to find the birds, identify them, how to write about them – over to him.’ Lockhart seems shy and full of self-doubt, yet he has put William MacGillivray firmly back on the ornithological map. His great-grandfather, Seton Gordon, would surely revel in his great-grandson’s glorious celebration of the rapacious birds of the British Isles in this stunning book. Through Birds – James Macdonald Lockhart, published by Fourth Estate, £16.99	1,670	ENGLISH	1
Citation: C N Trueman "Infantry weapons in World War One" historylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, 31 Mar 2015. 19 Feb 2016. The infantryman in World War One was equipped with standard issue weapons at the start of the war but by the end of World War One, most infantrymen had become adept at using other weapons that had been developed as the war had progressed. The basic British infantryman, like his French and German contemporaries, was issued with his uniform, webbing and a rifle with bayonet. Some infantrymen were trained to use the relatively new machine gun but the majority had to make do with his rifle. The British infantry man was issued with the Lee Enfield 0.303 rifle. A British infantry with standard issue Lee Enfield rifle The Lee Enfield was first produced in 1907; it had been designed by an American called James Lee and built at the Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield – hence the rifle’s name. The Lee Enfield enjoyed a good reputation with those who were issued with it. It had a ten-bullet magazine and its rate of fire in the hands of well-trained men was high. At the Battle of Mons, the advancing Germans believed that they were under fire from British machine guns. In fact, it was the well drilled infantry of the BEF using their standard issue Lee Enfield. A good infantryman would expect to shoot off about twelve well-aimed bullets in a minute. If the Lee Enfield had one weakness, it was that the firing mechanisms were susceptible to dirt and grit. Therefore, keeping your rifle clean in the muddy environment of the trenches was of paramount importance. When not in battle, many men simply covered the firing mechanism with cloth in an effort to keep out dirt which would clog up the rifle. The butt of the Lee Enfield had a space inside it where cleaning material could be kept. The French infantryman was issued with either the Lebel or the Berthier rifle. The Lebel was first produced in 1886 so by 1914, it should have been a tried and tested weapon. However, by 1914, nothing had been done to correct a basic design fault of the Lebel. Anyone loading the Lebel had to be very careful how they did this as there was a chance of the bullets exploding in the magazine as they were loaded nose to tail. One bullet could hit the primer of the bullet next to it. Therefore, the loading procedure was slow and as the magazine only took eight bullets, the rate of fire of the Lebel was not high. In 1916, in recognition of the problems presented by the Lebel, the French introduced the Berthier rifle. Unlike the Lebel, the Berthier was a clip-loaded rifle with a more modern firing mechanism. However, its magazine could only take six rounds, so the Bertheir’s overall rate of fire was not high as reloading the magazine was a constant issue in combat. German infantry were issued with the Mauser rifle. This rifle was designed in 1898 by Peter Paul Mauser. It was popular with those who were issued with it because of its reliability but it did suffer one weakness – its magazine only took five bullets. So, like the Berthier, reloading was a constant problem in battle. German infantry armed with Mausers No infantryman was issued with a pistol as this was very much the preserve of the officer. The British army officer primarily preferred the Webley Mark IV. This pistol was also issued to personnel in tanks and armoured cars – carrying a rifle would have been useless in such vehicles. The Webley packed a deadly punch and was reliable and easy to clean – hence its popularity with British officers. Over 300, 000 were distributed to British personnel throughout the duration of the war. In 1908, the German Army adopted the Luger as a pistol. Like the Webley, it was reliable and such was its popularity that it became the world’s most used pistol. About 1.5 million Lugers were produced by Germany from 1914 to 1918.See also:	<urn:uuid:93027410-2fb0-4bdf-9c50-cb843d52bfd3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.fashionbreed.org/WorldWarOne/world-war-one-rifles	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00406.warc.gz	en	0.992141	844	3.328125	3	[ -0.3341989517211914, 0.40651458501815796, 0.21681296825408936, -0.02770424261689186, -0.008963431231677532, -0.34022706747055054, 0.3384873867034912, 0.09303610026836395, -0.5592032670974731, -0.15576554834842682, 0.14002849161624908, -0.3067048192024231, 0.2646608054637909, 0.488783419132...	5	Citation: C N Trueman "Infantry weapons in World War One" historylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, 31 Mar 2015. 19 Feb 2016. The infantryman in World War One was equipped with standard issue weapons at the start of the war but by the end of World War One, most infantrymen had become adept at using other weapons that had been developed as the war had progressed. The basic British infantryman, like his French and German contemporaries, was issued with his uniform, webbing and a rifle with bayonet. Some infantrymen were trained to use the relatively new machine gun but the majority had to make do with his rifle. The British infantry man was issued with the Lee Enfield 0.303 rifle. A British infantry with standard issue Lee Enfield rifle The Lee Enfield was first produced in 1907; it had been designed by an American called James Lee and built at the Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield – hence the rifle’s name. The Lee Enfield enjoyed a good reputation with those who were issued with it. It had a ten-bullet magazine and its rate of fire in the hands of well-trained men was high. At the Battle of Mons, the advancing Germans believed that they were under fire from British machine guns. In fact, it was the well drilled infantry of the BEF using their standard issue Lee Enfield. A good infantryman would expect to shoot off about twelve well-aimed bullets in a minute. If the Lee Enfield had one weakness, it was that the firing mechanisms were susceptible to dirt and grit. Therefore, keeping your rifle clean in the muddy environment of the trenches was of paramount importance. When not in battle, many men simply covered the firing mechanism with cloth in an effort to keep out dirt which would clog up the rifle. The butt of the Lee Enfield had a space inside it where cleaning material could be kept. The French infantryman was issued with either the Lebel or the Berthier rifle. The Lebel was first produced in 1886 so by 1914, it should have been a tried and tested weapon. However, by 1914, nothing had been done to correct a basic design fault of the Lebel. Anyone loading the Lebel had to be very careful how they did this as there was a chance of the bullets exploding in the magazine as they were loaded nose to tail. One bullet could hit the primer of the bullet next to it. Therefore, the loading procedure was slow and as the magazine only took eight bullets, the rate of fire of the Lebel was not high. In 1916, in recognition of the problems presented by the Lebel, the French introduced the Berthier rifle. Unlike the Lebel, the Berthier was a clip-loaded rifle with a more modern firing mechanism. However, its magazine could only take six rounds, so the Bertheir’s overall rate of fire was not high as reloading the magazine was a constant issue in combat. German infantry were issued with the Mauser rifle. This rifle was designed in 1898 by Peter Paul Mauser. It was popular with those who were issued with it because of its reliability but it did suffer one weakness – its magazine only took five bullets. So, like the Berthier, reloading was a constant problem in battle. German infantry armed with Mausers No infantryman was issued with a pistol as this was very much the preserve of the officer. The British army officer primarily preferred the Webley Mark IV. This pistol was also issued to personnel in tanks and armoured cars – carrying a rifle would have been useless in such vehicles. The Webley packed a deadly punch and was reliable and easy to clean – hence its popularity with British officers. Over 300, 000 were distributed to British personnel throughout the duration of the war. In 1908, the German Army adopted the Luger as a pistol. Like the Webley, it was reliable and such was its popularity that it became the world’s most used pistol. About 1.5 million Lugers were produced by Germany from 1914 to 1918.See also:	885	ENGLISH	1
The Tudor dynasty was a series of kings and queens of England. This line of rulers started in 1485 and lasted until 1603. History[change \| change source] The dynasty started when Henry VII defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field. This was the final stage of the Wars of the Roses and made him Henry VII, king of England. Arthur, Prince of Wales, was the oldest son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. He married Catherine of Argon. She was the daughter of Ferdinand II of Argon and Isabella I of Castle. Arthur died in 1502 and did not become King. When Henry VII died in 1509, Arthur's brother, Henry VIII married Catherine and became king. During her marriage to Henry VIII, Catherine had six children. Only one of these children, Mary, survived. When Catherine became too old to have any more children, Henry divorced her. He then married a new wife, Anne Boleyn. Henry and Boleyn also had a daughter, Elizabeth I. . Anne Boleyn was executed in 1536. Shortly after, Henry VIII married Jane Seymour of England. She had one son, Edward VI of England, who would later become king himself at the age of 9. Jane died in 1537. Her death was caused by medical problems caused by Edward's birth Henry married three other wives before his death in 1547. Edward, his only living son, became King after Henry died. Henry's daughter, Mary I of England, was the next ruler of the Tudor dynasty. Mary was a strong believer in Catholicism. As Queen, Mary did many things against hundreds of Protestants. Because of all the executions while she was Queen, she was given the nickname "Bloody Mary" After Mary's death in 1558, her half-sister Elizabeth I of England became queen. Unlike Mary, Elizabeth was a Protestant. Elizabeth never married or had children. Because she never married, Elizabeth is often called the "Virgin Queen". She was well liked by most of the people of England. The dynasty ended when Elizabeth died. She had not named a person to be ruler after her death. When she died, James I became King of England. He was the son of Elizabeth's cousin, Mary Stuart. This started the Stuart dynasty. Religion in England[change \| change source] During the Tudor period, there were many changes in religion. Henry VIII was a Catholic. When the Pope said he could not divorce Catherine, Henry left Catholicism and named himself as head of the Church. The Church of England was now Protestant. Edward VI was raised a Protestant. He closed all Catholic churches. Mary I was a strong Catholic. She had been raised in Spain because of her Spanish mother, Catherine of Argon. She closed the Protestant churches and burnt about 300 people for being Protestant. Those people were later called martyrs. Elizabeth was Protestant. When she became queen, the Anglican Church was started. Since then, religion in England has been much calmer. Rulers of the Tudor dynasty[change \| change source] This is a list of the rulers of the Tudor dynasty:	<urn:uuid:ac39206c-044e-4a46-9efc-e11e8052e002>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_dynasty	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00150.warc.gz	en	0.991695	646	3.4375	3	[ -0.04557131230831146, 0.2923927307128906, 0.2941342294216156, -0.15194100141525269, -0.4494544565677643, -0.01903875172138214, -0.02277144230902195, 0.03861388936638832, 0.2244812399148941, -0.00020093610510230064, -0.32826483249664307, -0.5910447835922241, -0.018698032945394516, 0.3081967...	1	The Tudor dynasty was a series of kings and queens of England. This line of rulers started in 1485 and lasted until 1603. History[change \| change source] The dynasty started when Henry VII defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field. This was the final stage of the Wars of the Roses and made him Henry VII, king of England. Arthur, Prince of Wales, was the oldest son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. He married Catherine of Argon. She was the daughter of Ferdinand II of Argon and Isabella I of Castle. Arthur died in 1502 and did not become King. When Henry VII died in 1509, Arthur's brother, Henry VIII married Catherine and became king. During her marriage to Henry VIII, Catherine had six children. Only one of these children, Mary, survived. When Catherine became too old to have any more children, Henry divorced her. He then married a new wife, Anne Boleyn. Henry and Boleyn also had a daughter, Elizabeth I. . Anne Boleyn was executed in 1536. Shortly after, Henry VIII married Jane Seymour of England. She had one son, Edward VI of England, who would later become king himself at the age of 9. Jane died in 1537. Her death was caused by medical problems caused by Edward's birth Henry married three other wives before his death in 1547. Edward, his only living son, became King after Henry died. Henry's daughter, Mary I of England, was the next ruler of the Tudor dynasty. Mary was a strong believer in Catholicism. As Queen, Mary did many things against hundreds of Protestants. Because of all the executions while she was Queen, she was given the nickname "Bloody Mary" After Mary's death in 1558, her half-sister Elizabeth I of England became queen. Unlike Mary, Elizabeth was a Protestant. Elizabeth never married or had children. Because she never married, Elizabeth is often called the "Virgin Queen". She was well liked by most of the people of England. The dynasty ended when Elizabeth died. She had not named a person to be ruler after her death. When she died, James I became King of England. He was the son of Elizabeth's cousin, Mary Stuart. This started the Stuart dynasty. Religion in England[change \| change source] During the Tudor period, there were many changes in religion. Henry VIII was a Catholic. When the Pope said he could not divorce Catherine, Henry left Catholicism and named himself as head of the Church. The Church of England was now Protestant. Edward VI was raised a Protestant. He closed all Catholic churches. Mary I was a strong Catholic. She had been raised in Spain because of her Spanish mother, Catherine of Argon. She closed the Protestant churches and burnt about 300 people for being Protestant. Those people were later called martyrs. Elizabeth was Protestant. When she became queen, the Anglican Church was started. Since then, religion in England has been much calmer. Rulers of the Tudor dynasty[change \| change source] This is a list of the rulers of the Tudor dynasty:	667	ENGLISH	1
Washington clearly understood his political goal, and this would allow him to shape his military strategy accordingly. During the first conflicts, Washington saw many victories against the British especially during the battle for Bunker Hill. It was the first time that the Americans saw that they could actually defeat the once thought indestructible British in conventional warfare. It wasn’t until the conflict in New York on August 22nd where Washington would lose a quarter of his command, about 970 men killed or injured, and 1079 taken captive that would cause Washington to rethink how he would strategically conduct warfare from this point on. George Washington knew that conventional warfare would be suicide against the sheer size, manpower, and capabilities of the British military. Washington knew that if he were to have any chance at achieving a free and independent America, he would need to keep his army alive, and therefore keep the Revolutionary cause alive (Weigley, 1973, pp. 5-13). Washington would set about on a new course to victory in a Sun Tzu approach to the Art of War.	<urn:uuid:9f129ed9-2e97-48cd-8559-c702d86dc430>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://irvinebusinessdirectory.net/washington-clearly-understood-his-political-goal/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00489.warc.gz	en	0.985939	211	3.65625	4	[ -0.5970326066017151, 0.5132125616073608, 0.40336936712265015, 0.03351600468158722, 0.04075873643159866, 0.4790489375591278, 0.1677829474210739, 0.26633328199386597, -0.08168024569749832, -0.07462644577026367, 0.06187055632472038, -0.028034865856170654, 0.17084048688411713, 0.52650612592697...	1	Washington clearly understood his political goal, and this would allow him to shape his military strategy accordingly. During the first conflicts, Washington saw many victories against the British especially during the battle for Bunker Hill. It was the first time that the Americans saw that they could actually defeat the once thought indestructible British in conventional warfare. It wasn’t until the conflict in New York on August 22nd where Washington would lose a quarter of his command, about 970 men killed or injured, and 1079 taken captive that would cause Washington to rethink how he would strategically conduct warfare from this point on. George Washington knew that conventional warfare would be suicide against the sheer size, manpower, and capabilities of the British military. Washington knew that if he were to have any chance at achieving a free and independent America, he would need to keep his army alive, and therefore keep the Revolutionary cause alive (Weigley, 1973, pp. 5-13). Washington would set about on a new course to victory in a Sun Tzu approach to the Art of War.	223	ENGLISH	1
The boat burial practices of the Viking people of Scandinavia from the 7th to 10th centuries are famous. But when a high-ranking Viking woman on a farm in Vinjeøra, central Norway, died in the latter half of the 9th century, something was different. She was carefully dressed in fine clothes and arrayed with jewels and rich grave goods - gilded bronze brooches, a pearl necklace, textile craft implements, something that was perhaps food, and a cow's head. Then, she was laid in a newly constructed longboat. But, rather than dig a new grave, the people of Vinjeøra dug up a larger longboat that had already been buried, corpse and all, 100 years prior. The inhabitant of the larger longboat was an 8th century man. The woman's 7- to 8-metre (23- to 26-foot) longboat was carefully and neatly placed inside the larger 9- to 10-metre (30- to 33-foot) one, on top of the man's remains, and the whole assemblage re-buried. It has archaeologists scratching their heads. Who was the man? Who was the woman? Were they connected in some way? Why bury them together? "I had heard about several boat graves being buried in one burial mound, but never about a boat that had been buried in another boat," said archaeologist Raymond Sauvage of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) University Museum. "I have since learned that a few double boat graves were found in the 1950s, at Tjølling, in the south of the Norwegian county of Vestfold. Still, this is essentially an unknown phenomenon." The burial was found in connection to highway upgrades, and work was immediately undertaken to excavate the site. It was in extremely poor condition, with the wood of both boats almost entirely rotted away. It was poor soil for bone preservation, too - not much was left of the dead, either. However, a few key elements were left behind. The keel of the smaller boat remained intact and in place, as did the metal studs used to construct the boats. That's how the archaeologists were able to reconstruct where the vessels had lain. The metal grave goods were also intact, and, wonderfully, skull fragments belonging to the woman. Scientists may be able to conduct analyses on the bone, such as isotope analysis that can reveal where the woman lived and how she ate. DNA analysis could reveal more information too - such as what she looked like, who she was descended from, how old she was when she died, and how healthy she was. Of particular interest among the grave goods, the archaeologists said, was a cross-shaped brooch. Its shape and the pattern on its face suggest that it was once part of a horse harness made in Ireland. This tells us that the woman probably belonged to a family that participated in raids across the ocean - an important facet of the Viking culture at this time. "It was common among the Vikings to split up decorative harness fittings and reuse them as jewellery. Several fastenings on the back of this brooch were preserved, and were used to attach leather straps to the harness. The new Norse owners attached a pin to one of the fastenings so it could be used as a brooch," explained historian Aina Heen Pettersen of NTNU. "Using artefacts from Viking raids as jewellery signalled a clear difference between you and the rest of the community, because you were part of the group that took part in the voyages." As for the man, not a trace of him remained but his grave goods - a sword, shield and spear. They probably didn't belong to the woman, because there were two boats, and the sword was in an 8th century style. Who he was and why the woman was buried with him is unclear, but it's likely that the two were related. Family was deeply important to the Vikings, not just for status reasons, but for legal reasons, too. "The first legislation on allodial rights in the Middle Ages said you had to prove that your family had owned the land for five generations. If there was any doubt about the property right, you had to be able to trace your genus to haug og hedni - i.e. to burial mounds and paganism," Sauvage said. "Against this backdrop, it's reasonable to think that the two were buried together to mark the family's ownership to the farm, in a society that for the most part didn't write things down." For now, precious little is known about this possible family relation, but analysis on the remains is ongoing - so we might learn more about this strange burial eventually.	<urn:uuid:1759f3a1-4e6b-43f8-b0a8-d6deb9207ba1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sciencealert.com/a-really-peculiar-two-in-one-boat-grave-has-been-unearthed-in-norway	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00193.warc.gz	en	0.991168	998	3.40625	3	[ 0.15359556674957275, 0.4364736080169678, 0.11445178091526031, 0.017948605120182037, 0.223384290933609, 0.13414859771728516, -0.26775580644607544, 0.2970537543296814, -0.08103471994400024, -0.13203251361846924, 0.458011269569397, -0.29198965430259705, -0.11114072799682617, 0.305821001529693...	7	The boat burial practices of the Viking people of Scandinavia from the 7th to 10th centuries are famous. But when a high-ranking Viking woman on a farm in Vinjeøra, central Norway, died in the latter half of the 9th century, something was different. She was carefully dressed in fine clothes and arrayed with jewels and rich grave goods - gilded bronze brooches, a pearl necklace, textile craft implements, something that was perhaps food, and a cow's head. Then, she was laid in a newly constructed longboat. But, rather than dig a new grave, the people of Vinjeøra dug up a larger longboat that had already been buried, corpse and all, 100 years prior. The inhabitant of the larger longboat was an 8th century man. The woman's 7- to 8-metre (23- to 26-foot) longboat was carefully and neatly placed inside the larger 9- to 10-metre (30- to 33-foot) one, on top of the man's remains, and the whole assemblage re-buried. It has archaeologists scratching their heads. Who was the man? Who was the woman? Were they connected in some way? Why bury them together? "I had heard about several boat graves being buried in one burial mound, but never about a boat that had been buried in another boat," said archaeologist Raymond Sauvage of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) University Museum. "I have since learned that a few double boat graves were found in the 1950s, at Tjølling, in the south of the Norwegian county of Vestfold. Still, this is essentially an unknown phenomenon." The burial was found in connection to highway upgrades, and work was immediately undertaken to excavate the site. It was in extremely poor condition, with the wood of both boats almost entirely rotted away. It was poor soil for bone preservation, too - not much was left of the dead, either. However, a few key elements were left behind. The keel of the smaller boat remained intact and in place, as did the metal studs used to construct the boats. That's how the archaeologists were able to reconstruct where the vessels had lain. The metal grave goods were also intact, and, wonderfully, skull fragments belonging to the woman. Scientists may be able to conduct analyses on the bone, such as isotope analysis that can reveal where the woman lived and how she ate. DNA analysis could reveal more information too - such as what she looked like, who she was descended from, how old she was when she died, and how healthy she was. Of particular interest among the grave goods, the archaeologists said, was a cross-shaped brooch. Its shape and the pattern on its face suggest that it was once part of a horse harness made in Ireland. This tells us that the woman probably belonged to a family that participated in raids across the ocean - an important facet of the Viking culture at this time. "It was common among the Vikings to split up decorative harness fittings and reuse them as jewellery. Several fastenings on the back of this brooch were preserved, and were used to attach leather straps to the harness. The new Norse owners attached a pin to one of the fastenings so it could be used as a brooch," explained historian Aina Heen Pettersen of NTNU. "Using artefacts from Viking raids as jewellery signalled a clear difference between you and the rest of the community, because you were part of the group that took part in the voyages." As for the man, not a trace of him remained but his grave goods - a sword, shield and spear. They probably didn't belong to the woman, because there were two boats, and the sword was in an 8th century style. Who he was and why the woman was buried with him is unclear, but it's likely that the two were related. Family was deeply important to the Vikings, not just for status reasons, but for legal reasons, too. "The first legislation on allodial rights in the Middle Ages said you had to prove that your family had owned the land for five generations. If there was any doubt about the property right, you had to be able to trace your genus to haug og hedni - i.e. to burial mounds and paganism," Sauvage said. "Against this backdrop, it's reasonable to think that the two were buried together to mark the family's ownership to the farm, in a society that for the most part didn't write things down." For now, precious little is known about this possible family relation, but analysis on the remains is ongoing - so we might learn more about this strange burial eventually.	988	ENGLISH	1
Every May, in Westminster Abbey, a lamp is carried to the high altar to commemorate the life of Florence Nightingale, the woman whom many claim was the founder of modern nursing. The service is one of many activities that take place on International Nurses’ Day, held on or around the anniversary of Florence Nightingale’s birth. Nightingale herself might not have appreciated such a service – she was a reluctant early celebrity. Her focus was on her work, on proving the benefits of sanitation, on spreading her knowledge and persuading people in high places that implementing the changes she recommended in the world of medicine could save lives. Nightingale is sometimes called the lady with the lamp. The lamp used in the annual Westminster Abbey service represents the lamp she used at Scutari in Turkey whilst doing her nightly rounds of men wounded in the Crimean War. It has been said that the lamp she used was actually a Turkish lantern which she found in a market in Constantinople. Florence Nightingale’s name comes from the city of her birth – Florence; she was born in 1820 whilst her parents were touring Europe. Her family was well off – neither of her parents had to work and they had two homes, one in Derbyshire and one in Hampshire. Florence’s parents ensured she had a good education – her father was her main teacher and he educated her to Oxbridge level. Yet although her parents had a highly intellectual daughter they did not want her to work, believing that her role in life was to find a good husband. Their daughter was attracted several suitors over her lifetime; yet as she developed her interests and skills in nursing she had no place for men – she became married to her work. Florence Nightingale came to her profession late, for her parents were against any suggestion she made of going in to nursing. She learned what she could about the profession through her own study, believing that she had been called by God to help others. In 1850 in Germany she observed Lutheran pastors and deaconesses working with the sick and undertook a few months’ nursing training. Her first published work was anonymous, telling of the learning she had gained in Germany. Nightingale worked for the Institute for the Care of Sick Gentlewomen in London before moving on to the work that would make her famous – leading a team of nurses in the Crimean War. In 1854 Florence Nightingale set off for Turkey with volunteer nurses that she trained for working with wounded soldiers. The conditions they found were not for the faint-hearted – poor sanitation, infections running rife, lack of medical supplies and overworked staff. Contrary to popular belief Nightingale did not single-handedly turn round sanitary conditions for the soldiers – much of the work that improve their health was provided by the British Sanitary Commission. However, on her return to England she started to apply her remarkable intellect to records detailing care given to wounded soldiers, coming to the conclusion that hygiene was the key factor in improving health. Nightingale’s work abroad and her subsequent findings made her an unexpected heroine. Her seminal Notes On Nursing was published in 1859. She set up the Nightingale Training School in 1960. She spent the rest of her life promoting nursing – her achievements included introducing trained nurses to workhouses and mentoring Linda Richards who promoted Nightingale nursing in America. A gifted mathematician she developed the art of presenting statistics visually, including the regular use of pie charts. She was awarded several honours, including the Honorary Freedom of the City of London. Although she suffered bad health for much of her life after her return from Turkey Nightingale lived to the age of ninety, devoting her life to the development and improvement of nursing. You Should Also Read: Editor's Picks Articles Top Ten Articles Content copyright © 2019 by Asha Sahni. All rights reserved. This content was written by Asha Sahni. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Sarah V Monaghan for details.	<urn:uuid:a12a7e70-de6f-4729-9036-1b7a8ba652db>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art65638.asp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00024.warc.gz	en	0.986142	830	3.515625	4	[ -0.20824697613716125, 0.2444276660680771, 0.1897870898246765, 0.06867767125368118, 0.07169602811336517, 0.2873486876487732, 0.30511951446533203, 0.10451419651508331, 0.2091285139322281, 0.1516731083393097, -0.39148691296577454, -0.22492311894893646, -0.25026875734329224, 0.1284677684307098...	2	Every May, in Westminster Abbey, a lamp is carried to the high altar to commemorate the life of Florence Nightingale, the woman whom many claim was the founder of modern nursing. The service is one of many activities that take place on International Nurses’ Day, held on or around the anniversary of Florence Nightingale’s birth. Nightingale herself might not have appreciated such a service – she was a reluctant early celebrity. Her focus was on her work, on proving the benefits of sanitation, on spreading her knowledge and persuading people in high places that implementing the changes she recommended in the world of medicine could save lives. Nightingale is sometimes called the lady with the lamp. The lamp used in the annual Westminster Abbey service represents the lamp she used at Scutari in Turkey whilst doing her nightly rounds of men wounded in the Crimean War. It has been said that the lamp she used was actually a Turkish lantern which she found in a market in Constantinople. Florence Nightingale’s name comes from the city of her birth – Florence; she was born in 1820 whilst her parents were touring Europe. Her family was well off – neither of her parents had to work and they had two homes, one in Derbyshire and one in Hampshire. Florence’s parents ensured she had a good education – her father was her main teacher and he educated her to Oxbridge level. Yet although her parents had a highly intellectual daughter they did not want her to work, believing that her role in life was to find a good husband. Their daughter was attracted several suitors over her lifetime; yet as she developed her interests and skills in nursing she had no place for men – she became married to her work. Florence Nightingale came to her profession late, for her parents were against any suggestion she made of going in to nursing. She learned what she could about the profession through her own study, believing that she had been called by God to help others. In 1850 in Germany she observed Lutheran pastors and deaconesses working with the sick and undertook a few months’ nursing training. Her first published work was anonymous, telling of the learning she had gained in Germany. Nightingale worked for the Institute for the Care of Sick Gentlewomen in London before moving on to the work that would make her famous – leading a team of nurses in the Crimean War. In 1854 Florence Nightingale set off for Turkey with volunteer nurses that she trained for working with wounded soldiers. The conditions they found were not for the faint-hearted – poor sanitation, infections running rife, lack of medical supplies and overworked staff. Contrary to popular belief Nightingale did not single-handedly turn round sanitary conditions for the soldiers – much of the work that improve their health was provided by the British Sanitary Commission. However, on her return to England she started to apply her remarkable intellect to records detailing care given to wounded soldiers, coming to the conclusion that hygiene was the key factor in improving health. Nightingale’s work abroad and her subsequent findings made her an unexpected heroine. Her seminal Notes On Nursing was published in 1859. She set up the Nightingale Training School in 1960. She spent the rest of her life promoting nursing – her achievements included introducing trained nurses to workhouses and mentoring Linda Richards who promoted Nightingale nursing in America. A gifted mathematician she developed the art of presenting statistics visually, including the regular use of pie charts. She was awarded several honours, including the Honorary Freedom of the City of London. Although she suffered bad health for much of her life after her return from Turkey Nightingale lived to the age of ninety, devoting her life to the development and improvement of nursing. You Should Also Read: Editor's Picks Articles Top Ten Articles Content copyright © 2019 by Asha Sahni. All rights reserved. This content was written by Asha Sahni. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Sarah V Monaghan for details.	833	ENGLISH	1
Soc.studies, President Roosevelt. Best answer Gets 10 points. Only 1 question? President Roosevelt implemented a set of programs called the new deal. Identify the problem that the new deal was designed to deal with. List other possible solutions and their advantages and disadvantages. Then write a short evaluation of the chosen solution - Anonymous8 years agoFavorite Answer The New Deal was a series of programs such as the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Works Progress Administration (WPA) and so many others designed to deal with the Great Depression. By most accounts in history the New Deal was generally a success although some individual programs were more successful than others. The previous president, Herbert Hoover, had tried a very limited program of government intervention and this was not successful. The disadvantages of doing nothing would have been that the crisis would have continued to get worse. The advantages of trying the New Deal programs was that it would have been hard to make things worse!Source(s): I am a former US History teacher.	<urn:uuid:01847457-33e8-48f3-be3b-d5d11fc10b74>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20120614180741AABxbSK	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00463.warc.gz	en	0.98072	212	3.390625	3	[ -0.5102485418319702, 0.20340299606323242, 0.09577320516109467, 0.13395537436008453, 0.2183302789926529, 0.23111699521541595, -0.1382998675107956, 0.43173620104789734, -0.0958569124341011, 0.035530392080545425, 0.539961040019989, 0.2845984101295471, 0.20026059448719025, 0.36904269456863403,...	1	Soc.studies, President Roosevelt. Best answer Gets 10 points. Only 1 question? President Roosevelt implemented a set of programs called the new deal. Identify the problem that the new deal was designed to deal with. List other possible solutions and their advantages and disadvantages. Then write a short evaluation of the chosen solution - Anonymous8 years agoFavorite Answer The New Deal was a series of programs such as the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Works Progress Administration (WPA) and so many others designed to deal with the Great Depression. By most accounts in history the New Deal was generally a success although some individual programs were more successful than others. The previous president, Herbert Hoover, had tried a very limited program of government intervention and this was not successful. The disadvantages of doing nothing would have been that the crisis would have continued to get worse. The advantages of trying the New Deal programs was that it would have been hard to make things worse!Source(s): I am a former US History teacher.	211	ENGLISH	1
America’s political neutrality in World War II dissolved in the early morning of December 7, 1941, when over three hundred Japanese aircraft roared over the island of Oahu. Their mission was direct and succinct—to take Pearl Harbor by surprise and inflict as much damage as possible. Due to the unpreparedness of the naval base, and the sheer unexpectedness of the attack, the end result proved to be devastating. The event, in which the US suffered 2,335 military casualties, immediately incited a response on behalf of America, and on the following day, Franklin D. Roosevelt officially declared war. My grandfather from Platteville, Wisconsin lied about being 18, like many others, after the attacks on Pearl Harbor and signed up to defend our country by fighting in the Pacific. After Pearl Harbor, America’s participation in World War II shifted the very foundation of the country. The states focused its attention on defeating the root axis powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan. The American economy became retooled for war, and there were integral changes occurring at societal and industrial levels. The war effort became unceasing, as did the motivation for victory, which was ultimately achieved by September 2, 1945 after the fall of Nazi Germany and the subsequent surrender of its allies. America is often viewed as a holistic superpower throughout the entirety of World War II’s history, but there is one major concept that is often overlooked. The US was still operating at a state level, and each state was unique in regards to its contribution to the war. Nebraska’s large airfields, for example, were vital for training pilots and crew members. Coastal states such as California and Florida provided the foundation for a strong navy. However, there is one Midwestern state in particular whose importance in the war proved to be multifaceted—the Badger State, Wisconsin. By the time the war had concluded, over 300,000 Wisconsin residence involved themselves in the armed forces, of which roughly 8,000 lost their lives. In addition, nearly 13,000 Wisconsin soldiers were wounded in the conflict. The 32D ‘Red Arrow,’ an infantry division which composed itself primarily of National Guard soldiers from Wisconsin, participated in World War II from the very conception of America’s involvement. The Red Arrow is noted as the first unit to be sent overseas in its entirety, as well as one of the first US divisions to experience ground combat. Their efforts were momentous, comprising of four separate campaigns throughout the war. Not only were they the first, they were the last as well—the division fought to the very end of the war, even after the official surrender of the Japanese. By the time they returned, the 32D Red Arrow division decorated itself with eleven Medals of Honor, 157 Distinguished Service Crosses, and thousands of other awards including Silver Stars, Purple Hearts, and Legions of Merit. Wisconsin’s endeavors did not pertain only to overseas combat. Most of the Badger State’s contributions to the war were happening, quite literally, on their very own soil. The agricultural industry skyrocketed as the US military prepped itself for combat, and Wisconsin farmers received millions of dollars in order to keep up with the demand for fresh produce and other goods. This demand was spurred on by Wisconsin’s labor force as well. Through the efforts of the farmers, citizens could focus less on food availability, and more on wartime production. The facet of production proved to be Wisconsin’s strongpoint during World War II, as the state was capable of turning out a variety of goods. Due to its geographical location—bordering to two of America’s deepest lakes—some of the largest naval production facilities existed here, and ship and submarine building became a primary focus. Munitions were also made in historically large quantities in Wisconsin during this time. The city of Baraboo gave rise to the Badger Ordinance Company after a $65 million dollar authorization on behalf of Franklin D Roosevelt himself. The construction of this manufacturing plant preceded America’s involvement in the war by a few months, but as soon as war was declared, this facility became the largest singular producer of ammunition in the entire world. It contributed millions of pounds of smokeless powder, rocket propellant, and rocket grain, which were used primarily in hand grenades and M1 rifle cartridges. Wisconsin, as well as many other states, entered a time of economic prosperity during (and following) the war. Women entered the workforce en masse as soldiers left the country to fight, driving down unemployment rates and ushering in a new era of industrial production. By the end of World War II, Wisconsin businesses had received nearly five billion dollars’ worth of orders pertaining to the war effort. There is one aspect of Wisconsin’s World War II involvement that is often hidden away by its many layers of history. It is something that even the citizens of Wisconsin themselves were made unaware of at the time due to its secrecy. By the end of the war, Wisconsin had intermittently housed around 40,000 prisoners of war throughout the state (nearly ten percent of all POWs in America). The transferal of England’s war captives to American soil originated from a rumor, which suggested Hitler had plans of sending weapons via airdrop to various camps in order to spark retaliation. At the time, the decision—although driven by fear—was best for both countries. Major pre-existing military camps, such as Fort McCoy, served as housing facilities for these prisoners of war, which consisted primarily of Germans, Koreans, and Japanese. Most of these POWs “paid their keep” by helping production efforts, especially in regards to agriculture, and in some instances they would work side-by-side with Wisconsin’s labor force. This further benefited the state’s ability to produce food and military goods, and helped bolster their economy. The state’s decision to not disclose these POW camps to the citizens was due in part to the uncertainty of their response. Because tensions were so high, the possibility of violence on behalf of those who lived in Wisconsin was a definite possibility. That said, those who did know, and those who worked alongside them, treated these prisoners of war respectably. Many people donated goods, and in most cases, these POWs lived in relative comfort. There are several firsthand accounts from Wisconsinites, such as Alice Schmidt, that their interactions with these prisoners were always positive, and never met by fear. Following the war, several POWs, especially those from Germany, did not want to return back to their country. Wisconsin’s economic stability and vocational opportunities were highly desirable to those whose home countries were in shambles from the conflict. Indeed, several eventually returned to settle in Wisconsin post-war, and establish their lives there. Many who did move back stayed in contact with the citizens they befriended and worked with. World War II in its entirety was a time of indescribable destruction and uncertainty on a global scale, however, it simultaneously allowed America to ban together in pursuit of a common goal. Each state and its respective citizens put forth their unique strengths and proved to the world what America was capable of. Wisconsin stood at the forefront of this effort, and solidified itself as a very important cornerstone of the United States’ involvement in the war.	<urn:uuid:1283436e-e796-4215-b288-73dd533c4ecb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://goetzman.com/2018/02/08/wisconsins-war-efforts-ww-ii/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00207.warc.gz	en	0.98042	1,507	3.640625	4	[ -0.25249969959259033, 0.18752765655517578, -0.004425141494721174, -0.5115669965744019, -0.05615100637078285, 0.29158899188041687, -0.16278928518295288, 0.42781686782836914, -0.0562877357006073, 0.07311750948429108, 0.30469000339508057, 0.006231599487364292, 0.1700899749994278, 0.7009805440...	10	America’s political neutrality in World War II dissolved in the early morning of December 7, 1941, when over three hundred Japanese aircraft roared over the island of Oahu. Their mission was direct and succinct—to take Pearl Harbor by surprise and inflict as much damage as possible. Due to the unpreparedness of the naval base, and the sheer unexpectedness of the attack, the end result proved to be devastating. The event, in which the US suffered 2,335 military casualties, immediately incited a response on behalf of America, and on the following day, Franklin D. Roosevelt officially declared war. My grandfather from Platteville, Wisconsin lied about being 18, like many others, after the attacks on Pearl Harbor and signed up to defend our country by fighting in the Pacific. After Pearl Harbor, America’s participation in World War II shifted the very foundation of the country. The states focused its attention on defeating the root axis powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan. The American economy became retooled for war, and there were integral changes occurring at societal and industrial levels. The war effort became unceasing, as did the motivation for victory, which was ultimately achieved by September 2, 1945 after the fall of Nazi Germany and the subsequent surrender of its allies. America is often viewed as a holistic superpower throughout the entirety of World War II’s history, but there is one major concept that is often overlooked. The US was still operating at a state level, and each state was unique in regards to its contribution to the war. Nebraska’s large airfields, for example, were vital for training pilots and crew members. Coastal states such as California and Florida provided the foundation for a strong navy. However, there is one Midwestern state in particular whose importance in the war proved to be multifaceted—the Badger State, Wisconsin. By the time the war had concluded, over 300,000 Wisconsin residence involved themselves in the armed forces, of which roughly 8,000 lost their lives. In addition, nearly 13,000 Wisconsin soldiers were wounded in the conflict. The 32D ‘Red Arrow,’ an infantry division which composed itself primarily of National Guard soldiers from Wisconsin, participated in World War II from the very conception of America’s involvement. The Red Arrow is noted as the first unit to be sent overseas in its entirety, as well as one of the first US divisions to experience ground combat. Their efforts were momentous, comprising of four separate campaigns throughout the war. Not only were they the first, they were the last as well—the division fought to the very end of the war, even after the official surrender of the Japanese. By the time they returned, the 32D Red Arrow division decorated itself with eleven Medals of Honor, 157 Distinguished Service Crosses, and thousands of other awards including Silver Stars, Purple Hearts, and Legions of Merit. Wisconsin’s endeavors did not pertain only to overseas combat. Most of the Badger State’s contributions to the war were happening, quite literally, on their very own soil. The agricultural industry skyrocketed as the US military prepped itself for combat, and Wisconsin farmers received millions of dollars in order to keep up with the demand for fresh produce and other goods. This demand was spurred on by Wisconsin’s labor force as well. Through the efforts of the farmers, citizens could focus less on food availability, and more on wartime production. The facet of production proved to be Wisconsin’s strongpoint during World War II, as the state was capable of turning out a variety of goods. Due to its geographical location—bordering to two of America’s deepest lakes—some of the largest naval production facilities existed here, and ship and submarine building became a primary focus. Munitions were also made in historically large quantities in Wisconsin during this time. The city of Baraboo gave rise to the Badger Ordinance Company after a $65 million dollar authorization on behalf of Franklin D Roosevelt himself. The construction of this manufacturing plant preceded America’s involvement in the war by a few months, but as soon as war was declared, this facility became the largest singular producer of ammunition in the entire world. It contributed millions of pounds of smokeless powder, rocket propellant, and rocket grain, which were used primarily in hand grenades and M1 rifle cartridges. Wisconsin, as well as many other states, entered a time of economic prosperity during (and following) the war. Women entered the workforce en masse as soldiers left the country to fight, driving down unemployment rates and ushering in a new era of industrial production. By the end of World War II, Wisconsin businesses had received nearly five billion dollars’ worth of orders pertaining to the war effort. There is one aspect of Wisconsin’s World War II involvement that is often hidden away by its many layers of history. It is something that even the citizens of Wisconsin themselves were made unaware of at the time due to its secrecy. By the end of the war, Wisconsin had intermittently housed around 40,000 prisoners of war throughout the state (nearly ten percent of all POWs in America). The transferal of England’s war captives to American soil originated from a rumor, which suggested Hitler had plans of sending weapons via airdrop to various camps in order to spark retaliation. At the time, the decision—although driven by fear—was best for both countries. Major pre-existing military camps, such as Fort McCoy, served as housing facilities for these prisoners of war, which consisted primarily of Germans, Koreans, and Japanese. Most of these POWs “paid their keep” by helping production efforts, especially in regards to agriculture, and in some instances they would work side-by-side with Wisconsin’s labor force. This further benefited the state’s ability to produce food and military goods, and helped bolster their economy. The state’s decision to not disclose these POW camps to the citizens was due in part to the uncertainty of their response. Because tensions were so high, the possibility of violence on behalf of those who lived in Wisconsin was a definite possibility. That said, those who did know, and those who worked alongside them, treated these prisoners of war respectably. Many people donated goods, and in most cases, these POWs lived in relative comfort. There are several firsthand accounts from Wisconsinites, such as Alice Schmidt, that their interactions with these prisoners were always positive, and never met by fear. Following the war, several POWs, especially those from Germany, did not want to return back to their country. Wisconsin’s economic stability and vocational opportunities were highly desirable to those whose home countries were in shambles from the conflict. Indeed, several eventually returned to settle in Wisconsin post-war, and establish their lives there. Many who did move back stayed in contact with the citizens they befriended and worked with. World War II in its entirety was a time of indescribable destruction and uncertainty on a global scale, however, it simultaneously allowed America to ban together in pursuit of a common goal. Each state and its respective citizens put forth their unique strengths and proved to the world what America was capable of. Wisconsin stood at the forefront of this effort, and solidified itself as a very important cornerstone of the United States’ involvement in the war.	1,498	ENGLISH	1
Otto von Bismarck was a Prussian statesman and conservatist who dominated European and German affairs between 1860 and 1890 until his forced resignation in 1890. Bismarck had a substantial influence on Europe in the 20th century especially in the unification of the German Empire. Bismarck was known for his skillful leadership and his masterful strategies which he employed during wars against Austria, France, and Denmark. 5. Early Life Otto von Bismarck was born on April 1st, 1815 in Schönhausen in the province of Saxony, Prussia. He was born to Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand von Bismarck, a former Prussian officer and junker estate owner, and Wilhelmine Luise Mencken. Bismarck had two siblings, an older sibling Bernhard, and a younger sibling named Malwine. Bismarck was fluent in several languages including German, French, Polish, English, Russian, and Italian. Bismarck attended Johann Ernst Plamann's elementary school and studied at Graues Kloster and Friedrich-Wilhelm secondary schools before studying law at the University of Göttingen from 1832 to 1833. Between 1833 and 1835, Bismarck enrolled at the University of Berlin. While Bismarck was in Greifswald as an army reservist in 1838, he studied agriculture at the University of Greifswald. Bismarck desired to become a diplomat and began his practical training as a lawyer in both Aachen and Potsdam. After chasing after two English girls, his career was jeopardized and Bismarck took an unauthorized leave. Following the death of his mother, Bismarck returned to Schönhausen to run the family estate. Before that, he had served in the army for a year, becoming an officer in the Landwehr. Bismarck's political career began in 1847 at the age of 32 when he was chosen as a representative at the newly established Prussian legislature. 3. Major Contributions Bismarck was considered the founder of the German Empire, and for nearly three decades he helped shape the fortune of Germany by playing a significant role in the country's unification. Bismarck's charismatic leadership at home and his diplomacy earned him the title of 'Iron Chancellor.' During his tenure as Chancellor of Germany, Minister President of Prussia, and Foreign Minister of Prussia, Bismarck introduced progressive reforms such as the conception of the modern welfare state. He also initiated the implementation of pension schemes for the old, accident insurance, and the national healthcare services. Most importantly Bismarck played a pivotal role in maintaining peace at all times by balancing power systems. Throughout his career, Bismarck faced numerous challenges from all corners. When France was defeated in the 1870 battle of Sedan, Bismarck was afraid that France would seek vengeance against Germany in the future. Bismarck resorted to ensuring that France was isolated in Europe by signing several treaties with different nations. Bismarck was consistently opposed by several political parties in Germany for his methods and policies, especially the socialists who were a vehement opposition. Germany was also economically divided which created a lot of issues, and Bismarck made a few internal reforms which saw the establishment of the Reichsbank and Reichsmark, a new coin. 1. Death and Legacy Following years of health problems, Bismarck died in Friderichsruh on July 30th, 1898. He was 83 years old when he died. His body is entombed in the Bismarck Mausoleum. The most significant legacy left behind by Bismarck is the unification of Germany when the country existed as a cluster comprising of Free Cities and numerous separate principalities following the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire. As a result of the unification, Germany became one of Europe's most powerful nations. His legacy is remembered throughout Germany in the form of the bestseller books that were written about him, buildings named in his honor and the numerous statues and monuments erected in the countryside, towns, and cities of Germany. Where Was Otto Von Bismarck Born? Otto von Bismarck was born on April 1st, 1815 in Schönhausen in the province of Saxony, Prussia. He was born to Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand von Bismarck, a former Prussian officer and junker estate owner, and Wilhelmine Luise Mencken. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:985c0efa-22d6-4aa6-8cb8-6a7c8be5ff70>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/otto-von-bismarck-figures-in-history.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00363.warc.gz	en	0.981107	1,005	3.859375	4	[ -0.2955034673213959, 0.8654142022132874, -0.08412271738052368, -0.43384087085723877, 0.2147100567817688, -0.2746231257915497, 0.11575078964233398, 0.23661217093467712, -0.4961196184158325, -0.24882234632968903, 0.3506320118904114, -0.5335105061531067, 0.2697486877441406, 0.1097517386078834...	2	Otto von Bismarck was a Prussian statesman and conservatist who dominated European and German affairs between 1860 and 1890 until his forced resignation in 1890. Bismarck had a substantial influence on Europe in the 20th century especially in the unification of the German Empire. Bismarck was known for his skillful leadership and his masterful strategies which he employed during wars against Austria, France, and Denmark. 5. Early Life Otto von Bismarck was born on April 1st, 1815 in Schönhausen in the province of Saxony, Prussia. He was born to Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand von Bismarck, a former Prussian officer and junker estate owner, and Wilhelmine Luise Mencken. Bismarck had two siblings, an older sibling Bernhard, and a younger sibling named Malwine. Bismarck was fluent in several languages including German, French, Polish, English, Russian, and Italian. Bismarck attended Johann Ernst Plamann's elementary school and studied at Graues Kloster and Friedrich-Wilhelm secondary schools before studying law at the University of Göttingen from 1832 to 1833. Between 1833 and 1835, Bismarck enrolled at the University of Berlin. While Bismarck was in Greifswald as an army reservist in 1838, he studied agriculture at the University of Greifswald. Bismarck desired to become a diplomat and began his practical training as a lawyer in both Aachen and Potsdam. After chasing after two English girls, his career was jeopardized and Bismarck took an unauthorized leave. Following the death of his mother, Bismarck returned to Schönhausen to run the family estate. Before that, he had served in the army for a year, becoming an officer in the Landwehr. Bismarck's political career began in 1847 at the age of 32 when he was chosen as a representative at the newly established Prussian legislature. 3. Major Contributions Bismarck was considered the founder of the German Empire, and for nearly three decades he helped shape the fortune of Germany by playing a significant role in the country's unification. Bismarck's charismatic leadership at home and his diplomacy earned him the title of 'Iron Chancellor.' During his tenure as Chancellor of Germany, Minister President of Prussia, and Foreign Minister of Prussia, Bismarck introduced progressive reforms such as the conception of the modern welfare state. He also initiated the implementation of pension schemes for the old, accident insurance, and the national healthcare services. Most importantly Bismarck played a pivotal role in maintaining peace at all times by balancing power systems. Throughout his career, Bismarck faced numerous challenges from all corners. When France was defeated in the 1870 battle of Sedan, Bismarck was afraid that France would seek vengeance against Germany in the future. Bismarck resorted to ensuring that France was isolated in Europe by signing several treaties with different nations. Bismarck was consistently opposed by several political parties in Germany for his methods and policies, especially the socialists who were a vehement opposition. Germany was also economically divided which created a lot of issues, and Bismarck made a few internal reforms which saw the establishment of the Reichsbank and Reichsmark, a new coin. 1. Death and Legacy Following years of health problems, Bismarck died in Friderichsruh on July 30th, 1898. He was 83 years old when he died. His body is entombed in the Bismarck Mausoleum. The most significant legacy left behind by Bismarck is the unification of Germany when the country existed as a cluster comprising of Free Cities and numerous separate principalities following the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire. As a result of the unification, Germany became one of Europe's most powerful nations. His legacy is remembered throughout Germany in the form of the bestseller books that were written about him, buildings named in his honor and the numerous statues and monuments erected in the countryside, towns, and cities of Germany. Where Was Otto Von Bismarck Born? Otto von Bismarck was born on April 1st, 1815 in Schönhausen in the province of Saxony, Prussia. He was born to Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand von Bismarck, a former Prussian officer and junker estate owner, and Wilhelmine Luise Mencken. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	1,045	ENGLISH	1
Beginning with Maximilian, the foundations for the dynasty’s later ascent to Great Power status were laid within three generations thanks to a number of strategically concluded marriages. The first of these was Maximilian’s own nuptial union: the Burgundian Marriage to the richest heiress in Europe at the time, Mary of Burgundy, enabled the dynasty to gain a foothold in western Europe, in particular in territories such as Flanders and Brabant, whose flourishing urban centres had made them among the most highly developed cultural and economic regions in Europe. This marriage brought Maximilian into conflict with the kingdom of France, since the ruling Valois dynasty was also insisting on its claims to the Burgundian inheritance, a situation that led to the ‘hereditary enmity’ between the two monarchies which was to define European history in the Early Modern era. The second historically significant union in the House of Habsburg was the Spanish Marriage of Maximilian’s son Philip. In 1496 Philip (the Fair) was married to Joan (the Mad), heiress to Castile and Aragon. At the same time Joan’s brother John, the designated heir to the throne, wedded Philip’s sister Margaret. However, John died shortly afterwards, with the result that Philip as the husband of the heiress to the crown was able to make claims on the Spanish throne. The political background to this Habsburg-Aragon union was the French advance on Naples. Ferdinand II of Aragon, whose family had brought this southern Italian kingdom under their dominion in 1442, was looking for an ally and found one in Maximilian, who had fallen foul of King Charles VIII because of the French claims on the Burgundian inheritance. It was around this time that the Spanish monarchy was being formed, thanks to the union of Joan’s parents, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. The discovery of America was still a promise for the future, its potential yet to be recognized. This was also true of the marriage itself, as Joan was only fourth in line to the throne. It was not until a series of fortuitous happenings that the potential of this union became reality. Maximilian did not live to see the historic consequences of this marriage, as it was his grandson Charles V who was to harvest the fruits of the tree that his grandfather had planted and to lead Spain to Great Power status. The third marriage that would change the course of history was the Jagiello Double Wedding of 1515, which involved the generation of Maximilian’s grandchildren. This was the result of an agreement between Maximilian and Ladislaus Jagiello, king of Hungary and Bohemia, according to which the children of the two dynasties were to be married to one another in order to secure mutual hereditary claims in case either dynasty became extinct. In 1506 Maximilian’s granddaughter, Archduchess Mary, was promised to a son of Ladislaus who at this point had not even been born. (Her future husband was in fact born later the same year.) At the wedding in Vienna in 1515 it was still not certain which of Maximilian’s grandsons was to marry Ladislaus’s daughter Anna. Maximilian thus stood in as proxy for one of his grandsons (Charles or Ferdinand). Eventually it was to be Archduke Ferdinand who became Anna’s husband. The agreement concerning the inheritance came to bear sooner than expected when the young king Louis fell at the Battle of Mohács against the Turks in 1526, aged only twenty. This meant that the Habsburgs were able to bring Hungary and Bohemia permanently under their sway.	<urn:uuid:e7ec99d2-671c-4d5d-b275-a4323d2b66b0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.habsburger.net/de/node/14022	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00324.warc.gz	en	0.984463	783	3.421875	3	[ -0.22781671583652496, 0.6683690547943115, 0.15490998327732086, -0.5218548774719238, -0.2564425468444824, 0.09716421365737915, -0.525040864944458, -0.0001286861952394247, 0.5161253809928894, -0.07555653899908066, 0.08999136835336685, -0.3225940465927124, 0.11611440777778625, 0.0712522715330...	1	Beginning with Maximilian, the foundations for the dynasty’s later ascent to Great Power status were laid within three generations thanks to a number of strategically concluded marriages. The first of these was Maximilian’s own nuptial union: the Burgundian Marriage to the richest heiress in Europe at the time, Mary of Burgundy, enabled the dynasty to gain a foothold in western Europe, in particular in territories such as Flanders and Brabant, whose flourishing urban centres had made them among the most highly developed cultural and economic regions in Europe. This marriage brought Maximilian into conflict with the kingdom of France, since the ruling Valois dynasty was also insisting on its claims to the Burgundian inheritance, a situation that led to the ‘hereditary enmity’ between the two monarchies which was to define European history in the Early Modern era. The second historically significant union in the House of Habsburg was the Spanish Marriage of Maximilian’s son Philip. In 1496 Philip (the Fair) was married to Joan (the Mad), heiress to Castile and Aragon. At the same time Joan’s brother John, the designated heir to the throne, wedded Philip’s sister Margaret. However, John died shortly afterwards, with the result that Philip as the husband of the heiress to the crown was able to make claims on the Spanish throne. The political background to this Habsburg-Aragon union was the French advance on Naples. Ferdinand II of Aragon, whose family had brought this southern Italian kingdom under their dominion in 1442, was looking for an ally and found one in Maximilian, who had fallen foul of King Charles VIII because of the French claims on the Burgundian inheritance. It was around this time that the Spanish monarchy was being formed, thanks to the union of Joan’s parents, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. The discovery of America was still a promise for the future, its potential yet to be recognized. This was also true of the marriage itself, as Joan was only fourth in line to the throne. It was not until a series of fortuitous happenings that the potential of this union became reality. Maximilian did not live to see the historic consequences of this marriage, as it was his grandson Charles V who was to harvest the fruits of the tree that his grandfather had planted and to lead Spain to Great Power status. The third marriage that would change the course of history was the Jagiello Double Wedding of 1515, which involved the generation of Maximilian’s grandchildren. This was the result of an agreement between Maximilian and Ladislaus Jagiello, king of Hungary and Bohemia, according to which the children of the two dynasties were to be married to one another in order to secure mutual hereditary claims in case either dynasty became extinct. In 1506 Maximilian’s granddaughter, Archduchess Mary, was promised to a son of Ladislaus who at this point had not even been born. (Her future husband was in fact born later the same year.) At the wedding in Vienna in 1515 it was still not certain which of Maximilian’s grandsons was to marry Ladislaus’s daughter Anna. Maximilian thus stood in as proxy for one of his grandsons (Charles or Ferdinand). Eventually it was to be Archduke Ferdinand who became Anna’s husband. The agreement concerning the inheritance came to bear sooner than expected when the young king Louis fell at the Battle of Mohács against the Turks in 1526, aged only twenty. This meant that the Habsburgs were able to bring Hungary and Bohemia permanently under their sway.	756	ENGLISH	1
Today’s Economic History: 1870 as the Inflection Point in Trade and Transport: ... The old rule-of-thumb before the railroad was that you simply could not transport agricultural goods more than 100 miles by land. Over that distance the horses or the oxen would have eaten as much as they could have pulled. Either find a navigable watercourse—and it had better be much closer than 100 miles—or find yourself stuck in self-sufficiency for anything other than small and light preciosities... The coming of steam coupled with the metallurgy to cheaply make the rails and the engines of the railroad made a difference. It made transport over land wherever the rails ran as cheap as travel up navigable watercourses or across the oceans had ever been. It made it much faster as well. This was a big difference for people who wanted to move about. The was a big difference for spoilable or time-sensitive goods. This was not much of a difference for durable staples over routes that had been and still could be travelled by water. And since most people had for good reason settled near the water routes, the railroad was a very welcome boost, but not that much more. For the rise of Mexico City—with no water routes to the coasts and thus the world economy—the railroad was a game-change. But for the rise of New York City the game-change was not the Iron Horse but rather the Erie Canal. The true revolution in transportation? The one that mattered for everyone? That came not in the 1830s with the railroad. That came later: it was the iron-hulled ocean-going coal-fired steamship. It was the year 1870 that saw the Harland and Wolff shipyard of Belfast in northern Ireland launch the iron-hulled (rather than wooden-hulled), steam-powered (rather than wind-powered, but it did still have masts and sails), screw-propellered (rather than paddle-wheeled), passenger steamship the R.M.S. Oceanic. It took 9 days from Liverpool to New York, a journey that in 1800 would have taken more like a month. Its crew of 150 supported 1,000 third-class passengers at a cost of £3–$15–for a third-class passenger. Third class on the Oceanic cost half as much as passage a generation earlier during the Irish Potato Famine had. It coast roughly a fourth as much as in 1800. ... The falling cost of transporting people marched alongside a falling cost of transporting goods. Food that cost 1.5 cents per pound more in London than in New York in 1840 cost only 0.5 cents per pound more after 1870 . This was a fall in the price of carrying the raw materials for a loaf of bread across the Atlantic. What had cost the equivalent of 30 minutes’ worth of unskilled labor time in 1840 cost less than ten minutes’ worth come 1870. After 1870 every commodity that was neither exceptionally fragile nor spoilable could be carried from port to port across oceans for less than it cost to move it within any country. All this mattered for two reasons. First, it meant that everyplace in the world was, as long as there were connecting harbors, docks, and railroads, cheek-by-jowl to every other place, economically. Everyone’s economic opportunities and constraints depended on what was going on across the globe. This had not been true before. Before just the consumption patterns of the elite depended on what was going on in other countries and on other continents. Second, wherever you could cheaply move goods in mass you could move other things. Most particularly, you could also move and supply armies. Thus conquest—or at least invasion and devastation—became things that nearly any European power could undertake in nearly any corner of the world.	<urn:uuid:4dde1466-6771-463c-855b-0832687bacd3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://economistsview.typepad.com/economistsview/2015/02/1870-as-the-inflection-point-in-trade-and-transport.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00418.warc.gz	en	0.980056	795	3.5	4	[ 0.010518662631511688, -0.5007715821266174, 0.5357189178466797, 0.33312350511550903, 0.1688539683818817, -0.09802572429180145, -0.14709432423114777, 0.2381085902452469, -0.4247652292251587, -0.046520624309778214, 0.3055601119995117, -0.2569696307182312, -0.009460089728236198, 0.108027085661...	2	Today’s Economic History: 1870 as the Inflection Point in Trade and Transport: ... The old rule-of-thumb before the railroad was that you simply could not transport agricultural goods more than 100 miles by land. Over that distance the horses or the oxen would have eaten as much as they could have pulled. Either find a navigable watercourse—and it had better be much closer than 100 miles—or find yourself stuck in self-sufficiency for anything other than small and light preciosities... The coming of steam coupled with the metallurgy to cheaply make the rails and the engines of the railroad made a difference. It made transport over land wherever the rails ran as cheap as travel up navigable watercourses or across the oceans had ever been. It made it much faster as well. This was a big difference for people who wanted to move about. The was a big difference for spoilable or time-sensitive goods. This was not much of a difference for durable staples over routes that had been and still could be travelled by water. And since most people had for good reason settled near the water routes, the railroad was a very welcome boost, but not that much more. For the rise of Mexico City—with no water routes to the coasts and thus the world economy—the railroad was a game-change. But for the rise of New York City the game-change was not the Iron Horse but rather the Erie Canal. The true revolution in transportation? The one that mattered for everyone? That came not in the 1830s with the railroad. That came later: it was the iron-hulled ocean-going coal-fired steamship. It was the year 1870 that saw the Harland and Wolff shipyard of Belfast in northern Ireland launch the iron-hulled (rather than wooden-hulled), steam-powered (rather than wind-powered, but it did still have masts and sails), screw-propellered (rather than paddle-wheeled), passenger steamship the R.M.S. Oceanic. It took 9 days from Liverpool to New York, a journey that in 1800 would have taken more like a month. Its crew of 150 supported 1,000 third-class passengers at a cost of £3–$15–for a third-class passenger. Third class on the Oceanic cost half as much as passage a generation earlier during the Irish Potato Famine had. It coast roughly a fourth as much as in 1800. ... The falling cost of transporting people marched alongside a falling cost of transporting goods. Food that cost 1.5 cents per pound more in London than in New York in 1840 cost only 0.5 cents per pound more after 1870 . This was a fall in the price of carrying the raw materials for a loaf of bread across the Atlantic. What had cost the equivalent of 30 minutes’ worth of unskilled labor time in 1840 cost less than ten minutes’ worth come 1870. After 1870 every commodity that was neither exceptionally fragile nor spoilable could be carried from port to port across oceans for less than it cost to move it within any country. All this mattered for two reasons. First, it meant that everyplace in the world was, as long as there were connecting harbors, docks, and railroads, cheek-by-jowl to every other place, economically. Everyone’s economic opportunities and constraints depended on what was going on across the globe. This had not been true before. Before just the consumption patterns of the elite depended on what was going on in other countries and on other continents. Second, wherever you could cheaply move goods in mass you could move other things. Most particularly, you could also move and supply armies. Thus conquest—or at least invasion and devastation—became things that nearly any European power could undertake in nearly any corner of the world.	809	ENGLISH	1
What is the Weight Throw? While the weight throw was competed in track and field in the Olympics in 1904 and 1920, the sport has since been removed from the programme. It has begun to resurface in other competitions and its popularity is relatively new. It has a similar style to the shot put or the hammer throw, but with a unique weight and throwing approach. It is increasing in popularity but is not accepted as an official event worldwide. It is most commonly seen in North American competitions and can be competed at high school, collegiate, and professional levels. How does the Weight Throw work? The weight throw occurs within a throwing circle similar to the hammer throw. Athletes wear a throwing glove on their non-dominant hand, as it is the hand that holds the handle of the weight. After a few swings of the weight and one rotation of the weight above their head, the athlete will take on a spinning position. They will spin around with the weight swinging above their head to gain momentum before eventually releasing the weight forward. This event must be competed in a cage or a closed off area in case the weight is released in the wrong direction. Weight Throw Rules and Regulations Throwers must remain in the circle during their approach and release for their throw to qualify. Whoever throws their weight the farthest is the winner. Men's competitions use a 35-pound weight, and women's use a 20-pound weight. The weights can vary depending on age groups, and in competition, the event is divided by these age groups as well to ensure fairness.	<urn:uuid:e3672bdd-e959-4163-8206-b32796eeb359>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.rookieroad.com/weight-throw/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00222.warc.gz	en	0.984643	316	3.34375	3	[ 0.09229297935962677, 0.07093842327594757, 0.17895106971263885, 0.047024693340063095, -0.06195380538702011, 0.15700286626815796, 0.6691923141479492, 0.03403915464878082, -0.2688862383365631, -0.02770567312836647, 0.2442968636751175, -0.641524612903595, -0.0866396427154541, 0.105963736772537...	1	What is the Weight Throw? While the weight throw was competed in track and field in the Olympics in 1904 and 1920, the sport has since been removed from the programme. It has begun to resurface in other competitions and its popularity is relatively new. It has a similar style to the shot put or the hammer throw, but with a unique weight and throwing approach. It is increasing in popularity but is not accepted as an official event worldwide. It is most commonly seen in North American competitions and can be competed at high school, collegiate, and professional levels. How does the Weight Throw work? The weight throw occurs within a throwing circle similar to the hammer throw. Athletes wear a throwing glove on their non-dominant hand, as it is the hand that holds the handle of the weight. After a few swings of the weight and one rotation of the weight above their head, the athlete will take on a spinning position. They will spin around with the weight swinging above their head to gain momentum before eventually releasing the weight forward. This event must be competed in a cage or a closed off area in case the weight is released in the wrong direction. Weight Throw Rules and Regulations Throwers must remain in the circle during their approach and release for their throw to qualify. Whoever throws their weight the farthest is the winner. Men's competitions use a 35-pound weight, and women's use a 20-pound weight. The weights can vary depending on age groups, and in competition, the event is divided by these age groups as well to ensure fairness.	322	ENGLISH	1
Where were the ancient Olympics held? The first Olympic games were held in Olympia in Greece in 776 BC. The games were held every four years in honour of Zeus, the king of the Greek gods. Around 50,000 people came from all over Greece to watch and take part. A religious celebration The ancient Olympics were a religious celebration as well as a sporting event. For the first 13 Olympics, there was only one event. It was called the stadion race which was a test of speed, covering the Olympia track from one end to the other (200m foot race). Years later boxing, wrestling and the pankration were introduced, along with the pentathlon and horse and chariot racing. At the very first games, there were no gold, silver or bronze medals. A wreath of olive leaves was given to the winners to wear on their heads. Each athlete competed on his own. In modern-day Olympics world records can be won by running the fastest time, throwing a javelin the furthest or jumping the longest distance. In ancient Olympics, there was no such thing as a world record.	<urn:uuid:404b6db1-8975-4e31-8f34-5774f847c57a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://primaryleap.co.uk/activity/ancient-olympic-games	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00195.warc.gz	en	0.992772	231	3.671875	4	[ 0.08441402018070221, 0.47637665271759033, 0.2251124531030655, -0.25643131136894226, -0.3958437442779541, 0.04525648429989815, -0.05254024267196655, 0.3740357756614685, 0.2817079424858093, 0.034881625324487686, -0.13976642489433289, -0.6365692019462585, -0.13960692286491394, 0.3906809389591...	3	Where were the ancient Olympics held? The first Olympic games were held in Olympia in Greece in 776 BC. The games were held every four years in honour of Zeus, the king of the Greek gods. Around 50,000 people came from all over Greece to watch and take part. A religious celebration The ancient Olympics were a religious celebration as well as a sporting event. For the first 13 Olympics, there was only one event. It was called the stadion race which was a test of speed, covering the Olympia track from one end to the other (200m foot race). Years later boxing, wrestling and the pankration were introduced, along with the pentathlon and horse and chariot racing. At the very first games, there were no gold, silver or bronze medals. A wreath of olive leaves was given to the winners to wear on their heads. Each athlete competed on his own. In modern-day Olympics world records can be won by running the fastest time, throwing a javelin the furthest or jumping the longest distance. In ancient Olympics, there was no such thing as a world record.	234	ENGLISH	1
The Battle of Bautzen Finely executed manuscript map Bautzen and the region immediately east of Dresden. The map was likely drafted during the War of the Sixth Coalition, during the Napoleonic Wars. The Prusso-Russian army was in a full retreat following their defeat at the Battle of Lützen. Finally, generals Wittgenstein and Blücher were ordered to stop at Bautzen by Tsar Alexander I and King Frederick William III. The Prusso-Russian army was nearly 100,000 men strong, but Napoleon had 115,000 troops. Additionally, Marshal Ney had 85,000 more men within easy marching distance. Wittgenstein formed two defensive lines, with the first holding strongpoints in villages and along ridges and the second holding the bridges behind a river bend. Napoleon had planned to pin down his enemies to their lines and then trap them with Ney's troops. However, due to faulty reconnaissance, he became concerned that the Prusso-Russians had more soldiers and held stronger positions than they actually did. So Napoleon then decided he would not set up his trap until they had been softened up. After an intense bombardment by the grande batterie of Napoleon's artillery and hours of heated fighting, the French overpowered the first defensive lines and seized the town of Bautzen. The Prusso-Russians appeared to be buckling. By nightfall, the French were ready to cut the allies off from their line of retreat. But Marshal Ney became confused, and his faulty positioning left the door open for the Allies to escape. Fighting on the following day, the 21st, was again hard and after several hours of setbacks, renewed French attacks began to gain momentum. But these assaults were only intended to fix the allies in place so they could be cut off and enveloped. Once again, Marshal Ney became distracted and decided to seize the village of Preititz, and thus lost sight of the strategic importance of cutting off the allies. The Prusso-Russians were being pushed back across the river and, at 4 p.m., when the Imperial Guard was sent in, began an all-out retreat. Without Ney's forces to seal them in; however, they again escaped the total defeat Napoleon had planned. Losses on both sides totaled around 20,000. But some other sources (e.g. Dr Stubner) also say that the losses on French side were significantly higher because of their aggressive attack tactics which failed to cut off the allies from their lines and the allies in fact only lost 11,000 – 14,000. The French victory at Bautzen is therefore often called a Pyrrhic victory.	<urn:uuid:53c914b3-8e37-45aa-9d47-803b6d5f5bb5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/59778/bautzen-and-environs----battle-of-bautzen-anonymous	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00216.warc.gz	en	0.986141	549	3.625	4	[ -0.5178282260894775, 0.4368056058883667, -0.11993904411792755, -0.10555608570575714, -0.15535807609558105, -0.5679345726966858, -0.026582390069961548, 0.5083818435668945, -0.27321863174438477, -0.38423970341682434, 0.02674548327922821, -0.543766975402832, 0.07194176316261292, 0.29724204540...	1	The Battle of Bautzen Finely executed manuscript map Bautzen and the region immediately east of Dresden. The map was likely drafted during the War of the Sixth Coalition, during the Napoleonic Wars. The Prusso-Russian army was in a full retreat following their defeat at the Battle of Lützen. Finally, generals Wittgenstein and Blücher were ordered to stop at Bautzen by Tsar Alexander I and King Frederick William III. The Prusso-Russian army was nearly 100,000 men strong, but Napoleon had 115,000 troops. Additionally, Marshal Ney had 85,000 more men within easy marching distance. Wittgenstein formed two defensive lines, with the first holding strongpoints in villages and along ridges and the second holding the bridges behind a river bend. Napoleon had planned to pin down his enemies to their lines and then trap them with Ney's troops. However, due to faulty reconnaissance, he became concerned that the Prusso-Russians had more soldiers and held stronger positions than they actually did. So Napoleon then decided he would not set up his trap until they had been softened up. After an intense bombardment by the grande batterie of Napoleon's artillery and hours of heated fighting, the French overpowered the first defensive lines and seized the town of Bautzen. The Prusso-Russians appeared to be buckling. By nightfall, the French were ready to cut the allies off from their line of retreat. But Marshal Ney became confused, and his faulty positioning left the door open for the Allies to escape. Fighting on the following day, the 21st, was again hard and after several hours of setbacks, renewed French attacks began to gain momentum. But these assaults were only intended to fix the allies in place so they could be cut off and enveloped. Once again, Marshal Ney became distracted and decided to seize the village of Preititz, and thus lost sight of the strategic importance of cutting off the allies. The Prusso-Russians were being pushed back across the river and, at 4 p.m., when the Imperial Guard was sent in, began an all-out retreat. Without Ney's forces to seal them in; however, they again escaped the total defeat Napoleon had planned. Losses on both sides totaled around 20,000. But some other sources (e.g. Dr Stubner) also say that the losses on French side were significantly higher because of their aggressive attack tactics which failed to cut off the allies from their lines and the allies in fact only lost 11,000 – 14,000. The French victory at Bautzen is therefore often called a Pyrrhic victory.	569	ENGLISH	1
Last week in nursery we were very interested in making paths and roads. At the start of the week children started making paths for their cars… After this the children made roads and paths to take the animals to the zoo… Last year we shared a learning story all about how the children loved to ‘transport’ things around the classroom. Well this year we have another class of transporters! What does transporting mean? Do you notice that your child… This might mean that your child likes to transport which is perfectly normal if a little frustrating when things disappear and end up somewhere unexpected! What can we do? Well if transporting is something the children are interested in we encourage it but try to give it a little more purpose. This week we packed bags for an adventure. We sorted objects into things we thought we might need for an adventure and then took it in turns to pack a bag with what we thought we might need. To make it trickier we were only allowed to choose 3 things… We learnt to think about what we were putting in the bag. We talked about our choices and made compromises with what we wanted to carry around. In children’s play they started to talk about what was going in their bags. How can you continue learning at home? If you notice your child loves to transport there are lots of activities you could try at home such as… In nursery we love to transport! This is when we move things from one place to another, filling every container we can find! So many of our children in nursery love to do this you might have noticed them doing it at home too! Does your child like to fill up bags, buckets, prams and sometimes just their hands? Do they constantly take things from one place to another? Do they hide things in a special place? Do they collect things on their travels? Are their pockets always full? Don’t worry! We see this at nursery too. It’s a completely normal part of their development. However we know this can be challenging , especially when everything keeps disappearing! So we had a think about how to help the children learn through their transporting. First we read the children a story about their transporting (names have been hidden!)… The children were very excited to read a book where they were the characters. They knew they liked to move things but talked about not being able to find things to play with. They decided that they would quite like lots of bags to fill up but they would remember to put things back when they had finished. We gave the children lots of bags and sacks to fill with things. The children had to remember to use their toys once they had taken them somewhere. We talked to the children about what they were going to put in their bags. We made a game with the bags. We packed Christmas gifts for the different characters in the Jolly Postman. We had to look what was on the picture and just put those things inside the bag. We made Santa’s sleighs to carry things around. We had sacks for toys and had to remember to deliver them to the right people. We then had to collect things back up to take them to the next children. We made big Santa sleighs outside using the play pod. We filled suitcases with toys to deliver. We did lots of posting activities to make our transporting more purposeful. We also did other activities like carrying blocks in the wheelbarrow, dressing up as the post man to deliver letters and finding a new way for Santa to carry his presents when his sleigh broke down. Does your child transport? You can help to move their learning on… Give children things to help them transport: Bags, rucksacks, suitcases, bikes, trucks, prams, mops, brushes Let them help with activities like: Sweeping, vacuuming, tidying up, helping with unpacking shopping, writing and posting letters Children will enjoy visits: To the post box, the shops, transport museums, riding on buses and trams	<urn:uuid:337b3ab2-4dc9-465a-89b7-5bda44486ee8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://diamondclassfs1.wordpress.com/category/schemas/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00461.warc.gz	en	0.983961	842	3.546875	4	[ 0.20457887649536133, -0.5406551957130432, 0.4519706964492798, -0.2776794731616974, 0.029834775254130363, 0.20764054358005524, 0.5337467789649963, -0.0647381842136383, -0.44818341732025146, 0.21140769124031067, 0.042030807584524155, -0.18335528671741486, 0.014928784221410751, 0.466289550065...	1	Last week in nursery we were very interested in making paths and roads. At the start of the week children started making paths for their cars… After this the children made roads and paths to take the animals to the zoo… Last year we shared a learning story all about how the children loved to ‘transport’ things around the classroom. Well this year we have another class of transporters! What does transporting mean? Do you notice that your child… This might mean that your child likes to transport which is perfectly normal if a little frustrating when things disappear and end up somewhere unexpected! What can we do? Well if transporting is something the children are interested in we encourage it but try to give it a little more purpose. This week we packed bags for an adventure. We sorted objects into things we thought we might need for an adventure and then took it in turns to pack a bag with what we thought we might need. To make it trickier we were only allowed to choose 3 things… We learnt to think about what we were putting in the bag. We talked about our choices and made compromises with what we wanted to carry around. In children’s play they started to talk about what was going in their bags. How can you continue learning at home? If you notice your child loves to transport there are lots of activities you could try at home such as… In nursery we love to transport! This is when we move things from one place to another, filling every container we can find! So many of our children in nursery love to do this you might have noticed them doing it at home too! Does your child like to fill up bags, buckets, prams and sometimes just their hands? Do they constantly take things from one place to another? Do they hide things in a special place? Do they collect things on their travels? Are their pockets always full? Don’t worry! We see this at nursery too. It’s a completely normal part of their development. However we know this can be challenging , especially when everything keeps disappearing! So we had a think about how to help the children learn through their transporting. First we read the children a story about their transporting (names have been hidden!)… The children were very excited to read a book where they were the characters. They knew they liked to move things but talked about not being able to find things to play with. They decided that they would quite like lots of bags to fill up but they would remember to put things back when they had finished. We gave the children lots of bags and sacks to fill with things. The children had to remember to use their toys once they had taken them somewhere. We talked to the children about what they were going to put in their bags. We made a game with the bags. We packed Christmas gifts for the different characters in the Jolly Postman. We had to look what was on the picture and just put those things inside the bag. We made Santa’s sleighs to carry things around. We had sacks for toys and had to remember to deliver them to the right people. We then had to collect things back up to take them to the next children. We made big Santa sleighs outside using the play pod. We filled suitcases with toys to deliver. We did lots of posting activities to make our transporting more purposeful. We also did other activities like carrying blocks in the wheelbarrow, dressing up as the post man to deliver letters and finding a new way for Santa to carry his presents when his sleigh broke down. Does your child transport? You can help to move their learning on… Give children things to help them transport: Bags, rucksacks, suitcases, bikes, trucks, prams, mops, brushes Let them help with activities like: Sweeping, vacuuming, tidying up, helping with unpacking shopping, writing and posting letters Children will enjoy visits: To the post box, the shops, transport museums, riding on buses and trams	806	ENGLISH	1
This is the grave of Oliver Hazard Perry. Born in 1785 in South Kingstown, Rhode Island, Perry grew up in the naval family that included his father Christopher and, later, his brother Matthew. He became a midshipman in the Navy in 1799, when he was only 13, thanks to his father’s influence. He was on the ship his own father commanded, the USS General Greene, on its maiden voyage to Havana that year. He rose very fast, being on the USS Adams during the Barbary War and then was first lieutenant on the USS Nautilus. By the mid-1800s he was in charge of constructing gunboats at the shipyards in Newport and Westerly, Rhode Island. He started commanding his own ship in 1809 with the USS Revenge. Shortly after, he led a successful raid to capture an American ship the Spanish had captured in Florida. Unfortunately, on the way back, the Revenge ran aground and sank. He was court-martialed for this. I don’t have access to details for this, but whether the pilot was actually the one responsible or whether Perry’s connections got him out of it, he was exonerated. Incidentally, the Revenge was found in 2011 and the cannons brought to the surface in 2017. When the U.S. stupidly entered the War of 1812 against the world’s biggest power, the British controlled the Great Lakes. But Perry played a critical role in dislodging them, making him the second biggest military hero of the war, only behind Andrew Jackson,at the Battle of Lake Erie. With his “DON’T GIVE UP THE SHIP” motto on his commanding ship’s flag, borrowed from his friend, the now deceased Captain James Lawrence before he died after while commanding the USS Chesapeake, he refused to surrender it even as it was disabled and most of the men aboard killed. Instead, he had men row him to another ship where he continued to command the battle. Perry had that ship pushed through British lines where the Americans then bombarded the British fleet from both sides until it surrendered. This was not a huge victory, as the British fleet on Lake Erie was tiny, but it did wonders for American morale and opened up the region to the army and led to the Battle of Thames, which was a big victory for troops under William Henry Harrison and is where Tecumseh was killed. For all of this, Perry was promoted to Captain and received the Congressional Gold Medal. He participated in several additional naval battles, as well as the defense of Washington during the British invasion that led to the capital’s burning in 1814. After the war, Perry was involved in a whole bunch of controversies. In 1815, he was in command of the USS Java during another attack on the Barbary pirates. In Naples, he ran into the commander of the Marines, Captain John Heath, who he hated and thought was an incompetent dolt. Perry slapped Heath in the face. A fight resumed. Both men were court-martialed, but found not guilty. In 1817, Heath challenged Perry to a duel. They fought at Weehawken, the same spot where Aaron Burr killed Alexander Hamilton. Heath fired and missed. Perry refused to fire back. Honor was settled. Meanwhile, Perry had a long-running feud with Jesse Elliott, who had commanded the Niagara in the Battle of Lake Erie. Perry initially praised Elliott, but most of the junior officers openly criticized Elliott’s performance and blamed him for why Perry’s ship, the Lawrence, had taken such heavy fire. Elliott’s reputation began to suffer and Perry did not defend him. This infuriated Elliott. In 1818, Elliott wanted to duel Perry after a series of letters that grew increasingly angry from both men. Perry refused, knowing that no one was going to question his honor and bravery. Instead, he had Elliott court-martialed. At this point James Monroe stepped in and offered Perry a deal. He would send him on a mission to South America in exchange for dropping the charges. Perry agreed. Perry then sailed to South America, met Simon Bolivar, and worked out an anti-piracy agreement with his government. And then Perry dropped dead of yellow fever, dying on his 34th birthday. Oliver Hazard Perry is buried in Island Cemetery, Newport, Rhode Island. This is his third burial spot. Naturally, he was initially buried where he died, in this case Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. In 1826, the U.S. had his remains returned and he was buried in Common Burial Ground in Newport. I don’t exactly when he was moved to Island Cemetery but given the grave marker style, I assume it was in the late 19th century. If you would like this series to visit other officers of the War of 1812, you can donate to cover the required expenses here. I am leaving on Friday for a four-day grave trip to keep this series going and I hope you will help me make this happen. William Henry Harrison is in North Bend, Ohio and Jesse Elliott is in Philadelphia. Previous posts in this series are archived here.	<urn:uuid:bc9ae4ea-b284-48d4-ba67-ca38d8e30e71>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.lawyersgunsmoneyblog.com/2019/12/erik-visits-an-american-grave-part-595	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00332.warc.gz	en	0.985557	1,072	3.296875	3	[ -0.20983946323394775, -0.01271898951381445, 0.4390120506286621, -0.38303491473197937, -0.23365548253059387, -0.5137706398963928, 0.3659331202507019, -0.033991724252700806, -0.3367839455604553, 0.08644736558198929, 0.1497659981250763, -0.09450666606426239, -0.04520915076136589, 0.3749299347...	4	This is the grave of Oliver Hazard Perry. Born in 1785 in South Kingstown, Rhode Island, Perry grew up in the naval family that included his father Christopher and, later, his brother Matthew. He became a midshipman in the Navy in 1799, when he was only 13, thanks to his father’s influence. He was on the ship his own father commanded, the USS General Greene, on its maiden voyage to Havana that year. He rose very fast, being on the USS Adams during the Barbary War and then was first lieutenant on the USS Nautilus. By the mid-1800s he was in charge of constructing gunboats at the shipyards in Newport and Westerly, Rhode Island. He started commanding his own ship in 1809 with the USS Revenge. Shortly after, he led a successful raid to capture an American ship the Spanish had captured in Florida. Unfortunately, on the way back, the Revenge ran aground and sank. He was court-martialed for this. I don’t have access to details for this, but whether the pilot was actually the one responsible or whether Perry’s connections got him out of it, he was exonerated. Incidentally, the Revenge was found in 2011 and the cannons brought to the surface in 2017. When the U.S. stupidly entered the War of 1812 against the world’s biggest power, the British controlled the Great Lakes. But Perry played a critical role in dislodging them, making him the second biggest military hero of the war, only behind Andrew Jackson,at the Battle of Lake Erie. With his “DON’T GIVE UP THE SHIP” motto on his commanding ship’s flag, borrowed from his friend, the now deceased Captain James Lawrence before he died after while commanding the USS Chesapeake, he refused to surrender it even as it was disabled and most of the men aboard killed. Instead, he had men row him to another ship where he continued to command the battle. Perry had that ship pushed through British lines where the Americans then bombarded the British fleet from both sides until it surrendered. This was not a huge victory, as the British fleet on Lake Erie was tiny, but it did wonders for American morale and opened up the region to the army and led to the Battle of Thames, which was a big victory for troops under William Henry Harrison and is where Tecumseh was killed. For all of this, Perry was promoted to Captain and received the Congressional Gold Medal. He participated in several additional naval battles, as well as the defense of Washington during the British invasion that led to the capital’s burning in 1814. After the war, Perry was involved in a whole bunch of controversies. In 1815, he was in command of the USS Java during another attack on the Barbary pirates. In Naples, he ran into the commander of the Marines, Captain John Heath, who he hated and thought was an incompetent dolt. Perry slapped Heath in the face. A fight resumed. Both men were court-martialed, but found not guilty. In 1817, Heath challenged Perry to a duel. They fought at Weehawken, the same spot where Aaron Burr killed Alexander Hamilton. Heath fired and missed. Perry refused to fire back. Honor was settled. Meanwhile, Perry had a long-running feud with Jesse Elliott, who had commanded the Niagara in the Battle of Lake Erie. Perry initially praised Elliott, but most of the junior officers openly criticized Elliott’s performance and blamed him for why Perry’s ship, the Lawrence, had taken such heavy fire. Elliott’s reputation began to suffer and Perry did not defend him. This infuriated Elliott. In 1818, Elliott wanted to duel Perry after a series of letters that grew increasingly angry from both men. Perry refused, knowing that no one was going to question his honor and bravery. Instead, he had Elliott court-martialed. At this point James Monroe stepped in and offered Perry a deal. He would send him on a mission to South America in exchange for dropping the charges. Perry agreed. Perry then sailed to South America, met Simon Bolivar, and worked out an anti-piracy agreement with his government. And then Perry dropped dead of yellow fever, dying on his 34th birthday. Oliver Hazard Perry is buried in Island Cemetery, Newport, Rhode Island. This is his third burial spot. Naturally, he was initially buried where he died, in this case Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. In 1826, the U.S. had his remains returned and he was buried in Common Burial Ground in Newport. I don’t exactly when he was moved to Island Cemetery but given the grave marker style, I assume it was in the late 19th century. If you would like this series to visit other officers of the War of 1812, you can donate to cover the required expenses here. I am leaving on Friday for a four-day grave trip to keep this series going and I hope you will help me make this happen. William Henry Harrison is in North Bend, Ohio and Jesse Elliott is in Philadelphia. Previous posts in this series are archived here.	1,085	ENGLISH	1
At a time when armed conflicts and strong regional tensions exist in the wider Middle East and when the mediation roe of the United Nations in the armed conflicts of Yemen, Syria and Libya seem at a dead point, on 2 October, the U.N.-designated Day of Nonviolence and the birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi, it is useful to look at the efforts of Gandhi to mediate in the Jewish-Palestinian tensions which had turned violent in 1936 Mahatma Gandhi was a man of dialogue and compromise. A British-trained lawyer, he always knew the limits of the law and knew when not to push too far even in his satyagraha – non-violent campaigns. On Gandhi’s return to India in 1915 from his years as a lawyer and civil rights advocate in South Africa (1906-1914) he tried to improve Hindu-Muslim relations as a necessary first step toward a united policy vis à vis the British. His first effort was to become involved in an effort to preserve the Caliph after the break up of the Ottoman Empire. The new, largely secular, Turkish government was glad to get rid of the institution of the Caliph (spelt Khilafat in India), but the movement for the preservation of the institution had taken hold among Muslims in India who had never been under the functioning of the Caliph. The agitation in India, however, was a time to show Hindu support of the Indian Muslims. As Gandhi wrote “We, both Hindus and Muslims, have now an opportunity of a lifetime. The Khilafat question will not recur for another 100 years.” However, the Khilafat movement embraced a cause which was already lost, but the Khilafat movement reached out for the first time to the Muslim clergy in India — a group of people who had been largely absent from the political scene. The mullahs brought into the movement a large number of people that saw issues in the crudest religious terms. Once in politics, it was impossible to get them out. Thus Gandhi began meetings with Muslim leaders, in particular Mohammed Ali Jinnah, later considered the father of Pakistan. Gandhi believed that the major political movement of India — the Indian National Congress — should be a movement for all Indians, especially Hindus and Muslims. He feared that a separate Muslim organization would increase communal tensions and weaken the Indian position in its struggle with England. Thus he worked to have Muslims in highly visible positions in the Congress leadership and avoided taking positions that would offend Muslims. This policy of sensitivity to Muslim demands did not prevent the creation of the Muslim League under the leadership of Jinnah, but it presented difficulties of trying to be seen as even-handed between Jews and Arabs when a possibility of mediation arose. The Zionist movement which had been working for the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine encouraged the migration of Jews from Europe, especially after the First World War when Palestine, which had been a part of the Ottoman Empire, was placed under a League of Nations mandate with British rule. Immigration was low during the 1920s when most European Jews were re-establishing their lives after the First World War. However with the start of the 1929 Depression, immigration started to increase, some 9,500 people in 1931, to 30,000 in 1933, and 62,000 in 1935. The Jewish Agency with the Jewish National Fund helped the new settlers to start farms and businesses. By 1936, the Palestinian Arabs became aware of the trend. They put aside their clanic disputes and created the Higher Arab Committee which demanded a stop to Jewish immigration, the prohibition of land purchase by Jews and speedy political independence before the Jews had a chance to become a majority. When none of these demands were put into practice, in October of 1936, the Higher Arab Committee called for a strike which turned violent. The loss of life was high for the period: 80 Jews, 140 Arabs, and 33 British. Armed groups were forming, the Irgun among the Jews and different militias among the Arabs. British control was slipping away, and attention in England focused on the economic depression and the growing power of dictators in Germany and Italy. Colonial territories were of ever less interest. Some people thought that perhaps Gandhi who symbolized a spiritual conscience might be able to be a bridge- builder in Palestine. The efforts to get him as a mediator and his inability to create a mediation framework is the theme of this useful book by Simone Panter-Brick who had already written a broad study of Gandhi’s thought Gandhi Against Machiavellism: Non-violence in Politics. (1) The approach to Gandhi was made by the Zionist movement without consultation with the Arabs to see if Gandhi were a valid mediator for them. Probably, the Zionist leaders were looking for a sign of support, a public endorsement of the Jewish case, rather than a mediator or bridge-builder. However, the Zionist leaders, with separate headquarters in London and Palestine, underestimated Gandhi’s need to keep Muslim support for his efforts in India. The Jewish link to Gandhi was through Hermann Kallenbach, a German architect, who had emigrated to South Africa and became a close supporter of Gandhi’s work in South Africa. It was Kallenbach who bought Tolstoy Farm which was Gandhi’s ashram in South Africa. It was also Kallenbach, a man with organizational talent, who played a large role in organizing Gandhi’s satyagraha campaigns, especially the 1913 illegal crossing from Natal to the Transval by over two thousand Indian ‘coolies’ as they were then known in South Africa. Both Gandhi and Kallenbach were sentenced to several months’ imprisonment and jailed. Later during the First World War, as a German alien, Kallenbach was jailed for three years and grew closer to the Zionist movement though he continued living in South Africa and prospered as a leading architect and builder. Kallenbach presented Gandhi with information on the situation in Palestine and on the need for bridge-builders. In 1937, Kallenbach spent a month in the ashram of Gandhi, joined there by Nehru. As Panter-Brick points out “Not only was Gandhi by now fully briefed on the Zionist cause, he also saw himself as a mediator. It was a role he had already assumed in the politics of his own country: he had so informed The Times on the 14th of April 1937: ‘My function is that of a mediator between Congress and the Government.’ He was ready to act likewise in Palestine.” However, Gandhi had no organization to which to turn, and mediation cannot be carried out alone. In 1937, the Indian leadership of Congress was busy preparing to exercise power at the provincial level having won the February 1937 elections for provincial assemblies under the Government of India Act of 1935. The Act was short of total independence desired by Congress, but it gave full responsibility for government at the provincial level to elected provincial assemblies. Thus Gandhi had to turn to his non-Indian supporters. He asked Lanza del Vasto who had been staying at the ashram and who planned to go to Jerusalem on a pilgrimage “You will give me a first hand account of the conflict between Jews and Muslims. That conflict is breaking my heart. You will tell me what you think.” Unfortunately, Lanza del Vasto only arrived in Palestine at the end of 1938, by which time a Gandhian mediation effort was no longer possible. Drawing on a biography of Kallenbach, Panter-Brick writes that Gandhi was to start a mediation process from India with Kallenbach as mediator. Kallenbach was supposed to be assisted by the Anglican priest Charles Freer Andrews whose intended visit to Palestine was financially supported by Kallenbach. Andrews and Kallenbach, who knew each other from having met in South Africa, were thus chosen to act as mediators. Andrews was an ideal choice, neither Muslim nor Jew, extremely well connected and in possession of all the necessary diplomatic skills. The only other person to whom Gandhi could turn for help was Mirabehn — Madeleine Slade — with her devotion to non-violence. Finally, none was able to act. However, in all the planning efforts, there was no input from the Arab side. As Panter-Brick points out “The Jewish Agency would speak for the Jews. The Arab spokesmen had still to be named. The participation of the extremists from the Higher Arab Committee, who had led the 1936 strike and who had the wind in their sails, was being left in abeyance. It was left to non-violence to find a way around all the obstacles, the necessary preliminary to any final settlement.” Gandhi had hoped that he would be able to draw on Muslim India to have influence with the Palestinian Arabs. “Andrews and Gandhi shared the same vision of the settlement talks: the problem was to be solved from India — and could best be solved from India, on account of its pro-Arab stance, its many million Muslims and its impeccable record in the defence of the Caliphate when Palestinian Muslims laid low.” However, by 1937, the rift between Congress and the Muslim League was too great for any common Indian influence on Palestine. It is also not clear to what extent Palestinian Arabs identified themselves with Indian Muslims. While Pan-Arab influences have been strong in the Middle East, there has been much less Pan-Islamic sentiment. There are three lessons for mediators which can be drawn from this effort of Mahatma Gandhi:: 1. There needs to be a team of people ready to undertake an effort. Although Gandhi was an outstanding personality, he always had a wide range of Indian social and political issues on which he was working. He had few back up people for this work. Only the Europeans among his co-workers could work in a non-Indian setting. People like Jawaharlal Nehru who played mediation roles post-Independence were taken with Indian issues in the late 1930s. 2. There is a need to be able to act when a situation is ripe — months later can be too late, and opportunity rarely knocks twice as Panter-Brick describes well in a chapter named after a poem by Lamartine “O Time, suspend your flight, and you, propitious hours, suspend your course.” 3. All parties must be involved early, their views taken into consideration. The possible Middle East mediation effort neglected two key parties: the Arabs and the British. Gandhi thought that the British had no legitimate claim to be a party to Jewish-Arab negotiations and that they should leave Palestine as they should leave India. However, Britain was legally in Palestine as part of a League of Nations mandate — even if the division of the Ottoman holdings in the Middle East between France and England had been decided by the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916, prior to the creation of the League. The British had no intent of leaving in 1937 and in fact, the Royal, Peel Commission proposed in July 1937 a partition plan dividing Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state with a neutral corridor from the port of Jaffa to Jerusalem. The British proposal, accepted by Zionist authorities and rejected by the Arabs, would have been the start of any real negotiations. After 1937, the Second World War, its aftermath, the Independence of India and the creation of the state of Israel made mediation by Indians an impossibility. (1) Simone Panter-Brick. Gandhi and the Middle East (London: I.B. Tauris, 2008, 193pp)	<urn:uuid:f1e9ea0c-1e2a-4c4e-a4b9-4303f3d9458f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://worldmediation.org/mahatma-gandhi-efforts-of-mediation-in-the-middle-east/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00208.warc.gz	en	0.981034	2,399	3.828125	4	[ -0.18350990116596222, 0.5617009401321411, 0.10108022391796112, -0.02541731297969818, -0.30913496017456055, 0.04012085497379303, 0.08842723071575165, 0.07320230454206467, 0.15235261619091034, 0.06481164693832397, 0.06979591399431229, 0.09602214395999908, 0.2888781428337097, 0.43737572431564...	3	At a time when armed conflicts and strong regional tensions exist in the wider Middle East and when the mediation roe of the United Nations in the armed conflicts of Yemen, Syria and Libya seem at a dead point, on 2 October, the U.N.-designated Day of Nonviolence and the birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi, it is useful to look at the efforts of Gandhi to mediate in the Jewish-Palestinian tensions which had turned violent in 1936 Mahatma Gandhi was a man of dialogue and compromise. A British-trained lawyer, he always knew the limits of the law and knew when not to push too far even in his satyagraha – non-violent campaigns. On Gandhi’s return to India in 1915 from his years as a lawyer and civil rights advocate in South Africa (1906-1914) he tried to improve Hindu-Muslim relations as a necessary first step toward a united policy vis à vis the British. His first effort was to become involved in an effort to preserve the Caliph after the break up of the Ottoman Empire. The new, largely secular, Turkish government was glad to get rid of the institution of the Caliph (spelt Khilafat in India), but the movement for the preservation of the institution had taken hold among Muslims in India who had never been under the functioning of the Caliph. The agitation in India, however, was a time to show Hindu support of the Indian Muslims. As Gandhi wrote “We, both Hindus and Muslims, have now an opportunity of a lifetime. The Khilafat question will not recur for another 100 years.” However, the Khilafat movement embraced a cause which was already lost, but the Khilafat movement reached out for the first time to the Muslim clergy in India — a group of people who had been largely absent from the political scene. The mullahs brought into the movement a large number of people that saw issues in the crudest religious terms. Once in politics, it was impossible to get them out. Thus Gandhi began meetings with Muslim leaders, in particular Mohammed Ali Jinnah, later considered the father of Pakistan. Gandhi believed that the major political movement of India — the Indian National Congress — should be a movement for all Indians, especially Hindus and Muslims. He feared that a separate Muslim organization would increase communal tensions and weaken the Indian position in its struggle with England. Thus he worked to have Muslims in highly visible positions in the Congress leadership and avoided taking positions that would offend Muslims. This policy of sensitivity to Muslim demands did not prevent the creation of the Muslim League under the leadership of Jinnah, but it presented difficulties of trying to be seen as even-handed between Jews and Arabs when a possibility of mediation arose. The Zionist movement which had been working for the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine encouraged the migration of Jews from Europe, especially after the First World War when Palestine, which had been a part of the Ottoman Empire, was placed under a League of Nations mandate with British rule. Immigration was low during the 1920s when most European Jews were re-establishing their lives after the First World War. However with the start of the 1929 Depression, immigration started to increase, some 9,500 people in 1931, to 30,000 in 1933, and 62,000 in 1935. The Jewish Agency with the Jewish National Fund helped the new settlers to start farms and businesses. By 1936, the Palestinian Arabs became aware of the trend. They put aside their clanic disputes and created the Higher Arab Committee which demanded a stop to Jewish immigration, the prohibition of land purchase by Jews and speedy political independence before the Jews had a chance to become a majority. When none of these demands were put into practice, in October of 1936, the Higher Arab Committee called for a strike which turned violent. The loss of life was high for the period: 80 Jews, 140 Arabs, and 33 British. Armed groups were forming, the Irgun among the Jews and different militias among the Arabs. British control was slipping away, and attention in England focused on the economic depression and the growing power of dictators in Germany and Italy. Colonial territories were of ever less interest. Some people thought that perhaps Gandhi who symbolized a spiritual conscience might be able to be a bridge- builder in Palestine. The efforts to get him as a mediator and his inability to create a mediation framework is the theme of this useful book by Simone Panter-Brick who had already written a broad study of Gandhi’s thought Gandhi Against Machiavellism: Non-violence in Politics. (1) The approach to Gandhi was made by the Zionist movement without consultation with the Arabs to see if Gandhi were a valid mediator for them. Probably, the Zionist leaders were looking for a sign of support, a public endorsement of the Jewish case, rather than a mediator or bridge-builder. However, the Zionist leaders, with separate headquarters in London and Palestine, underestimated Gandhi’s need to keep Muslim support for his efforts in India. The Jewish link to Gandhi was through Hermann Kallenbach, a German architect, who had emigrated to South Africa and became a close supporter of Gandhi’s work in South Africa. It was Kallenbach who bought Tolstoy Farm which was Gandhi’s ashram in South Africa. It was also Kallenbach, a man with organizational talent, who played a large role in organizing Gandhi’s satyagraha campaigns, especially the 1913 illegal crossing from Natal to the Transval by over two thousand Indian ‘coolies’ as they were then known in South Africa. Both Gandhi and Kallenbach were sentenced to several months’ imprisonment and jailed. Later during the First World War, as a German alien, Kallenbach was jailed for three years and grew closer to the Zionist movement though he continued living in South Africa and prospered as a leading architect and builder. Kallenbach presented Gandhi with information on the situation in Palestine and on the need for bridge-builders. In 1937, Kallenbach spent a month in the ashram of Gandhi, joined there by Nehru. As Panter-Brick points out “Not only was Gandhi by now fully briefed on the Zionist cause, he also saw himself as a mediator. It was a role he had already assumed in the politics of his own country: he had so informed The Times on the 14th of April 1937: ‘My function is that of a mediator between Congress and the Government.’ He was ready to act likewise in Palestine.” However, Gandhi had no organization to which to turn, and mediation cannot be carried out alone. In 1937, the Indian leadership of Congress was busy preparing to exercise power at the provincial level having won the February 1937 elections for provincial assemblies under the Government of India Act of 1935. The Act was short of total independence desired by Congress, but it gave full responsibility for government at the provincial level to elected provincial assemblies. Thus Gandhi had to turn to his non-Indian supporters. He asked Lanza del Vasto who had been staying at the ashram and who planned to go to Jerusalem on a pilgrimage “You will give me a first hand account of the conflict between Jews and Muslims. That conflict is breaking my heart. You will tell me what you think.” Unfortunately, Lanza del Vasto only arrived in Palestine at the end of 1938, by which time a Gandhian mediation effort was no longer possible. Drawing on a biography of Kallenbach, Panter-Brick writes that Gandhi was to start a mediation process from India with Kallenbach as mediator. Kallenbach was supposed to be assisted by the Anglican priest Charles Freer Andrews whose intended visit to Palestine was financially supported by Kallenbach. Andrews and Kallenbach, who knew each other from having met in South Africa, were thus chosen to act as mediators. Andrews was an ideal choice, neither Muslim nor Jew, extremely well connected and in possession of all the necessary diplomatic skills. The only other person to whom Gandhi could turn for help was Mirabehn — Madeleine Slade — with her devotion to non-violence. Finally, none was able to act. However, in all the planning efforts, there was no input from the Arab side. As Panter-Brick points out “The Jewish Agency would speak for the Jews. The Arab spokesmen had still to be named. The participation of the extremists from the Higher Arab Committee, who had led the 1936 strike and who had the wind in their sails, was being left in abeyance. It was left to non-violence to find a way around all the obstacles, the necessary preliminary to any final settlement.” Gandhi had hoped that he would be able to draw on Muslim India to have influence with the Palestinian Arabs. “Andrews and Gandhi shared the same vision of the settlement talks: the problem was to be solved from India — and could best be solved from India, on account of its pro-Arab stance, its many million Muslims and its impeccable record in the defence of the Caliphate when Palestinian Muslims laid low.” However, by 1937, the rift between Congress and the Muslim League was too great for any common Indian influence on Palestine. It is also not clear to what extent Palestinian Arabs identified themselves with Indian Muslims. While Pan-Arab influences have been strong in the Middle East, there has been much less Pan-Islamic sentiment. There are three lessons for mediators which can be drawn from this effort of Mahatma Gandhi:: 1. There needs to be a team of people ready to undertake an effort. Although Gandhi was an outstanding personality, he always had a wide range of Indian social and political issues on which he was working. He had few back up people for this work. Only the Europeans among his co-workers could work in a non-Indian setting. People like Jawaharlal Nehru who played mediation roles post-Independence were taken with Indian issues in the late 1930s. 2. There is a need to be able to act when a situation is ripe — months later can be too late, and opportunity rarely knocks twice as Panter-Brick describes well in a chapter named after a poem by Lamartine “O Time, suspend your flight, and you, propitious hours, suspend your course.” 3. All parties must be involved early, their views taken into consideration. The possible Middle East mediation effort neglected two key parties: the Arabs and the British. Gandhi thought that the British had no legitimate claim to be a party to Jewish-Arab negotiations and that they should leave Palestine as they should leave India. However, Britain was legally in Palestine as part of a League of Nations mandate — even if the division of the Ottoman holdings in the Middle East between France and England had been decided by the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916, prior to the creation of the League. The British had no intent of leaving in 1937 and in fact, the Royal, Peel Commission proposed in July 1937 a partition plan dividing Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state with a neutral corridor from the port of Jaffa to Jerusalem. The British proposal, accepted by Zionist authorities and rejected by the Arabs, would have been the start of any real negotiations. After 1937, the Second World War, its aftermath, the Independence of India and the creation of the state of Israel made mediation by Indians an impossibility. (1) Simone Panter-Brick. Gandhi and the Middle East (London: I.B. Tauris, 2008, 193pp)	2,446	ENGLISH	1
This building opened in 1930 as a luxury hotel named in honor of Andrew Johnson, the seventeenth president of the United States. At that time, many Tennessee residents saw Johnson as a rags-to-riches type hero. Johnson was a controversial president in his own era and today for many of his actions and policies, including his support of Southern planters in the Reconstruction Era. The Andrew Johnson Hotel hosted many famous visitors over the years, from Elvis Presley to vice presidential candidate Lyndon B. Johnson and his wife. It is most well-known for being the place where twenty-nine-year-old Hank Williams, Sr. spent the last night of his life. The building is currently used as office space for Knox County, though there are plans underway to turn it into an apartment building or boutique hotel. Andrew Johnson was born in Raleigh, North Carolina in 1808. Despite growing up in poverty, Johnson successfully entered U.S. political arena. When Tennessee succeeded from the Union before the Civil War, Johnson, one of the state’s senators, remained in Congress, upsetting many Southerners. President Lincoln then appointed him Military Governor of Tennessee in 1862. Two years later, the Republican party chose Johnson to run for vice president, even though he was a Southerner and a Democrat. After Lincoln’s assassination in 1865, Johnson became president and ushered in the age of Reconstruction. Significantly, Johnson vetoed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which recognized African Americans as citizens and forbade discrimination against them. Still, the act passed after Congress garnered enough votes to override his veto. By that point, both Southerners and Northerners, as well as Republicans and Democrats, saw Johnson as a traitor to their respective causes. After violating the Tenure of Office Act, Andrew Johnson became the first American president to be impeached. For decades, Andrew Johnson’s reputation remained tarnished until some documents were discovered that made Johnson appear resolute and courageous. He was then thought of as a typical American hero, rising up from his position as a poor, small-town tailor and becoming president. Meanwhile, in Knoxville in the 1920s, plans were being laid for a new hotel to accommodate the droves of tourists already arriving in town to visit the then-unfinished Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The hotel was designed by Baumann & Baumann and would become the tallest building in East Tennessee for almost fifty years. Originally, the project was called the “Tennessee Terrace,” but with this newfound pride in the president from Tennessee, it was renamed the Andrew Johnson Hotel. Over the years, a long list of celebrities stayed in the Andrew Johnson Hotel. Amelia Earhart gave an interview in her room in 1936 (just one year before her disappearance) in which she revealed that she did not expect to live to an old age. In 1943, Russian composer and pianist Sergei Rachmaninoff rested at the hotel the night of his final performance. That same night, the hotel held a ball to celebrate the premiere of the film Tennessee Johnson, a heroic version of Andrew Johnson’s life. Most famously, singer-songwriter Hank Williams spent the last night of his life in the hotel in 1952, though accounts differ as to whether Williams died in his room or in his car. Other guests included Tennessee Williams, King Hussein of Jordan, actor Anthony Perkins, and Duke Ellington. The hotel was acquired by tobacco heir R. J. Reynolds Jr. in the 1940s and the property stayed in the family until 1973. The hotel declined during the 1970s as fewer people chose to stay in the more expensive historic hotels of America's cities and the building changed hands several times before being renovated and used as office space starting in the 1980s. In 1980, the Andrew Johnson Hotel was added to the National Register of Historic Places. Twelve years later, it became home to the offices of the local school system and several county offices. In 2015, the school leaders indicated a desire to move from this building and the city began the process of soliciting bids for the property. Proposals for the historic building include conversion to an apartment building with commercial space on the first floor along with proposals to return it to use as a hotel.	<urn:uuid:212e8268-4683-4539-b209-2a2e48c064d1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/74280	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00493.warc.gz	en	0.980712	870	3.3125	3	[ 0.00041886698454618454, 0.4011886715888977, 0.28256624937057495, 0.2113749384880066, -0.2409316450357437, 0.33805397152900696, 0.2649933099746704, 0.1865229308605194, -0.18809270858764648, 0.18282869458198547, 0.44446778297424316, 0.4743124544620514, 0.36702457070350647, 0.5007592439651489...	1	This building opened in 1930 as a luxury hotel named in honor of Andrew Johnson, the seventeenth president of the United States. At that time, many Tennessee residents saw Johnson as a rags-to-riches type hero. Johnson was a controversial president in his own era and today for many of his actions and policies, including his support of Southern planters in the Reconstruction Era. The Andrew Johnson Hotel hosted many famous visitors over the years, from Elvis Presley to vice presidential candidate Lyndon B. Johnson and his wife. It is most well-known for being the place where twenty-nine-year-old Hank Williams, Sr. spent the last night of his life. The building is currently used as office space for Knox County, though there are plans underway to turn it into an apartment building or boutique hotel. Andrew Johnson was born in Raleigh, North Carolina in 1808. Despite growing up in poverty, Johnson successfully entered U.S. political arena. When Tennessee succeeded from the Union before the Civil War, Johnson, one of the state’s senators, remained in Congress, upsetting many Southerners. President Lincoln then appointed him Military Governor of Tennessee in 1862. Two years later, the Republican party chose Johnson to run for vice president, even though he was a Southerner and a Democrat. After Lincoln’s assassination in 1865, Johnson became president and ushered in the age of Reconstruction. Significantly, Johnson vetoed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which recognized African Americans as citizens and forbade discrimination against them. Still, the act passed after Congress garnered enough votes to override his veto. By that point, both Southerners and Northerners, as well as Republicans and Democrats, saw Johnson as a traitor to their respective causes. After violating the Tenure of Office Act, Andrew Johnson became the first American president to be impeached. For decades, Andrew Johnson’s reputation remained tarnished until some documents were discovered that made Johnson appear resolute and courageous. He was then thought of as a typical American hero, rising up from his position as a poor, small-town tailor and becoming president. Meanwhile, in Knoxville in the 1920s, plans were being laid for a new hotel to accommodate the droves of tourists already arriving in town to visit the then-unfinished Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The hotel was designed by Baumann & Baumann and would become the tallest building in East Tennessee for almost fifty years. Originally, the project was called the “Tennessee Terrace,” but with this newfound pride in the president from Tennessee, it was renamed the Andrew Johnson Hotel. Over the years, a long list of celebrities stayed in the Andrew Johnson Hotel. Amelia Earhart gave an interview in her room in 1936 (just one year before her disappearance) in which she revealed that she did not expect to live to an old age. In 1943, Russian composer and pianist Sergei Rachmaninoff rested at the hotel the night of his final performance. That same night, the hotel held a ball to celebrate the premiere of the film Tennessee Johnson, a heroic version of Andrew Johnson’s life. Most famously, singer-songwriter Hank Williams spent the last night of his life in the hotel in 1952, though accounts differ as to whether Williams died in his room or in his car. Other guests included Tennessee Williams, King Hussein of Jordan, actor Anthony Perkins, and Duke Ellington. The hotel was acquired by tobacco heir R. J. Reynolds Jr. in the 1940s and the property stayed in the family until 1973. The hotel declined during the 1970s as fewer people chose to stay in the more expensive historic hotels of America's cities and the building changed hands several times before being renovated and used as office space starting in the 1980s. In 1980, the Andrew Johnson Hotel was added to the National Register of Historic Places. Twelve years later, it became home to the offices of the local school system and several county offices. In 2015, the school leaders indicated a desire to move from this building and the city began the process of soliciting bids for the property. Proposals for the historic building include conversion to an apartment building with commercial space on the first floor along with proposals to return it to use as a hotel.	902	ENGLISH	1
Her tenure might have started when her husband died, but she went on to win re-election five times, and to serve in Congress from 1925 to 1937. Meet Florence Prag Kahn: Republican from California, and the first Jewish woman to serve in United States Congress. Born in Salt Lake City in 1866, Florence Prag went on to study at UCal Berkeley and to a career as a high school English and history teacher in San Francisco. After she married, she served as her husband’s secretary during his three Congressional terms, and was his close adviser and confidante. So it came as no surprise that when she won the special election to office after his death, she was ready for the job. Florence Prag Kahn’s position on women was complex. On one hand, she defended women’s right to hold political office—quoted as saying, “There is no sex in citizenship, and there should be none in politics.” On the other hand, she stood against women’s suffrage in her early years and never considered herself a feminist. That’s probably not the only thing that differentiates her from Bella Abzug, often cited as the first Jewish woman in Congress, but who, obviously, wasn’t. Watch a short film about Bella Abzug, the second Jewish woman in Congress:	<urn:uuid:1b6b7051-f2ca-4274-9679-1b7a86974148>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.jta.org/jewniverse/2014/the-first-jewish-woman-in-congress	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00201.warc.gz	en	0.986261	283	3.328125	3	[ -0.3734370172023773, 0.5672256350517273, -0.06270620971918106, 0.12907636165618896, -0.676159143447876, 0.4613795578479767, 0.46083885431289673, 0.12017872929573059, 0.18636052310466766, -0.15897835791110992, 0.15279163420200348, 0.16925778985023499, 0.035032954066991806, 0.109817728400230...	5	Her tenure might have started when her husband died, but she went on to win re-election five times, and to serve in Congress from 1925 to 1937. Meet Florence Prag Kahn: Republican from California, and the first Jewish woman to serve in United States Congress. Born in Salt Lake City in 1866, Florence Prag went on to study at UCal Berkeley and to a career as a high school English and history teacher in San Francisco. After she married, she served as her husband’s secretary during his three Congressional terms, and was his close adviser and confidante. So it came as no surprise that when she won the special election to office after his death, she was ready for the job. Florence Prag Kahn’s position on women was complex. On one hand, she defended women’s right to hold political office—quoted as saying, “There is no sex in citizenship, and there should be none in politics.” On the other hand, she stood against women’s suffrage in her early years and never considered herself a feminist. That’s probably not the only thing that differentiates her from Bella Abzug, often cited as the first Jewish woman in Congress, but who, obviously, wasn’t. Watch a short film about Bella Abzug, the second Jewish woman in Congress:	272	ENGLISH	1
Edward I.—The Hammer of the Scots W HEN Edward had joined Wales to England, he longed more than ever to gain possession of Scotland. It seemed, too, as if he might succeed in doing this, for the King of Scotland died, and the heir to the throne was a little princess called the Maid of Norway. Edward I. arranged with the people of Scotland that this princess should marry his son Edward, Prince of Wales, and in that way England and Scotland would be peaceably joined together. But unfortunately, on her way from Norway to claim the crown of Scotland, the princess died. So Edward's hopes of joining the two countries together in that way were at an end. After the death of the Maid of Norway, twelve Scottish nobles claimed the crown, and, as they could not agree as to who had really the best right to it, they asked Edward, who was known to be a wise and just man, to settle the question. Edward said that a man called John Balliol had the best right to the crown of Scotland, and John was accordingly crowned at Scone, the town where all the kings of Scotland were crowned. But before Edward said that John was the real heir, he made him promise to own the King of England as over-lord. Edward had no right to demand this homage, and John Balliol had no right to give it. But John did give it. Perhaps he thought, if he did not, Edward would choose some one else. The Scots had always been a warlike people, and, ever since the days of the Romans, they had fought with the people in the south part of the island, and had tried to take away part of their land. At last it had been agreed between the kings of England and Scotland that the Scots should be allowed to keep part of the north of England, on condition that they did homage for that part, just as the Norman kings of England did homage to the King of France for Normandy and their other French possessions. But the King of England had no more right over Scotland than the King of France had over England. The people of Scotland were very far from agreeing to John Balliol's bargain with Edward, and in less than a year quarrels began, and war followed. Edward marched into Scotland with a great army, and although the Scots were in the right and fighting for their freedom, Edward was the stronger, and the Scots were defeated. Edward, thinking he had conquered the Scots, went back to England, taking with him the crown and sceptre of Scotland, and also the "Stone of Destiny" on which the Scottish kings sat when they were crowned. This stone was supposed to be the very stone which Jacob used as a pillow when he slept in the wilderness and saw the vision of the ladder up to heaven, with the angels going up and down upon it. The Scots prized this stone very highly, and it had been prophesied that wherever it was, there the kings of Scotland would be crowned. Edward took the Stone of Destiny to Westminster, and there it remains to this day, and it is always used when the kings of Britain are crowned. Besides taking these treasures away, Edward caused many of the old Scottish records to be destroyed, hoping in that way to make the people forget their freedom. But all this only made the Scots more determined not to submit to the King of England. Their weak king, John Balliol, had been driven from the throne, but other brave leaders arose, and wars between England and Scotland continued until Edward died in 1307 A.D. Edward died while on his way to fight once more against Scotland. He was within sight of its blue mountains, and he died knowing that its people were still free, and that his dearest wish was not fulfilled. The disappointed king begged his son to go on with the war, to carry his bones with the army, and bury his heart in Scotland. But Edward II. did not do as his father wished. He turned back to London, and Edward I. lies buried in Westminster, where you may still see his grave with these lines upon it in Latin: "Here lies Edward I., the Hammer of the Scots, 1308. Keep troth." Edward I. has many names: Edward of Westminster, because he was born there; Edward Longshanks, because he was very tall and his legs were long and thin; Edward, the Hammer of the Scots, because of the many battles he fought with them; but the name by which it is best to remember him is Edward, the Lawgiver. He earned this name by the many wise laws which he made. Although his people were not always pleased with these laws at first, they generally came to see that they were just and good. Edward was a great soldier and a valiant knight, but it was because he loved England and made good laws, because he was a true man and kept his word, that his people loved him, and mourned for him when he died.	<urn:uuid:aae240e5-3f30-464c-9da8-a587654dd3ce>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=hammer	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00120.warc.gz	en	0.993707	1,027	3.484375	3	[ -0.7300992012023926, 0.10571597516536713, 0.128196120262146, -0.18067878484725952, 0.023534640669822693, -0.2991250157356262, 0.4075756072998047, -0.29479965567588806, 0.09381867945194244, 0.1864408552646637, -0.11306345462799072, -0.31987249851226807, 0.3604022264480591, 0.005018305964767...	1	Edward I.—The Hammer of the Scots W HEN Edward had joined Wales to England, he longed more than ever to gain possession of Scotland. It seemed, too, as if he might succeed in doing this, for the King of Scotland died, and the heir to the throne was a little princess called the Maid of Norway. Edward I. arranged with the people of Scotland that this princess should marry his son Edward, Prince of Wales, and in that way England and Scotland would be peaceably joined together. But unfortunately, on her way from Norway to claim the crown of Scotland, the princess died. So Edward's hopes of joining the two countries together in that way were at an end. After the death of the Maid of Norway, twelve Scottish nobles claimed the crown, and, as they could not agree as to who had really the best right to it, they asked Edward, who was known to be a wise and just man, to settle the question. Edward said that a man called John Balliol had the best right to the crown of Scotland, and John was accordingly crowned at Scone, the town where all the kings of Scotland were crowned. But before Edward said that John was the real heir, he made him promise to own the King of England as over-lord. Edward had no right to demand this homage, and John Balliol had no right to give it. But John did give it. Perhaps he thought, if he did not, Edward would choose some one else. The Scots had always been a warlike people, and, ever since the days of the Romans, they had fought with the people in the south part of the island, and had tried to take away part of their land. At last it had been agreed between the kings of England and Scotland that the Scots should be allowed to keep part of the north of England, on condition that they did homage for that part, just as the Norman kings of England did homage to the King of France for Normandy and their other French possessions. But the King of England had no more right over Scotland than the King of France had over England. The people of Scotland were very far from agreeing to John Balliol's bargain with Edward, and in less than a year quarrels began, and war followed. Edward marched into Scotland with a great army, and although the Scots were in the right and fighting for their freedom, Edward was the stronger, and the Scots were defeated. Edward, thinking he had conquered the Scots, went back to England, taking with him the crown and sceptre of Scotland, and also the "Stone of Destiny" on which the Scottish kings sat when they were crowned. This stone was supposed to be the very stone which Jacob used as a pillow when he slept in the wilderness and saw the vision of the ladder up to heaven, with the angels going up and down upon it. The Scots prized this stone very highly, and it had been prophesied that wherever it was, there the kings of Scotland would be crowned. Edward took the Stone of Destiny to Westminster, and there it remains to this day, and it is always used when the kings of Britain are crowned. Besides taking these treasures away, Edward caused many of the old Scottish records to be destroyed, hoping in that way to make the people forget their freedom. But all this only made the Scots more determined not to submit to the King of England. Their weak king, John Balliol, had been driven from the throne, but other brave leaders arose, and wars between England and Scotland continued until Edward died in 1307 A.D. Edward died while on his way to fight once more against Scotland. He was within sight of its blue mountains, and he died knowing that its people were still free, and that his dearest wish was not fulfilled. The disappointed king begged his son to go on with the war, to carry his bones with the army, and bury his heart in Scotland. But Edward II. did not do as his father wished. He turned back to London, and Edward I. lies buried in Westminster, where you may still see his grave with these lines upon it in Latin: "Here lies Edward I., the Hammer of the Scots, 1308. Keep troth." Edward I. has many names: Edward of Westminster, because he was born there; Edward Longshanks, because he was very tall and his legs were long and thin; Edward, the Hammer of the Scots, because of the many battles he fought with them; but the name by which it is best to remember him is Edward, the Lawgiver. He earned this name by the many wise laws which he made. Although his people were not always pleased with these laws at first, they generally came to see that they were just and good. Edward was a great soldier and a valiant knight, but it was because he loved England and made good laws, because he was a true man and kept his word, that his people loved him, and mourned for him when he died.	1,022	ENGLISH	1
How Aretas And Hyrcanus Made An Expedition Against Aristobulus And Besieged Jerusalem; And How Scaurus The Roman General Raised The Siege. Concerning The Death Of Onias. 1. After these promises had been given to Aretas, he made an expedition against Aristobulus with an army of fifty thousand horse and foot, and beat him in the battle. And when after that victory many went over to Hyrcanus as deserters, Aristobulus was left desolate, and fled to Jerusalem; upon which the king of Arabia took all his army, and made an assault upon the temple, and besieged Aristobulus therein, the people still supporting Hyreanus, and assisting him in the siege, while none but the priests continued with Aristobulus. So Aretas united the forces of the Arabians and of the Jews together, and pressed on the siege vigorously. As this happened at the time when the feast of unleavened bread was celebrated, which we call the passover, the principal men among the Jews left the country, and fled into Egypt. Now there was one, whose name was Onias, a righteous man he was, and beloved of God, who, in a certain drought, had prayed to God to put an end to the intense heat, and whose prayers God had heard, and had sent them rain. This man had hid himself, because he saw that this sedition would last a great while. However, they brought him to the Jewish camp, and desired, that as by his prayers he had once put an end to the drought, so he would in like manner make imprecations on Aristobulus and those of his faction. And when, upon his refusal, and the excuses that he made, he was still by the multitude compelled to speak, he stood up in the midst of them, and said, "O God, the King of the whole world! since those that stand now with me are thy people, and those that are besieged are also thy priests, I beseech thee, that thou wilt neither hearken to the prayers of those against these, nor bring to effect what these pray against those." Whereupon such wicked Jews as stood about him, as soon as he had made this prayer, stoned him to death. 2. But God punished them immediately for this their barbarity, and took vengeance of them for the murder of Onias, in the manner following: While the priests and Aristobulus were besieged, it happened that the feast called the passover was come, at which it is our custom to offer a great number of sacrifices to God; but those that were with Aristobulus wanted sacrifices, and desired that their countrymen without would furnish them with such sacrifices, and assured them they should have as much money for them as they should desire; and when they required them to pay a thousand drachmae for each head of cattle, Aristobulus and the priests willingly undertook to pay for them accordingly, and those within let down the money over the walls, and gave it them. But when the others had received it, they did not deliver the sacrifices, but arrived at that height of wickedness as to break the assurances they had given, and to be guilty of impiety towards God, by not furnishing those that wanted them with sacrifices. And when the priests found they had been cheated, and that the agreements they had made were violated, they prayed to God that he would avenge them on their countrymen. Nor did he delay that their punishment, but sent a strong and vehement storm of wind, that destroyed the fruits of the whole country, till a modius of wheat was then bought for eleven drachmae. 3. In the mean time Pompey sent Scaurus into Syria, while he was himself in Armenia, and making war with Tigranes; but when Scaurus was come to Damascus, and found that Lollins and Metellus had newly taken the city, he came himself hastily into Judea. And when he was come thither, ambassadors came to him, both from Aristobulus and Hyrcanus, and both desired he would assist them. And when both of them promised to give him money, Aristobulus four hundred talents, and Hyrcanus no less, he accepted of Aristobulus's promise, for he was rich, and had a great soul, and desired to obtain nothing but what was moderate; whereas the other was poor, and tenacious, and made incredible promises in hopes of greater advantages; for it was not the same thing to take a city that was exceeding strong and powerful, as it was to eject out of the country some fugitives, with a greater number of Mabateans, who were no very warlike people. He therefore made an agreement with Aristobulus, for the reasons before mentioned, and took his money, and raised the siege, and ordered Aretas to depart, or else he should be declared an enemy to the Romans. So Scaurus returned to Damascus again; and Aristobulus, with a great army, made war with Aretas and Hyrcanus, and fought them at a place called Papyron, and beat them in the battle, and slew about six thousand of the enemy, with whom fell Phalion also, the brother of Antipater.	<urn:uuid:fe75c6b2-18f0-44b4-abf0-ec44aac7f5fa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sefaria.org/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews.14.2?lang=he	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00303.warc.gz	en	0.988792	1,099	3.28125	3	[ -0.28291580080986023, 0.7554324865341187, 0.1413344442844391, -0.08130164444446564, -0.1891857385635376, -0.05367206037044525, 0.1745271384716034, 0.15362384915351868, -0.18906858563423157, -0.30387192964553833, -0.3616291880607605, -0.3801933526992798, 0.18085545301437378, -0.058231376111...	4	How Aretas And Hyrcanus Made An Expedition Against Aristobulus And Besieged Jerusalem; And How Scaurus The Roman General Raised The Siege. Concerning The Death Of Onias. 1. After these promises had been given to Aretas, he made an expedition against Aristobulus with an army of fifty thousand horse and foot, and beat him in the battle. And when after that victory many went over to Hyrcanus as deserters, Aristobulus was left desolate, and fled to Jerusalem; upon which the king of Arabia took all his army, and made an assault upon the temple, and besieged Aristobulus therein, the people still supporting Hyreanus, and assisting him in the siege, while none but the priests continued with Aristobulus. So Aretas united the forces of the Arabians and of the Jews together, and pressed on the siege vigorously. As this happened at the time when the feast of unleavened bread was celebrated, which we call the passover, the principal men among the Jews left the country, and fled into Egypt. Now there was one, whose name was Onias, a righteous man he was, and beloved of God, who, in a certain drought, had prayed to God to put an end to the intense heat, and whose prayers God had heard, and had sent them rain. This man had hid himself, because he saw that this sedition would last a great while. However, they brought him to the Jewish camp, and desired, that as by his prayers he had once put an end to the drought, so he would in like manner make imprecations on Aristobulus and those of his faction. And when, upon his refusal, and the excuses that he made, he was still by the multitude compelled to speak, he stood up in the midst of them, and said, "O God, the King of the whole world! since those that stand now with me are thy people, and those that are besieged are also thy priests, I beseech thee, that thou wilt neither hearken to the prayers of those against these, nor bring to effect what these pray against those." Whereupon such wicked Jews as stood about him, as soon as he had made this prayer, stoned him to death. 2. But God punished them immediately for this their barbarity, and took vengeance of them for the murder of Onias, in the manner following: While the priests and Aristobulus were besieged, it happened that the feast called the passover was come, at which it is our custom to offer a great number of sacrifices to God; but those that were with Aristobulus wanted sacrifices, and desired that their countrymen without would furnish them with such sacrifices, and assured them they should have as much money for them as they should desire; and when they required them to pay a thousand drachmae for each head of cattle, Aristobulus and the priests willingly undertook to pay for them accordingly, and those within let down the money over the walls, and gave it them. But when the others had received it, they did not deliver the sacrifices, but arrived at that height of wickedness as to break the assurances they had given, and to be guilty of impiety towards God, by not furnishing those that wanted them with sacrifices. And when the priests found they had been cheated, and that the agreements they had made were violated, they prayed to God that he would avenge them on their countrymen. Nor did he delay that their punishment, but sent a strong and vehement storm of wind, that destroyed the fruits of the whole country, till a modius of wheat was then bought for eleven drachmae. 3. In the mean time Pompey sent Scaurus into Syria, while he was himself in Armenia, and making war with Tigranes; but when Scaurus was come to Damascus, and found that Lollins and Metellus had newly taken the city, he came himself hastily into Judea. And when he was come thither, ambassadors came to him, both from Aristobulus and Hyrcanus, and both desired he would assist them. And when both of them promised to give him money, Aristobulus four hundred talents, and Hyrcanus no less, he accepted of Aristobulus's promise, for he was rich, and had a great soul, and desired to obtain nothing but what was moderate; whereas the other was poor, and tenacious, and made incredible promises in hopes of greater advantages; for it was not the same thing to take a city that was exceeding strong and powerful, as it was to eject out of the country some fugitives, with a greater number of Mabateans, who were no very warlike people. He therefore made an agreement with Aristobulus, for the reasons before mentioned, and took his money, and raised the siege, and ordered Aretas to depart, or else he should be declared an enemy to the Romans. So Scaurus returned to Damascus again; and Aristobulus, with a great army, made war with Aretas and Hyrcanus, and fought them at a place called Papyron, and beat them in the battle, and slew about six thousand of the enemy, with whom fell Phalion also, the brother of Antipater.	1,099	ENGLISH	1
For many millennia, the Great Plains of North America was inhabited by nomadic Native Americans. From the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of large parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, per the Treaty of Fontainebleau. In 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France. In 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In 1806, Zebulon Pike led the Pike expedition westward from St Louis, Missouri, of which part of their journey followed the Cottonwood River through Marion County near the current cities of Florence, Marion, Durham. From the 1820s to the 1870s, one of the most significant land routes in the United States was the Santa Fe Trail. It was located about 1 mile northwest of Durham. The trail was active across Marion County from 1821 to 1866. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U.S. state. In 1855, Marion County was established within the Kansas Territory, which included the land for modern day Durham. In 1887, the Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway built a main line from Herington through Durham to Pratt. In 1888, this line was extended to Liberal. Later, it was extended to Tucumcari, New Mexico and El Paso, Texas. It foreclosed in 1891 and taken over by Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway, which shut down in 1980 and reorganized as Oklahoma, Kansas and Texas Railroad, merged in 1988 with Missouri Pacific Railroad, and finally merged in 1997 with Union Pacific Railroad. Most locals still refer to this railroad as the "Rock Island". A post office was established in Durham Park on June 22, 1874 (near current Cottonwood Grove Christian School northwest of Durham), then it was moved to the community of Durham on September 19, 1887 around the time the new railroad was built through the area. In 1906, Durham incorporated as a city. In 1962, James C. Donahue established the Donahue Corporation, maker of farm implement carriers, and has grown to a 40,000 sq ft (3,700 m2) facility. They have built and distributed over 50,000 implement carriers. It currently is located approximately 0.5 mile northeast of Durham on 290th St. Durham is located at 38°29′04″N 97°13′38″W (38.484392, -97.227337). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.20 square miles (0.52 km2), all of it land. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Durham has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps. Durham has one listing on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP).Santa Fe Trail: Santa Fe Trail - Marion County Segments (NRHP), 2.5 miles (4.0 km) south-west of Durham. From corner of 270th St and Falcon Rd, parallels on west side of railroad tracks towards southwest. The ruts are approximate 3 miles (4.8 km) long, and described by the National Park Service as "outstanding". Not open to public. Santa Fe Trail Cottonwood Crossing Kiosk, 1 west at 290th St. Santa Fe Trail Cottonwood Crossing Marker, north-west of Durham. Santa Fe Trail Markers, numerous markers in the area. Santa Fe Trail Self-Guided Auto Tour. Marion Reservoir, south-east of Durham. As of the census of 2010, there were 112 people, 48 households, and 34 families residing in the city. The population density was 560.0 inhabitants per square mile (216.2/km2). There were 65 housing units at an average density of 325.0 per square mile (125.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 99.1% White and 0.9% from other races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.5% of the population. There were 48 households of which 25.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 66.7% were married couples living together, 4.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.2% were non-families. 25.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.79. The median age in the city was 47 years. 20.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.4% were from 25 to 44; 27.7% were from 45 to 64; and 24.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51.8% male and 48.2% female. As of the census of 2000, there were 114 people, 51 households, and 29 families residing in the city. The population density was 541.7 people per square mile (209.6/km2). There were 64 housing units at an average density of 304.1 per square mile (117.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 98.25% White and 1.75% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.88% of the population. There were 51 households out of which 27.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.1% were married couples living together, 9.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.2% were non-families. 37.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 25.5% had someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.87. In the city, the population was spread out with 23.7% under the age of 18, 6.1% from 18 to 24, 19.3% from 25 to 44, 29.8% from 45 to 64, and 21.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46 years. For every 100 females there were 100.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 77.6 males. As of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $26,875, and the median income for a family was $47,917. Males had a median income of $28,000 versus $25,625 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,402. No families and 3.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including none under the age of 18 and over age 65. Durham is home of Donahue Corporation. The Durham government consists of a mayor and five council members. The council meets the 1st Tuesday after the 1st Monday of each month at 7PM.Fire Department, Douglas Ave. Durham Community Center, Douglas Ave. U.S. Post Office, 508 S Douglas Ave. Durham is part of USD 410. The high school is a member of T.E.E.N., a shared video teaching network between five area high schools. All students attend schools in Hillsboro.Hillsboro High School, located in Hillsboro. Hillsboro Middle School, located in Hillsboro. Hillsboro Elementary School, located in Hillsboro. Durham schools were closed through school unification. The Durham Hornets won the Kansas State High School boys class BB basketball championship in 1963.Cottonwood Grove Christian School, Private Grade School, 2925 Goldenrod Rd, approximately 1 mile northwest of Durham. Hillsboro Star-Journal, local newspaper from Hillsboro. Hillsboro Free Press, county newspaper for Marion County. The Newton Kansan, regional newspaper from Newton. The Salina Journal, regional newspaper from Salina. K-15 highway runs along the east side of the city. Durham is served by the Union Pacific Railroad, formerly the Southern Pacific, and prior, the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad. Durham is located on UP's Golden State main line to El Paso, Texas. A Union Pacific Local still serves the Durham Elevator during the Kansas summer harvests. The line was originally built by the Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railroad.Internet Wireless is provided by Pixius Communications. Satellite is provided by HughesNet, StarBand, WildBlue. Satellite is provided by DirecTV, Dish Network. Terrestrial is provided by regional digital TV stations. Rural is provided by Flint Hills RECA. City is provided by City of Durham. Rural is provided by Marion County RWD #1 and #4.	<urn:uuid:6bcd2fe4-cb56-49e3-b992-1c14f333090f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alchetron.com/Durham%2C-Kansas	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00401.warc.gz	en	0.982313	1,933	3.421875	3	[ 0.011383957229554653, 0.11347973346710205, 0.4234389066696167, -0.07419045269489288, -0.25188302993774414, -0.3313573896884918, -0.3959053158760071, 0.20770910382270813, -0.3300169110298157, 0.13160915672779083, 0.2586665749549866, -0.3940533399581909, 0.02320169284939766, -0.0312464404851...	1	For many millennia, the Great Plains of North America was inhabited by nomadic Native Americans. From the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of large parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, per the Treaty of Fontainebleau. In 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France. In 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In 1806, Zebulon Pike led the Pike expedition westward from St Louis, Missouri, of which part of their journey followed the Cottonwood River through Marion County near the current cities of Florence, Marion, Durham. From the 1820s to the 1870s, one of the most significant land routes in the United States was the Santa Fe Trail. It was located about 1 mile northwest of Durham. The trail was active across Marion County from 1821 to 1866. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U.S. state. In 1855, Marion County was established within the Kansas Territory, which included the land for modern day Durham. In 1887, the Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway built a main line from Herington through Durham to Pratt. In 1888, this line was extended to Liberal. Later, it was extended to Tucumcari, New Mexico and El Paso, Texas. It foreclosed in 1891 and taken over by Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway, which shut down in 1980 and reorganized as Oklahoma, Kansas and Texas Railroad, merged in 1988 with Missouri Pacific Railroad, and finally merged in 1997 with Union Pacific Railroad. Most locals still refer to this railroad as the "Rock Island". A post office was established in Durham Park on June 22, 1874 (near current Cottonwood Grove Christian School northwest of Durham), then it was moved to the community of Durham on September 19, 1887 around the time the new railroad was built through the area. In 1906, Durham incorporated as a city. In 1962, James C. Donahue established the Donahue Corporation, maker of farm implement carriers, and has grown to a 40,000 sq ft (3,700 m2) facility. They have built and distributed over 50,000 implement carriers. It currently is located approximately 0.5 mile northeast of Durham on 290th St. Durham is located at 38°29′04″N 97°13′38″W (38.484392, -97.227337). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.20 square miles (0.52 km2), all of it land. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Durham has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps. Durham has one listing on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP).Santa Fe Trail: Santa Fe Trail - Marion County Segments (NRHP), 2.5 miles (4.0 km) south-west of Durham. From corner of 270th St and Falcon Rd, parallels on west side of railroad tracks towards southwest. The ruts are approximate 3 miles (4.8 km) long, and described by the National Park Service as "outstanding". Not open to public. Santa Fe Trail Cottonwood Crossing Kiosk, 1 west at 290th St. Santa Fe Trail Cottonwood Crossing Marker, north-west of Durham. Santa Fe Trail Markers, numerous markers in the area. Santa Fe Trail Self-Guided Auto Tour. Marion Reservoir, south-east of Durham. As of the census of 2010, there were 112 people, 48 households, and 34 families residing in the city. The population density was 560.0 inhabitants per square mile (216.2/km2). There were 65 housing units at an average density of 325.0 per square mile (125.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 99.1% White and 0.9% from other races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.5% of the population. There were 48 households of which 25.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 66.7% were married couples living together, 4.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.2% were non-families. 25.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.79. The median age in the city was 47 years. 20.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.4% were from 25 to 44; 27.7% were from 45 to 64; and 24.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51.8% male and 48.2% female. As of the census of 2000, there were 114 people, 51 households, and 29 families residing in the city. The population density was 541.7 people per square mile (209.6/km2). There were 64 housing units at an average density of 304.1 per square mile (117.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 98.25% White and 1.75% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.88% of the population. There were 51 households out of which 27.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.1% were married couples living together, 9.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.2% were non-families. 37.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 25.5% had someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.87. In the city, the population was spread out with 23.7% under the age of 18, 6.1% from 18 to 24, 19.3% from 25 to 44, 29.8% from 45 to 64, and 21.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46 years. For every 100 females there were 100.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 77.6 males. As of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $26,875, and the median income for a family was $47,917. Males had a median income of $28,000 versus $25,625 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,402. No families and 3.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including none under the age of 18 and over age 65. Durham is home of Donahue Corporation. The Durham government consists of a mayor and five council members. The council meets the 1st Tuesday after the 1st Monday of each month at 7PM.Fire Department, Douglas Ave. Durham Community Center, Douglas Ave. U.S. Post Office, 508 S Douglas Ave. Durham is part of USD 410. The high school is a member of T.E.E.N., a shared video teaching network between five area high schools. All students attend schools in Hillsboro.Hillsboro High School, located in Hillsboro. Hillsboro Middle School, located in Hillsboro. Hillsboro Elementary School, located in Hillsboro. Durham schools were closed through school unification. The Durham Hornets won the Kansas State High School boys class BB basketball championship in 1963.Cottonwood Grove Christian School, Private Grade School, 2925 Goldenrod Rd, approximately 1 mile northwest of Durham. Hillsboro Star-Journal, local newspaper from Hillsboro. Hillsboro Free Press, county newspaper for Marion County. The Newton Kansan, regional newspaper from Newton. The Salina Journal, regional newspaper from Salina. K-15 highway runs along the east side of the city. Durham is served by the Union Pacific Railroad, formerly the Southern Pacific, and prior, the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad. Durham is located on UP's Golden State main line to El Paso, Texas. A Union Pacific Local still serves the Durham Elevator during the Kansas summer harvests. The line was originally built by the Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railroad.Internet Wireless is provided by Pixius Communications. Satellite is provided by HughesNet, StarBand, WildBlue. Satellite is provided by DirecTV, Dish Network. Terrestrial is provided by regional digital TV stations. Rural is provided by Flint Hills RECA. City is provided by City of Durham. Rural is provided by Marion County RWD #1 and #4.	2,215	ENGLISH	1
Piaget’s different stages of cognitive development will be extremely useful in my teaching career. It is important that I do not demand too much from my students while still challenging them in a healthy way. There are limits to what children at younger ages can do and understanding these limits can help eliminate a lot of frustration. I do not want my students to feel inferior or stupid because they cannot do something I am asking of them. To ensure that this does not happen, I must always have age appropriate lessons and activities that will teach them new things while reviewing things that they already know. These stages serve as guidelines for what to expect from children in these age groups and they will be referred to frequently in my classroom. Vygotsky’s discussion of private and inner speech is interesting to me because as a child, I was extremely shy and would not talk to any one except for my family and one friend at school. For the first few years of my life, my teachers did not even know that I could talk, which confused my parents because they heard me talk all the time at home. I used private speech at home by narrating what I was doing or simply talking to myself like a normal child. However, when I was at school or somewhere in public I did not use this private speech except to communicate with my one friend who had to relay what I would say to my teachers or peers. I want to ensure that my students feel comfortable exercising their private speech in my classroom. It would have been so much easier for everyone in my classroom if I had vocally communicated my wants and needs. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development is important for me to understand because I must give my students independence and the ability to find answers using what they already know, but I must also be there to teach my students new things and help them build upon what they know. I want to challenge my students and make them think in order to solve problems. I also want to be there for my students and offer my help when it is genuinely needed. Finding the balance between these two things is, in my opinion, one of the key factors of being an educator. David Elkind’s theory of adolescent egocentrism is relevant to me because I, like most adolescents, felt all three of these things at one point in time. When you are an adolescent you are going through many changes both physically and cognitively and this can cause self esteem issues, which are heightened by the imaginary audience. Confidence issues often result from the belief that everyone around you is analyzing you and making judgments about you. I often felt as though everyone was looking at me and developing their own opinions about every decision I made. I also had days where I felt as though no one understood me, which is also known as the personal fable. I believe that this is common for adolescents because they are filled with so many hormones, which can cause them to feel extremely emotional and sometimes even alone. I remember always getting upset with my parents for every little thing that they said and going to my room crying because I felt as though no one in my family understood me and I just wanted to get away. In reality, I was just in a very emotional state and did not like the advice my parents were giving me even though it what was best for me. The mythological fable occurred for me later in adolescence when many of my friends were beginning to skip class to go get food or hang out at the mall. Many people would get caught and suspended for doing these things but my friends and I always thought that it would not happen to us. However, during my senior year three of my friends did get suspended for skipping class and this allowed me to realize that I could get in trouble for this too if I did not stop. I believe that Bloom’s taxonomy will prove to be a very useful reference tool in my lesson plans. I want to ensure that each student reaches each stage before they move onto the next one. I think that each concept discussed in this theory is an important part of learning. I want my students to be able to remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create in every area that I teach them about. This will encourage students to use different parts of their brain to learn new things.	<urn:uuid:9413d40d-1d96-4a7c-8fc4-719ba440c896>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://edpr2111final.wordpress.com/cognitive-development/application-and-reflection/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00319.warc.gz	en	0.988642	876	3.390625	3	[ 0.008343404158949852, -0.2530302405357361, 0.2438240796327591, -0.5421025156974792, -0.4899311065673828, 0.5125673413276672, 0.2390805184841156, 0.26790541410446167, 0.1559753715991974, -0.2829034924507141, 0.400608092546463, 0.053502440452575684, 0.37882596254348755, 0.48235246539115906, ...	2	Piaget’s different stages of cognitive development will be extremely useful in my teaching career. It is important that I do not demand too much from my students while still challenging them in a healthy way. There are limits to what children at younger ages can do and understanding these limits can help eliminate a lot of frustration. I do not want my students to feel inferior or stupid because they cannot do something I am asking of them. To ensure that this does not happen, I must always have age appropriate lessons and activities that will teach them new things while reviewing things that they already know. These stages serve as guidelines for what to expect from children in these age groups and they will be referred to frequently in my classroom. Vygotsky’s discussion of private and inner speech is interesting to me because as a child, I was extremely shy and would not talk to any one except for my family and one friend at school. For the first few years of my life, my teachers did not even know that I could talk, which confused my parents because they heard me talk all the time at home. I used private speech at home by narrating what I was doing or simply talking to myself like a normal child. However, when I was at school or somewhere in public I did not use this private speech except to communicate with my one friend who had to relay what I would say to my teachers or peers. I want to ensure that my students feel comfortable exercising their private speech in my classroom. It would have been so much easier for everyone in my classroom if I had vocally communicated my wants and needs. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development is important for me to understand because I must give my students independence and the ability to find answers using what they already know, but I must also be there to teach my students new things and help them build upon what they know. I want to challenge my students and make them think in order to solve problems. I also want to be there for my students and offer my help when it is genuinely needed. Finding the balance between these two things is, in my opinion, one of the key factors of being an educator. David Elkind’s theory of adolescent egocentrism is relevant to me because I, like most adolescents, felt all three of these things at one point in time. When you are an adolescent you are going through many changes both physically and cognitively and this can cause self esteem issues, which are heightened by the imaginary audience. Confidence issues often result from the belief that everyone around you is analyzing you and making judgments about you. I often felt as though everyone was looking at me and developing their own opinions about every decision I made. I also had days where I felt as though no one understood me, which is also known as the personal fable. I believe that this is common for adolescents because they are filled with so many hormones, which can cause them to feel extremely emotional and sometimes even alone. I remember always getting upset with my parents for every little thing that they said and going to my room crying because I felt as though no one in my family understood me and I just wanted to get away. In reality, I was just in a very emotional state and did not like the advice my parents were giving me even though it what was best for me. The mythological fable occurred for me later in adolescence when many of my friends were beginning to skip class to go get food or hang out at the mall. Many people would get caught and suspended for doing these things but my friends and I always thought that it would not happen to us. However, during my senior year three of my friends did get suspended for skipping class and this allowed me to realize that I could get in trouble for this too if I did not stop. I believe that Bloom’s taxonomy will prove to be a very useful reference tool in my lesson plans. I want to ensure that each student reaches each stage before they move onto the next one. I think that each concept discussed in this theory is an important part of learning. I want my students to be able to remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create in every area that I teach them about. This will encourage students to use different parts of their brain to learn new things.	861	ENGLISH	1
German costume history. Middle ages. Women fashion of the 15th century. The fashions that prevailed at the end of the 14th century were still in vogue at the beginning of the 15th. The bodices were still as close-fitting as ever, and long sleeves were still the rule. The extravagantly expensive materials and trimmings, including points and bells, called forth various prohibitions from the ruling powers, but these were all in vain. Women as well as men trimmed their clothes with long peaks and points. Waist-belts, necks, and the points of the peaks were hung with little bells. The under-dress continued without much change during nearly the whole of the fifteenth century. It fitted closely from the shoulders to below the hips, and was widened from that point downward by the insertion of gussets on both sides. It was made to fit still more closely by being laced in front (Fig. 229). It came only a little higher than the shoulders, and was very wide at the top, being cut in a very low V-shape at the back and in front. The sleeves were tight, and came down to the hands. Short sleeves were worn only when the over-dress had long, very tight sleeves. The under-dress was the usual indoor wear, and was long enough to hide the feet. Some parts of this dress, especially the sleeves and the band round the foot, which were not covered by the over-dress, were made of the best and finest material available. If only a cloak was worn over it, the under-dress was fitted with sleeves like those of an over-dress both in shape and length (Fig. 230). The over-dress was like the under-dress, except that it was laced at the back. It was very long (and became longer about the middle of the century), and was low-necked, although at the beginning of the century the neck had been high. The width varied. Like the underdress, it sometimes fitted very closely from the shoulders to below the hips; sometimes the widening began at the bust. In the latter case the waist-belt came close up to the breast. The greatest change was in the sleeves. These were mostly long and pendent, but sack sleeves and long, open, wing-shaped sleeves with or without points were also fashionable. These points appeared not only at the edges, but also along the sleeve-seam. The shape of women’s sleeves was similar to that of the sleeves of men’s coats. The cloak still served as a gown for special occasions. It was worn then, however, only by women of the upper classes (Fig. 230), who were distinguished by the simple cut and tasteful color of their clothing from the middle classes, who were still fond of garish dress. The cloak was still the long-established semicircular one, and was still fastened with one clasp. The cloak for great occasions, however, was sector-shaped, and was fastened with clasps on both shoulders. During the first half of the fifteenth century various cap-shaped forms of headdress were worn by women, both married and unmarried, but women of the upper classes wore nothing but the coif (Haube, Hulle, Kruseler), trimmed with several close rows of ribbon (Figs. 230 and 232). Over the back of this Haube was drawn, as in the fourteenth century, a white Gugel (hood), the lower edge of which was also trimmed with several close rows of ribbon. Frequently, also, women wore over this a long kerchief, of no great breadth, which was folded in two longitudinally and then rolled loosely and bunched into cap-shape. This kerchief was in most cases white. The long ends were allowed to fall down behind. The ordinary footwear consisted of low shoes with long, pointed toes. Most of the attire described above underwent a complete change during the second half of the fifteenth century. Dresses became lower and lower at the neck and trains became longer. At the same time the preference for mi-parti and for points and bells as trimming went so far that the authorities did all they could to discourage the use of rich material, expensive trimming, and extravagant ornamentation. While the under-dress remained as it was, the changes in the over-dress were extensive. The fashion now was to have the dress close-fitting to below the bust, even without a waist-belt, and as wide as possible from that point down. Nearly all the changes that were made in it were intended to achieve this end. With that purpose in view the over-dress, which was open at the back to below the shoulder-blades, and arranged for lacing, was now made close fitting to below the breast, then quickly widening downward. The waist-belt was first put on low down; later waist-belt and dress were pulled up so that a loose mass of folds was made at breast-height all round (Fig. 233). Dresses that were tight all the way down to below the hips were widened in another way. A strip was cut out of the front of the dress from the foot up to below the breast, then replaced by a much wider one (see Figs. 234-236). Before it was sewn in the top of this wider strip was folded or pleated so that it fitted exactly into the place of the excised strip; then its upper edge was sewn in with a double seam. The folds of the inserted strip were stitched to a distance of 14 cm. or a little more from the top, and then allowed to fall loose. Finally the sides of the whole strip were sewn in. The dress was thus made much wider below, but close-fitting from the top to the point where the folds were stitched. These folds or pleats were frequently padded. If still more width were desired additional gussets were inserted at the sides and at the back. These reached up to the hips. Dresses of this kind were usually open at the back down to the hips, and were fastened by lacing. The most important improvement in women’s dress, however, took place at the end of the fifteenth century. The bodice was then divided entirely from the skirt. The two were cut separately, and then sewn together by a double seam. The tailor was now able to make the dress of any desired shape, to make the bodice long or short, loose or tight, and to pleat the skirt in any way that was desired. This improvement brought with it a far greater variety of cut, but it was a considerable time before the new style was universally adopted. The greatest possible variety characterized the shape and width of the neck and the sleeves in women’s attire during the second half of the fifteenth century. The neck was as low as possible; various styles were current. The shoulders were sometimes completely exposed, or if they were covered, most of the back and breast was bare. In the latter case women covered the bust with a dainty wimple embroidered with gold. A chronicler of the day describes this fashion thus: ” Girls and women wore beautiful wimples, with a broad hem in front, embroidered with silk, pearls, or tinsel, and their underclothing had pouches into which they put their breasts. Nothing like it had ever been seen before.” At the same period, however, some dresses were by no means so low-cut. Some of them were quite high at the neck, and some even had fairly high collars. Similar variety was seen in the width of women’s dresses. Many types were in fashion. Some women wore waist-belts, while at hers dispensed with their use. The favorite style was a dress that fitted closely from the neck to the hips. As a rule dresses were immoderately long, and ladies of the upper classes frequently wore trains (Schleppen, or Schweifen) so long that they had to be carried. Toward the close of the fifteenth century women began to wear very long, wide dresses, with long, wide sleeves. These fitted closely only over the breast and shoulders, hanging loose all round from the waist down. These dresses, which were cut like wide tunics, were made still fuller by the insertion of gussets. Some of them were closed all round; others were open all down the front. In the former case the drosses were very low across tie shoulders. The front was gathered at the bust in several large pleats and fastened with a clasp (Fig. 238). In the other style, although it was quite open in front, the dress was very close-fitting to below the breast; this was achieved by gathering the material into a clasp (Fig. 239). This not only fastened the front parts of the dress together, but also raised them a little. Toward the middle of the century the long, pendent sack sleeves went quite out of fashion, except those with the hand-opening near the wrist. More popular than these, however, were the long, open, hanging sleeves called Flügel (wings). Frequently so long that they trailed on the ground, they were splendidly finished with fur and points. Near the end of the century appeared sleeves that extended beyond the hand. They were rather tight at the top, but so wide lower down that the width at the foot was nearly equal to their length. At the same period slashed sleeves came more and more into favor. Some were slashed the whole length at the back, and tied with cords drawn not quite taut over the dainty, puffed white under-sleeves. Some sleeves were so long that they extended beyond the hands and had to be turned back when the hands were to be used. All these sleeves were cut straight, and, except the very wide ones, had only one seam. According to taste this seam ran in front or at the back, or even under the sleeve. The sleeve-hole was usually as small as possible, and shaped either like an egg with the small end up or like an upright oval. The sleeves of the under-dress, which were visible through the open sleeves of the over-dress, were now wide, now tight; in some cases they were so long that they came beyond the hands and in others so short that they hardly reached the middle of the forearm. Now that wide over-dresses were fashionable the cloak was used only for protection in rough weather. It was either semicircular or shaped like a sector or like an arc, and was gathered into numerous close pleats. It had a broad, smooth, turn-over collar, sometimes stiffened, and was usually more than knee-length. Only married women wore it. Girls did not wear it till they became brides. The cloak still continued to be worn at the various royal Courts as the dress for occasions of great ceremony. It was shaped like a sector of a circle, covered only the back, and was held in position by a braided strap that passed across the breast. This cloak had a train, and its length was in proportion to the rank of the wearer. The Tappert continued to be worn till about the year 1480, but it was mostly used as an over-coat, and therefore always had a hood. The most popular type of it was open down both sides. During the second half of the fifteenth century the headdress exhibited great diversity of appearance. There were hair-nets made of gold thread, in which the hair was so disposed that it formed large pendent masses at both sides of the face. Over these nets women wore kerchiefs with points at the ends, or cowl-like coifs, also with points. There were also other forms of headdress which did not cover the hair. The hair was then worn in plaits, which either hung down the back or were arranged in various ways round the head. Other women wore circular rolls or pads covered with ribbon or cloth (see Plate III), as well as various kinds of caps, circlets, bandeaus, etc. Ruffled caps (Kruseler) had been out of fashion since the middle of the century. Footwear took the form of pointed shoes. Ladies wore them of such length that special soles had to be attached to keep the long points in position. At the close of the century even women’s shoes were much shorter, and the fashion of long, pointed toes ultimately disappeared. Gloves of silk material or of soft leather were at first worn only by ladies of high standing. The fashion quickly spread, however, and by the end of the century gloves were looked upon as indispensable by prosperous middle-class people. Source: A History of costume by Carl Köhler. Edited and augmented by Emma von Sichart. Translated by Alexander k. Dallas M.A. Lecturer in German In Heriot-Watt College Edinburgh.	<urn:uuid:833c4a0e-5cf5-4e00-a681-67f724a23a45>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://world4.eu/costume-history-15th-century/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00087.warc.gz	en	0.992152	2,706	3.453125	3	[ -0.29406923055648804, 0.6256945133209229, 0.09728601574897766, 0.17716196179389954, -0.09916523098945618, 0.23984122276306152, -0.124246746301651, 0.17693813145160675, -0.27374619245529175, -0.3149288594722748, 0.12110742926597595, -0.40285801887512207, 0.09779050946235657, 0.2838028669357...	12	German costume history. Middle ages. Women fashion of the 15th century. The fashions that prevailed at the end of the 14th century were still in vogue at the beginning of the 15th. The bodices were still as close-fitting as ever, and long sleeves were still the rule. The extravagantly expensive materials and trimmings, including points and bells, called forth various prohibitions from the ruling powers, but these were all in vain. Women as well as men trimmed their clothes with long peaks and points. Waist-belts, necks, and the points of the peaks were hung with little bells. The under-dress continued without much change during nearly the whole of the fifteenth century. It fitted closely from the shoulders to below the hips, and was widened from that point downward by the insertion of gussets on both sides. It was made to fit still more closely by being laced in front (Fig. 229). It came only a little higher than the shoulders, and was very wide at the top, being cut in a very low V-shape at the back and in front. The sleeves were tight, and came down to the hands. Short sleeves were worn only when the over-dress had long, very tight sleeves. The under-dress was the usual indoor wear, and was long enough to hide the feet. Some parts of this dress, especially the sleeves and the band round the foot, which were not covered by the over-dress, were made of the best and finest material available. If only a cloak was worn over it, the under-dress was fitted with sleeves like those of an over-dress both in shape and length (Fig. 230). The over-dress was like the under-dress, except that it was laced at the back. It was very long (and became longer about the middle of the century), and was low-necked, although at the beginning of the century the neck had been high. The width varied. Like the underdress, it sometimes fitted very closely from the shoulders to below the hips; sometimes the widening began at the bust. In the latter case the waist-belt came close up to the breast. The greatest change was in the sleeves. These were mostly long and pendent, but sack sleeves and long, open, wing-shaped sleeves with or without points were also fashionable. These points appeared not only at the edges, but also along the sleeve-seam. The shape of women’s sleeves was similar to that of the sleeves of men’s coats. The cloak still served as a gown for special occasions. It was worn then, however, only by women of the upper classes (Fig. 230), who were distinguished by the simple cut and tasteful color of their clothing from the middle classes, who were still fond of garish dress. The cloak was still the long-established semicircular one, and was still fastened with one clasp. The cloak for great occasions, however, was sector-shaped, and was fastened with clasps on both shoulders. During the first half of the fifteenth century various cap-shaped forms of headdress were worn by women, both married and unmarried, but women of the upper classes wore nothing but the coif (Haube, Hulle, Kruseler), trimmed with several close rows of ribbon (Figs. 230 and 232). Over the back of this Haube was drawn, as in the fourteenth century, a white Gugel (hood), the lower edge of which was also trimmed with several close rows of ribbon. Frequently, also, women wore over this a long kerchief, of no great breadth, which was folded in two longitudinally and then rolled loosely and bunched into cap-shape. This kerchief was in most cases white. The long ends were allowed to fall down behind. The ordinary footwear consisted of low shoes with long, pointed toes. Most of the attire described above underwent a complete change during the second half of the fifteenth century. Dresses became lower and lower at the neck and trains became longer. At the same time the preference for mi-parti and for points and bells as trimming went so far that the authorities did all they could to discourage the use of rich material, expensive trimming, and extravagant ornamentation. While the under-dress remained as it was, the changes in the over-dress were extensive. The fashion now was to have the dress close-fitting to below the bust, even without a waist-belt, and as wide as possible from that point down. Nearly all the changes that were made in it were intended to achieve this end. With that purpose in view the over-dress, which was open at the back to below the shoulder-blades, and arranged for lacing, was now made close fitting to below the breast, then quickly widening downward. The waist-belt was first put on low down; later waist-belt and dress were pulled up so that a loose mass of folds was made at breast-height all round (Fig. 233). Dresses that were tight all the way down to below the hips were widened in another way. A strip was cut out of the front of the dress from the foot up to below the breast, then replaced by a much wider one (see Figs. 234-236). Before it was sewn in the top of this wider strip was folded or pleated so that it fitted exactly into the place of the excised strip; then its upper edge was sewn in with a double seam. The folds of the inserted strip were stitched to a distance of 14 cm. or a little more from the top, and then allowed to fall loose. Finally the sides of the whole strip were sewn in. The dress was thus made much wider below, but close-fitting from the top to the point where the folds were stitched. These folds or pleats were frequently padded. If still more width were desired additional gussets were inserted at the sides and at the back. These reached up to the hips. Dresses of this kind were usually open at the back down to the hips, and were fastened by lacing. The most important improvement in women’s dress, however, took place at the end of the fifteenth century. The bodice was then divided entirely from the skirt. The two were cut separately, and then sewn together by a double seam. The tailor was now able to make the dress of any desired shape, to make the bodice long or short, loose or tight, and to pleat the skirt in any way that was desired. This improvement brought with it a far greater variety of cut, but it was a considerable time before the new style was universally adopted. The greatest possible variety characterized the shape and width of the neck and the sleeves in women’s attire during the second half of the fifteenth century. The neck was as low as possible; various styles were current. The shoulders were sometimes completely exposed, or if they were covered, most of the back and breast was bare. In the latter case women covered the bust with a dainty wimple embroidered with gold. A chronicler of the day describes this fashion thus: ” Girls and women wore beautiful wimples, with a broad hem in front, embroidered with silk, pearls, or tinsel, and their underclothing had pouches into which they put their breasts. Nothing like it had ever been seen before.” At the same period, however, some dresses were by no means so low-cut. Some of them were quite high at the neck, and some even had fairly high collars. Similar variety was seen in the width of women’s dresses. Many types were in fashion. Some women wore waist-belts, while at hers dispensed with their use. The favorite style was a dress that fitted closely from the neck to the hips. As a rule dresses were immoderately long, and ladies of the upper classes frequently wore trains (Schleppen, or Schweifen) so long that they had to be carried. Toward the close of the fifteenth century women began to wear very long, wide dresses, with long, wide sleeves. These fitted closely only over the breast and shoulders, hanging loose all round from the waist down. These dresses, which were cut like wide tunics, were made still fuller by the insertion of gussets. Some of them were closed all round; others were open all down the front. In the former case the drosses were very low across tie shoulders. The front was gathered at the bust in several large pleats and fastened with a clasp (Fig. 238). In the other style, although it was quite open in front, the dress was very close-fitting to below the breast; this was achieved by gathering the material into a clasp (Fig. 239). This not only fastened the front parts of the dress together, but also raised them a little. Toward the middle of the century the long, pendent sack sleeves went quite out of fashion, except those with the hand-opening near the wrist. More popular than these, however, were the long, open, hanging sleeves called Flügel (wings). Frequently so long that they trailed on the ground, they were splendidly finished with fur and points. Near the end of the century appeared sleeves that extended beyond the hand. They were rather tight at the top, but so wide lower down that the width at the foot was nearly equal to their length. At the same period slashed sleeves came more and more into favor. Some were slashed the whole length at the back, and tied with cords drawn not quite taut over the dainty, puffed white under-sleeves. Some sleeves were so long that they extended beyond the hands and had to be turned back when the hands were to be used. All these sleeves were cut straight, and, except the very wide ones, had only one seam. According to taste this seam ran in front or at the back, or even under the sleeve. The sleeve-hole was usually as small as possible, and shaped either like an egg with the small end up or like an upright oval. The sleeves of the under-dress, which were visible through the open sleeves of the over-dress, were now wide, now tight; in some cases they were so long that they came beyond the hands and in others so short that they hardly reached the middle of the forearm. Now that wide over-dresses were fashionable the cloak was used only for protection in rough weather. It was either semicircular or shaped like a sector or like an arc, and was gathered into numerous close pleats. It had a broad, smooth, turn-over collar, sometimes stiffened, and was usually more than knee-length. Only married women wore it. Girls did not wear it till they became brides. The cloak still continued to be worn at the various royal Courts as the dress for occasions of great ceremony. It was shaped like a sector of a circle, covered only the back, and was held in position by a braided strap that passed across the breast. This cloak had a train, and its length was in proportion to the rank of the wearer. The Tappert continued to be worn till about the year 1480, but it was mostly used as an over-coat, and therefore always had a hood. The most popular type of it was open down both sides. During the second half of the fifteenth century the headdress exhibited great diversity of appearance. There were hair-nets made of gold thread, in which the hair was so disposed that it formed large pendent masses at both sides of the face. Over these nets women wore kerchiefs with points at the ends, or cowl-like coifs, also with points. There were also other forms of headdress which did not cover the hair. The hair was then worn in plaits, which either hung down the back or were arranged in various ways round the head. Other women wore circular rolls or pads covered with ribbon or cloth (see Plate III), as well as various kinds of caps, circlets, bandeaus, etc. Ruffled caps (Kruseler) had been out of fashion since the middle of the century. Footwear took the form of pointed shoes. Ladies wore them of such length that special soles had to be attached to keep the long points in position. At the close of the century even women’s shoes were much shorter, and the fashion of long, pointed toes ultimately disappeared. Gloves of silk material or of soft leather were at first worn only by ladies of high standing. The fashion quickly spread, however, and by the end of the century gloves were looked upon as indispensable by prosperous middle-class people. Source: A History of costume by Carl Köhler. Edited and augmented by Emma von Sichart. Translated by Alexander k. Dallas M.A. Lecturer in German In Heriot-Watt College Edinburgh.	2,669	ENGLISH	1
Although the war was fought in many places, much of the fighting took place on two fronts. On the Eastern Front, Russian troops invaded Germany and Austria-Hungary. After some initial success, the Russians were repelled and by 1915 had lost more than 1 million troops. By 1916, the Russian Army was crumbling. Much of the army was in open mutiny. In February 1917, a revolution toppled the government. In October, another revolution led to a Communist government and Russia's complete withdrawal from the war. On the Western Front, the Germans quickly pushed into France in 1914, but British and French forces stopped them at the First Battle of the Marne. With the German offensive stalled, the Western Front turned into a stalemate, with neither side able to advance for the next three years. Both sides dug in, each creating a network of trenches on the Western Front that eventually extended for 600 miles from the North Sea to Switzerland. Each side dug three lines of zig-zagging trenches. Front-line trenches were about 100 yards to a mile from enemy trenches. They were about six to eight feet deep and four to five feet wide. Sandbags and earth were often piled at the top to offer further protection. In the sides of trenches were holes for men to sleep in. In some, earthen stairs led to dugouts deep below the ground. A few hundred yards back were support trenches. Much farther back were reserve trenches. Connecting trenches ran from the front-line trenches to the support and reserve trenches. In this way, troops and supplies could move back and forth easily. Advancing was almost impossible. A typical combat strategy was to pound the enemy with artillery fire and then order the infantry to charge. With fixed bayonets, men would go "over the top" of the trenches and wade through barbed wire into "no-man's land." Their goal was to overrun the enemy's trenches. But the instant they got out of the trenches, the enemy opened fire with machine guns. Few charges were successful. At night, each side sent patrols through no-man's land. Some patrols simply attempted to retrieve the wounded and dead. Raiding patrols tried to sneak up close enough to enemy trenches to lob grenades into them or even capture soldiers. Other patrols strung tangles of barbed wire to prevent enemy patrols from getting close to their trenches. Artillery pounded incessantly. Most trenches could not protect anyone from a direct hit by an artillery shell. This constant vulnerability affected the men. Numerous soldiers suffered from "shell shock" or battle fatigue, now known as post-traumatic stress disorder. In the winter, snow fell, and ice lined the trenches. In spring and fall, rain turned the trenches into mud. Rats swarmed throughout, feeding on garbage and rotting bodies. Lice infested everyone. New troops coming to the front lines could smell the trenches long before they could see them. "We're Not Marching!" In the first two months of the war, the French lost 329,000 soldiers. By Christmas 1914, almost a half million French soldiers had died. By December 1916, 3 million Frenchmen had been killed or wounded. Early in 1917, a new French Army commander-in-chief, General Robert Nivelle, planned a major offensive on the German lines. His strategy was to soften the German defenses with artillery and then, with the aid of tanks, hurl large numbers of troops at the enemy. Nivelle predicted that a "break-through" would occur within 48 hours. This would then lead to a crushing defeat of the German Army and an end to the war. More than a million French soldiers left their trenches to attack across no-man's land on April 16. But things went wrong. The artillery failed to blow openings in the German barbed-wire defenses. Well-protected German machine guns cut down thousands of Frenchmen in deadly crossfires. Many French tanks were blown up or got mired in the mud. Hard-driving rain further slowed the French advance. After a week of French attacks, the German lines still held. More than 100,000 French soldiers had been killed or wounded. Incredibly, General Nivelle insisted on continuing his offensive, believing that the big "break-through" would come at any time. The 2nd Battalion of the 18th Infantry Regiment had taken part in this offensive, and German machine gun fire had devastated it. Of the 600 men in the battalion, only 200 lived through the assault. Dazed and demoralized, the 2nd Battalion survivors were promised a period of rest behind the front. Instead, replacements filled the ranks of the dead and wounded, and on April 29 the battalion was again ordered to the front. Angry and unbelieving, the men refused. Many of them, drunk on cheap wine, shouted, "Down with the war!" By midnight, the soldiers had sobered up and regained their military discipline. By 2 a.m., they reluctantly began to march to the trenches on the French front lines. Recognizing that a brief mutiny had occurred, officers decided that an example had to made of some of the mutineers. In the dark, about a dozen members of the battalion were pulled, more or less at random, from the ranks. They were court-martialed for leading the mutiny. Only those clearly innocent escaped punishment. One soldier, for example, proved he was in the hospital at the time of the mutiny. He was replaced with another man from the battalion. Most were sentenced to prisons outside the country. Five were sentenced to be shot. (One escaped into the woods when German shells exploded as he was being led to the firing squad. He was never found.) Another, far larger mutiny broke out on May 3. When called to assemble in their battalions and regiments, almost the entire battle-weary 2nd Division came drunk and without their weapons. "We're not marching!" the soldiers shouted. They refused to move out to the trenches. The officers retreated to headquarters, unsure of what to do. Throughout history, armies traditionally have put down mutinies with force. They overpower rebelling troops and execute them. But this was an entire division. The officers would have difficulty getting sufficient troops to overpower a division. And when they did overpower the division, they couldn't shoot thousands of men. It would be considered a massacre. Besides, they needed the men to fight. Bucking tradition, the officers decided to send the most respected officers to urge the men to return to the front. The officers talked to the troops, appealing to their patriotism and their duty to replace exhausted troops. The men explained they had no problem defending the trenches. They just didn't want to take part in any more futile offensives. By the end of the day, the troops had sobered up, and they marched to the front. The few men who still refused to go were arrested and taken away. No one else in the 2nd Division was punished. Soon, more and more units refused to obey orders to march to the front. With the German Army only 60 miles from Paris, this crisis in military discipline threatened the existence of the French nation. Most of the mutinies in May fit the same pattern. They started at night with drunken infantry troops who were being ordered back to the front. The troops had suffered high losses in the recent offensives, and they wanted no part of future offensives. Many had read pacifist pamphlets. Most had heard about the revolution unfolding in Russia, and they wanted to force their government to end the war. They often marched on railway stations and tried to seize trains to Paris. When they sobered up, most of the troops returned to their units and went to the front. Most of the mutinies went unpunished. But the officers knew they could not rely on these troops to attack. In fact, officers had great difficulty telling which troops were dependable. The increasing incidents of "collective indiscipline," as the military called the mutinies, ended General Nivelle's dream of a grand victory. On May 15, General Henri Philippe Petain took over as commander-in-chief. A few days later, Petain issued Directive No. 1, which suspended "large-scale attacks in depth." The Mutinies Continue Petain's directive basically meant that French troops would man their trenches and defend against German attack. Most French soldiers were willing to do this. One group of mutineers wearing flowers in their uniform button holes had told their stunned commander: You have nothing to fear, we are prepared to man the trenches, we will do our duty and the [Germans] will not get through. But we will not take part in attacks which result in nothing but useless casualties . . . . In spite of Petain's new order, the mutinies continued and even grew in number and scope. The men complained about poor food rations and not getting leaves to visit their families. Many of them read anti-war pamphlets, sent from radical organizations in Paris. During early June, when the most serious incidents took place, units in 16 different army divisions mutinied. Veteran soldiers shot at their officers, set fire to their camps, fought with civilian and military police, and took part in drunken brawls with each other. Rebellious soldiers put their thumbs down and shouted "End the War!" at trucks of soldiers heading to the front. Desertions increased. Through it all, thousands of men disobeyed orders to go to the front. "We won't go up!" became their motto. Petain Stops the Mutinies Shocked at the fast-spreading mutinies, General Petain concluded in early June that the French Army was "unfit to fight." He found he could rely on only two divisions to stop the Germans from marching to Paris. By mid-June, Petain had started to implement a list of immediate and long-term reforms of the army designed to stop the mutinies. Many of his reforms, such as granting seven-day leaves every four months, also attempted to lift soldier morale. He also demanded harsh punishment for those guilty of mutiny. "Mutineers drunk with slogans and alcohol, " he wrote, "must be forced back to their obedience." Petain pressed his officers to identify, court martial, and swiftly punish the leaders of the mutinies. The problem was that when large numbers of soldiers all refused to follow orders at once, finding leaders was difficult. In many cases, the mutinies appeared to be spontaneous, without any leaders. It was not practical to court-martial and punish an entire unit of soldiers because the men were needed to fight. Petain held General Emile Taufflieb as a model for his officers to follow. At the beginning of June, Taufflieb had handled a mutiny of a battalion of 700 men. The men were marching to the front when on a prearranged signal, they disappeared into the forest and hid in a large cave. Against the advice of his officers, Taufflieb entered the cave unarmed. He asked the men why they had mutinied. When the men had trouble articulating an answer, he told them their duty was to return to their unit. He told them to return by morning or they would face the consequences. Taufflieb gave orders to his soldiers surrounding the cave to fill it in if the men failed to come out by the deadline. The next morning the men returned. Taufflieb asked his officers to select 20 men at random from the battalion. These men were immediately court-martialed and sentenced to death. The others returned to the front. With the support of Petain, officers punished mutinous troops by court-martialing the leaders. When they often couldn't determine the leaders, they sometimes chose known troublemakers, men with civilian criminal records or those who complained a lot. Or they followed Taufflieb's example and selected every 10th or 20th man standing in the ranks. (This method even had precedent in history. When the ancient Roman army put down mass mutinies, they killed every 10th soldier who mutinied. This is the origin of the word "decimate.") By the end of June, Petain's army reforms and policy of severe punishment for mutiny began to have an effect. The mutinies decreased and eventually ended. There were 110 cases of "grave collective indiscipline" reported between April and September 1917. These cases of mutiny occurred in 50 divisions that made up over half of the French Army. At least 100,000 soldiers (out of an army of 4 million) were involved in the mutinies which mainly took place just behind the French lines. According to official French records, of those court-martialed for mutiny, 3,427 were found guilty. More than 500 received the death sentence, but only 49 were executed. Most of those convicted of mutiny were assigned to disciplinary military units or deported to prisons outside France. But the official records are probably wrong about the number of executions. Some mutineers faced charges other than mutiny and were shot. Many others undoubtedly were shot without any trial and listed as "dead in action." The Germans received reports of mutinies in the French Army from spies and escaped prisoners of war, but refused to believe such a thing was really happening. By adopting this view, Germany squandered an opportunity to push on to Paris and win the war in the summer of 1917. The End of the War By the fall of 1917, the mutinies had stopped and the troops again took their places in the trenches. In Paris, Georges Clemenceau became the head of the government. He promised to intensify the war effort. "I wage war!" he declared. Clemenceau also censored the press and jailed hundreds of anti-war agitators. American troops began to arrive to support the exhausted French and British armies. In the summer of 1918, Allied forces began to drive the Germans out of France. By October, the German military knew the war was lost and asked for peace. In a remarkable report that he fully published after the war, Petain spared no one for sharing the blame for the mutinies. He criticized the government for permitting radical organizations and the press to freely publish anti-war material that reached the troops. He condemned the army's badly prepared food, easy access to cheap wine, poorly maintained rest camps, and inconsistent policy on leaves for the fighting men. He went on to criticize the top generals for their obsession with a quick "break-through" without concern for the slaughter that always followed. For Discussion and Writing - What is a mutiny? Why is it especially dangerous during wartime? - What do you think were the causes of the French Army mutinies. Which one do you think was the most important? Why? - When they couldn't determine the leaders of a mutiny, the French sometimes punished men who had mutinied at random. What are some arguments in favor of this? What are some arguments against this? For Further Information Encyclopedia of the First World War An incredible source of information on World War I. World War I: Trenches on the Web An Internet history of the Great War. A C T I V I T Y Is It Just? Is it just to punish some members of a group when all are guilty? How about punishing all when only a few are guilty? In this activity, students decide whether different cases of group punishment are just. 1.Form small groups. 2. Each group should: a. Discuss each of the cases below. b. Decide whether the punishment in each case is just or unjust. c. Prepare to report its decisions and the reasons for the decisions to the whole class. 3. Have each group report their decisions and reasons to the class. Hold a class discussion on each case. Case #1. A teacher warns a noisy last-period class that if it continues to make noise, she will keep it after school for 20 minutes. The class quiets down, but someone makes a loud shriek. The teacher asks who made the noise. Nobody says anything. She says if no one is willing to point out the offender, then she will keep everyone after class. No one tells and she keeps the class after school. Case #2. Robinson High School is going to the city finals in basketball for the first time in 20 years. The school has been eagerly looking forward to the game. But when all the starters on the l team violate curfew, the coach pulls the whole team out of the game. Case #3. General Taufflieb's punishment of 20 of the 700 soldiers who mutinied during World War I.	<urn:uuid:e6e054a9-bcd8-43b8-b6a8-9474fbc09365>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.crf-usa.org/bill-of-rights-in-action/bria-17-3-a-the-french-army-mutinies-of-world-war-i	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00245.warc.gz	en	0.98096	3,488	4.0625	4	[ -0.2603273391723633, 0.21687422692775726, 0.0980570837855339, 0.15957050025463104, -0.1464282125234604, 0.018089603632688522, -0.3507222533226013, 0.6041694283485413, -0.10394087433815002, -0.19440767168998718, -0.05235988274216652, -0.24381712079048157, 0.32606324553489685, 0.506050586700...	7	Although the war was fought in many places, much of the fighting took place on two fronts. On the Eastern Front, Russian troops invaded Germany and Austria-Hungary. After some initial success, the Russians were repelled and by 1915 had lost more than 1 million troops. By 1916, the Russian Army was crumbling. Much of the army was in open mutiny. In February 1917, a revolution toppled the government. In October, another revolution led to a Communist government and Russia's complete withdrawal from the war. On the Western Front, the Germans quickly pushed into France in 1914, but British and French forces stopped them at the First Battle of the Marne. With the German offensive stalled, the Western Front turned into a stalemate, with neither side able to advance for the next three years. Both sides dug in, each creating a network of trenches on the Western Front that eventually extended for 600 miles from the North Sea to Switzerland. Each side dug three lines of zig-zagging trenches. Front-line trenches were about 100 yards to a mile from enemy trenches. They were about six to eight feet deep and four to five feet wide. Sandbags and earth were often piled at the top to offer further protection. In the sides of trenches were holes for men to sleep in. In some, earthen stairs led to dugouts deep below the ground. A few hundred yards back were support trenches. Much farther back were reserve trenches. Connecting trenches ran from the front-line trenches to the support and reserve trenches. In this way, troops and supplies could move back and forth easily. Advancing was almost impossible. A typical combat strategy was to pound the enemy with artillery fire and then order the infantry to charge. With fixed bayonets, men would go "over the top" of the trenches and wade through barbed wire into "no-man's land." Their goal was to overrun the enemy's trenches. But the instant they got out of the trenches, the enemy opened fire with machine guns. Few charges were successful. At night, each side sent patrols through no-man's land. Some patrols simply attempted to retrieve the wounded and dead. Raiding patrols tried to sneak up close enough to enemy trenches to lob grenades into them or even capture soldiers. Other patrols strung tangles of barbed wire to prevent enemy patrols from getting close to their trenches. Artillery pounded incessantly. Most trenches could not protect anyone from a direct hit by an artillery shell. This constant vulnerability affected the men. Numerous soldiers suffered from "shell shock" or battle fatigue, now known as post-traumatic stress disorder. In the winter, snow fell, and ice lined the trenches. In spring and fall, rain turned the trenches into mud. Rats swarmed throughout, feeding on garbage and rotting bodies. Lice infested everyone. New troops coming to the front lines could smell the trenches long before they could see them. "We're Not Marching!" In the first two months of the war, the French lost 329,000 soldiers. By Christmas 1914, almost a half million French soldiers had died. By December 1916, 3 million Frenchmen had been killed or wounded. Early in 1917, a new French Army commander-in-chief, General Robert Nivelle, planned a major offensive on the German lines. His strategy was to soften the German defenses with artillery and then, with the aid of tanks, hurl large numbers of troops at the enemy. Nivelle predicted that a "break-through" would occur within 48 hours. This would then lead to a crushing defeat of the German Army and an end to the war. More than a million French soldiers left their trenches to attack across no-man's land on April 16. But things went wrong. The artillery failed to blow openings in the German barbed-wire defenses. Well-protected German machine guns cut down thousands of Frenchmen in deadly crossfires. Many French tanks were blown up or got mired in the mud. Hard-driving rain further slowed the French advance. After a week of French attacks, the German lines still held. More than 100,000 French soldiers had been killed or wounded. Incredibly, General Nivelle insisted on continuing his offensive, believing that the big "break-through" would come at any time. The 2nd Battalion of the 18th Infantry Regiment had taken part in this offensive, and German machine gun fire had devastated it. Of the 600 men in the battalion, only 200 lived through the assault. Dazed and demoralized, the 2nd Battalion survivors were promised a period of rest behind the front. Instead, replacements filled the ranks of the dead and wounded, and on April 29 the battalion was again ordered to the front. Angry and unbelieving, the men refused. Many of them, drunk on cheap wine, shouted, "Down with the war!" By midnight, the soldiers had sobered up and regained their military discipline. By 2 a.m., they reluctantly began to march to the trenches on the French front lines. Recognizing that a brief mutiny had occurred, officers decided that an example had to made of some of the mutineers. In the dark, about a dozen members of the battalion were pulled, more or less at random, from the ranks. They were court-martialed for leading the mutiny. Only those clearly innocent escaped punishment. One soldier, for example, proved he was in the hospital at the time of the mutiny. He was replaced with another man from the battalion. Most were sentenced to prisons outside the country. Five were sentenced to be shot. (One escaped into the woods when German shells exploded as he was being led to the firing squad. He was never found.) Another, far larger mutiny broke out on May 3. When called to assemble in their battalions and regiments, almost the entire battle-weary 2nd Division came drunk and without their weapons. "We're not marching!" the soldiers shouted. They refused to move out to the trenches. The officers retreated to headquarters, unsure of what to do. Throughout history, armies traditionally have put down mutinies with force. They overpower rebelling troops and execute them. But this was an entire division. The officers would have difficulty getting sufficient troops to overpower a division. And when they did overpower the division, they couldn't shoot thousands of men. It would be considered a massacre. Besides, they needed the men to fight. Bucking tradition, the officers decided to send the most respected officers to urge the men to return to the front. The officers talked to the troops, appealing to their patriotism and their duty to replace exhausted troops. The men explained they had no problem defending the trenches. They just didn't want to take part in any more futile offensives. By the end of the day, the troops had sobered up, and they marched to the front. The few men who still refused to go were arrested and taken away. No one else in the 2nd Division was punished. Soon, more and more units refused to obey orders to march to the front. With the German Army only 60 miles from Paris, this crisis in military discipline threatened the existence of the French nation. Most of the mutinies in May fit the same pattern. They started at night with drunken infantry troops who were being ordered back to the front. The troops had suffered high losses in the recent offensives, and they wanted no part of future offensives. Many had read pacifist pamphlets. Most had heard about the revolution unfolding in Russia, and they wanted to force their government to end the war. They often marched on railway stations and tried to seize trains to Paris. When they sobered up, most of the troops returned to their units and went to the front. Most of the mutinies went unpunished. But the officers knew they could not rely on these troops to attack. In fact, officers had great difficulty telling which troops were dependable. The increasing incidents of "collective indiscipline," as the military called the mutinies, ended General Nivelle's dream of a grand victory. On May 15, General Henri Philippe Petain took over as commander-in-chief. A few days later, Petain issued Directive No. 1, which suspended "large-scale attacks in depth." The Mutinies Continue Petain's directive basically meant that French troops would man their trenches and defend against German attack. Most French soldiers were willing to do this. One group of mutineers wearing flowers in their uniform button holes had told their stunned commander: You have nothing to fear, we are prepared to man the trenches, we will do our duty and the [Germans] will not get through. But we will not take part in attacks which result in nothing but useless casualties . . . . In spite of Petain's new order, the mutinies continued and even grew in number and scope. The men complained about poor food rations and not getting leaves to visit their families. Many of them read anti-war pamphlets, sent from radical organizations in Paris. During early June, when the most serious incidents took place, units in 16 different army divisions mutinied. Veteran soldiers shot at their officers, set fire to their camps, fought with civilian and military police, and took part in drunken brawls with each other. Rebellious soldiers put their thumbs down and shouted "End the War!" at trucks of soldiers heading to the front. Desertions increased. Through it all, thousands of men disobeyed orders to go to the front. "We won't go up!" became their motto. Petain Stops the Mutinies Shocked at the fast-spreading mutinies, General Petain concluded in early June that the French Army was "unfit to fight." He found he could rely on only two divisions to stop the Germans from marching to Paris. By mid-June, Petain had started to implement a list of immediate and long-term reforms of the army designed to stop the mutinies. Many of his reforms, such as granting seven-day leaves every four months, also attempted to lift soldier morale. He also demanded harsh punishment for those guilty of mutiny. "Mutineers drunk with slogans and alcohol, " he wrote, "must be forced back to their obedience." Petain pressed his officers to identify, court martial, and swiftly punish the leaders of the mutinies. The problem was that when large numbers of soldiers all refused to follow orders at once, finding leaders was difficult. In many cases, the mutinies appeared to be spontaneous, without any leaders. It was not practical to court-martial and punish an entire unit of soldiers because the men were needed to fight. Petain held General Emile Taufflieb as a model for his officers to follow. At the beginning of June, Taufflieb had handled a mutiny of a battalion of 700 men. The men were marching to the front when on a prearranged signal, they disappeared into the forest and hid in a large cave. Against the advice of his officers, Taufflieb entered the cave unarmed. He asked the men why they had mutinied. When the men had trouble articulating an answer, he told them their duty was to return to their unit. He told them to return by morning or they would face the consequences. Taufflieb gave orders to his soldiers surrounding the cave to fill it in if the men failed to come out by the deadline. The next morning the men returned. Taufflieb asked his officers to select 20 men at random from the battalion. These men were immediately court-martialed and sentenced to death. The others returned to the front. With the support of Petain, officers punished mutinous troops by court-martialing the leaders. When they often couldn't determine the leaders, they sometimes chose known troublemakers, men with civilian criminal records or those who complained a lot. Or they followed Taufflieb's example and selected every 10th or 20th man standing in the ranks. (This method even had precedent in history. When the ancient Roman army put down mass mutinies, they killed every 10th soldier who mutinied. This is the origin of the word "decimate.") By the end of June, Petain's army reforms and policy of severe punishment for mutiny began to have an effect. The mutinies decreased and eventually ended. There were 110 cases of "grave collective indiscipline" reported between April and September 1917. These cases of mutiny occurred in 50 divisions that made up over half of the French Army. At least 100,000 soldiers (out of an army of 4 million) were involved in the mutinies which mainly took place just behind the French lines. According to official French records, of those court-martialed for mutiny, 3,427 were found guilty. More than 500 received the death sentence, but only 49 were executed. Most of those convicted of mutiny were assigned to disciplinary military units or deported to prisons outside France. But the official records are probably wrong about the number of executions. Some mutineers faced charges other than mutiny and were shot. Many others undoubtedly were shot without any trial and listed as "dead in action." The Germans received reports of mutinies in the French Army from spies and escaped prisoners of war, but refused to believe such a thing was really happening. By adopting this view, Germany squandered an opportunity to push on to Paris and win the war in the summer of 1917. The End of the War By the fall of 1917, the mutinies had stopped and the troops again took their places in the trenches. In Paris, Georges Clemenceau became the head of the government. He promised to intensify the war effort. "I wage war!" he declared. Clemenceau also censored the press and jailed hundreds of anti-war agitators. American troops began to arrive to support the exhausted French and British armies. In the summer of 1918, Allied forces began to drive the Germans out of France. By October, the German military knew the war was lost and asked for peace. In a remarkable report that he fully published after the war, Petain spared no one for sharing the blame for the mutinies. He criticized the government for permitting radical organizations and the press to freely publish anti-war material that reached the troops. He condemned the army's badly prepared food, easy access to cheap wine, poorly maintained rest camps, and inconsistent policy on leaves for the fighting men. He went on to criticize the top generals for their obsession with a quick "break-through" without concern for the slaughter that always followed. For Discussion and Writing - What is a mutiny? Why is it especially dangerous during wartime? - What do you think were the causes of the French Army mutinies. Which one do you think was the most important? Why? - When they couldn't determine the leaders of a mutiny, the French sometimes punished men who had mutinied at random. What are some arguments in favor of this? What are some arguments against this? For Further Information Encyclopedia of the First World War An incredible source of information on World War I. World War I: Trenches on the Web An Internet history of the Great War. A C T I V I T Y Is It Just? Is it just to punish some members of a group when all are guilty? How about punishing all when only a few are guilty? In this activity, students decide whether different cases of group punishment are just. 1.Form small groups. 2. Each group should: a. Discuss each of the cases below. b. Decide whether the punishment in each case is just or unjust. c. Prepare to report its decisions and the reasons for the decisions to the whole class. 3. Have each group report their decisions and reasons to the class. Hold a class discussion on each case. Case #1. A teacher warns a noisy last-period class that if it continues to make noise, she will keep it after school for 20 minutes. The class quiets down, but someone makes a loud shriek. The teacher asks who made the noise. Nobody says anything. She says if no one is willing to point out the offender, then she will keep everyone after class. No one tells and she keeps the class after school. Case #2. Robinson High School is going to the city finals in basketball for the first time in 20 years. The school has been eagerly looking forward to the game. But when all the starters on the l team violate curfew, the coach pulls the whole team out of the game. Case #3. General Taufflieb's punishment of 20 of the 700 soldiers who mutinied during World War I.	3,539	ENGLISH	1

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