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Ever since humans started exploring the ocean, many terms have been coined in relation to the ocean. Such ocean-related terms have created interesting stories in people’s daily life.
A case in point is the word “pilot.” Entry and departure are when sailing is the most dangerous. Ports are narrow and have shallow water, resulting in a higher probability of accidents. Therefore, sailing experts who are knowledgeable about local conditions are put in charge of the entry and departure of ships. They are called pilots. According to historical records, it was the 16th century in Europe when pilots first emerged. A few hundred years later, the term “pilot” was borrowed for those who drive airplanes zipping through the sky. A Korean word for a pilot is “doseonsa,” which is an occupation that enjoys one of the highest levels of income and the No. 1 or 2 position in terms of job satisfaction.
A1 is a term whose origin is often unrecognized by even those working in marine transportation. During the Age of Discovery in the 16th century, European shippers wanted better safety of ships carrying expensive goods as their potential sinking would cause huge loss. As a result, public organizations were created to check the safety of ships and issue verified certificates accordingly, and ships were instructed to join such organizations. The first of its kind was Lloyd's Register. The safety of ships was examined in two areas. The first was the hull to examine if a ship’s outer hull panel is thick enough to prevent seawater from entering. The second was vessel appurtenances, such as an engine and sail. The former was graded in A, B, and C while the latter was ranked in 1, 2, and 3. So, an A1-graded vessel refers to a ship with the highest level of verified safety. Lloyd's Register had examiners at the major ports of countries who checked the safety of ships and reported results. Then, the company's headquarters would give grades to the examined vessels. On the land, A.1. was adopted for the brand name of a steak sauce to promote it as the best quality sauce available in the market.
There are terms that the ocean borrowed from the land. One example is Himalaya. A carrier is granted a right to limit its liability for cargo to a certain amount according to a transportation contract signed with a shipper. While the loading and unloading of cargo fall into the responsibility of a carrier, such work is usually carried out by a stevedoring company on behalf of a carrier. As there is no contractual relationship between a shipper and a stevedoring company, a carrier cannot claim its limited liability right for the damage incurred to cargo during loading and unloading. How can a carrier protect itself, then? A carrier and a shipper should include a provision that a carrier shall not be responsible for such damage in their transportation contract. Such provision is called the “Himalaya clause.”
You may wonder what it is called the Himalaya clause. It is because the first vessel that faced such situation was named “SS Himalaya.” I often include a question about the Himalaya clause in a test for a maritime law class. I once saw an unexpected answer, which said that it is the name of a mountain range crossing through Asia and Europe. Of course, I couldn’t give any score for the answer but was amused, nonetheless. I now bring up this episode in every class. A zero score may be temporary but humor lasts through time. | <urn:uuid:13f220cf-7e92-465b-a307-58f779305fbe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.donga.com/en/article/all/20190802/1806631/1/Term-pilot-and-brand-name-of-steak-sauce-were-coined-from-ocean | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00214.warc.gz | en | 0.982129 | 727 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.18546999990940... | 2 | Ever since humans started exploring the ocean, many terms have been coined in relation to the ocean. Such ocean-related terms have created interesting stories in people’s daily life.
A case in point is the word “pilot.” Entry and departure are when sailing is the most dangerous. Ports are narrow and have shallow water, resulting in a higher probability of accidents. Therefore, sailing experts who are knowledgeable about local conditions are put in charge of the entry and departure of ships. They are called pilots. According to historical records, it was the 16th century in Europe when pilots first emerged. A few hundred years later, the term “pilot” was borrowed for those who drive airplanes zipping through the sky. A Korean word for a pilot is “doseonsa,” which is an occupation that enjoys one of the highest levels of income and the No. 1 or 2 position in terms of job satisfaction.
A1 is a term whose origin is often unrecognized by even those working in marine transportation. During the Age of Discovery in the 16th century, European shippers wanted better safety of ships carrying expensive goods as their potential sinking would cause huge loss. As a result, public organizations were created to check the safety of ships and issue verified certificates accordingly, and ships were instructed to join such organizations. The first of its kind was Lloyd's Register. The safety of ships was examined in two areas. The first was the hull to examine if a ship’s outer hull panel is thick enough to prevent seawater from entering. The second was vessel appurtenances, such as an engine and sail. The former was graded in A, B, and C while the latter was ranked in 1, 2, and 3. So, an A1-graded vessel refers to a ship with the highest level of verified safety. Lloyd's Register had examiners at the major ports of countries who checked the safety of ships and reported results. Then, the company's headquarters would give grades to the examined vessels. On the land, A.1. was adopted for the brand name of a steak sauce to promote it as the best quality sauce available in the market.
There are terms that the ocean borrowed from the land. One example is Himalaya. A carrier is granted a right to limit its liability for cargo to a certain amount according to a transportation contract signed with a shipper. While the loading and unloading of cargo fall into the responsibility of a carrier, such work is usually carried out by a stevedoring company on behalf of a carrier. As there is no contractual relationship between a shipper and a stevedoring company, a carrier cannot claim its limited liability right for the damage incurred to cargo during loading and unloading. How can a carrier protect itself, then? A carrier and a shipper should include a provision that a carrier shall not be responsible for such damage in their transportation contract. Such provision is called the “Himalaya clause.”
You may wonder what it is called the Himalaya clause. It is because the first vessel that faced such situation was named “SS Himalaya.” I often include a question about the Himalaya clause in a test for a maritime law class. I once saw an unexpected answer, which said that it is the name of a mountain range crossing through Asia and Europe. Of course, I couldn’t give any score for the answer but was amused, nonetheless. I now bring up this episode in every class. A zero score may be temporary but humor lasts through time. | 711 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Back-to-Africa movement began with a wealthy mixed-race Quaker named Paul Cuffe. He brought African-American Bostonians to a Sierra Leone colony in 1815, two years before the founding of the American Colonization Society.
Paul Cuffe led an extraordinary life. He was born on Jan. 17, 1759, on Cuttyhunk Island off the Massachusetts coast, the seventh of 10 children. His mother, Ruth Moses, was an Aquinnah Wampanoag Indian. His father, Kofi Slocum, was a black freedman who at age 10 was kidnapped from his Ashanti tribe in west Africa. Slavers took him to Newport in the colony of Rhode Island, and from there a Quaker who lived in Dartmouth, Mass. enslaved him. His name, Kofi, was corrupted to Cuffe.
In 1733, the Nantucket Quakers denounced slavery, the first Society of Friends in the American colonies to do so. They were close to the Dartmouth Quakers, and as a result Paul’s father was freed. Paul’s mother and father raised their 10 children in the Quaker religion.
Paul’s father was a farmer, fisherman and carpenter who taught himself to read and write. He owned his own home and a 116-acre farm. When Paul turned 13, his father died, and Paul and his brother David took over the farm and support for the family. Paul then changed his last name from Slocum to Cuffe, and all but one of his brothers and sisters did.
Paul knew little more than the alphabet but wanted an education and to go to sea. Living near New Bedford, the center of the whaling industry, made that possible. The ocean held the promise of economic opportunity for African-Americans, but also the danger that pirates or slavers would kidnap them and sell them into slavery.
At 16, Paul Cuffe signed onto a whaling ship, beginning an extremely successful life at sea. He moved onto cargo ships, where he learned navigation. In 1776, the British took him prisoner by the British – at age 17 — and held him for three months.
Studying and Saving
Paul Cuffe returned to his family farm when the British released him, and resumed studying and saving. In 1779, he and his brother built a small boat with which they traded among the Elizabeth Islands. Pirates waylaid him and stole his cargo on a trip to Nantucket. It wouldn’t be the last time.
At 21, Paul Cuffe refused to pay taxes because he didn’t have the right to vote. In 1780, Paul Cuffe, his brother and five African-Americans asked the county to end such taxation without representation. In the end he got his taxes reduced.
Paul’s trading began to make him money, and he expanded his shipbuilding business. He bought another ship and hired a crew, while building larger ships. At 24, he married Alice Pequit, who, like his mother, was an Aquinnah Wampanoag Indian. They settled in Westport, Mass., and had seven children.
Eventually he owned a fleet of ships, including the 268-ton Alpha and the 109-ton brig Traveller. He traded up and down the Atlantic Coast, in the Caribbean and Europe.
In 1799 Paul Cuffe bought a 140-acre waterfront property in Westport and built a house. He was by then the richest African-American and Native-American in the country. He was also the country’s largest employer of African-Americans. A devout Quaker, he would later make a substantial contribution to rebuilding the Westport Friends’ Meeting House.
By then he had also decided that Americans of color would never achieve equality with white Americans. He decided their best hope was to return to Africa, and he embraced the nascent movement to colonize Africa with American blacks.
White House Visit
Paul Cuffe became the first free African-American to visit the White House after
To Continue Reading . . .
[s2If current_user_can(access_s2member_level0)]a ship and cargo from Sierra Leone were seized by U.S. Customs in Newport, R.I. The War of 1812 was approaching, and Cuffe had violated the trade embargo of 1807. He went all the way to the White House to get his cargo back.
Cuffe met with President James Madison, who greeted him warmly. Madison wanted to know about his visit to Sierra Leone and asked him what he thought about African-Americans settling the new British colony. Cuffe persuaded the president he broke the embargo unintentionally, and Madison ordered his cargo and ship returned.
In 1787, the British founded a settlement for poor English black people in Sierra Leone, called the Province of Freedom. Five years later, black Loyalists from Nova Scotia (including George Washington’s former slave Harry Washington) arrived. They had petitioned to be moved to Africa as they found Canada’s climate too harsh. Sierra Leone became a British Crown colony in 1808.
Paul Cuffe had a dream: to establish a prosperous colony in Africa. He wanted to send one ship every year to Sierra Leone with African-American emigrants, who would produce exports to the United States.
He had launched two expeditions to Sierra Leone in 1811 with an all-black crew. In Africa he established a trading society for the colonists called the ‘Friendly Society of Sierra Leone.’ In 1812, he went to Baltimore, Philadelphia and New York to recruit members and support from the free black community for his African Institution to promote emigration.
In 1815, Cuffe brought 38 colonists, mostly Bostonians, to Freetown, Sierra Leone. Cuffe paid for some of the passengers’ fares and fronted a year’s worth of provisions. His cargo was heavily taxed. In the end, the voyage cost him $8,000. Perhaps even worse, the immigrants weren’t greeted warmly, as the governor was having problems with the colonists. The men had to swear an oath of allegiance to the Crown, and many refused fearing they’d end up getting drafted.
The Dream Dies
He ran into financial difficulties, though, and the well-funded American Colonization Society overshadowed his efforts. Founded by Robert Finley of New Jersey, it was bringing groups of African-Americans to Liberia. The Society asked Cuffe for his help, but the blatant racism of some of its members alarmed him.
Worse, the African-American community started to question the Back-to-Africa movement. In 1817, his Philadelphia friend, black sailmaker James Forten, wrote to Cuffe to tell him several thousand black men had met at the Bethel African American Methodist Episcopal Church.
“Three thousand at least attended, and there was not one soul that was in favor of going to Africa. They think that the slaveholders want to get rid of them so as to make their property more secure,” Forten wrote. Then, later, Forten signed a statement renouncing the movement and disclaiming any connection with it.
Paul Cuffe died a month later, on Sept. 7, 1817. He left an estate worth $20,000. His last words were, “Let me pass quietly away.”
The Paul Cuffe Farm in Westport, Mass., is a National Historic Landmark. | <urn:uuid:3ceb7d97-162b-40b4-9680-54ee043f1fcd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/paul-cuffe-back-africa-movement/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00034.warc.gz | en | 0.98162 | 1,570 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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-0.025663515... | 5 | The Back-to-Africa movement began with a wealthy mixed-race Quaker named Paul Cuffe. He brought African-American Bostonians to a Sierra Leone colony in 1815, two years before the founding of the American Colonization Society.
Paul Cuffe led an extraordinary life. He was born on Jan. 17, 1759, on Cuttyhunk Island off the Massachusetts coast, the seventh of 10 children. His mother, Ruth Moses, was an Aquinnah Wampanoag Indian. His father, Kofi Slocum, was a black freedman who at age 10 was kidnapped from his Ashanti tribe in west Africa. Slavers took him to Newport in the colony of Rhode Island, and from there a Quaker who lived in Dartmouth, Mass. enslaved him. His name, Kofi, was corrupted to Cuffe.
In 1733, the Nantucket Quakers denounced slavery, the first Society of Friends in the American colonies to do so. They were close to the Dartmouth Quakers, and as a result Paul’s father was freed. Paul’s mother and father raised their 10 children in the Quaker religion.
Paul’s father was a farmer, fisherman and carpenter who taught himself to read and write. He owned his own home and a 116-acre farm. When Paul turned 13, his father died, and Paul and his brother David took over the farm and support for the family. Paul then changed his last name from Slocum to Cuffe, and all but one of his brothers and sisters did.
Paul knew little more than the alphabet but wanted an education and to go to sea. Living near New Bedford, the center of the whaling industry, made that possible. The ocean held the promise of economic opportunity for African-Americans, but also the danger that pirates or slavers would kidnap them and sell them into slavery.
At 16, Paul Cuffe signed onto a whaling ship, beginning an extremely successful life at sea. He moved onto cargo ships, where he learned navigation. In 1776, the British took him prisoner by the British – at age 17 — and held him for three months.
Studying and Saving
Paul Cuffe returned to his family farm when the British released him, and resumed studying and saving. In 1779, he and his brother built a small boat with which they traded among the Elizabeth Islands. Pirates waylaid him and stole his cargo on a trip to Nantucket. It wouldn’t be the last time.
At 21, Paul Cuffe refused to pay taxes because he didn’t have the right to vote. In 1780, Paul Cuffe, his brother and five African-Americans asked the county to end such taxation without representation. In the end he got his taxes reduced.
Paul’s trading began to make him money, and he expanded his shipbuilding business. He bought another ship and hired a crew, while building larger ships. At 24, he married Alice Pequit, who, like his mother, was an Aquinnah Wampanoag Indian. They settled in Westport, Mass., and had seven children.
Eventually he owned a fleet of ships, including the 268-ton Alpha and the 109-ton brig Traveller. He traded up and down the Atlantic Coast, in the Caribbean and Europe.
In 1799 Paul Cuffe bought a 140-acre waterfront property in Westport and built a house. He was by then the richest African-American and Native-American in the country. He was also the country’s largest employer of African-Americans. A devout Quaker, he would later make a substantial contribution to rebuilding the Westport Friends’ Meeting House.
By then he had also decided that Americans of color would never achieve equality with white Americans. He decided their best hope was to return to Africa, and he embraced the nascent movement to colonize Africa with American blacks.
White House Visit
Paul Cuffe became the first free African-American to visit the White House after
To Continue Reading . . .
[s2If current_user_can(access_s2member_level0)]a ship and cargo from Sierra Leone were seized by U.S. Customs in Newport, R.I. The War of 1812 was approaching, and Cuffe had violated the trade embargo of 1807. He went all the way to the White House to get his cargo back.
Cuffe met with President James Madison, who greeted him warmly. Madison wanted to know about his visit to Sierra Leone and asked him what he thought about African-Americans settling the new British colony. Cuffe persuaded the president he broke the embargo unintentionally, and Madison ordered his cargo and ship returned.
In 1787, the British founded a settlement for poor English black people in Sierra Leone, called the Province of Freedom. Five years later, black Loyalists from Nova Scotia (including George Washington’s former slave Harry Washington) arrived. They had petitioned to be moved to Africa as they found Canada’s climate too harsh. Sierra Leone became a British Crown colony in 1808.
Paul Cuffe had a dream: to establish a prosperous colony in Africa. He wanted to send one ship every year to Sierra Leone with African-American emigrants, who would produce exports to the United States.
He had launched two expeditions to Sierra Leone in 1811 with an all-black crew. In Africa he established a trading society for the colonists called the ‘Friendly Society of Sierra Leone.’ In 1812, he went to Baltimore, Philadelphia and New York to recruit members and support from the free black community for his African Institution to promote emigration.
In 1815, Cuffe brought 38 colonists, mostly Bostonians, to Freetown, Sierra Leone. Cuffe paid for some of the passengers’ fares and fronted a year’s worth of provisions. His cargo was heavily taxed. In the end, the voyage cost him $8,000. Perhaps even worse, the immigrants weren’t greeted warmly, as the governor was having problems with the colonists. The men had to swear an oath of allegiance to the Crown, and many refused fearing they’d end up getting drafted.
The Dream Dies
He ran into financial difficulties, though, and the well-funded American Colonization Society overshadowed his efforts. Founded by Robert Finley of New Jersey, it was bringing groups of African-Americans to Liberia. The Society asked Cuffe for his help, but the blatant racism of some of its members alarmed him.
Worse, the African-American community started to question the Back-to-Africa movement. In 1817, his Philadelphia friend, black sailmaker James Forten, wrote to Cuffe to tell him several thousand black men had met at the Bethel African American Methodist Episcopal Church.
“Three thousand at least attended, and there was not one soul that was in favor of going to Africa. They think that the slaveholders want to get rid of them so as to make their property more secure,” Forten wrote. Then, later, Forten signed a statement renouncing the movement and disclaiming any connection with it.
Paul Cuffe died a month later, on Sept. 7, 1817. He left an estate worth $20,000. His last words were, “Let me pass quietly away.”
The Paul Cuffe Farm in Westport, Mass., is a National Historic Landmark. | 1,579 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Bible begins with the story of Adam and Eve, who are soon expelled from the Garden of Eden for eating from the tree of knowledge. Accordingly, Adam and Eve are enlightened of their humanness. This new knowledge sets them apart from other creatures of the world. After their expulsion from the Garden, Adam and Eve are forced to toil and procreate-two “labors” that characterize the Human Condition. The tale of Hester and Dimmesdale recounts that of Adam and Eve because, in both stories, sin results in expulsion and suffering. Yet it also leads to knowledge, particularly the knowledge of what it is to be human.
The Scarlet Letter emphasizes the association between sin, knowledge, and the Human Condition. Hester is ushered into a sort of exile while wearing the scarlet letter, her punishment for adultery. She no longer worries as much about appeasing the desires of society. This leads to her thinking more boldly about society and herself. “The scarlet letter was her passport into regions where other women dared not tread. Shame, Despair, Solitude! These had been her teachers,—stern and wild ones,—and they had made her strong, but taught her much amiss” (Hawthorne 134).
Hester’s punishment leads her into a “moral wilderness” lacking rules or guidance. This is ironic in that her punishment was intended to aid in her atonement, but instead leads her even farther astray. Hester’s mind is amidst a struggle with the aftermath of her sin. Her contemplation of her sinfulness leads to feelings of affinity and an understanding of others. She begins to do public service by bringing food to the poor, nursing the sick, and becomes a source of aid in times of trouble. These actions make it appear as though Hester may be accepted regardless of her sin.
However, the Puritan superiors view all sin as a threat to the community that should be punished and suppressed. Throughout the story, Hester is portrayed as intelligent and capable, but not extraordinary. By doing these services to her society, Hester has found a way to assuage her need for redemption. Reverend Dimmesdale was the counterpart in Hester’s adultery, but his sin remained hidden until his death. The knowledge of his sin is unknown to all but himself and Hester. To Dimmesdale his sin is an affliction to which he can find no rest.
He attempts to find treatment in his burden by holding late-night vigils, fasting, and even scourging himself with a whip. His struggles allow him to empathize with human weakness. The hindrance of his sin gives him “sympathies so intimate with the sinful brotherhood of mankind, so that his heart vibrated in unison with theirs” (95). Dimmesdale reaches a new understanding of how sin can affect others. This new empathy draws out Dimmesdale’s most powerful and impassioned sermons. Roger Chillingworth is another character agitated by sin. When Chillingworth first arrives in the colony he deceives the townspeople and tells them he is a physician.
His primary sin is that of vengeance. He vows he will find the man that Hester committed adultery with, and that he will have revenge. Completely opposite of Hester, Chillingworth’s mind is at peace with his sin. His body, however, becomes more and more deformed as time goes on, portraying that his need for vengeance is causing an outward effect. It soon become evident that his desire for revenge is boundless, I will hunt this man as I have hunted truth in books; as I have searched for gold in alchemy. There is a sympathy that will make me conscious of him. I shall see him tremble.
I shall feel myself shudder, suddenly and unexpectedly. Sooner or later he will be mine (50). While sin leads to important self-discoveries for Hester and Dimmesdale, it is not as great for Chillingworth. Revenge becomes his only aspiration and he dies within a year of Dimmesdale’s death, his purpose for living gone. Chillingworth brings no good out of his sin. He simply continues his torment of Dimmesdale until the end of his life. Hester and Dimmesdale ponder their own sinfulness, attempt to learn from their sins, and try to reconcile with their lived experiences. | <urn:uuid:eb5d82df-b230-4706-a275-22730a8ef3e0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://newyorkessays.com/essay-human-condition/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00267.warc.gz | en | 0.980374 | 912 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.0694425106... | 5 | The Bible begins with the story of Adam and Eve, who are soon expelled from the Garden of Eden for eating from the tree of knowledge. Accordingly, Adam and Eve are enlightened of their humanness. This new knowledge sets them apart from other creatures of the world. After their expulsion from the Garden, Adam and Eve are forced to toil and procreate-two “labors” that characterize the Human Condition. The tale of Hester and Dimmesdale recounts that of Adam and Eve because, in both stories, sin results in expulsion and suffering. Yet it also leads to knowledge, particularly the knowledge of what it is to be human.
The Scarlet Letter emphasizes the association between sin, knowledge, and the Human Condition. Hester is ushered into a sort of exile while wearing the scarlet letter, her punishment for adultery. She no longer worries as much about appeasing the desires of society. This leads to her thinking more boldly about society and herself. “The scarlet letter was her passport into regions where other women dared not tread. Shame, Despair, Solitude! These had been her teachers,—stern and wild ones,—and they had made her strong, but taught her much amiss” (Hawthorne 134).
Hester’s punishment leads her into a “moral wilderness” lacking rules or guidance. This is ironic in that her punishment was intended to aid in her atonement, but instead leads her even farther astray. Hester’s mind is amidst a struggle with the aftermath of her sin. Her contemplation of her sinfulness leads to feelings of affinity and an understanding of others. She begins to do public service by bringing food to the poor, nursing the sick, and becomes a source of aid in times of trouble. These actions make it appear as though Hester may be accepted regardless of her sin.
However, the Puritan superiors view all sin as a threat to the community that should be punished and suppressed. Throughout the story, Hester is portrayed as intelligent and capable, but not extraordinary. By doing these services to her society, Hester has found a way to assuage her need for redemption. Reverend Dimmesdale was the counterpart in Hester’s adultery, but his sin remained hidden until his death. The knowledge of his sin is unknown to all but himself and Hester. To Dimmesdale his sin is an affliction to which he can find no rest.
He attempts to find treatment in his burden by holding late-night vigils, fasting, and even scourging himself with a whip. His struggles allow him to empathize with human weakness. The hindrance of his sin gives him “sympathies so intimate with the sinful brotherhood of mankind, so that his heart vibrated in unison with theirs” (95). Dimmesdale reaches a new understanding of how sin can affect others. This new empathy draws out Dimmesdale’s most powerful and impassioned sermons. Roger Chillingworth is another character agitated by sin. When Chillingworth first arrives in the colony he deceives the townspeople and tells them he is a physician.
His primary sin is that of vengeance. He vows he will find the man that Hester committed adultery with, and that he will have revenge. Completely opposite of Hester, Chillingworth’s mind is at peace with his sin. His body, however, becomes more and more deformed as time goes on, portraying that his need for vengeance is causing an outward effect. It soon become evident that his desire for revenge is boundless, I will hunt this man as I have hunted truth in books; as I have searched for gold in alchemy. There is a sympathy that will make me conscious of him. I shall see him tremble.
I shall feel myself shudder, suddenly and unexpectedly. Sooner or later he will be mine (50). While sin leads to important self-discoveries for Hester and Dimmesdale, it is not as great for Chillingworth. Revenge becomes his only aspiration and he dies within a year of Dimmesdale’s death, his purpose for living gone. Chillingworth brings no good out of his sin. He simply continues his torment of Dimmesdale until the end of his life. Hester and Dimmesdale ponder their own sinfulness, attempt to learn from their sins, and try to reconcile with their lived experiences. | 895 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rembering the life of a millwright
The Sierra was first conquered by animal power, with oxen and horses assisting humans in the development and transportation in the mountains. But it was steam power that did the bulk of the work. By burning wood to boil water, steam power was used to move and saw logs into lumber, move boats across the mountain lakes, and many other jobs. It took millwrights such as Charles Roberson to keep the machinery working.Roberson came across the plains in 1852 and made his own way. He had no formal schooling as a millwright or mechanic. He had a natural knack for math and machinery and lived a life on the cusp on new inventions.Roberson first showed up in the Sierra running a sawmill in Cisco in the summer of 1865. The following winter he and his family spent the winter at Meadow Lake, working on mining machinery in that boom and bust mining town 25 miles northwest of Truckee. He used his skills to make excellent wooden skis and bindings for his family and neighbors.In the spring of 1867, Roberson was busy installing a quartz mill at the nearby Mohawk Mine. This machinery was shipped round the horn from the east, and Roberson was one of only a few men in the Sierra who could assemble the boiler, cylinders, engine and crushing mill.
Having to deal with up to 30 feet of snow was just too much for most men, and with the mining machinery complete, Roberson operated the Stonewall steam powered sawmill three miles east of Truckee along the Central Pacific Railroad in 1868 and 69. He sawed bridge and snow shed timbers, railroad ties and lumber while the railroad was extending iron rails east to meet the Union Pacific in Utah.A few years of that and the forest was cut over, so Charles Roberson moved into Truckee. He worked for a few years operating and repairing the steam machinery for pioneer lumberman Elle Ellen. Ellens mill was located a stones throw northwest of downtown Truckee. As with many energetic skilled men in the West, Roberson moved from job to job, always looking for a opportunity to better himself and put his skills to work. Millwrights, machinists and mechanics were in great demand and hard to find in the Sierra where many steam boilers and engines could be found. Many of the parts needed for quick repairs had to be made on the spot using a forge, hammer and anvil.For a time in 1871 Roberson ran Joe Grays sawmill at Camp 20, down the Truckee River Canyon where Gray Creek enters the Truckee River. But what he really wanted was to run his own sawmill. Roberson thrived on the wood fires, hissing steam, pumping water, spinning turbines, whirring saws, thumping of logs and lumber that made up an 1870s sawmill.
In 1871 Roberson partnered with James Machomick and Levi Robbins in construction of the Alder Creek Mill. The mill was powered by three steam engines, had two circular saws, an edger, a planing mill, and a shingle mill. The three steam engines were a curiosity for the times in that they worked together as one. The output of the mill was 40,000 board feet in 12 hours. In addition to lumber, they also cut railroad ties, telegraph poles, and mining timbers. The mill was located north of Truckee where Highway 89 crosses Alder Creek, three miles from downtown Truckee. Machomick was the woods boss, Roberson ran the steam mill, and Robbins was the bookkeeper and ran the lumberyard.Since the sawmill ran mostly during the summer, Roberson found extra work on steam engines at many of the area sawmills when he wasnt needed at Alder Creek, He was always being asked to troubleshoot other steam engines and mechanical devices in the area and his reputation grew. He worked on the machinery at Lake Tahoe sawmills located at Glenbrook and at Pomins. He demanded a high wage and always got it.Roberson used many ingenious techniques to keep the efficiency and production up. He recycled the condensed steam into the millpond to keep it from freezing when the mill had orders it needed to fill in the winter. He tweaked and coaxed higher pressures from anything that burned wood and created steam.Roberson also worked on the steam engines that powered the steamboats that plied Lake Tahoe. When William Campbell, owner of hotels in Truckee and at Brockway Hot Springs needed to have a new boiler and machinery installed in his steamer Truckee, he chose Roberson to do the work, and was quite pleased with the increase in speed Roberson coaxed out of the engine.At first lumber was hauled from the Alder Creek Mill to Truckee on wagons. Due to the steep hill, the route soon was abandoned. They next tried hauling it to Prosser Creek Station on Central Pacific Railroad. The trip by wagon was slow and costly and a more economical way to transport lumber was needed.
In 1873 the Alder Creek Mill completed a five-mile V flume from a reservoir above the mill, down Alder Creek and Prosser Creek to Prosser Creek Station, on the Central Pacific. The flume company was separate from the mill company, but had several common partners. The flume passed under the sawmill so that lumber went straight from the saws into the flume. The lumberyard was located along the Truckee River, at the confluence with Prosser Creek.In September of 1874 the partners built a 6-by-6-foot box flume from the reservoir to the mill. The box flume could float logs of any size from the reservoir to the sawmill. The reservoir was located about a quarter mile above the mill on Alder Creek.The mill was closed during the winter, like many area mills. In times of slow market demand they were temporarily closed, such as in August of 1875. At times when lumber orders demanded the mill ran overtime. In May of 1875 they milled and flumed 50,000 board feet in 12 hours. In June they had 1 million feet on hand in the Prosser Creek station lumber yard. In the woods the logging was done with 20 yoke of oxen hauling logs on huge wagons known as trucks, most of them built by Joe Gray in Truckee. In 1876 the unpredictable lumber business took a downturn and they were forced them to sell the oxen and wagons. The sawmill continued to run, using contract loggers. In February of 1877, Rueben Saxton, who owned a sawmill on the west shore of Lake Tahoe, near present day Sunnyside, was logging over the snow for them. Logging over the snow was a very common practice in this period.. Roberson and Machomick closed the mill down in 1878, after struggling for six years and barely making a living at their own mill.
Roberson went to work for Bragg & Folsoms sawmill at Clinton in the fall of 1879. This mill was across the river from present Hirschdale. The sawmill had burned in September in a spectacular fire. As a set of extensive new machinery needed to be set up and functioning quickly, Roberson was the natural choice to oversee the work. A short three months later the new mill was cutting lumber at a hefty 35,000 board feet a day.In the early 1880s Roberson plied his millwright trade from Reno to Lake Tahoe and south to the Yosemite region. From about 1883 through 1889 he maintained the sawmill, planing and shingle mill, ice dam and conveyors of the Boca Lumber and Ice Company. His reputation was secure, and he continued to take on other side jobs. He joined his former partner James Machomick, who was logging for the same company during the 80s.In 1886 he teamed with his son, William Roberson, also now a mechanic, to operate a small steam launch on Donner Lake. Robersons skill as a steam mechanic was instrumental in building and operating the Come. It was a 30-foot long, 8-foot-wide launch capable of hauling 30 passengers around Donner Lake from its base at Strombergs resort on the east end of Donner Lake. The steam engine was rated at 5 horsepower. The price for a round trip tour of Donner Lake was 50 cents. Charles Roberson oversaw the installation of a larger steam engine and better propeller in their second year of operation in 1887. In June of 1887 all of Truckee turned out to witness and enjoy a steamboat race between the Comet and the other steam launch on Donner Lake, the Nora. The upper end of Donner Lake was fairly calm at 4 p.m. when the race started. With 10 pounds less steam pressure to begin with, the Comet lost even more steam from a steam leak. The Nora pulled ahead early and despite a late push by the Comet, the Nora won by four boat lengths. After that loss, business wasnt enough to pay the bills and the Comet was sold at a Constable sale in the fall of 1887, though William Roberson continued to operate the boat.Roberson moved to Shasta County following the lumber trade, as many lumbermen did, but returned to operate the State Line Mill above Verdi in the 1890s. After that he returned to Shasta County where many other Truckee lumberman had moved to. Charles Roberson died in Sacramento in 1920. Charles Roberson lived a full life, just one of the many men who contributed to the history of the Tahoe-Truckee area. Not one of headlines, just a steady professional work ethic. He lived as many did, doing a job and doing it well.Details of the life of Charles Roberson and his stepdaughter, Jessie Calloway Weslow Hale, who followed Roberson around the west as she grew into womanhood can be found in Jessies Footsteps, by Katherine Graziano, available from the Truckee Donner Historical Society as well as the Truckee Library.Gordon Richards is the president and research historian for the Truckee Donner Historical Society. Please visit the Truckee Donner Historical Society Web site at http://truckeehistory.tripod.com. The e-mail address is email@example.com. You may leave a message at 582-0893. | <urn:uuid:7913482c-ada6-4742-b0a0-099ee8900cc5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sierrasun.com/news/rembering-the-life-of-a-millwright/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00366.warc.gz | en | 0.981851 | 2,175 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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The Sierra was first conquered by animal power, with oxen and horses assisting humans in the development and transportation in the mountains. But it was steam power that did the bulk of the work. By burning wood to boil water, steam power was used to move and saw logs into lumber, move boats across the mountain lakes, and many other jobs. It took millwrights such as Charles Roberson to keep the machinery working.Roberson came across the plains in 1852 and made his own way. He had no formal schooling as a millwright or mechanic. He had a natural knack for math and machinery and lived a life on the cusp on new inventions.Roberson first showed up in the Sierra running a sawmill in Cisco in the summer of 1865. The following winter he and his family spent the winter at Meadow Lake, working on mining machinery in that boom and bust mining town 25 miles northwest of Truckee. He used his skills to make excellent wooden skis and bindings for his family and neighbors.In the spring of 1867, Roberson was busy installing a quartz mill at the nearby Mohawk Mine. This machinery was shipped round the horn from the east, and Roberson was one of only a few men in the Sierra who could assemble the boiler, cylinders, engine and crushing mill.
Having to deal with up to 30 feet of snow was just too much for most men, and with the mining machinery complete, Roberson operated the Stonewall steam powered sawmill three miles east of Truckee along the Central Pacific Railroad in 1868 and 69. He sawed bridge and snow shed timbers, railroad ties and lumber while the railroad was extending iron rails east to meet the Union Pacific in Utah.A few years of that and the forest was cut over, so Charles Roberson moved into Truckee. He worked for a few years operating and repairing the steam machinery for pioneer lumberman Elle Ellen. Ellens mill was located a stones throw northwest of downtown Truckee. As with many energetic skilled men in the West, Roberson moved from job to job, always looking for a opportunity to better himself and put his skills to work. Millwrights, machinists and mechanics were in great demand and hard to find in the Sierra where many steam boilers and engines could be found. Many of the parts needed for quick repairs had to be made on the spot using a forge, hammer and anvil.For a time in 1871 Roberson ran Joe Grays sawmill at Camp 20, down the Truckee River Canyon where Gray Creek enters the Truckee River. But what he really wanted was to run his own sawmill. Roberson thrived on the wood fires, hissing steam, pumping water, spinning turbines, whirring saws, thumping of logs and lumber that made up an 1870s sawmill.
In 1871 Roberson partnered with James Machomick and Levi Robbins in construction of the Alder Creek Mill. The mill was powered by three steam engines, had two circular saws, an edger, a planing mill, and a shingle mill. The three steam engines were a curiosity for the times in that they worked together as one. The output of the mill was 40,000 board feet in 12 hours. In addition to lumber, they also cut railroad ties, telegraph poles, and mining timbers. The mill was located north of Truckee where Highway 89 crosses Alder Creek, three miles from downtown Truckee. Machomick was the woods boss, Roberson ran the steam mill, and Robbins was the bookkeeper and ran the lumberyard.Since the sawmill ran mostly during the summer, Roberson found extra work on steam engines at many of the area sawmills when he wasnt needed at Alder Creek, He was always being asked to troubleshoot other steam engines and mechanical devices in the area and his reputation grew. He worked on the machinery at Lake Tahoe sawmills located at Glenbrook and at Pomins. He demanded a high wage and always got it.Roberson used many ingenious techniques to keep the efficiency and production up. He recycled the condensed steam into the millpond to keep it from freezing when the mill had orders it needed to fill in the winter. He tweaked and coaxed higher pressures from anything that burned wood and created steam.Roberson also worked on the steam engines that powered the steamboats that plied Lake Tahoe. When William Campbell, owner of hotels in Truckee and at Brockway Hot Springs needed to have a new boiler and machinery installed in his steamer Truckee, he chose Roberson to do the work, and was quite pleased with the increase in speed Roberson coaxed out of the engine.At first lumber was hauled from the Alder Creek Mill to Truckee on wagons. Due to the steep hill, the route soon was abandoned. They next tried hauling it to Prosser Creek Station on Central Pacific Railroad. The trip by wagon was slow and costly and a more economical way to transport lumber was needed.
In 1873 the Alder Creek Mill completed a five-mile V flume from a reservoir above the mill, down Alder Creek and Prosser Creek to Prosser Creek Station, on the Central Pacific. The flume company was separate from the mill company, but had several common partners. The flume passed under the sawmill so that lumber went straight from the saws into the flume. The lumberyard was located along the Truckee River, at the confluence with Prosser Creek.In September of 1874 the partners built a 6-by-6-foot box flume from the reservoir to the mill. The box flume could float logs of any size from the reservoir to the sawmill. The reservoir was located about a quarter mile above the mill on Alder Creek.The mill was closed during the winter, like many area mills. In times of slow market demand they were temporarily closed, such as in August of 1875. At times when lumber orders demanded the mill ran overtime. In May of 1875 they milled and flumed 50,000 board feet in 12 hours. In June they had 1 million feet on hand in the Prosser Creek station lumber yard. In the woods the logging was done with 20 yoke of oxen hauling logs on huge wagons known as trucks, most of them built by Joe Gray in Truckee. In 1876 the unpredictable lumber business took a downturn and they were forced them to sell the oxen and wagons. The sawmill continued to run, using contract loggers. In February of 1877, Rueben Saxton, who owned a sawmill on the west shore of Lake Tahoe, near present day Sunnyside, was logging over the snow for them. Logging over the snow was a very common practice in this period.. Roberson and Machomick closed the mill down in 1878, after struggling for six years and barely making a living at their own mill.
Roberson went to work for Bragg & Folsoms sawmill at Clinton in the fall of 1879. This mill was across the river from present Hirschdale. The sawmill had burned in September in a spectacular fire. As a set of extensive new machinery needed to be set up and functioning quickly, Roberson was the natural choice to oversee the work. A short three months later the new mill was cutting lumber at a hefty 35,000 board feet a day.In the early 1880s Roberson plied his millwright trade from Reno to Lake Tahoe and south to the Yosemite region. From about 1883 through 1889 he maintained the sawmill, planing and shingle mill, ice dam and conveyors of the Boca Lumber and Ice Company. His reputation was secure, and he continued to take on other side jobs. He joined his former partner James Machomick, who was logging for the same company during the 80s.In 1886 he teamed with his son, William Roberson, also now a mechanic, to operate a small steam launch on Donner Lake. Robersons skill as a steam mechanic was instrumental in building and operating the Come. It was a 30-foot long, 8-foot-wide launch capable of hauling 30 passengers around Donner Lake from its base at Strombergs resort on the east end of Donner Lake. The steam engine was rated at 5 horsepower. The price for a round trip tour of Donner Lake was 50 cents. Charles Roberson oversaw the installation of a larger steam engine and better propeller in their second year of operation in 1887. In June of 1887 all of Truckee turned out to witness and enjoy a steamboat race between the Comet and the other steam launch on Donner Lake, the Nora. The upper end of Donner Lake was fairly calm at 4 p.m. when the race started. With 10 pounds less steam pressure to begin with, the Comet lost even more steam from a steam leak. The Nora pulled ahead early and despite a late push by the Comet, the Nora won by four boat lengths. After that loss, business wasnt enough to pay the bills and the Comet was sold at a Constable sale in the fall of 1887, though William Roberson continued to operate the boat.Roberson moved to Shasta County following the lumber trade, as many lumbermen did, but returned to operate the State Line Mill above Verdi in the 1890s. After that he returned to Shasta County where many other Truckee lumberman had moved to. Charles Roberson died in Sacramento in 1920. Charles Roberson lived a full life, just one of the many men who contributed to the history of the Tahoe-Truckee area. Not one of headlines, just a steady professional work ethic. He lived as many did, doing a job and doing it well.Details of the life of Charles Roberson and his stepdaughter, Jessie Calloway Weslow Hale, who followed Roberson around the west as she grew into womanhood can be found in Jessies Footsteps, by Katherine Graziano, available from the Truckee Donner Historical Society as well as the Truckee Library.Gordon Richards is the president and research historian for the Truckee Donner Historical Society. Please visit the Truckee Donner Historical Society Web site at http://truckeehistory.tripod.com. The e-mail address is email@example.com. You may leave a message at 582-0893. | 2,238 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Terracotta Army is made up of life-size clay soldiers that were buried with the first ever emperor of China.
These clay figures were buried with Emperor Qin Shi Huang to protect him in the afterlife.
An amazing discovery
It is usually archaeologists that make discoveries like this around the world. However, on this occasion, it wasn’t archaeologists at all.
In 1974, there were some workers digging a well near Xi’an in China. They were shocked when they accidentally came across one of the most amazing discoveries of all time.
At first, they just found one life-sized soldier ready for battle. They contacted an archaeologist who then found around thousands and thousands of them.
Clues about the army of the past
Emperor Qin Shi Huang must have gone to great trouble to get these soldiers made. Each of the soldiers has a different expression on their face. No two are exactly the same.
They all have different clothes, weapons and hairstyles.
There is so much detail that you could even look at the warriors to understand more about the army at the time of the Qin Dynasty.
Each piece of clothing or hairstyle gives us a clue about what rank or status the soldiers were, or what they did in the army.
There are different types of soldiers represented. There is the cavalry (with horses), soldiers (including standing and kneeling archers) and different ranks of officers.
There are also charioteers (chariot warriors and chariot drivers).
They are a brownish colour now. However, at the time they were buried, they were most likely painted bright colours.
How were they built?
They must have taken a long time to build. They were extremely tall at 1.8 meters high. They weigh a lot too (160 kg each). They were not built with fancy tools or power tools. Each one was built by hand.
Each of the arms, legs and body were made separately and put together. It was important to Emperor Qin that each figure was perfect so he would be successful in the afterlife.
Every warrior was stamped with the name of the person in charge of making it. This was so that mistakes could be tracked to the person who made it.
Historians believe that it took 700,000 workers and craftspeople (artisans) to build the tomb where they were buried and make the warriors.
So why did Emperor Qin go to so much trouble?
During his life, Emperor Qin was very powerful and had united China. During the Warring States Period, Emperor Qin had defeated other powerful states.
He had great military power. After he died, he wanted to go into the afterlife with the importance and status he had during his lifetime.
He also decided to build the Terracotta Army to remember the powerful army that had been so successful for Emperor Qin during battle.
There was another reason that Emperor Qin wanted these built. Before the Qin Dynasty, rulers from Shang and Zhou Dynasties were buried with soldiers and other people who had worked for them during their lifetime.
To do this, they had to carry out human sacrifice. The Terracotta Warriors replaced real people and this meant that real human sacrifices could be avoided.
Where can you see the Terracotta Warriors?
You can now visit the Terracotta Warriors in person at the Terracotta Warriors Museum in Xi’an. There have also been exhibitions of some of the warriors that tour in other countries around the world. | <urn:uuid:70490229-5b79-4137-a852-7a4df55ca2b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.savvyleo.com/world-history/ancient-china/terracotta-army/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00455.warc.gz | en | 0.991309 | 717 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.451280534267425... | 12 | The Terracotta Army is made up of life-size clay soldiers that were buried with the first ever emperor of China.
These clay figures were buried with Emperor Qin Shi Huang to protect him in the afterlife.
An amazing discovery
It is usually archaeologists that make discoveries like this around the world. However, on this occasion, it wasn’t archaeologists at all.
In 1974, there were some workers digging a well near Xi’an in China. They were shocked when they accidentally came across one of the most amazing discoveries of all time.
At first, they just found one life-sized soldier ready for battle. They contacted an archaeologist who then found around thousands and thousands of them.
Clues about the army of the past
Emperor Qin Shi Huang must have gone to great trouble to get these soldiers made. Each of the soldiers has a different expression on their face. No two are exactly the same.
They all have different clothes, weapons and hairstyles.
There is so much detail that you could even look at the warriors to understand more about the army at the time of the Qin Dynasty.
Each piece of clothing or hairstyle gives us a clue about what rank or status the soldiers were, or what they did in the army.
There are different types of soldiers represented. There is the cavalry (with horses), soldiers (including standing and kneeling archers) and different ranks of officers.
There are also charioteers (chariot warriors and chariot drivers).
They are a brownish colour now. However, at the time they were buried, they were most likely painted bright colours.
How were they built?
They must have taken a long time to build. They were extremely tall at 1.8 meters high. They weigh a lot too (160 kg each). They were not built with fancy tools or power tools. Each one was built by hand.
Each of the arms, legs and body were made separately and put together. It was important to Emperor Qin that each figure was perfect so he would be successful in the afterlife.
Every warrior was stamped with the name of the person in charge of making it. This was so that mistakes could be tracked to the person who made it.
Historians believe that it took 700,000 workers and craftspeople (artisans) to build the tomb where they were buried and make the warriors.
So why did Emperor Qin go to so much trouble?
During his life, Emperor Qin was very powerful and had united China. During the Warring States Period, Emperor Qin had defeated other powerful states.
He had great military power. After he died, he wanted to go into the afterlife with the importance and status he had during his lifetime.
He also decided to build the Terracotta Army to remember the powerful army that had been so successful for Emperor Qin during battle.
There was another reason that Emperor Qin wanted these built. Before the Qin Dynasty, rulers from Shang and Zhou Dynasties were buried with soldiers and other people who had worked for them during their lifetime.
To do this, they had to carry out human sacrifice. The Terracotta Warriors replaced real people and this meant that real human sacrifices could be avoided.
Where can you see the Terracotta Warriors?
You can now visit the Terracotta Warriors in person at the Terracotta Warriors Museum in Xi’an. There have also been exhibitions of some of the warriors that tour in other countries around the world. | 699 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Death of Captain Cook – 14 February 1779
On 4 February the exploratory vessel Resolution, Captain James Cook, in company with the Discovery, Commander Charles Clerke, departed Hawaii to commence their homeward voyage to England. They had left Plymouth over two and a half years earlier, and their voyage of exploration had taken them to Kerguelen Island, Van Dieman?s Land (modern-day Tasmania ), Queen Charlotte?s Sound on the south island of New Zealand, the Friendly Islands, the Sandwich Islands, Nookta Sound, the Bering Strait and the Arctic ice cap, prior to their return to Hawaii in the Sandwich Islands in December 1778.
Upon departing Hawaii again, the explorers left behind them the friendship of the natives who although prone to petty thievery had displayed a mixture of reverential awe and compassion in their dealings with Cook. The famous explorer could therefore have had few qualms about returning to Hawaii to effect repairs some days later when the two ships were overtaken by a storm in which the Resolution sprung her foremast.
To the contrary, when the Resolution and Discovery returned to Kealakekua Bay in the islands on Thursday 11 February the greeting the Europeans received from some of the natives was surprisingly unfriendly. Although the islanders? craft initially swarmed around the British ships with the usual goods for sale, the Hawaiian king, who was known to the British as Kerri Oboo, and several other chiefs made plain their displeasure at the expeditions? return.
Over the next couple of days the carpenters went about repairing the foremast on the beach whilst the islanders began to add insolence and threatening behaviour to their habitual pilfering. This new-found belligerence was demonstrated by a protracted attempt to steal the armourer’s tongs. After the first theft Cook brought the miscreant on board the Resolution and had him flogged before restraining him in irons until the tongs were returned. Later in the morning a watering party was assailed with stones, and that afternoon another man came aboard the Resolution, grabbed the newly-recovered tongs, and made off with them. The subsequent boat chase and struggle to recover the tongs saw the British open up with musketry and the natives respond with more intense stone-throwing. It was a warning of what was to come.
That night the Resolution’s cutter disappeared. When the crime was discovered at daybreak the British sent out their boats to blockade the native canoes whilst Captain Cook went ashore with ten marines, including the lieutenant, Molesworth Phillips, to detain the King. His plan was to take Kerri Oboo on board the Resolution as a friendly hostage in order to obtain the return of the cutter and prevent any further misdemeanours. As usual Cook was treated with reverence by the natives who stood aside to let him pass, but upon making his way towards the town musket shots were heard from the direction of the boats that were guarding the canoes. Cook was never to know it, but this musketry killed one of the more prominent chiefs, Kalimu, and news of his death would soon reach the natives congregating on the beach.
Meanwhile the King had been awakened after a short delay, and being singularly anxious to please, and apparently being unaware of the theft of the cutter, he agreed to go with Cook. However when the party reached the beach the King?s favourite wife threw her arms about him and the other natives made it clear that they opposed the detention of their leader. In the confusion a number of the islanders, their blood up following the killing of Kalimu, could be seen arming themselves, and in what appeared to be an attempt to distract the marines a holy man began chanting and dancing around them.
Sensing danger, Cook now decided to abandon his plan of taking the King aboard the Resolution. But it was too late; the situation had taken a decided turn for the worse.
A native armed with a dagger and a stone threatened Cook who responded by firing a small charge into the ground, intending to scare him off. Another armed islander began advancing upon Lieutenant Phillips who reversed his musket and butted away. Stones were then thrown at the marines, one of whom was felled. Cook shot point blank at one man who miraculously was unhurt. The sergeant of marines shot at another.
Now more natives began to surround the landing party, the marines opened fire, and when they attempted to reload the natives advanced in earnest. Offshore, Lieutenant John Williamson in command of the launch watched the attack and did nothing, but from two of the Resolution’s other boats, one of them commanded by Midshipman William Bligh, a fire was unleashed on the threatening crowd of natives. Cook ordered a retreat to the boats but four of his marines, still struggling to reload their weapons, were chased onto the slippery rocks, into the water and were cut down. At Cook?s instruction the rest of the marines fled for the nearest boat offshore.
The great explorer was suddenly alone in front of the mob. A chief rushed at him with a club and struck a blow to his head. Cook responded by thrusting the man back with his musket. He was clubbed again with a blow that sent him to his knees. Crawling towards the water he was stabbed in the neck. Then more hands pushed him down, trying to drown him in the shallow waters. Desperately he crawled back on land again, but now knives and fists were flailing down upon him, and it was alone on the rocks amongst the pack of savages that he died; beaten, hacked, and stabbed to death.
On the beach the blood-letting continued before the Resolutions? cannon fire cleared the mob away and allowed the mast and the other men ashore to be removed to safety. In total some twenty-six Hawaiians lost their lives in the gunfire, with scores more being injured. There were further native deaths over the next few days as the British landing parties were met with hostility, although during the same period a number of friendly natives left food and other offerings for the British.
As for poor Captain Cook the natives took his body back to their village and prepared it for a chief?s funeral. This involved disembowelling and baking to remove the flesh before the bones were cleaned and distributed amongst the chiefs as war trophies. One friendly native did manage to secrete some thigh flesh from the gory ritual and he returned this to Captain Clerke. It would be another week before more substantial parts of Cook?s remains were returned, and on the afternoon of Sunday 21st these were committed to the waters of Kealakekua Bay in the customary fashion. Next day the Resolution and Discovery set sail from the bloody bay.
Such was Williamson?s miserable conduct that Captain Clerke later wrote a damning indictment of it, intending that it be used at a court-martial once they returned home. Sadly Clerke died before the end of the voyage, however eighteen years later at the Battle of Camperdown Captain Williamson was found out for his want of courage, and following the engagement he was court-martialled and dismissed the service for cowardice and misconduct in not bringing his ship to action.
Meanwhile, after re-visiting the Bering Strait and voyaging along the east coast of Japan the Resolution and Discovery continued their long journey home, eventually reaching the Nore on 4 October 1780 under the command of Lieutenant James Burney. | <urn:uuid:4f07672d-8714-4f32-8bae-d8bb0aee095e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://morethannelson.com/death-captain-cook-14-february-1779/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00267.warc.gz | en | 0.983732 | 1,545 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.399753928184... | 1 | The Death of Captain Cook – 14 February 1779
On 4 February the exploratory vessel Resolution, Captain James Cook, in company with the Discovery, Commander Charles Clerke, departed Hawaii to commence their homeward voyage to England. They had left Plymouth over two and a half years earlier, and their voyage of exploration had taken them to Kerguelen Island, Van Dieman?s Land (modern-day Tasmania ), Queen Charlotte?s Sound on the south island of New Zealand, the Friendly Islands, the Sandwich Islands, Nookta Sound, the Bering Strait and the Arctic ice cap, prior to their return to Hawaii in the Sandwich Islands in December 1778.
Upon departing Hawaii again, the explorers left behind them the friendship of the natives who although prone to petty thievery had displayed a mixture of reverential awe and compassion in their dealings with Cook. The famous explorer could therefore have had few qualms about returning to Hawaii to effect repairs some days later when the two ships were overtaken by a storm in which the Resolution sprung her foremast.
To the contrary, when the Resolution and Discovery returned to Kealakekua Bay in the islands on Thursday 11 February the greeting the Europeans received from some of the natives was surprisingly unfriendly. Although the islanders? craft initially swarmed around the British ships with the usual goods for sale, the Hawaiian king, who was known to the British as Kerri Oboo, and several other chiefs made plain their displeasure at the expeditions? return.
Over the next couple of days the carpenters went about repairing the foremast on the beach whilst the islanders began to add insolence and threatening behaviour to their habitual pilfering. This new-found belligerence was demonstrated by a protracted attempt to steal the armourer’s tongs. After the first theft Cook brought the miscreant on board the Resolution and had him flogged before restraining him in irons until the tongs were returned. Later in the morning a watering party was assailed with stones, and that afternoon another man came aboard the Resolution, grabbed the newly-recovered tongs, and made off with them. The subsequent boat chase and struggle to recover the tongs saw the British open up with musketry and the natives respond with more intense stone-throwing. It was a warning of what was to come.
That night the Resolution’s cutter disappeared. When the crime was discovered at daybreak the British sent out their boats to blockade the native canoes whilst Captain Cook went ashore with ten marines, including the lieutenant, Molesworth Phillips, to detain the King. His plan was to take Kerri Oboo on board the Resolution as a friendly hostage in order to obtain the return of the cutter and prevent any further misdemeanours. As usual Cook was treated with reverence by the natives who stood aside to let him pass, but upon making his way towards the town musket shots were heard from the direction of the boats that were guarding the canoes. Cook was never to know it, but this musketry killed one of the more prominent chiefs, Kalimu, and news of his death would soon reach the natives congregating on the beach.
Meanwhile the King had been awakened after a short delay, and being singularly anxious to please, and apparently being unaware of the theft of the cutter, he agreed to go with Cook. However when the party reached the beach the King?s favourite wife threw her arms about him and the other natives made it clear that they opposed the detention of their leader. In the confusion a number of the islanders, their blood up following the killing of Kalimu, could be seen arming themselves, and in what appeared to be an attempt to distract the marines a holy man began chanting and dancing around them.
Sensing danger, Cook now decided to abandon his plan of taking the King aboard the Resolution. But it was too late; the situation had taken a decided turn for the worse.
A native armed with a dagger and a stone threatened Cook who responded by firing a small charge into the ground, intending to scare him off. Another armed islander began advancing upon Lieutenant Phillips who reversed his musket and butted away. Stones were then thrown at the marines, one of whom was felled. Cook shot point blank at one man who miraculously was unhurt. The sergeant of marines shot at another.
Now more natives began to surround the landing party, the marines opened fire, and when they attempted to reload the natives advanced in earnest. Offshore, Lieutenant John Williamson in command of the launch watched the attack and did nothing, but from two of the Resolution’s other boats, one of them commanded by Midshipman William Bligh, a fire was unleashed on the threatening crowd of natives. Cook ordered a retreat to the boats but four of his marines, still struggling to reload their weapons, were chased onto the slippery rocks, into the water and were cut down. At Cook?s instruction the rest of the marines fled for the nearest boat offshore.
The great explorer was suddenly alone in front of the mob. A chief rushed at him with a club and struck a blow to his head. Cook responded by thrusting the man back with his musket. He was clubbed again with a blow that sent him to his knees. Crawling towards the water he was stabbed in the neck. Then more hands pushed him down, trying to drown him in the shallow waters. Desperately he crawled back on land again, but now knives and fists were flailing down upon him, and it was alone on the rocks amongst the pack of savages that he died; beaten, hacked, and stabbed to death.
On the beach the blood-letting continued before the Resolutions? cannon fire cleared the mob away and allowed the mast and the other men ashore to be removed to safety. In total some twenty-six Hawaiians lost their lives in the gunfire, with scores more being injured. There were further native deaths over the next few days as the British landing parties were met with hostility, although during the same period a number of friendly natives left food and other offerings for the British.
As for poor Captain Cook the natives took his body back to their village and prepared it for a chief?s funeral. This involved disembowelling and baking to remove the flesh before the bones were cleaned and distributed amongst the chiefs as war trophies. One friendly native did manage to secrete some thigh flesh from the gory ritual and he returned this to Captain Clerke. It would be another week before more substantial parts of Cook?s remains were returned, and on the afternoon of Sunday 21st these were committed to the waters of Kealakekua Bay in the customary fashion. Next day the Resolution and Discovery set sail from the bloody bay.
Such was Williamson?s miserable conduct that Captain Clerke later wrote a damning indictment of it, intending that it be used at a court-martial once they returned home. Sadly Clerke died before the end of the voyage, however eighteen years later at the Battle of Camperdown Captain Williamson was found out for his want of courage, and following the engagement he was court-martialled and dismissed the service for cowardice and misconduct in not bringing his ship to action.
Meanwhile, after re-visiting the Bering Strait and voyaging along the east coast of Japan the Resolution and Discovery continued their long journey home, eventually reaching the Nore on 4 October 1780 under the command of Lieutenant James Burney. | 1,531 | ENGLISH | 1 |
leo da vinci unraveeled
Leonardo Da Vinci Unraveled
Leonardo's life spanned the the middle of 15th and early 16th centuries, a period of time known as the Renaissance. During this time, artsy, social, clinical and political thought shifted from the lack of knowledge and superstition of the Ancient to embrace reason, scientific research, learning and tolerance.
Created in Italia on Apr 15, 1452 in the small mountain town of Vinci, Leonardo was the son of the lawyer. This individual grew up exposed to a tradition of painting. Old wives tales advise that when Leonardo was fresh, his dad asked him to fresh paint a picture of the shield. Leonardo thought it could be much more interesting to color a creature. He accumulated lizards, bats and other deceased animals and tried to reproduce them to make his work of genius. He don't even realize that the animals were decaying as he painted. When his father observed the painting, he was thankful for its realism and realized that Leonardo must be a great artist.
Leonardo also tried light and shadow in his artwork to recreate the 3-dimensional kind of objects. His paintings were among the first to demonstrate changes in the depth and color of an object to create an optical illusion of interesting depth and range. His most well-known artworks are the Baptism of Christ, The Mona Lisa, The past Supper as well as the Adoration of Three Kings.
An important facet of Leonardo's are an specialist was his ability to combine art and science. He used his knowledge of body structure and his findings of how things moved and appeared naturally to complement his art. Considering that the 19th century, Western tradition has considered art and science as separate schools of thought. A large number of consider Leonardo's work to symbolize the former express of unanimity between the two disciplines
Leonardo the Scientist 
During the later years of his life, Leonardo was more fascinated by science than he was simply by art. Leonardo was not limited by the technology of his time. This individual studied and thought of tips that were possible. One of his greatest accomplishments is the variety of topics that...
Consider the Divided Consciousness How do the use of hypnosis and deep breathing be .. | <urn:uuid:f3d6901c-359a-4678-b037-82510b521e5b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://21stcenturyfinancialeducationsummit.com/leo-da-vinci-unraveeled/84285-leo-de-uma-vinci-unraveeled-essay.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00106.warc.gz | en | 0.986036 | 465 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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Leonardo Da Vinci Unraveled
Leonardo's life spanned the the middle of 15th and early 16th centuries, a period of time known as the Renaissance. During this time, artsy, social, clinical and political thought shifted from the lack of knowledge and superstition of the Ancient to embrace reason, scientific research, learning and tolerance.
Created in Italia on Apr 15, 1452 in the small mountain town of Vinci, Leonardo was the son of the lawyer. This individual grew up exposed to a tradition of painting. Old wives tales advise that when Leonardo was fresh, his dad asked him to fresh paint a picture of the shield. Leonardo thought it could be much more interesting to color a creature. He accumulated lizards, bats and other deceased animals and tried to reproduce them to make his work of genius. He don't even realize that the animals were decaying as he painted. When his father observed the painting, he was thankful for its realism and realized that Leonardo must be a great artist.
Leonardo also tried light and shadow in his artwork to recreate the 3-dimensional kind of objects. His paintings were among the first to demonstrate changes in the depth and color of an object to create an optical illusion of interesting depth and range. His most well-known artworks are the Baptism of Christ, The Mona Lisa, The past Supper as well as the Adoration of Three Kings.
An important facet of Leonardo's are an specialist was his ability to combine art and science. He used his knowledge of body structure and his findings of how things moved and appeared naturally to complement his art. Considering that the 19th century, Western tradition has considered art and science as separate schools of thought. A large number of consider Leonardo's work to symbolize the former express of unanimity between the two disciplines
Leonardo the Scientist 
During the later years of his life, Leonardo was more fascinated by science than he was simply by art. Leonardo was not limited by the technology of his time. This individual studied and thought of tips that were possible. One of his greatest accomplishments is the variety of topics that...
Consider the Divided Consciousness How do the use of hypnosis and deep breathing be .. | 462 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Courtship Through the Eyes of the Elite and Courtesans
Most of what is known about marriage, love, and courtship are from the growing society at the time, property-owners. Though England was ruled by a powerful woman, Queen Elizabeth I, women were not typically seen in careers of power. A woman’s typical role in society was marriage to motherhood. A wife’s job was to rear children, take care of them and run the household work. Elite women had the luxury of servants to help with the children and household duties, but lower-class women had no help and must do the work herself.
There were certain women during the sixteenth century that were entirely at leisure and free from motherhood and household duties. These women were courtesans – today known as prostitutes. During the sixteenth century, it was a much different profession than today. Courtesans were taught politics, read literature, and were the most knowledgeable women in the world. Courtesans also suffered a cruel fate near the end of their prime. Once used up, they could either find a man to marry or be unwanted by anyone.
Courtesans chose to pursue this profession because of having no other option open for them. Many were too delicate to become a scullery maid or work in the winery. This gave them an option to use their beauty to their advantage and move their way up in social ranking, though they still could not marry a man above their station. Sixteenth-century ways of thinking are seen as repugnant to modern day thinking. Men were seen as superior beings over women due to physical nature. It was said that because males had greater physical strength, higher intellectual ability, and capacity for feeling they were more dominant over women. The Renaissance was, of course, a time of upheaval. Literacy, faith, politics, and social values all were challenged, molded and changed to what they will eventually become in the twenty-first century. | <urn:uuid:4ec7e605-e6d7-4fc7-9d1d-6e2bf0d44d96> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historycollection.co/see-marriage-love-and-courtship-through-the-eyes-of-william-shakespeare/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00072.warc.gz | en | 0.992273 | 403 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.154007807374000... | 2 | Courtship Through the Eyes of the Elite and Courtesans
Most of what is known about marriage, love, and courtship are from the growing society at the time, property-owners. Though England was ruled by a powerful woman, Queen Elizabeth I, women were not typically seen in careers of power. A woman’s typical role in society was marriage to motherhood. A wife’s job was to rear children, take care of them and run the household work. Elite women had the luxury of servants to help with the children and household duties, but lower-class women had no help and must do the work herself.
There were certain women during the sixteenth century that were entirely at leisure and free from motherhood and household duties. These women were courtesans – today known as prostitutes. During the sixteenth century, it was a much different profession than today. Courtesans were taught politics, read literature, and were the most knowledgeable women in the world. Courtesans also suffered a cruel fate near the end of their prime. Once used up, they could either find a man to marry or be unwanted by anyone.
Courtesans chose to pursue this profession because of having no other option open for them. Many were too delicate to become a scullery maid or work in the winery. This gave them an option to use their beauty to their advantage and move their way up in social ranking, though they still could not marry a man above their station. Sixteenth-century ways of thinking are seen as repugnant to modern day thinking. Men were seen as superior beings over women due to physical nature. It was said that because males had greater physical strength, higher intellectual ability, and capacity for feeling they were more dominant over women. The Renaissance was, of course, a time of upheaval. Literacy, faith, politics, and social values all were challenged, molded and changed to what they will eventually become in the twenty-first century. | 394 | ENGLISH | 1 |
CONSTITUTION CORNER - Article 7
BEN FRANKLIN: FROM PRINTER’S ASSISTANT TO STATESMAN
By Judy Leithe
Benjamin Franklin was born in Boston, Massachusetts on January 17, 1706. He was the fifteenth of seventeen children born to his Puritan parents Josias and Abiah Franklin. In his early years, young Ben attended school and showed a distinct talent for writing, and a little less for arithmetic. However, by the age of ten, the cost of Ben’s schooling became a burden for his father, who put him work in his soap-boiling and candle-making business, a trade which Ben found tedious.
One of Ben’s older brothers, James, had gone to England to learn the printing business. He returned to Boston with his own printing press with which he operated a relatively successful print shop. Josias wanted to keep his twelve-year-old son, Ben, from becoming a merchant sailor, so he asked James to take Ben on as an apprentice. James was quite stern, probably mirroring his trade masters in England, and had his younger brother sign an indenture for nine years.
James started a newspaper called, The New England Courant, which Ben delivered door-to-door in the city. Ben loved having access to books and magazines, and from the latter he learned the art of essay-writing. Under the pseudonym, Silent Dogood, Ben began secretly submitting his own essays for publication in his brother’s newspaper. The Dogood essays became quite popular as they cleverly mocked the Boston society and government.
There was no such thing as a free press in Massachusetts, or in any of the other colonies under British rule. The Boston magistrates did not take kindly to being satirized, and they arrested James. This left Ben to run the shop and the paper, a job the young apprentice managed quite well. When James was released from custody, he and Ben had several disagreements, but when Ben tried to find employment at another print shops, he found James had spoken poorly about him to all of the other printers.
By age 17, Franklin struck out on his own, arriving in Philadelphia with one dollar in his pocket. His skills and hard work were recognized by local printers, and in time, Franklin was able to own his own printing business. He was a voracious reader, and early in his life, he even became a vegetarian in order to keep his food costs down in order to buy more books. Now that his income was steady, Franklin began amassing a substantial library of his own. Eventually, his collection became the nucleus for the Philadelphia Public Library.
During his 20s and 30s, Franklin published his essays in his annual which he called, Poor Richard’s Almanac. For over twenty years his almanac enjoyed wide circulation in the colonies and England, as well as being translated into major European languages. An example of one of his quotes stemmed from his interest in promoting human potential: “I am for doing good to the poor, but I think the best way of doing good to the poor is not making them easy in poverty…the more public provisions were made for the poor, the less they provided for themselves, and of course, became poorer.
”At age 30, Franklin was appointed clerk of the Pennsylvania General Assembly, and the next year he was appointed Postmaster of Philadelphia, later to become the first Postmaster General of the U.S. Ever striving to improve himself and his community, he created the American Philosophical Society, through which he developed projects such as: paving Pennsylvania roads; providing gas lighting for Philadelphia streets; and creating a welfare system for widows. He helped establish the University of Pennsylvania, and raised funds to build the nation’s first hospital, called the Pennsylvania Hospital.
Among his numerous projects, Franklin invented bifocal lenses, and in his mid-thirties, he invented his Franklin Stove. Throughout history, fireplaces were the only means of heating interior rooms. The heat was uneven, required constant tending, and the fires caused serious burns and even deaths, especially when women’s petty coats caught fire as they cooked over the open flames. Franklin’s stove was a metal-lined box with a baffle-system which circulated a steadier flow of heat into the room while allowing smoke to rise up through the chimney. Turning down the offer of a patent, Franklin preferred to make a gift of his transformative invention to his fellow man.
He was also thought to have advanced the understanding of the nature of electricity by his kite and key experiment, which resulted in his invention of the lightening rod. Scientists at that time thought there were liquid sources of positive and negative charges coursing through solid matter, and when their paths crossed, electricity was the result. Franklin thought that lightening and electricity were linked, and through his experiments proved his Theory on Electricity to be correct. It took another century before Thomas Edison and Nicholai Tesla could harness electricity for everyday use.
By his early 40s, Franklin had expanded his printing business throughout the colonies. At this time, he took on a partner to run the businesses while he remained a silent partner. Income from print shops, as well as from continuing sales of Poor Richard’s Almanac, meant that he could retire and focus on his numerous interests. He was a writer, inventor, philosopher, scientist, abolitionist, and was increasingly called into service as a statesman. As a Founding Father, he signed the first four documents that set the United States on its path to sovereignty: the Declaration of Independence; the Treaty of Alliance with France; the Treaty of Peace among the governments of U.S., France, and England, and the U.S. Constitution. | <urn:uuid:1591c887-ef25-4b7d-ba04-8a635fc308b0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://womenofwa.com/information/constitution-corner/constitution-corner-article-7.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00247.warc.gz | en | 0.990237 | 1,188 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.19089928269... | 3 | CONSTITUTION CORNER - Article 7
BEN FRANKLIN: FROM PRINTER’S ASSISTANT TO STATESMAN
By Judy Leithe
Benjamin Franklin was born in Boston, Massachusetts on January 17, 1706. He was the fifteenth of seventeen children born to his Puritan parents Josias and Abiah Franklin. In his early years, young Ben attended school and showed a distinct talent for writing, and a little less for arithmetic. However, by the age of ten, the cost of Ben’s schooling became a burden for his father, who put him work in his soap-boiling and candle-making business, a trade which Ben found tedious.
One of Ben’s older brothers, James, had gone to England to learn the printing business. He returned to Boston with his own printing press with which he operated a relatively successful print shop. Josias wanted to keep his twelve-year-old son, Ben, from becoming a merchant sailor, so he asked James to take Ben on as an apprentice. James was quite stern, probably mirroring his trade masters in England, and had his younger brother sign an indenture for nine years.
James started a newspaper called, The New England Courant, which Ben delivered door-to-door in the city. Ben loved having access to books and magazines, and from the latter he learned the art of essay-writing. Under the pseudonym, Silent Dogood, Ben began secretly submitting his own essays for publication in his brother’s newspaper. The Dogood essays became quite popular as they cleverly mocked the Boston society and government.
There was no such thing as a free press in Massachusetts, or in any of the other colonies under British rule. The Boston magistrates did not take kindly to being satirized, and they arrested James. This left Ben to run the shop and the paper, a job the young apprentice managed quite well. When James was released from custody, he and Ben had several disagreements, but when Ben tried to find employment at another print shops, he found James had spoken poorly about him to all of the other printers.
By age 17, Franklin struck out on his own, arriving in Philadelphia with one dollar in his pocket. His skills and hard work were recognized by local printers, and in time, Franklin was able to own his own printing business. He was a voracious reader, and early in his life, he even became a vegetarian in order to keep his food costs down in order to buy more books. Now that his income was steady, Franklin began amassing a substantial library of his own. Eventually, his collection became the nucleus for the Philadelphia Public Library.
During his 20s and 30s, Franklin published his essays in his annual which he called, Poor Richard’s Almanac. For over twenty years his almanac enjoyed wide circulation in the colonies and England, as well as being translated into major European languages. An example of one of his quotes stemmed from his interest in promoting human potential: “I am for doing good to the poor, but I think the best way of doing good to the poor is not making them easy in poverty…the more public provisions were made for the poor, the less they provided for themselves, and of course, became poorer.
”At age 30, Franklin was appointed clerk of the Pennsylvania General Assembly, and the next year he was appointed Postmaster of Philadelphia, later to become the first Postmaster General of the U.S. Ever striving to improve himself and his community, he created the American Philosophical Society, through which he developed projects such as: paving Pennsylvania roads; providing gas lighting for Philadelphia streets; and creating a welfare system for widows. He helped establish the University of Pennsylvania, and raised funds to build the nation’s first hospital, called the Pennsylvania Hospital.
Among his numerous projects, Franklin invented bifocal lenses, and in his mid-thirties, he invented his Franklin Stove. Throughout history, fireplaces were the only means of heating interior rooms. The heat was uneven, required constant tending, and the fires caused serious burns and even deaths, especially when women’s petty coats caught fire as they cooked over the open flames. Franklin’s stove was a metal-lined box with a baffle-system which circulated a steadier flow of heat into the room while allowing smoke to rise up through the chimney. Turning down the offer of a patent, Franklin preferred to make a gift of his transformative invention to his fellow man.
He was also thought to have advanced the understanding of the nature of electricity by his kite and key experiment, which resulted in his invention of the lightening rod. Scientists at that time thought there were liquid sources of positive and negative charges coursing through solid matter, and when their paths crossed, electricity was the result. Franklin thought that lightening and electricity were linked, and through his experiments proved his Theory on Electricity to be correct. It took another century before Thomas Edison and Nicholai Tesla could harness electricity for everyday use.
By his early 40s, Franklin had expanded his printing business throughout the colonies. At this time, he took on a partner to run the businesses while he remained a silent partner. Income from print shops, as well as from continuing sales of Poor Richard’s Almanac, meant that he could retire and focus on his numerous interests. He was a writer, inventor, philosopher, scientist, abolitionist, and was increasingly called into service as a statesman. As a Founding Father, he signed the first four documents that set the United States on its path to sovereignty: the Declaration of Independence; the Treaty of Alliance with France; the Treaty of Peace among the governments of U.S., France, and England, and the U.S. Constitution. | 1,163 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the handy things about vaccines is that once a sufficient proportion of the population has been vaccinated, even people who haven't been have lower rates of whatever disease the vaccine protects against. That's because the virus, now facing a housing shortage of sorts, cannot spread as widely. Think of it this way: if you are not vaccinated against it, you might catch the flu from a person on the subway and then pass it on to your roommate. But if you are vaccinated against it, the virus can't spread to you and from you to your roommate. Even if she is not vaccinated, your roommate is protected from catching the flu (at least from you). The phenomenon is called herd immunity
. Now, researchers are reporting that the HPV vaccine, which protects people from a strain of human papilloma virus that causes cervical cancer, may already be helping lower the rate of infection even in people who aren't vaccinated
. The study looked at rates of HPV infection in teens and young women at two primary care clinics before the vaccine went on the market and several years afterwards, and found that infections from the cancer-causing HPV strain were down, from more than 30% to around 13%. What was interesting was that the drop wasn't just due to vaccinated women not having the disease; even when the researchers just looked at women who hadn't been vaccinated, their rates were down to 15%. The vaccine is only 6 years old, and herd immunity usually takes a while to build up, so seeing an effect this early is a bit surprising. And the study is not very large (about 400 in each group), so more research will be required to confirm the effect. But if it is confirmed, it will be pretty exciting that a disease can be knocked down so quickly, even with just a portion of the population vaccinated.
Vaccine image via Shutterstock | <urn:uuid:6150feb7-0624-477a-ad4d-c061fd9fdd3d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/is-the-hpv-vaccine-already-protecting-people-who-havent-gotten-the-shots | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00221.warc.gz | en | 0.983145 | 373 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.0259222444146... | 9 | One of the handy things about vaccines is that once a sufficient proportion of the population has been vaccinated, even people who haven't been have lower rates of whatever disease the vaccine protects against. That's because the virus, now facing a housing shortage of sorts, cannot spread as widely. Think of it this way: if you are not vaccinated against it, you might catch the flu from a person on the subway and then pass it on to your roommate. But if you are vaccinated against it, the virus can't spread to you and from you to your roommate. Even if she is not vaccinated, your roommate is protected from catching the flu (at least from you). The phenomenon is called herd immunity
. Now, researchers are reporting that the HPV vaccine, which protects people from a strain of human papilloma virus that causes cervical cancer, may already be helping lower the rate of infection even in people who aren't vaccinated
. The study looked at rates of HPV infection in teens and young women at two primary care clinics before the vaccine went on the market and several years afterwards, and found that infections from the cancer-causing HPV strain were down, from more than 30% to around 13%. What was interesting was that the drop wasn't just due to vaccinated women not having the disease; even when the researchers just looked at women who hadn't been vaccinated, their rates were down to 15%. The vaccine is only 6 years old, and herd immunity usually takes a while to build up, so seeing an effect this early is a bit surprising. And the study is not very large (about 400 in each group), so more research will be required to confirm the effect. But if it is confirmed, it will be pretty exciting that a disease can be knocked down so quickly, even with just a portion of the population vaccinated.
Vaccine image via Shutterstock | 380 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Consider the following conversation:
"Gerda," said Hans, "we must know if Petra went to Berlin." "Well," said Gerda, "we know that if she didn't then she went to Cologne. And we know that she didn't go to both Cologne and Dusseldorf." "Yes, yes," said Hans, "that's all true. And we also know that she went to at least one of Dusseldorf or Essen." "Exactly," said Gerda, "and if she went to Essen she didn't go to Cologne. So your question is answered, Hans."
(a) Gerda clearly thinks that she and Hans have enough information to resolve the issue of Petra's whereabouts. Decide on the conclusion Gerda thinks is correct and symbolize the argument which leads to that conclusion. Remember to give a clear key.
So far I have..
B = Petra went to Berlin C = Petra went to Cologne D = Petra went to Dusseldorf E = Petra went to Essen. ~ = negation E -> ~C , (D v E) v (D & E) , ~(C & D) , ~ B -> C / B.
What I am confused on is that, is this the way to "symbolize the argument which leads to that conclusion." ? | <urn:uuid:c5a1513d-8513-4249-91f9-8a1b49e86a97> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/38274/symbolizing-an-argument-and-deciding-on-a-conclusion | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00080.warc.gz | en | 0.981895 | 278 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.090305954217... | 9 | Consider the following conversation:
"Gerda," said Hans, "we must know if Petra went to Berlin." "Well," said Gerda, "we know that if she didn't then she went to Cologne. And we know that she didn't go to both Cologne and Dusseldorf." "Yes, yes," said Hans, "that's all true. And we also know that she went to at least one of Dusseldorf or Essen." "Exactly," said Gerda, "and if she went to Essen she didn't go to Cologne. So your question is answered, Hans."
(a) Gerda clearly thinks that she and Hans have enough information to resolve the issue of Petra's whereabouts. Decide on the conclusion Gerda thinks is correct and symbolize the argument which leads to that conclusion. Remember to give a clear key.
So far I have..
B = Petra went to Berlin C = Petra went to Cologne D = Petra went to Dusseldorf E = Petra went to Essen. ~ = negation E -> ~C , (D v E) v (D & E) , ~(C & D) , ~ B -> C / B.
What I am confused on is that, is this the way to "symbolize the argument which leads to that conclusion." ? | 260 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Genesis of the Piano
(Cristofori, Maffei and others)
by Andrew G Lockhart
Credit for inventing the piano belongs to an Italian, Bartolomeo Cristofori, who was born in Padua in 1655. Little is known of his early life but he must have trained as a craftsman and technician. By the beginning of the 1690s, he had earned sufficient reputation as an instrument builder to attract the attention of Prince Ferdinand of Medici. The Prince, a competent harpsichordist, had a valuable collection of keyboard instruments, and he engaged Cristofori as their custodian.
Cristofori moved to Florence where he continued to practise his trade. When the eighteenth century dawned, he was not only making harpsichords for the Prince but incorporating in them new ideas of his own. He began experimenting with hammers instead of quills, which allowed the strings to be struck with variable force to produce the gradations of volume that are characteristics of the modern pianoforte.
Over the next ten years or so, Cristofori built several of these innovative instruments. None of these early examples still exists and it is likely the variation in volume of which they were capable was modest. They had wooden frames and the string tensions were in keeping with the acoustic needs of the harpsichord. After all, Cristofori’s interest was the harpsichord and it is indeed probable he did not think of his designs as a new invention at all. In some ways, the instruments he designed and made were not even original. Instruments based on striking rather than plucking the strings, such as the clavichord, already existed, indeed had existed for two or three hundred years. However, whereas the clavichord at its loudest can never produce much more than a mezzopiano sound, whilst its quietest is a subdued pianissimo, the Paduan’s invention was a least capable of sounds which could be said to approach ‘loudness’. It was for this reason that Cristofori described his instruments as gravicembali col piano e forte, that is, harpsichords which produce both soft and loud sounds.
Cristofori continued working on his new ideas and improving on the mechanism of his invention until, by 1726, he had constructed instruments that incorporated the main essentials of the piano we know today. The Paduan, it is clear, was conversant with the principles involved in creating an instrument like the piano, one where the strings were struck by hammers, and with the problem of making the hammers rebound after striking. Without this property, they don’t dampen the vibrations they have created. To obviate the problem, Cristofori devised the mechanism called the escapement, an important feature of pianos to this day. His pianos had three features: free-moving, leather covered hammers, set to rebound immediately after striking the strings; a check to catch and hold the falling hammer; and a damper mechanism to still the strings’ vibration and produce a clean tone. Sadly, most if not all of thee earliest efforts are lost.
If Cristofori had been a scientist in the mould of Newton or Einstein, he would probably have published a paper on his work, but he was not. Indeed it is likely he did not regard his work as original at all. For that reason, his invention languished and did not burst out into the musical world in a fanfare of trumpets.
The piano did not take off in the country of its birth, at least not through Cristofori’s work or achievements. Italy, the land of opera, of harpsichords and of fine keyboard players was in the main either unaware of Cristofori’s idea or ignored it. It is indeed odd that Italy has produced few pianists of world fame and no great composers of piano music. Often, new ideas reach the world through luck or coincidence and that was indeed the case here. The piano came to prominence through the intervention of quite another Italian. He was Francisco Scipione, the Marchese of Maffei.
Maffei was from a very old Italian family. He was born in Verona in 1675 and studied theology at the Jesuit colleges of Parma and Rome. He was not a musician but became in the course of his life a poet, dramatist, archaeologist and failed man of business. In 1709 he went to Padua with the intention of establishing and publishing a periodical, the Giornale dei Litterati d’Italia, to promote his novel ideas on Italian drama, with his partner, the Venetian Apostolo Zeno.
He must have visited Florence too because, whether by accident or through having contacts in high places, he either met Cristofori himself or came across examples of his work. He published in his Giornale, complete with detailed diagrams, an article on the Paduan’s invention. Though the journal project was not a great success and the operation soon folded soon, the article reached Germany in translation.
Gottfried Silbermann, a master builder of organs and harpsichords had also been experimenting with hammers but without much success. However, around 1722, he was attracted by a translation of Maffei’s article that appeared in a German journal. He began to construct pianos using the description contained therein without, apparently, having seen any of the actual instruments. After several years of experimentation – by which time he possibly had a chance to inspect a Cristofori piano – he was able to manufacture a piano to satisfy the demands of both Johann Sebastian Bach and Frederick the Great, Emperor of Prussia. Silbermann even made some improvements of his own, such as the introduction of a hand operated controls to raise the dampers and move the keyboard sideways, like pedal functions on a modern piano. By 1747 he had improved his pianos sufficiently to attract the praise of the two great musicians and to generate some sales.
Already, other German companies were manufacturing new machines, to a greater or lesser degree according to the Cristofori model. Both Germany and Austria now had piano industries. However, German piano building had not followed the path charted by Silbermann. Instead of concentrating on Cristofori’s idea of making a harpsichord with dynamic variances, they were working on other instruments like a more powerful version of the clavichord. These new instruments were called ‘square’ pianos. The type of action they used was given the name Prellmechanik (rebounding action). In the German action, the hammers pointed toward, rather than away from, the player, and, instead of being hinged to a rail passing over all the keys, they were attached individually to their respective keys. As the front of the key is depressed, the back rises, carrying the hammer with it.
German development reached a peak in the work of Andreas Stein of Augsburg, originally an organ-builder like Silbermann. By 1777, Stein had improved the mechanism sufficiently to satisfy Mozart, who visited him that year and played on both his organ and his piano. The composer had used other pianos by then and often complained about their hammers and the muffling of the sound.
By 1800, the new industry was centred on Vienna, where Andreas Stein’s children had moved the business. Another piano maker of note in the city was Hofmann. Other manufacturers at the time were Schiedmayer of Stuttgart and Lemme of Brunswick. It had taken nearly a century for the piano to be accepted as a realistic alternative to the harpsichord. The piano had also reached London. The first model is thought to have been built by an English monk, Father Wood, for an Englishman called Samuel Crisp. However, the first recognised piano builder was Johannes Zumpe, an émigré from Saxony, who began manufacturing in the 1760’s. Zumpe’s pianos were square and over the next few years found many imitators, in England and in France, like Broadwood and Erard.
JS Bach’s son Johann Christian made an important contribution to the piano’s success in Britain when, in June 1768, he performed the first solo piano pieces to be heard at a concert. He was appointed official piano tutor to Queen Charlotte.
[to be continued] | <urn:uuid:1aadf9f7-8900-4e06-8e87-f0142ff7e801> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://andrewglockhartwriter.com/2020/01/01/in-black-and-white-4/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00321.warc.gz | en | 0.98332 | 1,787 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.2459479868412... | 12 | Genesis of the Piano
(Cristofori, Maffei and others)
by Andrew G Lockhart
Credit for inventing the piano belongs to an Italian, Bartolomeo Cristofori, who was born in Padua in 1655. Little is known of his early life but he must have trained as a craftsman and technician. By the beginning of the 1690s, he had earned sufficient reputation as an instrument builder to attract the attention of Prince Ferdinand of Medici. The Prince, a competent harpsichordist, had a valuable collection of keyboard instruments, and he engaged Cristofori as their custodian.
Cristofori moved to Florence where he continued to practise his trade. When the eighteenth century dawned, he was not only making harpsichords for the Prince but incorporating in them new ideas of his own. He began experimenting with hammers instead of quills, which allowed the strings to be struck with variable force to produce the gradations of volume that are characteristics of the modern pianoforte.
Over the next ten years or so, Cristofori built several of these innovative instruments. None of these early examples still exists and it is likely the variation in volume of which they were capable was modest. They had wooden frames and the string tensions were in keeping with the acoustic needs of the harpsichord. After all, Cristofori’s interest was the harpsichord and it is indeed probable he did not think of his designs as a new invention at all. In some ways, the instruments he designed and made were not even original. Instruments based on striking rather than plucking the strings, such as the clavichord, already existed, indeed had existed for two or three hundred years. However, whereas the clavichord at its loudest can never produce much more than a mezzopiano sound, whilst its quietest is a subdued pianissimo, the Paduan’s invention was a least capable of sounds which could be said to approach ‘loudness’. It was for this reason that Cristofori described his instruments as gravicembali col piano e forte, that is, harpsichords which produce both soft and loud sounds.
Cristofori continued working on his new ideas and improving on the mechanism of his invention until, by 1726, he had constructed instruments that incorporated the main essentials of the piano we know today. The Paduan, it is clear, was conversant with the principles involved in creating an instrument like the piano, one where the strings were struck by hammers, and with the problem of making the hammers rebound after striking. Without this property, they don’t dampen the vibrations they have created. To obviate the problem, Cristofori devised the mechanism called the escapement, an important feature of pianos to this day. His pianos had three features: free-moving, leather covered hammers, set to rebound immediately after striking the strings; a check to catch and hold the falling hammer; and a damper mechanism to still the strings’ vibration and produce a clean tone. Sadly, most if not all of thee earliest efforts are lost.
If Cristofori had been a scientist in the mould of Newton or Einstein, he would probably have published a paper on his work, but he was not. Indeed it is likely he did not regard his work as original at all. For that reason, his invention languished and did not burst out into the musical world in a fanfare of trumpets.
The piano did not take off in the country of its birth, at least not through Cristofori’s work or achievements. Italy, the land of opera, of harpsichords and of fine keyboard players was in the main either unaware of Cristofori’s idea or ignored it. It is indeed odd that Italy has produced few pianists of world fame and no great composers of piano music. Often, new ideas reach the world through luck or coincidence and that was indeed the case here. The piano came to prominence through the intervention of quite another Italian. He was Francisco Scipione, the Marchese of Maffei.
Maffei was from a very old Italian family. He was born in Verona in 1675 and studied theology at the Jesuit colleges of Parma and Rome. He was not a musician but became in the course of his life a poet, dramatist, archaeologist and failed man of business. In 1709 he went to Padua with the intention of establishing and publishing a periodical, the Giornale dei Litterati d’Italia, to promote his novel ideas on Italian drama, with his partner, the Venetian Apostolo Zeno.
He must have visited Florence too because, whether by accident or through having contacts in high places, he either met Cristofori himself or came across examples of his work. He published in his Giornale, complete with detailed diagrams, an article on the Paduan’s invention. Though the journal project was not a great success and the operation soon folded soon, the article reached Germany in translation.
Gottfried Silbermann, a master builder of organs and harpsichords had also been experimenting with hammers but without much success. However, around 1722, he was attracted by a translation of Maffei’s article that appeared in a German journal. He began to construct pianos using the description contained therein without, apparently, having seen any of the actual instruments. After several years of experimentation – by which time he possibly had a chance to inspect a Cristofori piano – he was able to manufacture a piano to satisfy the demands of both Johann Sebastian Bach and Frederick the Great, Emperor of Prussia. Silbermann even made some improvements of his own, such as the introduction of a hand operated controls to raise the dampers and move the keyboard sideways, like pedal functions on a modern piano. By 1747 he had improved his pianos sufficiently to attract the praise of the two great musicians and to generate some sales.
Already, other German companies were manufacturing new machines, to a greater or lesser degree according to the Cristofori model. Both Germany and Austria now had piano industries. However, German piano building had not followed the path charted by Silbermann. Instead of concentrating on Cristofori’s idea of making a harpsichord with dynamic variances, they were working on other instruments like a more powerful version of the clavichord. These new instruments were called ‘square’ pianos. The type of action they used was given the name Prellmechanik (rebounding action). In the German action, the hammers pointed toward, rather than away from, the player, and, instead of being hinged to a rail passing over all the keys, they were attached individually to their respective keys. As the front of the key is depressed, the back rises, carrying the hammer with it.
German development reached a peak in the work of Andreas Stein of Augsburg, originally an organ-builder like Silbermann. By 1777, Stein had improved the mechanism sufficiently to satisfy Mozart, who visited him that year and played on both his organ and his piano. The composer had used other pianos by then and often complained about their hammers and the muffling of the sound.
By 1800, the new industry was centred on Vienna, where Andreas Stein’s children had moved the business. Another piano maker of note in the city was Hofmann. Other manufacturers at the time were Schiedmayer of Stuttgart and Lemme of Brunswick. It had taken nearly a century for the piano to be accepted as a realistic alternative to the harpsichord. The piano had also reached London. The first model is thought to have been built by an English monk, Father Wood, for an Englishman called Samuel Crisp. However, the first recognised piano builder was Johannes Zumpe, an émigré from Saxony, who began manufacturing in the 1760’s. Zumpe’s pianos were square and over the next few years found many imitators, in England and in France, like Broadwood and Erard.
JS Bach’s son Johann Christian made an important contribution to the piano’s success in Britain when, in June 1768, he performed the first solo piano pieces to be heard at a concert. He was appointed official piano tutor to Queen Charlotte.
[to be continued] | 1,740 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tanner’s Alley, an important station on the Underground Railroad
(photo, c. 1911, courtesy of Pennsylvania State Archives)
By Jeff Falk
There was no “railroad” per se – no engine, no cars, no tracks. And it certainly wasn’t traveling under any ground.
Much in the same way that there were no “passengers,” no “conductors” and no “stations.”
But in the figurative sense, the Underground Railroad in Harrisburg was as real as it gets. We are, after all, referring to humans’ lives, their existence and their freedoms.
The presence and prevalence of the Underground Railroad in Harrisburg and Dauphin County before the Civil War is one of the most significant stories of an area rich in history. But it is a tale which, for the most part, is widely unknown.
That’s what makes telling it so important.
“I care so much about the city,” says Calobe Jackson, a local historian and an expert on African-American history in Harrisburg. “That’s why it’s so important to me. I grew up knowing the history of Harrisburg, and Harrisburg was a major station for the Underground Railroad. Conductors and people who worked for it need to be remembered. There are a lot of people who should be recognized.
“There are a group of historians who know about it. The ‘circle’ you might say,” continues Jackson. “But you’re right, there are a lot of people who don’t know about the underground railroad in Harrisburg. There’s a marker at Aberdeen and Fourth Streets, but other than that, there’s no indication that the Underground Railroad occurred around here. That’s why it’s important for historians to bring it out.”
In the middle of the 19th century, the Underground Railroad was a method of transporting runaway slaves from plantations in the southern states to liberty and sympathetic destinations in the north like Harrisburg. The fugitive slaves were sometimes known as “passengers,” supportive hosts were referred to as “conductors” and stops on the way north were called “stations.”
“The underground railroad is a great story,” says Jackson. “It’s romantic. It’s always fascinated people. People know about railroads, but it was a method of secretively moving slaves north. The conductors of the Underground Railroad were people who were sympathetic to the slaves’ plight and helped move them from one station to another. That’s what makes it fascinating. It’s an inspirational railroad, and some of the terminology being used reflects that.
“Some of the communication was done by mail,” adds Jackson. “Sometimes even telegraphs were used. They would use code words. They would refer to ‘passengers’ coming through. They didn’t use the word ‘slave.’”
From the 1850s to the beginning of the Civil War, the Underground Railroad flourished, and Harrisburg became a popular destination because of its location on the Susquehanna River and its proximity to points West, East and especially North. Harrisburg was a stop between places like Wrightsville and Cumberland County and sympathetic towns in northern Pennsylvania.
“Harrisburg is a center for transportation. It’s on a river,” says Jackson, who semi-regularly gives presentations at the National Civil War Museum. “Slaves could follow passageways North. They came up the Susquehanna River to Columbia and Wrightsville. The next stop in the trail going North would either be Pottsville or Wilkes-Barre. A lot of people associated with the Underground Railroad were abolitionists and active in anti-slavery societies. It was very well-organized.
“The Boiling Springs area in Cumberland County was a hot spot,” Jackson continues. “It was a station below Harrisburg where slaves would come through. Before the 1850s, once a slave got across the Mason-Dixon Line, they were basically free because slave catchers couldn’t come after them. But the 1850s was when the Underground Railroad really became active, because a law was passed that allowed slave catchers to come north. Catching slaves was a way for them to make a living. They were paid for their work.”
Jackson estimates that some 1,000 slaves passed through about 18-20 safe havens in Harrisburg during the height of the Underground Railroad’s popularity locally. Some even settled in Harrisburg, but ultimately their final destination became Canada.
“We’ll never know an exact number, but it was a huge figure,” says Jackson. “There was a famous case in Harrisburg in May of 1852, when a slave by the name of James Phillips was captured. He was arrested and taken to the county courthouse, and at that time, the commissioner would hear the trial. The question was: ‘Should he be freed or put back into slavery.’
“In this particular case, a riot broke out,” Jackson adds. “There was an anti-slavery society in Harrisburg and they raised a ransom to buy him. The value of the slave was what was important. People either wanted the slave returned or the value of the slave. It basically came down to buying the freedom of the slave.”
There were many slaves who never realized their dreams of freedom. And while there were plenty of Northerners who were willing to risk much to aid their flight, none had as much on the line as the slaves themselves.
Either way, everyone involved was willing to pay the high price for doing what was right.
“It is significant,” says Jackson. “There was a law passed that infuriated the anti-slave societies. The Underground Railroad was their way to protest it. They knew it was illegal. But it was an adventure they were ready to take. They saw the war coming, but they saw it as their obligation to help the slaves be free.
“Basically, the Underground Railroad was a northern thing,” continues Jackson. “It was a secret system of safe houses with sympathetic hosts, for many slaves to move to freedom. They followed rivers and railroads, and they used the North Star to guide them, and they passed through Pennsylvania. But they weren’t free until they got to Canada.”
And if history has taught us anything it’s that freedom is never free. | <urn:uuid:329b52ce-4a8b-487e-a005-478e83b0f47b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://harrisburgmagazine.com/community/freedom-is-never-free/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00505.warc.gz | en | 0.981835 | 1,410 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.13122597336... | 7 | Tanner’s Alley, an important station on the Underground Railroad
(photo, c. 1911, courtesy of Pennsylvania State Archives)
By Jeff Falk
There was no “railroad” per se – no engine, no cars, no tracks. And it certainly wasn’t traveling under any ground.
Much in the same way that there were no “passengers,” no “conductors” and no “stations.”
But in the figurative sense, the Underground Railroad in Harrisburg was as real as it gets. We are, after all, referring to humans’ lives, their existence and their freedoms.
The presence and prevalence of the Underground Railroad in Harrisburg and Dauphin County before the Civil War is one of the most significant stories of an area rich in history. But it is a tale which, for the most part, is widely unknown.
That’s what makes telling it so important.
“I care so much about the city,” says Calobe Jackson, a local historian and an expert on African-American history in Harrisburg. “That’s why it’s so important to me. I grew up knowing the history of Harrisburg, and Harrisburg was a major station for the Underground Railroad. Conductors and people who worked for it need to be remembered. There are a lot of people who should be recognized.
“There are a group of historians who know about it. The ‘circle’ you might say,” continues Jackson. “But you’re right, there are a lot of people who don’t know about the underground railroad in Harrisburg. There’s a marker at Aberdeen and Fourth Streets, but other than that, there’s no indication that the Underground Railroad occurred around here. That’s why it’s important for historians to bring it out.”
In the middle of the 19th century, the Underground Railroad was a method of transporting runaway slaves from plantations in the southern states to liberty and sympathetic destinations in the north like Harrisburg. The fugitive slaves were sometimes known as “passengers,” supportive hosts were referred to as “conductors” and stops on the way north were called “stations.”
“The underground railroad is a great story,” says Jackson. “It’s romantic. It’s always fascinated people. People know about railroads, but it was a method of secretively moving slaves north. The conductors of the Underground Railroad were people who were sympathetic to the slaves’ plight and helped move them from one station to another. That’s what makes it fascinating. It’s an inspirational railroad, and some of the terminology being used reflects that.
“Some of the communication was done by mail,” adds Jackson. “Sometimes even telegraphs were used. They would use code words. They would refer to ‘passengers’ coming through. They didn’t use the word ‘slave.’”
From the 1850s to the beginning of the Civil War, the Underground Railroad flourished, and Harrisburg became a popular destination because of its location on the Susquehanna River and its proximity to points West, East and especially North. Harrisburg was a stop between places like Wrightsville and Cumberland County and sympathetic towns in northern Pennsylvania.
“Harrisburg is a center for transportation. It’s on a river,” says Jackson, who semi-regularly gives presentations at the National Civil War Museum. “Slaves could follow passageways North. They came up the Susquehanna River to Columbia and Wrightsville. The next stop in the trail going North would either be Pottsville or Wilkes-Barre. A lot of people associated with the Underground Railroad were abolitionists and active in anti-slavery societies. It was very well-organized.
“The Boiling Springs area in Cumberland County was a hot spot,” Jackson continues. “It was a station below Harrisburg where slaves would come through. Before the 1850s, once a slave got across the Mason-Dixon Line, they were basically free because slave catchers couldn’t come after them. But the 1850s was when the Underground Railroad really became active, because a law was passed that allowed slave catchers to come north. Catching slaves was a way for them to make a living. They were paid for their work.”
Jackson estimates that some 1,000 slaves passed through about 18-20 safe havens in Harrisburg during the height of the Underground Railroad’s popularity locally. Some even settled in Harrisburg, but ultimately their final destination became Canada.
“We’ll never know an exact number, but it was a huge figure,” says Jackson. “There was a famous case in Harrisburg in May of 1852, when a slave by the name of James Phillips was captured. He was arrested and taken to the county courthouse, and at that time, the commissioner would hear the trial. The question was: ‘Should he be freed or put back into slavery.’
“In this particular case, a riot broke out,” Jackson adds. “There was an anti-slavery society in Harrisburg and they raised a ransom to buy him. The value of the slave was what was important. People either wanted the slave returned or the value of the slave. It basically came down to buying the freedom of the slave.”
There were many slaves who never realized their dreams of freedom. And while there were plenty of Northerners who were willing to risk much to aid their flight, none had as much on the line as the slaves themselves.
Either way, everyone involved was willing to pay the high price for doing what was right.
“It is significant,” says Jackson. “There was a law passed that infuriated the anti-slave societies. The Underground Railroad was their way to protest it. They knew it was illegal. But it was an adventure they were ready to take. They saw the war coming, but they saw it as their obligation to help the slaves be free.
“Basically, the Underground Railroad was a northern thing,” continues Jackson. “It was a secret system of safe houses with sympathetic hosts, for many slaves to move to freedom. They followed rivers and railroads, and they used the North Star to guide them, and they passed through Pennsylvania. But they weren’t free until they got to Canada.”
And if history has taught us anything it’s that freedom is never free. | 1,276 | ENGLISH | 1 |
tocratic republics long before the sixth century. There is, however, a tendency towards slackness and inefficiency in most families that rule by hereditary right; sooner or later they decline; and as the Greeks got out upon the seas and set up colonies and commerce extended, new rich families arose to jostle the old and bring new personalities into power. These nouveaux riches became members of an expanded ruling class, a mode of government known as oligarchy—in opposition to aristocracy—though, strictly, the term oligarchy (= government by the few) should of course include hereditary aristocracy as a special case.
In many cities persons of exceptional energy, taking advantage of some social conflict or class grievance, secured a more or less irregular power in the state. This combination of personality and opportunity has occurred in the United States of America, for example, where men exercising various kinds of informal power are called bosses. In Greece they were called tyrants. But the tyrant was rather more than a boss; he was recognized as a monarch, and claimed the authority of a monarch. The modern boss, on the other hand, shelters behind legal forms which he has "got hold of" and uses for his own ends. Tyrants were distinguished from kings, who claimed some sort of right, some family priority, for example, to rule. They were supported, perhaps, by the poorer class with a grievance; Peisistratus, for example, who was tyrant of Athens, with two intervals of exile, between 560 and 527 b.c., was supported by the poverty-struck Athenian hillmen. Sometimes, as in Greek Sicily, the tyrant stood for the rich against the poor. When, later on, the Persians began to subjugate the Greek cities of Asia Minor, they set up pro-Persian tyrants.
Aristotle, the great philosophical teacher, who was born under the hereditary Macedonian monarchy, and who was for some years tutor to the king's son, distinguishes in his Politics between kings who ruled by an admitted and inherent right, such as the King of Macedonia, whom he served, and tyrants who ruled without the consent of the governed. As a matter of fact, it is hard to conceive of a tyrant ruling without the consent of many, and the active participation of a substantial number of his subjects; and the devotion and unselfishness of your "true kings" has been known to rouse resentment and questioning. Aristotle was also able to | <urn:uuid:dfcdeb1f-99c5-4314-afe2-5e27664b79a3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/332 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00068.warc.gz | en | 0.980591 | 506 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.10845704376... | 1 | tocratic republics long before the sixth century. There is, however, a tendency towards slackness and inefficiency in most families that rule by hereditary right; sooner or later they decline; and as the Greeks got out upon the seas and set up colonies and commerce extended, new rich families arose to jostle the old and bring new personalities into power. These nouveaux riches became members of an expanded ruling class, a mode of government known as oligarchy—in opposition to aristocracy—though, strictly, the term oligarchy (= government by the few) should of course include hereditary aristocracy as a special case.
In many cities persons of exceptional energy, taking advantage of some social conflict or class grievance, secured a more or less irregular power in the state. This combination of personality and opportunity has occurred in the United States of America, for example, where men exercising various kinds of informal power are called bosses. In Greece they were called tyrants. But the tyrant was rather more than a boss; he was recognized as a monarch, and claimed the authority of a monarch. The modern boss, on the other hand, shelters behind legal forms which he has "got hold of" and uses for his own ends. Tyrants were distinguished from kings, who claimed some sort of right, some family priority, for example, to rule. They were supported, perhaps, by the poorer class with a grievance; Peisistratus, for example, who was tyrant of Athens, with two intervals of exile, between 560 and 527 b.c., was supported by the poverty-struck Athenian hillmen. Sometimes, as in Greek Sicily, the tyrant stood for the rich against the poor. When, later on, the Persians began to subjugate the Greek cities of Asia Minor, they set up pro-Persian tyrants.
Aristotle, the great philosophical teacher, who was born under the hereditary Macedonian monarchy, and who was for some years tutor to the king's son, distinguishes in his Politics between kings who ruled by an admitted and inherent right, such as the King of Macedonia, whom he served, and tyrants who ruled without the consent of the governed. As a matter of fact, it is hard to conceive of a tyrant ruling without the consent of many, and the active participation of a substantial number of his subjects; and the devotion and unselfishness of your "true kings" has been known to rouse resentment and questioning. Aristotle was also able to | 516 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Essay on William Steinbeck 's ' Of Mice And Men '
In Steinbeck’s writing women are diminished, shunned, ignored and made to be less important than men. In the two novelas the women were always beneath the men; Juana had to listen and follow Kino even if she thought differently, and Curley’s wife was always thought to be trouble even though she never actually did anything wrong. In Of Mice and Men the women are portrayed as not important--they aren’t given a name--and in The Pearl the women are to listen and follow the men. Today women have more rights and aren’t always put below men.
Steinbeck isn’t just one thing; he is neither just a misogynist or just a feminist. He writes with the tone of both, mostly with the tone of a misogynist, but adds subtle strengths to the women in his novels. He may diminish the women and make them less important than the men, but he doesn’t make them completely submissive to the men. In both of the novels he portrays the women as people who have their own kind of mindset. In The Pearl, even though Juana is to follow Kino, Steinbeck gives her determination, strength, and the ability to think for herself. One could say that Steinbeck is a feminist because he shows in his writings that women are ignored and have prejudiced views against them.
In Of Mice and Men it is a little different; you have to analyze the wife to find any good things he writes about her. He writes her as a stubborn person, who just wants some company. He also portrays her as someone who is… | <urn:uuid:530835db-4fcb-40e7-bd00-2d85bcbe598c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/William-Steinbeck-s-Of-Mice-And-Men/F3RJ97P2MXYW | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00543.warc.gz | en | 0.983169 | 351 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.16142120957... | 1 | Essay on William Steinbeck 's ' Of Mice And Men '
In Steinbeck’s writing women are diminished, shunned, ignored and made to be less important than men. In the two novelas the women were always beneath the men; Juana had to listen and follow Kino even if she thought differently, and Curley’s wife was always thought to be trouble even though she never actually did anything wrong. In Of Mice and Men the women are portrayed as not important--they aren’t given a name--and in The Pearl the women are to listen and follow the men. Today women have more rights and aren’t always put below men.
Steinbeck isn’t just one thing; he is neither just a misogynist or just a feminist. He writes with the tone of both, mostly with the tone of a misogynist, but adds subtle strengths to the women in his novels. He may diminish the women and make them less important than the men, but he doesn’t make them completely submissive to the men. In both of the novels he portrays the women as people who have their own kind of mindset. In The Pearl, even though Juana is to follow Kino, Steinbeck gives her determination, strength, and the ability to think for herself. One could say that Steinbeck is a feminist because he shows in his writings that women are ignored and have prejudiced views against them.
In Of Mice and Men it is a little different; you have to analyze the wife to find any good things he writes about her. He writes her as a stubborn person, who just wants some company. He also portrays her as someone who is… | 334 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Meaning & History
From the Hebrew name שְׁלֹמֹה (Shelomoh), which was derived from Hebrew שָׁלוֹם (shalom) meaning "peace". As told in the Old Testament, Solomon was a king of Israel, the son of David and Bathsheba. He was renowned for his wisdom and wealth. Towards the end of his reign he angered God by turning to idolatry. Supposedly, he was the author of the Book of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon.This name has never been overly common in the Christian world, and it is considered typically Jewish. It was however borne by an 11th-century Hungarian king. | <urn:uuid:b603ea3c-647a-4041-a654-d48220601185> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.behindthename.com/names/history.php?name=solomon | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00196.warc.gz | en | 0.980012 | 159 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | Meaning & History
From the Hebrew name שְׁלֹמֹה (Shelomoh), which was derived from Hebrew שָׁלוֹם (shalom) meaning "peace". As told in the Old Testament, Solomon was a king of Israel, the son of David and Bathsheba. He was renowned for his wisdom and wealth. Towards the end of his reign he angered God by turning to idolatry. Supposedly, he was the author of the Book of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon.This name has never been overly common in the Christian world, and it is considered typically Jewish. It was however borne by an 11th-century Hungarian king. | 153 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dean Chavers: Indian vote remains important in light of history
Posted: Monday, October 29, 2012
"There has been no Indian Voting Rights Act, and no congressional hearings or testimony on such a bill. But as I demonstrated in my book Racism in Indian Country, there are many conspiracies among non-Indians on or near reservations to keep Indian people from registering to vote and to keep them from voting. There have been dozens of lawsuits filed against county voter registrars, county commissioners and state officials over denying Indians the right to vote.
When they returned from World War II, many Indian veterans were upset that they still could not vote. They had fought for their country, only to be denied this basic constitutional right when they got home. They began to lobby Congress and the state legislatures to give them suffrage rights. They had been exposed to the world outside the reservation, some for the first time, and had started to learn that they had been cheated out of many things, such as adequate housing, an adequate education, decent jobs, and the right to vote. They found they could not get loans to buy cattle, to start businesses, to build houses on reservations, and to buy cars and trucks.
Indians could still not vote in New Mexico and Arizona as of 1948. The denial of the right to vote was in the constitution of the State of New Mexico. It stated that Indians living on reservations could not vote in state and federal elections. The Bureau of Indian Affairs had started to push to change such laws before the war started, but had gotten sidetracked by the war."
Get the Story:
A History of Indian Voting Rights and Why It’s Important to Vote
(Indian Country Today 10/29)
Join the Conversation | <urn:uuid:86a8f6ed-4a78-43d7-84cc-a96e6d23483d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://indianz.com/News/2012/007545.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00365.warc.gz | en | 0.983249 | 359 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.3371666073... | 2 | Dean Chavers: Indian vote remains important in light of history
Posted: Monday, October 29, 2012
"There has been no Indian Voting Rights Act, and no congressional hearings or testimony on such a bill. But as I demonstrated in my book Racism in Indian Country, there are many conspiracies among non-Indians on or near reservations to keep Indian people from registering to vote and to keep them from voting. There have been dozens of lawsuits filed against county voter registrars, county commissioners and state officials over denying Indians the right to vote.
When they returned from World War II, many Indian veterans were upset that they still could not vote. They had fought for their country, only to be denied this basic constitutional right when they got home. They began to lobby Congress and the state legislatures to give them suffrage rights. They had been exposed to the world outside the reservation, some for the first time, and had started to learn that they had been cheated out of many things, such as adequate housing, an adequate education, decent jobs, and the right to vote. They found they could not get loans to buy cattle, to start businesses, to build houses on reservations, and to buy cars and trucks.
Indians could still not vote in New Mexico and Arizona as of 1948. The denial of the right to vote was in the constitution of the State of New Mexico. It stated that Indians living on reservations could not vote in state and federal elections. The Bureau of Indian Affairs had started to push to change such laws before the war started, but had gotten sidetracked by the war."
Get the Story:
A History of Indian Voting Rights and Why It’s Important to Vote
(Indian Country Today 10/29)
Join the Conversation | 364 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The historie of the bagpipe
The bagpipe has a long and honorable history that can be traced back to the beginning of our civilization because it is one of the oldest, played by man, instruments. Presumably it has started in the far East where a simple chanter and drone were played at the same time. Later they were attached to a bag of animal skin and features a blow-pipe so that a primitive form of the instrument that we know today was born. In this form the instrument played by the itinerant minstrels/Bards allegedly responsible for most, at that time, played music.
Another theory is that Italian Crusaders “suspected” of music. The theory would be that they would be no longer welcome after the crusades in Crimona (what might possibly be traced to the macCrimmons) and travelled to the British Isles. Over the centuries the instrument remained popular and during the Middle Ages it was, still in its primitive form, one of the most common instruments in the countries of South, Central and Western Europe.
Unfortunately, in many countries the indoor music (piano, guitar, etc.) growing in popularity. The bagpipes virtually disappeared in most countries.
In the Scottish Highlands its history is different: This martial music did well at the warlike spirit of the population there and the fact that the Highlands were not “suburbed” meant that there was more free space and therefore more opportunity to outdoor play.
The original form of the instrument with a bag, a chanter, one drone and a Blowpipe remained unchanged until about 1500. When a second drone was added. Around 1700, again 200 years later, came a third drone, the bassdrone. The bagpipes fitted well in the Clan system that was in use at the time. The chieftains of the clans had their own pipers, in many cases a hereditary Court.
Schools (classes) were set up for bagpipe lessons. In these colleges the Ceol was developed: Mor or Piobaireachd: the classical music of the bagpipes that can stand the comparison with the greatest compositions from the further music world.
The most famous of those colleges was the MacCrimmons in Boreraig on the Isle of Skye. The MacCrimmons were the hereditary pipers to the MacLeods of Dunvegan and they retained this post for 200 years. This school was founded around 1590. They taught the pipers from across the Highlands and went through a heavy training, ceòl mór (piobaireachd) fora bout 7 years and sometimes even up to11 years.
The official school materials remained inside and were strictly forbidden to outsiders. Also it was strictly prohibited to play Ceol: Aotrom (Light music) in the school play. Later there are tunes that have been written around Canntaireachd in 1811. Donald MacDonald-bagpipes, builder from Edinburgh was converted in the contemporary musical notation. In 1822 he claimed to have presented the first collective work.
The genius system what the MacCrimmons used when they had their school from 1590 until 1745 on the Isle of Skye.
Using musical notation as manual for singing (to chant), putting more feeling into it with the right note values (especially the shorter nuts!), better points and more expression. They have many masterpieces of Ceol: Mor composed which we most tunes still have and play.
After the rebellion of the Jacobites in 1745 playing the bagpipes and wearing a kilt was banned in Scotland. This law was maintained with force. The Colleges disappeared and the hereditary families of pipers (the hereditary pipers) fell apart. During this time and also many years afterwards there was the great danger that also here the bagpipes would disappear.
In London, Edinburgh and other places Highland Societies were founded with the goal to uphold the traditions of life in the Highlands and that Societies started organizing bagpipe competitions. The prices were a range from a bag of gunpowder to a gun, shield or sword.
The bagpipe was also the favorite instrument of the Scottish soldiers who went in ever greater numbers in the British army.
Bill Millen, the d-day piper (who died at the age of 88 on) has played a large role on 6th June (1944) on the beach during the allied attack on the Germans.
All this has helped in the revival and the popularity of the bagpipes, so his survival was secured. The bagpipe has more and more increased in popularity and is now known all over the world and is also widely played.
Anyone who wants to be a piper can be proud that this is a noble instrument with a great tradition. The instrument can produce beautiful music and beautiful music has been composed throughout time. | <urn:uuid:05853270-142c-4910-a291-5d54ca1a7a4a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.arthurtrooppd.nl/en/information/the-historie-of-the-bagpipe/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00148.warc.gz | en | 0.980415 | 1,002 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.1323104202... | 11 | The historie of the bagpipe
The bagpipe has a long and honorable history that can be traced back to the beginning of our civilization because it is one of the oldest, played by man, instruments. Presumably it has started in the far East where a simple chanter and drone were played at the same time. Later they were attached to a bag of animal skin and features a blow-pipe so that a primitive form of the instrument that we know today was born. In this form the instrument played by the itinerant minstrels/Bards allegedly responsible for most, at that time, played music.
Another theory is that Italian Crusaders “suspected” of music. The theory would be that they would be no longer welcome after the crusades in Crimona (what might possibly be traced to the macCrimmons) and travelled to the British Isles. Over the centuries the instrument remained popular and during the Middle Ages it was, still in its primitive form, one of the most common instruments in the countries of South, Central and Western Europe.
Unfortunately, in many countries the indoor music (piano, guitar, etc.) growing in popularity. The bagpipes virtually disappeared in most countries.
In the Scottish Highlands its history is different: This martial music did well at the warlike spirit of the population there and the fact that the Highlands were not “suburbed” meant that there was more free space and therefore more opportunity to outdoor play.
The original form of the instrument with a bag, a chanter, one drone and a Blowpipe remained unchanged until about 1500. When a second drone was added. Around 1700, again 200 years later, came a third drone, the bassdrone. The bagpipes fitted well in the Clan system that was in use at the time. The chieftains of the clans had their own pipers, in many cases a hereditary Court.
Schools (classes) were set up for bagpipe lessons. In these colleges the Ceol was developed: Mor or Piobaireachd: the classical music of the bagpipes that can stand the comparison with the greatest compositions from the further music world.
The most famous of those colleges was the MacCrimmons in Boreraig on the Isle of Skye. The MacCrimmons were the hereditary pipers to the MacLeods of Dunvegan and they retained this post for 200 years. This school was founded around 1590. They taught the pipers from across the Highlands and went through a heavy training, ceòl mór (piobaireachd) fora bout 7 years and sometimes even up to11 years.
The official school materials remained inside and were strictly forbidden to outsiders. Also it was strictly prohibited to play Ceol: Aotrom (Light music) in the school play. Later there are tunes that have been written around Canntaireachd in 1811. Donald MacDonald-bagpipes, builder from Edinburgh was converted in the contemporary musical notation. In 1822 he claimed to have presented the first collective work.
The genius system what the MacCrimmons used when they had their school from 1590 until 1745 on the Isle of Skye.
Using musical notation as manual for singing (to chant), putting more feeling into it with the right note values (especially the shorter nuts!), better points and more expression. They have many masterpieces of Ceol: Mor composed which we most tunes still have and play.
After the rebellion of the Jacobites in 1745 playing the bagpipes and wearing a kilt was banned in Scotland. This law was maintained with force. The Colleges disappeared and the hereditary families of pipers (the hereditary pipers) fell apart. During this time and also many years afterwards there was the great danger that also here the bagpipes would disappear.
In London, Edinburgh and other places Highland Societies were founded with the goal to uphold the traditions of life in the Highlands and that Societies started organizing bagpipe competitions. The prices were a range from a bag of gunpowder to a gun, shield or sword.
The bagpipe was also the favorite instrument of the Scottish soldiers who went in ever greater numbers in the British army.
Bill Millen, the d-day piper (who died at the age of 88 on) has played a large role on 6th June (1944) on the beach during the allied attack on the Germans.
All this has helped in the revival and the popularity of the bagpipes, so his survival was secured. The bagpipe has more and more increased in popularity and is now known all over the world and is also widely played.
Anyone who wants to be a piper can be proud that this is a noble instrument with a great tradition. The instrument can produce beautiful music and beautiful music has been composed throughout time. | 1,015 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born on 28th of June 1491
Died on 28th of January 1547
British hero of the week April 13th 2009
Henry VIII was born on the 28th June 1491 in Greenwich Palace, London. He was the third child of his father Henry VII and Elizabeth, he became heir apparent on the death of his elder brother Arthur in 1502 at Ludlow Castle. Henry was the second monarch of the Tudor dynasty, he was very well educated, and became an accomplished musician, author, and poet. His strong athletic build lent itself well to his pursuits of hunting, jousting and tennis. His father Henry VII died in 1509, Henry was crowned on June 24th 1509 at Westminster Abbey. He married his brothers wife Katherine of Aragon, a Spanish princess, Henry was 18 years old. He had many mistresses and fell in love with Anne Boleyn, they had one child which survived, Mary who was born in 1516.
He repeatedly asked the Pope to annul his marriage when Katherine failed to provide an heir, stating that the marriage had been illegal as she had been married to his late brother. He sent cardinal Wolsey to negotiate the annulment, but he failed, this angered Henry who ordered that Wolsey should be arrested, however Wolsey died before he ever got to trial, Henry then stated that she should be executed in the Tower of London in 1536. He was now free to marry Anne Boleyn and she was crowned as Queen. Henry's next advisor after Wolsey continued in his quest, Thomas Cromwell used the power of Parliament to curtail the powers of the Catholic Church and the Pope, which resulted in the reformation of the church. Closely followed by the dissolution of the Monasteries. Anne and Henry's alliance produced a daughter, Elizabeth. Anne was also unable to produce the all important male heir, and Henry's frustration came to a head, she was accused of Treason and was executed in 1536.
Henry's third wife Jane Seymour provided the much longed for son and male heir. Edward V1 was born at Hampton Court Palace and was destined to reign. Unfortunately for Henry Jane died soon after childbirth, she was buried in Windsor Castle.
Anne of Cleves became Henrys fourth wife, after much persuasion in order to secure an alliance between England and Germany. Henry however, became dissatisfied with his bride and they divorced just six months later.
Katherine Howard was young and just nineteen years old when she married Henry who was nearing fifty, she was accused of adultery and was executed in 1542 at the Tower of London. Henry was then to marry Catherine Parr, who became nurse and companion to the ailing king, Henry died in London on the 28th January 1547. During his reign he built many sea defences and castles such as Southsea castle built to defend portsmouth, St Catherines Castle in Fowey, Sandown, Camber, Deal, Walmer. Portland, Pendennis, St Mawes, Sandgate, Calshot and Hurst. St James' Palace, Hampton Court Palace, and although started by William the Conqueror Henry completed the building of Windsor Castle, which is where he is buried in St Georges Chapel.
More famous Britons here
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Died on 28th of January 1547
British hero of the week April 13th 2009
Henry VIII was born on the 28th June 1491 in Greenwich Palace, London. He was the third child of his father Henry VII and Elizabeth, he became heir apparent on the death of his elder brother Arthur in 1502 at Ludlow Castle. Henry was the second monarch of the Tudor dynasty, he was very well educated, and became an accomplished musician, author, and poet. His strong athletic build lent itself well to his pursuits of hunting, jousting and tennis. His father Henry VII died in 1509, Henry was crowned on June 24th 1509 at Westminster Abbey. He married his brothers wife Katherine of Aragon, a Spanish princess, Henry was 18 years old. He had many mistresses and fell in love with Anne Boleyn, they had one child which survived, Mary who was born in 1516.
He repeatedly asked the Pope to annul his marriage when Katherine failed to provide an heir, stating that the marriage had been illegal as she had been married to his late brother. He sent cardinal Wolsey to negotiate the annulment, but he failed, this angered Henry who ordered that Wolsey should be arrested, however Wolsey died before he ever got to trial, Henry then stated that she should be executed in the Tower of London in 1536. He was now free to marry Anne Boleyn and she was crowned as Queen. Henry's next advisor after Wolsey continued in his quest, Thomas Cromwell used the power of Parliament to curtail the powers of the Catholic Church and the Pope, which resulted in the reformation of the church. Closely followed by the dissolution of the Monasteries. Anne and Henry's alliance produced a daughter, Elizabeth. Anne was also unable to produce the all important male heir, and Henry's frustration came to a head, she was accused of Treason and was executed in 1536.
Henry's third wife Jane Seymour provided the much longed for son and male heir. Edward V1 was born at Hampton Court Palace and was destined to reign. Unfortunately for Henry Jane died soon after childbirth, she was buried in Windsor Castle.
Anne of Cleves became Henrys fourth wife, after much persuasion in order to secure an alliance between England and Germany. Henry however, became dissatisfied with his bride and they divorced just six months later.
Katherine Howard was young and just nineteen years old when she married Henry who was nearing fifty, she was accused of adultery and was executed in 1542 at the Tower of London. Henry was then to marry Catherine Parr, who became nurse and companion to the ailing king, Henry died in London on the 28th January 1547. During his reign he built many sea defences and castles such as Southsea castle built to defend portsmouth, St Catherines Castle in Fowey, Sandown, Camber, Deal, Walmer. Portland, Pendennis, St Mawes, Sandgate, Calshot and Hurst. St James' Palace, Hampton Court Palace, and although started by William the Conqueror Henry completed the building of Windsor Castle, which is where he is buried in St Georges Chapel.
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14931 views since 31st January 2007 | 770 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Some quilts are too fragile to display over a long term in an exhibition, but are still vital to Alabama history and the legacy of quilters.
Within Southern communities both white and black, a tradition of "friendship quilting" has existed for many generations. These quilts were created communally, and are also sometimes called "sampler quilts" because they are composed of "sample" squares contributed by a group of quilt makers. The earliest traditions were grounded in shared labor–the makers would go to one another's homes, help to piece squares for the homeowner's quilt, and then eventually return to quilt the resulting top. Through that practice, each member of the community's circle would acquire a new quilt through the cooperative.
In subsequent generations this communal effort was often centered in organizations or community centers such as churches. The 1917 quilt made in Brundidge, Alabama, was a co-operative effort to raise funds for a local church, made by a group known as the "Sunbeams." Each of the squares carries the name of a member of the group and notes the funds raised by that member. The member that raised the most funds was gifted the quilt. The Underground Railroad (Under the Stars) quilt, 1994, was made by the Senior Citizens group of the Elizabeth Baptist Church in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. The quilt may have been made as a means of raising funds, but potentially it was also simply a group activity for fellowship. This quilt design reverses the usual practice of piecing colored fabrics or patterned fabrics over a solid, single colored ground. In this case, the group of layered solid blue and red creates shapes over a solid ground of fabric printed with tiny flowers. | <urn:uuid:c69be417-8b82-4219-b02c-e5583c5fd9e7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sewntogetheralabama.org/copy-of-14-color-and-pattern | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00302.warc.gz | en | 0.983143 | 357 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.1023029... | 8 | Some quilts are too fragile to display over a long term in an exhibition, but are still vital to Alabama history and the legacy of quilters.
Within Southern communities both white and black, a tradition of "friendship quilting" has existed for many generations. These quilts were created communally, and are also sometimes called "sampler quilts" because they are composed of "sample" squares contributed by a group of quilt makers. The earliest traditions were grounded in shared labor–the makers would go to one another's homes, help to piece squares for the homeowner's quilt, and then eventually return to quilt the resulting top. Through that practice, each member of the community's circle would acquire a new quilt through the cooperative.
In subsequent generations this communal effort was often centered in organizations or community centers such as churches. The 1917 quilt made in Brundidge, Alabama, was a co-operative effort to raise funds for a local church, made by a group known as the "Sunbeams." Each of the squares carries the name of a member of the group and notes the funds raised by that member. The member that raised the most funds was gifted the quilt. The Underground Railroad (Under the Stars) quilt, 1994, was made by the Senior Citizens group of the Elizabeth Baptist Church in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. The quilt may have been made as a means of raising funds, but potentially it was also simply a group activity for fellowship. This quilt design reverses the usual practice of piecing colored fabrics or patterned fabrics over a solid, single colored ground. In this case, the group of layered solid blue and red creates shapes over a solid ground of fabric printed with tiny flowers. | 351 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Aileen Marwung Walsh, ARC Laureate Research Scholarship, Rediscovering Deep Human History, Australian National University
Untangling the web that is the history of the stolen generations is a very satisfying process. In October, I went to the Centenary Memorial gathering at Mogumber, on the site of the Moore River Native Settlement, about 130 km north of Perth.
The memorial was a commemoration of a tragedy that is part of the history of apartheid in Australia. The Moore River Native Settlement is a large part of many Aboriginal people’s family histories, all over Western Australia. People were sent there from the Kimberley and the Pilbara, from the Western Desert and the south west. Doris Pilkington’s book Follow The Rabbit Proof Fence is the most well known story of Moore River but there are thousands of others, including that of my grandparents.
The settlement was established in 1918 as a solution to the Aboriginal problem, as perceived by colonists. There were too many Aboriginal people “wandering about” WA, usually on reserves near ration depots where they received flour and blankets. The colonists did not want to see them.
Plus A.O. Neville, the Chief Protector of Aborigines, had a plan to breed out the black of the Aborigines so they would not be Aboriginal anymore. The full bloods would die out and the half castes would blend in. Neville laid out clearly how he would do this in his book Australia’s Coloured Minority.State Library of Western Australia.
Neville issued ministerial warrants to remove Aboriginal people from their homes, Noongars from the Perth area first, but then from all over WA. He closed down ration depots to make it easier to remove people, and women with children were especially vulnerable, so they were sent to Moore River or Carrolup further south.
The average monthly population at Moore River was 193. Between 1915 and 1920, over 500 people were sent to the settlement, many to die away from their country as inmates of one of Australia’s largest concentration camps.
One of the saddest stories was from Laverton, north east of Kalgoorlie, where 17 men women and children had gathered at the police station about 1921, to get their annual blanket and clothing issue. They were put into cells instead, men separated from the women, who were also separated from the children.
The next day they were placed in a cattle truck with a sign on the side, “15 niggers for Mogumber”. The local whites thought blacks being terrified was hilarious and shared the story of the wailing niggers.
Moore River was closed down in 1951 but only to be managed by the Methodist Church who called it Mogumber Mission. It operated until 1980.
I discovered my grandparents’ story when I received my family’s Native Welfare files in the 1980s. Mum, Violet Newman, was stolen in 1946 and sent to Norseman Mission, between Kalgoorlie and Esperance, and my grandparents were sent to Moore River.
Most Aboriginal people without birth certificates are given the birthday of horses, or the 1st of July, but mum got the day she was put in the mission, 19th of October.
From Moore River my grandfather, Len Newman, ran away and went to look for his daughter. He travelled by foot, he told my mum, because he was afraid of being picked up and sent back to Moore River as so often had happened to others. My grandfather worked around Norseman after he had located mum.
My grandmother’s story was quite different. She never saw her eldest daughter again. And the other daughter she gave birth to, well, we don’t know what happened to her. She was put into Kalgoorlie hospital when my grandmother was sent to Moore River and that is the last we know.
We heard stories about my grandmother when we lived in Newman, in the Pilbara, in the ‘70s because all the Jigalong mob, from two hours east of Newman, had known her.
Apparently, my grandmother had become a local midwife after she left Moore River and lived and travelled between Cundelee, where most of her family had been moved to after Maralinga, and Wiluna and Jigalong, and even down to Mt Barker in the southwest where we also had family.
I have never met nor even seen a photo of my grandmother, Ruby Marwung. However my Auntie Daisy Tinker was raised by her, and she told us a lot about my grandmother when we met my auntie in Newman. When my mum went looking for her mum, she learned that Ruby was dead and buried at Wiluna. She had died in 1972 we think. Mum was shown her grave but it was unmarked and mum didn’t know to look for records. It was just what she’d been told by family.
It’s like the grave of my great grandmother, Clara, the mother of my grandfather Len Newman, another unmarked grave, on the edge of the Norseman reserve. The record of her death is under her second husband’s name, Flynn. Aboriginal women’s names were always unoffocial: no records of birth, or marriage, or births of children. Most often just a death certificate whose history has to be untangled.
My grandparents had been married tribally and my grandfather Len’s decision to stay at Norseman meant that grandmother Ruby was free to marry someone else, and so she married Dungle-Dungle aka Jimmy Stephens. They applied to get married the western way and what is sad is that on the application form they call my mum Gladys. That must have been her name before the native welfare officer named her Violet.
I drove up to Mogumber the day before the gathering, to camp overnight. At the intersection where the Mogumber pub sits, the street sign for the Mogumber mission pointed straight ahead.
Knowing what the local non-Aboriginal people’s attitude would be to the Mogumber reunion I knew that someone would have pointed it in the wrong direction so I turned left instead.
And I was right. The sign was pointing in the wrong direction. When I went past it again the next day someone had changed it to point it the right way.
I couldn’t see any other Noongars so I just kept on driving until I spotted some pulled up at a community hall. I parked next to them and introduced myself. They invited me to camp the night with them and it was a wonderful night of making connections listening to them singing, they were great singers, and watching an amazing moon rise over the trees.
These were all mostly Yuet Noongars, the people who own the country where Moore River and the New Norcia Mission now sit, so with few connections with me, you’d think, as my family are from the deep south. But no, a couple of my great uncles had moved to the Meekatharra area, in mid west WA, at the beginning of the 20th century and so I met a few uncles and cousins.
And then as well, one of my brothers had died that morning in Perth. His dad was a Narrier, that’s a Noongar family name, and so we all talked about my uncle Joe and my little brother Ronald and I told them all about a conversation I’d had with my uncle Joe decades before; with him wondering where the name Narrier had come from.
I told these local Yuet Noongars how I had tracked the origin of the Narrier name for uncle Joe, that the Narriers weren’t named after a place, like my uncle Joe had thought, but that the place Mt Narryer had been named after their ancestor Ned Narea who had been a Noongar guide for colonists in the 1850s.
I was also able to tell them how Ned Narea, which was later Anglicised to Narrier, died in 1881 and they were upset by that story because Narea and his babbin (special friend) Kalinga had been sent from Roebourne to Perth in chains so tightly and cruelly fastened that at the end of the 28-day voyage they were both dead.
Life in a prison
The next day we all drove to the mission and I made special notice of the country because the photos I had seen of Moore River in the early 20th century showed a place denuded of vegetation, just wooden huts. The landscape is different now. Mogumber Mission was run until 1981 and the missionaries made big changes. There are also pine plantations all around.
I met a man called Lewis Wallam; I’ve known his sister Elaine for a long time, decades, because she lives near my mum in Como, Perth. Lewis took me to the prison, part of the settlement, and that story is very interesting.
There are four cells with no windows, just an iron grill above the thick wooden door. There is a small outside area that has strong steel grill for a roof and that was where prisoners were allowed to spend time during the day.
My grandmother Ruby spent time in this prison for running away from Moore River in 1949, she was sentenced to four days. Being in the gaol I was for the first time in the same place that I knew my grandmother had been. In a gaol.
The next time my grandmother ran away she was heavily pregnant and so when the police brought her back she did not go into the goal. She gave birth to a boy a while later and they called him Murray Newman after his grandfather. But he died, one of the many babies buried in the Moore River cemetery.
It was a strange sensation being in the place that is so often described as a hell hole, the whole of the Moore River Native Settlement that is, not just the goal; and as I reflect back on the memory of it, it grows stranger and stranger.
– ref. Friday essay: back to Moore River and finding family – http://theconversation.com/friday-essay-back-to-moore-river-and-finding-family-107522 | <urn:uuid:5354922c-b635-47c3-b989-93b2176ccb9a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://eveningreport.nz/2018/12/14/friday-essay-back-to-moore-river-and-finding-family-107522/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00228.warc.gz | en | 0.98761 | 2,129 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.358503699302... | 7 | Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Aileen Marwung Walsh, ARC Laureate Research Scholarship, Rediscovering Deep Human History, Australian National University
Untangling the web that is the history of the stolen generations is a very satisfying process. In October, I went to the Centenary Memorial gathering at Mogumber, on the site of the Moore River Native Settlement, about 130 km north of Perth.
The memorial was a commemoration of a tragedy that is part of the history of apartheid in Australia. The Moore River Native Settlement is a large part of many Aboriginal people’s family histories, all over Western Australia. People were sent there from the Kimberley and the Pilbara, from the Western Desert and the south west. Doris Pilkington’s book Follow The Rabbit Proof Fence is the most well known story of Moore River but there are thousands of others, including that of my grandparents.
The settlement was established in 1918 as a solution to the Aboriginal problem, as perceived by colonists. There were too many Aboriginal people “wandering about” WA, usually on reserves near ration depots where they received flour and blankets. The colonists did not want to see them.
Plus A.O. Neville, the Chief Protector of Aborigines, had a plan to breed out the black of the Aborigines so they would not be Aboriginal anymore. The full bloods would die out and the half castes would blend in. Neville laid out clearly how he would do this in his book Australia’s Coloured Minority.State Library of Western Australia.
Neville issued ministerial warrants to remove Aboriginal people from their homes, Noongars from the Perth area first, but then from all over WA. He closed down ration depots to make it easier to remove people, and women with children were especially vulnerable, so they were sent to Moore River or Carrolup further south.
The average monthly population at Moore River was 193. Between 1915 and 1920, over 500 people were sent to the settlement, many to die away from their country as inmates of one of Australia’s largest concentration camps.
One of the saddest stories was from Laverton, north east of Kalgoorlie, where 17 men women and children had gathered at the police station about 1921, to get their annual blanket and clothing issue. They were put into cells instead, men separated from the women, who were also separated from the children.
The next day they were placed in a cattle truck with a sign on the side, “15 niggers for Mogumber”. The local whites thought blacks being terrified was hilarious and shared the story of the wailing niggers.
Moore River was closed down in 1951 but only to be managed by the Methodist Church who called it Mogumber Mission. It operated until 1980.
I discovered my grandparents’ story when I received my family’s Native Welfare files in the 1980s. Mum, Violet Newman, was stolen in 1946 and sent to Norseman Mission, between Kalgoorlie and Esperance, and my grandparents were sent to Moore River.
Most Aboriginal people without birth certificates are given the birthday of horses, or the 1st of July, but mum got the day she was put in the mission, 19th of October.
From Moore River my grandfather, Len Newman, ran away and went to look for his daughter. He travelled by foot, he told my mum, because he was afraid of being picked up and sent back to Moore River as so often had happened to others. My grandfather worked around Norseman after he had located mum.
My grandmother’s story was quite different. She never saw her eldest daughter again. And the other daughter she gave birth to, well, we don’t know what happened to her. She was put into Kalgoorlie hospital when my grandmother was sent to Moore River and that is the last we know.
We heard stories about my grandmother when we lived in Newman, in the Pilbara, in the ‘70s because all the Jigalong mob, from two hours east of Newman, had known her.
Apparently, my grandmother had become a local midwife after she left Moore River and lived and travelled between Cundelee, where most of her family had been moved to after Maralinga, and Wiluna and Jigalong, and even down to Mt Barker in the southwest where we also had family.
I have never met nor even seen a photo of my grandmother, Ruby Marwung. However my Auntie Daisy Tinker was raised by her, and she told us a lot about my grandmother when we met my auntie in Newman. When my mum went looking for her mum, she learned that Ruby was dead and buried at Wiluna. She had died in 1972 we think. Mum was shown her grave but it was unmarked and mum didn’t know to look for records. It was just what she’d been told by family.
It’s like the grave of my great grandmother, Clara, the mother of my grandfather Len Newman, another unmarked grave, on the edge of the Norseman reserve. The record of her death is under her second husband’s name, Flynn. Aboriginal women’s names were always unoffocial: no records of birth, or marriage, or births of children. Most often just a death certificate whose history has to be untangled.
My grandparents had been married tribally and my grandfather Len’s decision to stay at Norseman meant that grandmother Ruby was free to marry someone else, and so she married Dungle-Dungle aka Jimmy Stephens. They applied to get married the western way and what is sad is that on the application form they call my mum Gladys. That must have been her name before the native welfare officer named her Violet.
I drove up to Mogumber the day before the gathering, to camp overnight. At the intersection where the Mogumber pub sits, the street sign for the Mogumber mission pointed straight ahead.
Knowing what the local non-Aboriginal people’s attitude would be to the Mogumber reunion I knew that someone would have pointed it in the wrong direction so I turned left instead.
And I was right. The sign was pointing in the wrong direction. When I went past it again the next day someone had changed it to point it the right way.
I couldn’t see any other Noongars so I just kept on driving until I spotted some pulled up at a community hall. I parked next to them and introduced myself. They invited me to camp the night with them and it was a wonderful night of making connections listening to them singing, they were great singers, and watching an amazing moon rise over the trees.
These were all mostly Yuet Noongars, the people who own the country where Moore River and the New Norcia Mission now sit, so with few connections with me, you’d think, as my family are from the deep south. But no, a couple of my great uncles had moved to the Meekatharra area, in mid west WA, at the beginning of the 20th century and so I met a few uncles and cousins.
And then as well, one of my brothers had died that morning in Perth. His dad was a Narrier, that’s a Noongar family name, and so we all talked about my uncle Joe and my little brother Ronald and I told them all about a conversation I’d had with my uncle Joe decades before; with him wondering where the name Narrier had come from.
I told these local Yuet Noongars how I had tracked the origin of the Narrier name for uncle Joe, that the Narriers weren’t named after a place, like my uncle Joe had thought, but that the place Mt Narryer had been named after their ancestor Ned Narea who had been a Noongar guide for colonists in the 1850s.
I was also able to tell them how Ned Narea, which was later Anglicised to Narrier, died in 1881 and they were upset by that story because Narea and his babbin (special friend) Kalinga had been sent from Roebourne to Perth in chains so tightly and cruelly fastened that at the end of the 28-day voyage they were both dead.
Life in a prison
The next day we all drove to the mission and I made special notice of the country because the photos I had seen of Moore River in the early 20th century showed a place denuded of vegetation, just wooden huts. The landscape is different now. Mogumber Mission was run until 1981 and the missionaries made big changes. There are also pine plantations all around.
I met a man called Lewis Wallam; I’ve known his sister Elaine for a long time, decades, because she lives near my mum in Como, Perth. Lewis took me to the prison, part of the settlement, and that story is very interesting.
There are four cells with no windows, just an iron grill above the thick wooden door. There is a small outside area that has strong steel grill for a roof and that was where prisoners were allowed to spend time during the day.
My grandmother Ruby spent time in this prison for running away from Moore River in 1949, she was sentenced to four days. Being in the gaol I was for the first time in the same place that I knew my grandmother had been. In a gaol.
The next time my grandmother ran away she was heavily pregnant and so when the police brought her back she did not go into the goal. She gave birth to a boy a while later and they called him Murray Newman after his grandfather. But he died, one of the many babies buried in the Moore River cemetery.
It was a strange sensation being in the place that is so often described as a hell hole, the whole of the Moore River Native Settlement that is, not just the goal; and as I reflect back on the memory of it, it grows stranger and stranger.
– ref. Friday essay: back to Moore River and finding family – http://theconversation.com/friday-essay-back-to-moore-river-and-finding-family-107522 | 2,112 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The distinction between art and craft was not always a thing. Up until about the 16th century, the ‘artist’ hadn’t as yet emerged. Today, it is difficult ‘not’ to consider the difference between art and craft. So how did this difference arise? There is no precise date for it, but I am guessing it happened around the same time the world witnessed the emergence of great masters like Van Gogh and Picasso (different centuries). The more the fine arts gained in popularity, so did the term ‘artist’ and ‘art’.
Before the term artist came about the term ‘artisan’ covered all the folks involved. The earliest definition of an artisan was someone who made things using his hands. By this definition even painters and sculptors were considered artisans. This changed around the age of renaissance in Europe when the grand masters emerged.
Let’s look at a bit of history of the artisans first.
History of the ‘Artisan’ and the Craft Guilds
In the medieval times ranging from about 1250 to 1850, there used to be organizations called craft guilds. I am talking about the time when every art form was considered craft and everyone making it was considered to be an artisan. Each field of craft had its own guild and most often more than just one.
All the people involved with making that particular craft were encouraged to join the guild. They generally had to because the craft guilds wielded a certain amount of power and influence on the trade. Even the suppliers and other traders were often made part of such guilds. As is the case with most organizations, craft guilds also had an inner sanctum of members that profited the most from this arrangement, including a few master craftsman.
The idea behind craft guilds was to exert control over a certain field of craft and profit through that influence via commissions, trade control etc. But craft guilds were finally abolished completely. To begin with, they could never achieve the kind of dictatorial control over a particular field of craft to because there was always other competing guilds.
Also, the state intervened in their policies regarding key aspects including apprenticeship rules etc. which further diminished their power and influence. When this was followed by the industrial revolution and the beginning of mass production of goods, It led to complete dissemination of craft guilds.
The reason why we are getting into a little bit of history concerning art and craft is because when there was a resurgence of craft in the 19th century, also known as the art and craft movement, things worked a little differently.
Emergence of the ‘Artist'
Somewhere in this era the term artist gained popularity and was mostly associated with fine arts.
For example, painters started preferring being referred to as artists, maybe to distinguish themselves from the commonplace connotations of the term, and also to establish the fact that they were making ‘art’. Another reason why the term ‘artist’ caught on because many were doing more than just one thing. If they were painting, they were also sculpting.
To be considered an artist you had and still have to meet a few concepts:
- Create original work.
- Be inspired personally or with external stimuli.
- Convey a message or emotion through the art.
- Create art for art’s sake, meaning most art is not utilitarian. It’s the idea and aesthetics that count.
- Be creative.
Today, the line between art and craft has blurred to some extent. Woodworkers, glass blowers, ceramists are all artists when they produce creative and works of art. There are a few reasons for this as well.
- Handicrafts are becoming rare. They are a novelty as compared to a few centuries ago when everything was handmade. The skill associated with these handicrafts is also becoming rare. As with any commodity that becomes rare, the perceived value of handmade goods has gone up.
- Handmade crafts are beautiful if done skilfully. With the advent of new tools and technology better results can be simulated. Our current environment allows for clever branding, marketing and selling practises.
- People are realising the value of the the skills and the skilled artisans that are becoming less commonplace. Their skill and talent is infinitely more as compared to what are known in the modern-day as ‘conceptual artists’.
- For all the reasons above, the definition of an ‘artist’ has loosened in people’s mind, even though a craft can never be a piece of pure ‘art’. Art doesn’t serve any utilitarian purpose. It is created for conceptual, physiological and aesthetic reasons alone. A craft, by definition, will mostly have a purpose to it.
Clarifying what we wrote about conceptual art above, you really have to read more about conceptual artists and see some examples to understand what I'm talking about. For example, I recently saw a conceptual art where the artist walked back and forth in a straight line in a grassy field till the grass was trampled enough to look like a narrow path in the field. That was the work of art. I don’t quite remember what the message or the sentiment behind the creation was, but you get the point.
Art vs Craft – What makes more money
Let's face it. Artists make more money than artisans. This was true in the 16th century and it rings true today as well. The major difference between then and now is in the degree of freedom in who can call themselves an artist. The difference is also in the acceptance of people in regards to whom they consider artists. Of course, the world has it share of struggling artists as well even today and not all are notably prosperous.
Prejudices, still exist. Art, the kind that sees its place in art galleries gets a very different response and attention as compared to the craft that sell at craft fairs and exhibitions. It also costs a whole lot more.
But to be entirely fair, mediocre art will also not get the artist anywhere and many talented artists have to struggle long and hard before they get the kind of exposure they want. Making art a career choice takes a person of perseverance and conviction about his talent and passion. There are a lot of challenges to overcome. And remember, the artist has to create original, and inspiring work every time if he is to be considered an artist.
Art is independent of medium and tools. It's about the mindset.
In conclusion, being an artist does not depend on what tools the person has in his hands, but rather the mindset. When an artist pushes beyond the mere creation of an object and supplants the physical dimension with creativity and vision, the craft becomes a work of art.
This is perhaps one of the biggest distinguishing factor between art and craft today. For an artisan the end result is the craft itself. For an artist it is the continuance of a thought or ideology. The craft is merely the physical manifestation of that. Most art is not just functional where as most craft is.
Also it should be noted that the term artist is most commonly used for the members of the fine art community like painters and sculptors. It is also commonly used for musicians and to a lesser extent, for actors. | <urn:uuid:9c20088e-c661-497e-88ee-a07f5f15e4a3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.assembleandearn.com/art-craft-differnce/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00062.warc.gz | en | 0.980697 | 1,514 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.1247430518269... | 8 | The distinction between art and craft was not always a thing. Up until about the 16th century, the ‘artist’ hadn’t as yet emerged. Today, it is difficult ‘not’ to consider the difference between art and craft. So how did this difference arise? There is no precise date for it, but I am guessing it happened around the same time the world witnessed the emergence of great masters like Van Gogh and Picasso (different centuries). The more the fine arts gained in popularity, so did the term ‘artist’ and ‘art’.
Before the term artist came about the term ‘artisan’ covered all the folks involved. The earliest definition of an artisan was someone who made things using his hands. By this definition even painters and sculptors were considered artisans. This changed around the age of renaissance in Europe when the grand masters emerged.
Let’s look at a bit of history of the artisans first.
History of the ‘Artisan’ and the Craft Guilds
In the medieval times ranging from about 1250 to 1850, there used to be organizations called craft guilds. I am talking about the time when every art form was considered craft and everyone making it was considered to be an artisan. Each field of craft had its own guild and most often more than just one.
All the people involved with making that particular craft were encouraged to join the guild. They generally had to because the craft guilds wielded a certain amount of power and influence on the trade. Even the suppliers and other traders were often made part of such guilds. As is the case with most organizations, craft guilds also had an inner sanctum of members that profited the most from this arrangement, including a few master craftsman.
The idea behind craft guilds was to exert control over a certain field of craft and profit through that influence via commissions, trade control etc. But craft guilds were finally abolished completely. To begin with, they could never achieve the kind of dictatorial control over a particular field of craft to because there was always other competing guilds.
Also, the state intervened in their policies regarding key aspects including apprenticeship rules etc. which further diminished their power and influence. When this was followed by the industrial revolution and the beginning of mass production of goods, It led to complete dissemination of craft guilds.
The reason why we are getting into a little bit of history concerning art and craft is because when there was a resurgence of craft in the 19th century, also known as the art and craft movement, things worked a little differently.
Emergence of the ‘Artist'
Somewhere in this era the term artist gained popularity and was mostly associated with fine arts.
For example, painters started preferring being referred to as artists, maybe to distinguish themselves from the commonplace connotations of the term, and also to establish the fact that they were making ‘art’. Another reason why the term ‘artist’ caught on because many were doing more than just one thing. If they were painting, they were also sculpting.
To be considered an artist you had and still have to meet a few concepts:
- Create original work.
- Be inspired personally or with external stimuli.
- Convey a message or emotion through the art.
- Create art for art’s sake, meaning most art is not utilitarian. It’s the idea and aesthetics that count.
- Be creative.
Today, the line between art and craft has blurred to some extent. Woodworkers, glass blowers, ceramists are all artists when they produce creative and works of art. There are a few reasons for this as well.
- Handicrafts are becoming rare. They are a novelty as compared to a few centuries ago when everything was handmade. The skill associated with these handicrafts is also becoming rare. As with any commodity that becomes rare, the perceived value of handmade goods has gone up.
- Handmade crafts are beautiful if done skilfully. With the advent of new tools and technology better results can be simulated. Our current environment allows for clever branding, marketing and selling practises.
- People are realising the value of the the skills and the skilled artisans that are becoming less commonplace. Their skill and talent is infinitely more as compared to what are known in the modern-day as ‘conceptual artists’.
- For all the reasons above, the definition of an ‘artist’ has loosened in people’s mind, even though a craft can never be a piece of pure ‘art’. Art doesn’t serve any utilitarian purpose. It is created for conceptual, physiological and aesthetic reasons alone. A craft, by definition, will mostly have a purpose to it.
Clarifying what we wrote about conceptual art above, you really have to read more about conceptual artists and see some examples to understand what I'm talking about. For example, I recently saw a conceptual art where the artist walked back and forth in a straight line in a grassy field till the grass was trampled enough to look like a narrow path in the field. That was the work of art. I don’t quite remember what the message or the sentiment behind the creation was, but you get the point.
Art vs Craft – What makes more money
Let's face it. Artists make more money than artisans. This was true in the 16th century and it rings true today as well. The major difference between then and now is in the degree of freedom in who can call themselves an artist. The difference is also in the acceptance of people in regards to whom they consider artists. Of course, the world has it share of struggling artists as well even today and not all are notably prosperous.
Prejudices, still exist. Art, the kind that sees its place in art galleries gets a very different response and attention as compared to the craft that sell at craft fairs and exhibitions. It also costs a whole lot more.
But to be entirely fair, mediocre art will also not get the artist anywhere and many talented artists have to struggle long and hard before they get the kind of exposure they want. Making art a career choice takes a person of perseverance and conviction about his talent and passion. There are a lot of challenges to overcome. And remember, the artist has to create original, and inspiring work every time if he is to be considered an artist.
Art is independent of medium and tools. It's about the mindset.
In conclusion, being an artist does not depend on what tools the person has in his hands, but rather the mindset. When an artist pushes beyond the mere creation of an object and supplants the physical dimension with creativity and vision, the craft becomes a work of art.
This is perhaps one of the biggest distinguishing factor between art and craft today. For an artisan the end result is the craft itself. For an artist it is the continuance of a thought or ideology. The craft is merely the physical manifestation of that. Most art is not just functional where as most craft is.
Also it should be noted that the term artist is most commonly used for the members of the fine art community like painters and sculptors. It is also commonly used for musicians and to a lesser extent, for actors. | 1,452 | ENGLISH | 1 |
THE ORIGIN OF CHRISTMAS
Tom T. Moore
How did December 25th become the day that is celebrated as Jesus’ birthday? The origin of this celebration dates back many centuries to the time when the early Catholic Church was trying to convert large numbers of pagans to Christianity.
Roman pagans at that time celebrated the holiday of Saturnalia from December 17-25 when the pagans would force one person from each community to gorge on food and drink for one week and then sacrifice that person. During this time the Roman courts were closed, so there was widespread intoxication, sex, rape, and people going from house to house singing naked. They also consumed human-shaped biscuits.
In the 4th Century, the Catholic Church was able to convert masses of pagans to Christianity by promising them they could continue their celebration. The church chose December 25th at the end of the celebration as Jesus’ birthday. The singing in the streets was the forerunner of caroling today.
In order to convert more pagans, the Catholic Church allowed the Asheira Cult, which worshiped trees in the forest and brought them into their homes, to continue this practice—thus the origin of the Christmas tree.
The origin of Christmas presents dates all the way back to pre-Christian times during that same Saturnalia celebration where the most despised citizens were forced by the emperor to bring him presents. Later there was general gift giving among the citizens, and so the Catholic Church changed it to the supposed gift giving of St. Nicholas.
Nicholas was a Bishop involved in assembling of the Bible during the Council of Nicaea in 325-327. He was not given sainthood until the 19th Century. A group of sailors moved his bones from Turkey to Bari, Italy where they rid the community of a lady nicknamed Grandmother who filled the stockings of children, and established a cult of Nicholas. They sent each other gifts on December 6, the date of Nicholas’ death. The cult spread north and was adopted by pagans who worshipped Woden. Woden sported a white beard and rode a horse through the heavens. This was changed into riding the horse through the winter heavens with heavy winter clothing. The Catholic Church adopted the Nicholas cult (in order to convert more pagans) and changed the gift giving to December 25th.
In 1809 Washington Irving referred to Saint Nicholas by his Dutch name Santa Claus. In 1822 Dr. Clement Moore wrote the famous “Night Before Christmas” referring to Saint Nicholas.
You have to admit it is really amusing that all of our Christmas traditions and rituals were from pagan celebrations. And you can also look upon it as tragic, that the early Christians would stoop to incorporate pagan practices in order for their church to grow and PROSPER—as that was the name of the game.
I have read where there are doubters as to Jesus’ actual existence. I would remind you that three of the largest religions of the world, all of which began in Israel, include him in their histories, with three quite divergent opinions of his significance. This man was the Master of Love, whatever else you believe. | <urn:uuid:d595c58d-4f7a-4740-aa48-c237da4cff22> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.thegentlewaybook.com/ar-origin.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00203.warc.gz | en | 0.980522 | 646 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.162880226969... | 1 | THE ORIGIN OF CHRISTMAS
Tom T. Moore
How did December 25th become the day that is celebrated as Jesus’ birthday? The origin of this celebration dates back many centuries to the time when the early Catholic Church was trying to convert large numbers of pagans to Christianity.
Roman pagans at that time celebrated the holiday of Saturnalia from December 17-25 when the pagans would force one person from each community to gorge on food and drink for one week and then sacrifice that person. During this time the Roman courts were closed, so there was widespread intoxication, sex, rape, and people going from house to house singing naked. They also consumed human-shaped biscuits.
In the 4th Century, the Catholic Church was able to convert masses of pagans to Christianity by promising them they could continue their celebration. The church chose December 25th at the end of the celebration as Jesus’ birthday. The singing in the streets was the forerunner of caroling today.
In order to convert more pagans, the Catholic Church allowed the Asheira Cult, which worshiped trees in the forest and brought them into their homes, to continue this practice—thus the origin of the Christmas tree.
The origin of Christmas presents dates all the way back to pre-Christian times during that same Saturnalia celebration where the most despised citizens were forced by the emperor to bring him presents. Later there was general gift giving among the citizens, and so the Catholic Church changed it to the supposed gift giving of St. Nicholas.
Nicholas was a Bishop involved in assembling of the Bible during the Council of Nicaea in 325-327. He was not given sainthood until the 19th Century. A group of sailors moved his bones from Turkey to Bari, Italy where they rid the community of a lady nicknamed Grandmother who filled the stockings of children, and established a cult of Nicholas. They sent each other gifts on December 6, the date of Nicholas’ death. The cult spread north and was adopted by pagans who worshipped Woden. Woden sported a white beard and rode a horse through the heavens. This was changed into riding the horse through the winter heavens with heavy winter clothing. The Catholic Church adopted the Nicholas cult (in order to convert more pagans) and changed the gift giving to December 25th.
In 1809 Washington Irving referred to Saint Nicholas by his Dutch name Santa Claus. In 1822 Dr. Clement Moore wrote the famous “Night Before Christmas” referring to Saint Nicholas.
You have to admit it is really amusing that all of our Christmas traditions and rituals were from pagan celebrations. And you can also look upon it as tragic, that the early Christians would stoop to incorporate pagan practices in order for their church to grow and PROSPER—as that was the name of the game.
I have read where there are doubters as to Jesus’ actual existence. I would remind you that three of the largest religions of the world, all of which began in Israel, include him in their histories, with three quite divergent opinions of his significance. This man was the Master of Love, whatever else you believe. | 655 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The American Library Association
The Child Study Association
The California Reading Initiative
As is their custom, the d'Aulaires have thoroughly researched their subject in order to provide the most historically accurate account of the life of the man Samuel Eliot Morrison called "the greatest mariner that ever lived." In their pursuit, the d'Aulaires traveled to Spain, Portugal, and the Caribbean Islands to research original documents on the life of Columbus.
Their text reflects many little-known facts not generally included in the typical biographies of Columbus. Readers will learn that it was the saga of Leif Erickson that was one of the inspirations for Columbus's voyage to the East. They will also learn that Columbus was such a skilled astronomer that he knew the exact date when the next eclipse of the moon was and used that knowledge to his advantage. They will also learn that though "Columbus was a great man, he was not a modest man. He wanted too much, and so he did not get enough" (54).
This book is lavishly illustrated with the d'Aulaire's detailed lithographs in four colors.
About the Authors:
Ingri Mortenson and Edgar Parin D'Aulaire met in Munich where both were studying art in the 1920's. Ingri had grown up in Norway; Edgar, the son of a noted portrait painter, was born in Switzerland and had lived in Paris and Florence. Shortly after their marriage, they moved to the United States and began to create the picture books that have established their reputation for unique craftsmanship. Their books were known for their vivid lasting color. a result of the pain-staking process of stone lithography used for all their American history biographies. This was an old world craft in which they were both expert, which involved actually tracing their images on large slabs of Bavarian limestone.
Throughout their long careers, Ingri and Edgar worked as a team on both art and text. Their research took them to the actual places of their biographies, including the countries of Italy, Portugal and Spain when they were researching Columbus; to the hills of Virginia while they researched George Washington; and to the wilds of Kentucky and Illinois for Abraham Lincoln, winner of the Caldecott Medal. The fact that they spoke 5 languages fluently served them well in their European travels and in their research of original documents. Since their deaths in the 1980's, Ingri and Edgar's books and works have been kept alive by their two sons Ola and Nils. | <urn:uuid:f392c60a-ed8f-40dc-a7bb-dbb080d171d3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.bfbooks.com/Columbus-by-DAulaire | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00446.warc.gz | en | 0.9829 | 512 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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The Child Study Association
The California Reading Initiative
As is their custom, the d'Aulaires have thoroughly researched their subject in order to provide the most historically accurate account of the life of the man Samuel Eliot Morrison called "the greatest mariner that ever lived." In their pursuit, the d'Aulaires traveled to Spain, Portugal, and the Caribbean Islands to research original documents on the life of Columbus.
Their text reflects many little-known facts not generally included in the typical biographies of Columbus. Readers will learn that it was the saga of Leif Erickson that was one of the inspirations for Columbus's voyage to the East. They will also learn that Columbus was such a skilled astronomer that he knew the exact date when the next eclipse of the moon was and used that knowledge to his advantage. They will also learn that though "Columbus was a great man, he was not a modest man. He wanted too much, and so he did not get enough" (54).
This book is lavishly illustrated with the d'Aulaire's detailed lithographs in four colors.
About the Authors:
Ingri Mortenson and Edgar Parin D'Aulaire met in Munich where both were studying art in the 1920's. Ingri had grown up in Norway; Edgar, the son of a noted portrait painter, was born in Switzerland and had lived in Paris and Florence. Shortly after their marriage, they moved to the United States and began to create the picture books that have established their reputation for unique craftsmanship. Their books were known for their vivid lasting color. a result of the pain-staking process of stone lithography used for all their American history biographies. This was an old world craft in which they were both expert, which involved actually tracing their images on large slabs of Bavarian limestone.
Throughout their long careers, Ingri and Edgar worked as a team on both art and text. Their research took them to the actual places of their biographies, including the countries of Italy, Portugal and Spain when they were researching Columbus; to the hills of Virginia while they researched George Washington; and to the wilds of Kentucky and Illinois for Abraham Lincoln, winner of the Caldecott Medal. The fact that they spoke 5 languages fluently served them well in their European travels and in their research of original documents. Since their deaths in the 1980's, Ingri and Edgar's books and works have been kept alive by their two sons Ola and Nils. | 512 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The role of Mesopotamian women in their society, as in most cultures throughout time, was primarily that of wife, mother and housekeeper. Girls, for example, did not attend the schools run by priests or scribes unless they were royalty. Girls stayed home and learned the household tasks they would perform when they grew up and married.
However, as the polytheistic religion practiced by Mesopotamians included both gods and goddesses, women were also priestesses, some of them not only important, but powerful. A family might sell a daughter to the temple, and they were honored to have a priestess in the family. Families could also sell their daughters into prostitution or slavery. Prostitution, however, was not regarded as vile or degrading at that time. In fact, a form of sacred prostitution in the temples existed side by side with secular prostitution.
Shortly after a girl reached puberty, her father arranged a marriage for her. Marriages were legal contracts between two families and each family had obligations to meet. A bride’s father paid a dowry to the young couple. The groom’s family paid a bride price. While ancient Sumerians and Babylonians could and did fall in love, and romantic love was celebrated in songs, stories and literature, it wasn’t encouraged in real life. The basis for a society is the family unit, and Mesopotamian societies structured the laws to encourage stable families.
Most women, then, were wives and mothers, doing the necessary tasks of women everywhere: taking care of their families, raising children, cleaning, cooking and weaving. Some women, however, also engaged in trade, especially weaving and selling cloth, food production, brewing beer and wine, perfumery and making incense, midwifery and prostitution. Weaving and selling cloth produced much wealth for Mesopotamia and temples employed thousands of women in making cloth.
Mesopotamian women in Sumer, the first Mesopotamian culture, had more rights than they did in the later Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian cultures. Sumerian women could own property, run businesses along with their husbands, become priestesses, scribes, physicians and act as judges and witnesses in courts. Archeologists and historians speculate that as Mesopotamian cultures grew in wealth and power, a strong patriarchal structure gave more rights to men than to women. Perhaps the Sumerians gave women more rights because they worshipped goddesses as fervently as they did gods.
For men, divorce was easy. A husband could divorce a wife if she was childless, careless with money or if she belittled him. All he had to say was “You are not my wife.” Women could initiate divorce, but had to prove her husband’s abuse or adultery. Monies paid to each family, in cases of divorce, had to be returned. If Mesopotamian women were caught in adultery, they were killed. If men were caught in adultery, a man might be punished financially but not killed. While women were expected to be monogamous, husbands could visit prostitutes or take concubines.
This article is part of our larger resource on Mesopotamian culture, society, economics, and warfare. Click here for our comprehensive article on ancient Mesopotamia.
Cite This Article"Mesopotamian Women and Their Social Roles" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/mesopotamian-women-in-mesopotamian-society>
More Citation Information. | <urn:uuid:0128b684-0bb7-4a52-93f2-aa1b56fdf0d5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyonthenet.com/mesopotamian-women-in-mesopotamian-society | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00557.warc.gz | en | 0.985189 | 753 | 4.5625 | 5 | [
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-0.11404442042... | 1 | The role of Mesopotamian women in their society, as in most cultures throughout time, was primarily that of wife, mother and housekeeper. Girls, for example, did not attend the schools run by priests or scribes unless they were royalty. Girls stayed home and learned the household tasks they would perform when they grew up and married.
However, as the polytheistic religion practiced by Mesopotamians included both gods and goddesses, women were also priestesses, some of them not only important, but powerful. A family might sell a daughter to the temple, and they were honored to have a priestess in the family. Families could also sell their daughters into prostitution or slavery. Prostitution, however, was not regarded as vile or degrading at that time. In fact, a form of sacred prostitution in the temples existed side by side with secular prostitution.
Shortly after a girl reached puberty, her father arranged a marriage for her. Marriages were legal contracts between two families and each family had obligations to meet. A bride’s father paid a dowry to the young couple. The groom’s family paid a bride price. While ancient Sumerians and Babylonians could and did fall in love, and romantic love was celebrated in songs, stories and literature, it wasn’t encouraged in real life. The basis for a society is the family unit, and Mesopotamian societies structured the laws to encourage stable families.
Most women, then, were wives and mothers, doing the necessary tasks of women everywhere: taking care of their families, raising children, cleaning, cooking and weaving. Some women, however, also engaged in trade, especially weaving and selling cloth, food production, brewing beer and wine, perfumery and making incense, midwifery and prostitution. Weaving and selling cloth produced much wealth for Mesopotamia and temples employed thousands of women in making cloth.
Mesopotamian women in Sumer, the first Mesopotamian culture, had more rights than they did in the later Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian cultures. Sumerian women could own property, run businesses along with their husbands, become priestesses, scribes, physicians and act as judges and witnesses in courts. Archeologists and historians speculate that as Mesopotamian cultures grew in wealth and power, a strong patriarchal structure gave more rights to men than to women. Perhaps the Sumerians gave women more rights because they worshipped goddesses as fervently as they did gods.
For men, divorce was easy. A husband could divorce a wife if she was childless, careless with money or if she belittled him. All he had to say was “You are not my wife.” Women could initiate divorce, but had to prove her husband’s abuse or adultery. Monies paid to each family, in cases of divorce, had to be returned. If Mesopotamian women were caught in adultery, they were killed. If men were caught in adultery, a man might be punished financially but not killed. While women were expected to be monogamous, husbands could visit prostitutes or take concubines.
This article is part of our larger resource on Mesopotamian culture, society, economics, and warfare. Click here for our comprehensive article on ancient Mesopotamia.
Cite This Article"Mesopotamian Women and Their Social Roles" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/mesopotamian-women-in-mesopotamian-society>
More Citation Information. | 745 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Louis the pious, who was the son of the great Charlemagne, died in 840. He left his three sons (Lotharius, Charles the Bald and Lewis the German) the great Carolingian Empire, which was founded by Charles Martel.
Lotharius claimed overlordship over his brothers’ kingdoms and supported his nephew Pepin II who wanted the throne of Aquitaine. But the forces of Charles the bald and Lewis the German defeated Lotharius' troops and forced him to negotiate.
Already, all three brothers had established themselves within the empire:Lotharius in Italy, Charles in Aquitaine and Lewis in Bavaria. Then Lotharius received the central portion of the empire (Italy and the territory between the Rhine and the Rhone rivers) which was called the Central Frankish Realm, and he received the imperial title (this did not mean that he did have overlordship over his brothers but it was meant as an honor to him). Charles got the western part of the empire, which is now (for the largest part) modern France, in those days it was called the Western Frankish Realm. Lewis received the eastern portion of the empire, which is now (for the largest part) Germany and was called the Eastern Frankish Realm back then.Aquitaine was given to Pepin II under the authority of Charles the Bald.
Lotharius gave Italy to his eldest son, Louis II in 844. When Lotharius died in 855, he divided his kingdom into three parts: the territory already held by Louis II remained his (louis’), the territory of the former Kingdom of Burgundy was granted to his third son Charles, and the remaining territory was granted to his second son Lothar II, whose realm was named Lotharingia, or more popular, Lorraine.
Lothar II traded parts of his lands to Louis II for support of a divorce from his wife, which caused conflicts with the Pope and his uncles. Charles of Burgundy died in 863, and his Kingdom was inherited by Louis II. Lothar II died in 869 with no legitimate heirs, and his Kingdom was divided between Charles the Bald and Lewis the German in 870. Louis II died in 875, and named Carloman, the eldest son of Lewis the German, his heir. Charles the Bald, had the support of the Pope, and was thereby crowned both King of Italy and Roman Emperor. The year after, Lewis the German died. The Eastern Frankish Realm was divided between Lewis the Younger, Carloman of Bavaria and Charles The fat.
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0.106707513332... | 1 | Louis the pious, who was the son of the great Charlemagne, died in 840. He left his three sons (Lotharius, Charles the Bald and Lewis the German) the great Carolingian Empire, which was founded by Charles Martel.
Lotharius claimed overlordship over his brothers’ kingdoms and supported his nephew Pepin II who wanted the throne of Aquitaine. But the forces of Charles the bald and Lewis the German defeated Lotharius' troops and forced him to negotiate.
Already, all three brothers had established themselves within the empire:Lotharius in Italy, Charles in Aquitaine and Lewis in Bavaria. Then Lotharius received the central portion of the empire (Italy and the territory between the Rhine and the Rhone rivers) which was called the Central Frankish Realm, and he received the imperial title (this did not mean that he did have overlordship over his brothers but it was meant as an honor to him). Charles got the western part of the empire, which is now (for the largest part) modern France, in those days it was called the Western Frankish Realm. Lewis received the eastern portion of the empire, which is now (for the largest part) Germany and was called the Eastern Frankish Realm back then.Aquitaine was given to Pepin II under the authority of Charles the Bald.
Lotharius gave Italy to his eldest son, Louis II in 844. When Lotharius died in 855, he divided his kingdom into three parts: the territory already held by Louis II remained his (louis’), the territory of the former Kingdom of Burgundy was granted to his third son Charles, and the remaining territory was granted to his second son Lothar II, whose realm was named Lotharingia, or more popular, Lorraine.
Lothar II traded parts of his lands to Louis II for support of a divorce from his wife, which caused conflicts with the Pope and his uncles. Charles of Burgundy died in 863, and his Kingdom was inherited by Louis II. Lothar II died in 869 with no legitimate heirs, and his Kingdom was divided between Charles the Bald and Lewis the German in 870. Louis II died in 875, and named Carloman, the eldest son of Lewis the German, his heir. Charles the Bald, had the support of the Pope, and was thereby crowned both King of Italy and Roman Emperor. The year after, Lewis the German died. The Eastern Frankish Realm was divided between Lewis the Younger, Carloman of Bavaria and Charles The fat.
With the death of Charles the Fat the once glorious and prospering Carolingian empire had ended. | 566 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When Ethiopian Jews Tried To Save European Jews From Holocaust
In August 1943, at the height of the Holocaust, Ethiopian Jewish leaders approached the Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia with a daring proposal. They asked him to help Jews in Europe flee to Ethiopia and assist Jewish refugees by hosting them in Ethiopian Jewish villages.
Three months after the Warsaw Ghetto uprising and two months after all four of the Auschwitz crematoria were functioning, The Palestine Post, as today’s Jerusalem Post was then called, published an article detailing Jewish immigration to Ethiopia. “Possibilities of Jewish immigration into Abyssinia were discussed by the Ethiopian Minister in London with Mr. Harry Goodman and Dr. Springer of Agudath Israel,” the August 8, 1943 article says. “A leading member of the Falasha (black Jewish) community expressed the desire to assist European Jewry and to welcome them in Falasha towns.” Falasha was the term used to describe Jews in Ethiopia at the time.
Discussions were ongoing in Addis Ababa where the emperor, who had returned to Ethiopia in May 1941 after it was liberated from Italy with British help, was showing support for the plan. 1,500 Greek refugees, among them Greek Jews, had arrived in Ethiopia in 1943, the article says.
Selassie had stayed at the King David Hotel in Jerusalem in 1936 and was familiar with the Jewish minority in his country. He also worked closely with Orde Wingate, the British officer who was a passionate Zionist and who led the Gideon Force, which defeated the Italian fascist army in Ethiopia. Ethiopian leaders and the Ethiopian Jewish community were therefore familiar with the local Jewish community and the plight of Jews worldwide at the time.
While Ethiopian Jews suffered under the Italian occupation, by 1943 they were able to reach out to the emperor to suggest hosting Jews fleeing Europe. By that time it was too late for many of the Jews of Europe ensnared in the Nazi noose.
Harry Goodman, who is mentioned in the article, was a well-known member of the Orthodox Agudath Israel World Organization. He published in the Jewish Weekly and broadcast messages to Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe. There is an M.R. Springer mentioned in some records connected to the Czech Jewish community in the UK at the time. Italian dictator Benito Mussolini even briefly considered resettling Jews in Ethiopia in the 1930s during the Italian occupation. At the time there were estimated to be more than 50,000 Jews in Ethiopia, many of them living in villages near Gondar province.
The full story of the 1943 effort to convince Ethiopia to re-settle Jews fleeing Europe has not been researched and many details about it remain unknown. | <urn:uuid:5d0aba8a-e7c5-46a9-a369-9a8c0af16f93> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://globaljews.org/articles/world/when-ethiopian-jews-tried-to-save-european-jews-from-holocaust/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00336.warc.gz | en | 0.980718 | 554 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.08461926877498627... | 4 | When Ethiopian Jews Tried To Save European Jews From Holocaust
In August 1943, at the height of the Holocaust, Ethiopian Jewish leaders approached the Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia with a daring proposal. They asked him to help Jews in Europe flee to Ethiopia and assist Jewish refugees by hosting them in Ethiopian Jewish villages.
Three months after the Warsaw Ghetto uprising and two months after all four of the Auschwitz crematoria were functioning, The Palestine Post, as today’s Jerusalem Post was then called, published an article detailing Jewish immigration to Ethiopia. “Possibilities of Jewish immigration into Abyssinia were discussed by the Ethiopian Minister in London with Mr. Harry Goodman and Dr. Springer of Agudath Israel,” the August 8, 1943 article says. “A leading member of the Falasha (black Jewish) community expressed the desire to assist European Jewry and to welcome them in Falasha towns.” Falasha was the term used to describe Jews in Ethiopia at the time.
Discussions were ongoing in Addis Ababa where the emperor, who had returned to Ethiopia in May 1941 after it was liberated from Italy with British help, was showing support for the plan. 1,500 Greek refugees, among them Greek Jews, had arrived in Ethiopia in 1943, the article says.
Selassie had stayed at the King David Hotel in Jerusalem in 1936 and was familiar with the Jewish minority in his country. He also worked closely with Orde Wingate, the British officer who was a passionate Zionist and who led the Gideon Force, which defeated the Italian fascist army in Ethiopia. Ethiopian leaders and the Ethiopian Jewish community were therefore familiar with the local Jewish community and the plight of Jews worldwide at the time.
While Ethiopian Jews suffered under the Italian occupation, by 1943 they were able to reach out to the emperor to suggest hosting Jews fleeing Europe. By that time it was too late for many of the Jews of Europe ensnared in the Nazi noose.
Harry Goodman, who is mentioned in the article, was a well-known member of the Orthodox Agudath Israel World Organization. He published in the Jewish Weekly and broadcast messages to Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe. There is an M.R. Springer mentioned in some records connected to the Czech Jewish community in the UK at the time. Italian dictator Benito Mussolini even briefly considered resettling Jews in Ethiopia in the 1930s during the Italian occupation. At the time there were estimated to be more than 50,000 Jews in Ethiopia, many of them living in villages near Gondar province.
The full story of the 1943 effort to convince Ethiopia to re-settle Jews fleeing Europe has not been researched and many details about it remain unknown. | 574 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tutankhamen was a young Egyptian king who ascended to the throne at the age of 9 or 10 years and who ruled for only 9 or 10 years before he died at the age of 19. Tutankhamen ruled between 1332BC to 1323BC when he died for a reason that is still subjected for debate. There have been a number of theories created to explain the early death of the Tutankhamen Pharaoh (Buchanan, 2014).
One of the most ancient theories that were created to explain Tutankhamen death was murder. This theory was based on the fact that there was a motive for murder which was to take the throne over and thus, this was anticipated to have been done by his courtiers. There were also marks found by medics on the head of his skull. These marks and bumps were said to play a part in explaining Tutankhamen early death. It was also proposed that the marks could only have been caused by an individual who was closely related to the king. In this regard, this theory concluded that Tutankhamen was murdered by those who eyed his throne (Krystek, 2002).
Another most recent theory claims that Tutankhamen died of inherited illness. According to the theory, Tutankhamen was as a result of intensive inbreeding in the family of pharaohs. He was actual a son of brother and sister and thus, he had a higher chance of acquiring a genetic hereditary disease. Moreover, the recent autopsy eliminates the chances that Tutankhamen died of chariot crash. It also demonstrated that the breaks in Tutankhamen body took place after his death. The back holes can also be explained by natural mummification that took place in pharaohs’ linage (Buchanan, 2014). Another evidence for this theory is that most of his drawing in the cave shows Tutankhamen with a walking cane or sited being attended by his young wife. This can explain that he was not in good health based on the fact that he was very young. In this regard, the theory of death by illness can serve strongly to explain his death (Tripod, n.d.).
Order Unique Answer Now | <urn:uuid:f09b0e5c-7524-4628-b58b-e456335e7e34> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://uniquewritersbay.com/blog/theories-tutankhamen-death-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00244.warc.gz | en | 0.993175 | 451 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.1576746851205... | 3 | Tutankhamen was a young Egyptian king who ascended to the throne at the age of 9 or 10 years and who ruled for only 9 or 10 years before he died at the age of 19. Tutankhamen ruled between 1332BC to 1323BC when he died for a reason that is still subjected for debate. There have been a number of theories created to explain the early death of the Tutankhamen Pharaoh (Buchanan, 2014).
One of the most ancient theories that were created to explain Tutankhamen death was murder. This theory was based on the fact that there was a motive for murder which was to take the throne over and thus, this was anticipated to have been done by his courtiers. There were also marks found by medics on the head of his skull. These marks and bumps were said to play a part in explaining Tutankhamen early death. It was also proposed that the marks could only have been caused by an individual who was closely related to the king. In this regard, this theory concluded that Tutankhamen was murdered by those who eyed his throne (Krystek, 2002).
Another most recent theory claims that Tutankhamen died of inherited illness. According to the theory, Tutankhamen was as a result of intensive inbreeding in the family of pharaohs. He was actual a son of brother and sister and thus, he had a higher chance of acquiring a genetic hereditary disease. Moreover, the recent autopsy eliminates the chances that Tutankhamen died of chariot crash. It also demonstrated that the breaks in Tutankhamen body took place after his death. The back holes can also be explained by natural mummification that took place in pharaohs’ linage (Buchanan, 2014). Another evidence for this theory is that most of his drawing in the cave shows Tutankhamen with a walking cane or sited being attended by his young wife. This can explain that he was not in good health based on the fact that he was very young. In this regard, the theory of death by illness can serve strongly to explain his death (Tripod, n.d.).
Order Unique Answer Now | 475 | ENGLISH | 1 |
I have problem with the following syllogism.
Some A are B All B are C ———————————— Some B are C Some A are C
I think both are correct answers while my book says that the only correct answer is "some A are C".
It depends on what kind of logic you are studying. In Aristotelean term logic, "all B are C" has existential import, which is to say it is only true if there are B's. Hence it follows by immediate inference that "some B are C". If the point of the exercise is to ask what can you infer from both premises that does not simply follow by immediate inference from either one, then "some A are C" does this but not "some B are C". We would need to see exactly how the question is worded in order to judge whether that is the best answer.
In predicate logic, "all B are C" does not have existential import, which is to say it is trivially true in the event that there are no B's. Hence "some B are C" does not follow from it. To deduce "some B are C" you would need to reason from "some A are B" to "there exists at least one B" and then from this together with "all B are C" to "there exists at least one thing that is B and C".
So for myself, preferring the predicate logic approach, I would say you are correct that both "some B are C" and "some A are C" follow. | <urn:uuid:6da7df70-f5c8-4e1e-be98-da516abbaa98> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/39292/syllogism-problem-assistance | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00232.warc.gz | en | 0.983876 | 317 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.225730925798... | 1 | I have problem with the following syllogism.
Some A are B All B are C ———————————— Some B are C Some A are C
I think both are correct answers while my book says that the only correct answer is "some A are C".
It depends on what kind of logic you are studying. In Aristotelean term logic, "all B are C" has existential import, which is to say it is only true if there are B's. Hence it follows by immediate inference that "some B are C". If the point of the exercise is to ask what can you infer from both premises that does not simply follow by immediate inference from either one, then "some A are C" does this but not "some B are C". We would need to see exactly how the question is worded in order to judge whether that is the best answer.
In predicate logic, "all B are C" does not have existential import, which is to say it is trivially true in the event that there are no B's. Hence "some B are C" does not follow from it. To deduce "some B are C" you would need to reason from "some A are B" to "there exists at least one B" and then from this together with "all B are C" to "there exists at least one thing that is B and C".
So for myself, preferring the predicate logic approach, I would say you are correct that both "some B are C" and "some A are C" follow. | 314 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Grand Canal is one of the oldest and longest man-made waterways in the whole world. It runs all the way from northern China to the south.
It is a very complicated waterway system. Let’s learn some facts about this famous canal!
Building a network of waterways
In a similar way to the Great Wall of China, the Grand Canal was built in small parts, bit by bit, from as early as the 5th century.
It was started as a real project by the Sui Dynasty in 605 BC. Their capital city was in Luoyang at the time of their rule.
The emperors of the Sui Dynasty built sections of the canal from Luoyang on the Yellow River to Hangzhou.
Emperor Yangdi of the Sui Dynasty sent a fleet of ships down the finished canal. This was like a parade of fancy, impressive, boats to show everyone it was finished.
There were apparently 80,000 men pulling the boats. These large boats are reported to have had up to 120 rooms on them.
The canal is an impressive 40 meters in width.
It took a lot of time, money and manpower to build a canal so large and wide. Any man over 15 could be forced to work on the canal. It was dangerous work, too. Many people did lose their lives.
Connecting the Empire
During the Sui Dynasty (7th Century AD), the Canal was used as a way of communicating and transporting goods across the whole empire.
This huge waterway made moving goods across such a large Empire much easier. The canal could transport important goods, like grain, from one part of the territory to another very easily.
People (including soldiers) could also be transported from one part of the Empire to another. They could get troops where they needed to be more quickly in case of battle or rebellion.
Emperors could communicate efficiently.
The waterways were man-made. However, they connected natural waterways, rivers. Such rivers as the Yellow River and the Yangtze River were connected by these manmade canals.
At one time, it was easier to use the canal system instead of the seas to travel. This way, there was less risk of theft and hijacks from pirates.
It also meant that storms did not disrupt transportation like they might on the sea.
Emperors built new sections depending on where was important to them. For example, during the Southern Song Dynasty, Hangzhou became the capital of China.
This meant that the southern part of the canal was improved because this part of the canal was now important to China’s rulers.
At the time of the Yuan Dynasty, the capital was moved to Beijing. Therefore, the canal was extended to take it to Beijing.
A world heritage site
In later years, trading over the sea and by railways became the preferred option and the canals were no longer used. They silted up. They are now protected by UNESCO and they are a great attraction for tourists.
UNESCO stands for “United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation”.
The canals are protected as what is called a world heritage site. This is because the organisation, UNESCO, have decided it is very important for China’s history, and for world history.
The canals show the world how impressive Chinese engineers were at such an early time in history. | <urn:uuid:ca50d070-e685-4e70-91d1-e64e62a63fc4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.savvyleo.com/world-history/ancient-china/grand-canal/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00066.warc.gz | en | 0.982404 | 696 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.3500877916... | 14 | The Grand Canal is one of the oldest and longest man-made waterways in the whole world. It runs all the way from northern China to the south.
It is a very complicated waterway system. Let’s learn some facts about this famous canal!
Building a network of waterways
In a similar way to the Great Wall of China, the Grand Canal was built in small parts, bit by bit, from as early as the 5th century.
It was started as a real project by the Sui Dynasty in 605 BC. Their capital city was in Luoyang at the time of their rule.
The emperors of the Sui Dynasty built sections of the canal from Luoyang on the Yellow River to Hangzhou.
Emperor Yangdi of the Sui Dynasty sent a fleet of ships down the finished canal. This was like a parade of fancy, impressive, boats to show everyone it was finished.
There were apparently 80,000 men pulling the boats. These large boats are reported to have had up to 120 rooms on them.
The canal is an impressive 40 meters in width.
It took a lot of time, money and manpower to build a canal so large and wide. Any man over 15 could be forced to work on the canal. It was dangerous work, too. Many people did lose their lives.
Connecting the Empire
During the Sui Dynasty (7th Century AD), the Canal was used as a way of communicating and transporting goods across the whole empire.
This huge waterway made moving goods across such a large Empire much easier. The canal could transport important goods, like grain, from one part of the territory to another very easily.
People (including soldiers) could also be transported from one part of the Empire to another. They could get troops where they needed to be more quickly in case of battle or rebellion.
Emperors could communicate efficiently.
The waterways were man-made. However, they connected natural waterways, rivers. Such rivers as the Yellow River and the Yangtze River were connected by these manmade canals.
At one time, it was easier to use the canal system instead of the seas to travel. This way, there was less risk of theft and hijacks from pirates.
It also meant that storms did not disrupt transportation like they might on the sea.
Emperors built new sections depending on where was important to them. For example, during the Southern Song Dynasty, Hangzhou became the capital of China.
This meant that the southern part of the canal was improved because this part of the canal was now important to China’s rulers.
At the time of the Yuan Dynasty, the capital was moved to Beijing. Therefore, the canal was extended to take it to Beijing.
A world heritage site
In later years, trading over the sea and by railways became the preferred option and the canals were no longer used. They silted up. They are now protected by UNESCO and they are a great attraction for tourists.
UNESCO stands for “United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation”.
The canals are protected as what is called a world heritage site. This is because the organisation, UNESCO, have decided it is very important for China’s history, and for world history.
The canals show the world how impressive Chinese engineers were at such an early time in history. | 685 | ENGLISH | 1 |
New research shows ways parents can affect their child's concentration
"This effect, day in and day out in an infant's life, may be the source of strong skills in sustained attention and concentration."
In a new study conducted at Indiana University, Dr. Chen Yu and Dr. Linda Smith were able to find the first direct link between a child's attention span and that of their parents.
The study, which was published in the journal Current Biology, was meant to prove that parents who are constantly checking their phones (or get easily distracted by outside stimuli) while playing with their children are affecting their children's attention span.
In order to conduct the study with the most natural results, parents weren't told what they were being studied for. All that the 36 parents were asked to do was wear a head-mounted camera. From there, researchers could observe how parents played with and engaged their children (babies aged one to one-and-a-half) with toys, also how often the parents got distracted or checked their phones. In addition, researchers observed how their parents behavior affected the child's eye movement and general attention.
The data showed that the longer a parent, and by extension their baby, paid attention to an object or toy while playing, the longer the baby kept paying attention to it. Even after the parents stopped playing, these babies would tend to pay attention to the object. In summation, these babies and parents displayed the best attention spans.
Conversely, the babies whose parents got distracted, stopped playing with the baby, or constantly checked their cellphones displayed worse attention spans. Surprisingly, these distracted parents did not yield the worst results.
The babies that displayed the worst attention spans were those whose parents tried to overly engage the children. Parents who held toys out to their baby, tried to give names, or draw attention to a specific toy yielded the worst results with their babies. Evidently, it's better to let your baby take lead while playing.
"The ability of children to sustain attention is known as a strong indicator for later success in areas such as language acquisition, problem-solving and other key cognitive development milestones. Caregivers who appear distracted or whose eyes wander a lot while their children play appear to negatively impact infants' burgeoning attention spans during a key stage of development. When you've got someone who isn't responsive to a child's behaviour, it could be a real red flag for future problems," said Dr. Chen Yu.
"Because sustained attention matters to school success, this influence provides a way to understand individual differences in sustained attention and to potentially influence its development," he added.
While there is a lot to learn from the interaction between parents and their babies in terms of attention span, one thing can be noted from the study: don't try to overcompensate!
"Parents who had more success were those who let their children take the lead. These caregivers waited until they saw the children express interest in a toy and then jumped in to expand that interest by naming the object and encouraging play," says Yu.
The research, in terms of numbers, is quite clear. Parents (and their babies) who were attentive to one specific object for 3.6 seconds offered some pretty staggering numbers. The babies of these parents continued to lend their attention to the same object for an additional 2.6 seconds on average. To put that in perspective, that's roughly 4x longer than the other babies.
It's clear that properly playing with your children at a young age can lead to stronger attention spans and other benefits in terms of learning. Dr. Linda Smith says, "This effect, day in and day out in an infant's life, may be the source of strong skills in sustained attention and concentration."
If you have any insights, questions or comments regarding the topic, please share them with us! | <urn:uuid:01409e0a-5242-4d94-86a1-8b1af8b04b34> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sg.theasianparent.com/new-research-shows-ways-parents-can-affect-childs-concentration | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00092.warc.gz | en | 0.980254 | 782 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.598191261291503... | 1 | New research shows ways parents can affect their child's concentration
"This effect, day in and day out in an infant's life, may be the source of strong skills in sustained attention and concentration."
In a new study conducted at Indiana University, Dr. Chen Yu and Dr. Linda Smith were able to find the first direct link between a child's attention span and that of their parents.
The study, which was published in the journal Current Biology, was meant to prove that parents who are constantly checking their phones (or get easily distracted by outside stimuli) while playing with their children are affecting their children's attention span.
In order to conduct the study with the most natural results, parents weren't told what they were being studied for. All that the 36 parents were asked to do was wear a head-mounted camera. From there, researchers could observe how parents played with and engaged their children (babies aged one to one-and-a-half) with toys, also how often the parents got distracted or checked their phones. In addition, researchers observed how their parents behavior affected the child's eye movement and general attention.
The data showed that the longer a parent, and by extension their baby, paid attention to an object or toy while playing, the longer the baby kept paying attention to it. Even after the parents stopped playing, these babies would tend to pay attention to the object. In summation, these babies and parents displayed the best attention spans.
Conversely, the babies whose parents got distracted, stopped playing with the baby, or constantly checked their cellphones displayed worse attention spans. Surprisingly, these distracted parents did not yield the worst results.
The babies that displayed the worst attention spans were those whose parents tried to overly engage the children. Parents who held toys out to their baby, tried to give names, or draw attention to a specific toy yielded the worst results with their babies. Evidently, it's better to let your baby take lead while playing.
"The ability of children to sustain attention is known as a strong indicator for later success in areas such as language acquisition, problem-solving and other key cognitive development milestones. Caregivers who appear distracted or whose eyes wander a lot while their children play appear to negatively impact infants' burgeoning attention spans during a key stage of development. When you've got someone who isn't responsive to a child's behaviour, it could be a real red flag for future problems," said Dr. Chen Yu.
"Because sustained attention matters to school success, this influence provides a way to understand individual differences in sustained attention and to potentially influence its development," he added.
While there is a lot to learn from the interaction between parents and their babies in terms of attention span, one thing can be noted from the study: don't try to overcompensate!
"Parents who had more success were those who let their children take the lead. These caregivers waited until they saw the children express interest in a toy and then jumped in to expand that interest by naming the object and encouraging play," says Yu.
The research, in terms of numbers, is quite clear. Parents (and their babies) who were attentive to one specific object for 3.6 seconds offered some pretty staggering numbers. The babies of these parents continued to lend their attention to the same object for an additional 2.6 seconds on average. To put that in perspective, that's roughly 4x longer than the other babies.
It's clear that properly playing with your children at a young age can lead to stronger attention spans and other benefits in terms of learning. Dr. Linda Smith says, "This effect, day in and day out in an infant's life, may be the source of strong skills in sustained attention and concentration."
If you have any insights, questions or comments regarding the topic, please share them with us! | 769 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Welcome to the research guide for Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640), one of the most celebrated artists of the seventeenth century. Use this guide to find books and online resources for information on Rubens' life and oeuvre.
The Defenders of the Eucharist (Rubens, c.1625) Achilles Dipped into the River Styx (Rubens and Workshop, c.1630-35)
The John and Mable Ringling Museum of Art
Rubens was a Flemish Master painter who blended Italian Renaissance techniques with those of his own native country to create an original and universally appealing artistic style. He was much more than just a brilliant painter, though; Rubens was a classically learned and multilingual man who was interested in science and collecting antiquities, books, and Italian masterworks. He was also an architect in his own right; he designed an extraordinary Italian palazzo-style home and workshop in Antwerp, which is now the Rubenshuis Museum. Despite being a diplomat charged with various covert missions that took him all around a warring Europe, he was an affectionate family man, which can be seen in the several portraits he painted of his family. Many scholars have called Rubens a homo universalis, and indeed he was a true Renaissance man.
Rubens was born in Siegen, Germany on June 28, 1577 after his family fled religious turmoil in Flanders in 1568 during the Duke of Alva's reign of terror against Calvinist iconoclasm. The Rubens family returned to Antwerp in 1589, and in 1600, Rubens, a member of the painters' guild, traveled to Mantua, Italy to join the court of Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga. Rubens spent much of his time in Italy studying classical and Renaissance works; he left Italy to return to Antwerp in 1608, a period that had established the groundwork for his career as an artist, businessman, and diplomat. A firm supporter of the Counter-Reformation, Rubens painted the Adoration of the Magi for the Antwerp town hall in 1609 as a way of commemorating the Twelve Years' Truce between Spain and the Unified Provinces (present day Netherlands). That same year, Rubens was appointed court painter to the Archdukes and co-sovereigns of the Spanish Netherlands, Albert VII and Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia. The Infanta commissioned Rubens to design a series of magnificent tapestries, the Triumph of the Eucharist series, which is one of Rubens' most significant commissions. Five of the paintings from this series can be seen in the collection of the John and Mable Ringling Museum of Art.
In 1622, Rubens began working as a covert operative for the Habsburg rulers, and it is his diplomatic service that brought him to Paris where he met Marie de' Medici. Marie commissioned Rubens to create two large allegorical cycles depicting her life, as well as her late husband's. The first cycle was originally installed at Luxembourg Palace in Paris in 1925, and is now installed at the Louvre. The second cycle was never completed, as Marie was banished from court. Rubens also carried out diplomatic missions in England, where he was commissioned by Charles I to paint the ceiling of the new Banqueting House at Whitehall Palace in London. Rubens' artistic and diplomatic brilliance blended together late into his life, until he decided to dedicate his time primarily to painting and spending time with his family. Rubens died at his home in Antwerp on May 30, 1640.
Rubens is most famous for his monumental religious and allegorical paintings, particularly altarpieces, but some of his most celebrated works also include landscapes, portraits, and drawings. | <urn:uuid:bd99eebc-8017-42ac-a69c-f34f61f62358> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://guides.lib.fsu.edu/peter-paul-rubens | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00545.warc.gz | en | 0.982747 | 786 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.3769249320... | 12 | Welcome to the research guide for Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640), one of the most celebrated artists of the seventeenth century. Use this guide to find books and online resources for information on Rubens' life and oeuvre.
The Defenders of the Eucharist (Rubens, c.1625) Achilles Dipped into the River Styx (Rubens and Workshop, c.1630-35)
The John and Mable Ringling Museum of Art
Rubens was a Flemish Master painter who blended Italian Renaissance techniques with those of his own native country to create an original and universally appealing artistic style. He was much more than just a brilliant painter, though; Rubens was a classically learned and multilingual man who was interested in science and collecting antiquities, books, and Italian masterworks. He was also an architect in his own right; he designed an extraordinary Italian palazzo-style home and workshop in Antwerp, which is now the Rubenshuis Museum. Despite being a diplomat charged with various covert missions that took him all around a warring Europe, he was an affectionate family man, which can be seen in the several portraits he painted of his family. Many scholars have called Rubens a homo universalis, and indeed he was a true Renaissance man.
Rubens was born in Siegen, Germany on June 28, 1577 after his family fled religious turmoil in Flanders in 1568 during the Duke of Alva's reign of terror against Calvinist iconoclasm. The Rubens family returned to Antwerp in 1589, and in 1600, Rubens, a member of the painters' guild, traveled to Mantua, Italy to join the court of Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga. Rubens spent much of his time in Italy studying classical and Renaissance works; he left Italy to return to Antwerp in 1608, a period that had established the groundwork for his career as an artist, businessman, and diplomat. A firm supporter of the Counter-Reformation, Rubens painted the Adoration of the Magi for the Antwerp town hall in 1609 as a way of commemorating the Twelve Years' Truce between Spain and the Unified Provinces (present day Netherlands). That same year, Rubens was appointed court painter to the Archdukes and co-sovereigns of the Spanish Netherlands, Albert VII and Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia. The Infanta commissioned Rubens to design a series of magnificent tapestries, the Triumph of the Eucharist series, which is one of Rubens' most significant commissions. Five of the paintings from this series can be seen in the collection of the John and Mable Ringling Museum of Art.
In 1622, Rubens began working as a covert operative for the Habsburg rulers, and it is his diplomatic service that brought him to Paris where he met Marie de' Medici. Marie commissioned Rubens to create two large allegorical cycles depicting her life, as well as her late husband's. The first cycle was originally installed at Luxembourg Palace in Paris in 1925, and is now installed at the Louvre. The second cycle was never completed, as Marie was banished from court. Rubens also carried out diplomatic missions in England, where he was commissioned by Charles I to paint the ceiling of the new Banqueting House at Whitehall Palace in London. Rubens' artistic and diplomatic brilliance blended together late into his life, until he decided to dedicate his time primarily to painting and spending time with his family. Rubens died at his home in Antwerp on May 30, 1640.
Rubens is most famous for his monumental religious and allegorical paintings, particularly altarpieces, but some of his most celebrated works also include landscapes, portraits, and drawings. | 809 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is Equestrian? How does Equestrian work? Get ready to learn about Equestrian and discover how to be a fan, player, or coach. Start your journey to understanding Equestrian here.
What is equestrian?
The history of equestrian goes back almost as far as time goes back. Horses were ridden and used as early as 5000 BC across society including in war and everyday life. The beginning of riding horses and the idea of equestrian as a sport begins around the time that it was included in the Olympics in 1900. It has been included in the Games almost every Olympics since then across three disciplines: dressage, jumping, and cross country. These three events are all very different which makes the difficulty for a rider and horse to compete at the highest level in all almost impossible. There are only two participants in equestrian: the horse and the rider. The combination of the two of these individuals is judged across the three events to find the best riders in each discipline as well as an overall winner.
In the discipline of dressage, a rider and horse are judged on accuracy of movement and the precision of the routine that the rider has created.
The discipline of jumping is the most exciting to the common fan as the horse and rider must jump over 10-20 obstacles in a ring at the fastest pace possible.
The final discipline of cross country is also quite exciting although difficult to watch in person as the horse will come and go quickly past where the spectator is standing.
All in all, the sport of equestrian is rooted in world history and the modern disciplines that have emerged are still very popular today in the Olympic Games and beyond. | <urn:uuid:82bff643-cc77-45c2-877d-5fa69fe471b0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rookieroad.com/equestrian/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00190.warc.gz | en | 0.980218 | 344 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | What is Equestrian? How does Equestrian work? Get ready to learn about Equestrian and discover how to be a fan, player, or coach. Start your journey to understanding Equestrian here.
What is equestrian?
The history of equestrian goes back almost as far as time goes back. Horses were ridden and used as early as 5000 BC across society including in war and everyday life. The beginning of riding horses and the idea of equestrian as a sport begins around the time that it was included in the Olympics in 1900. It has been included in the Games almost every Olympics since then across three disciplines: dressage, jumping, and cross country. These three events are all very different which makes the difficulty for a rider and horse to compete at the highest level in all almost impossible. There are only two participants in equestrian: the horse and the rider. The combination of the two of these individuals is judged across the three events to find the best riders in each discipline as well as an overall winner.
In the discipline of dressage, a rider and horse are judged on accuracy of movement and the precision of the routine that the rider has created.
The discipline of jumping is the most exciting to the common fan as the horse and rider must jump over 10-20 obstacles in a ring at the fastest pace possible.
The final discipline of cross country is also quite exciting although difficult to watch in person as the horse will come and go quickly past where the spectator is standing.
All in all, the sport of equestrian is rooted in world history and the modern disciplines that have emerged are still very popular today in the Olympic Games and beyond. | 350 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Deaf Toddler Hears For the First TimeMason Henoch's world was silent until the day doctors literally switched on his ears. Cochlear implants, sometimes called 'bionic' ears, are now approved for babies as young as 12 months.
Babies can hear in the womb, and most of us hear even when we're asleep. So it's hard to imagine what Ohio toddler Mason Henoch experienced the day doctors switched on his cochlear implants.
Mason's deafness was discovered shortly after his first birthday, when his parents realized he was months behind his peers in learning to speak.
"We knew that something was wrong, but we didn't realize how severe it was," says his mother, Wendy Henoch.
Surgeons at Cleveland Clinic determined he was a candidate for cochlear implants. The surgery involves implanting electrodes inside the cochlea, part of the inner ear. The electrodes receive signals, via radio waves, from an artificial ear worn on the outside of the head. The internal and the external parts of the device are held together by magnets. Over time, the brain learns to interpret those electrical signals as sound.
Two weeks after the surgery, Mason's implants were switched on, and his parents watched as he heard his first sounds, including his parents' voices.
"That was the real ah-ha moment for us," his mother says.
In just a few weeks Mason was speaking his first words.
When he's sleeping or being bathed, the external part of the device is removed, and every morning, Mason's parents re-attach the external device and the world of sound opens up to Mason once more. He is now catching up to his peers as he learns to speak. | <urn:uuid:3cb615b5-e1c0-441f-95dd-c57787ae5422> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.everydayhealth.com/kids-health/a-deaf-toddler-hears-for-the-first-time.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00359.warc.gz | en | 0.990917 | 357 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.28243654... | 1 | A Deaf Toddler Hears For the First TimeMason Henoch's world was silent until the day doctors literally switched on his ears. Cochlear implants, sometimes called 'bionic' ears, are now approved for babies as young as 12 months.
Babies can hear in the womb, and most of us hear even when we're asleep. So it's hard to imagine what Ohio toddler Mason Henoch experienced the day doctors switched on his cochlear implants.
Mason's deafness was discovered shortly after his first birthday, when his parents realized he was months behind his peers in learning to speak.
"We knew that something was wrong, but we didn't realize how severe it was," says his mother, Wendy Henoch.
Surgeons at Cleveland Clinic determined he was a candidate for cochlear implants. The surgery involves implanting electrodes inside the cochlea, part of the inner ear. The electrodes receive signals, via radio waves, from an artificial ear worn on the outside of the head. The internal and the external parts of the device are held together by magnets. Over time, the brain learns to interpret those electrical signals as sound.
Two weeks after the surgery, Mason's implants were switched on, and his parents watched as he heard his first sounds, including his parents' voices.
"That was the real ah-ha moment for us," his mother says.
In just a few weeks Mason was speaking his first words.
When he's sleeping or being bathed, the external part of the device is removed, and every morning, Mason's parents re-attach the external device and the world of sound opens up to Mason once more. He is now catching up to his peers as he learns to speak. | 346 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The traditional great Sunday roast originates from England, and is a meal that was designed to be eaten after a Sunday church service. While this practice was and still is common across Europe in many Christian countries, the Sunday roast we know puts a very English spin on the ingredients. As Roman Catholics and Anglicans traditionally abstained from eating meat on certain days of the week, the Sunday roast was seen as a celebration because all meat and dairy could be consumed on Sundays.
It is believed that the Sunday roast first came about during King Henry VII’s rule in 1485. Royal bodyguards were known as ‘beefeaters’ because of their love of eating roasted beef. There is another theory that the Sunday roast was created in medieval times, when village serfs served the squire six days of the week. On Sundays, after church, serfs would gather in a field to run through battle practice. If they performed well, they were rewarded with roasted oxen.
During the industrial revolution, before going to church, people would put a joint of meat into their oven along with vegetables and potatoes. When they returned from the church service, their meal would have been slowly cooked over time and ready to eat. Juices from the dish were used to make gravy, which was poured over the meal. Poorer families would not have luxuries like fireplaces or ovens, so their Sunday roast would be dropped off for cooking at a local bakery on their way to church. It would be cooked in the bakery’s bread ovens, as bread was not baked on Sundays.
A traditional feature of the Sunday roast is the Yorkshire pudding. Historically, Yorkshire puddings were not served next to the meat of the roast as they are today. Instead, they were served as an appetiser with lots of gravy before the main meal. The puddings were served like this because it was hoped that they would help to fill people up so that they wouldn’t eat so much meat during the main course (preventing further costs). Traditional accompaniments to a Sunday roast include roasted potatoes, roasted parsnips, cauliflower cheese and vegetables such as carrots, cabbage and greens. This is all topped off with plenty of gravy, usually made from the meat juices.
Our Sunday roast options at The Inn at Huxley include a roasted sirloin of beef with a traditional roasted garnish, and of course the must-have Yorkshire pudding. Alternatively, you can try our duo of pork (loin and belly), served with traditional roast garnish and Bramley apple sauce.
Book your table now. | <urn:uuid:7c566839-9440-4387-8a9e-c596c3ff2eda> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theinnathuxley.co.uk/the-origins-of-a-great-british-sunday-roast/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00069.warc.gz | en | 0.989051 | 533 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.0303052589... | 12 | The traditional great Sunday roast originates from England, and is a meal that was designed to be eaten after a Sunday church service. While this practice was and still is common across Europe in many Christian countries, the Sunday roast we know puts a very English spin on the ingredients. As Roman Catholics and Anglicans traditionally abstained from eating meat on certain days of the week, the Sunday roast was seen as a celebration because all meat and dairy could be consumed on Sundays.
It is believed that the Sunday roast first came about during King Henry VII’s rule in 1485. Royal bodyguards were known as ‘beefeaters’ because of their love of eating roasted beef. There is another theory that the Sunday roast was created in medieval times, when village serfs served the squire six days of the week. On Sundays, after church, serfs would gather in a field to run through battle practice. If they performed well, they were rewarded with roasted oxen.
During the industrial revolution, before going to church, people would put a joint of meat into their oven along with vegetables and potatoes. When they returned from the church service, their meal would have been slowly cooked over time and ready to eat. Juices from the dish were used to make gravy, which was poured over the meal. Poorer families would not have luxuries like fireplaces or ovens, so their Sunday roast would be dropped off for cooking at a local bakery on their way to church. It would be cooked in the bakery’s bread ovens, as bread was not baked on Sundays.
A traditional feature of the Sunday roast is the Yorkshire pudding. Historically, Yorkshire puddings were not served next to the meat of the roast as they are today. Instead, they were served as an appetiser with lots of gravy before the main meal. The puddings were served like this because it was hoped that they would help to fill people up so that they wouldn’t eat so much meat during the main course (preventing further costs). Traditional accompaniments to a Sunday roast include roasted potatoes, roasted parsnips, cauliflower cheese and vegetables such as carrots, cabbage and greens. This is all topped off with plenty of gravy, usually made from the meat juices.
Our Sunday roast options at The Inn at Huxley include a roasted sirloin of beef with a traditional roasted garnish, and of course the must-have Yorkshire pudding. Alternatively, you can try our duo of pork (loin and belly), served with traditional roast garnish and Bramley apple sauce.
Book your table now. | 518 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tutor profile: Katherine P.
Hours, and hours of driving lay ahead of us and still we were calm in the car. There was nothing we could say; about the weather that would make the drive anymore interesting. Over and over and over again my sister tapped on the window. It was driving me insane. Except that my parents had already seemed annoyed and I dared not disturb them any further while in such a confined space. (Take this passage and edit it so that it is more focused and grammatically correct)
Hours (and hours) of driving lay ahead of us and still [,] we were calm in the car. There was nothing we could say (;) about the weather that would make the drive anymore interesting. (Over and over and over again) My sister [constantly] tapped on the window it was driving me insane. (Except that) [M]y parents had already seemed annoyed and I dared not disturb them (any further) while in such a confined space. (_) = things that were cut out [_] = things that were changed or added There can be variations of changes made to make this more to the point.
Subject: European History
Name a significant change that took place during the rule of Henry VIII.
While in power Henry VIII broke with the church of England, while he did so in order to be able to divorce his wife Catherine of Aragon, this move put him in control of a new church and therefore changed the way England was ruled from that point forward.
(True or False) The slope of the line 2x + 2y = 2 is equal to 2
False - The slope is equal to -1
needs and Katherine will reply soon. | <urn:uuid:33978ab2-f471-429b-ba64-1e8b7ffa60c1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tutorme.com/tutors/23532/interview/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00350.warc.gz | en | 0.988441 | 350 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.2017425894737... | 3 | Tutor profile: Katherine P.
Hours, and hours of driving lay ahead of us and still we were calm in the car. There was nothing we could say; about the weather that would make the drive anymore interesting. Over and over and over again my sister tapped on the window. It was driving me insane. Except that my parents had already seemed annoyed and I dared not disturb them any further while in such a confined space. (Take this passage and edit it so that it is more focused and grammatically correct)
Hours (and hours) of driving lay ahead of us and still [,] we were calm in the car. There was nothing we could say (;) about the weather that would make the drive anymore interesting. (Over and over and over again) My sister [constantly] tapped on the window it was driving me insane. (Except that) [M]y parents had already seemed annoyed and I dared not disturb them (any further) while in such a confined space. (_) = things that were cut out [_] = things that were changed or added There can be variations of changes made to make this more to the point.
Subject: European History
Name a significant change that took place during the rule of Henry VIII.
While in power Henry VIII broke with the church of England, while he did so in order to be able to divorce his wife Catherine of Aragon, this move put him in control of a new church and therefore changed the way England was ruled from that point forward.
(True or False) The slope of the line 2x + 2y = 2 is equal to 2
False - The slope is equal to -1
needs and Katherine will reply soon. | 344 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Welcome back to school.
Year 4 has had an exciting first week exploring how Rome was formed and how it was ruled. We looked at the legend of Romulus and Remus and found out how the city of Rome began. At the end of the week we discovered that the Romans had different types of ruling systems and the class debated which system they thought was the best. The Kings did not seem to be very popular but the class liked the idea of the Republic as they thought it was fair.
In English we have been reading the exciting adventure story 'Escape From Pompeii'. The children have been using direct speech to explain what the characters would say to each other during their lucky escape. We have started to use metaphors to describe the eruption.
Our maths has been all about fractions. So far we have explored equivalent fractions and how to compare two fractions. | <urn:uuid:50084f0e-2a59-417e-856a-8d0ed1757605> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.telferscot.co.uk/blogs/scorpion | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00090.warc.gz | en | 0.988717 | 174 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.378865182399... | 1 | Welcome back to school.
Year 4 has had an exciting first week exploring how Rome was formed and how it was ruled. We looked at the legend of Romulus and Remus and found out how the city of Rome began. At the end of the week we discovered that the Romans had different types of ruling systems and the class debated which system they thought was the best. The Kings did not seem to be very popular but the class liked the idea of the Republic as they thought it was fair.
In English we have been reading the exciting adventure story 'Escape From Pompeii'. The children have been using direct speech to explain what the characters would say to each other during their lucky escape. We have started to use metaphors to describe the eruption.
Our maths has been all about fractions. So far we have explored equivalent fractions and how to compare two fractions. | 172 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Commander Peary and I were alone (save for the four Esquimos), the same as we had been so often in the past years, and as we looked at each other we realized our position and we knew without speaking that the time had come for us to demonstrate that we were the men who, it had been ordained, should unlock the door which held the mystery of the Arctic.
It was about ten or ten-thirty a.m. on the 7th of April, 1909, that the Commander gave the order to build a snow-shield to protect him from the flying drift of the surface snow. I knew that he was about to take an observation and while we worked I was nervously apprehensive, for I felt that the end of our journey had come...
Photo used with permission from Matthew Henson Elementary School
Text from: A Black Explorer at the North Pole, a 1989 reprint of the 1912 edition
Richard E. Byrd
By May 17th, one month after the sun had sunk below the horizon, the noon twilight was dwindling to a mere chink in the darkness, lit by a cold reddish glow. Days when the wind brooded in the north or east, the Barrier became a vast stagnant shadow surmounted by swollen masses of clouds, one layer of darkness piled on top of the other. This was the polar night, the morbid countenance of the Ice Age. Nothing moved; nothing was visible. This was the soul of inertness. One could almost hear a distant creaking as if a great weight were settling.
U.S. Navy photograph
Text from: Alone, New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1938
1. Describe the emotions both explorers are feeling. List words that help you identify their feelings.
2. What do you think the next entry in each journal may be?
3. What do you think these men had in common?
1. Imagine that you spent the winter alone in one of the polar regions. Write a journal entry describing what it was like. How would you feel if you were all by yourself on a cold, large continent. What would you do to keep yourself busy? What would you do for fun?
2. You have been trekking across Antarctica for many months. Write a letter to a family member describing the conditions and the things you have seen.
3. Write a newspaper headline announcing the arrival of Robert Peary or Roald Amundsen to the Poles. You may need to research each expedition to write your headline. Draw a picture to illustrate your headline. | <urn:uuid:757a20a4-07d2-4d53-8350-8a98f7e16c53> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/museums/nmusn/education/distance-learning/to-the-ends-of-the-earth/the-navy-travels-to-the-poles/polar-journals.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00526.warc.gz | en | 0.980322 | 528 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.481099396944046... | 13 | Commander Peary and I were alone (save for the four Esquimos), the same as we had been so often in the past years, and as we looked at each other we realized our position and we knew without speaking that the time had come for us to demonstrate that we were the men who, it had been ordained, should unlock the door which held the mystery of the Arctic.
It was about ten or ten-thirty a.m. on the 7th of April, 1909, that the Commander gave the order to build a snow-shield to protect him from the flying drift of the surface snow. I knew that he was about to take an observation and while we worked I was nervously apprehensive, for I felt that the end of our journey had come...
Photo used with permission from Matthew Henson Elementary School
Text from: A Black Explorer at the North Pole, a 1989 reprint of the 1912 edition
Richard E. Byrd
By May 17th, one month after the sun had sunk below the horizon, the noon twilight was dwindling to a mere chink in the darkness, lit by a cold reddish glow. Days when the wind brooded in the north or east, the Barrier became a vast stagnant shadow surmounted by swollen masses of clouds, one layer of darkness piled on top of the other. This was the polar night, the morbid countenance of the Ice Age. Nothing moved; nothing was visible. This was the soul of inertness. One could almost hear a distant creaking as if a great weight were settling.
U.S. Navy photograph
Text from: Alone, New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1938
1. Describe the emotions both explorers are feeling. List words that help you identify their feelings.
2. What do you think the next entry in each journal may be?
3. What do you think these men had in common?
1. Imagine that you spent the winter alone in one of the polar regions. Write a journal entry describing what it was like. How would you feel if you were all by yourself on a cold, large continent. What would you do to keep yourself busy? What would you do for fun?
2. You have been trekking across Antarctica for many months. Write a letter to a family member describing the conditions and the things you have seen.
3. Write a newspaper headline announcing the arrival of Robert Peary or Roald Amundsen to the Poles. You may need to research each expedition to write your headline. Draw a picture to illustrate your headline. | 540 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Donatello was born in 1386 (most likely) in Florence. His father, a restless man with a tumultuous life, was a member of the Wool Combers’ Guild. His initial training was as a goldsmith, where he apprenticed with Lorenzo Ghiberti, goldsmith and sculptor.
Donatello’s earliest works were developed in the context of the two most important projects in the city at the time – both the Cathedral and Orsanmichele (a granary turned church) were being decorated with numerous sculptures. These works can be found at the Orsanmichele museum (upstairs), the Bargello Museum, and the Opera del Duomo museum (see below).
By the 1430s and 40s, Donatello was established as the leading sculptor of the day, and carried out important commissions for the Medici family. Such was their appreciation of him that when Donatello died in Florence in 1466, he was buried in the Basilica of San Lorenzo next to Cosimo de' Medici the Elder. Andrea della Robbia was among the coffin-bearers. | <urn:uuid:25cfd90e-5e84-45b7-a391-80336f1e11fd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.visittuscany.com/en/ideas/donatello-tuscany/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00517.warc.gz | en | 0.988522 | 235 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.465006798505... | 9 | Donatello was born in 1386 (most likely) in Florence. His father, a restless man with a tumultuous life, was a member of the Wool Combers’ Guild. His initial training was as a goldsmith, where he apprenticed with Lorenzo Ghiberti, goldsmith and sculptor.
Donatello’s earliest works were developed in the context of the two most important projects in the city at the time – both the Cathedral and Orsanmichele (a granary turned church) were being decorated with numerous sculptures. These works can be found at the Orsanmichele museum (upstairs), the Bargello Museum, and the Opera del Duomo museum (see below).
By the 1430s and 40s, Donatello was established as the leading sculptor of the day, and carried out important commissions for the Medici family. Such was their appreciation of him that when Donatello died in Florence in 1466, he was buried in the Basilica of San Lorenzo next to Cosimo de' Medici the Elder. Andrea della Robbia was among the coffin-bearers. | 239 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Both policing and censorship of items in France (such as that of the press) played very important roles in how Napoleon was able to rule, as well as control France during the period of his emperorship, as they both allowed him to monitor and crush opposition to his rule, as well as enforce his wishes upon France and her people.Under the leadership of Fouche (minister of police), Napoleon was able to rule France and control her people directly. Under Napoleons’ system of police, every town of over 5,000 inhabitants was to receive a commissaire de police, which was a commissioner, who was appointed directly by the Ministry of General Police in Paris. Furthermore, he was immediately responsible to the prefect of his department, himself a civilian official who was appointed by the Minister of the Interior and who was in charge of the general running of local government. This meant that policing was enforced and controlled decisively in the form of national police force acting in a hierarchical system.However, alone among local government officials, the commissaire de police had the right to by-pass the prefect and correspond directly with the Ministry of General Police. Thanks to his ‘direct line’ to powerful figures like Fouche and Savary (who answered directly to Napoleon), local officials (for example a commissaire) was often able to outflank not only the prefects and mayors of his department, but even the judiciary, when it came to identifying common criminals, political subversives or wayward, allegedly corrupt local officials. Furthermore, Fouche incorporated the use of spies, informers, and double agents to enforce law in France.In order to make sure Napoleon and his followers maintained rule and control in France and over her people, policing was also used to monitor revolutionary activity. Due to the fact that the legitimacy of Napoleon’s rule of France could be questioned, as well as the fact that there was limited reference of revolution (as revolutionary activity and displays had been widespread throughout the period of the French Revolution, particularly from 1790 – 1799), a secret police force incorporating the use of spies and agents was required in order preserve the rule of Napoleon, and make sure he was to be in charge of the French Empire. Furthermore, another way in which revolutionary activity was prevented and that the legitimacy of Napoleon’s rule was not questioned, was through the censorship of not only the press, but also of books and art.Under Napoleons’ rule of France, any documents portraying a negative impression of French rule, society, and even Napoleon himself was to be censored, and in cases confiscated or destroyed. Many un-favourable establishments to the absolute rule that Napoleon had acquired by the early eighteenth century were closed, with the number of printing offices after January 1811 being reduced throughout the empire (the number in Paris fell to sixty) and with printers and booksellers being required to produce vouchers of good character to show that they printed and produced loyal material regarding Napoleon and governmental rule in France. Furthermore, it was the censor (acting on behalf of Napoleon and his officials) who decided upon the publication of any work examined, and which items were destroyed, erased, and confiscated.Additionally, a director general of printing was appointed to control publishers and booksellers, with the assistance of many provincial censors (by 1813, there were 30 provincial censors). In addition, no books printed or reprinted out of France were to be imported without a permit, tightening Napoleons’ grip of the French people, and what they knew about issues, strengthening his rule further (as well as prevent any negative feedback of Frances’ allies from reaching the French public). This also meant that international documents, as well as national and local documents were subject to censorship, meaning that Napoleon and his officials censored a very large part of French information. Napoleon was also allowed to subject his law on censorship to further decree and future dispositions.The task of censorship was also heavily linked to the police force in France. The minister of police, as well as prefects of departments and Printing, was expected to assist in the task of carrying out Napoleon’s campaign of censorship, or as Napoleon himself stated, to “Help put this grand engine of despotism into effect.” Fouche and his police force were expected to work alongside the censors appointed to the various provinces of France regarding book censorship.In conclusion, both policing and censorship played an integral role in how Napoleon was able to rule the French empire, as they allowed him to not only force the public into what action Napoleon wanted them to take and limit opposition to his rule (via policing), but furthermore, allowed Napoleon to be portrayed in the way that he wished every French person to view him (via censorship). Both factors allowed Napoleon to exercise supreme control over his subjects, and helped to cement his position as emperor of France. | <urn:uuid:f4ffe410-0c7e-4c2d-8b71-4f3ddcdcacc2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://woodstock-online.com/essay-what-roles-did-policing-and-censorship-play-in-napoleons-rule-of-france/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00443.warc.gz | en | 0.988502 | 995 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.1236485391855... | 2 | Both policing and censorship of items in France (such as that of the press) played very important roles in how Napoleon was able to rule, as well as control France during the period of his emperorship, as they both allowed him to monitor and crush opposition to his rule, as well as enforce his wishes upon France and her people.Under the leadership of Fouche (minister of police), Napoleon was able to rule France and control her people directly. Under Napoleons’ system of police, every town of over 5,000 inhabitants was to receive a commissaire de police, which was a commissioner, who was appointed directly by the Ministry of General Police in Paris. Furthermore, he was immediately responsible to the prefect of his department, himself a civilian official who was appointed by the Minister of the Interior and who was in charge of the general running of local government. This meant that policing was enforced and controlled decisively in the form of national police force acting in a hierarchical system.However, alone among local government officials, the commissaire de police had the right to by-pass the prefect and correspond directly with the Ministry of General Police. Thanks to his ‘direct line’ to powerful figures like Fouche and Savary (who answered directly to Napoleon), local officials (for example a commissaire) was often able to outflank not only the prefects and mayors of his department, but even the judiciary, when it came to identifying common criminals, political subversives or wayward, allegedly corrupt local officials. Furthermore, Fouche incorporated the use of spies, informers, and double agents to enforce law in France.In order to make sure Napoleon and his followers maintained rule and control in France and over her people, policing was also used to monitor revolutionary activity. Due to the fact that the legitimacy of Napoleon’s rule of France could be questioned, as well as the fact that there was limited reference of revolution (as revolutionary activity and displays had been widespread throughout the period of the French Revolution, particularly from 1790 – 1799), a secret police force incorporating the use of spies and agents was required in order preserve the rule of Napoleon, and make sure he was to be in charge of the French Empire. Furthermore, another way in which revolutionary activity was prevented and that the legitimacy of Napoleon’s rule was not questioned, was through the censorship of not only the press, but also of books and art.Under Napoleons’ rule of France, any documents portraying a negative impression of French rule, society, and even Napoleon himself was to be censored, and in cases confiscated or destroyed. Many un-favourable establishments to the absolute rule that Napoleon had acquired by the early eighteenth century were closed, with the number of printing offices after January 1811 being reduced throughout the empire (the number in Paris fell to sixty) and with printers and booksellers being required to produce vouchers of good character to show that they printed and produced loyal material regarding Napoleon and governmental rule in France. Furthermore, it was the censor (acting on behalf of Napoleon and his officials) who decided upon the publication of any work examined, and which items were destroyed, erased, and confiscated.Additionally, a director general of printing was appointed to control publishers and booksellers, with the assistance of many provincial censors (by 1813, there were 30 provincial censors). In addition, no books printed or reprinted out of France were to be imported without a permit, tightening Napoleons’ grip of the French people, and what they knew about issues, strengthening his rule further (as well as prevent any negative feedback of Frances’ allies from reaching the French public). This also meant that international documents, as well as national and local documents were subject to censorship, meaning that Napoleon and his officials censored a very large part of French information. Napoleon was also allowed to subject his law on censorship to further decree and future dispositions.The task of censorship was also heavily linked to the police force in France. The minister of police, as well as prefects of departments and Printing, was expected to assist in the task of carrying out Napoleon’s campaign of censorship, or as Napoleon himself stated, to “Help put this grand engine of despotism into effect.” Fouche and his police force were expected to work alongside the censors appointed to the various provinces of France regarding book censorship.In conclusion, both policing and censorship played an integral role in how Napoleon was able to rule the French empire, as they allowed him to not only force the public into what action Napoleon wanted them to take and limit opposition to his rule (via policing), but furthermore, allowed Napoleon to be portrayed in the way that he wished every French person to view him (via censorship). Both factors allowed Napoleon to exercise supreme control over his subjects, and helped to cement his position as emperor of France. | 991 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thucydides of Athens, one of the greatest of historians, was born about 471 BCE. He saw the rise of Athens to greatness under the inspired leadership of Pericles. In 430, the second year of the Peloponnesian War, he caught and survived the horrible plague which he described so graphically. Later, as general in 423 he failed to save Amphipolis from the enemy and was disgraced. He tells about this, not in volumes of self-justification, but in one sentence of his history of the war—that it befell him to be an exile for twenty years. He then lived probably on his property in Thrace, but was able to observe both sides in certain campaigns of the war, and returned to Athens after her defeat in 404. He had been composing his famous history, with its hopes and horrors, triumphs and disasters, in full detail from first-hand knowledge of his own and others.
The war was really three conflicts with one uncertain peace after the first; and Thucydides had not unified them into one account when death came sometime before 396. His history of the first conflict, 431–421, was nearly complete; Thucydides was still at work on this when the war spread to Sicily and into a conflict (415–413) likewise complete in his awful and brilliant record, though not fitted into the whole. His story of the final conflict of 413–404 breaks off (in the middle of a sentence) when dealing with the year 411. So his work was left unfinished and as a whole unrevised. Yet in brilliance of description and depth of insight this history has no superior.
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0.388759374618... | 3 | Thucydides of Athens, one of the greatest of historians, was born about 471 BCE. He saw the rise of Athens to greatness under the inspired leadership of Pericles. In 430, the second year of the Peloponnesian War, he caught and survived the horrible plague which he described so graphically. Later, as general in 423 he failed to save Amphipolis from the enemy and was disgraced. He tells about this, not in volumes of self-justification, but in one sentence of his history of the war—that it befell him to be an exile for twenty years. He then lived probably on his property in Thrace, but was able to observe both sides in certain campaigns of the war, and returned to Athens after her defeat in 404. He had been composing his famous history, with its hopes and horrors, triumphs and disasters, in full detail from first-hand knowledge of his own and others.
The war was really three conflicts with one uncertain peace after the first; and Thucydides had not unified them into one account when death came sometime before 396. His history of the first conflict, 431–421, was nearly complete; Thucydides was still at work on this when the war spread to Sicily and into a conflict (415–413) likewise complete in his awful and brilliant record, though not fitted into the whole. His story of the final conflict of 413–404 breaks off (in the middle of a sentence) when dealing with the year 411. So his work was left unfinished and as a whole unrevised. Yet in brilliance of description and depth of insight this history has no superior.
The Loeb Classical Library edition of Thucydides is in four volumes. | 383 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 6 (1373 words)
If we are going to define the standard of the word “well- rounded” and attach this to a person we can create a picture of an individual that has fully developed abilities and qualities to excel in various fields hence earned great success or attainments in his endeavors. In other words this person is an expert in many aspects because he has well-balanced knowledge. The philosophical mind however has other meaningful definition of a well-rounded individual and that is “the total individual”.
Being the total individual or the well-rounded individual emanates from the different levels of our society. For one, having the qualities of being well-rounded develops during the young stages of person’s life. More than 2000 years ago, Socrates always cautioned his students that the goal of education and learning is the process by which an individual creates himself in totality. Any thing in life that is not examined and learned is not worth living for, he said.
In a way, many believe that the education process of a well-rounded person was the result of his perseverance in learning not only from the knowledge given by his teachers but the real knowledge that comes from his own which he personally studied.
Socrates believed that to be a complete individual one must not confined himself with what is offered to him to learn. According to Socrates, a man was born to possess physical, spiritual and intellectual capability to excel and that every individual is unique in his own ways.
Our students are taught from the very beginning the essences of learning based from what our teachers are teaching them. But for all we know this method of learning sometimes constrict the students to delve deeper into their mind and discover their hunger for more knowledge. In other words to make students to be well-rounded persons they must be taught to learn how to learn and make necessary adjustments according to what they aspire. When a student learns how to tap his abilities he can now developed his capabilities to discover more than the basics he is being taught.
Continuing to discover what they can do and learning to challenge their mind enable them to learn skills and earn courage while setting them up to face larger challenges in life. Therefore, if we are going to analyze our education, there is always an integral part that is a bit misplaced. Although the role of the teachers in children’s learning is to force the knowledge from what the teacher has learned, the capability of the students to go beyond what they need to learn and can do becomes limited in the process.
This means that the instructors are developing their students merely to serve as an extension of themselves. Thus it became the standard principle in school that the way the teachers are educating our children have the most impact on how our students would become. This is one of the reasons why getting the chance to be a well-rounded person gets lost in the way because the chance for self-improvement are not properly given. We can now surmise that what we are in the future comes from what our educational system will form us.
So how can we improve ourselves and then become fulfilled individual while learning? It is simple. Building mutual trust between the students and the instructor creates confidence and openness to both parties and discover what they can do. Therefore, the teacher must not engage the student for the lone purpose of imparting his knowledge and familiarity with the subjects but he has to pull hidden skills from the students. As Socrates said, every individual has knowledge and in this manner the teacher can enable the student to reveal that knowledge by creating open communication with his students.
In this process, mutual trust and respect develops because teachers and students will not only open communication and discover their capabilities but can enhance innovations on deeper level. It is just a matter of tapping the untapped and taking out what needs to be enhanced. We have to develop young minds that will focus on higher values and ethics and when their quality reached the highest degree of knowledge, that knowledge can course down and be useful to larger communities. Thus the improvement of an individual becomes the improvement of his own society.
However, all is not too late for us to become special in our own ways. We only have to understand ourselves before we understand why other individuals are more successful than us. For example, there is this childhood friend who went to the same school as you do and now he is the most sought after engineer in your community. You, however, are just an ordinary employee in one of his corporations he is a consultant. This is the part where your mind starts to wonder and ask yourself if its too late to be successful. It is not.
One must only have ideals in life and strive for excellence. It is always never too late. But we also have to consider other options before we can become accomplished citizens or otherwise we can do things independently. Therefore we can conclude that internal and external factors can greatly influence what would come of us into another person (Kreis, 2000). Usually when a person concentrates on certain activities he usually neglect the significance of other activities. His attention is focused only on matters that he deals with and finishes the task accordingly.
He does not find time to go over other things because inevitably he cannot cope up with the stress, the demand of the task and of course the inability to handle other activities at one time successfully. But a well-rounded individual can see things in different perspective. He is always balanced with things but does not lose strength and commitment to what he does. He can make people feel stronger because he believes in himself as well as with other people. He can think independently but can be reliable, he is strong but has compassion for others and he defines his success as the success of everybody.
Nevertheless, he also considers failures as lessons and future references. What makes him a well-developed person is based on how he sees life. He could compare life as a rope. That the many experiences he learned were like the strands that wound together, became solid and carrying him through the test of life. A well-rounded person feels that if he lacks knowledge, skills, courage and experiences the strands are weak and could break easily. Thus, a tough rope symbolizes a well-rounded person with many strands in it.
Each strand signifies his experience with life and his very existence. However, the definition of a well-rounded individual cannot solely base from a skilled person who learned from schools or experience. The term well-rounded person can generally mean an individual who excel in his own field like sports, literature, arts and music. Like in sports, learning to respect the experience of the coaches and skills of your teammates and turn the sports more than just a game makes one a well-rounded individual.
This activity makes this person to show his individuality because he treats everybody well and understands not just the game but the overall setup of the game. This kind of positive characteristic enables him to be more successful and a better athlete as well as providing advantages to his team (Duff, 2006). As a conclusion, the specific answer as to how one can become a well-rounded individual comes from the deep-rooted interest of an individual to become good and excel at what he does although it does not necessarily mean becoming perfect and error-free.
No one is perfect and we all learn from our mistakes. But this imperfection is what drives someone to work harder, be patient, understand the very essence of his surrounding and become more flexible in his mind, body and spirit. A well-rounded person encourages others to show their potential so they can also be beneficial to others. Like the strands of the rope that we are bound together people recognized well-rounded people to bind other people so that they can make things happen through teamwork and show their potentials.
Cite this page
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If we are going to define the standard of the word “well- rounded” and attach this to a person we can create a picture of an individual that has fully developed abilities and qualities to excel in various fields hence earned great success or attainments in his endeavors. In other words this person is an expert in many aspects because he has well-balanced knowledge. The philosophical mind however has other meaningful definition of a well-rounded individual and that is “the total individual”.
Being the total individual or the well-rounded individual emanates from the different levels of our society. For one, having the qualities of being well-rounded develops during the young stages of person’s life. More than 2000 years ago, Socrates always cautioned his students that the goal of education and learning is the process by which an individual creates himself in totality. Any thing in life that is not examined and learned is not worth living for, he said.
In a way, many believe that the education process of a well-rounded person was the result of his perseverance in learning not only from the knowledge given by his teachers but the real knowledge that comes from his own which he personally studied.
Socrates believed that to be a complete individual one must not confined himself with what is offered to him to learn. According to Socrates, a man was born to possess physical, spiritual and intellectual capability to excel and that every individual is unique in his own ways.
Our students are taught from the very beginning the essences of learning based from what our teachers are teaching them. But for all we know this method of learning sometimes constrict the students to delve deeper into their mind and discover their hunger for more knowledge. In other words to make students to be well-rounded persons they must be taught to learn how to learn and make necessary adjustments according to what they aspire. When a student learns how to tap his abilities he can now developed his capabilities to discover more than the basics he is being taught.
Continuing to discover what they can do and learning to challenge their mind enable them to learn skills and earn courage while setting them up to face larger challenges in life. Therefore, if we are going to analyze our education, there is always an integral part that is a bit misplaced. Although the role of the teachers in children’s learning is to force the knowledge from what the teacher has learned, the capability of the students to go beyond what they need to learn and can do becomes limited in the process.
This means that the instructors are developing their students merely to serve as an extension of themselves. Thus it became the standard principle in school that the way the teachers are educating our children have the most impact on how our students would become. This is one of the reasons why getting the chance to be a well-rounded person gets lost in the way because the chance for self-improvement are not properly given. We can now surmise that what we are in the future comes from what our educational system will form us.
So how can we improve ourselves and then become fulfilled individual while learning? It is simple. Building mutual trust between the students and the instructor creates confidence and openness to both parties and discover what they can do. Therefore, the teacher must not engage the student for the lone purpose of imparting his knowledge and familiarity with the subjects but he has to pull hidden skills from the students. As Socrates said, every individual has knowledge and in this manner the teacher can enable the student to reveal that knowledge by creating open communication with his students.
In this process, mutual trust and respect develops because teachers and students will not only open communication and discover their capabilities but can enhance innovations on deeper level. It is just a matter of tapping the untapped and taking out what needs to be enhanced. We have to develop young minds that will focus on higher values and ethics and when their quality reached the highest degree of knowledge, that knowledge can course down and be useful to larger communities. Thus the improvement of an individual becomes the improvement of his own society.
However, all is not too late for us to become special in our own ways. We only have to understand ourselves before we understand why other individuals are more successful than us. For example, there is this childhood friend who went to the same school as you do and now he is the most sought after engineer in your community. You, however, are just an ordinary employee in one of his corporations he is a consultant. This is the part where your mind starts to wonder and ask yourself if its too late to be successful. It is not.
One must only have ideals in life and strive for excellence. It is always never too late. But we also have to consider other options before we can become accomplished citizens or otherwise we can do things independently. Therefore we can conclude that internal and external factors can greatly influence what would come of us into another person (Kreis, 2000). Usually when a person concentrates on certain activities he usually neglect the significance of other activities. His attention is focused only on matters that he deals with and finishes the task accordingly.
He does not find time to go over other things because inevitably he cannot cope up with the stress, the demand of the task and of course the inability to handle other activities at one time successfully. But a well-rounded individual can see things in different perspective. He is always balanced with things but does not lose strength and commitment to what he does. He can make people feel stronger because he believes in himself as well as with other people. He can think independently but can be reliable, he is strong but has compassion for others and he defines his success as the success of everybody.
Nevertheless, he also considers failures as lessons and future references. What makes him a well-developed person is based on how he sees life. He could compare life as a rope. That the many experiences he learned were like the strands that wound together, became solid and carrying him through the test of life. A well-rounded person feels that if he lacks knowledge, skills, courage and experiences the strands are weak and could break easily. Thus, a tough rope symbolizes a well-rounded person with many strands in it.
Each strand signifies his experience with life and his very existence. However, the definition of a well-rounded individual cannot solely base from a skilled person who learned from schools or experience. The term well-rounded person can generally mean an individual who excel in his own field like sports, literature, arts and music. Like in sports, learning to respect the experience of the coaches and skills of your teammates and turn the sports more than just a game makes one a well-rounded individual.
This activity makes this person to show his individuality because he treats everybody well and understands not just the game but the overall setup of the game. This kind of positive characteristic enables him to be more successful and a better athlete as well as providing advantages to his team (Duff, 2006). As a conclusion, the specific answer as to how one can become a well-rounded individual comes from the deep-rooted interest of an individual to become good and excel at what he does although it does not necessarily mean becoming perfect and error-free.
No one is perfect and we all learn from our mistakes. But this imperfection is what drives someone to work harder, be patient, understand the very essence of his surrounding and become more flexible in his mind, body and spirit. A well-rounded person encourages others to show their potential so they can also be beneficial to others. Like the strands of the rope that we are bound together people recognized well-rounded people to bind other people so that they can make things happen through teamwork and show their potentials.
Cite this page
Well-Rounded Individual: How to Become One. (2017, Feb 27). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/well-rounded-individual-how-to-become-one-essay | 1,597 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Anglo-Saxon England was early medieval England, existing from the 5th to the 11th centuries . The four main kingdoms in Anglo-Saxon England were. At this time, the Jutes and the Frisians from Denmark were also settling in the British Isles, but the Anglo-Saxon settlers were effectively their own masters in a. The first Anglo-Saxons raided the shores of south and east England in the fourth century AD, but they were beaten back by the Romans. At the beginning of the.
famous anglo saxons
Gildas, a British historian, says that Saxon war-bands were hired to defend Britain when the Roman army had left. So the Anglo-Saxons were. What happened when the Anglo-Saxons arrived in Britain? Learn about the Anglo-Saxons, Picts, Romans and the Britons in this BBC Bitesize KS2 History. The last Roman soldiers left Britain in New people came in ships across the North Sea – the Anglo-Saxons. The Anglo-Saxon age in Britain was from.
Anglo-Saxon mercenaries had for many years fought in the Roman army in Britain, so they were not total strangers to the island. Their invasions were slow and. The peoples grouped together as Anglo-Saxons were not politically unified Their subsequent settlements in what is now England laid the. The Anglo Saxon conquest of England began in the middle of the 5th century. At that At that time and possibly earlier they were hiring Germanic peoples as.
There were actually three main peoples: the Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes. After these people moved to Britain they became known as the Anglo-Saxons. Old theories of the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain have largely been dismissed by historians, that is the original British were wiped out and the land settled by. English history opens with the Anglo-Saxons. They were the first people we would describe as English: they gave their name to England (the 'land of.
Looking for some cool Anglo-Saxon facts? Learn who these fierce tribes were, when they lived, where they came from & how they changed Great Britain!. Two early accounts of the Anglo-Saxon migration were written by authors who were both Christian clerics, Gildas and Bede. Gildas was British and wrote in. At first, they were invited in by the Romanized British. After the Romans left, the Romanized British could not organize themselves militarily and. An Anglo-Saxon helmet from the British Museum in London. Was the warrior who owned this helmet the descendant of a more terrifying and. Some objects were left behind by the Anglo-Saxons which have given us clues about how they lived. The British Museum is home to the largest and finest. The Battle of Hastings marks the last time mainland Britain was invaded by a foreign power and saw the Normans sweep to victory over the old. The Anglo-Saxons were written into history by their descendants. and geneticists have sought to identify Anglo-Saxons in England. An early. We know very little of the first few hundred years of the Anglo-Saxon, or English, era, primarily because the invaders were an illiterate people. Our earliest. The five centuries between the end of Roman rule and the Norman Conquest were, for a long time, seen as a culturally desolate era in British. The team says that its findings support the idea that Britain's first Anglo-Saxons were locals who rapidly shifted cultures after the fall of Roman. | <urn:uuid:b53cad32-3fcc-45c0-89b3-2102336cd476> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://paiskeko.me/libraries-demo/when-were-the-anglo-saxons-in-britain.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00005.warc.gz | en | 0.9832 | 724 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.153510972857... | 1 | Anglo-Saxon England was early medieval England, existing from the 5th to the 11th centuries . The four main kingdoms in Anglo-Saxon England were. At this time, the Jutes and the Frisians from Denmark were also settling in the British Isles, but the Anglo-Saxon settlers were effectively their own masters in a. The first Anglo-Saxons raided the shores of south and east England in the fourth century AD, but they were beaten back by the Romans. At the beginning of the.
famous anglo saxons
Gildas, a British historian, says that Saxon war-bands were hired to defend Britain when the Roman army had left. So the Anglo-Saxons were. What happened when the Anglo-Saxons arrived in Britain? Learn about the Anglo-Saxons, Picts, Romans and the Britons in this BBC Bitesize KS2 History. The last Roman soldiers left Britain in New people came in ships across the North Sea – the Anglo-Saxons. The Anglo-Saxon age in Britain was from.
Anglo-Saxon mercenaries had for many years fought in the Roman army in Britain, so they were not total strangers to the island. Their invasions were slow and. The peoples grouped together as Anglo-Saxons were not politically unified Their subsequent settlements in what is now England laid the. The Anglo Saxon conquest of England began in the middle of the 5th century. At that At that time and possibly earlier they were hiring Germanic peoples as.
There were actually three main peoples: the Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes. After these people moved to Britain they became known as the Anglo-Saxons. Old theories of the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain have largely been dismissed by historians, that is the original British were wiped out and the land settled by. English history opens with the Anglo-Saxons. They were the first people we would describe as English: they gave their name to England (the 'land of.
Looking for some cool Anglo-Saxon facts? Learn who these fierce tribes were, when they lived, where they came from & how they changed Great Britain!. Two early accounts of the Anglo-Saxon migration were written by authors who were both Christian clerics, Gildas and Bede. Gildas was British and wrote in. At first, they were invited in by the Romanized British. After the Romans left, the Romanized British could not organize themselves militarily and. An Anglo-Saxon helmet from the British Museum in London. Was the warrior who owned this helmet the descendant of a more terrifying and. Some objects were left behind by the Anglo-Saxons which have given us clues about how they lived. The British Museum is home to the largest and finest. The Battle of Hastings marks the last time mainland Britain was invaded by a foreign power and saw the Normans sweep to victory over the old. The Anglo-Saxons were written into history by their descendants. and geneticists have sought to identify Anglo-Saxons in England. An early. We know very little of the first few hundred years of the Anglo-Saxon, or English, era, primarily because the invaders were an illiterate people. Our earliest. The five centuries between the end of Roman rule and the Norman Conquest were, for a long time, seen as a culturally desolate era in British. The team says that its findings support the idea that Britain's first Anglo-Saxons were locals who rapidly shifted cultures after the fall of Roman. | 719 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By mid-1864, both the Confederate and Union had a man who stood as a symbol for the war effort, both publicly and militarily. For the Confederate army, Robert E. Lee had long become the icon of hope for independence. For the Union, Ulysses S. Grant had emerged as the chief commander of the Union and was putting the Confederate army on the defensive. As Lee had brought great successes and morale to the Confederate troops and civilians, the success of Grant in pushing through Confederate states brought a great amount of hope to the North that the war may soon be over. In May of 1864, Grant put into action a plan that would put many Union generals on the offensive as they attempted to march on key points throughout Confederate lands. For the first time in the public eye, Grant was marching toward Lee.
Though Lee seemed unstoppable for a large portion of the war up until the Battle of Gettysburg, Northern politicians and civilians believed Grant could defeat him due to the large amount of success Grant had recently along with Lee’s lack of success since he was forced to retreat from Union General George Meade at Gettysburg. On the other hand, Confederates looked to Lee to turn the recent downturn around and bring morale and momentum back to the Confederates. Before they would meet in battle, each general had his own plan of what he would try to accomplish. Lee wanted to hold off Grant and prevent him from marching deeper into Virginia and protect the supplies that were feeding his army. He also looked to not only defend against Grant’s attack but form his own counterattack and drive Grant backward.
Grant wanted to occupy Lee as long as possible and inflict as many casualties on the Confederate army as he could so Lee could not send reinforcements to protect Georgia from the invading Union General William Sherman. Grant looked to put Lee on the defensive, a position he did not like to be in, and inflict enough damage to cripple Lee’s war effort. With a two-front assault on Richmond as well as Lee’s army, Grant believed that Richmond would fall into Union hands in little time at all. To beginning of this campaign was at the Battle of the Wilderness, where Lee opened in early May with an attack on Grant in Spotsylvania, Virginia. Grant quality counterattacked and exposed Lee’s army by the end of the first day of fighting and continued to exploit it as Grant continued his offensive on the second day.
Confederate officer James Longstreet arrived as Lee’s army looked to be breaking, and his reinforcements helped to restore the lines and fix the gaps that Lee’s army had formed. It wouldn’t be long into that second day that Longstreet, much like “Stonewall” Jackson before him, was shot by his own men and rendered incapable of leading his men. His leadership was sorely missed, and the Confederate troops were unable to gain any significant ground even after being reinforced with fresh troops. Despite these reinforcements on the second day, Ulysses S. Grant decided not to retreat and, instead, continued to march. For the two weeks in the middle of May the armies would continue to fight as Grant pushed on, fighting the Battle of Spotsylvania for two weeks starting on May 8. For the two weeks Lee and Grant fought there was no decisive result, though Grant continued to march onward through Virginia.
College level lectures
James McPherson – “Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era” | <urn:uuid:09421415-3df4-4d61-ba90-985e391e5a88> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://yuptab.com/the-icons-of-the-civil-war-collide-grant-against-lee-1864/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00246.warc.gz | en | 0.985413 | 719 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.131735563278198... | 2 | By mid-1864, both the Confederate and Union had a man who stood as a symbol for the war effort, both publicly and militarily. For the Confederate army, Robert E. Lee had long become the icon of hope for independence. For the Union, Ulysses S. Grant had emerged as the chief commander of the Union and was putting the Confederate army on the defensive. As Lee had brought great successes and morale to the Confederate troops and civilians, the success of Grant in pushing through Confederate states brought a great amount of hope to the North that the war may soon be over. In May of 1864, Grant put into action a plan that would put many Union generals on the offensive as they attempted to march on key points throughout Confederate lands. For the first time in the public eye, Grant was marching toward Lee.
Though Lee seemed unstoppable for a large portion of the war up until the Battle of Gettysburg, Northern politicians and civilians believed Grant could defeat him due to the large amount of success Grant had recently along with Lee’s lack of success since he was forced to retreat from Union General George Meade at Gettysburg. On the other hand, Confederates looked to Lee to turn the recent downturn around and bring morale and momentum back to the Confederates. Before they would meet in battle, each general had his own plan of what he would try to accomplish. Lee wanted to hold off Grant and prevent him from marching deeper into Virginia and protect the supplies that were feeding his army. He also looked to not only defend against Grant’s attack but form his own counterattack and drive Grant backward.
Grant wanted to occupy Lee as long as possible and inflict as many casualties on the Confederate army as he could so Lee could not send reinforcements to protect Georgia from the invading Union General William Sherman. Grant looked to put Lee on the defensive, a position he did not like to be in, and inflict enough damage to cripple Lee’s war effort. With a two-front assault on Richmond as well as Lee’s army, Grant believed that Richmond would fall into Union hands in little time at all. To beginning of this campaign was at the Battle of the Wilderness, where Lee opened in early May with an attack on Grant in Spotsylvania, Virginia. Grant quality counterattacked and exposed Lee’s army by the end of the first day of fighting and continued to exploit it as Grant continued his offensive on the second day.
Confederate officer James Longstreet arrived as Lee’s army looked to be breaking, and his reinforcements helped to restore the lines and fix the gaps that Lee’s army had formed. It wouldn’t be long into that second day that Longstreet, much like “Stonewall” Jackson before him, was shot by his own men and rendered incapable of leading his men. His leadership was sorely missed, and the Confederate troops were unable to gain any significant ground even after being reinforced with fresh troops. Despite these reinforcements on the second day, Ulysses S. Grant decided not to retreat and, instead, continued to march. For the two weeks in the middle of May the armies would continue to fight as Grant pushed on, fighting the Battle of Spotsylvania for two weeks starting on May 8. For the two weeks Lee and Grant fought there was no decisive result, though Grant continued to march onward through Virginia.
College level lectures
James McPherson – “Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era” | 702 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Deaf Survivors of the Holocaust
Deafness was declared to be a hereditary disease after many debates in the medical community, which included this population among those targeted for sterilization and Hitler’s final solution. It is estimated that at least 17,000 deaf Germans were sterilized or killed during the Holocaust. However, there were survivors and due to the extensive research and work done by historians, we have some of those stories of inspiration.
Ingelore Herz Honigstein was born deaf. She had been taught to speak by a speech teacher and later attended the Israelite School for the Deaf. Because they had a relative living in the US, her family was able to contact the American consulate and obtain visas. A Nazi interrogator, suspecting that she was deaf, asked her to turn around and repeat what he was saying. In front of her was a picture of the American flag behind glass. Using the reflection in the glass, she was able to read his lips, repeat his words and thus was granted the visa that took her to the US.
In 1942, 146 deaf Jewish students from the Israelite School for the Deaf were removed from the school and killed. Just three years earlier, the school's headmaster, Dr. Felix Reich, realizing the coming danger, took 11 students with him to England. His intention was to return to save more, but he was unable to do so.
Marion Schlessinger Intrator became deaf at age two as a result of scarlet fever. At age four, she was sent to the Israelite Institute for the Deaf. In 1939, the Schlessingers were informed that they were to be deported to an interment camp. Hugo Schlessinger contacted Felix Reich and asked him to take Marion to safety. She is one of the 11 children saved by Dr. Reich. In 1944, Marion was contacted by the International Red Cross and told that her entire family had survived and she was able to join them in New York.
Rose Steinberg was also sent to the Israelite Institute for the Deaf from her home in Warsaw, Poland. Her parents, Michel and Tauba Steinberg, recognizing that life for Jews was becoming more difficult, devised a careful plan to get the family to Paris. Rose had met Max Feld in Paris and they were married in 1937. As the Nazi presence increased in France, Michel Steinberg and Max Feld were arrested. They did not survive. Rose, her young daughter and her mother were hidden and protected by the French until the end of the war.
Lotte Friedman was struck with scarlet fever at age two, leaving her deaf. Lotte’s stepmother taught her skills to survive in the hearing world. She enrolled in the Art Academy in Berlin where she learned to draw and sculpt. One evening, she witnessed the destruction of Jewish properties and the arrest of Jewish people in the neighborhood. She immediately fled to a train station and went to a friend’s house in Cologne for help. She was reunited with her family in Aachen and they were able to escape to Holland. In 1940, they were granted visas for the United States.
Fred and Doris Fedrid were kept imprisoned for two years in the Tarnopol ghetto in the Ukraine. Fred Fedrid was a tailor whose skill helped them survive. He was able to ‘palm’ a pair of scissors by tucking the tip in the band of his wedding ring and traded their use for food and services they needed.
Morris Field, kept his disability hidden and survived through five concentration camps. He was able to speak and his accent allowed him to blend in. He once witnessed a group of deaf prisoners signing to each other. They had disappeared the next day and he believes they were discovered and killed.
David Bloch recalls when Nazis pounded on his door and threatened to arrest him. He was able to escape into Shanghai. He became an art anthropologist and produces many pieces based on the Holocaust.
Eugene Bergmann became deaf when a soldier hit him on the head with a rifle. Arriving home, he discovered that his parents and brother were missing. Looking for them in the outlying forest, he was found by a Polish Resistance soldier. He worked for the Polish Resistance throughout the war smuggling guns. At the end of the war, he was able to locate his family.
It should be noted that the deaf detained in camps had to learn to blend in so as not to be noticed by their captors. Many of the hearing were able to develop a signaling system to alert the deaf and helped save many. In addition to those who worked in various resistance groups and many countries to aid the deaf to survive, it is noted that those who taught the deaf to speak and read lips perhaps played the biggest part in saving many of their lives.
Editor's Picks Articles
Top Ten Articles
Content copyright © 2019 by Jeanetta Polenske. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Jeanetta Polenske. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Christina Dietrich for details. | <urn:uuid:34cb23af-629b-4a02-b475-2dbe5eb62cc8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art58085.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00550.warc.gz | en | 0.993445 | 1,043 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.0039840... | 1 | Deaf Survivors of the Holocaust
Deafness was declared to be a hereditary disease after many debates in the medical community, which included this population among those targeted for sterilization and Hitler’s final solution. It is estimated that at least 17,000 deaf Germans were sterilized or killed during the Holocaust. However, there were survivors and due to the extensive research and work done by historians, we have some of those stories of inspiration.
Ingelore Herz Honigstein was born deaf. She had been taught to speak by a speech teacher and later attended the Israelite School for the Deaf. Because they had a relative living in the US, her family was able to contact the American consulate and obtain visas. A Nazi interrogator, suspecting that she was deaf, asked her to turn around and repeat what he was saying. In front of her was a picture of the American flag behind glass. Using the reflection in the glass, she was able to read his lips, repeat his words and thus was granted the visa that took her to the US.
In 1942, 146 deaf Jewish students from the Israelite School for the Deaf were removed from the school and killed. Just three years earlier, the school's headmaster, Dr. Felix Reich, realizing the coming danger, took 11 students with him to England. His intention was to return to save more, but he was unable to do so.
Marion Schlessinger Intrator became deaf at age two as a result of scarlet fever. At age four, she was sent to the Israelite Institute for the Deaf. In 1939, the Schlessingers were informed that they were to be deported to an interment camp. Hugo Schlessinger contacted Felix Reich and asked him to take Marion to safety. She is one of the 11 children saved by Dr. Reich. In 1944, Marion was contacted by the International Red Cross and told that her entire family had survived and she was able to join them in New York.
Rose Steinberg was also sent to the Israelite Institute for the Deaf from her home in Warsaw, Poland. Her parents, Michel and Tauba Steinberg, recognizing that life for Jews was becoming more difficult, devised a careful plan to get the family to Paris. Rose had met Max Feld in Paris and they were married in 1937. As the Nazi presence increased in France, Michel Steinberg and Max Feld were arrested. They did not survive. Rose, her young daughter and her mother were hidden and protected by the French until the end of the war.
Lotte Friedman was struck with scarlet fever at age two, leaving her deaf. Lotte’s stepmother taught her skills to survive in the hearing world. She enrolled in the Art Academy in Berlin where she learned to draw and sculpt. One evening, she witnessed the destruction of Jewish properties and the arrest of Jewish people in the neighborhood. She immediately fled to a train station and went to a friend’s house in Cologne for help. She was reunited with her family in Aachen and they were able to escape to Holland. In 1940, they were granted visas for the United States.
Fred and Doris Fedrid were kept imprisoned for two years in the Tarnopol ghetto in the Ukraine. Fred Fedrid was a tailor whose skill helped them survive. He was able to ‘palm’ a pair of scissors by tucking the tip in the band of his wedding ring and traded their use for food and services they needed.
Morris Field, kept his disability hidden and survived through five concentration camps. He was able to speak and his accent allowed him to blend in. He once witnessed a group of deaf prisoners signing to each other. They had disappeared the next day and he believes they were discovered and killed.
David Bloch recalls when Nazis pounded on his door and threatened to arrest him. He was able to escape into Shanghai. He became an art anthropologist and produces many pieces based on the Holocaust.
Eugene Bergmann became deaf when a soldier hit him on the head with a rifle. Arriving home, he discovered that his parents and brother were missing. Looking for them in the outlying forest, he was found by a Polish Resistance soldier. He worked for the Polish Resistance throughout the war smuggling guns. At the end of the war, he was able to locate his family.
It should be noted that the deaf detained in camps had to learn to blend in so as not to be noticed by their captors. Many of the hearing were able to develop a signaling system to alert the deaf and helped save many. In addition to those who worked in various resistance groups and many countries to aid the deaf to survive, it is noted that those who taught the deaf to speak and read lips perhaps played the biggest part in saving many of their lives.
Editor's Picks Articles
Top Ten Articles
Content copyright © 2019 by Jeanetta Polenske. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Jeanetta Polenske. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Christina Dietrich for details. | 1,059 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Remembering the Alamo
by Marcia Allen, Collection Services Manager
Sam Houston. Davey Crockett. Jim Bowie. William Travis. All are remembered in history because of their involvement in the siege of the Alamo in 1836, but of those four men, only one survived the struggle for Texas independence. While many books have been written about that struggle, few have the vibrancy and the fast pacing of Brian Kilmeade’s new book, Sam Houston and the Alamo Avengers. For those of us who love history or tales of the West, this new narrative is a standout.
Kilmeade’s thrilling account opens with the recognition that the Mexican and American hostilities are already building. Repeated skirmishes had left casualties on both sides. General Santa Anna was determined to drive the Texians from the territory and reclaim the land for Mexico, but President Andrew Jackson and his friend Sam Houston were equally determined to claim the Texas territory for the United States. As word of the hostilities began to spread, American frontiersmen and ex-military fighters traveled to the territory for their own patriotic reasons. Many legendary characters, like Jim Bowie and Davey Crockett, vowed to fight for their country. And they, like others, had run into difficulties elsewhere that made them want to seek new adventures.
The conflict came to a head at the city of San Antonio at the site of a missionary church. American forces decided to defend the weak fortifications and await the arrival of more defenders, hoping that General Santa Anna’s forces would arrive later. That was not to be. Nearly 200 defenders lost their lives during the standoff, and to the shock of the nation, the Texian survivors were executed outside the walls of the fortress. As Kilmeade tells us, battle losses were nothing new to the country, but General Santa Anna’s dispatching of the survivors was unforgiveable.
“Remember the Alamo” soon became a battle cry, perhaps coined by Sam Houston, to rally troops for further confrontations with the Mexican forces. Though not in good health, Houston realized he would have to take responsibility for the defense of Texas, and so he began elaborate plans to change the direction of the war. His followers were often dissatisfied with his leadership because he did not share his major plans with them and because they felt he was delaying confrontation for too long, but Houston was determined to avoid another crushing defeat like that at the Alamo.
Ultimately, the clash took place at San Jacinto. This time, there were plenty of American forces for the battle, and Houston’s lengthy training regime paid off. Too, the Americans had a favorable geographical advantage and elements of surprise in their favor. General Santa Anna was not only defeated but also captured while posing as a messenger. This was the confrontation that turned the war in favor of the Americans.
There are many reasons to appreciate and enjoy this book. One is that Kilmeade’s accounts of specific battles have an immediacy and drama that make them excellent stories. Another reason is his careful research that allowed him to convey relatively unknown details, taken from memories of those who witnessed these moments of history. And his clearly worded passages about those historical events make them easy to understand.
Perhaps the best reason for enjoying the book is depiction of characters. We know why Bowie and Crockett are there; we know their histories and their wilderness skills. We come to understand them, not as characters from a book, but as real personalities who were players in a particular period. “Deaf” Smith, for example, is little known in history, and yet he appears again and again in the conflicts as a colorful messenger/fighter/planner who accomplished so much for a newly assembled fighting force. He is one of many loyal followers for the American cause.
If you share my enthusiasm for this book, you will be pleased to learn that Kilmeade has written other equally captivating accounts of history. George Washington’s Secret Six and Andrew Jackson and the Miracle of New Orleans are also available at the library. I’m sure that you will find them just as appealing as Sam Houston and the Alamo Avengers. | <urn:uuid:164843e4-e9f4-4262-8fba-cc2b4a84afd7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mhklibrary.org/2019/12/remembering-the-alamo/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00103.warc.gz | en | 0.980844 | 860 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.151987463235855... | 9 | Remembering the Alamo
by Marcia Allen, Collection Services Manager
Sam Houston. Davey Crockett. Jim Bowie. William Travis. All are remembered in history because of their involvement in the siege of the Alamo in 1836, but of those four men, only one survived the struggle for Texas independence. While many books have been written about that struggle, few have the vibrancy and the fast pacing of Brian Kilmeade’s new book, Sam Houston and the Alamo Avengers. For those of us who love history or tales of the West, this new narrative is a standout.
Kilmeade’s thrilling account opens with the recognition that the Mexican and American hostilities are already building. Repeated skirmishes had left casualties on both sides. General Santa Anna was determined to drive the Texians from the territory and reclaim the land for Mexico, but President Andrew Jackson and his friend Sam Houston were equally determined to claim the Texas territory for the United States. As word of the hostilities began to spread, American frontiersmen and ex-military fighters traveled to the territory for their own patriotic reasons. Many legendary characters, like Jim Bowie and Davey Crockett, vowed to fight for their country. And they, like others, had run into difficulties elsewhere that made them want to seek new adventures.
The conflict came to a head at the city of San Antonio at the site of a missionary church. American forces decided to defend the weak fortifications and await the arrival of more defenders, hoping that General Santa Anna’s forces would arrive later. That was not to be. Nearly 200 defenders lost their lives during the standoff, and to the shock of the nation, the Texian survivors were executed outside the walls of the fortress. As Kilmeade tells us, battle losses were nothing new to the country, but General Santa Anna’s dispatching of the survivors was unforgiveable.
“Remember the Alamo” soon became a battle cry, perhaps coined by Sam Houston, to rally troops for further confrontations with the Mexican forces. Though not in good health, Houston realized he would have to take responsibility for the defense of Texas, and so he began elaborate plans to change the direction of the war. His followers were often dissatisfied with his leadership because he did not share his major plans with them and because they felt he was delaying confrontation for too long, but Houston was determined to avoid another crushing defeat like that at the Alamo.
Ultimately, the clash took place at San Jacinto. This time, there were plenty of American forces for the battle, and Houston’s lengthy training regime paid off. Too, the Americans had a favorable geographical advantage and elements of surprise in their favor. General Santa Anna was not only defeated but also captured while posing as a messenger. This was the confrontation that turned the war in favor of the Americans.
There are many reasons to appreciate and enjoy this book. One is that Kilmeade’s accounts of specific battles have an immediacy and drama that make them excellent stories. Another reason is his careful research that allowed him to convey relatively unknown details, taken from memories of those who witnessed these moments of history. And his clearly worded passages about those historical events make them easy to understand.
Perhaps the best reason for enjoying the book is depiction of characters. We know why Bowie and Crockett are there; we know their histories and their wilderness skills. We come to understand them, not as characters from a book, but as real personalities who were players in a particular period. “Deaf” Smith, for example, is little known in history, and yet he appears again and again in the conflicts as a colorful messenger/fighter/planner who accomplished so much for a newly assembled fighting force. He is one of many loyal followers for the American cause.
If you share my enthusiasm for this book, you will be pleased to learn that Kilmeade has written other equally captivating accounts of history. George Washington’s Secret Six and Andrew Jackson and the Miracle of New Orleans are also available at the library. I’m sure that you will find them just as appealing as Sam Houston and the Alamo Avengers. | 837 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ten Interesting Facts About the Pilgrims and Massachusetts Indians
The Times They Were A Changin'
When the Pilgrims first arrived at Plymouth in 1620, Native American culture was already in transformation. Changes to the Native way of life were brought about by an increased European presence along the New England coastline. Not only did the new traders bring in more commerce between the two parties, but they also unleashed a deadly smallpox outbreak. The end results could have spelled disaster for the new arrivals, but by some strange twist of fate, the Pilgrims survived. Here are a few tidbits of history that might shed some light on how the Pilgrims survived.
What Did the First Thanksgiving Really Look Like
The Mayflower was a three or four masted cargo ship, also known as a carrack. The boat is believed to have been around 100 feet long and was capable of carrying about 180 tons. The carrack, or nau, was developed by the Portuguese in the 15th century and subsequently became popular in New World exploration.
The Mayflower Compact
Originally, the Mayflower had been routed to the Virginia colony, but because of stormy seas, the ship was forced to land on the tip of Cape Cod. Here, in the isolated Massachusetts harbor, talk of mutiny was abundant, especially since many of the travelers did not want to spend the winter in the frigid north. In response to the internal dissent, the ship's captain, William Bradford, drew up a short document and then forced every free man on board to sign the paper before that person was allowed off the ship. As it was, the compact essentially said that each signer was obliged to stick with the Cape Cod settlement and abide by the Governor's rules until such time that a new charter could be agreed upon.
After first reaching land, the colonists stayed on Cape Cod for about five weeks before crossing Massachusetts Bay and landing at a place that is now called Plymouth. In reality, the Mayflower put down their anchor adjacent to a Patuxet village that had been wiped out by smallpox. This streak of luck may have been instrumental in the Pilgrim's ultimate survival, for the local Indians quickly came to except the new arrivals as suitable replacements for the village that had been destroyed by disease. Still, the Indians were initially wary of the strangers. As a result, they did not approach the new settlers for five months. During this time about half of the pilgrims died from starvation and disease.
The first Indian to visit the new colony was named Samoset. He lived to the north near Monhegan Island in Maine, but was spending the winter at Plymouth so he could visit his friends among the Wampanoag nation. Through contact with English sailors, Samoset could express himself in basic English and had also acquired a taste for beer. As a result, the first words out of his mouth were a request for the popular alcoholic beverage, but the pilgrims had none to give him. Nonetheless, Samoset remained friendly, for he gave the pilgrims a quick geography lesson and informed the settlers that they had landed near a newly extinct Indian village.
Squanto, the World Traveler
In the years before the pilgrims landed at Plymouth, Squanto had crossed the Atlantic and returned three times. The first voyage was courtesy of some English ruffians, who sold him into slavery in Spain. Eventually, Squanto escaped to England, where he was treated better and became proficient with the English language. After his first voyage, Squanto was sometimes hired as a translator by friendly English explorers in their travels around the northern region of the New World.
Squanto The Teacher
Squanto Abused His Power
A few days after Samoset's initial visit, he returned with Squanto, who could better assist with understanding the English language. At first Squanto, or Tisquantum, as he was called in his Native tongue, was invaluable in teaching the Pilgrims how to feed themselves in the new land. But after a year or two, the Indian translator began to demand special favors from both the English and the Massachusetts Indians in return for his translating skills. In the end, Squanto died young, only a couple of years after the arrival of the Pilgrims. Some historians have speculated that Tisquantum may have been poisoned by his own people since it has been documented that he was distrusted by both groups.
A Peace Treaty
Massasoit, The Peacekeeper
In the long run, the most valuable Indian ally to the English colonists may have been the Wampanoag sachem, named Massasoit. It was Massasoit who was able to maintain the peace between the two groups. Massasoit was a powerful chief with several lesser chiefs under his influence. What he did was negotiate a peace and alliance with the pilgrims.The alliance stated that the new arrivals would be allied with Massoit's people against their enemies, the Narragansett. This alliance included a mutual call to arms if either party was attacked. The Bay Colony pilgrims readily accepted these terms.
Massasoit's Death Brought Trouble
When Massasoit died in 1660, war soon broke out. After the chief's death, much of his tribal authority went to one of his sons, named Alexander. Unfortunately, Alexander did not live long and another son, Phillip, gained control of the local Indians. The war that resulted was called King Phillip's War and it proved to be quite bloody and costly for the Indian groups affiliated with the Wampanoags.
The first Thanksgiving in 1621 included a lot of different kinds of meat besides turkey. Wild game and fish, such as lobster, eels, goose, and deer were consumed along with the turkey. Pumpkin pie was not available at the time.
Squanto's Home Village
Squanto's home village was the very same Patuxet village that was located next to Plymouth and destroyed by smallpox. Squanto survived because he was in Europe at the time. The Patuxets were considered to be a branch of the Wampanoag.
How Our Modern Turkey Day Came To Be
Questions & Answers
Why did the pilgrims leave cape cod?
The pilgrims only stayed a few weeks at the tip of Cape Cod before moving on to Plymouth, which was located on the other side of Massachusetts Bay. If you have ever been to Cape Cod, it won't take long to figure this one out. The place is just about all sand. The fishing might be good, but the possibilities for agriculture were very limited. So the pilgrims adventured across the bay and landed at a place we now call Plymouth. The terrain was more favorable for agriculture, but it took a lucky break (in the form of friendly Indians) to ensure their survival.Helpful 2
Where did the Pilgrims last land?
© 2012 Harry Nielsen | <urn:uuid:6188ed09-6663-4518-b23a-dbddd7b31ebc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://holidappy.com/holidays/Ten-Interesting-Facts-About-the-Pilgrims-and-Massachusetts-Indians | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.984081 | 1,400 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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The Times They Were A Changin'
When the Pilgrims first arrived at Plymouth in 1620, Native American culture was already in transformation. Changes to the Native way of life were brought about by an increased European presence along the New England coastline. Not only did the new traders bring in more commerce between the two parties, but they also unleashed a deadly smallpox outbreak. The end results could have spelled disaster for the new arrivals, but by some strange twist of fate, the Pilgrims survived. Here are a few tidbits of history that might shed some light on how the Pilgrims survived.
What Did the First Thanksgiving Really Look Like
The Mayflower was a three or four masted cargo ship, also known as a carrack. The boat is believed to have been around 100 feet long and was capable of carrying about 180 tons. The carrack, or nau, was developed by the Portuguese in the 15th century and subsequently became popular in New World exploration.
The Mayflower Compact
Originally, the Mayflower had been routed to the Virginia colony, but because of stormy seas, the ship was forced to land on the tip of Cape Cod. Here, in the isolated Massachusetts harbor, talk of mutiny was abundant, especially since many of the travelers did not want to spend the winter in the frigid north. In response to the internal dissent, the ship's captain, William Bradford, drew up a short document and then forced every free man on board to sign the paper before that person was allowed off the ship. As it was, the compact essentially said that each signer was obliged to stick with the Cape Cod settlement and abide by the Governor's rules until such time that a new charter could be agreed upon.
After first reaching land, the colonists stayed on Cape Cod for about five weeks before crossing Massachusetts Bay and landing at a place that is now called Plymouth. In reality, the Mayflower put down their anchor adjacent to a Patuxet village that had been wiped out by smallpox. This streak of luck may have been instrumental in the Pilgrim's ultimate survival, for the local Indians quickly came to except the new arrivals as suitable replacements for the village that had been destroyed by disease. Still, the Indians were initially wary of the strangers. As a result, they did not approach the new settlers for five months. During this time about half of the pilgrims died from starvation and disease.
The first Indian to visit the new colony was named Samoset. He lived to the north near Monhegan Island in Maine, but was spending the winter at Plymouth so he could visit his friends among the Wampanoag nation. Through contact with English sailors, Samoset could express himself in basic English and had also acquired a taste for beer. As a result, the first words out of his mouth were a request for the popular alcoholic beverage, but the pilgrims had none to give him. Nonetheless, Samoset remained friendly, for he gave the pilgrims a quick geography lesson and informed the settlers that they had landed near a newly extinct Indian village.
Squanto, the World Traveler
In the years before the pilgrims landed at Plymouth, Squanto had crossed the Atlantic and returned three times. The first voyage was courtesy of some English ruffians, who sold him into slavery in Spain. Eventually, Squanto escaped to England, where he was treated better and became proficient with the English language. After his first voyage, Squanto was sometimes hired as a translator by friendly English explorers in their travels around the northern region of the New World.
Squanto The Teacher
Squanto Abused His Power
A few days after Samoset's initial visit, he returned with Squanto, who could better assist with understanding the English language. At first Squanto, or Tisquantum, as he was called in his Native tongue, was invaluable in teaching the Pilgrims how to feed themselves in the new land. But after a year or two, the Indian translator began to demand special favors from both the English and the Massachusetts Indians in return for his translating skills. In the end, Squanto died young, only a couple of years after the arrival of the Pilgrims. Some historians have speculated that Tisquantum may have been poisoned by his own people since it has been documented that he was distrusted by both groups.
A Peace Treaty
Massasoit, The Peacekeeper
In the long run, the most valuable Indian ally to the English colonists may have been the Wampanoag sachem, named Massasoit. It was Massasoit who was able to maintain the peace between the two groups. Massasoit was a powerful chief with several lesser chiefs under his influence. What he did was negotiate a peace and alliance with the pilgrims.The alliance stated that the new arrivals would be allied with Massoit's people against their enemies, the Narragansett. This alliance included a mutual call to arms if either party was attacked. The Bay Colony pilgrims readily accepted these terms.
Massasoit's Death Brought Trouble
When Massasoit died in 1660, war soon broke out. After the chief's death, much of his tribal authority went to one of his sons, named Alexander. Unfortunately, Alexander did not live long and another son, Phillip, gained control of the local Indians. The war that resulted was called King Phillip's War and it proved to be quite bloody and costly for the Indian groups affiliated with the Wampanoags.
The first Thanksgiving in 1621 included a lot of different kinds of meat besides turkey. Wild game and fish, such as lobster, eels, goose, and deer were consumed along with the turkey. Pumpkin pie was not available at the time.
Squanto's Home Village
Squanto's home village was the very same Patuxet village that was located next to Plymouth and destroyed by smallpox. Squanto survived because he was in Europe at the time. The Patuxets were considered to be a branch of the Wampanoag.
How Our Modern Turkey Day Came To Be
Questions & Answers
Why did the pilgrims leave cape cod?
The pilgrims only stayed a few weeks at the tip of Cape Cod before moving on to Plymouth, which was located on the other side of Massachusetts Bay. If you have ever been to Cape Cod, it won't take long to figure this one out. The place is just about all sand. The fishing might be good, but the possibilities for agriculture were very limited. So the pilgrims adventured across the bay and landed at a place we now call Plymouth. The terrain was more favorable for agriculture, but it took a lucky break (in the form of friendly Indians) to ensure their survival.Helpful 2
Where did the Pilgrims last land?
© 2012 Harry Nielsen | 1,428 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A fun and enriching day was had by all last Friday, as the whole school paused to celebrate and learn about the British Values. It was wonderful to see the children arriving for school in their red, white and blue coloured clothes to represent the Union Jack flag, so thank you for all making such an effort! The children were organised into groups so that Beech and Oak classes worked together and Willow and Sycamore joined up. This meant that our groups could experience all of the workshops that the teachers had planned for the key stages.
We were given four possible topics to debate and each group democratically decided which area to choose. The children were then given the role of putting together all of the arguments for and against the debate so that a real discussion could take place. This then concluded with a free vote to see what the overall decision of the team was. In the assembly, children explained that the topic they chose was to debate whether animals should be kept in zoos and they presented their arguments.
Mutual Respect, Tolerance and Individual Liberty
We looked at what creates our own personal identities, whether this be our eye colour, a favourite hobby or a belief. The story of ‘It’s OK to be different’ by Todd Parr was used to begin these discussions. We compared them with our friends and spoke about how these differences don’t stop us from being friends or helping and caring for one another. We have to respect the choices of others and that it’s ok to have different opinions!
Rule of Law
With the help of the story ‘Goldilocks, we explored how we need to follow rules to ensure everybody is treated fairly. We looked at what could happen if we break rules and the difference in outcomes when we follow them. During the day, games were played where the rules were forgotten and of course, they ended in chaos! Very quickly, rules were discussed and put into place, making the point that when games are fair and rules are followed, everything is much more enjoyable!
Using Google Earth, we looked at the location of Great Britain and how it is a collection of islands. It was also interesting to see that the Union Jack is made up of all of the flags of the British Isles. Some of the children created their own maps, locating England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. We then found where Chiddingly was within the British Isles and zoomed in on the school from above and could spot the playground and trim trail.
IMPACT & KNOWLEDGE GAINED
As a result of learning about the British Values, we have already seen the children demonstrating and applying their new knowledge in their classrooms and on the playground. The children really enjoyed learning about what helps create their identity and they now have a renewed respect for themselves as individuals, as well as for their peers and adults both in and out of school. | <urn:uuid:22ee391a-ab57-493f-a37f-ad8634949312> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://chiddingly.pioneerfederation.co.uk/british-values-day-2019/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00210.warc.gz | en | 0.981795 | 593 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.4046198129... | 4 | A fun and enriching day was had by all last Friday, as the whole school paused to celebrate and learn about the British Values. It was wonderful to see the children arriving for school in their red, white and blue coloured clothes to represent the Union Jack flag, so thank you for all making such an effort! The children were organised into groups so that Beech and Oak classes worked together and Willow and Sycamore joined up. This meant that our groups could experience all of the workshops that the teachers had planned for the key stages.
We were given four possible topics to debate and each group democratically decided which area to choose. The children were then given the role of putting together all of the arguments for and against the debate so that a real discussion could take place. This then concluded with a free vote to see what the overall decision of the team was. In the assembly, children explained that the topic they chose was to debate whether animals should be kept in zoos and they presented their arguments.
Mutual Respect, Tolerance and Individual Liberty
We looked at what creates our own personal identities, whether this be our eye colour, a favourite hobby or a belief. The story of ‘It’s OK to be different’ by Todd Parr was used to begin these discussions. We compared them with our friends and spoke about how these differences don’t stop us from being friends or helping and caring for one another. We have to respect the choices of others and that it’s ok to have different opinions!
Rule of Law
With the help of the story ‘Goldilocks, we explored how we need to follow rules to ensure everybody is treated fairly. We looked at what could happen if we break rules and the difference in outcomes when we follow them. During the day, games were played where the rules were forgotten and of course, they ended in chaos! Very quickly, rules were discussed and put into place, making the point that when games are fair and rules are followed, everything is much more enjoyable!
Using Google Earth, we looked at the location of Great Britain and how it is a collection of islands. It was also interesting to see that the Union Jack is made up of all of the flags of the British Isles. Some of the children created their own maps, locating England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. We then found where Chiddingly was within the British Isles and zoomed in on the school from above and could spot the playground and trim trail.
IMPACT & KNOWLEDGE GAINED
As a result of learning about the British Values, we have already seen the children demonstrating and applying their new knowledge in their classrooms and on the playground. The children really enjoyed learning about what helps create their identity and they now have a renewed respect for themselves as individuals, as well as for their peers and adults both in and out of school. | 578 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Biography of Karl Marx
Karl Marx, the author of the Communist Manifesto, is viewed to be one of the greatest social thinkers of his time. His social, political and economical thoughts are still highly regarded today. The life of this man is stamped with many accomplishments and ideas that have been adopted by many prominent figures. As a historian, philosopher, and revolutionary, Karl Marx has helped shaped the society of the past, present and future.
Karl Marx was born in Trier, Germany on May 5, 1818. He was born to Heinrich Marx and his wife, Henrietta who had a total of seven children. They were a middle class family who came from a long lineage of rabbis. However, his family was baptized Protestant in order for his dad to keep his job as a practicing lawyer. At an early age, Marx’s next-door neighbor became an influential model for Marx and eventually a future father-in-law.
Marx’s intellectual career began in 1835 at the age of seventeen at the University of Boon where he was to study law. Not more than a year after his arrival at Boon he was arrested for drunkenness and was injured in a brawl. Also at this time he became secretly engaged to his childhood sweetheart, Jenny Von Westphalen. Outraged by his actions, his father forced him to transfer and begin a more serious academic career at the University of Berlin. His father voiced his opinion in a letter to Marx “ degeneration in a learned dressing-gown with uncombed hair has replaced degeneration with a drinking glass. On October 22, 1837, he became officially engaged to Jenny and would ritually write her a letter telling about his life at school.
Shortly after his arrival at Berlin he joined the Hegelian Doktor Klub, which influenced him to shift concentrations from law to philosophy. Among this group were theologians such as David Fredrich Strauss and Bruno Bauer. This group became politically oppressed due to its critique of Christianity and its oppression towards the Prussian government. Marx had intentions of teaching side by side with Bauer at the University, however this idea was shot down when Bauer was fired. Bauer was already not on very good standings with the school or the government. After he took part in demonstrations in the parliament the government asked him to resign. With no hope of a career in teaching philosophy he completed his doctoral thesis and received a degree from the University of Jeena in 1841. His interest now shifted to journalism.
In Cologne, Marx began to write on social, political, and philosophical issues for the Rheinishce Zeitung. In October 1842 Marx became editor of this liberal newspaper. Around this time censorship in the Prussian Government became increasingly strong. Marx, however, continued in his style of writing and published a series of articles that dealt with the “poverty of wine-growers in the Moselle valley”. This set... | <urn:uuid:36145b5e-0dcc-4597-a3a7-725935c3d7e7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/biography-of-karl-marx-3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00206.warc.gz | en | 0.992088 | 604 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.0667258501... | 1 | Biography of Karl Marx
Karl Marx, the author of the Communist Manifesto, is viewed to be one of the greatest social thinkers of his time. His social, political and economical thoughts are still highly regarded today. The life of this man is stamped with many accomplishments and ideas that have been adopted by many prominent figures. As a historian, philosopher, and revolutionary, Karl Marx has helped shaped the society of the past, present and future.
Karl Marx was born in Trier, Germany on May 5, 1818. He was born to Heinrich Marx and his wife, Henrietta who had a total of seven children. They were a middle class family who came from a long lineage of rabbis. However, his family was baptized Protestant in order for his dad to keep his job as a practicing lawyer. At an early age, Marx’s next-door neighbor became an influential model for Marx and eventually a future father-in-law.
Marx’s intellectual career began in 1835 at the age of seventeen at the University of Boon where he was to study law. Not more than a year after his arrival at Boon he was arrested for drunkenness and was injured in a brawl. Also at this time he became secretly engaged to his childhood sweetheart, Jenny Von Westphalen. Outraged by his actions, his father forced him to transfer and begin a more serious academic career at the University of Berlin. His father voiced his opinion in a letter to Marx “ degeneration in a learned dressing-gown with uncombed hair has replaced degeneration with a drinking glass. On October 22, 1837, he became officially engaged to Jenny and would ritually write her a letter telling about his life at school.
Shortly after his arrival at Berlin he joined the Hegelian Doktor Klub, which influenced him to shift concentrations from law to philosophy. Among this group were theologians such as David Fredrich Strauss and Bruno Bauer. This group became politically oppressed due to its critique of Christianity and its oppression towards the Prussian government. Marx had intentions of teaching side by side with Bauer at the University, however this idea was shot down when Bauer was fired. Bauer was already not on very good standings with the school or the government. After he took part in demonstrations in the parliament the government asked him to resign. With no hope of a career in teaching philosophy he completed his doctoral thesis and received a degree from the University of Jeena in 1841. His interest now shifted to journalism.
In Cologne, Marx began to write on social, political, and philosophical issues for the Rheinishce Zeitung. In October 1842 Marx became editor of this liberal newspaper. Around this time censorship in the Prussian Government became increasingly strong. Marx, however, continued in his style of writing and published a series of articles that dealt with the “poverty of wine-growers in the Moselle valley”. This set... | 604 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mary Harris Jones (August 1, 1837 – November 30, 1930) was a prominent American labor and community organizer. Mother Jones was one of the founders of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). She strongly identified with working people who had no protection against low wages, long hours, and dangerous working conditions. Owners often used blacklists and violence to intimidate workers and prevent unionism. "Mother" Jones, as she came to be called, was neither frightened nor discouraged. She fearlessly began to organize both men and women to fight for their rights.
Mary was born on the north side of Cork City, Ireland. When she was a child, she watched British soldiers march through the streets, the heads of Irishmen stuck on their bayonets. Her grandfather, an Irish freedom fighter, was hanged; her father was forced to flee to America in 1835. He became an American citizen and sent for his family. He got a job as a laborer with railway construction crews. This position took him and the family to Toronto, Canada. Mary was raised in Canada however as the child of an American citizen she always and proudly regarded herself an American.
She attended common and normal schools in Canada with the intention of becoming a teacher. She was a fast learner and excelled in her studies. She became a teacher and a skilled dressmaker. Her first job was in a convent in Michigan. Mary only taught in Michigan for about eight months, moving to Chicago to work as a dressmaker. From there, she moved to Memphis, Tennessee, in 1860 to teach school again. It was here, in 1861, that she met and married George E. Jones, a staunch and prominent member of the Iron Molders' Union. They had four children. At times, Mary traveled with George in his union organizing. Through him, Mary learned about unions and the psychology of working men.
In 1867, a fever epidemic swept Memphis. Its victims were mainly among the poor and the workers. Schools and churches were closed. People were not permitted to enter the house of a yellow fever victim without permits. The poor could not afford nurses. The four Jones children contracted the illness and died. Shortly after the death of the children George caught the fever and died. Mary stayed in Memphis nursing other victims until the epidemic waned, then moved back to Chicago, working as a dressmaker again.
But tragedy soon followed. In 1871, she lost everything she owned in her home and seamstress shop in the great Chicago fire. It was then that Mary embarked upon the path that made her name synonymous with social justice. Probably the seeds were sown earlier, while sewing in the homes of wealthy Chicago families. She later said:
Often while sewing for lords and barons who lived in magnificent houses on the Lake Shore Drive, I would look out of the plate glass windows and see the poor, shivering wretches, jobless and hungry, walking alongside the frozen lake front. The contrast of their condition with that of the tropical comfort of the people for whom I sewed was painful to me. My employers seemed neither to notice nor to care.
Forced to support herself, she became involved in the labor movement and joined the Knights of Labor, a predecessor to the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or "Wobblies"), which she helped found in 1905. The IWW's nearly social darwinistic stand-up-for-yourself philosophy mirrored that of Mother Jones' anti-capitalist individualism. Active as an organizer and educator in strikes throughout the country at the time, she was particularly involved with the United Mine Workers (UMW) and the Socialist Party of America. As a union organizer, she gained prominence for organizing the wives and children of striking workers in demonstrations on their behalf. In 1903 she organized children working in mills and mines in the "Children's Crusade," a march from Kensington, Pennsylvania to Oyster Bay, New York, the home of President Theodore Roosevelt with banners demanding "We want time to play!" and "We want to go to school!" Though the President refused to meet with the marchers, the incident brought the issue of child labor to the forefront of the public agenda. She became known as "the most dangerous woman in America," a phrase coined by a West Virginia District Attorney named Reese Blizzard in 1902, when she was arrested for ignoring an injunction banning meetings by striking miners. "There sits the most dangerous woman in America," announced Blizzard. "She crooks her finger—twenty thousand contented men lay down their tools and walk out."
In 1911, Mary left the Socialist Party to again work for the United Mine Workers union as an organizer. It was during this time that 'Mother' Jones came to national attention through the Paint Creek-Cabin Creek strike in West Virginia. On September 21, 1912, she led a march of miners' children through Charleston, West Virginia. On February 12, 1913, she led a protest about mining conditions and was arrested. Mother Jones was charged and kept under house arrest in the nearby town of Pratt and subsequently convicted with other union organizers of conspiring to commit murder, after organizing another children's march. Her arrest raised an uproar and she was soon released from prison, after which the United States Senate ordered an investigation into the conditions in the local coal mines.
A few months later she was in Colorado, helping to organize the coal miners there. Once again she was arrested, served some time in prison, and was escorted from the state in the months leading up to the Ludlow Massacre. After the massacre, which she used as an anti-Rockefeller vendetta, she was invited to Standard Oil's headquarters to meet face-to-face with John D. Rockefeller, Jr., a meeting that prompted Rockefeller to visit the Colorado mines and introduce long-awaited reforms.
By 1924, Mother Jones was in court again, this time facing varying charges of libel, slander, and sedition. In 1925, Charles A. Albert, publisher of the fledgling Chicago Times, won a stunning $350,000 judgment against the failing matriarch.
In early 1925, the indomitable Jones fought off a pair of thugs who had broken into a friend's house where she was staying. After a brief struggle one intruder fled while the other was seriously injured. The wounded attacker, 54-year old Keith Gagne, later died from the wounds inflicted on him by the elderly Jones; wounds including blunt head trauma from Jones' trademark black leather boots. Police immediately arrested Jones, but she was soon released when the attackers were identified as associates of a prominent local business person.
Mother Jones remained a union organizer for the UMW affairs into the 1920s, and continued to speak on union affairs almost until her death. She released her own account of her experiences in the labor movement as The Autobiography of Mother Jones (1925). She died at the age of 93 in 1930.
At present, many people know of her largely because of the American magazine Mother Jones, which advocates many of the social views that Mother Jones herself espoused. Jones is known as the "Grandmother of All Agitators." She is also believed to be the inspiration for the popular folk song She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain. Mary Harris "Mother" Jones Elementary School in Adelphi, Maryland is named for her.
Students at Wheeling Jesuit University in West Virginia have the option to apply for residence in the Mother Jones House, which is an off-campus service house. Resident students are required to perform at least ten hours of community service each week, plus participate in community dinners and other functions.
All links retrieved August 29, 2018.
New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:
The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia: | <urn:uuid:1b5a1458-a449-47f1-8317-7c2b232bac9a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mary_Harris_Jones | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.981386 | 1,697 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.273787826... | 1 | Mary Harris Jones (August 1, 1837 – November 30, 1930) was a prominent American labor and community organizer. Mother Jones was one of the founders of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). She strongly identified with working people who had no protection against low wages, long hours, and dangerous working conditions. Owners often used blacklists and violence to intimidate workers and prevent unionism. "Mother" Jones, as she came to be called, was neither frightened nor discouraged. She fearlessly began to organize both men and women to fight for their rights.
Mary was born on the north side of Cork City, Ireland. When she was a child, she watched British soldiers march through the streets, the heads of Irishmen stuck on their bayonets. Her grandfather, an Irish freedom fighter, was hanged; her father was forced to flee to America in 1835. He became an American citizen and sent for his family. He got a job as a laborer with railway construction crews. This position took him and the family to Toronto, Canada. Mary was raised in Canada however as the child of an American citizen she always and proudly regarded herself an American.
She attended common and normal schools in Canada with the intention of becoming a teacher. She was a fast learner and excelled in her studies. She became a teacher and a skilled dressmaker. Her first job was in a convent in Michigan. Mary only taught in Michigan for about eight months, moving to Chicago to work as a dressmaker. From there, she moved to Memphis, Tennessee, in 1860 to teach school again. It was here, in 1861, that she met and married George E. Jones, a staunch and prominent member of the Iron Molders' Union. They had four children. At times, Mary traveled with George in his union organizing. Through him, Mary learned about unions and the psychology of working men.
In 1867, a fever epidemic swept Memphis. Its victims were mainly among the poor and the workers. Schools and churches were closed. People were not permitted to enter the house of a yellow fever victim without permits. The poor could not afford nurses. The four Jones children contracted the illness and died. Shortly after the death of the children George caught the fever and died. Mary stayed in Memphis nursing other victims until the epidemic waned, then moved back to Chicago, working as a dressmaker again.
But tragedy soon followed. In 1871, she lost everything she owned in her home and seamstress shop in the great Chicago fire. It was then that Mary embarked upon the path that made her name synonymous with social justice. Probably the seeds were sown earlier, while sewing in the homes of wealthy Chicago families. She later said:
Often while sewing for lords and barons who lived in magnificent houses on the Lake Shore Drive, I would look out of the plate glass windows and see the poor, shivering wretches, jobless and hungry, walking alongside the frozen lake front. The contrast of their condition with that of the tropical comfort of the people for whom I sewed was painful to me. My employers seemed neither to notice nor to care.
Forced to support herself, she became involved in the labor movement and joined the Knights of Labor, a predecessor to the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or "Wobblies"), which she helped found in 1905. The IWW's nearly social darwinistic stand-up-for-yourself philosophy mirrored that of Mother Jones' anti-capitalist individualism. Active as an organizer and educator in strikes throughout the country at the time, she was particularly involved with the United Mine Workers (UMW) and the Socialist Party of America. As a union organizer, she gained prominence for organizing the wives and children of striking workers in demonstrations on their behalf. In 1903 she organized children working in mills and mines in the "Children's Crusade," a march from Kensington, Pennsylvania to Oyster Bay, New York, the home of President Theodore Roosevelt with banners demanding "We want time to play!" and "We want to go to school!" Though the President refused to meet with the marchers, the incident brought the issue of child labor to the forefront of the public agenda. She became known as "the most dangerous woman in America," a phrase coined by a West Virginia District Attorney named Reese Blizzard in 1902, when she was arrested for ignoring an injunction banning meetings by striking miners. "There sits the most dangerous woman in America," announced Blizzard. "She crooks her finger—twenty thousand contented men lay down their tools and walk out."
In 1911, Mary left the Socialist Party to again work for the United Mine Workers union as an organizer. It was during this time that 'Mother' Jones came to national attention through the Paint Creek-Cabin Creek strike in West Virginia. On September 21, 1912, she led a march of miners' children through Charleston, West Virginia. On February 12, 1913, she led a protest about mining conditions and was arrested. Mother Jones was charged and kept under house arrest in the nearby town of Pratt and subsequently convicted with other union organizers of conspiring to commit murder, after organizing another children's march. Her arrest raised an uproar and she was soon released from prison, after which the United States Senate ordered an investigation into the conditions in the local coal mines.
A few months later she was in Colorado, helping to organize the coal miners there. Once again she was arrested, served some time in prison, and was escorted from the state in the months leading up to the Ludlow Massacre. After the massacre, which she used as an anti-Rockefeller vendetta, she was invited to Standard Oil's headquarters to meet face-to-face with John D. Rockefeller, Jr., a meeting that prompted Rockefeller to visit the Colorado mines and introduce long-awaited reforms.
By 1924, Mother Jones was in court again, this time facing varying charges of libel, slander, and sedition. In 1925, Charles A. Albert, publisher of the fledgling Chicago Times, won a stunning $350,000 judgment against the failing matriarch.
In early 1925, the indomitable Jones fought off a pair of thugs who had broken into a friend's house where she was staying. After a brief struggle one intruder fled while the other was seriously injured. The wounded attacker, 54-year old Keith Gagne, later died from the wounds inflicted on him by the elderly Jones; wounds including blunt head trauma from Jones' trademark black leather boots. Police immediately arrested Jones, but she was soon released when the attackers were identified as associates of a prominent local business person.
Mother Jones remained a union organizer for the UMW affairs into the 1920s, and continued to speak on union affairs almost until her death. She released her own account of her experiences in the labor movement as The Autobiography of Mother Jones (1925). She died at the age of 93 in 1930.
At present, many people know of her largely because of the American magazine Mother Jones, which advocates many of the social views that Mother Jones herself espoused. Jones is known as the "Grandmother of All Agitators." She is also believed to be the inspiration for the popular folk song She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain. Mary Harris "Mother" Jones Elementary School in Adelphi, Maryland is named for her.
Students at Wheeling Jesuit University in West Virginia have the option to apply for residence in the Mother Jones House, which is an off-campus service house. Resident students are required to perform at least ten hours of community service each week, plus participate in community dinners and other functions.
All links retrieved August 29, 2018.
New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:
The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia: | 1,767 | ENGLISH | 1 |
His name was Yeshu’a. His early biographers wrote in Koine Greek, in which his name became Iesous. The Latin version was Iesus, from which we get Jesus. The modern English translation of Yeshu’a is actually Joshua.
The year, place, and date of Joshua’s birth are unknown. There are only two records, both written a long time later, by people who never knew him.
The Gospel of Matthew (written by an anonymous author, perhaps c. AD 75–85) says Joshua was born “in the days of Herod the king”. Herod died in 4 BC. So, if Matthew is right, Joshua was born sometime before 4 BC.
The Gospel of Luke (written by an anonymous author, perhaps c. AD 80–5) does not say who was king when Joshua was conceived or born (although it says Herod was king when Elizabeth – who it asserts was Mary’s cousin – conceived John the Baptist a little earlier).
Instead, Luke records that while Mary was pregnant “there went out a decree from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be taxed. And this taxing was first made when Cyrenius was governor of Syria).”
This passage poses several historical challenges. Caesars did not order tax censuses, which were an administrative matter, organised locally.
The only known census in the region in period was ordered by Publius Sulpicius Quirinius, Roman Governor of Syria, who commissioned it in AD 6. So Matthew and Luke cannot both be right: there is a 10-year disparity between them.
The next question is where Joshua was born. Luke says that Mary and Joseph were from Nazareth in Galilee, but journeyed south to Bethlehem in Judaea to register for the tax census.
Historically, this is unparalleled. Taxation – then, as now – was payable by people where they lived. There is no economic or administrative rationale for traveling to the distant birthplace of a remote ancestor to register for tax. And there is no record that such a requirement was ever imposed anywhere in the Roman empire.
In all likelihood, the gospels of Matthew and Luke – which were never intended as histories in the modern sense of the word – were underlining a connection they wished to stress between Joshua and the royal Jewish house of David, which originated in Bethlehem.
The ancestral connection between Joshua and David is also historically difficult. Matthew and Luke both begin their gospels with Joshua’s genealogy on his father’s side – even though they both note that Joseph was not Joshua’s biological father – which makes the extended ancestry exercise a little odd.
In Matthew the genealogy goes back 42 generations, while in Luke it goes back 56 generations. They diverge in various ways, and cannot both be right. But equally crucially, it is hard to see how Joseph, an illiterate carpenter in a backwater of the Roman empire, would know this many generations of his family tree, which presumably, if the Bethlehem census story is accurate, he would have had to demonstrate to the Roman tax officials when registering.
The day of the year on which Joshua was born is also not straightforward. The Bible does not give a day, or even a season. From a historical perspective, Jews and early Christians did not typically celebrate the date of someone’s birth, so it is not surprising that the information about Joshua’s birth is scanty. It was, in fact, so unimportant, that the Gospels of Mark and John do not deal with it at all, and simply begin their narratives when Joshua was an adult.
The early Church came to celebrate Joshua’s birthday on many different days. A favourite was 6 January. At some stage the Church settled on 25 December.
There is no overwhelming or compelling reason for this date. In the Roman calendar, 25 December was the winter solstice. Centuries earlier, in the Roman republic, the sun had been worshipped as Sol Indiges (the Native Sun). Under the Roman empire, the cult grew into the far larger one of Sol Invictus (the Unconquered Sun), becoming the official imperial cult of Rome, as the sun always rose from darkness, and shone over the whole world.
The Roman solstice may also have been a special day for men who were initiates of the Persian mysteries of Mithras. This highly popular cult had solar and lunar aspects, and there have been suggestions that 25 December was a cardinal day in the Mithraic calendar. However, no firm evidence survives, as the initiates were sworn to secrecy about their rituals and practices.
In all likelihood, the early Church syncretically fixed Joshua’s birthday on 25 December as it was a traditional day of celebration. There was also very powerful symbolism to the day: the Unconquered Sun became the Sun of Righteousness. Saint Augustine of Hippo (AD 354–430) explained the day’s wider symbolism:
"Hence it is that He was born on the day which is the shortest in our earthly reckoning and from which subsequent days begin to increase in length. He, therefore, who bent low and lifted us up chose the shortest day, yet the one whence light begins to increase.” (Sermon 192)
As the pagan solar cults died out, so did memory of their celebrations, although the process took time. As late as the pontificate of Leo I (AD 440–61), Romans were still celebrating the pagan sun festival on 25 December, and Leo complained loudly about the fact that sun-worshippers were still coming to the steps of St Peter’s on that day, the solstice, and worshipping the sun over by the high altar in the east.
The real answer to the roots of Christmas lie in its name: Christ’s Mass (Christ is the Greek word for Messiah). It is explicitly a theological and liturgical celebration, rather than a historical event.
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0.223159596... | 3 | His name was Yeshu’a. His early biographers wrote in Koine Greek, in which his name became Iesous. The Latin version was Iesus, from which we get Jesus. The modern English translation of Yeshu’a is actually Joshua.
The year, place, and date of Joshua’s birth are unknown. There are only two records, both written a long time later, by people who never knew him.
The Gospel of Matthew (written by an anonymous author, perhaps c. AD 75–85) says Joshua was born “in the days of Herod the king”. Herod died in 4 BC. So, if Matthew is right, Joshua was born sometime before 4 BC.
The Gospel of Luke (written by an anonymous author, perhaps c. AD 80–5) does not say who was king when Joshua was conceived or born (although it says Herod was king when Elizabeth – who it asserts was Mary’s cousin – conceived John the Baptist a little earlier).
Instead, Luke records that while Mary was pregnant “there went out a decree from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be taxed. And this taxing was first made when Cyrenius was governor of Syria).”
This passage poses several historical challenges. Caesars did not order tax censuses, which were an administrative matter, organised locally.
The only known census in the region in period was ordered by Publius Sulpicius Quirinius, Roman Governor of Syria, who commissioned it in AD 6. So Matthew and Luke cannot both be right: there is a 10-year disparity between them.
The next question is where Joshua was born. Luke says that Mary and Joseph were from Nazareth in Galilee, but journeyed south to Bethlehem in Judaea to register for the tax census.
Historically, this is unparalleled. Taxation – then, as now – was payable by people where they lived. There is no economic or administrative rationale for traveling to the distant birthplace of a remote ancestor to register for tax. And there is no record that such a requirement was ever imposed anywhere in the Roman empire.
In all likelihood, the gospels of Matthew and Luke – which were never intended as histories in the modern sense of the word – were underlining a connection they wished to stress between Joshua and the royal Jewish house of David, which originated in Bethlehem.
The ancestral connection between Joshua and David is also historically difficult. Matthew and Luke both begin their gospels with Joshua’s genealogy on his father’s side – even though they both note that Joseph was not Joshua’s biological father – which makes the extended ancestry exercise a little odd.
In Matthew the genealogy goes back 42 generations, while in Luke it goes back 56 generations. They diverge in various ways, and cannot both be right. But equally crucially, it is hard to see how Joseph, an illiterate carpenter in a backwater of the Roman empire, would know this many generations of his family tree, which presumably, if the Bethlehem census story is accurate, he would have had to demonstrate to the Roman tax officials when registering.
The day of the year on which Joshua was born is also not straightforward. The Bible does not give a day, or even a season. From a historical perspective, Jews and early Christians did not typically celebrate the date of someone’s birth, so it is not surprising that the information about Joshua’s birth is scanty. It was, in fact, so unimportant, that the Gospels of Mark and John do not deal with it at all, and simply begin their narratives when Joshua was an adult.
The early Church came to celebrate Joshua’s birthday on many different days. A favourite was 6 January. At some stage the Church settled on 25 December.
There is no overwhelming or compelling reason for this date. In the Roman calendar, 25 December was the winter solstice. Centuries earlier, in the Roman republic, the sun had been worshipped as Sol Indiges (the Native Sun). Under the Roman empire, the cult grew into the far larger one of Sol Invictus (the Unconquered Sun), becoming the official imperial cult of Rome, as the sun always rose from darkness, and shone over the whole world.
The Roman solstice may also have been a special day for men who were initiates of the Persian mysteries of Mithras. This highly popular cult had solar and lunar aspects, and there have been suggestions that 25 December was a cardinal day in the Mithraic calendar. However, no firm evidence survives, as the initiates were sworn to secrecy about their rituals and practices.
In all likelihood, the early Church syncretically fixed Joshua’s birthday on 25 December as it was a traditional day of celebration. There was also very powerful symbolism to the day: the Unconquered Sun became the Sun of Righteousness. Saint Augustine of Hippo (AD 354–430) explained the day’s wider symbolism:
"Hence it is that He was born on the day which is the shortest in our earthly reckoning and from which subsequent days begin to increase in length. He, therefore, who bent low and lifted us up chose the shortest day, yet the one whence light begins to increase.” (Sermon 192)
As the pagan solar cults died out, so did memory of their celebrations, although the process took time. As late as the pontificate of Leo I (AD 440–61), Romans were still celebrating the pagan sun festival on 25 December, and Leo complained loudly about the fact that sun-worshippers were still coming to the steps of St Peter’s on that day, the solstice, and worshipping the sun over by the high altar in the east.
The real answer to the roots of Christmas lie in its name: Christ’s Mass (Christ is the Greek word for Messiah). It is explicitly a theological and liturgical celebration, rather than a historical event.
On This Day will continue throughout the holidays, until January 1. | 1,246 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1066 William of Normandy (also known as William the Conqueror) defeated the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of Hastings. After this victory, William took land from the Anglo-Saxons nobles and gave them to his Normans.
The Anglo-Saxons tried to oppose this but by 1100 all land was in the hand of the Normans. After an initial period of conflict between the two populations, they eventually started to intermarry and merge.
William I introduced a system of government to England which is defined as Feudalism. It became a way of life in Medieval England and remained so for several centuries.
It consisted of a strong hierarchical system with the king at the top. Below the king there were barons and lords who divided up their lands and gave them to Norman knights. However, the knights had to swear an oath to their lord, collect taxes and fight for them...
The middle class was made up of merchants and yeomen. Merchants earned their living from commerce, yeomen owned their own (small) land.
At the bottom of this pyramid were the peasants or serfs. They were the majority of population.
It is one of Medieval England's greatest treasures. It is a record containing the information of who owned the land throughout the country. It was a way of making all people pay taxes. It can be defined as the first census in England.
Richard I, also known as Richard the Lionheart, left England to fight wars abroad. In his absence it was his brother King John who ruled the country, but he came up with strong opposition from the barons and from the population in general. He was eventually forced to sign a document: the Magna Charta in 1215. This document is seen as the first step towards democracy because it limits the power of the King. | <urn:uuid:a576c628-7dce-4a06-9e4b-1560298dd4b7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.skuola.net/civilta-inglese/middle-ages-summary.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00229.warc.gz | en | 0.988002 | 373 | 4.5 | 4 | [
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0.11907843500... | 1 | In 1066 William of Normandy (also known as William the Conqueror) defeated the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of Hastings. After this victory, William took land from the Anglo-Saxons nobles and gave them to his Normans.
The Anglo-Saxons tried to oppose this but by 1100 all land was in the hand of the Normans. After an initial period of conflict between the two populations, they eventually started to intermarry and merge.
William I introduced a system of government to England which is defined as Feudalism. It became a way of life in Medieval England and remained so for several centuries.
It consisted of a strong hierarchical system with the king at the top. Below the king there were barons and lords who divided up their lands and gave them to Norman knights. However, the knights had to swear an oath to their lord, collect taxes and fight for them...
The middle class was made up of merchants and yeomen. Merchants earned their living from commerce, yeomen owned their own (small) land.
At the bottom of this pyramid were the peasants or serfs. They were the majority of population.
It is one of Medieval England's greatest treasures. It is a record containing the information of who owned the land throughout the country. It was a way of making all people pay taxes. It can be defined as the first census in England.
Richard I, also known as Richard the Lionheart, left England to fight wars abroad. In his absence it was his brother King John who ruled the country, but he came up with strong opposition from the barons and from the population in general. He was eventually forced to sign a document: the Magna Charta in 1215. This document is seen as the first step towards democracy because it limits the power of the King. | 380 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Article abstract: Edward’s ineffectual leadership and weakness of character furthered the growth of representative government in England.
Edward II of Caernarvon was born at Caernarvon Castle on April 25, 1284, the fourth son of Edward I by his first wife, Eleanor of Castile. He was only a few months old when the last of his brothers died in August and he became his father’s heir to the throne. His father did not neglect Edward’s royal education. He was given a palatial residence of his own at an early age and efforts were made to find a queen for him. In 1301, he became the first Prince of Wales as a concession to a conquered people, and in 1302, he attended his first parliament.
As he approached twenty years of age, Edward physically resembled his father—tall, handsome, and very strong. On the other hand, there were significant differences between the two. Although the younger Edward regularly accompanied his father into battle against the Scots, he was not a warrior. In years to come, he would go out of his way to avoid battle. Instead, to the old king’s great disappointment, Edward had already begun to exhibit certain irresponsible traits. He frequently lost large sums of money gambling and preferred pedestrian amusements such as amateur theatricals, rowing, digging, and thatching houses. His greatest fault, however, the one which would prove his undoing, was his blind dependence on nefarious advisers such as the Gascon knight Piers Gaveston. The king so greatly resented Gaveston’s debilitating influence that he drove him into exile.
At first, observers could hope that the prince’s faults were the natural byproducts of adolescence. Unfortunately, age did not improve Edward’s character. When his father died on July 7, 1307, Edward’s first act was to recall his friend Gaveston. Gaveston’s influence became so great that he served as regent when Edward went to France to marry Isabella, daughter of Philip the Fair, on January 25, 1308. Most of the barons did not share the king’s high opinion of Gaveston. In 1311, these barons, led by the king’s cousin Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, insisted that Gaveston be banished again and that the king submit to a number of restrictions. The king could not prevent a baronial committee of twenty-one lords ordainers from taking control of the government. The effect was to enhance the powers of the Great Council while further diminishing those of the monarchy. The new ordinances, however, could not be enforced, and Gaveston returned before the end of the year. This touched off a rebellion led by Lancaster’s faction. Gaveston was captured and executed, and additional restrictions were imposed on the Crown. For the next few years, Lancaster was the real power behind the throne.
In the meantime, Edward’s problems with the Scots had grown worse. Robert Bruce had taken a number of fortresses and had laid siege to Stirling. Even the lethargic Edward recognized the danger of this situation. In June, 1314, the king led an army into Scotland but was decisively defeated in the Battle of Bannockburn, which effectively undid all that his father had accomplished in the north. The Scots had, for all practical purposes, achieved their independence, and it was not until 1323 that Edward was able to work out an acceptable peace treaty. Edward’s humiliating defeat at Bannockburn would make him more dependent than ever on the barons.
The king, however, was not the only one with problems. Although Lancaster was wealthy and powerful, he could not gain the confidence of most of the barons. In 1318, a more moderate group of barons came to power headed by Aymer of Valence, Earl of Pembroke. Ostensibly, the purpose of this group was to free the king from Lancaster’s influence. Yet the king disliked Pembroke as much as Lancaster, and so he turned for advice to Hugh le Despenser, another great baronial leader. Despenser’s son, Hugh Despenser the Younger, quickly won a place...
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0.0852627456... | 2 | Article abstract: Edward’s ineffectual leadership and weakness of character furthered the growth of representative government in England.
Edward II of Caernarvon was born at Caernarvon Castle on April 25, 1284, the fourth son of Edward I by his first wife, Eleanor of Castile. He was only a few months old when the last of his brothers died in August and he became his father’s heir to the throne. His father did not neglect Edward’s royal education. He was given a palatial residence of his own at an early age and efforts were made to find a queen for him. In 1301, he became the first Prince of Wales as a concession to a conquered people, and in 1302, he attended his first parliament.
As he approached twenty years of age, Edward physically resembled his father—tall, handsome, and very strong. On the other hand, there were significant differences between the two. Although the younger Edward regularly accompanied his father into battle against the Scots, he was not a warrior. In years to come, he would go out of his way to avoid battle. Instead, to the old king’s great disappointment, Edward had already begun to exhibit certain irresponsible traits. He frequently lost large sums of money gambling and preferred pedestrian amusements such as amateur theatricals, rowing, digging, and thatching houses. His greatest fault, however, the one which would prove his undoing, was his blind dependence on nefarious advisers such as the Gascon knight Piers Gaveston. The king so greatly resented Gaveston’s debilitating influence that he drove him into exile.
At first, observers could hope that the prince’s faults were the natural byproducts of adolescence. Unfortunately, age did not improve Edward’s character. When his father died on July 7, 1307, Edward’s first act was to recall his friend Gaveston. Gaveston’s influence became so great that he served as regent when Edward went to France to marry Isabella, daughter of Philip the Fair, on January 25, 1308. Most of the barons did not share the king’s high opinion of Gaveston. In 1311, these barons, led by the king’s cousin Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, insisted that Gaveston be banished again and that the king submit to a number of restrictions. The king could not prevent a baronial committee of twenty-one lords ordainers from taking control of the government. The effect was to enhance the powers of the Great Council while further diminishing those of the monarchy. The new ordinances, however, could not be enforced, and Gaveston returned before the end of the year. This touched off a rebellion led by Lancaster’s faction. Gaveston was captured and executed, and additional restrictions were imposed on the Crown. For the next few years, Lancaster was the real power behind the throne.
In the meantime, Edward’s problems with the Scots had grown worse. Robert Bruce had taken a number of fortresses and had laid siege to Stirling. Even the lethargic Edward recognized the danger of this situation. In June, 1314, the king led an army into Scotland but was decisively defeated in the Battle of Bannockburn, which effectively undid all that his father had accomplished in the north. The Scots had, for all practical purposes, achieved their independence, and it was not until 1323 that Edward was able to work out an acceptable peace treaty. Edward’s humiliating defeat at Bannockburn would make him more dependent than ever on the barons.
The king, however, was not the only one with problems. Although Lancaster was wealthy and powerful, he could not gain the confidence of most of the barons. In 1318, a more moderate group of barons came to power headed by Aymer of Valence, Earl of Pembroke. Ostensibly, the purpose of this group was to free the king from Lancaster’s influence. Yet the king disliked Pembroke as much as Lancaster, and so he turned for advice to Hugh le Despenser, another great baronial leader. Despenser’s son, Hugh Despenser the Younger, quickly won a place...
(The entire section is 1,695 words.) | 903 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Agnes was Princess of Navarre and a close relative of both the English and Frankish royalty.
She was second cousin to the Black Prince and great granddaughter of Henry III.
In her early life she had a love affair with Guillaume de Machaut and is said to have inspired and been the subject of his poem le Voir Dit. Marchaut was a priest who was also famous as a composer of both martial and religious music. he would have come in contact with Agnes when he was offered the patronage of Agnes’ brother Charles II of Navarre.
Agnes hereself wrote poetry, probably under the influence of Guillaume.
Agnes’ marriage to Gaston de Foix was an arranged marriage which was beset with difficulty.
The marriage was typical of Gaston’s political aptitude and ruthlessness.
Agnes was the grandaughter of King Louis X of France(subject to the doubts about her mothers legitimacy). her brother Charles married Jeanne the daughter of KingJean II of France This contact could have been used by Gaston if the negotiations with the English had failed; which indeed they did.
Agnes is the initial catalyst for Ximene seeking assistance from Blanche d’Evreux. | <urn:uuid:4a5e5c35-4a4f-4385-8c36-903af9e7c0f1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://ximene.net/home/characters-2-2/other-background-forces/navarre/agnes-of-navarre/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00384.warc.gz | en | 0.985778 | 258 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.10679657012224197,... | 13 | Agnes was Princess of Navarre and a close relative of both the English and Frankish royalty.
She was second cousin to the Black Prince and great granddaughter of Henry III.
In her early life she had a love affair with Guillaume de Machaut and is said to have inspired and been the subject of his poem le Voir Dit. Marchaut was a priest who was also famous as a composer of both martial and religious music. he would have come in contact with Agnes when he was offered the patronage of Agnes’ brother Charles II of Navarre.
Agnes hereself wrote poetry, probably under the influence of Guillaume.
Agnes’ marriage to Gaston de Foix was an arranged marriage which was beset with difficulty.
The marriage was typical of Gaston’s political aptitude and ruthlessness.
Agnes was the grandaughter of King Louis X of France(subject to the doubts about her mothers legitimacy). her brother Charles married Jeanne the daughter of KingJean II of France This contact could have been used by Gaston if the negotiations with the English had failed; which indeed they did.
Agnes is the initial catalyst for Ximene seeking assistance from Blanche d’Evreux. | 248 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Because all three of them have their Holly land located in Jerusalem. Jerusalem is considered their holly land because all three of them were originated there. All three of them have a significant place located in Jerusalem.
The three major monotheistic religions are sometimes described as branches of the same family tree. If this is true, how would you describe the trunk of the tree?
The three major monotheistic religions are said to have originated from the same family tree because they started from one same person. It started with Abraham who had two kids one of them Isaac and the other one Ishmael. Judaism and Christianity claim to have started from Isaac and Islam claims to have started from Ishmael.
How are the three major holy books of the monotheistic faiths both similar and different?
The Torah, which is from the Jews, is like the bible because it has included the frost five books from the bible called the Old Testament. They are all different, the Torah is based on revelations given to Moses, the bible is based on teachings from Jesus, the Quran is based on teachings of good given to Muhammad though angel Gabriel.
How are the basic beliefs of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam alike?
The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam have several beliefs that are alike. For example, they all believe in one God and in an afterlife. Another similarity lies in their holy books. Although the name of the books are different in each religion, they still talk about prophets such as Abraham, which is know to have started these religions.
What types of internal… | <urn:uuid:75dd2435-9361-4a92-b17b-164d346ea344> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/World-History-537695.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00301.warc.gz | en | 0.983017 | 321 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.05982112884521... | 2 | Because all three of them have their Holly land located in Jerusalem. Jerusalem is considered their holly land because all three of them were originated there. All three of them have a significant place located in Jerusalem.
The three major monotheistic religions are sometimes described as branches of the same family tree. If this is true, how would you describe the trunk of the tree?
The three major monotheistic religions are said to have originated from the same family tree because they started from one same person. It started with Abraham who had two kids one of them Isaac and the other one Ishmael. Judaism and Christianity claim to have started from Isaac and Islam claims to have started from Ishmael.
How are the three major holy books of the monotheistic faiths both similar and different?
The Torah, which is from the Jews, is like the bible because it has included the frost five books from the bible called the Old Testament. They are all different, the Torah is based on revelations given to Moses, the bible is based on teachings from Jesus, the Quran is based on teachings of good given to Muhammad though angel Gabriel.
How are the basic beliefs of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam alike?
The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam have several beliefs that are alike. For example, they all believe in one God and in an afterlife. Another similarity lies in their holy books. Although the name of the books are different in each religion, they still talk about prophets such as Abraham, which is know to have started these religions.
What types of internal… | 316 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Discuss the Theme of Isolation in the Gateshead Section.
Jane is a very isolated and unloved child and this will be looked at throughout my essay. The novel of Jane Eyre is entirely written in the first person narrative this allows us to understand what Jane thinks and feel's, her private thoughts, how she reacts to certain events where she is dealt with unfairly and my essay will focus on several incidents which occurred.
The opening of the book immediately presents the mood of hopelessness and misery through the use of pathetic fallacy, for example:.
"The cold wind had brought with it clouds so sombre, and rain so penetrating." .
These descriptions of the weather give the impression of sadness. The descriptions are sombre and penetrating, giving a miserable and unwelcoming scene, which is a reflection of Jane's situation.
Jane has a completely different life to the Reed children; Jane is not accepted as one of the Reed children, she is not even acknowledged as one of the servants of the house, this is one way in which she is isolated. Mrs Reed shows that Jane is not classed as a child along with Eliza, John and Georgiana, when they are all surrounding Mrs Reed at the fireside, Mrs Reed "dispensed" Jane from joining the group." Mrs Reeds" children are said to be "happy, little children" however Jane is said to be "a deceitful child." This shows us that Jane is judged and not given a chance to prove she can be just as perfect as the other children.
Jane leaves the drawing room where her aunt and cousins were sat and enters a breakfast room, attached to the drawing room; here she finds herself a book "taking care it should be one stored with pictures." Jane went and sat in the window seat pulling the curtains a fraction from being closed, this is showing that she wants to be alone, and she "fears nothing but interruption." The pictures she was studying were all lonely landscapes with no people in them, for example:. | <urn:uuid:fa018bd0-0ab3-405d-88a3-23ea303d066a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/44272.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00247.warc.gz | en | 0.981155 | 414 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.51631... | 2 | Discuss the Theme of Isolation in the Gateshead Section.
Jane is a very isolated and unloved child and this will be looked at throughout my essay. The novel of Jane Eyre is entirely written in the first person narrative this allows us to understand what Jane thinks and feel's, her private thoughts, how she reacts to certain events where she is dealt with unfairly and my essay will focus on several incidents which occurred.
The opening of the book immediately presents the mood of hopelessness and misery through the use of pathetic fallacy, for example:.
"The cold wind had brought with it clouds so sombre, and rain so penetrating." .
These descriptions of the weather give the impression of sadness. The descriptions are sombre and penetrating, giving a miserable and unwelcoming scene, which is a reflection of Jane's situation.
Jane has a completely different life to the Reed children; Jane is not accepted as one of the Reed children, she is not even acknowledged as one of the servants of the house, this is one way in which she is isolated. Mrs Reed shows that Jane is not classed as a child along with Eliza, John and Georgiana, when they are all surrounding Mrs Reed at the fireside, Mrs Reed "dispensed" Jane from joining the group." Mrs Reeds" children are said to be "happy, little children" however Jane is said to be "a deceitful child." This shows us that Jane is judged and not given a chance to prove she can be just as perfect as the other children.
Jane leaves the drawing room where her aunt and cousins were sat and enters a breakfast room, attached to the drawing room; here she finds herself a book "taking care it should be one stored with pictures." Jane went and sat in the window seat pulling the curtains a fraction from being closed, this is showing that she wants to be alone, and she "fears nothing but interruption." The pictures she was studying were all lonely landscapes with no people in them, for example:. | 405 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Reconciliation Day on 16 December marks two important historical events.
According to South African History Online, the first significant event took place in 1838 when the Battle of Blood River took place between the Voortrekkers and the Zulus. The second was in 1961 when the former armed wing of the ANC, Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), was formed.
The Battle of Blood River on 16 December
The Battle of Blood River took place between the Voortrekkers and the Zulus near the Ncome River in KwaZulu-Natal in 1838.
The Voortrekkers, having moved into the interior of South Africa in the event of the Great Trek, were eager to settle on the land between the Tugela and the Umzimvubu, rivers, as well as the Drakensberg,
However, the region they intended to settle on was already inhabited by the Zulu people. Thus Voortrekker leader Piet Retief was eager to negotiate with the Zulu chief Dingane.
Having misunderstood Retief’s intentions, Dingane planned an ambush and murdered Retief along with his party of 100 people.
This act culminated in the Battle of Blood River, in which 470 Voortrekkers defeated the 10 000-strong Zulu army with the advantage of gunpowder, .
The Voortrekker victory was commemorated since then as the Day of the Vow on 16 December.
Umkhonto we Sizwe on 16 December
The second historical event that took place on 16 December was in 1961 when Umkhonto we Sizwe was formed.
This was the military wing of the African National Congress (ANC), which was launched to wage an armed struggle against the apartheid government.
Prior to its formation, the ANC had largely approached the fight against apartheid through passive resistance, but after the Sharpeville Massacre in 196, where peaceful protesters were shot by police and passive resistance was no longer viewed an effective approach in bringing apartheid to its knees.
MK mostly performed acts of sabotage, but its effectiveness was hampered by organisational problems and the arrest of its leaders in 1963.
Despite this, its formation was commemorated every year since 1961.
First observance known as Reconciliation Day
South Africa’s first non-racial and democratic government in 1994, led by former president Nelson Mandela, was tasked with promoting reconciliation and national unity.
One way in which it aimed to do this, was to acknowledge the significance of 16 December in both the Afrikaner and liberation struggle traditions and to rename this day as the Day of Reconciliation.
On 16 December 1995, the Day of Reconciliation was celebrated as a public holiday in South Africa for the first time. | <urn:uuid:60b4d5e8-711e-45df-9f70-20332fdb17dd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://howsouthafrica.com/reconciliation-day-heres-why-16-december-is-important-to-south-africa/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00556.warc.gz | en | 0.983348 | 567 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.425494223833... | 3 | Reconciliation Day on 16 December marks two important historical events.
According to South African History Online, the first significant event took place in 1838 when the Battle of Blood River took place between the Voortrekkers and the Zulus. The second was in 1961 when the former armed wing of the ANC, Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), was formed.
The Battle of Blood River on 16 December
The Battle of Blood River took place between the Voortrekkers and the Zulus near the Ncome River in KwaZulu-Natal in 1838.
The Voortrekkers, having moved into the interior of South Africa in the event of the Great Trek, were eager to settle on the land between the Tugela and the Umzimvubu, rivers, as well as the Drakensberg,
However, the region they intended to settle on was already inhabited by the Zulu people. Thus Voortrekker leader Piet Retief was eager to negotiate with the Zulu chief Dingane.
Having misunderstood Retief’s intentions, Dingane planned an ambush and murdered Retief along with his party of 100 people.
This act culminated in the Battle of Blood River, in which 470 Voortrekkers defeated the 10 000-strong Zulu army with the advantage of gunpowder, .
The Voortrekker victory was commemorated since then as the Day of the Vow on 16 December.
Umkhonto we Sizwe on 16 December
The second historical event that took place on 16 December was in 1961 when Umkhonto we Sizwe was formed.
This was the military wing of the African National Congress (ANC), which was launched to wage an armed struggle against the apartheid government.
Prior to its formation, the ANC had largely approached the fight against apartheid through passive resistance, but after the Sharpeville Massacre in 196, where peaceful protesters were shot by police and passive resistance was no longer viewed an effective approach in bringing apartheid to its knees.
MK mostly performed acts of sabotage, but its effectiveness was hampered by organisational problems and the arrest of its leaders in 1963.
Despite this, its formation was commemorated every year since 1961.
First observance known as Reconciliation Day
South Africa’s first non-racial and democratic government in 1994, led by former president Nelson Mandela, was tasked with promoting reconciliation and national unity.
One way in which it aimed to do this, was to acknowledge the significance of 16 December in both the Afrikaner and liberation struggle traditions and to rename this day as the Day of Reconciliation.
On 16 December 1995, the Day of Reconciliation was celebrated as a public holiday in South Africa for the first time. | 608 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A writer uses different characters to evolve a story and convey his idea through their personality. Without characters and their development, the story cannot progress. Some of the major characters in Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn novel have been discussed below.
Characters in The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn
Huckleberry “Huck” Finn
Huckleberry Finn is the protagonist and narrator of the novel. He is called Huck throughout the novel. He is good friends with Tom Sawyer. He is the thirteen-year-old. His father is a local drunk and abusive. He is taken care of by Widow Douglas as she tries to ‘civilize’ him. She tries to teach him and helps him to combat his lower-class background. Initially, he lacks much formal education and later agrees to go to school. Huck runs away from his abusive father with Jim, a runaway slave. He begins to respect and care for Jim and understands that he deserves freedom. Huck can be seen as a practical boy and doesn’t understand social views. He learns to adapt to almost any situation using deception. Though he is playful, he is compassionate. With these traits, Huck survives his father’s beatings and other difficulties.
Jim, a runaway slave, and Huck’s companion. He is kind, intelligent and wise. Although he seems superstitious, later Huck notices that Jim has immense knowledge of the world and nature. He is a legitimate slave of Miss Watson and tries to risk his life for freedom from his slavery. Jim eventually becomes Huck’s friend and mentor. Jim shows his kindness by caring and cooking for Huck after the death of his father. In a way, he also takes responsibility as a father during the time with Huck. Jim displays positivity and loyalty as the friendship between him and Huck grows.
Unlike Huck’s background, Tom Sawyer is raised in a good family. He is financially secure and lives a comfortable life. Tom Sawyer’s imagination is highly influenced by society and from his reading of the adventures and romances. He is very stubborn and insists on sticking to the rules and ethical framework of what he read. At times, Huck seems skeptic as he questions authority and thinks out of the box solutions to the problems. Tom shows humor and always desires adventures. Due to his passion for adventure, he makes Jim’s rescue difficult. He plans Jim’s escape for freedom, even though he officially freed by Miss Watson’s last Will.
Pap is Huck’s father with raw emotions of greed, jealousy, and alcohol addiction. He turns his violence toward his son and also intends to use Huck’s fortune for his addiction. However, when he sees Huck defiant, he turns violent. Pap does not undergo any transformation except in the intensity of his violence. Huck becomes indifferent to him due to his abusive behavior and feels comfortable without him. Although his act of locking up Huck seems a technique to stop him, it fails. Huck successfully escapes and sets on the adventures. His presence shows what Huck hates the most, the uncivilized behavior. Huck detests his father’s violence. He also hates social hypocrisy and does not stay satisfied, a habit he seems to have inherited from his father.
Duke and Dauphin
Duke and Dauphin are con men who take the raft by fraud from Huck and Jim. They pretend not to be familiar with each other to impress Jim and Huck. However, Huck figures out the truth despite Jim’s ignorance. Their final fraud comes to light when they sell Jim to Sally and Silas. Their greed for money shows the true face of the corrupt society.
Widow Douglas is Huckleberry Finn’s guardian. She is quite patient and gentle in her demeanor. Therefore, she makes a positive impact on his life. Huck is also kind toward her though he rejects this influence of civilized culture. In fact, he does not want to stick to rules that she wants to instill in him, but Huck eventually is obedient to her rules.
Judith is a minor character yet an important one. She invites Huck when he is dressed as a girl to find out about the town. He enters her house when she talks to him and serves him a snack before leaving. She also testifies that he is a boy through her experience, which impresses Huck.
Colonel Sherburn is an interesting as well as intriguing character. He is a cold-blooded murderer who kills Boggs on a highly flimsy ground. Huck sees this cold-blooded murder and feels afraid. When a mob attacks the colonel, he faces the crowd with defiance and scorns at it saying they are all cowards. It seems that he is an expert in mob psychology.
Sally and Silas Phelps
Sally and Silas are Tom Sawyer’s guardians and relatives. Although they are very reliable and elderly characters, they shamelessly support slavery. Although Tom tricks them into making Jim’s escape possible, they become highly furious over it. Aunt Sally, by the end, invites Huck to be with her to become a civilized person though he politely declines it.
The Grangerfords is a family that meets Huck when he leaves the raft on the river. They treat him very well and give him food and clothes. However, it is interesting that the family is at war with another family. During the struggle, a girl, Miss Sophia, elopes with Harney from their rival family, which leads to a bloody and tragic battle. | <urn:uuid:760b20b3-c700-4770-a70d-5dd430284e2c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://literarydevices.net/the-adventure-of-huckleberry-finn-characters/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00534.warc.gz | en | 0.982033 | 1,142 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.0564554929... | 13 | A writer uses different characters to evolve a story and convey his idea through their personality. Without characters and their development, the story cannot progress. Some of the major characters in Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn novel have been discussed below.
Characters in The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn
Huckleberry “Huck” Finn
Huckleberry Finn is the protagonist and narrator of the novel. He is called Huck throughout the novel. He is good friends with Tom Sawyer. He is the thirteen-year-old. His father is a local drunk and abusive. He is taken care of by Widow Douglas as she tries to ‘civilize’ him. She tries to teach him and helps him to combat his lower-class background. Initially, he lacks much formal education and later agrees to go to school. Huck runs away from his abusive father with Jim, a runaway slave. He begins to respect and care for Jim and understands that he deserves freedom. Huck can be seen as a practical boy and doesn’t understand social views. He learns to adapt to almost any situation using deception. Though he is playful, he is compassionate. With these traits, Huck survives his father’s beatings and other difficulties.
Jim, a runaway slave, and Huck’s companion. He is kind, intelligent and wise. Although he seems superstitious, later Huck notices that Jim has immense knowledge of the world and nature. He is a legitimate slave of Miss Watson and tries to risk his life for freedom from his slavery. Jim eventually becomes Huck’s friend and mentor. Jim shows his kindness by caring and cooking for Huck after the death of his father. In a way, he also takes responsibility as a father during the time with Huck. Jim displays positivity and loyalty as the friendship between him and Huck grows.
Unlike Huck’s background, Tom Sawyer is raised in a good family. He is financially secure and lives a comfortable life. Tom Sawyer’s imagination is highly influenced by society and from his reading of the adventures and romances. He is very stubborn and insists on sticking to the rules and ethical framework of what he read. At times, Huck seems skeptic as he questions authority and thinks out of the box solutions to the problems. Tom shows humor and always desires adventures. Due to his passion for adventure, he makes Jim’s rescue difficult. He plans Jim’s escape for freedom, even though he officially freed by Miss Watson’s last Will.
Pap is Huck’s father with raw emotions of greed, jealousy, and alcohol addiction. He turns his violence toward his son and also intends to use Huck’s fortune for his addiction. However, when he sees Huck defiant, he turns violent. Pap does not undergo any transformation except in the intensity of his violence. Huck becomes indifferent to him due to his abusive behavior and feels comfortable without him. Although his act of locking up Huck seems a technique to stop him, it fails. Huck successfully escapes and sets on the adventures. His presence shows what Huck hates the most, the uncivilized behavior. Huck detests his father’s violence. He also hates social hypocrisy and does not stay satisfied, a habit he seems to have inherited from his father.
Duke and Dauphin
Duke and Dauphin are con men who take the raft by fraud from Huck and Jim. They pretend not to be familiar with each other to impress Jim and Huck. However, Huck figures out the truth despite Jim’s ignorance. Their final fraud comes to light when they sell Jim to Sally and Silas. Their greed for money shows the true face of the corrupt society.
Widow Douglas is Huckleberry Finn’s guardian. She is quite patient and gentle in her demeanor. Therefore, she makes a positive impact on his life. Huck is also kind toward her though he rejects this influence of civilized culture. In fact, he does not want to stick to rules that she wants to instill in him, but Huck eventually is obedient to her rules.
Judith is a minor character yet an important one. She invites Huck when he is dressed as a girl to find out about the town. He enters her house when she talks to him and serves him a snack before leaving. She also testifies that he is a boy through her experience, which impresses Huck.
Colonel Sherburn is an interesting as well as intriguing character. He is a cold-blooded murderer who kills Boggs on a highly flimsy ground. Huck sees this cold-blooded murder and feels afraid. When a mob attacks the colonel, he faces the crowd with defiance and scorns at it saying they are all cowards. It seems that he is an expert in mob psychology.
Sally and Silas Phelps
Sally and Silas are Tom Sawyer’s guardians and relatives. Although they are very reliable and elderly characters, they shamelessly support slavery. Although Tom tricks them into making Jim’s escape possible, they become highly furious over it. Aunt Sally, by the end, invites Huck to be with her to become a civilized person though he politely declines it.
The Grangerfords is a family that meets Huck when he leaves the raft on the river. They treat him very well and give him food and clothes. However, it is interesting that the family is at war with another family. During the struggle, a girl, Miss Sophia, elopes with Harney from their rival family, which leads to a bloody and tragic battle. | 1,091 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cooking with kids is a play-of-the-day activity that you can do anytime because it helps them be more aware of what they eat and make healthy food choices. We made some apple ‘sandwiches’ that have no bread and were almost as good as s’mores.
Big hands need to carefully take the core out of the apple before slicing. A pointy potato-peeler will work. Once that’s done an adult can slice the apple into rings. Using a plastic knife, kids can spread peanut butter on a ring, or in case of allergies, any other nut bread or spread. For some crunch, sprinkle on some granola, sunflower seeds, raisins, and maybe a few chocolate chips. Put another apple slice on top and munch. We made some and they were a delicious snack.
This activity can’t really be called play but it was lots of fun. Kids like to be included in tasks and enjoy being able to participate. We all like to contribute and feel that our efforts are valued and that’s true for kids as well as grownups. In addition to the fun, there was some early learning too.
In this recipe, sequence was very important. The apple couldn’t be sliced until the core was removed. The instructions said to slice into rings. Slicing the way we usually do wouldn’t make rings, so following instructions carefully was necessary. It was hard to spread the peanut butter on the slice and this required some problem solving. We tried a few different ways and discovered we could spread it by starting at the side. There was lots of discussion, some negotiating about chocolate chips, and cooperation. Math was also involved. The apple made five slices and each sandwich needed two. How many could we make?
This was an easy recipe to do with kids and nutritious too. Do you have some other suggestions for cooking with kids? | <urn:uuid:153643b0-92b5-430f-82ab-27859ab7e35b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://123kindergarten.com/2014/09/13/apple-no-bread-snack/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00478.warc.gz | en | 0.984866 | 400 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.1638357043266... | 4 | Cooking with kids is a play-of-the-day activity that you can do anytime because it helps them be more aware of what they eat and make healthy food choices. We made some apple ‘sandwiches’ that have no bread and were almost as good as s’mores.
Big hands need to carefully take the core out of the apple before slicing. A pointy potato-peeler will work. Once that’s done an adult can slice the apple into rings. Using a plastic knife, kids can spread peanut butter on a ring, or in case of allergies, any other nut bread or spread. For some crunch, sprinkle on some granola, sunflower seeds, raisins, and maybe a few chocolate chips. Put another apple slice on top and munch. We made some and they were a delicious snack.
This activity can’t really be called play but it was lots of fun. Kids like to be included in tasks and enjoy being able to participate. We all like to contribute and feel that our efforts are valued and that’s true for kids as well as grownups. In addition to the fun, there was some early learning too.
In this recipe, sequence was very important. The apple couldn’t be sliced until the core was removed. The instructions said to slice into rings. Slicing the way we usually do wouldn’t make rings, so following instructions carefully was necessary. It was hard to spread the peanut butter on the slice and this required some problem solving. We tried a few different ways and discovered we could spread it by starting at the side. There was lots of discussion, some negotiating about chocolate chips, and cooperation. Math was also involved. The apple made five slices and each sandwich needed two. How many could we make?
This was an easy recipe to do with kids and nutritious too. Do you have some other suggestions for cooking with kids? | 374 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Blake was an English mystic, poet, painter, and printmaker. He was mostly unknown during his lifetime, but his work is now considered seminal in poetry and visual arts. Early in life he learned the craft of engraving, and used this knowledge and the experience he gained as a commercial engraver to created his own illuminated books. His most well-known works include Songs of Innocence (1789), a collection of poetry from a child's point of view, and Songs of Experience (1794), poems that "answer" those from Innocence, suggesting the original speaker has learned much from life. Another famous collection of Blake's is The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. Blake is renowned for his ways of expression as well as for his philosophical views.
FCIT. (2020, January 23). William Blake author page. Retrieved January 23, 2020, from
FCIT. "William Blake author page." Lit2Go ETC. Web. 23 January 2020. <>.
FCIT, "William Blake author page." Accessed January 23, 2020.. | <urn:uuid:8790337c-0b83-4bec-a40d-6123cd9a6980> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://etc.usf.edu/lit2go/authors/142/william-blake/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00210.warc.gz | en | 0.983324 | 219 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.28021693229... | 1 | William Blake was an English mystic, poet, painter, and printmaker. He was mostly unknown during his lifetime, but his work is now considered seminal in poetry and visual arts. Early in life he learned the craft of engraving, and used this knowledge and the experience he gained as a commercial engraver to created his own illuminated books. His most well-known works include Songs of Innocence (1789), a collection of poetry from a child's point of view, and Songs of Experience (1794), poems that "answer" those from Innocence, suggesting the original speaker has learned much from life. Another famous collection of Blake's is The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. Blake is renowned for his ways of expression as well as for his philosophical views.
FCIT. (2020, January 23). William Blake author page. Retrieved January 23, 2020, from
FCIT. "William Blake author page." Lit2Go ETC. Web. 23 January 2020. <>.
FCIT, "William Blake author page." Accessed January 23, 2020.. | 240 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Capuchin monkeys had their name derived from the Franciscan Capuchin whose cowl is similar to the coloration of the monkeys. They belong to the Cebinae family and Cebus genus. These monkeys are found in Central America and South America. Also known as sapajou, these species of monkeys are considered to be the most intelligent of all present species of monkeys.
The face, neck and chest of capuchins are white colored where as the rest of the body is either brown or black colored. Their body grows up to twelve to twenty two inches in height and their hairy tails are also usually the same length as the body. Their average body weight is two pounds. The males weigh more than the females. When they are held in captivity, they can live up to forty five years, but in the wild habitat they can live only for fifteen to twenty five years. They stay awake during the day and sleep at night except for the midday nap they take. During the day, they spend most of the time looking for food and at night, they sleep on the branches of the trees.
Capuchins are very social and live in a group of eight to forty males, females and their children. The area where the whole group lives together is marked with the smell of urine and intruders are not welcomed. A strong male controls the whole group and mates with the rest of the females in the group to produce offspring. Male and female capuchins smell each other to know whether the other is sexually mature or not. A female capuchin monkey has the capability of reproducing after every two years. Their pregnancy period lasts from five to six months.
The offspring clings onto the chest of the mother and when they grow big enough, they shift to their back. They expect their mothers to babysit till they are three months old. Male capuchins have no participation in the upbringing of their offspring. But if people want to keep them as pets, before keeping them as pets, they can be neutered. The whole group finds solace in grooming, which they also use as a means of expressing their feelings. They even reduce millipedes to pieces so as to rub that on their body to repel insects and mosquitoes.
Capuchins are very intelligent mammals and have been known to use various tools which assist them in their daily life. They drink the juice of palm nut fruits from the tip and then let them dry. After they dry, they will collect them and break them with the help of a big boulder collected from the rivers. They have the ability to walk on their feet with food and tools in their hands. They are also clever enough to find food on ground as well as on trees. Unlike other monkeys, they are omnivorous. Along with eating food like seed, nuts, fruits, flowers they also feed on eggs of birds, small birds, insects, spiders, reptiles, bats and even small mammals. Some of them who live near water bodies also feed on shellfishes and crabs, which they crack open with the help of stones.
They aren’t fussy about their environment; hence it is easy to maintain them as pets. People also favor to keep them as pets because they are good organ grinders and also as service animals. They are also kept as pets to help quadriplegics (people whose all four limbs are paralyzed) around the house. They are trained for this purpose by many organizations. They have capability to open bottles, microwave food and even wash the face of the patient. They are also safe around kids in the house as they are very gentle in nature. They can also be taught tricks and some have even starred in movies. Capuchins are also the most oppressed among the pet animals. They also become troublesome when they reach sexual maturity, which often confuses the owner. | <urn:uuid:a7884c1f-bc8f-42c8-85fc-dc9db405102b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hasenchat.ch/capuchin-monkey/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00147.warc.gz | en | 0.984723 | 781 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.0873357132077... | 8 | Capuchin monkeys had their name derived from the Franciscan Capuchin whose cowl is similar to the coloration of the monkeys. They belong to the Cebinae family and Cebus genus. These monkeys are found in Central America and South America. Also known as sapajou, these species of monkeys are considered to be the most intelligent of all present species of monkeys.
The face, neck and chest of capuchins are white colored where as the rest of the body is either brown or black colored. Their body grows up to twelve to twenty two inches in height and their hairy tails are also usually the same length as the body. Their average body weight is two pounds. The males weigh more than the females. When they are held in captivity, they can live up to forty five years, but in the wild habitat they can live only for fifteen to twenty five years. They stay awake during the day and sleep at night except for the midday nap they take. During the day, they spend most of the time looking for food and at night, they sleep on the branches of the trees.
Capuchins are very social and live in a group of eight to forty males, females and their children. The area where the whole group lives together is marked with the smell of urine and intruders are not welcomed. A strong male controls the whole group and mates with the rest of the females in the group to produce offspring. Male and female capuchins smell each other to know whether the other is sexually mature or not. A female capuchin monkey has the capability of reproducing after every two years. Their pregnancy period lasts from five to six months.
The offspring clings onto the chest of the mother and when they grow big enough, they shift to their back. They expect their mothers to babysit till they are three months old. Male capuchins have no participation in the upbringing of their offspring. But if people want to keep them as pets, before keeping them as pets, they can be neutered. The whole group finds solace in grooming, which they also use as a means of expressing their feelings. They even reduce millipedes to pieces so as to rub that on their body to repel insects and mosquitoes.
Capuchins are very intelligent mammals and have been known to use various tools which assist them in their daily life. They drink the juice of palm nut fruits from the tip and then let them dry. After they dry, they will collect them and break them with the help of a big boulder collected from the rivers. They have the ability to walk on their feet with food and tools in their hands. They are also clever enough to find food on ground as well as on trees. Unlike other monkeys, they are omnivorous. Along with eating food like seed, nuts, fruits, flowers they also feed on eggs of birds, small birds, insects, spiders, reptiles, bats and even small mammals. Some of them who live near water bodies also feed on shellfishes and crabs, which they crack open with the help of stones.
They aren’t fussy about their environment; hence it is easy to maintain them as pets. People also favor to keep them as pets because they are good organ grinders and also as service animals. They are also kept as pets to help quadriplegics (people whose all four limbs are paralyzed) around the house. They are trained for this purpose by many organizations. They have capability to open bottles, microwave food and even wash the face of the patient. They are also safe around kids in the house as they are very gentle in nature. They can also be taught tricks and some have even starred in movies. Capuchins are also the most oppressed among the pet animals. They also become troublesome when they reach sexual maturity, which often confuses the owner. | 783 | ENGLISH | 1 |
St. Francis of Assisi
St. Francis is considered a legendary hero and a popular saint. He was born in
1181, the middle of a time of great increases and expansions in the medieval West, in
Assisi, the place where this was strongest. His parents were Pietro and Pica Bernardone.
His father was a wealthy silk merchant. St. Francis spent his childhood in extravagant
living and pleasure-seeking. He was always in trouble and ran around Assisi with his
friends, eating, drinking, and having a good time. He went to war to fight for Assisi
against Perugia and was taken prisoner in 1202. Eventually he was released and once
again, returned to his old carefree ways. He became seriously ill for a while but then
returned to the wars in 1205.
He experienced a vision of Christ at Spoleto which was then followed by another
vision while he returned to Assisi. One vision was of Christ telling him, "Go and rebuild
my church. It is falling down." These visions are what changed his lifestyle forever.
Despite his wealthy, comfortable life, St. Francis chose a life of poverty. He wore rags
and wooden shoes on his bare feet. His father became furious at this and threatened to
disown him. Francis returned his father's money and clothes that he had taken to help
rebuild the church and severed relations with his father.
St. Francis rebuilt San Damiano with money begged from his townsmen. He
went on a pilgrimage to Rome in 1206, identifying himself with the poor and helping to
take care of those who suffered from 'leprosy'. For two or three years he lived alone,
wandering. Eventually, seven disciples joined him. Some of them were older, some
middle-aged, but they lived together as a community at the Portiuncula in Assisi, near a
leper colony. Here, he devoted himself completely to his life's work of poverty and
preaching. St. Francis and the other preachers stood out from the other Italian poor
preachers of the time because they had respect for, and showed obedience to the Church
authorities and their doctrinal orthodoxy. They lived in simple huts and their churches
were small. They slept on the ground and had no tables or chairs, as well as very few
In 1209, St. Francis founded the order of Friars Minor, which took the people of
that time by surprise because by doing this, Francis presented poverty, chastity, and
obedience in terms of troubadours and courts of love. After this, St. Francis gained many
Francis wished to preach to more people from farther around. In 1212 he went
eastward, but was driven on to the Dalmatian coast. In 1214 he left once again, this time
for Morocco through Spain, but, he became very sick and was forced to come back home.
In 1219, he sailed from Ancona with twelve other friars, heading for Acre and Damietta.
Francis managed to pass through enemy lines and meet with the... | <urn:uuid:28819603-10df-446d-b0c6-dc696d71a0d3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/st-francis-of-assisi-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00305.warc.gz | en | 0.988698 | 659 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.2454215586... | 1 | St. Francis of Assisi
St. Francis is considered a legendary hero and a popular saint. He was born in
1181, the middle of a time of great increases and expansions in the medieval West, in
Assisi, the place where this was strongest. His parents were Pietro and Pica Bernardone.
His father was a wealthy silk merchant. St. Francis spent his childhood in extravagant
living and pleasure-seeking. He was always in trouble and ran around Assisi with his
friends, eating, drinking, and having a good time. He went to war to fight for Assisi
against Perugia and was taken prisoner in 1202. Eventually he was released and once
again, returned to his old carefree ways. He became seriously ill for a while but then
returned to the wars in 1205.
He experienced a vision of Christ at Spoleto which was then followed by another
vision while he returned to Assisi. One vision was of Christ telling him, "Go and rebuild
my church. It is falling down." These visions are what changed his lifestyle forever.
Despite his wealthy, comfortable life, St. Francis chose a life of poverty. He wore rags
and wooden shoes on his bare feet. His father became furious at this and threatened to
disown him. Francis returned his father's money and clothes that he had taken to help
rebuild the church and severed relations with his father.
St. Francis rebuilt San Damiano with money begged from his townsmen. He
went on a pilgrimage to Rome in 1206, identifying himself with the poor and helping to
take care of those who suffered from 'leprosy'. For two or three years he lived alone,
wandering. Eventually, seven disciples joined him. Some of them were older, some
middle-aged, but they lived together as a community at the Portiuncula in Assisi, near a
leper colony. Here, he devoted himself completely to his life's work of poverty and
preaching. St. Francis and the other preachers stood out from the other Italian poor
preachers of the time because they had respect for, and showed obedience to the Church
authorities and their doctrinal orthodoxy. They lived in simple huts and their churches
were small. They slept on the ground and had no tables or chairs, as well as very few
In 1209, St. Francis founded the order of Friars Minor, which took the people of
that time by surprise because by doing this, Francis presented poverty, chastity, and
obedience in terms of troubadours and courts of love. After this, St. Francis gained many
Francis wished to preach to more people from farther around. In 1212 he went
eastward, but was driven on to the Dalmatian coast. In 1214 he left once again, this time
for Morocco through Spain, but, he became very sick and was forced to come back home.
In 1219, he sailed from Ancona with twelve other friars, heading for Acre and Damietta.
Francis managed to pass through enemy lines and meet with the... | 674 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The son of the popular Roman general Germanicus and Augustus 's granddaughter Agrippina the Elder , Caligula was born into the first ruling family of the Roman Empire , conventionally known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Germanicus's uncle and adoptive father, Tiberius , succeeded Augustus as emperor of Rome in Although he was born Gaius Caesar , after Julius Caesar , he acquired the nickname "Caligula" meaning "little [soldier's] boot", the diminutive form of caliga from his father's soldiers during their campaign in Germania.
When Germanicus died at Antioch in 19, Agrippina returned with her six children to Rome, where she became entangled in a bitter feud with Tiberius. The conflict eventually led to the destruction of her family, with Caligula as the sole male survivor. Untouched by the deadly intrigues, Caligula accepted an invitation in 31 to join the emperor on the island of Capri , where Tiberius had withdrawn five years earlier.
Following the death of Tiberius, Caligula succeeded his adoptive grandfather as emperor in There are few surviving sources about the reign of Caligula, although he is described as a noble and moderate emperor during the first six months of his rule. After this, the sources focus upon his cruelty, sadism, extravagance, and sexual perversion, presenting him as an insane tyrant.
While the reliability of these sources is questionable, it is known that during his brief reign, Caligula worked to increase the unconstrained personal power of the emperor, as opposed to countervailing powers within the principate. He directed much of his attention to ambitious construction projects and luxurious dwellings for himself, and initiated the construction of two aqueducts in Rome: the Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus. During his reign, the empire annexed the client kingdom of Mauretania as a province. In early 41, Caligula was assassinated as a result of a conspiracy by officers of the Praetorian Guard , senators , and courtiers.
The conspirators' attempt to use the opportunity to restore the Roman Republic was thwarted, however. On the day of the assassination of Caligula, the Praetorians declared Caligula's uncle, Claudius , the next Roman emperor.
Mar 15, 44 BCE: Julius Caesar Assassinated
Although the Julio-Claudian dynasty continued to rule the empire until the fall of his nephew Nero in 68, Caligula's death marked the official end of the Julii Caesares in the male line. Gaius Julius Caesar named in honor of his famous relative was born in Antium modern Anzio and Nettuno on 31 August 12 AD, the third of six surviving children born to Germanicus and his second cousin Agrippina the Elder. Through Agrippina, Augustus was the maternal great-grandfather of Gaius. As a boy of just two or three, Gaius accompanied his father, Germanicus , on campaigns in the north of Germania.
Suetonius claims that Germanicus was poisoned in Syria by an agent of Tiberius , who viewed Germanicus as a political rival. After the death of his father, Caligula lived with his mother until her relations with Tiberius deteriorated. The adolescent Caligula was then sent to live with his great-grandmother and Tiberius's mother Livia. In 31, Caligula was remanded to the personal care of Tiberius on Capri , where he lived for six years. Caligula claimed to have planned to kill Tiberius with a dagger in order to avenge his mother and brother: however, having brought the weapon into Tiberius's bedroom he did not kill the Emperor but instead threw the dagger down on the floor.
Supposedly Tiberius knew of this but never dared to do anything about it. In 33, Tiberius gave Caligula an honorary quaestorship , a position he held until his rise to emperor. In 35, Caligula was named joint heir to Tiberius's estate along with Tiberius Gemellus. When Tiberius died on 16 March 37 AD, his estate and the titles of the principate were left to Caligula and Tiberius's own grandson, Gemellus , who were to serve as joint heirs. Although Tiberius was 77 and on his death bed, some ancient historians still conjecture that he was murdered. Caligula accepted the powers of the principate as conferred by the Senate and entered Rome on 28 March amid a crowd that hailed him as "our baby" and "our star", among other nicknames.
Caligula's first acts were said to be generous in spirit, though many were political in nature. In October 37, Caligula fell seriously ill, or perhaps was poisoned. He soon recovered from his illness, but many believed that the illness turned the young emperor toward the diabolical: he started to kill off or exile those who were close to him or whom he saw as a serious threat.
Perhaps his illness reminded him of his mortality and of the desire of others to advance into his place. She is said to have committed suicide, although Suetonius hints that Caligula actually poisoned her. He had his father-in-law Marcus Junius Silanus and his brother-in-law Marcus Lepidus executed as well. His uncle Claudius was spared only because Caligula preferred to keep him as a laughing stock. His favourite sister Julia Drusilla died in 38 of a fever: his other two sisters, Livilla and Agrippina the Younger , were exiled. He hated being the grandson of Agrippa and slandered Augustus by repeating a falsehood that his mother was actually conceived as the result of an incestuous relationship between Augustus and his daughter Julia the Elder.
In 38, Caligula focused his attention on political and public reform. He published the accounts of public funds, which had not been made public during the reign of Tiberius.
- Suo marito - Giustino Roncella nato a Boggiòlo (Italian Edition).
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- Julius Caesar’s First Landing in Britain.
He aided those who lost property in fires, abolished certain taxes, and gave out prizes to the public at gymnastic events. He allowed new members into the equestrian and senatorial orders. Perhaps most significantly, he restored the practice of democratic elections. During the same year, though, Caligula was criticized for executing people without full trials and for forcing the Praetorian prefect, Macro, to commit suicide. Macro had fallen out of favor with the emperor, probably due to an attempt to ally himself with Gemellus when it appeared that Caligula might die of fever.
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According to Cassius Dio , a financial crisis emerged in Ancient historians state that Caligula began falsely accusing, fining and even killing individuals for the purpose of seizing their estates. Historians describe a number of Caligula's other desperate measures. In order to gain funds, Caligula asked the public to lend the state money.
The current and past highway commissioners were accused of incompetence and embezzlement and forced to repay money. However, some historians have shown skepticism towards the large number of sesterces quoted by Suetonius and Dio. According to Wilkinson, Caligula's use of precious metals to mint coins throughout his principate indicates that the treasury most likely never fell into bankruptcy.
A brief famine of unknown extent occurred, perhaps caused by this financial crisis, but Suetonius claims it resulted from Caligula's seizure of public carriages; according to Seneca, grain imports were disrupted because Caligula re-purposed grain boats for a pontoon bridge. Despite financial difficulties, Caligula embarked on a number of construction projects during his reign. Some were for the public good, though others were for himself. Josephus describes Caligula's improvements to the harbours at Rhegium and Sicily , allowing increased grain imports from Egypt, as his greatest contributions.
Caligula completed the temple of Augustus and the theatre of Pompey and began an amphitheatre beside the Saepta. At Syracuse , he repaired the city walls and the temples of the gods. In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons , stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to the neighbouring port of Puteoli. Caligula had two large ships constructed for himself which were recovered from the bottom of Lake Nemi around The ships were among the largest vessels in the ancient world.
The smaller ship was designed as a temple dedicated to Diana. The larger ship was essentially an elaborate floating palace with marble floors and plumbing. In 39, relations between Caligula and the Roman Senate deteriorated. A number of factors, though, aggravated this feud. The Senate had become accustomed to ruling without an emperor between the departure of Tiberius for Capri in 26 and Caligula's accession. Caligula reviewed Tiberius' records of treason trials and decided, based on their actions during these trials, that numerous senators were not trustworthy.
Soon after his break with the Senate, Caligula faced a number of additional conspiracies against him. In 40, Caligula expanded the Roman Empire into Mauretania and made a significant attempt at expanding into Britannia — even challenging Neptune in his campaign. The conquest of Britannia was fully realized by his successors. Mauretania was a client kingdom of Rome ruled by Ptolemy of Mauretania. Caligula invited Ptolemy to Rome and then suddenly had him executed.
Details on the Mauretanian events of 39—44 are unclear. Cassius Dio wrote an entire chapter on the annexation of Mauretania by Caligula, but it is now lost.
Julius Caesar - Ancient History Encyclopedia
There seems to have been a northern campaign to Britannia that was aborted. Modern historians have put forward numerous theories in an attempt to explain these actions. This trip to the English Channel could have merely been a training and scouting mission. When several client kings came to Rome to pay their respects to him and argued about their nobility of descent, he allegedly cried out the Homeric line: "Let there be one lord, one king.
Caligula began appearing in public dressed as various gods and demigods such as Hercules , Mercury , Venus and Apollo. A sacred precinct was set apart for his worship at Miletus in the province of Asia and two temples were erected for worship of him in Rome. Caligula had the heads removed from various statues of gods located across Rome and replaced them with his own. Indeed, he was represented as a sun god on Egyptian coins. Caligula's religious policy was a departure from that of his predecessors.
According to Cassius Dio , living emperors could be worshipped as divine in the east and dead emperors could be worshipped as divine in Rome. Caligula needed to quell several riots and conspiracies in the eastern territories during his reign. Aiding him in his actions was his good friend, Herod Agrippa , who became governor of the territories of Batanaea and Trachonitis after Caligula became emperor in The cause of tensions in the east was complicated, involving the spread of Greek culture , Roman Law and the rights of Jews in the empire.
Caligula did not trust the prefect of Egypt, Aulus Avilius Flaccus. Flaccus had been loyal to Tiberius, had conspired against Caligula's mother and had connections with Egyptian separatists. In 39, Agrippa accused Herod Antipas , the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea , of planning a rebellion against Roman rule with the help of Parthia.
Herod Antipas confessed and Caligula exiled him. Agrippa was rewarded with his territories. Riots again erupted in Alexandria in 40 between Jews and Greeks. The Governor of Syria, Publius Petronius , fearing civil war if the order were carried out, delayed implementing it for nearly a year. In Rome, another statue of himself, of colossal size, was made of gilt brass for the purpose.
Philo of Alexandria and Seneca the Younger , contemporaries of Caligula, describe him as an insane emperor who was self-absorbed, was angry, killed on a whim, and indulged in too much spending and sex. While repeating the earlier stories, the later sources of Suetonius and Cassius Dio provide additional tales of insanity. They accuse Caligula of incest with his sisters, Agrippina the Younger , Drusilla , and Livilla , and say he prostituted them to other men.
The validity of these accounts is debatable. In Roman political culture, insanity and sexual perversity were often presented hand-in-hand with poor government. Caligula's actions as emperor were described as being especially harsh to the Senate, to the nobility and to the equestrian order. The situation had escalated when, in 40, Caligula announced to the Senate that he planned to leave Rome permanently and to move to Alexandria in Egypt, where he hoped to be worshiped as a living god. The prospect of Rome losing its emperor and thus its political power was the final straw for many.
Such a move would have left both the Senate and the Praetorian Guard powerless to stop Caligula's repression and debauchery.
With this in mind Chaerea convinced his fellow conspirators, who included Marcus Vinicius and Lucius Annius Vinicianus , to put their plot into action quickly. According to Josephus, Chaerea had political motivations for the assassination. On 22 January 41 Suetonius gives the date as 24 January , Cassius Chaerea and other guardsmen accosted Caligula as he addressed an acting troupe of young men beneath the palace, during a series of games and dramatics being held for the Divine Augustus. The Germanic guard, stricken with grief and rage, responded with a rampaging attack on the assassins, conspirators, innocent senators and bystanders alike.
The cryptoporticus underground corridor beneath the imperial palaces on the Palatine Hill where this event took place was discovered by archaeologists in The senate attempted to use Caligula's death as an opportunity to restore the Republic. After a soldier, Gratus , found Claudius hiding behind a palace curtain, he was spirited out of the city by a sympathetic faction of the Praetorian Guard to their nearby camp.
Claudius became emperor after procuring the support of the Praetorian Guard. He ordered the execution of Chaerea and of any other known conspirators involved in the death of Caligula. He was buried within the Mausoleum of Augustus ; in , during the Sack of Rome , the ashes in the tomb were scattered. The facts and circumstances of Caligula's reign are mostly lost to history. The couple had a daughter, Julia Caesaris, in 76 B. Cornelia died in 69 B. Caesar married Pompeia, a granddaughter of Sulla.
In 62 B. The event was strictly women-only, but a young nobleman disguised himself as female and crashed the festivities. At some point during the evening, he was found out. Scandal ensued and it was reported that the man was in love with Pompeia or trying to seduce her. Caesar wed his third wife, Calpurnia, in 59 B. In 48 B. The Egyptians referred to him as Caesarion, meaning little Caesar.
Although never proven, there was suspicion Cleopatra poisoned Ptolemy XIV so she could name Caesarion her co-ruler, which she did that same year. He became known as Ptolemy XV. In 31 B. Taking the name Augustus, he ruled from 27 B. Caesar had no other known sons besides Caesarion. His only known daughter, Julia, died in childbirth in 54 B. Before Caesar came to power, the Romans used a calendar system based on the lunar cycle, which dictated that there were days in a year. | <urn:uuid:3d0fb7cb-3e7c-4336-a82c-23e5b3a2ac06> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://butyhomiwesu.tk/prayer/after-julius.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00371.warc.gz | en | 0.983441 | 3,487 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.56633514165878... | 1 | The son of the popular Roman general Germanicus and Augustus 's granddaughter Agrippina the Elder , Caligula was born into the first ruling family of the Roman Empire , conventionally known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Germanicus's uncle and adoptive father, Tiberius , succeeded Augustus as emperor of Rome in Although he was born Gaius Caesar , after Julius Caesar , he acquired the nickname "Caligula" meaning "little [soldier's] boot", the diminutive form of caliga from his father's soldiers during their campaign in Germania.
When Germanicus died at Antioch in 19, Agrippina returned with her six children to Rome, where she became entangled in a bitter feud with Tiberius. The conflict eventually led to the destruction of her family, with Caligula as the sole male survivor. Untouched by the deadly intrigues, Caligula accepted an invitation in 31 to join the emperor on the island of Capri , where Tiberius had withdrawn five years earlier.
Following the death of Tiberius, Caligula succeeded his adoptive grandfather as emperor in There are few surviving sources about the reign of Caligula, although he is described as a noble and moderate emperor during the first six months of his rule. After this, the sources focus upon his cruelty, sadism, extravagance, and sexual perversion, presenting him as an insane tyrant.
While the reliability of these sources is questionable, it is known that during his brief reign, Caligula worked to increase the unconstrained personal power of the emperor, as opposed to countervailing powers within the principate. He directed much of his attention to ambitious construction projects and luxurious dwellings for himself, and initiated the construction of two aqueducts in Rome: the Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus. During his reign, the empire annexed the client kingdom of Mauretania as a province. In early 41, Caligula was assassinated as a result of a conspiracy by officers of the Praetorian Guard , senators , and courtiers.
The conspirators' attempt to use the opportunity to restore the Roman Republic was thwarted, however. On the day of the assassination of Caligula, the Praetorians declared Caligula's uncle, Claudius , the next Roman emperor.
Mar 15, 44 BCE: Julius Caesar Assassinated
Although the Julio-Claudian dynasty continued to rule the empire until the fall of his nephew Nero in 68, Caligula's death marked the official end of the Julii Caesares in the male line. Gaius Julius Caesar named in honor of his famous relative was born in Antium modern Anzio and Nettuno on 31 August 12 AD, the third of six surviving children born to Germanicus and his second cousin Agrippina the Elder. Through Agrippina, Augustus was the maternal great-grandfather of Gaius. As a boy of just two or three, Gaius accompanied his father, Germanicus , on campaigns in the north of Germania.
Suetonius claims that Germanicus was poisoned in Syria by an agent of Tiberius , who viewed Germanicus as a political rival. After the death of his father, Caligula lived with his mother until her relations with Tiberius deteriorated. The adolescent Caligula was then sent to live with his great-grandmother and Tiberius's mother Livia. In 31, Caligula was remanded to the personal care of Tiberius on Capri , where he lived for six years. Caligula claimed to have planned to kill Tiberius with a dagger in order to avenge his mother and brother: however, having brought the weapon into Tiberius's bedroom he did not kill the Emperor but instead threw the dagger down on the floor.
Supposedly Tiberius knew of this but never dared to do anything about it. In 33, Tiberius gave Caligula an honorary quaestorship , a position he held until his rise to emperor. In 35, Caligula was named joint heir to Tiberius's estate along with Tiberius Gemellus. When Tiberius died on 16 March 37 AD, his estate and the titles of the principate were left to Caligula and Tiberius's own grandson, Gemellus , who were to serve as joint heirs. Although Tiberius was 77 and on his death bed, some ancient historians still conjecture that he was murdered. Caligula accepted the powers of the principate as conferred by the Senate and entered Rome on 28 March amid a crowd that hailed him as "our baby" and "our star", among other nicknames.
Caligula's first acts were said to be generous in spirit, though many were political in nature. In October 37, Caligula fell seriously ill, or perhaps was poisoned. He soon recovered from his illness, but many believed that the illness turned the young emperor toward the diabolical: he started to kill off or exile those who were close to him or whom he saw as a serious threat.
Perhaps his illness reminded him of his mortality and of the desire of others to advance into his place. She is said to have committed suicide, although Suetonius hints that Caligula actually poisoned her. He had his father-in-law Marcus Junius Silanus and his brother-in-law Marcus Lepidus executed as well. His uncle Claudius was spared only because Caligula preferred to keep him as a laughing stock. His favourite sister Julia Drusilla died in 38 of a fever: his other two sisters, Livilla and Agrippina the Younger , were exiled. He hated being the grandson of Agrippa and slandered Augustus by repeating a falsehood that his mother was actually conceived as the result of an incestuous relationship between Augustus and his daughter Julia the Elder.
In 38, Caligula focused his attention on political and public reform. He published the accounts of public funds, which had not been made public during the reign of Tiberius.
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He aided those who lost property in fires, abolished certain taxes, and gave out prizes to the public at gymnastic events. He allowed new members into the equestrian and senatorial orders. Perhaps most significantly, he restored the practice of democratic elections. During the same year, though, Caligula was criticized for executing people without full trials and for forcing the Praetorian prefect, Macro, to commit suicide. Macro had fallen out of favor with the emperor, probably due to an attempt to ally himself with Gemellus when it appeared that Caligula might die of fever.
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According to Cassius Dio , a financial crisis emerged in Ancient historians state that Caligula began falsely accusing, fining and even killing individuals for the purpose of seizing their estates. Historians describe a number of Caligula's other desperate measures. In order to gain funds, Caligula asked the public to lend the state money.
The current and past highway commissioners were accused of incompetence and embezzlement and forced to repay money. However, some historians have shown skepticism towards the large number of sesterces quoted by Suetonius and Dio. According to Wilkinson, Caligula's use of precious metals to mint coins throughout his principate indicates that the treasury most likely never fell into bankruptcy.
A brief famine of unknown extent occurred, perhaps caused by this financial crisis, but Suetonius claims it resulted from Caligula's seizure of public carriages; according to Seneca, grain imports were disrupted because Caligula re-purposed grain boats for a pontoon bridge. Despite financial difficulties, Caligula embarked on a number of construction projects during his reign. Some were for the public good, though others were for himself. Josephus describes Caligula's improvements to the harbours at Rhegium and Sicily , allowing increased grain imports from Egypt, as his greatest contributions.
Caligula completed the temple of Augustus and the theatre of Pompey and began an amphitheatre beside the Saepta. At Syracuse , he repaired the city walls and the temples of the gods. In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons , stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to the neighbouring port of Puteoli. Caligula had two large ships constructed for himself which were recovered from the bottom of Lake Nemi around The ships were among the largest vessels in the ancient world.
The smaller ship was designed as a temple dedicated to Diana. The larger ship was essentially an elaborate floating palace with marble floors and plumbing. In 39, relations between Caligula and the Roman Senate deteriorated. A number of factors, though, aggravated this feud. The Senate had become accustomed to ruling without an emperor between the departure of Tiberius for Capri in 26 and Caligula's accession. Caligula reviewed Tiberius' records of treason trials and decided, based on their actions during these trials, that numerous senators were not trustworthy.
Soon after his break with the Senate, Caligula faced a number of additional conspiracies against him. In 40, Caligula expanded the Roman Empire into Mauretania and made a significant attempt at expanding into Britannia — even challenging Neptune in his campaign. The conquest of Britannia was fully realized by his successors. Mauretania was a client kingdom of Rome ruled by Ptolemy of Mauretania. Caligula invited Ptolemy to Rome and then suddenly had him executed.
Details on the Mauretanian events of 39—44 are unclear. Cassius Dio wrote an entire chapter on the annexation of Mauretania by Caligula, but it is now lost.
Julius Caesar - Ancient History Encyclopedia
There seems to have been a northern campaign to Britannia that was aborted. Modern historians have put forward numerous theories in an attempt to explain these actions. This trip to the English Channel could have merely been a training and scouting mission. When several client kings came to Rome to pay their respects to him and argued about their nobility of descent, he allegedly cried out the Homeric line: "Let there be one lord, one king.
Caligula began appearing in public dressed as various gods and demigods such as Hercules , Mercury , Venus and Apollo. A sacred precinct was set apart for his worship at Miletus in the province of Asia and two temples were erected for worship of him in Rome. Caligula had the heads removed from various statues of gods located across Rome and replaced them with his own. Indeed, he was represented as a sun god on Egyptian coins. Caligula's religious policy was a departure from that of his predecessors.
According to Cassius Dio , living emperors could be worshipped as divine in the east and dead emperors could be worshipped as divine in Rome. Caligula needed to quell several riots and conspiracies in the eastern territories during his reign. Aiding him in his actions was his good friend, Herod Agrippa , who became governor of the territories of Batanaea and Trachonitis after Caligula became emperor in The cause of tensions in the east was complicated, involving the spread of Greek culture , Roman Law and the rights of Jews in the empire.
Caligula did not trust the prefect of Egypt, Aulus Avilius Flaccus. Flaccus had been loyal to Tiberius, had conspired against Caligula's mother and had connections with Egyptian separatists. In 39, Agrippa accused Herod Antipas , the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea , of planning a rebellion against Roman rule with the help of Parthia.
Herod Antipas confessed and Caligula exiled him. Agrippa was rewarded with his territories. Riots again erupted in Alexandria in 40 between Jews and Greeks. The Governor of Syria, Publius Petronius , fearing civil war if the order were carried out, delayed implementing it for nearly a year. In Rome, another statue of himself, of colossal size, was made of gilt brass for the purpose.
Philo of Alexandria and Seneca the Younger , contemporaries of Caligula, describe him as an insane emperor who was self-absorbed, was angry, killed on a whim, and indulged in too much spending and sex. While repeating the earlier stories, the later sources of Suetonius and Cassius Dio provide additional tales of insanity. They accuse Caligula of incest with his sisters, Agrippina the Younger , Drusilla , and Livilla , and say he prostituted them to other men.
The validity of these accounts is debatable. In Roman political culture, insanity and sexual perversity were often presented hand-in-hand with poor government. Caligula's actions as emperor were described as being especially harsh to the Senate, to the nobility and to the equestrian order. The situation had escalated when, in 40, Caligula announced to the Senate that he planned to leave Rome permanently and to move to Alexandria in Egypt, where he hoped to be worshiped as a living god. The prospect of Rome losing its emperor and thus its political power was the final straw for many.
Such a move would have left both the Senate and the Praetorian Guard powerless to stop Caligula's repression and debauchery.
With this in mind Chaerea convinced his fellow conspirators, who included Marcus Vinicius and Lucius Annius Vinicianus , to put their plot into action quickly. According to Josephus, Chaerea had political motivations for the assassination. On 22 January 41 Suetonius gives the date as 24 January , Cassius Chaerea and other guardsmen accosted Caligula as he addressed an acting troupe of young men beneath the palace, during a series of games and dramatics being held for the Divine Augustus. The Germanic guard, stricken with grief and rage, responded with a rampaging attack on the assassins, conspirators, innocent senators and bystanders alike.
The cryptoporticus underground corridor beneath the imperial palaces on the Palatine Hill where this event took place was discovered by archaeologists in The senate attempted to use Caligula's death as an opportunity to restore the Republic. After a soldier, Gratus , found Claudius hiding behind a palace curtain, he was spirited out of the city by a sympathetic faction of the Praetorian Guard to their nearby camp.
Claudius became emperor after procuring the support of the Praetorian Guard. He ordered the execution of Chaerea and of any other known conspirators involved in the death of Caligula. He was buried within the Mausoleum of Augustus ; in , during the Sack of Rome , the ashes in the tomb were scattered. The facts and circumstances of Caligula's reign are mostly lost to history. The couple had a daughter, Julia Caesaris, in 76 B. Cornelia died in 69 B. Caesar married Pompeia, a granddaughter of Sulla.
In 62 B. The event was strictly women-only, but a young nobleman disguised himself as female and crashed the festivities. At some point during the evening, he was found out. Scandal ensued and it was reported that the man was in love with Pompeia or trying to seduce her. Caesar wed his third wife, Calpurnia, in 59 B. In 48 B. The Egyptians referred to him as Caesarion, meaning little Caesar.
Although never proven, there was suspicion Cleopatra poisoned Ptolemy XIV so she could name Caesarion her co-ruler, which she did that same year. He became known as Ptolemy XV. In 31 B. Taking the name Augustus, he ruled from 27 B. Caesar had no other known sons besides Caesarion. His only known daughter, Julia, died in childbirth in 54 B. Before Caesar came to power, the Romans used a calendar system based on the lunar cycle, which dictated that there were days in a year. | 3,543 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rodin had his own specific working methods to create sculptures. These methods together with a passionate response that maintained by Rodin to the human body resulted in the creation of world famous statues. He also had spontaneous drawing skills as well as modeling skills which helped him to create realistic statues.
The approach Rodin used for creating sculptures was a result of his early training. Some people might see this approach as a radical approach as well as idiosyncratic. His training was done in commercial studios and this helped him to remove the rigid approach that usually existed in making of sculpture. The rigid approach was a nature that the French art establishment imposed.
Rodin created a large workshop after establishing himself as an independent sculptor. There was high demand for public as well as domestic sculpture during the period of the late 19th to the early 20th centuries. Rodin was happy to disseminate his creation to a wide range of audience.
Other sculptors who lived in the same period were the creation of sculpture and statues as a collaborative process, and Rodin’s view was no different. To create his masterpieces Rodin employed highly qualified and trained plaster casters, and other workers such as carvers and founders. He also took great care in selecting studio assistants. Rodin took great care in selecting everything until his original models are turned into a finished work. Rodin’s fame grew faster and as a result of this, many young sculptors made it their aim to become his pupils.
Rodin also left a large number of models, casts, prints and sketches on his death. There were also numerous invoices and letters that are left behind by Rodin relating to his work. Most of these things are now preserved in the Rodin Museum. You can see his works as well as the things that are left behind by Rodin in the museum during the Rodin Museum Tour.
The drawings which acted as the initial stage of his sculpture creation created were inspired from real life. He accurately recorded the model’s profile and often viewed the body from different heights. After the drawings are complete he will then proceed to create plaster casts and clay models. He will use these models as a base for his original sculpture and will revise the designs. After he is satisfied with the models he will then proceed to create the original sculptures. These methods helped him to create perfect sculptures that are now recognized worldwide. | <urn:uuid:e09645ed-4b35-410d-a25c-53565b4f1fb1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://tourrodinmuseum.fr/rodin-museum-tour/how-rodin-created-his-sculptures/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00468.warc.gz | en | 0.993177 | 485 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.4871888160705... | 7 | Rodin had his own specific working methods to create sculptures. These methods together with a passionate response that maintained by Rodin to the human body resulted in the creation of world famous statues. He also had spontaneous drawing skills as well as modeling skills which helped him to create realistic statues.
The approach Rodin used for creating sculptures was a result of his early training. Some people might see this approach as a radical approach as well as idiosyncratic. His training was done in commercial studios and this helped him to remove the rigid approach that usually existed in making of sculpture. The rigid approach was a nature that the French art establishment imposed.
Rodin created a large workshop after establishing himself as an independent sculptor. There was high demand for public as well as domestic sculpture during the period of the late 19th to the early 20th centuries. Rodin was happy to disseminate his creation to a wide range of audience.
Other sculptors who lived in the same period were the creation of sculpture and statues as a collaborative process, and Rodin’s view was no different. To create his masterpieces Rodin employed highly qualified and trained plaster casters, and other workers such as carvers and founders. He also took great care in selecting studio assistants. Rodin took great care in selecting everything until his original models are turned into a finished work. Rodin’s fame grew faster and as a result of this, many young sculptors made it their aim to become his pupils.
Rodin also left a large number of models, casts, prints and sketches on his death. There were also numerous invoices and letters that are left behind by Rodin relating to his work. Most of these things are now preserved in the Rodin Museum. You can see his works as well as the things that are left behind by Rodin in the museum during the Rodin Museum Tour.
The drawings which acted as the initial stage of his sculpture creation created were inspired from real life. He accurately recorded the model’s profile and often viewed the body from different heights. After the drawings are complete he will then proceed to create plaster casts and clay models. He will use these models as a base for his original sculpture and will revise the designs. After he is satisfied with the models he will then proceed to create the original sculptures. These methods helped him to create perfect sculptures that are now recognized worldwide. | 479 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This article is part of the 10 Misconceptions about Buddhism series.
Bhikshu and bhikshuni, the Sanskrit terms for a monk and a nun, literally mean a “beggar” or “mendicant.” Buddhist monks and nuns originally received their single daily meal by going on alms rounds in local villages and towns, a practice that is still followed today in some Theravada Buddhist regions of Southeast Asia. Monks and nuns were required to accept whatever the laity offered to them, including meat, since charity (dana) was the principal means for laypeople to gain merit and thus better their prospects of a happy rebirth.
The only exception to this rule recognized in the Vinaya is if a monk knows that an animal has been killed specifically to feed him, in which case he is not allowed to accept that meat. Monks were always free to choose what to eat from their bowls, but the vast majority probably ate offerings of meat.
Related: A Plea for the Animals
We know that the Buddha rejected strict vegetarianism as an imperative of monastic life from a dispute with his cousin Devadatta, an ambitious monk who had sought unsuccessfully to be named the Buddha’s successor. Devadatta practiced five severe types of austerities (dhutanga), including vegetarianism, and he specifically asked the Buddha to require all monks to be strict vegetarians. The Buddha refused this request, since such a requirement would limit what monks could accept from the laity, and thus restrict the amount of merit laypeople could generate.
Another piece of evidence that early Buddhists ate meat is found in the story surrounding the Buddha’s death. According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta (Discourse on the Great Decease), which narrates the last year of the Buddha’s life, his final meal was offered by the blacksmith Cunda, who invited the Buddha and his monks to his home to feed them. Cunda offered them a dish called sukaramaddava, which the Buddha accepted on behalf of the monks but warned that no one else should taste the dish and ordered that the remainder of the dish be buried.
After eating this sukaramaddava, the Buddha came down with the severe case of dysentery that eventually killed him. Cunda was distraught at having sickened the Buddha, but the Buddha sent his attendant Ananda to comfort him and tell him that he would receive great merit for offering a buddha his last meal. There has been much debate in the traditional commentaries as to exactly what sukaramaddava was. The term literally means “tender boar,” which in Indian and Sinhalese commentaries is usually presumed to have been some sort of pork dish. In East Asia, where vegetarianism was more common, this term was translated as chantanshu’er, which means “sandalwood tree fungus,” suggesting that the meal may instead have been something eaten by pigs, such as truffles or mushrooms.
The practice of vegetarianism, which is now widespread in India, seems to derive from the Jaina tradition, one of the rival schools of the wandering shramana ascetics with which Buddhism was also aligned. The Jainas were strong advocates of non-harming (ahimsa) and had strict vegetarianism as one of their defining practices. Since the mainstream Brahmanical tradition of the Vedas also was not originally vegetarian, we can conclude that the pervasive practice of vegetarianism in both Hinduism and later Buddhism is probably a result of Jaina influence.
In the centuries following the Buddha’s death, strict vegetarianism began to be promoted in some Buddhist texts, such as the Mahayana recension of the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, and eventually was codified as one of the bodhisattva precepts in such indigenous Buddhist scriptures as the Fanwang jing (Brahma’s Net Sutra) of China. In East Asian Buddhism, vegetarianism became ubiquitous, perhaps prompted by dietary restrictions of Daoist adherents who comprised the early audience for Buddhism in China. Even today, however, not all Buddhist monks and nuns are vegetarians. For example, in China and Korea they typically are; in Tibet and Thailand, they are not.
[This story was first published in 2014]
Start your day with a fresh perspective
Thank you for subscribing to Tricycle! As a nonprofit, we depend on readers like you to keep Buddhist teachings and practices widely available. | <urn:uuid:5fccdf61-1b40-4714-b829-f36ace0a24ae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tricycle.org/trikedaily/beggars-cant-be-choosers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00443.warc.gz | en | 0.980902 | 943 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.338515... | 1 | This article is part of the 10 Misconceptions about Buddhism series.
Bhikshu and bhikshuni, the Sanskrit terms for a monk and a nun, literally mean a “beggar” or “mendicant.” Buddhist monks and nuns originally received their single daily meal by going on alms rounds in local villages and towns, a practice that is still followed today in some Theravada Buddhist regions of Southeast Asia. Monks and nuns were required to accept whatever the laity offered to them, including meat, since charity (dana) was the principal means for laypeople to gain merit and thus better their prospects of a happy rebirth.
The only exception to this rule recognized in the Vinaya is if a monk knows that an animal has been killed specifically to feed him, in which case he is not allowed to accept that meat. Monks were always free to choose what to eat from their bowls, but the vast majority probably ate offerings of meat.
Related: A Plea for the Animals
We know that the Buddha rejected strict vegetarianism as an imperative of monastic life from a dispute with his cousin Devadatta, an ambitious monk who had sought unsuccessfully to be named the Buddha’s successor. Devadatta practiced five severe types of austerities (dhutanga), including vegetarianism, and he specifically asked the Buddha to require all monks to be strict vegetarians. The Buddha refused this request, since such a requirement would limit what monks could accept from the laity, and thus restrict the amount of merit laypeople could generate.
Another piece of evidence that early Buddhists ate meat is found in the story surrounding the Buddha’s death. According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta (Discourse on the Great Decease), which narrates the last year of the Buddha’s life, his final meal was offered by the blacksmith Cunda, who invited the Buddha and his monks to his home to feed them. Cunda offered them a dish called sukaramaddava, which the Buddha accepted on behalf of the monks but warned that no one else should taste the dish and ordered that the remainder of the dish be buried.
After eating this sukaramaddava, the Buddha came down with the severe case of dysentery that eventually killed him. Cunda was distraught at having sickened the Buddha, but the Buddha sent his attendant Ananda to comfort him and tell him that he would receive great merit for offering a buddha his last meal. There has been much debate in the traditional commentaries as to exactly what sukaramaddava was. The term literally means “tender boar,” which in Indian and Sinhalese commentaries is usually presumed to have been some sort of pork dish. In East Asia, where vegetarianism was more common, this term was translated as chantanshu’er, which means “sandalwood tree fungus,” suggesting that the meal may instead have been something eaten by pigs, such as truffles or mushrooms.
The practice of vegetarianism, which is now widespread in India, seems to derive from the Jaina tradition, one of the rival schools of the wandering shramana ascetics with which Buddhism was also aligned. The Jainas were strong advocates of non-harming (ahimsa) and had strict vegetarianism as one of their defining practices. Since the mainstream Brahmanical tradition of the Vedas also was not originally vegetarian, we can conclude that the pervasive practice of vegetarianism in both Hinduism and later Buddhism is probably a result of Jaina influence.
In the centuries following the Buddha’s death, strict vegetarianism began to be promoted in some Buddhist texts, such as the Mahayana recension of the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, and eventually was codified as one of the bodhisattva precepts in such indigenous Buddhist scriptures as the Fanwang jing (Brahma’s Net Sutra) of China. In East Asian Buddhism, vegetarianism became ubiquitous, perhaps prompted by dietary restrictions of Daoist adherents who comprised the early audience for Buddhism in China. Even today, however, not all Buddhist monks and nuns are vegetarians. For example, in China and Korea they typically are; in Tibet and Thailand, they are not.
[This story was first published in 2014]
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ABRAHAM LINCOLN, sixteenth president of the United States, was born in Hardin Co., Ky., Feb. 12th, 1809, his father being Thomas Lincoln, who married Nancy Hawks. Thomas Lincoln was a man of restless habits and little thrift, and at the time Abraham was born the family lived in a miserable cabin on a sterile piece of land, poorly cultivated and yielding a scanty support. In 1816 he removed to Perry County, Indiana, where he built a cabin in the then almost unbroken wilderness. Here his wife Nancy died, in Oct, 1818, and a little more than a year later he married a widow Johnston. The stepmother was a capable, warm-hearted woman and gave to Abraham better care than he had ever known. She encouraged him in his studies, and kindled his ambition. Lincoln had but little chance for schooling, his last attendance being in 1826, when he was seventeen years old. At this age he had already reached his maximum height of 6 ft. 4 in. He was wiry and strong, with large hands and feet, long arms, and a rather small head; an awkward overgrown boy, always in good humor and always in good health. He eagerly read everything within his reach, but in the back-woods books were scarce, and his reading was limited to a few volumes. The first law-book which he read was a copy of the statutes of Indiana which he borrowed from a constable. In 1825 he worked for several months on a ferry over the Ohio river, at a salary of six dollars per month. In 1828 he helped to run a flat-boat down the Ohio and the Mississippi to New Orleans. In 1830 Lincoln's father removed with his family to Illinois, Lincoln soon after became of age, and left home to make his own way in the world. On the outbreak of the Black Hawk War in 1832, he enlisted in a company at Sangamon, and was chosen captain, but the campaign was not marked by any event of importance. In the same year he made his first appearance in politics as a candidate for the legislature on the Whig ticket, but was defeated. He next became a partner in a grocery store at New Salem, but the concern soon failed, and Lincoln, deserted by his partner, was left to pay the debts, which it took him several years to accomplish.He now began the study of law in earnest and made rapid progress.
In 1834 Lincoln was elected to the legislature and two years later was re-elected to the same office. When the State capital was removed to Springfield in 1839 he opened a law-office there, taking into partnership John T. Stuart, a prominent Whig. In 1840 Lincoln was an elector on the Harrison ticket, and took an active part in the campaign, speaking in all parts of the state. In 1842 he married Miss Mary Todd, daughter of Hon. Robert S. Todd, of Lexington, Ky. In 1846 he was elected to Congress, carrying his district by a large majority, he was the only Whig member of that house from Illinois. For two years after the close of his term he was not active in politics. In 1850 he declined a nomination for Congress. In the anti-slavery agitation which followed the introduction of the Kansas Nebraska bill by Douglas in 1854, Lincoln took strong ground against the extension of slavery in a speech of great power, delivered at the State fair at Springfield. Douglas, who was present, became so excited by the skill of his great opponent that he was unable to reply.
The Republican Party in Illinois was formed at the State Convention at Bloomington, in 1856, and there Lincoln made one of the most famous of all his speeches in opposition to slavery. One who was present said of it: "It was fresh, new, odd, original, filled with fervor and enthusiasm; it was full of fire, energy and force, of great truths and the sense of right; it was justice and equity set ablaze by the force Of the soul; it was hard, heavy, knotted, gnarled and heated." In 1858 occured his great contest with Douglas for the senatorship. Both canvassed the State thoroughly; the Democrats carried the legislature, and Douglas won the prize. The result was a bitter disappointment to Lincoln, who, when questioned; said, he felt "like the boy who stubbed his toe; it hurt too hard to laugh and he was too big to cry.
"On the 16th of May 1860, the Republican national convention met in Chicago, Seward was the leading candidate and his nomination seemed certain, but Lincoln was nominated on the third ballot. The Democratic party divided on the slavery question. Douglas was nominated on the platform of "squatter sovereignty," while the extreme southern wing nominated John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky. After a most exciting campaign, the election resulted in favor of Lincoln, who received 180 electoral votes out of a total of 294. The southern leaders had already announced their purpose to secede from the Union in the event of the triumph of the Republican party. The first State to attempt to carry out this threat was South Carolina, which passed an ordinance of secession on Dec. 20th 1860. In less than six weeks a similar ordinance had been passed by each of the States of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas. A convention of delegates from these states met at Montgomery, Alabama, Feb. 4th, 1861, and proceeded to organize a new government with the title of The Confederate States of America. Jefferson Davis was chosen President and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia, Vice-President. The Federal property within their limits was at once seized by the seceded States.
Such was the state of affairs when President Lincoln took the executive chair March 4th, 1861. In his inaugural address while declaring his purpose to "take care that the laws of the Union be faithfully executed in all the States," he took pains to express the utmost good will toward the South, and to disavow any desire or intention to interfere with slavery in the States. He said: "There need be no blood-shed or violence, and there shall be none unless it be forced upon the national authority. The power confided to me will be used to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to the government, and to collect the duties and imposts; but beyond what may be necessary for these objects, there will be no invasion, no using of force against or among the people anywhere." In response to this temperate appeal, the South hastened forward their preparations for war. On the 12th of April the Confederate batteries opened fire on Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor, and thus hostilities began. On the 14th, Maj, Anderson, who was in command of the Federal garrison surrendered the fort. The next day President Lincoln issued a call for seventy-five thousand volunteers, and called for a special session of Congress to meet on the 4th of July. Two days later Virginia seceded and joined the Confederacy; Arkansas followed May 6th, North Carolina on the 20th of the same month, and Tennessee on the 6th of June. Both the North and the South now rushed to arms. When Congress assembled, the President in a brief message rehearsed the acts of rebellion and said: "This issue embraces more than the fate of the United States. It presents to the whole family of man the question whether a constitutional republic or democracy - a government of the people by the same people - can or cannot maintain its territorial integrity against its own domestic foes."
The first great battle, on the field of Bull Run, resulted disastrously to the Union army, which was driven back upon Washington. It was now clear that the struggle would be long and bloody. President Lincoln promptly issued a call for five hundred thousand troops. The North responded eagerly, and the quota was soon full. General Scott, enfeebled by age, was retired at his own request, and General George B. McClellan was placed in command of the Army of the Potomac. The year 1862 was marked by desperate fighting, and while in the West Union victories were won, in the East there was only the negative victory at Antietam to offset the disastrous peninsular campaign of McClellan the crushing defeat of Pope at the second battle of Bull Run, and of Burnside at Fredericksburg. It was a period of great depression for the friends of the Union, but none suffered so keenly as the worn out anxious President. The emancipation of the slaves of the South was now urged upon Lincoln as a legitimate and necessary war measure. He was profoundly impressed with the gravity of the issues involved in this step, and of the responsibility which it thrust upon him. After careful deliberation Lincoln decided to act, and on Monday Sept. 22, 1862, he issued his proclamition, declaring that on and after Jan. l, 1863, all slaves in States or parts of States then in rebellion should be free. Two years later, Lincoln said of this proclamation: "As affairs have turned it is the central act of my administration, and the great event of the nineteenth century. The Summer of 1863 witnessed the capture of Vicksburg by General Grant, and the defeat of Lee at Gettysburg, events which proved to be the turning point of the war. The end was delayed, General Grant was placed in command of all the armies of the United States, and the long and bloody campaigns of Atlanta, the Wilderness and the seige of Richmond were fought with desperate bravery and enormous loss on both sides. But the fate of the Confederacy was sealed. The final stroke was given on the 9th of April, 1865, when Lee surrendered his whole army to Grant at Appomattox. The war was over, and in the public rejoicings all hearts turned to the man whose courage had never faltered, and who, "with charity for all and malice toward none," had guided the nation through her deadly peril. The patient man who had suffered the pain of a thousand deaths during the war; who had been misunderstood, maligned, and condemned by friends as well as enemies, now shone conspicuous in popular affection. He had liberated a race; he had saved his country. But the joy of the nation was soon change to mourning. On the evening of April 14th, Lincoln, attended with his wife, occupied a box in Ford's theatre. While he was absorbed in the play, an actor named John Wilkes Booth suddenly entered the box, held a pistol at the back of Lincoln's head and fired; then leaped upon the stage and escaped. The ball pierced the brain; Lincoln sank unconscious and died the next morning. The assassin was pursued, found concealed in a barn in Carolina County, Virginia, and refusing to surrender was shot dead.
Rarely was a man so fitted to the event. The name of Lincoln will remain one of the greatest that history has inscribed on its annals. | <urn:uuid:7e46b1ea-db44-4582-948f-252938ab8a07> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.sacklunch.net/biography/L/AbrahamLincoln.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00347.warc.gz | en | 0.985613 | 2,251 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.4586941897... | 3 | ABRAHAM LINCOLN, sixteenth president of the United States, was born in Hardin Co., Ky., Feb. 12th, 1809, his father being Thomas Lincoln, who married Nancy Hawks. Thomas Lincoln was a man of restless habits and little thrift, and at the time Abraham was born the family lived in a miserable cabin on a sterile piece of land, poorly cultivated and yielding a scanty support. In 1816 he removed to Perry County, Indiana, where he built a cabin in the then almost unbroken wilderness. Here his wife Nancy died, in Oct, 1818, and a little more than a year later he married a widow Johnston. The stepmother was a capable, warm-hearted woman and gave to Abraham better care than he had ever known. She encouraged him in his studies, and kindled his ambition. Lincoln had but little chance for schooling, his last attendance being in 1826, when he was seventeen years old. At this age he had already reached his maximum height of 6 ft. 4 in. He was wiry and strong, with large hands and feet, long arms, and a rather small head; an awkward overgrown boy, always in good humor and always in good health. He eagerly read everything within his reach, but in the back-woods books were scarce, and his reading was limited to a few volumes. The first law-book which he read was a copy of the statutes of Indiana which he borrowed from a constable. In 1825 he worked for several months on a ferry over the Ohio river, at a salary of six dollars per month. In 1828 he helped to run a flat-boat down the Ohio and the Mississippi to New Orleans. In 1830 Lincoln's father removed with his family to Illinois, Lincoln soon after became of age, and left home to make his own way in the world. On the outbreak of the Black Hawk War in 1832, he enlisted in a company at Sangamon, and was chosen captain, but the campaign was not marked by any event of importance. In the same year he made his first appearance in politics as a candidate for the legislature on the Whig ticket, but was defeated. He next became a partner in a grocery store at New Salem, but the concern soon failed, and Lincoln, deserted by his partner, was left to pay the debts, which it took him several years to accomplish.He now began the study of law in earnest and made rapid progress.
In 1834 Lincoln was elected to the legislature and two years later was re-elected to the same office. When the State capital was removed to Springfield in 1839 he opened a law-office there, taking into partnership John T. Stuart, a prominent Whig. In 1840 Lincoln was an elector on the Harrison ticket, and took an active part in the campaign, speaking in all parts of the state. In 1842 he married Miss Mary Todd, daughter of Hon. Robert S. Todd, of Lexington, Ky. In 1846 he was elected to Congress, carrying his district by a large majority, he was the only Whig member of that house from Illinois. For two years after the close of his term he was not active in politics. In 1850 he declined a nomination for Congress. In the anti-slavery agitation which followed the introduction of the Kansas Nebraska bill by Douglas in 1854, Lincoln took strong ground against the extension of slavery in a speech of great power, delivered at the State fair at Springfield. Douglas, who was present, became so excited by the skill of his great opponent that he was unable to reply.
The Republican Party in Illinois was formed at the State Convention at Bloomington, in 1856, and there Lincoln made one of the most famous of all his speeches in opposition to slavery. One who was present said of it: "It was fresh, new, odd, original, filled with fervor and enthusiasm; it was full of fire, energy and force, of great truths and the sense of right; it was justice and equity set ablaze by the force Of the soul; it was hard, heavy, knotted, gnarled and heated." In 1858 occured his great contest with Douglas for the senatorship. Both canvassed the State thoroughly; the Democrats carried the legislature, and Douglas won the prize. The result was a bitter disappointment to Lincoln, who, when questioned; said, he felt "like the boy who stubbed his toe; it hurt too hard to laugh and he was too big to cry.
"On the 16th of May 1860, the Republican national convention met in Chicago, Seward was the leading candidate and his nomination seemed certain, but Lincoln was nominated on the third ballot. The Democratic party divided on the slavery question. Douglas was nominated on the platform of "squatter sovereignty," while the extreme southern wing nominated John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky. After a most exciting campaign, the election resulted in favor of Lincoln, who received 180 electoral votes out of a total of 294. The southern leaders had already announced their purpose to secede from the Union in the event of the triumph of the Republican party. The first State to attempt to carry out this threat was South Carolina, which passed an ordinance of secession on Dec. 20th 1860. In less than six weeks a similar ordinance had been passed by each of the States of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas. A convention of delegates from these states met at Montgomery, Alabama, Feb. 4th, 1861, and proceeded to organize a new government with the title of The Confederate States of America. Jefferson Davis was chosen President and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia, Vice-President. The Federal property within their limits was at once seized by the seceded States.
Such was the state of affairs when President Lincoln took the executive chair March 4th, 1861. In his inaugural address while declaring his purpose to "take care that the laws of the Union be faithfully executed in all the States," he took pains to express the utmost good will toward the South, and to disavow any desire or intention to interfere with slavery in the States. He said: "There need be no blood-shed or violence, and there shall be none unless it be forced upon the national authority. The power confided to me will be used to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to the government, and to collect the duties and imposts; but beyond what may be necessary for these objects, there will be no invasion, no using of force against or among the people anywhere." In response to this temperate appeal, the South hastened forward their preparations for war. On the 12th of April the Confederate batteries opened fire on Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor, and thus hostilities began. On the 14th, Maj, Anderson, who was in command of the Federal garrison surrendered the fort. The next day President Lincoln issued a call for seventy-five thousand volunteers, and called for a special session of Congress to meet on the 4th of July. Two days later Virginia seceded and joined the Confederacy; Arkansas followed May 6th, North Carolina on the 20th of the same month, and Tennessee on the 6th of June. Both the North and the South now rushed to arms. When Congress assembled, the President in a brief message rehearsed the acts of rebellion and said: "This issue embraces more than the fate of the United States. It presents to the whole family of man the question whether a constitutional republic or democracy - a government of the people by the same people - can or cannot maintain its territorial integrity against its own domestic foes."
The first great battle, on the field of Bull Run, resulted disastrously to the Union army, which was driven back upon Washington. It was now clear that the struggle would be long and bloody. President Lincoln promptly issued a call for five hundred thousand troops. The North responded eagerly, and the quota was soon full. General Scott, enfeebled by age, was retired at his own request, and General George B. McClellan was placed in command of the Army of the Potomac. The year 1862 was marked by desperate fighting, and while in the West Union victories were won, in the East there was only the negative victory at Antietam to offset the disastrous peninsular campaign of McClellan the crushing defeat of Pope at the second battle of Bull Run, and of Burnside at Fredericksburg. It was a period of great depression for the friends of the Union, but none suffered so keenly as the worn out anxious President. The emancipation of the slaves of the South was now urged upon Lincoln as a legitimate and necessary war measure. He was profoundly impressed with the gravity of the issues involved in this step, and of the responsibility which it thrust upon him. After careful deliberation Lincoln decided to act, and on Monday Sept. 22, 1862, he issued his proclamition, declaring that on and after Jan. l, 1863, all slaves in States or parts of States then in rebellion should be free. Two years later, Lincoln said of this proclamation: "As affairs have turned it is the central act of my administration, and the great event of the nineteenth century. The Summer of 1863 witnessed the capture of Vicksburg by General Grant, and the defeat of Lee at Gettysburg, events which proved to be the turning point of the war. The end was delayed, General Grant was placed in command of all the armies of the United States, and the long and bloody campaigns of Atlanta, the Wilderness and the seige of Richmond were fought with desperate bravery and enormous loss on both sides. But the fate of the Confederacy was sealed. The final stroke was given on the 9th of April, 1865, when Lee surrendered his whole army to Grant at Appomattox. The war was over, and in the public rejoicings all hearts turned to the man whose courage had never faltered, and who, "with charity for all and malice toward none," had guided the nation through her deadly peril. The patient man who had suffered the pain of a thousand deaths during the war; who had been misunderstood, maligned, and condemned by friends as well as enemies, now shone conspicuous in popular affection. He had liberated a race; he had saved his country. But the joy of the nation was soon change to mourning. On the evening of April 14th, Lincoln, attended with his wife, occupied a box in Ford's theatre. While he was absorbed in the play, an actor named John Wilkes Booth suddenly entered the box, held a pistol at the back of Lincoln's head and fired; then leaped upon the stage and escaped. The ball pierced the brain; Lincoln sank unconscious and died the next morning. The assassin was pursued, found concealed in a barn in Carolina County, Virginia, and refusing to surrender was shot dead.
Rarely was a man so fitted to the event. The name of Lincoln will remain one of the greatest that history has inscribed on its annals. | 2,366 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Was Antigone A Tragic Heroine? Essay
Tragedy, to be at its finest, requires a complex, not a simple, structure, and its structure should also imitate fearful and pitiful events. These words of wisdom come from the great philosopher Aristotle. Antigone, written by Sophocles, exemplifies Aristotles definition of tragedy, and more precise the tragic heroine. Antigone the main character/heroine in this tragic tale, risks her life to bury her brother Polyneices. As she pleased the Gods, she was punished by family member and king, Creon.
Antigone parallels Aristotles definition of a tragic heroine because she attains a fatal flaw, and instills fear and pity into the audience.
Antigones fatal flaw is that she is stubborn. Antigone was determined to bury her brother regardless of any punishment she would receive for it. In fact, she knew what the repercussions were before she buried him, and yet she still chose to do it. She wouldnt even lie about it when Creon asked her if she confesses, she said I deny nothing. (208) This cannot more blatantly illustrate how stubborn she is.
She dies because of her stubbornness. Antigone most likely gets her stubborn side from Oedipus. If Oedipus would have listened to the prophet and not have been so stubborn in searching for the truth he would have never found out he killed his dad and married his mom. If she would have just listened to what Creon ordered, or lied about it, than she probably would have lived throughout the play. But if she would have lived there would be no point to the play. In order to fulfill the tragedy she must die.
This is why she possesses the fatal flaw stubbornness.
Along with giving Antigone a fatal flaw, Sophocles also makes us (the audience) pity her. The way he writes the play makes the audience feel sorry for her. We feel pity for this poor little girl who is being sentenced to death by evil King Creon. Sophocles makes it seem that this innocent girls is being sentenced to death for merely standing up for what she believes is good and right in her eyes and in the eyes of the Gods. Antigone understands that life is only temporary, but death is forever and this is why she stresses the importance of following the laws of the Gods.
In this case who would not pity her for being sentenced to death for doing something so righteous? It was sad when Antigone knew she would have to die although she was doing a good deed. When Antigone was pleading with her sister Icemen not to confess to burying she said You are alive, but I belong to death. (213) This makes the audience pity her even more. It feels like she is going to die regardless and there is nothing anyone can do to help. She said this because even if Creon didnt kill her she would kill herself if kept in a small cell away from those who she loved. This also contributes to making us feel sorry for her.
The final element that produces the tragic heroine is that Sophocles makes the audience fear for Antigone. We are afraid for Antigone because her fate was already known just like Oedipus fate, she would die. I have seen this gathering sorrow from time long past loom upon Oedipus children: generation from generation (215) The chorus meant that they knew that all of Oedipus children have not died with such sadness and sorrow just by coincidence. It has all been part of the Oedipus curse. This also makes the Audience scarred knowing that a family is plagued by a curse.
Antigone is an accurate representation of Aristotles tragic heroine.
She has a fatal flaw, she makes us pity her, and makes us fear for her. Her stubbornness is what essentially kills her in the long run. We as the audience fear for her because she is fated to die. Last but not least we pity her because she is sentenced to death for doing something she sees in her eyes as just. We wanted Antigone to succeed because we know that Antigone is doing the right thing by burying her brother, pleasing the . | <urn:uuid:161b2a80-0992-47dc-89b2-c4beb685a835> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://artscolumbia.org/essays/was-antigone-a-tragic-heroine-essay-105999/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00392.warc.gz | en | 0.984424 | 880 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.2452084720134... | 2 | Was Antigone A Tragic Heroine? Essay
Tragedy, to be at its finest, requires a complex, not a simple, structure, and its structure should also imitate fearful and pitiful events. These words of wisdom come from the great philosopher Aristotle. Antigone, written by Sophocles, exemplifies Aristotles definition of tragedy, and more precise the tragic heroine. Antigone the main character/heroine in this tragic tale, risks her life to bury her brother Polyneices. As she pleased the Gods, she was punished by family member and king, Creon.
Antigone parallels Aristotles definition of a tragic heroine because she attains a fatal flaw, and instills fear and pity into the audience.
Antigones fatal flaw is that she is stubborn. Antigone was determined to bury her brother regardless of any punishment she would receive for it. In fact, she knew what the repercussions were before she buried him, and yet she still chose to do it. She wouldnt even lie about it when Creon asked her if she confesses, she said I deny nothing. (208) This cannot more blatantly illustrate how stubborn she is.
She dies because of her stubbornness. Antigone most likely gets her stubborn side from Oedipus. If Oedipus would have listened to the prophet and not have been so stubborn in searching for the truth he would have never found out he killed his dad and married his mom. If she would have just listened to what Creon ordered, or lied about it, than she probably would have lived throughout the play. But if she would have lived there would be no point to the play. In order to fulfill the tragedy she must die.
This is why she possesses the fatal flaw stubbornness.
Along with giving Antigone a fatal flaw, Sophocles also makes us (the audience) pity her. The way he writes the play makes the audience feel sorry for her. We feel pity for this poor little girl who is being sentenced to death by evil King Creon. Sophocles makes it seem that this innocent girls is being sentenced to death for merely standing up for what she believes is good and right in her eyes and in the eyes of the Gods. Antigone understands that life is only temporary, but death is forever and this is why she stresses the importance of following the laws of the Gods.
In this case who would not pity her for being sentenced to death for doing something so righteous? It was sad when Antigone knew she would have to die although she was doing a good deed. When Antigone was pleading with her sister Icemen not to confess to burying she said You are alive, but I belong to death. (213) This makes the audience pity her even more. It feels like she is going to die regardless and there is nothing anyone can do to help. She said this because even if Creon didnt kill her she would kill herself if kept in a small cell away from those who she loved. This also contributes to making us feel sorry for her.
The final element that produces the tragic heroine is that Sophocles makes the audience fear for Antigone. We are afraid for Antigone because her fate was already known just like Oedipus fate, she would die. I have seen this gathering sorrow from time long past loom upon Oedipus children: generation from generation (215) The chorus meant that they knew that all of Oedipus children have not died with such sadness and sorrow just by coincidence. It has all been part of the Oedipus curse. This also makes the Audience scarred knowing that a family is plagued by a curse.
Antigone is an accurate representation of Aristotles tragic heroine.
She has a fatal flaw, she makes us pity her, and makes us fear for her. Her stubbornness is what essentially kills her in the long run. We as the audience fear for her because she is fated to die. Last but not least we pity her because she is sentenced to death for doing something she sees in her eyes as just. We wanted Antigone to succeed because we know that Antigone is doing the right thing by burying her brother, pleasing the . | 879 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Edward Whelan, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom
Mount Olympus, located in the Olympus range in the North of Greece, is one of the highest mountains in all of Europe. Today the mountain is in a National Park but once this snow-topped mountain was seen as the home of the all-powerful Greek Gods.
What Is Mount Olympus?
From the time of Homer, Mount Olympus was regarded as the home of the Gods in Greek mythology, purportedly made by the Olympian Gods themselves. According to legend, the Titans, who were the older gods, battled with the younger gods, the Olympians, for control of the world. When the young gods defeated the Titans, they celebrated their victory by building the mountain. The cloudy peaks were believed to be a screen created by the deities to hide themselves from humans’ prying eyes.
What was Olympus like?
To the Greeks, Mount Olympus was a home that was truly fit for the Gods. With great climate all-year-round, it was a veritable paradise. It was surrounded by a gate of clouds, which was in turn guarded by the God of the Seasons. Through these gates the Olympian gods would descend to earth to receive sacrifices or occasionally intervene in human affairs.
The best description of the home of the Gods is in the epic poem the Iliad. There it describes a great Palace in Olympus, including the thrones of Zeus, father of the gods, and his wife Hera. Zeus’ palace was the main structure in Olympus. The tables and other furnishings were all made by the God Hephaestus and they were actually elaborate automatons that would bring food and drink in when required. The gods would meet in the Pantheon, near Zeus’s palace; this was where the gods would assemble before the throne of the father of the Gods. The gods of the earth, rivers, seas and the nymphs would also gather to hear the commands of Zeus and his judgments.
Every god who lived on Mount Olympus had their own palace made of gold, precious jewels, and stones. There are a number of peaks on the mountain and naturally Zeus’ palace was on the highest peak. Many have noted the similarities between the Homeric version of Olympus and an ancient Greek acropolis, which was a citadel on high ground overlooking the city.
Who lived on Mount Olympus?
All of the 12 Olympian Gods lived on the Mountain, including Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Artemis, Athena, Aphrodite, and Demeter. All the great deities lived there, with the exception of Hades, the God of Death, who had his own realm and never visited the other Olympian deities.
It was believed that the Nine Muses all lived at the foot of the Mountain. They were responsible for the arts and would occasionally entertain the Olympian gods.
The defeat of Typhon
Not long after the Gods build Olympus they were attacked by the monster Typhon. He was a huge creature and had one hundred dragon heads, who all breathed fire. This monster was the son of Gaia, the personification of Earth. When Typhon attacked the home of the Gods, all of them fled apart from Zeus, Athena, and Dionysus. Typhon and Zeus engaged in a cataclysmic battle, but the Father of the Olympians emerged victoriously. He was able to defeat Typhon by striking each of his 100 heads with a thunder or lightning bolt. Later Zeus cast the monster into Tartarus abyss or buried it under Mount Etna in Sicily.
How the Gods live on Olympus
The Gods mostly enjoyed themselves in Olympus. It was believed that they held great feasts, drank nectar and ate ambrosia on the mountain. The latter was important as it helped keep them immortal. When they were at home they would often view the fate of humans. Many of the gods had favourite heroes and humans whom they tried to support. Homer portrays the gods as spectating on the pain and suffering of humans with at best, indifference, and more than often with pleasure. In the Iliad, the gods are fascinated by the Trojan War; some are shown as supporting the Greeks and others the Trojans.
The myth of Bellerophon
While Zeus ordained that no human could ascend Mount Olympus upon pain of death, Bellerophon tried to enter the home of the Gods. According to legend he was a Corinthian hero, famous for killing the monster Chimera. Bellerophon was a favourite of the Goddess Athena and she helped him to capture the winged horse Pegasus. He became so proud, however, that he wanted to join the Olympians, an act of hubris or offense against the divinities. As he was flying towards the holy mountains, Zeus sent a fly to sting Pegasus. When the fly did sting the mythical horse, he threw Bellerophon, who fell to earth and died.
The sacred city of Dion
At the north-east foot of the mountain was the holy Macedonian city of Dion. This was dedicated to Zeus and the other Olympian Gods. It was an important ritual center, full of palaces, temples, and villas. It flourished from the 5th century BC until the Christianization of Greece in the 4th century AD. | <urn:uuid:a74141c6-45f2-4274-9fad-316f272d05a3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://classicalwisdom.com/mythology/history-of-mount-olympus/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00282.warc.gz | en | 0.983786 | 1,080 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.638760983... | 11 | By Edward Whelan, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom
Mount Olympus, located in the Olympus range in the North of Greece, is one of the highest mountains in all of Europe. Today the mountain is in a National Park but once this snow-topped mountain was seen as the home of the all-powerful Greek Gods.
What Is Mount Olympus?
From the time of Homer, Mount Olympus was regarded as the home of the Gods in Greek mythology, purportedly made by the Olympian Gods themselves. According to legend, the Titans, who were the older gods, battled with the younger gods, the Olympians, for control of the world. When the young gods defeated the Titans, they celebrated their victory by building the mountain. The cloudy peaks were believed to be a screen created by the deities to hide themselves from humans’ prying eyes.
What was Olympus like?
To the Greeks, Mount Olympus was a home that was truly fit for the Gods. With great climate all-year-round, it was a veritable paradise. It was surrounded by a gate of clouds, which was in turn guarded by the God of the Seasons. Through these gates the Olympian gods would descend to earth to receive sacrifices or occasionally intervene in human affairs.
The best description of the home of the Gods is in the epic poem the Iliad. There it describes a great Palace in Olympus, including the thrones of Zeus, father of the gods, and his wife Hera. Zeus’ palace was the main structure in Olympus. The tables and other furnishings were all made by the God Hephaestus and they were actually elaborate automatons that would bring food and drink in when required. The gods would meet in the Pantheon, near Zeus’s palace; this was where the gods would assemble before the throne of the father of the Gods. The gods of the earth, rivers, seas and the nymphs would also gather to hear the commands of Zeus and his judgments.
Every god who lived on Mount Olympus had their own palace made of gold, precious jewels, and stones. There are a number of peaks on the mountain and naturally Zeus’ palace was on the highest peak. Many have noted the similarities between the Homeric version of Olympus and an ancient Greek acropolis, which was a citadel on high ground overlooking the city.
Who lived on Mount Olympus?
All of the 12 Olympian Gods lived on the Mountain, including Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Artemis, Athena, Aphrodite, and Demeter. All the great deities lived there, with the exception of Hades, the God of Death, who had his own realm and never visited the other Olympian deities.
It was believed that the Nine Muses all lived at the foot of the Mountain. They were responsible for the arts and would occasionally entertain the Olympian gods.
The defeat of Typhon
Not long after the Gods build Olympus they were attacked by the monster Typhon. He was a huge creature and had one hundred dragon heads, who all breathed fire. This monster was the son of Gaia, the personification of Earth. When Typhon attacked the home of the Gods, all of them fled apart from Zeus, Athena, and Dionysus. Typhon and Zeus engaged in a cataclysmic battle, but the Father of the Olympians emerged victoriously. He was able to defeat Typhon by striking each of his 100 heads with a thunder or lightning bolt. Later Zeus cast the monster into Tartarus abyss or buried it under Mount Etna in Sicily.
How the Gods live on Olympus
The Gods mostly enjoyed themselves in Olympus. It was believed that they held great feasts, drank nectar and ate ambrosia on the mountain. The latter was important as it helped keep them immortal. When they were at home they would often view the fate of humans. Many of the gods had favourite heroes and humans whom they tried to support. Homer portrays the gods as spectating on the pain and suffering of humans with at best, indifference, and more than often with pleasure. In the Iliad, the gods are fascinated by the Trojan War; some are shown as supporting the Greeks and others the Trojans.
The myth of Bellerophon
While Zeus ordained that no human could ascend Mount Olympus upon pain of death, Bellerophon tried to enter the home of the Gods. According to legend he was a Corinthian hero, famous for killing the monster Chimera. Bellerophon was a favourite of the Goddess Athena and she helped him to capture the winged horse Pegasus. He became so proud, however, that he wanted to join the Olympians, an act of hubris or offense against the divinities. As he was flying towards the holy mountains, Zeus sent a fly to sting Pegasus. When the fly did sting the mythical horse, he threw Bellerophon, who fell to earth and died.
The sacred city of Dion
At the north-east foot of the mountain was the holy Macedonian city of Dion. This was dedicated to Zeus and the other Olympian Gods. It was an important ritual center, full of palaces, temples, and villas. It flourished from the 5th century BC until the Christianization of Greece in the 4th century AD. | 1,074 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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Diocese ; suffragan of Salzburg. Trent became universally known through the famous general council held there from 1545 to 1563. At an earlier date, however, it had a certain historical importance. In 15 B.C. its territory became subject to the Romans. As early as 381 there appeared at the Council of Aquileia Abundantius, Bishop of Trent. While Arianism and the barbarian invasions elsewhere smothered the seed of the gospel, it grew in Trent under the care and protection of St. Vigilius. Bishop Valerian of Aquileia had consecrated the youthful Vigilius, while the great Ambrose of Milan had instructed him as to his duties in lengthy, fatherly, epistles. Vigilius came to his end prematurely; he was stoned to death when barely forty years of age.
In the sixth century during the Three Chapters controversy, the Provinces of Milan and Aquileia continued in schism even after Popes Vigilius and Pelagius I had recognized the decrees of the Council of Constantinople; through the Patriarch of Aquileia the bishops of Trent also persisted in the schism. Placed between Germany and Italy, Trent was exposed to the influences of both. Ecclesiastically it remained subject to Aquileia until 1751, but in political affairs it could not withstand the power of the Salic and Saxon kings and emperors. Under the first Franconian king, Bishop Ulrich II became an independent prince of the empire, with the powers and privileges of a duke. In consideration of imperial favour the bishops of Trent sided with Henry IV and Frederick I during the great struggle between the Church and the Empire, but in such a skilful manner so as to avoid a rupture with the pope. Bishop Adelbert is even revered as a saint, although he sided with the antipope Victor IV, who had been chosen by the emperor; in those times of confusion it was often difficult to find the right path. He died a martyr in defence of the rights of his see (1177). Under Innocent III, Friedrich von Wanga raised Trent to the height of its power and influence. He was a great temporal and ecclesiastical ruler. He used every means to kindle and strengthen the religious spirit, and began the building of the splendid Romanesque cathedral. He died at Acre in 1218 during the Fourth Crusade .
The untimely death of Meinhard III, son of Margaret of Tyrol, brought Trent under the rule of Austria in 1363. In 1369 Rudolph IV concluded a treaty with Bishop Albrecht II of Ortenburg, by virtue of which Rudolph became the real sovereign of the diocese. The bishop promised in his own name and in that of his successors to acknowledge the duke and his heirs as lords, and to render assistance to them against their enemies. Thereafter Trent ceased to be an independent principality, and became a part of the Tyrol. Ortenburg's successor was George I of Liechtenstein, who endeavoured to regain its independence for the see. His efforts involved him in several wars, terminated only by his death in 1419. More than once during these wars he was taken prisoner, while the duke was excommunicated and the see interdicted.
The much discussed story of the death of St. Simon of Trent belongs to the reign of Prince-Bishop Johannes IV Hinderbach. On Holy Thursday of the year 1475, the little child, then about 20 months old, son of a gardener, was missed by its parents. On the evening of Easter Sunday the body was found in a ditch. Several Jews, who were accused of the murder, were cruelly tortured.
The sixteenth century was a time of trouble and worry for the Church in the Tyrol. In the towns the Lutherans, in the villages and among the peasants the Anabaptists, multiplied. After many ineffectual efforts, the sovereign, bishops and several monastic orders combined their authority, and a new order set in, which reached its climax in the Council of Trent. At the time of the council Cardinal Christoph von Madrutz was prince-bishop. He was succeeded by three members of his house, with the last of whom the house of Madrutz died out. The decrees of the council were executed but slowly. In 1593 Cardinal Ludwig von Madrutz founded the seminary, which later was conducted by the Somaschi. The Jesuits came to Trent in 1622.
Peter Vigil, Count of Thun, governed the see during the Josephite reforms, with which he was in sympathy. He abolished some of the monasteries in his territory, interfered with the constitutions of the various orders, and closed some churches. When the patriarchate of Aquileia ceased to exist in 1751, Trent became exempt. During the administration of his successor, Emmanuel Maria Count of Thun, it ceased to be an independent ecclesiastical principality (1803). The Bavarian Government insisted on the following: (1) priests were to be ordained only after an examination at the university ; (2) the bishops were to order their clergy to obey all orders of the Government in connection with the ecclesiastical police; (3) when filling benefices a list of three names was to be presented by the bishop to the Government or by the Government to the bishop ; (4) recourse to Rome or combination with other bishops was forbidden. Bishop Emmanuel replied that he would remain true to his oath to support and defend the privileges of the Church, and that he would rather suffer all the consequences which might arise from his refusal rather than act against his conscience. He was expelled in 1807 and crossed the frontier into Salzburg at Reichenhall. He could only return after the Tyrolese had freed themselves of the Bavarian yoke. After the Peace of Viena negotiation were begun relative to the circumscription of the dioceses of the Tyrol, and were concluded in 1825. Trent was made a suffragan of Salzburg, and the bishops, instead of being chosen by the chapter, were appointed by the emperor. The 115th Bishop of Trent was Johann Nepomuk Tschiderer. He died on 12 March, 1860, and his canonization is already under way. The diocese numbers 602,000 Catholics 1072 priests, 817 male religious, and 1527 nuns.
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Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | <urn:uuid:68f9789e-80af-483f-a88f-3cdca2f70d58> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=11680 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00070.warc.gz | en | 0.982104 | 1,489 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.009714160114... | 1 | Help Now >
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Diocese ; suffragan of Salzburg. Trent became universally known through the famous general council held there from 1545 to 1563. At an earlier date, however, it had a certain historical importance. In 15 B.C. its territory became subject to the Romans. As early as 381 there appeared at the Council of Aquileia Abundantius, Bishop of Trent. While Arianism and the barbarian invasions elsewhere smothered the seed of the gospel, it grew in Trent under the care and protection of St. Vigilius. Bishop Valerian of Aquileia had consecrated the youthful Vigilius, while the great Ambrose of Milan had instructed him as to his duties in lengthy, fatherly, epistles. Vigilius came to his end prematurely; he was stoned to death when barely forty years of age.
In the sixth century during the Three Chapters controversy, the Provinces of Milan and Aquileia continued in schism even after Popes Vigilius and Pelagius I had recognized the decrees of the Council of Constantinople; through the Patriarch of Aquileia the bishops of Trent also persisted in the schism. Placed between Germany and Italy, Trent was exposed to the influences of both. Ecclesiastically it remained subject to Aquileia until 1751, but in political affairs it could not withstand the power of the Salic and Saxon kings and emperors. Under the first Franconian king, Bishop Ulrich II became an independent prince of the empire, with the powers and privileges of a duke. In consideration of imperial favour the bishops of Trent sided with Henry IV and Frederick I during the great struggle between the Church and the Empire, but in such a skilful manner so as to avoid a rupture with the pope. Bishop Adelbert is even revered as a saint, although he sided with the antipope Victor IV, who had been chosen by the emperor; in those times of confusion it was often difficult to find the right path. He died a martyr in defence of the rights of his see (1177). Under Innocent III, Friedrich von Wanga raised Trent to the height of its power and influence. He was a great temporal and ecclesiastical ruler. He used every means to kindle and strengthen the religious spirit, and began the building of the splendid Romanesque cathedral. He died at Acre in 1218 during the Fourth Crusade .
The untimely death of Meinhard III, son of Margaret of Tyrol, brought Trent under the rule of Austria in 1363. In 1369 Rudolph IV concluded a treaty with Bishop Albrecht II of Ortenburg, by virtue of which Rudolph became the real sovereign of the diocese. The bishop promised in his own name and in that of his successors to acknowledge the duke and his heirs as lords, and to render assistance to them against their enemies. Thereafter Trent ceased to be an independent principality, and became a part of the Tyrol. Ortenburg's successor was George I of Liechtenstein, who endeavoured to regain its independence for the see. His efforts involved him in several wars, terminated only by his death in 1419. More than once during these wars he was taken prisoner, while the duke was excommunicated and the see interdicted.
The much discussed story of the death of St. Simon of Trent belongs to the reign of Prince-Bishop Johannes IV Hinderbach. On Holy Thursday of the year 1475, the little child, then about 20 months old, son of a gardener, was missed by its parents. On the evening of Easter Sunday the body was found in a ditch. Several Jews, who were accused of the murder, were cruelly tortured.
The sixteenth century was a time of trouble and worry for the Church in the Tyrol. In the towns the Lutherans, in the villages and among the peasants the Anabaptists, multiplied. After many ineffectual efforts, the sovereign, bishops and several monastic orders combined their authority, and a new order set in, which reached its climax in the Council of Trent. At the time of the council Cardinal Christoph von Madrutz was prince-bishop. He was succeeded by three members of his house, with the last of whom the house of Madrutz died out. The decrees of the council were executed but slowly. In 1593 Cardinal Ludwig von Madrutz founded the seminary, which later was conducted by the Somaschi. The Jesuits came to Trent in 1622.
Peter Vigil, Count of Thun, governed the see during the Josephite reforms, with which he was in sympathy. He abolished some of the monasteries in his territory, interfered with the constitutions of the various orders, and closed some churches. When the patriarchate of Aquileia ceased to exist in 1751, Trent became exempt. During the administration of his successor, Emmanuel Maria Count of Thun, it ceased to be an independent ecclesiastical principality (1803). The Bavarian Government insisted on the following: (1) priests were to be ordained only after an examination at the university ; (2) the bishops were to order their clergy to obey all orders of the Government in connection with the ecclesiastical police; (3) when filling benefices a list of three names was to be presented by the bishop to the Government or by the Government to the bishop ; (4) recourse to Rome or combination with other bishops was forbidden. Bishop Emmanuel replied that he would remain true to his oath to support and defend the privileges of the Church, and that he would rather suffer all the consequences which might arise from his refusal rather than act against his conscience. He was expelled in 1807 and crossed the frontier into Salzburg at Reichenhall. He could only return after the Tyrolese had freed themselves of the Bavarian yoke. After the Peace of Viena negotiation were begun relative to the circumscription of the dioceses of the Tyrol, and were concluded in 1825. Trent was made a suffragan of Salzburg, and the bishops, instead of being chosen by the chapter, were appointed by the emperor. The 115th Bishop of Trent was Johann Nepomuk Tschiderer. He died on 12 March, 1860, and his canonization is already under way. The diocese numbers 602,000 Catholics 1072 priests, 817 male religious, and 1527 nuns.
FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything
Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | 1,564 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The global flow of silver from the mid-sixteenth century to the eighteenth century had vast effects both socially and economically for all countries involved. When the flow of silver started there was already an interregional trade established, however, silver had not yet become the primary form of currency. The importance of silver only increased when China, a primary trade company, made silver the only thing they would exchange their goods for. The need for silver had both positive and negative effects on the societies and economies of England, China, Portugal, and Spain. The global flow of silver quickly turned into a negative thing in China. Since China does not geographically naturally have silver, the only way for them to obtain it was from trade with other countries. In fact, silver became so scarce in China that even though the people pay their taxes in silver, but “disburses little silver in its expenditures” (Document 2). This means that even though the citizens in China were required to pay taxes in silver, they did not receive silver back. Another effect that the silver trade had in China was the effect on farmers. Document 2 tells us that “As the price of grain falls, tillers of the soil receive lower returns on their labors, and thus less land is put into cultivation.” This quote is saying that since the price of grain fell, farmers were making less money, and because of this less farming was going on. The trade also affected the Indian workers, which relied on other countries to want the silver since “So huge is the wealth that has been taken out of this range” (Document 3). Since the other countries did not naturally have silver, they relied on trade with the countries that did. This created an influx of work for the Indians, as they had to keep up with the growing demand. It is important to note, however, that this specific document may be biased, as it was written in order to gain freedom for the Indians. It also created harsher conditions for them since they needed to produce so much so quickly. We can see this in Document 5 which depicts a picture of Indians who are working on the mountain by excavating silver from it. Not only did it have an effect on the workers in Spain, it also had an effect on the economy. The silver caused huge inflations in Spain since “The high prices ruined Spain as the prices attracted Asian commodity dealers and the silver currency flowed out of Spain to pay for them.? What this means is that the more money was leaving Spain and going into Asia since goods were being bought and this severely wounded Spain’s economy. Another problem the trade created was exploitation. Since the trade was basically built off of greed, it is no surprise that the foreigners who didn’t know better were victims of exploitation. We can see evidence of this in Document 6 when it says “Chinese silk yarn worth 100 bars of silver can be sold in the Philippines at a price of 200 to 300 bars of silver there.” The Chinese were going over to the Philippines and raising the price on everything out of pure greed. Since the only thing the Chinese wanted was silver, they wanted to gain as much as it as they could. And one easy way to do this was charge more for goods to people who wouldn’t know better. Although, this is not the first time this has happened in history. One example of this would be slavery. The Europeans went there with technology the Africans did not have, took their people, and then sold them all around the world for money.The silver did, however, help some of the countries. Document 4 says that the Portuguese went to Japan and “brings back more than 600,000 coins’ worth of Japanese silver. The Portuguese use this Japanese silver to their great advantage in China.” Since silver was worth so much China, those who had a lot of it were what we were considered rich. Silver could buy the Portuguese virtually anything they needed or wanted in China. One of the worst effects of the silver trade, however, happened between China and England. It was called the Opium War. And it happened when the British East India Company exported opium to China. The Chinese obviously became addicted to said opiums and continued to buy them from the British. The money was then used to buy spices, silks, and other luxury goods from China. However, China didn’t just become dependent on England, they also started to rely on China for luxury goods. We see this in Document 7 when it says “But since Europe has tasted of this luxury, since the custom of a hundred years has made Asian spices seem necessary to all degrees of people, since Asian silks are pleasing everywhere to the better sort, and since their dyed cotton cloth is useful wear at home, and in our own colonies, and for the Spaniards in America, it can never be advisable for England to quit this trade, and leave it to any other nation.” This quote is explaining the need for trade with China since the British have already become emotionally dependent on these luxuries. Overall the Global Flow of Silver had both negative and positives effects. Although, it may have had more negative effects, as both the economies and social situations became changed forever. In order to understand this topic further, a chart showing the territorial gains or losses between both countries, before and after the era of silver exchange, would directly demonstrate how each economy used the trade for conquest and territorial advantage. | <urn:uuid:c1b7afbe-8dd6-44af-9de4-db224d357e02> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://johnnyfavourit.com/the-into-a-negative-thing-in-china-since/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00223.warc.gz | en | 0.988705 | 1,111 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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0.182826131582... | 1 | The global flow of silver from the mid-sixteenth century to the eighteenth century had vast effects both socially and economically for all countries involved. When the flow of silver started there was already an interregional trade established, however, silver had not yet become the primary form of currency. The importance of silver only increased when China, a primary trade company, made silver the only thing they would exchange their goods for. The need for silver had both positive and negative effects on the societies and economies of England, China, Portugal, and Spain. The global flow of silver quickly turned into a negative thing in China. Since China does not geographically naturally have silver, the only way for them to obtain it was from trade with other countries. In fact, silver became so scarce in China that even though the people pay their taxes in silver, but “disburses little silver in its expenditures” (Document 2). This means that even though the citizens in China were required to pay taxes in silver, they did not receive silver back. Another effect that the silver trade had in China was the effect on farmers. Document 2 tells us that “As the price of grain falls, tillers of the soil receive lower returns on their labors, and thus less land is put into cultivation.” This quote is saying that since the price of grain fell, farmers were making less money, and because of this less farming was going on. The trade also affected the Indian workers, which relied on other countries to want the silver since “So huge is the wealth that has been taken out of this range” (Document 3). Since the other countries did not naturally have silver, they relied on trade with the countries that did. This created an influx of work for the Indians, as they had to keep up with the growing demand. It is important to note, however, that this specific document may be biased, as it was written in order to gain freedom for the Indians. It also created harsher conditions for them since they needed to produce so much so quickly. We can see this in Document 5 which depicts a picture of Indians who are working on the mountain by excavating silver from it. Not only did it have an effect on the workers in Spain, it also had an effect on the economy. The silver caused huge inflations in Spain since “The high prices ruined Spain as the prices attracted Asian commodity dealers and the silver currency flowed out of Spain to pay for them.? What this means is that the more money was leaving Spain and going into Asia since goods were being bought and this severely wounded Spain’s economy. Another problem the trade created was exploitation. Since the trade was basically built off of greed, it is no surprise that the foreigners who didn’t know better were victims of exploitation. We can see evidence of this in Document 6 when it says “Chinese silk yarn worth 100 bars of silver can be sold in the Philippines at a price of 200 to 300 bars of silver there.” The Chinese were going over to the Philippines and raising the price on everything out of pure greed. Since the only thing the Chinese wanted was silver, they wanted to gain as much as it as they could. And one easy way to do this was charge more for goods to people who wouldn’t know better. Although, this is not the first time this has happened in history. One example of this would be slavery. The Europeans went there with technology the Africans did not have, took their people, and then sold them all around the world for money.The silver did, however, help some of the countries. Document 4 says that the Portuguese went to Japan and “brings back more than 600,000 coins’ worth of Japanese silver. The Portuguese use this Japanese silver to their great advantage in China.” Since silver was worth so much China, those who had a lot of it were what we were considered rich. Silver could buy the Portuguese virtually anything they needed or wanted in China. One of the worst effects of the silver trade, however, happened between China and England. It was called the Opium War. And it happened when the British East India Company exported opium to China. The Chinese obviously became addicted to said opiums and continued to buy them from the British. The money was then used to buy spices, silks, and other luxury goods from China. However, China didn’t just become dependent on England, they also started to rely on China for luxury goods. We see this in Document 7 when it says “But since Europe has tasted of this luxury, since the custom of a hundred years has made Asian spices seem necessary to all degrees of people, since Asian silks are pleasing everywhere to the better sort, and since their dyed cotton cloth is useful wear at home, and in our own colonies, and for the Spaniards in America, it can never be advisable for England to quit this trade, and leave it to any other nation.” This quote is explaining the need for trade with China since the British have already become emotionally dependent on these luxuries. Overall the Global Flow of Silver had both negative and positives effects. Although, it may have had more negative effects, as both the economies and social situations became changed forever. In order to understand this topic further, a chart showing the territorial gains or losses between both countries, before and after the era of silver exchange, would directly demonstrate how each economy used the trade for conquest and territorial advantage. | 1,110 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 4 (813 words)
Thomas Hardy was a 19th century novelist and a 20th century poet. As a novelist, he was last of the great Victorian novelists such as William Thackeray, Charlotte and Emily Bronte, Charles Dickens and George Eliot. The last decade of the 19th century was dominated by Thomas Hardy. He wrote 14 novels and almost 900 poems. Hardy’s reputation as a novelist grew during the last decades of of his life and his poetry was relatively neglected. His novels share a pessimist view of the human condition and life.
Pessimism is derived from the Latin word ‘Pessimism’ (worst). It is based on a belief that the world is the worst possible and that things are bad and tend to become worse. Thomas Hardy worked out a pessimist theory of his own according to which man is just a puppet in the hands of an inscrutable and malicious force which governs the world and seems to enjoy inflicting endless sufferings. The fact that Hardy resented being called a pessimist is no reason why should not be thus described.
Hardy was the painter of darker side of life as it was no wonder if people charge him of ‘pessimist’. The opinion is both right and wrong in this context. In fact, there are some factors that compel us to believe him a pessimist. He was hyper-sensitive, his own life was tragic and gloomy. For a speculative soul, this world is a thorny field. Thomas Hardy captured the heartbeat of the rural English people against the looming backdrop of encroaching industrialism.
His novels have a genuine, almost autobiographical feel because he used many personal experiences, acquaintances, settings and opinions in his fiction. Thomas Hardy’s pessimism also represents actual events. Relationships and social issues of Hardy’s life. Hardy’s fatalism and pessimism began to manifest itself in his early childhood, as he was the result of an unplanned pregnancy, and then later in his youth, when his family could not afford to fund a full education. As he grew into adulthood, Hardy began to feel acutely the line drawn between him and those of a higher class.
His despairing relationships with two women, his cousin Tryphena Sparksand his first wife, Emma Lavinia Gifford, were the inspiration for the futile plotlines of his three novels. Because of the harsh society in which he lived, his lack of money, two unhappy relationships, and the failure of his last two novels to be accepted by his readers; (due to their anti-marriage, anti-social and anti-religious material), Thomas Hardy emerged as a pessimistic novelist and poet of the 19th century.
Because of autobiographical touch in his novels, some of the Hardy’s heroes and even heroines adopt his personal qualities and go through some of the same life situations that he did. Additionally, many of the Hardy’s female characters are extremely similar to the lovers and friends he had throughout his life. Hardy personally felt the crushing pressure of the Victorian society, namely its rules and regulations concerning love and marriage. Hardy, and therefore, his characters often rebel against this society, making decisions that contradict the expectation of their society.
Many times, Hardy felt that he was an outcast in his society, partly because his religious beliefs did not match up with the church’s, but also because his social thoughts and actions were more progressive than his counterparts. After experiencing years of disagreement with the England of the 1800 s and having a marked desire for progression, Hardy became understandably morose. His novels became increasingly dismal and pessimistic and it is for this fatalistic tone that he is greatly remembered. The Victorian age was an age of doubt, of contradictions and conflicts. This fact too shows its impact on the writing of Hardy.
People were to live by the Bible but many took it in the strict sense and followed the literal words strictly we see in ‘Tess of the D’Urbervilles’ how Tess is treated unjustly by the society, which followed the law in words and not in spirit. The gloomy effect of his age plays an important role in his writings. Doubts, despair, disbelief, frustration, industrial revolution, disintegration of old social and economic structure, Darwin’s theory of evolution were gthe chief characteristics of that age. All these factors probe deep into his writings, and heighten the somber , melancholic and tragic vision.
His pessimism is also the outcome of the impressions that he receives from villager’s life. There were plenty of tragedies in the life of the poverty stricken Wessen folk, as shown in this novel ‘Tess of D’Urbervilles’. Hardy’s philosophy of the human condition is determined by his natural temper and disposition, He says: “A man’s Philosophy of life is an instinctive, temperamental matter. ” Hardy, practically, excludes from his writings the sense of splendour and beauty of human life completely. Tess’ life is totally devoid of even a single moment of happiness.
Cite this page
Charles Dickens. (2016, Nov 26). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/charles-dickens-essay | <urn:uuid:bf069549-f074-48b8-acc3-919eb82852de> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/charles-dickens-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00094.warc.gz | en | 0.984026 | 1,096 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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Thomas Hardy was a 19th century novelist and a 20th century poet. As a novelist, he was last of the great Victorian novelists such as William Thackeray, Charlotte and Emily Bronte, Charles Dickens and George Eliot. The last decade of the 19th century was dominated by Thomas Hardy. He wrote 14 novels and almost 900 poems. Hardy’s reputation as a novelist grew during the last decades of of his life and his poetry was relatively neglected. His novels share a pessimist view of the human condition and life.
Pessimism is derived from the Latin word ‘Pessimism’ (worst). It is based on a belief that the world is the worst possible and that things are bad and tend to become worse. Thomas Hardy worked out a pessimist theory of his own according to which man is just a puppet in the hands of an inscrutable and malicious force which governs the world and seems to enjoy inflicting endless sufferings. The fact that Hardy resented being called a pessimist is no reason why should not be thus described.
Hardy was the painter of darker side of life as it was no wonder if people charge him of ‘pessimist’. The opinion is both right and wrong in this context. In fact, there are some factors that compel us to believe him a pessimist. He was hyper-sensitive, his own life was tragic and gloomy. For a speculative soul, this world is a thorny field. Thomas Hardy captured the heartbeat of the rural English people against the looming backdrop of encroaching industrialism.
His novels have a genuine, almost autobiographical feel because he used many personal experiences, acquaintances, settings and opinions in his fiction. Thomas Hardy’s pessimism also represents actual events. Relationships and social issues of Hardy’s life. Hardy’s fatalism and pessimism began to manifest itself in his early childhood, as he was the result of an unplanned pregnancy, and then later in his youth, when his family could not afford to fund a full education. As he grew into adulthood, Hardy began to feel acutely the line drawn between him and those of a higher class.
His despairing relationships with two women, his cousin Tryphena Sparksand his first wife, Emma Lavinia Gifford, were the inspiration for the futile plotlines of his three novels. Because of the harsh society in which he lived, his lack of money, two unhappy relationships, and the failure of his last two novels to be accepted by his readers; (due to their anti-marriage, anti-social and anti-religious material), Thomas Hardy emerged as a pessimistic novelist and poet of the 19th century.
Because of autobiographical touch in his novels, some of the Hardy’s heroes and even heroines adopt his personal qualities and go through some of the same life situations that he did. Additionally, many of the Hardy’s female characters are extremely similar to the lovers and friends he had throughout his life. Hardy personally felt the crushing pressure of the Victorian society, namely its rules and regulations concerning love and marriage. Hardy, and therefore, his characters often rebel against this society, making decisions that contradict the expectation of their society.
Many times, Hardy felt that he was an outcast in his society, partly because his religious beliefs did not match up with the church’s, but also because his social thoughts and actions were more progressive than his counterparts. After experiencing years of disagreement with the England of the 1800 s and having a marked desire for progression, Hardy became understandably morose. His novels became increasingly dismal and pessimistic and it is for this fatalistic tone that he is greatly remembered. The Victorian age was an age of doubt, of contradictions and conflicts. This fact too shows its impact on the writing of Hardy.
People were to live by the Bible but many took it in the strict sense and followed the literal words strictly we see in ‘Tess of the D’Urbervilles’ how Tess is treated unjustly by the society, which followed the law in words and not in spirit. The gloomy effect of his age plays an important role in his writings. Doubts, despair, disbelief, frustration, industrial revolution, disintegration of old social and economic structure, Darwin’s theory of evolution were gthe chief characteristics of that age. All these factors probe deep into his writings, and heighten the somber , melancholic and tragic vision.
His pessimism is also the outcome of the impressions that he receives from villager’s life. There were plenty of tragedies in the life of the poverty stricken Wessen folk, as shown in this novel ‘Tess of D’Urbervilles’. Hardy’s philosophy of the human condition is determined by his natural temper and disposition, He says: “A man’s Philosophy of life is an instinctive, temperamental matter. ” Hardy, practically, excludes from his writings the sense of splendour and beauty of human life completely. Tess’ life is totally devoid of even a single moment of happiness.
Cite this page
Charles Dickens. (2016, Nov 26). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/charles-dickens-essay | 1,077 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Isaac Newton was born on December 25, 1642 in a place known as Woolsthorpe in England. His father, Isaac Newton, passed on three months before Newton’s birth. Isaac Newton’s mother was named Hannah Ayscough. Newton was born prematurely with minimal chances of surviving. At the age of three, Newton’s mother got remarried and moved away to stay with her husband. She left Newton with his maternal grandmother. Newton attended high school at The King’s School located in Grantham. He was ranked top of his class and in June 1661, Isaac Newton joined Trinity College in Cambridge. Besides his law degree course, he grew interest in he works of philosophers at the time such as Hobbes, Boyle, Aristotle and Galileo. He spent a lot of his free time studying their work.
4. Major Contributions
One of the major contributions of Isaac Newton was in optics. He invented and taught the use of a reflecting telescope 1668. The telescope came in handy in explaining his theory of light. He also published Hypothesis of Light and Opticks papers with the aim of shedding light on his theory of light. The theory of light became the basis of modern physical optics. Newton’s second important contribution was in mathematics. He was the first to develop infinitesimal calculus. Thirdly, Newton developed the Law of Gravity and developed the three laws of motion in modern physics. Isaac Newton also spent time studying the Bible and alchemy.
Newton was elected a fellow of trinity in 1667. He was appointed as the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the year 1669. From the years 1670-1672 Newton lectured on optics and mathematics at Cambridge University. He succeeded Professor Isaac Barrow who was always impressed at his work. Isaac Newton became a fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1672. Interestingly, besides Newton revolutionizing the science world, he had a political career too. In 1689-1690 he was elected to represent Cambridge in Parliament. He was appointed to serve as the “warden of the mint” while in parliament. In this position, Isaac Newton did a tremendous job which involved currency reformation and dealing with counterfeits. He moved the British sterling pound from silver to the gold standard.
The greatest critic of Isaac Newton’s scientific work was Robert Hooke. He attacked Newton’s methodology and conclusions on the theory of light. According to Hooke, light was made up of waves. However, Newton believed light was made up of particles. Their differences in scientific opinion led to enmity between them and Newton almost quit the Royal Society. The members of the society were very supportive and defended Newton’s work against Robert Hooke’s plagiarism claims. Isaac Newton also had a challenge with his character. He felt very insecure about his contributions and did not welcome even constructive criticism from his peers.
1. Death and Legacy
Isaac Newton died on March 31, 1727 after suffering from digestion problems. He had severe abdominal pains which led to him blacking out, never to regain his consciousness again. He died at the age of 84 and was acclaimed as the most famous scientist in his time. He is known to have written the book called Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. It is the most influential physics book that has ever existed. Above all things, Isaac Newton was the first man to discover the most fundamental law: The Law of Gravity. He left a lasting mark in the world of science. Isaac Newton was proclaimed by his contemporaries as the greatest genius who ever lived.
Who Was Isaac Newton?
Isaac Newton was an extremely influential mathematician, physicist, and scientist.
About the Author
Sharon is a Kenyan native with a wide range of interests. An accountant and financial analyst by profession, Sharon enjoys writing about world facts, the environment, society, politics, and more.
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Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
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0.002688227... | 1 | Isaac Newton was born on December 25, 1642 in a place known as Woolsthorpe in England. His father, Isaac Newton, passed on three months before Newton’s birth. Isaac Newton’s mother was named Hannah Ayscough. Newton was born prematurely with minimal chances of surviving. At the age of three, Newton’s mother got remarried and moved away to stay with her husband. She left Newton with his maternal grandmother. Newton attended high school at The King’s School located in Grantham. He was ranked top of his class and in June 1661, Isaac Newton joined Trinity College in Cambridge. Besides his law degree course, he grew interest in he works of philosophers at the time such as Hobbes, Boyle, Aristotle and Galileo. He spent a lot of his free time studying their work.
4. Major Contributions
One of the major contributions of Isaac Newton was in optics. He invented and taught the use of a reflecting telescope 1668. The telescope came in handy in explaining his theory of light. He also published Hypothesis of Light and Opticks papers with the aim of shedding light on his theory of light. The theory of light became the basis of modern physical optics. Newton’s second important contribution was in mathematics. He was the first to develop infinitesimal calculus. Thirdly, Newton developed the Law of Gravity and developed the three laws of motion in modern physics. Isaac Newton also spent time studying the Bible and alchemy.
Newton was elected a fellow of trinity in 1667. He was appointed as the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the year 1669. From the years 1670-1672 Newton lectured on optics and mathematics at Cambridge University. He succeeded Professor Isaac Barrow who was always impressed at his work. Isaac Newton became a fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1672. Interestingly, besides Newton revolutionizing the science world, he had a political career too. In 1689-1690 he was elected to represent Cambridge in Parliament. He was appointed to serve as the “warden of the mint” while in parliament. In this position, Isaac Newton did a tremendous job which involved currency reformation and dealing with counterfeits. He moved the British sterling pound from silver to the gold standard.
The greatest critic of Isaac Newton’s scientific work was Robert Hooke. He attacked Newton’s methodology and conclusions on the theory of light. According to Hooke, light was made up of waves. However, Newton believed light was made up of particles. Their differences in scientific opinion led to enmity between them and Newton almost quit the Royal Society. The members of the society were very supportive and defended Newton’s work against Robert Hooke’s plagiarism claims. Isaac Newton also had a challenge with his character. He felt very insecure about his contributions and did not welcome even constructive criticism from his peers.
1. Death and Legacy
Isaac Newton died on March 31, 1727 after suffering from digestion problems. He had severe abdominal pains which led to him blacking out, never to regain his consciousness again. He died at the age of 84 and was acclaimed as the most famous scientist in his time. He is known to have written the book called Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. It is the most influential physics book that has ever existed. Above all things, Isaac Newton was the first man to discover the most fundamental law: The Law of Gravity. He left a lasting mark in the world of science. Isaac Newton was proclaimed by his contemporaries as the greatest genius who ever lived.
Who Was Isaac Newton?
Isaac Newton was an extremely influential mathematician, physicist, and scientist.
About the Author
Sharon is a Kenyan native with a wide range of interests. An accountant and financial analyst by profession, Sharon enjoys writing about world facts, the environment, society, politics, and more.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 843 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A hair trail has now shed light on a two-centuries-old historical question. Napoleon Bonaparte, the famous dictator of France, died in exile on the island of St. Helena in the southern Atlantic Ocean. While doctors at the time cited stomach cancer as the cause of death, some historians believe that arsenic did him in—high levels of the toxic substance were found in hair samples after he died. But not so fast, says a team of Italian scientists—the arsenic in Napoleon's hair probably didn't kill him. The scientists took samples of Napoleon's hair from the collections of museums in Rome, Paris, and Parma, Italy, which date from his boyhood, his first exile on Elba in 1814 and his death in 1821 . Upon putting the hairs into a nuclear reactor—radiation allows scientists to identify the elements present, and apparently doesn't bother the hairs—the researchers found that Napoleon had consistent arsenic levels in his body his whole life, not just one spike in the end that doomed him. The levels are very high, but that makes sense—small doses of arsenic were used as a health tonic in Napoleon's day, and medicines with tiny arsenic concentrations are still used today. Hairs aren't the only historical artifacts that have been brought into the Napoleon death foray. In 2005, scientists studied his pants, and found that the little corporal was even littler at his death, having dropped almost 5 inches on his waist, which the Swiss researchers said parallels the weight drop of modern stomach cancer patients. So if the Italians are right, Napoleon's original doctors have been vindicated. And they have his hair and trousers to thank. | <urn:uuid:dd388e3d-2610-422e-94fd-63f4313cc16b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/did-arsenic-kill-napoleon-his-hair-says-no | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00123.warc.gz | en | 0.986598 | 338 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.5738534331321716... | 8 | A hair trail has now shed light on a two-centuries-old historical question. Napoleon Bonaparte, the famous dictator of France, died in exile on the island of St. Helena in the southern Atlantic Ocean. While doctors at the time cited stomach cancer as the cause of death, some historians believe that arsenic did him in—high levels of the toxic substance were found in hair samples after he died. But not so fast, says a team of Italian scientists—the arsenic in Napoleon's hair probably didn't kill him. The scientists took samples of Napoleon's hair from the collections of museums in Rome, Paris, and Parma, Italy, which date from his boyhood, his first exile on Elba in 1814 and his death in 1821 . Upon putting the hairs into a nuclear reactor—radiation allows scientists to identify the elements present, and apparently doesn't bother the hairs—the researchers found that Napoleon had consistent arsenic levels in his body his whole life, not just one spike in the end that doomed him. The levels are very high, but that makes sense—small doses of arsenic were used as a health tonic in Napoleon's day, and medicines with tiny arsenic concentrations are still used today. Hairs aren't the only historical artifacts that have been brought into the Napoleon death foray. In 2005, scientists studied his pants, and found that the little corporal was even littler at his death, having dropped almost 5 inches on his waist, which the Swiss researchers said parallels the weight drop of modern stomach cancer patients. So if the Italians are right, Napoleon's original doctors have been vindicated. And they have his hair and trousers to thank. | 349 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Do you remember when your parents used to always tell you what to do and they expected you to do it? I know it's your job to respect your parents didn't it just made you want to run away, right? This is the same concept for the colonists to declare their independence from Great Britain. Many factors led them to do this drastic performance but it is the heart and soul of what our country is today.
The colonists started off as a very independent area. They had a rule of salutary neglect, which is a policy of non-interface allowing the colonists to do as they wish. The people who supported this rule are called Patriots. This term will be heard throughout the cause of the American Revolution.
French and Indian War
The British were at war with the French leaving them with huge debts. The British were scrambling for options so they placed taxes on the colonists. The colonists were shocked.
American colonists didn't like all of these sudden changes in their lifestyle, so a meeting was held in Albany, New York between the Colonial Delegates and politicians. Ben Franklin proposed a Union of Colonies with the power to levy taxes, raise troops, and regulate trade. This deal was called the Albany Plan which was sent to the King of Britain. Never did they think that the King would reject this idea.
The war was over, and the British won. The two nations signed a peace treaty called the Treaty of Paris. This treaty gave Great Britain new area in Canada.
After the war, Native Americans were giving the British some trouble with complaints and riots. Hopefully to win friendship with the natives, Great Britain place The Proclamation of 1763 which ended all settlements west of the Appalachian Mountains.
These events made the colonists indifferent about the freedom being taken away. Through all of which has been going on, little did the colonists think they would be at war with the greatest army at their time.
In 1765, Prime Minister George Greenville felt it was necessary for... | <urn:uuid:6520d467-af08-4952-a86e-f3ec15f2bd85> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/causes-associated-with-american-revolution | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00096.warc.gz | en | 0.98841 | 403 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.2606353461742401,... | 1 | Do you remember when your parents used to always tell you what to do and they expected you to do it? I know it's your job to respect your parents didn't it just made you want to run away, right? This is the same concept for the colonists to declare their independence from Great Britain. Many factors led them to do this drastic performance but it is the heart and soul of what our country is today.
The colonists started off as a very independent area. They had a rule of salutary neglect, which is a policy of non-interface allowing the colonists to do as they wish. The people who supported this rule are called Patriots. This term will be heard throughout the cause of the American Revolution.
French and Indian War
The British were at war with the French leaving them with huge debts. The British were scrambling for options so they placed taxes on the colonists. The colonists were shocked.
American colonists didn't like all of these sudden changes in their lifestyle, so a meeting was held in Albany, New York between the Colonial Delegates and politicians. Ben Franklin proposed a Union of Colonies with the power to levy taxes, raise troops, and regulate trade. This deal was called the Albany Plan which was sent to the King of Britain. Never did they think that the King would reject this idea.
The war was over, and the British won. The two nations signed a peace treaty called the Treaty of Paris. This treaty gave Great Britain new area in Canada.
After the war, Native Americans were giving the British some trouble with complaints and riots. Hopefully to win friendship with the natives, Great Britain place The Proclamation of 1763 which ended all settlements west of the Appalachian Mountains.
These events made the colonists indifferent about the freedom being taken away. Through all of which has been going on, little did the colonists think they would be at war with the greatest army at their time.
In 1765, Prime Minister George Greenville felt it was necessary for... | 408 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Explain Why the Treaty of Versailles Was so Unpopular in Germany?
Why The Treaty of Versailles was so Unpopular in Germany? There are many reasons why the Germans were aggravated by the treaty of Versailles. One of which was that they had to pay reparations to the countries of the Triple Entente for the damage to men and resources. The reason that this annoyed the people of Germany was that their country was already struggling with debt meaning that the country had to tighten its belt another notch. This affected people as the country could not spend money promoting itself and building on its now harboured empire.
Moving forward to territory issues all of Germany’s colonies had been stripped from its empire and the land around its own country was given away to any country who wanted it. This ruffled German feathers as it made them feel vulnerable as it just had to take what it was given or rather taken away. Another reason this will effect Germany is that colonies bring financial support by brining over produce that cannot be produced in Germany but you can also sell goods from Germany in those colonies.
The German armed forces was isolated as well when it was cut down significantly to only 100,000 men and no tanks were allowed. The Naval fleet was reduced down to just 6 capital ships and no submarines at all. Finally the Air force was made forbidden. This was really embarrassing for Germany as before the war its army was one of the strongest in the world. I feel that the reason that the treaty was so harsh is that France wanted revenge and Britain and the US did not want to tarnish its trade reputation with each other so they just let France achieve what they wanted the big word. | <urn:uuid:375ea4bc-969d-44d1-b793-87b761699063> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://newyorkessays.com/essay-explain-why-the-treaty-of-versailles-was-so-unpopular-in-germany/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00251.warc.gz | en | 0.993578 | 343 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.637691259384155... | 1 | Explain Why the Treaty of Versailles Was so Unpopular in Germany?
Why The Treaty of Versailles was so Unpopular in Germany? There are many reasons why the Germans were aggravated by the treaty of Versailles. One of which was that they had to pay reparations to the countries of the Triple Entente for the damage to men and resources. The reason that this annoyed the people of Germany was that their country was already struggling with debt meaning that the country had to tighten its belt another notch. This affected people as the country could not spend money promoting itself and building on its now harboured empire.
Moving forward to territory issues all of Germany’s colonies had been stripped from its empire and the land around its own country was given away to any country who wanted it. This ruffled German feathers as it made them feel vulnerable as it just had to take what it was given or rather taken away. Another reason this will effect Germany is that colonies bring financial support by brining over produce that cannot be produced in Germany but you can also sell goods from Germany in those colonies.
The German armed forces was isolated as well when it was cut down significantly to only 100,000 men and no tanks were allowed. The Naval fleet was reduced down to just 6 capital ships and no submarines at all. Finally the Air force was made forbidden. This was really embarrassing for Germany as before the war its army was one of the strongest in the world. I feel that the reason that the treaty was so harsh is that France wanted revenge and Britain and the US did not want to tarnish its trade reputation with each other so they just let France achieve what they wanted the big word. | 340 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Presentation on theme: ""The death of a beautiful woman is unquestionably"— Presentation transcript:
1 Edgar Allen Poe 1809- 1849 Poe is one of the best known figures in American Literature. "The death of a beautiful woman is unquestionablythe most poetical topic in the world."
2 Early lifeEdgar Poe was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on January 19, His mother (Elizabeth) and father (David) worked as traveling actors. When Edgar was two years old, his father abandoned his family. Soon after, Edgar’s mother died of TB (tuberculosis) .
3 Early LifeWhen he was three, Edgar was taken into the home of John Allan, a wealthy merchant in Richmond, Virginia, and was christened Edgar Allan Poe. John Allan and his wife raised Edgar as their own son. Poe was athletic and loved fishing and hunting. Poe’s new family encouraged a love of learning. In 1826, he enrolled in the University of Virginia. He was a successful student but had a fondness for gambling. When Poe incurred a sizable gambling debt, which John Allan refused to pay, he was forced to leave college.
4 Early lifePoe moved to Boston, where he worked at a number of different jobs. He wrote and printed (at his own expense) a small book of poetry called Tamerlane and Other Poems. The book was ignored by critics and the public.
5 Career beginningsIn 1827, Poe enlisted in the United States Army. Poe wanted to go to West Point, a military academy, and won a spot there in Poe excelled at his studies at West Point, but he was court martialed (kicked out) after a year for his poor handling of his duties. Some have speculated that he intentionally sought to be court-martialed. During his time at West Point, Poe had fought with his foster father and Allan decided to sever ties with him.
6 VirginiaAfter leaving the academy, Poe focused his writing full time. He moved around in search of opportunity, living in New York City, Baltimore, Philadelphia and Richmond. From 1831 to 1835, he stayed in Baltimore with his aunt Maria Clemm and her daughter Virginia. His young cousin, Virginia, became a literary inspiration to Poe as well as his love interest. The couple married in 1836 when she was only 13 (or 14 as some sources say) years old. She became ill in 1842 and died in 1847.Her early death may have inspired some of his writing.
7 Major WorksPoe continued to write fiction, including “The Pit and the Pendulum” (1842), “The Tell-Tale Heart” (1843), and “The Cask of Amontillado”(1846). Also during this period, Poe wrote The Bells (1849), a poem that echoes with the chiming of metallic instruments, and Annabel Lee (1849), which is addressed to Virginia.Edgar Allan Poe was one of the first American writers toInclude a murder in his storyExplore the dark side of the imaginationExplore the psychology of the criminal
8 Major WorksIn 1845, Poe earned national fame with a poem about lost love titled “The Raven.” After the poem was published, Poe said that he believed the two most valuable letters in the English language are o and r- thus the powerful effect created by the raven’s repeated use of the word “nevermore.”Baltimore Ravens????????????????
9 Poe spent the last few days of his life here in this small cottage in the the Bronx, New York.
10 Mysterious deathJust a few short years after the publication of “The Raven,” Poe was found lying unconscious on a wooden plank outside a saloon in Baltimore. Four days later, he was dead (October 7, 1849). Historians have long disagreed about the cause of Poe’s death. Some believe he died of alcoholism, while others have suggested psychological disorders.
11 Mysterious deathTen years ago, a well-respected physician and researcher at the University of Maryland announced that Poe had probably died of rabies, which would explain the convulsions and nightmares he experienced in his final days. There’s no question, however, that Poe died confused and alone just like his characters he wrote about. | <urn:uuid:843b5d77-0532-4968-81de-0ee9102027d3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://slideplayer.com/slide/5718891/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00513.warc.gz | en | 0.987585 | 897 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.1825049221515... | 2 | Presentation on theme: ""The death of a beautiful woman is unquestionably"— Presentation transcript:
1 Edgar Allen Poe 1809- 1849 Poe is one of the best known figures in American Literature. "The death of a beautiful woman is unquestionablythe most poetical topic in the world."
2 Early lifeEdgar Poe was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on January 19, His mother (Elizabeth) and father (David) worked as traveling actors. When Edgar was two years old, his father abandoned his family. Soon after, Edgar’s mother died of TB (tuberculosis) .
3 Early LifeWhen he was three, Edgar was taken into the home of John Allan, a wealthy merchant in Richmond, Virginia, and was christened Edgar Allan Poe. John Allan and his wife raised Edgar as their own son. Poe was athletic and loved fishing and hunting. Poe’s new family encouraged a love of learning. In 1826, he enrolled in the University of Virginia. He was a successful student but had a fondness for gambling. When Poe incurred a sizable gambling debt, which John Allan refused to pay, he was forced to leave college.
4 Early lifePoe moved to Boston, where he worked at a number of different jobs. He wrote and printed (at his own expense) a small book of poetry called Tamerlane and Other Poems. The book was ignored by critics and the public.
5 Career beginningsIn 1827, Poe enlisted in the United States Army. Poe wanted to go to West Point, a military academy, and won a spot there in Poe excelled at his studies at West Point, but he was court martialed (kicked out) after a year for his poor handling of his duties. Some have speculated that he intentionally sought to be court-martialed. During his time at West Point, Poe had fought with his foster father and Allan decided to sever ties with him.
6 VirginiaAfter leaving the academy, Poe focused his writing full time. He moved around in search of opportunity, living in New York City, Baltimore, Philadelphia and Richmond. From 1831 to 1835, he stayed in Baltimore with his aunt Maria Clemm and her daughter Virginia. His young cousin, Virginia, became a literary inspiration to Poe as well as his love interest. The couple married in 1836 when she was only 13 (or 14 as some sources say) years old. She became ill in 1842 and died in 1847.Her early death may have inspired some of his writing.
7 Major WorksPoe continued to write fiction, including “The Pit and the Pendulum” (1842), “The Tell-Tale Heart” (1843), and “The Cask of Amontillado”(1846). Also during this period, Poe wrote The Bells (1849), a poem that echoes with the chiming of metallic instruments, and Annabel Lee (1849), which is addressed to Virginia.Edgar Allan Poe was one of the first American writers toInclude a murder in his storyExplore the dark side of the imaginationExplore the psychology of the criminal
8 Major WorksIn 1845, Poe earned national fame with a poem about lost love titled “The Raven.” After the poem was published, Poe said that he believed the two most valuable letters in the English language are o and r- thus the powerful effect created by the raven’s repeated use of the word “nevermore.”Baltimore Ravens????????????????
9 Poe spent the last few days of his life here in this small cottage in the the Bronx, New York.
10 Mysterious deathJust a few short years after the publication of “The Raven,” Poe was found lying unconscious on a wooden plank outside a saloon in Baltimore. Four days later, he was dead (October 7, 1849). Historians have long disagreed about the cause of Poe’s death. Some believe he died of alcoholism, while others have suggested psychological disorders.
11 Mysterious deathTen years ago, a well-respected physician and researcher at the University of Maryland announced that Poe had probably died of rabies, which would explain the convulsions and nightmares he experienced in his final days. There’s no question, however, that Poe died confused and alone just like his characters he wrote about. | 918 | ENGLISH | 1 |
« AnteriorContinua »
It was not until the year 1768, when Alompra's grandson Sembuen occupied the throne, that the Chinese troops began the invasion of Burmah, which had been imminent for several years. Keen Lung entrusted the conduct of this war to a favoured officer, the Count Alikouen, whose experience in the field had, however, been so slight that many raised a cry that Fouta should be recalled from his enforced retreat and placed in the principal command.* But the Emperor was fixed in his resolve, and it was under Count Alikouen that his troops marched for the invasion of Burmah. The Chinese advanced guard, computed to consist of some 50,000 men, crossed the frontier and took up a strong position between Momien and Bhamo. The Burmese troops advanced in greater force to expel it from the camp, which the Chinese commander had fortified. The result of this action is not known, but both sides claim it as a great victory. The approach of the main
* The valiant Fouta after the close of the campaigns in Central Asia returned to Pekin, where, however, he failed to sustain as a courtier the reputation he had gained as a soldier. Fouta was a member of the Solon tribe, and his appearance has been painted in the following words, which serve to bring the bluff character of the plain simple-minded soldier before us:—" Fouta had been brought up in Tartary among his compatriots, the Solon Manchus, and like them he had passed his youth in inuring himself to the fatigues of the chase and to military exercises. He had not contracted that easy air and that suppleness to be acquired only at a court, where he always appeared embarrassed. Frank and incapable of disguising his thoughts, and even slightly rough, he would have chosen to have been rather the last of soldiers than the first of courtiers. The tents, a camp, soldiers, those were what he needed, and then nothing was impossible to him. To support the greatest hardships, and rudest fatigue; to endure the extremes of thirst and hunger; to march by night or by day across arid deserts, or marshy places; to fight, so to speak, at each step as much against the elements as against man,—these are what he was seen to perform during the course of a war which had added to the number of the provinces of the Empire the vast possessions of the Eleuth. The Emperor had said on one occasion to an envoyboasting of his master's artillery, 'Let him make use of these cannon, and I shall send Fouta against him.' His end did not correspond with the promise of his brilliant prime. Accused by an official of having appropriated some Government horses for his own use, he was recalled to Pekin, where he was sentenced to death. This was commuted to the deprivation of all his ranks and titles and to a state of permanent confinement. Keen Lung refused to pardon Fouta with a persistence strangely disproportionate to the trivial offence."
THE BURMAH WAR. 693
Chinese army compelled the Burmese to retire, and the scene of war was shifted from the Chinese frontier to the valley of the Irrawaddi.
The Chinese commander, Count Alikouen, established a strongly fortified camp at Bhamo, where he left a considerable detachment, while with the greater portion of his army, said to number more than 200,000 men,* he marched on Ava. So far as numbers went the superiority still rested with the Burmese king, whose military position was further improved by his well-trained band of elephants and by the natural difficulties of the region of operations. Yet notwithstanding these obstacles, and that Alikouen did not evince any exceptional capacity in the field, the Chinese remained masters of the greater portion of the upper districts of Burmah during the space of three years.
Although no decisive engagement appears to have been fought, the Burmese were obliged, after this protracted occupation, to sue for peace on humiliating terms The King of Ava was so irritated at the poltroonery of his general, in having concluded an ignominious but probably inevitable treaty, that he sent him a woman's dress. But he did not dare to repudiate the action of his officer; and the Chinese army was withdrawn only after having obtained the amplest reparation for the wrong originally inflicted on a Chinese subject, and a formal recognition on the part of the ruler of Ava of the supremacy and suzerainty of the Emperor of China. This campaign resulted, therefore, in the addition of Burmah to the long list of Asiatic kingdoms paying tribute to Pekin.
The war with Burmah was followed by a more protracted contest with the Miaotze tribes, who, secure in their difficult mountain regions, had long bidden defiance to the Chinese authorities, and proved a source of constant trouble and danger to the settled inhabitants of the provinces of Kweichow and Szchuen. When the Emperor Keen Lung ascended the throne these people had just inflicted a severe reverse
* This number was probably greatly exaggerated by the vanity of the Burmese, who also claim most of the encounters as victories. The terms of peace clearly show how far these pretensions are justified by the facts. upon the Imperial troops, and, although no steps were immediately taken to retrieve it, the fact had not been forgotten. There appears to be little doubt that the Miaotze were not alone to blame for this unsatisfactory state of things, and that much of their turbulence and misconduct should rightly be attributed to the provocation offered them by the local mandarins both civil and military.
The Miaotze recognized the authority of tribal chiefs and heads of clans. They were by nature averse to agricultural pursuits, and chafed at the restraints of a settled life. Their courage and rude capacity for war enabled them to hold and maintain a position of isolation and independence during those critical periods which had witnessed the disintegration of the Empire and the transfer of power from one race to another. Each successive wave of conquest had passed over the face of the country without disturbing their equanimity or interfering with their lot. The Miaotze remained a barbarian people, living within the limits of the Empire but outside its civilization, and the representatives of some pre-historic race of China. When Keen Lung mounted the throne their position was practically unchanged, and their late success seemed even to warrant the supposition that their independence was more assured than at any previous period. Nothing happened to disturb this persuasion until the year 1771, when Keen Lung had ruled the Empire for more than thirty-five years.
In that year the Miaotze had broken out in acts of disorder on a larger scale than usual, and whether incited to commit these depredations by the pressure of want or by the arrogance of the Chinese officials, there is no question that the area of their raids suddenly became extended, and that the Chinese troops met with further discomfiture Whereas the Miaotze of Kweichow had hitherto been the most turbulent, it was on this occasion their kinsmen of Szchuen who carried their defiance to a point further than the Emperor could tolerate. Orders were, therefore, issued for the prompt and effectual chastisement of these hillmen, and troops were despatched against them for the purpose of reducing them to obedience. The troops marched, but THE MIAOTZE. 695
their valour proved of little avail. The Miaotze were victorious in the first encounter of the war, and it was made evident that in order to subjugate them a regular plan of campaign would be requisite.
Rendered over-confident by these preliminary successes, the Miaotze completed by an outrage the defiance they were resolute in showing towards the Emperor. They murdered the two officers he sent to their capital to negotiate, and they completed the insult by tearing up the letter which Keen Lung had condescended to write to them. The excessive pretentions and ambition of the Eleuth princes had compelled Keen Lung to take up the settlement of that question and to prosecute it with vigour. Success beyond precedent had attended his efforts, and established the wisdom of his policy of "thorough." The outrages committed by the Miaotze led him to the conclusion that similar energetic action in this quarter might very possibly be followed by results as satisfactory and as conclusive as those that had been attained in Central Asia. Just as he had decreed the annexation of a vast region beyond Gobi for reasons of state, he now ordered from scarcely less weighty causes the destruction of the Miaotze.
The Miaotze of Szchuen inhabited the mountainous region in the north-west corner of that province, which skirts a remote portion of Tibet. Their two principal settlements were known, from the names of streams, as the Great Golden River and the Little Golden River districts. The occupation of these settlements became the principal object with the Chinese Emperor, for he well knew that, when these hillmen were deprived of the only spots capable of sustaining themselves and their flocks, they would be obliged to recognize his authority and to accept his law without murmur. It only remained for Keen Lung to select some competent commander to give effect to his wishes, and to carry out the military scheme upon which he had resolved. The necessity for exercising care in such a choice had been shown by the tardy and meagre results of Alikouen's campaign in Hurmah, but either the etiquette of the court or the dislike of the Emperor prevented the recall of Fouta, whose great capacity rendered him the fittest leader for the post. Keen Lung's choice fell upon Akoui, by birth one of the noblest of the Manchus, and, as the result was to show, of talent equally conspicuous.
When Akoui reached the scene of operations he found that the gravity of the situation had been increased by the excessive confidence of those in command. One of the lieutenants of the border had worsted the Miaotze in an engagement, but, carried away by the ardour of pursuit, he allowed himself to be enticed into the mountains, where his detachment was destroyed almost to the last man. Akoui had, therefore, to devote all his attention to the retrieval of a defeat that might easily have been avoided. Several months were occupied in collecting the necessary body of troops, and a sufficient quantity of supplies for their use during a campaign that might prove of some duration in a barren region where means of sustenance were almost unprocurable.
The district of the Little Golden River formed the first object of Akoui's attack. The Chinese troops advanced in several bodies, and the Miaotze, assailed on all sides, were compelled to precipitately evacuate the territory. In less than a month the first part of Akoui's task had been successfully performed, and the Little Golden River settlement became incorporated with the province of Szchuen and accepted the Chinese law.
The second portion of his undertaking proved infinitely more arduous, and the Miaotze collected all their strength to defend their possessions round the Great Golden stream. The king or chief of the Miaotze was called Sonom, and, undaunted by the overthrow of his neighbour, he prepared to defend his native valleys to the last extremity. So resolute and unanimous were the Miaotze to fight to the death in defence of their last strongholds, that they refused to listen to any terms for a pacific arrangement, and even the women took up arms and joined the ranks of the combatants. The advance of the Chinese troops was slow, but being made systematically there could be no doubt that it would prove irresistible. The narrowness of the few passes, the natural | <urn:uuid:3b2b053d-a5b8-44a2-a936-86172b80a2b1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.google.cat/books?id=-LQSIvebA-cC&pg=PA695&focus=viewport&vq=Sungs&dq=editions:HARVARD32044036965390&hl=ca&output=html_text | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00041.warc.gz | en | 0.984573 | 2,436 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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It was not until the year 1768, when Alompra's grandson Sembuen occupied the throne, that the Chinese troops began the invasion of Burmah, which had been imminent for several years. Keen Lung entrusted the conduct of this war to a favoured officer, the Count Alikouen, whose experience in the field had, however, been so slight that many raised a cry that Fouta should be recalled from his enforced retreat and placed in the principal command.* But the Emperor was fixed in his resolve, and it was under Count Alikouen that his troops marched for the invasion of Burmah. The Chinese advanced guard, computed to consist of some 50,000 men, crossed the frontier and took up a strong position between Momien and Bhamo. The Burmese troops advanced in greater force to expel it from the camp, which the Chinese commander had fortified. The result of this action is not known, but both sides claim it as a great victory. The approach of the main
* The valiant Fouta after the close of the campaigns in Central Asia returned to Pekin, where, however, he failed to sustain as a courtier the reputation he had gained as a soldier. Fouta was a member of the Solon tribe, and his appearance has been painted in the following words, which serve to bring the bluff character of the plain simple-minded soldier before us:—" Fouta had been brought up in Tartary among his compatriots, the Solon Manchus, and like them he had passed his youth in inuring himself to the fatigues of the chase and to military exercises. He had not contracted that easy air and that suppleness to be acquired only at a court, where he always appeared embarrassed. Frank and incapable of disguising his thoughts, and even slightly rough, he would have chosen to have been rather the last of soldiers than the first of courtiers. The tents, a camp, soldiers, those were what he needed, and then nothing was impossible to him. To support the greatest hardships, and rudest fatigue; to endure the extremes of thirst and hunger; to march by night or by day across arid deserts, or marshy places; to fight, so to speak, at each step as much against the elements as against man,—these are what he was seen to perform during the course of a war which had added to the number of the provinces of the Empire the vast possessions of the Eleuth. The Emperor had said on one occasion to an envoyboasting of his master's artillery, 'Let him make use of these cannon, and I shall send Fouta against him.' His end did not correspond with the promise of his brilliant prime. Accused by an official of having appropriated some Government horses for his own use, he was recalled to Pekin, where he was sentenced to death. This was commuted to the deprivation of all his ranks and titles and to a state of permanent confinement. Keen Lung refused to pardon Fouta with a persistence strangely disproportionate to the trivial offence."
THE BURMAH WAR. 693
Chinese army compelled the Burmese to retire, and the scene of war was shifted from the Chinese frontier to the valley of the Irrawaddi.
The Chinese commander, Count Alikouen, established a strongly fortified camp at Bhamo, where he left a considerable detachment, while with the greater portion of his army, said to number more than 200,000 men,* he marched on Ava. So far as numbers went the superiority still rested with the Burmese king, whose military position was further improved by his well-trained band of elephants and by the natural difficulties of the region of operations. Yet notwithstanding these obstacles, and that Alikouen did not evince any exceptional capacity in the field, the Chinese remained masters of the greater portion of the upper districts of Burmah during the space of three years.
Although no decisive engagement appears to have been fought, the Burmese were obliged, after this protracted occupation, to sue for peace on humiliating terms The King of Ava was so irritated at the poltroonery of his general, in having concluded an ignominious but probably inevitable treaty, that he sent him a woman's dress. But he did not dare to repudiate the action of his officer; and the Chinese army was withdrawn only after having obtained the amplest reparation for the wrong originally inflicted on a Chinese subject, and a formal recognition on the part of the ruler of Ava of the supremacy and suzerainty of the Emperor of China. This campaign resulted, therefore, in the addition of Burmah to the long list of Asiatic kingdoms paying tribute to Pekin.
The war with Burmah was followed by a more protracted contest with the Miaotze tribes, who, secure in their difficult mountain regions, had long bidden defiance to the Chinese authorities, and proved a source of constant trouble and danger to the settled inhabitants of the provinces of Kweichow and Szchuen. When the Emperor Keen Lung ascended the throne these people had just inflicted a severe reverse
* This number was probably greatly exaggerated by the vanity of the Burmese, who also claim most of the encounters as victories. The terms of peace clearly show how far these pretensions are justified by the facts. upon the Imperial troops, and, although no steps were immediately taken to retrieve it, the fact had not been forgotten. There appears to be little doubt that the Miaotze were not alone to blame for this unsatisfactory state of things, and that much of their turbulence and misconduct should rightly be attributed to the provocation offered them by the local mandarins both civil and military.
The Miaotze recognized the authority of tribal chiefs and heads of clans. They were by nature averse to agricultural pursuits, and chafed at the restraints of a settled life. Their courage and rude capacity for war enabled them to hold and maintain a position of isolation and independence during those critical periods which had witnessed the disintegration of the Empire and the transfer of power from one race to another. Each successive wave of conquest had passed over the face of the country without disturbing their equanimity or interfering with their lot. The Miaotze remained a barbarian people, living within the limits of the Empire but outside its civilization, and the representatives of some pre-historic race of China. When Keen Lung mounted the throne their position was practically unchanged, and their late success seemed even to warrant the supposition that their independence was more assured than at any previous period. Nothing happened to disturb this persuasion until the year 1771, when Keen Lung had ruled the Empire for more than thirty-five years.
In that year the Miaotze had broken out in acts of disorder on a larger scale than usual, and whether incited to commit these depredations by the pressure of want or by the arrogance of the Chinese officials, there is no question that the area of their raids suddenly became extended, and that the Chinese troops met with further discomfiture Whereas the Miaotze of Kweichow had hitherto been the most turbulent, it was on this occasion their kinsmen of Szchuen who carried their defiance to a point further than the Emperor could tolerate. Orders were, therefore, issued for the prompt and effectual chastisement of these hillmen, and troops were despatched against them for the purpose of reducing them to obedience. The troops marched, but THE MIAOTZE. 695
their valour proved of little avail. The Miaotze were victorious in the first encounter of the war, and it was made evident that in order to subjugate them a regular plan of campaign would be requisite.
Rendered over-confident by these preliminary successes, the Miaotze completed by an outrage the defiance they were resolute in showing towards the Emperor. They murdered the two officers he sent to their capital to negotiate, and they completed the insult by tearing up the letter which Keen Lung had condescended to write to them. The excessive pretentions and ambition of the Eleuth princes had compelled Keen Lung to take up the settlement of that question and to prosecute it with vigour. Success beyond precedent had attended his efforts, and established the wisdom of his policy of "thorough." The outrages committed by the Miaotze led him to the conclusion that similar energetic action in this quarter might very possibly be followed by results as satisfactory and as conclusive as those that had been attained in Central Asia. Just as he had decreed the annexation of a vast region beyond Gobi for reasons of state, he now ordered from scarcely less weighty causes the destruction of the Miaotze.
The Miaotze of Szchuen inhabited the mountainous region in the north-west corner of that province, which skirts a remote portion of Tibet. Their two principal settlements were known, from the names of streams, as the Great Golden River and the Little Golden River districts. The occupation of these settlements became the principal object with the Chinese Emperor, for he well knew that, when these hillmen were deprived of the only spots capable of sustaining themselves and their flocks, they would be obliged to recognize his authority and to accept his law without murmur. It only remained for Keen Lung to select some competent commander to give effect to his wishes, and to carry out the military scheme upon which he had resolved. The necessity for exercising care in such a choice had been shown by the tardy and meagre results of Alikouen's campaign in Hurmah, but either the etiquette of the court or the dislike of the Emperor prevented the recall of Fouta, whose great capacity rendered him the fittest leader for the post. Keen Lung's choice fell upon Akoui, by birth one of the noblest of the Manchus, and, as the result was to show, of talent equally conspicuous.
When Akoui reached the scene of operations he found that the gravity of the situation had been increased by the excessive confidence of those in command. One of the lieutenants of the border had worsted the Miaotze in an engagement, but, carried away by the ardour of pursuit, he allowed himself to be enticed into the mountains, where his detachment was destroyed almost to the last man. Akoui had, therefore, to devote all his attention to the retrieval of a defeat that might easily have been avoided. Several months were occupied in collecting the necessary body of troops, and a sufficient quantity of supplies for their use during a campaign that might prove of some duration in a barren region where means of sustenance were almost unprocurable.
The district of the Little Golden River formed the first object of Akoui's attack. The Chinese troops advanced in several bodies, and the Miaotze, assailed on all sides, were compelled to precipitately evacuate the territory. In less than a month the first part of Akoui's task had been successfully performed, and the Little Golden River settlement became incorporated with the province of Szchuen and accepted the Chinese law.
The second portion of his undertaking proved infinitely more arduous, and the Miaotze collected all their strength to defend their possessions round the Great Golden stream. The king or chief of the Miaotze was called Sonom, and, undaunted by the overthrow of his neighbour, he prepared to defend his native valleys to the last extremity. So resolute and unanimous were the Miaotze to fight to the death in defence of their last strongholds, that they refused to listen to any terms for a pacific arrangement, and even the women took up arms and joined the ranks of the combatants. The advance of the Chinese troops was slow, but being made systematically there could be no doubt that it would prove irresistible. The narrowness of the few passes, the natural | 2,453 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Edmonton, Alberta, made a deal with the government in Ottawa on February 4, 1897, to build a bridge over the North Saskatchewan River. It is an excellent example of the pioneering spirit that built the West.
Edmonton’s growth was impeded for years by a lack of a railway. When Canadian Pacific Railway engineers put the trans-continental through Calgary, 200 miles to the south, some people predicted the end of Edmonton. But, its early settlers had faith and hung on. In 1891, the C.P.R. built a branch line from Calgary to Strathcona, across the river from Edmonton. This meant that traffic had to be brought across the river in a traditional ferry. Strathcona would become the most interpretive centre in northern Alberta.
John A. McDougall, who had gone to Edmonton from Ontario as a young man, was elected mayor by acclamation in 1896. His fascinating story is told in the book Edmonton Trader by J. C. MacGregor. McDougall would only agree to act as mayor for one year. Still, in that time, he accomplished a great deal, including persuading the village council and Board of Trade to put all the pressure they could on Ottawa to build a bridge.
On February 4, 1897, a telegram came from the federal government, saying that it would build the bridge if Edmonton would put up $25,000 towards its cost. This was a vast proposition for a community of only 1,500 people. Some quarters speculated that Ottawa was only bluffing, believing that Edmonton could not accept the offer.
If so, they called the bluff by evening. They sent a telegram to Ottawa agreeing to the deal. At first, McDougall and some leading citizens subscribed to the money. Later, the ratepayers endorsed the action and assumed liability.
The bridge took five years to complete, during which Edmonton became the gateway to the Klondike gold fields. | <urn:uuid:154d0717-bb3f-4730-95df-614e775bc01c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tkmorin.wordpress.com/2019/12/10/john-a-mcdougall-built-that-bridge/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00292.warc.gz | en | 0.982337 | 402 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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Edmonton’s growth was impeded for years by a lack of a railway. When Canadian Pacific Railway engineers put the trans-continental through Calgary, 200 miles to the south, some people predicted the end of Edmonton. But, its early settlers had faith and hung on. In 1891, the C.P.R. built a branch line from Calgary to Strathcona, across the river from Edmonton. This meant that traffic had to be brought across the river in a traditional ferry. Strathcona would become the most interpretive centre in northern Alberta.
John A. McDougall, who had gone to Edmonton from Ontario as a young man, was elected mayor by acclamation in 1896. His fascinating story is told in the book Edmonton Trader by J. C. MacGregor. McDougall would only agree to act as mayor for one year. Still, in that time, he accomplished a great deal, including persuading the village council and Board of Trade to put all the pressure they could on Ottawa to build a bridge.
On February 4, 1897, a telegram came from the federal government, saying that it would build the bridge if Edmonton would put up $25,000 towards its cost. This was a vast proposition for a community of only 1,500 people. Some quarters speculated that Ottawa was only bluffing, believing that Edmonton could not accept the offer.
If so, they called the bluff by evening. They sent a telegram to Ottawa agreeing to the deal. At first, McDougall and some leading citizens subscribed to the money. Later, the ratepayers endorsed the action and assumed liability.
The bridge took five years to complete, during which Edmonton became the gateway to the Klondike gold fields. | 415 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 3 (669 words)
There are both similarities and differences between President Abraham Lincoln, leader of the Union, and Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States, as leaders during the conflict of the Civil War. These two war heroes lived parallel lives at birth. Both native Kentuckians, Abraham Lincoln was born February 12th, 1809 in Hodgenville, Kentucky and Jefferson Davis was born June 3rd, 1808 in Christian County, Kentucky. Both Lincoln and Davis were born in a log cabin and each moved away from Kentucky at a young age and grew up in a different state.
Lincoln moved to Indiana when he was seven and grew up on the edge of a frontier. Davis also moved away from Kentucky as a small child and grew up in Mississippi. Early in life, Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis followed similar paths however their educational experiences were very different. Lincoln had little formal teaching; however he read avidly having taught himself.
Jefferson Davis, on the contrary, had a very good formal education.
He attended Transylvania University in Kentucky until he was sixteen when President Monroe appointed him to a military school. He successfully graduated from West Point military academy as a Second Lieutenant. Davis’ first active service was in the United States Army in the Northwest which lasted for six years. He was involved in several battles in the Black Hawk War of 1832 as leader of his regiment. Correspondingly, Lincoln got into the military by enlisting as a militia captain during the Black Hawk War defending the state of Illinois. As the militia captain, Lincoln made an honorable and respected name for himself however he did not see any combat during his brief time in the Illinois militia. Although they got their starts in military service very differently, Lincoln and Davis were both directly involved in the military before they were pulled into the political scene.
Politically, Lincoln found a home with the Whig party where his vision for the nation focused on improving all aspects internally, including commerce, industry and transportation. He would concentrate on these ideals until the 1850s when he accepted the fact that slavery was contributing to the downfall of America (“Abraham Lincoln – Early Political Career”). Davis, on the other hand, spent a good deal of time reading about political philosophy and political economy, and entered as a Democrat. His logical approach to the difficulties facing the nation focused on the rights of the states, an ideal which he held for his entire political career (NNDB). The differences in their political backgrounds and military beginnings helped to shape these men into the leaders they grew to be during the Civil War.
After the Black Hawk War, Jefferson Davis married Miss Knox Taylor, Zachary Taylor’s daughter, and resigned from the army. In contrast, Abraham Lincoln studied law and campaigned for Illinois State Legislature after the war. Lincoln met and soon after married Mary Todd in Springfield, Illinois where he was studying to become a lawyer. He became an attorney in 1836 when he obtained his license to practice law. Lincoln was a successful and fantastic lawyer who presented a massive amount of knowledge about the law and had an impeccable way with his speech.
Even so, he was not elected as a State Legislator the first time he ran, and it was not until his second time running that he won, and in 1834 served as a Whig. Jefferson Davis, however, led a dramatically different life during the years following his first military service than Lincoln. Three months after marriage, both he and his spouse, Knox, acquired malaria and unfortunately his wife did not make it. Davis, now a widower, retired to a plantation in Mississippi where he supervised the production of cotton and studied political science. In 1843 he came to the great conclusion that he should put his diligent studies to use and enter the political field. Davis ran for the Mississippi House of Representatives as a Democrat, but lost the election in his first attempt, similar to Lincoln.
Cite this page
Jefferson Davis and Abraham Lincoln as Wartime Leaders. (2017, Jan 11). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/jefferson-davis-and-abraham-lincoln-as-wartime-leaders-essay | <urn:uuid:41edb6f2-03a9-4371-b707-b9a86e45d6b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/jefferson-davis-and-abraham-lincoln-as-wartime-leaders-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00391.warc.gz | en | 0.987129 | 860 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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There are both similarities and differences between President Abraham Lincoln, leader of the Union, and Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States, as leaders during the conflict of the Civil War. These two war heroes lived parallel lives at birth. Both native Kentuckians, Abraham Lincoln was born February 12th, 1809 in Hodgenville, Kentucky and Jefferson Davis was born June 3rd, 1808 in Christian County, Kentucky. Both Lincoln and Davis were born in a log cabin and each moved away from Kentucky at a young age and grew up in a different state.
Lincoln moved to Indiana when he was seven and grew up on the edge of a frontier. Davis also moved away from Kentucky as a small child and grew up in Mississippi. Early in life, Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis followed similar paths however their educational experiences were very different. Lincoln had little formal teaching; however he read avidly having taught himself.
Jefferson Davis, on the contrary, had a very good formal education.
He attended Transylvania University in Kentucky until he was sixteen when President Monroe appointed him to a military school. He successfully graduated from West Point military academy as a Second Lieutenant. Davis’ first active service was in the United States Army in the Northwest which lasted for six years. He was involved in several battles in the Black Hawk War of 1832 as leader of his regiment. Correspondingly, Lincoln got into the military by enlisting as a militia captain during the Black Hawk War defending the state of Illinois. As the militia captain, Lincoln made an honorable and respected name for himself however he did not see any combat during his brief time in the Illinois militia. Although they got their starts in military service very differently, Lincoln and Davis were both directly involved in the military before they were pulled into the political scene.
Politically, Lincoln found a home with the Whig party where his vision for the nation focused on improving all aspects internally, including commerce, industry and transportation. He would concentrate on these ideals until the 1850s when he accepted the fact that slavery was contributing to the downfall of America (“Abraham Lincoln – Early Political Career”). Davis, on the other hand, spent a good deal of time reading about political philosophy and political economy, and entered as a Democrat. His logical approach to the difficulties facing the nation focused on the rights of the states, an ideal which he held for his entire political career (NNDB). The differences in their political backgrounds and military beginnings helped to shape these men into the leaders they grew to be during the Civil War.
After the Black Hawk War, Jefferson Davis married Miss Knox Taylor, Zachary Taylor’s daughter, and resigned from the army. In contrast, Abraham Lincoln studied law and campaigned for Illinois State Legislature after the war. Lincoln met and soon after married Mary Todd in Springfield, Illinois where he was studying to become a lawyer. He became an attorney in 1836 when he obtained his license to practice law. Lincoln was a successful and fantastic lawyer who presented a massive amount of knowledge about the law and had an impeccable way with his speech.
Even so, he was not elected as a State Legislator the first time he ran, and it was not until his second time running that he won, and in 1834 served as a Whig. Jefferson Davis, however, led a dramatically different life during the years following his first military service than Lincoln. Three months after marriage, both he and his spouse, Knox, acquired malaria and unfortunately his wife did not make it. Davis, now a widower, retired to a plantation in Mississippi where he supervised the production of cotton and studied political science. In 1843 he came to the great conclusion that he should put his diligent studies to use and enter the political field. Davis ran for the Mississippi House of Representatives as a Democrat, but lost the election in his first attempt, similar to Lincoln.
Cite this page
Jefferson Davis and Abraham Lincoln as Wartime Leaders. (2017, Jan 11). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/jefferson-davis-and-abraham-lincoln-as-wartime-leaders-essay | 867 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the darkest hours of the British Colonial rule in India was 100 years ago on this day when British troops fired on thousands of people in what we now call the Jallianwala Massacre.
Brigadier General Reginald Edward Harry Dyer was tasked with ensuring order, and imposed measures including a ban on public gatherings after the Rowlett Act which allowed incarceration without trial. This act led to widespread protests and feuds resulting in people being arrested and banished.
It was the festival of Baisakhi which is a highly celebrated festival in India. On April 13, 1919, nearly 10,000 people gathered at Jallianwala Bagh. The ground was surrounded by high walls and had only one exit. Some estimates put the crowd at 20,000. The crowd included men, women, children and pilgrims.
Jallianwala Bagh was once a garden but in 1919 the place was uneven and unoccupied, an irregular quadrangle, indifferently walled and used as a dumping ground.
Dyer reached the spot with dozens of soldiers, sealed of the exit and ordered his soldiers to fire on the unarmed crowd without warning until they ran out of ammunition. When people found they couldn’t escape, many jumped into an open well that was there.
Reportedly Dyer later said that the firing was meant to be a punishment for disobedience and not to disperse the meeting.
Dyer was later dubbed ‘The Butcher of Amritsar’, removed from command into enforced retirement. He died in 1927.
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0.5950248837... | 3 | One of the darkest hours of the British Colonial rule in India was 100 years ago on this day when British troops fired on thousands of people in what we now call the Jallianwala Massacre.
Brigadier General Reginald Edward Harry Dyer was tasked with ensuring order, and imposed measures including a ban on public gatherings after the Rowlett Act which allowed incarceration without trial. This act led to widespread protests and feuds resulting in people being arrested and banished.
It was the festival of Baisakhi which is a highly celebrated festival in India. On April 13, 1919, nearly 10,000 people gathered at Jallianwala Bagh. The ground was surrounded by high walls and had only one exit. Some estimates put the crowd at 20,000. The crowd included men, women, children and pilgrims.
Jallianwala Bagh was once a garden but in 1919 the place was uneven and unoccupied, an irregular quadrangle, indifferently walled and used as a dumping ground.
Dyer reached the spot with dozens of soldiers, sealed of the exit and ordered his soldiers to fire on the unarmed crowd without warning until they ran out of ammunition. When people found they couldn’t escape, many jumped into an open well that was there.
Reportedly Dyer later said that the firing was meant to be a punishment for disobedience and not to disperse the meeting.
Dyer was later dubbed ‘The Butcher of Amritsar’, removed from command into enforced retirement. He died in 1927.
Jallianwala Bagh was declared as a memorial of national importance in 1951 by the Government of India. | 364 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gerald Ford, originally Leslie Lynch King, Jr., was born on July 14, 1913, in Omaha, Nebraska. Ford’s parents separated about two weeks after his birth and his mother took him to Grand Rapids, Michigan, where she soon married a man named Gerald Ford. Leslie's mother decided to change his name from Leslie Lynch King, Jr., to Gerald Ford, Jr., after her new husband. As a child, Gerald was very athletic and became a star football player in high school, eventually landing a spot on the University of Michigan varsity football team. While at Michigan, Ford not only won a national championship in football, but he majored in economics as well as political science, graduating in 1935. After he graduated from Michigan, Ford turned down NFL contracts from the Detroit Lions and the Green Bay Packers to attend Yale Law School where he coached football and boxing to help pay for tuition. Ford received his LL.B. degree from Yale in 1941 and returned home to Grand Rapids to open his own firm with Philip A. Buchen, who would later serve as his White House Counsel. Ford also served in the military, joining the Naval Reserves after the United States entered World War II. While in the military, Ford saw significant action in the South Pacific and nearly tumbled overboard on one occasion while on the ship he was stationed on. Ford was honorably discharged in 1946, earning several war medals, including the World War II Victory Medal.
Nixon's Resignation Leads to Ford's Presidency
Ford made his political debut in 1948, quietly running for Congress and pulling off an upset over the five-term incumbent, Barney Jonkman. Ford was able to serve twelve successive terms while participating in important committees such as the Appropriations Committee. The Appropriations Committee determines how the United States government spends money. While in Congress, Ford became extremely popular among his fellow Republicans, including Dwight Eisenhower and Richard Nixon, but was also commended for his ability to reach across party lines and work with Democrats. The Republican Party suffered major losses in 1962 and 1964, which provided young, fresh Republicans, like Ford, the opportunity to shine. Ford was named Chairman of the Republican Conference in 1963, and in 1965, he was named the House Minority Leader, making him the highest-ranking Republican in the House of Representatives. During the Lyndon Johnson presidency, Ford spoke out frequently against Johnson's Great Society programs and how Johnson was handling the Vietnam War. After Johnson decided against running for the presidency in 1968, Ford became a major supporter of Richard Nixon and his successful bid for the White House. This support helped these two men become extremely close. Nixon also won the 1972 election but was quickly engulfed in the Watergate scandal that would lead to a major FBI investigation. In a plea bargain, Nixon's then vice president, Spiro Agnew, resigned from office in 1973 to avoid prosecution for accepting bribes as vice president and governor of Maryland. Nixon subsequently chose Gerald Ford to serve as his new vice president. Ford served as vice president for eight months before the pressure of the Watergate scandal forced Richard Nixon to resign from the presidency in 1974. Gerald R. Ford would become America's 38th president.
Shortly after assuming the role of president, Ford pardoned Nixon for any crimes he may have committed, which meant he would never have to face criminal charges for the Watergate scandal. This move was a very controversial one as many Americans wanted to see Nixon brought to justice for his crimes. During his presidency, Ford faced high unemployment and high inflation, which made him extremely unpopular amongst Republicans and Democrats alike. Ford was seen as a large, clumsy man due to his stature, but he is credited with being the man who restored some confidence in the White House after the Watergate scandal. In 1976, Ford decided to run for reelection. Although Ford was able to secure the Republican nomination, he was eventually defeated by Jimmy Carter. | <urn:uuid:592ddb88-a5ff-4aa4-a225-b2cecb35fb8b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/president-38-gerald-r-ford-biography-presidents-series | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00438.warc.gz | en | 0.985679 | 784 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.1763301193714... | 3 | Gerald Ford, originally Leslie Lynch King, Jr., was born on July 14, 1913, in Omaha, Nebraska. Ford’s parents separated about two weeks after his birth and his mother took him to Grand Rapids, Michigan, where she soon married a man named Gerald Ford. Leslie's mother decided to change his name from Leslie Lynch King, Jr., to Gerald Ford, Jr., after her new husband. As a child, Gerald was very athletic and became a star football player in high school, eventually landing a spot on the University of Michigan varsity football team. While at Michigan, Ford not only won a national championship in football, but he majored in economics as well as political science, graduating in 1935. After he graduated from Michigan, Ford turned down NFL contracts from the Detroit Lions and the Green Bay Packers to attend Yale Law School where he coached football and boxing to help pay for tuition. Ford received his LL.B. degree from Yale in 1941 and returned home to Grand Rapids to open his own firm with Philip A. Buchen, who would later serve as his White House Counsel. Ford also served in the military, joining the Naval Reserves after the United States entered World War II. While in the military, Ford saw significant action in the South Pacific and nearly tumbled overboard on one occasion while on the ship he was stationed on. Ford was honorably discharged in 1946, earning several war medals, including the World War II Victory Medal.
Nixon's Resignation Leads to Ford's Presidency
Ford made his political debut in 1948, quietly running for Congress and pulling off an upset over the five-term incumbent, Barney Jonkman. Ford was able to serve twelve successive terms while participating in important committees such as the Appropriations Committee. The Appropriations Committee determines how the United States government spends money. While in Congress, Ford became extremely popular among his fellow Republicans, including Dwight Eisenhower and Richard Nixon, but was also commended for his ability to reach across party lines and work with Democrats. The Republican Party suffered major losses in 1962 and 1964, which provided young, fresh Republicans, like Ford, the opportunity to shine. Ford was named Chairman of the Republican Conference in 1963, and in 1965, he was named the House Minority Leader, making him the highest-ranking Republican in the House of Representatives. During the Lyndon Johnson presidency, Ford spoke out frequently against Johnson's Great Society programs and how Johnson was handling the Vietnam War. After Johnson decided against running for the presidency in 1968, Ford became a major supporter of Richard Nixon and his successful bid for the White House. This support helped these two men become extremely close. Nixon also won the 1972 election but was quickly engulfed in the Watergate scandal that would lead to a major FBI investigation. In a plea bargain, Nixon's then vice president, Spiro Agnew, resigned from office in 1973 to avoid prosecution for accepting bribes as vice president and governor of Maryland. Nixon subsequently chose Gerald Ford to serve as his new vice president. Ford served as vice president for eight months before the pressure of the Watergate scandal forced Richard Nixon to resign from the presidency in 1974. Gerald R. Ford would become America's 38th president.
Shortly after assuming the role of president, Ford pardoned Nixon for any crimes he may have committed, which meant he would never have to face criminal charges for the Watergate scandal. This move was a very controversial one as many Americans wanted to see Nixon brought to justice for his crimes. During his presidency, Ford faced high unemployment and high inflation, which made him extremely unpopular amongst Republicans and Democrats alike. Ford was seen as a large, clumsy man due to his stature, but he is credited with being the man who restored some confidence in the White House after the Watergate scandal. In 1976, Ford decided to run for reelection. Although Ford was able to secure the Republican nomination, he was eventually defeated by Jimmy Carter. | 847 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Engineers created the A2 with the failures of its doomed supersonic predecessor, the Concorde, very much in mind. Reaction Engines's technical director, Richard Varvill, and his colleagues believe that the Concorde was phased out because of a couple major limitations. First, it couldn't fly far enough. "The range was inadequate to do trans-Pacific routes, which is where a lot of the potential market is thought to be for a supersonic transport," Varvill explains. Second, the Concorde's engines were efficient only at its Mach-2 cruising speed, which meant that when it was poking along overland at Mach 0.9 to avoid producing sonic booms, it got horrible gas mileage. "The [A2] engine has two modes because we're very conscious of the Concorde experience," he says. | <urn:uuid:c7a77c54-b43f-429e-8697-faec3c6589ba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.popsci.com/military-aviation-space/article/2008-01/green-skies-mach-5/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00084.warc.gz | en | 0.986642 | 169 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.19222559034824... | 1 | Engineers created the A2 with the failures of its doomed supersonic predecessor, the Concorde, very much in mind. Reaction Engines's technical director, Richard Varvill, and his colleagues believe that the Concorde was phased out because of a couple major limitations. First, it couldn't fly far enough. "The range was inadequate to do trans-Pacific routes, which is where a lot of the potential market is thought to be for a supersonic transport," Varvill explains. Second, the Concorde's engines were efficient only at its Mach-2 cruising speed, which meant that when it was poking along overland at Mach 0.9 to avoid producing sonic booms, it got horrible gas mileage. "The [A2] engine has two modes because we're very conscious of the Concorde experience," he says. | 173 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Role of Cats in Ancient Egypt
Egyptian history is rich with lots of fantastic art, architecture, and culture. Egyptians shared a lot of what we do in the modern world. One of these is the love of house cats!
In ancient Egypt, they would refer to a cat as the mau, or miu, or mii, which is probably more fitting than the English word as it sounds more like the sound a cat makes. Translated, it means "one that mews."
Although many Americans often view the cat as an adored member of the family, Egyptians went far beyond regular adoration, giving it an elevated status equal to that of a god. Due to the idolization of cats, some laws protected the domesticated creature. They considered their lives equivalent to the life of a human, if not more supreme. The fellow Egyptians so endeared cats that when a feline companion died, they often were mummified, then buried with their owner preserving them forever alongside their owner.
The domestication of cats dates back to 2000 BCE in Egypt. People would find the cats as kittens in the wild and then domesticate them. The first domesticated cat was initially a Jungle Cat known in the area as a swamp cat or an African Wildcat. The Wildcat though easily tamed, was not the same as a housecat. What we think of as a housecat would be a cross-breeding of both of these felines.
Cats were one of the first animals ever to become domesticated, although the domestication of a dog beat them to the punch thousands of years before. They were also one of the few animals that people allowed to come into their house and leave as they pleased. The people also may have appreciated the cats' instincts to kill rats and other rodents, which would have been very useful during a time when keeping homes mouse-proof was merely impossible.
Cats also retrieved birds while hunting many years before hunters decided to use dogs.
Egyptian Cat Mummy Photo
Cats were not only loved for their companionship, their hatred for rodents, but also thought to be a deity. Aside from my husband, who refers to our cat as "your majesty," few hold this belief today. Yet, in 1000-300 BCE, people would worship cats as if they were deities.
Mafdet: Mafdet is the oldest discovered feline goddess and possibly the first one ever created, which a crystal cup that is dated back as far as 3100 BCE displays on its surface. In pyramid texts, one will often find Mafdet as a majestic lion-headed goddess that kills a snake with her claws. In Egyptian Mafdet means "runner."
Bast: Bast (aka Pasch and Ubasti) is another feline goddess, created in the town of Bubastis during a very turbulent time in the first millennia. The rulers of this time believed that by creating this religious symbol, that it would unite them, and make their city more powerful. Many Egyptians believed that all house cats were descendants or rather manifestations of Bast, and therefore, should be treated like royalty.
Bast is possibly the only goddess that appears to be a domesticated cat, although it initially looked like a lion. Overtime it softened before it took the image of its domesticated relative.
Bast was the goddess of fertility, the moon, and of course, the protector of all cats, women, and children. When in cat form, Bast's name is Bastet. Bast, herself, appeared with a feline head, but the body of a beautiful human female. Although Bast was married to Ras, she was believed to be the sexual partner of all the other gods and goddesses.
Sphinx: Sphinx is in the shape of a lion, which was much more common amongst the feline gods and goddesses. What we often think of as the Sphinx is one of the earliest art forms discovered in Egypt. The opposite of Bast, the Sphinx has the head of the pharaoh, but the body of a lion. Beng part lion portrayed how powerful and important the pharaoh was. The Sphinx is very popular in today's legends, as well.
Sekhmet: Sekhmet was the goddess of fate that was believed to control the Tablets of Destiny. The idol that portrays this goddess is a gold-covered creature that has a lion head and a very elaborate headdress. This goddess became very angry, which turned into a blood hunger and in turn, killing many. The god of the Sun Ra decided to mix beer and pomegranate to appear like blood. Sekhmet, who mistook this as blood, drank herself into oblivion.
Protected By Law
Not only did the Egyptians craft many of their gods and goddesses to depict cats, but they also treated cats exceptionally well, protecting them by law. Whether you killed a cat by accident or on purpose, the punishment was death. So for those who have ever accidentally hit a cat with your car, they would find themselves on death row in ancient Egypt. It was also illegal to export a cat, which caused traders to smuggle them into other countries illegally.
When a cat died, they would usually be mummified and placed in a tomb. Inside the tomb, Egyptians would leave mice, rats, and saucers of milk for the cat. Cats were also found in the tombs of their owners, showing how much love they had for the cats. There were cat cemeteries along the Nile River for those not buried with their owners.
Despite the laws, many mummified cats were discovered to have broken necks. Anthropologists believe that the pharaoh killed many kittens as a sacrifice to Bast, and also as population control.
Mourning of a Cat and Mummification Proccess
When a cat died of natural causes, the owners would go through a grieving process where they would shave their eyebrows, and mummify the cat. The process would include cutting out all essential organs and filling the dead cat with sand. Then they would place the cat in a sitting position and wrap it tightly. On the outside of the face, they would draw feline features so the mummy would appear to have a face.
In 1888, through scientific research, the mummification process became known to us modern people, after an Egyptian farmer uncovered eighty thousand mummified cats and kittens in the town Beni Hasan. This preservation took place so that when the cats died, they would be able to be born into their afterlife and rejoin their owners. Interestingly enough, in many of these cat cemeteries, crematoriums were found. They were cremated either secretly due to the plentifulness of the cats, or by choice of their owner.
One misconception is that cats were unique in the worship of them. In ancient times, many animals, depending on location, were worshipped and idolized.
Questions & Answers
© 2010 Angela Michelle Schultz | <urn:uuid:546471f6-62e5-44d2-87af-44cd14b25cb5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://owlcation.com/humanities/Cats-Role-In-Ancient-Egypt | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00271.warc.gz | en | 0.98419 | 1,433 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.21730247139930725,... | 2 | The Role of Cats in Ancient Egypt
Egyptian history is rich with lots of fantastic art, architecture, and culture. Egyptians shared a lot of what we do in the modern world. One of these is the love of house cats!
In ancient Egypt, they would refer to a cat as the mau, or miu, or mii, which is probably more fitting than the English word as it sounds more like the sound a cat makes. Translated, it means "one that mews."
Although many Americans often view the cat as an adored member of the family, Egyptians went far beyond regular adoration, giving it an elevated status equal to that of a god. Due to the idolization of cats, some laws protected the domesticated creature. They considered their lives equivalent to the life of a human, if not more supreme. The fellow Egyptians so endeared cats that when a feline companion died, they often were mummified, then buried with their owner preserving them forever alongside their owner.
The domestication of cats dates back to 2000 BCE in Egypt. People would find the cats as kittens in the wild and then domesticate them. The first domesticated cat was initially a Jungle Cat known in the area as a swamp cat or an African Wildcat. The Wildcat though easily tamed, was not the same as a housecat. What we think of as a housecat would be a cross-breeding of both of these felines.
Cats were one of the first animals ever to become domesticated, although the domestication of a dog beat them to the punch thousands of years before. They were also one of the few animals that people allowed to come into their house and leave as they pleased. The people also may have appreciated the cats' instincts to kill rats and other rodents, which would have been very useful during a time when keeping homes mouse-proof was merely impossible.
Cats also retrieved birds while hunting many years before hunters decided to use dogs.
Egyptian Cat Mummy Photo
Cats were not only loved for their companionship, their hatred for rodents, but also thought to be a deity. Aside from my husband, who refers to our cat as "your majesty," few hold this belief today. Yet, in 1000-300 BCE, people would worship cats as if they were deities.
Mafdet: Mafdet is the oldest discovered feline goddess and possibly the first one ever created, which a crystal cup that is dated back as far as 3100 BCE displays on its surface. In pyramid texts, one will often find Mafdet as a majestic lion-headed goddess that kills a snake with her claws. In Egyptian Mafdet means "runner."
Bast: Bast (aka Pasch and Ubasti) is another feline goddess, created in the town of Bubastis during a very turbulent time in the first millennia. The rulers of this time believed that by creating this religious symbol, that it would unite them, and make their city more powerful. Many Egyptians believed that all house cats were descendants or rather manifestations of Bast, and therefore, should be treated like royalty.
Bast is possibly the only goddess that appears to be a domesticated cat, although it initially looked like a lion. Overtime it softened before it took the image of its domesticated relative.
Bast was the goddess of fertility, the moon, and of course, the protector of all cats, women, and children. When in cat form, Bast's name is Bastet. Bast, herself, appeared with a feline head, but the body of a beautiful human female. Although Bast was married to Ras, she was believed to be the sexual partner of all the other gods and goddesses.
Sphinx: Sphinx is in the shape of a lion, which was much more common amongst the feline gods and goddesses. What we often think of as the Sphinx is one of the earliest art forms discovered in Egypt. The opposite of Bast, the Sphinx has the head of the pharaoh, but the body of a lion. Beng part lion portrayed how powerful and important the pharaoh was. The Sphinx is very popular in today's legends, as well.
Sekhmet: Sekhmet was the goddess of fate that was believed to control the Tablets of Destiny. The idol that portrays this goddess is a gold-covered creature that has a lion head and a very elaborate headdress. This goddess became very angry, which turned into a blood hunger and in turn, killing many. The god of the Sun Ra decided to mix beer and pomegranate to appear like blood. Sekhmet, who mistook this as blood, drank herself into oblivion.
Protected By Law
Not only did the Egyptians craft many of their gods and goddesses to depict cats, but they also treated cats exceptionally well, protecting them by law. Whether you killed a cat by accident or on purpose, the punishment was death. So for those who have ever accidentally hit a cat with your car, they would find themselves on death row in ancient Egypt. It was also illegal to export a cat, which caused traders to smuggle them into other countries illegally.
When a cat died, they would usually be mummified and placed in a tomb. Inside the tomb, Egyptians would leave mice, rats, and saucers of milk for the cat. Cats were also found in the tombs of their owners, showing how much love they had for the cats. There were cat cemeteries along the Nile River for those not buried with their owners.
Despite the laws, many mummified cats were discovered to have broken necks. Anthropologists believe that the pharaoh killed many kittens as a sacrifice to Bast, and also as population control.
Mourning of a Cat and Mummification Proccess
When a cat died of natural causes, the owners would go through a grieving process where they would shave their eyebrows, and mummify the cat. The process would include cutting out all essential organs and filling the dead cat with sand. Then they would place the cat in a sitting position and wrap it tightly. On the outside of the face, they would draw feline features so the mummy would appear to have a face.
In 1888, through scientific research, the mummification process became known to us modern people, after an Egyptian farmer uncovered eighty thousand mummified cats and kittens in the town Beni Hasan. This preservation took place so that when the cats died, they would be able to be born into their afterlife and rejoin their owners. Interestingly enough, in many of these cat cemeteries, crematoriums were found. They were cremated either secretly due to the plentifulness of the cats, or by choice of their owner.
One misconception is that cats were unique in the worship of them. In ancient times, many animals, depending on location, were worshipped and idolized.
Questions & Answers
© 2010 Angela Michelle Schultz | 1,431 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alfred Tennyson learnt about the sudden death of his dear friend Henry Hallam, in October 1833. Hallam’s death disturbed Tennyson, and he decided to write “Ulysses” in his memory. The poem is a tribute to his lifelong friend.
Buy “Ulysses” by Alfred Lord Tennyson essay paper online
In Homer’s Odysseys poem Odysseys travels from the Trojan War for a period of ten years to his home, but once he got home he had to embark on another journey, never made. These contrasts with Tennyson's poem where Ulysses chooses to continue sailing instead of returning home. Dante’s Inferno criticized Tennyson’s work since Ulysses adventurous habits did not please him.
Tennyson has managed to bring out both Homer’s and Dante’s ideas in this poem. The persona in Tennyson’s poem is Ulysses, who complains of his imprisonment in the island. He wants to have more than the island has to offer. The death of Hallam caused Tennyson a lot of distress, even after mourning the death of his friend the peace that he desired to get does not show up. He wants to get more of it than he already has by exposing himself to more challenges. Tennyson uses Ulysses to show the zeal that he had to continue living despite the loss of Hallam. There are several themes brought out in this poem. The author has used symbols, imagery and similes to bring out these themes. Ulysses goes through dissatisfaction; he was not comfortable with staying indoors with nothing constructive to do. He wanted to see and have more than that on the island. Lines 1-3 shows Ulysses’ discontent with the island; he refers to it as “barren”, meaning it has no life. He also mentions idleness and his aged wife. In the lines 22-23 he talks of an item made of steel that has not been used, and may soon rust and lose its luster. He brought out the unused energy in him that he needs to get rid of by engaging in some useful activities. In the lines 24-25 he shows his lack of content and insists that even if he was out of the Ithaca, he would still yearn for more as long as he has breath.
Perseverance was another theme in the poem. Ulysses never gives up; when he sets himself to do something, he has to do it. In the lines 6-7 he says that he cannot rest, he will keep moving on despite his challenges. He will keep drinking until there’s nothing more to drink. In the lines 58-61 he sacrifices every decent thing he has on the island for his dream of sailing far and wide.
Ulysses’ high ambitions in life are as a result of his death approaching. He wants to leave a legacy after his death. In the lines 19-21 he moves in order to lengthen the distance between him and his death. In the lines 22-24 he talks of one being figuratively dead if they have breath and they cannot do something to make themselves shine. In the lines 59-60 he wants to keep sailing until he dies; he will either die when he gets to the climax of his voyage or die before getting there. In the lines 62-64 he appreciates the fact that he will have to die and go to the heavens where happiness is abundant. Tennyson brings out the theme of mortality remarkably well.
Old age has caused Ulysses to smell his death and that is why he wants to enjoy himself before he finally passes away. In the line 3 he mentions his aged wife, who he considered as boring company; yet we expect them to be around the same age, but he makes his wife look older than him. In the lines 49-50 Ulysses knows that the elderly should be accorded respect and that elderly have things to attend to, but he choses traveling over the other activities. In the lines 55-56 he is in the twilight of his life because both darkness and light can be seen. This is similar to old age since one is neither dead nor a youth. In the lines 65-67 the change of might is associated with old age, where one’s strength is no longer the same as it was in his youthful days.
Exploration is another theme in this poem. Even after traveling for a long time, Ulysses wants to travel further and make new discoveries. In the lines 12-14 he likens himself to a predator that is always in the move in search of something new. In the lines 19-21 he wants to travel to the lands, where no one else has been before. In the lines 24-25 he says that one lifetime is not enough for him to travel to the places he wants to go to before his death. Lines’ 26-29 express the following idea: keep exploring if you have breath.
The setting of the poem is symbolic. It starts in the palace and then changes to the port. This shows that the pleasures in the palace were not enough to make the king happy and he had to look for that happiness somewhere else.
The title of the poem is relevant as Ulysses was a mythical Greek king, who fought in the Trojan War and conquered all his enemies despite the challenges. Tennyson’s poem brings out Ulysses as a man, who is ready to fight in order to attain his goals.
Tennyson’s tribulations have been illustrated in this poem. We should not let shortcomings deter us from achieving our goals. On the contrary, we need to be focused and only stop when there is nothing else that can be done. This poem is an encouragement to the readers to pursue their goals in life fearlessly.
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0.426337778568... | 1 | Alfred Tennyson learnt about the sudden death of his dear friend Henry Hallam, in October 1833. Hallam’s death disturbed Tennyson, and he decided to write “Ulysses” in his memory. The poem is a tribute to his lifelong friend.
Buy “Ulysses” by Alfred Lord Tennyson essay paper online
In Homer’s Odysseys poem Odysseys travels from the Trojan War for a period of ten years to his home, but once he got home he had to embark on another journey, never made. These contrasts with Tennyson's poem where Ulysses chooses to continue sailing instead of returning home. Dante’s Inferno criticized Tennyson’s work since Ulysses adventurous habits did not please him.
Tennyson has managed to bring out both Homer’s and Dante’s ideas in this poem. The persona in Tennyson’s poem is Ulysses, who complains of his imprisonment in the island. He wants to have more than the island has to offer. The death of Hallam caused Tennyson a lot of distress, even after mourning the death of his friend the peace that he desired to get does not show up. He wants to get more of it than he already has by exposing himself to more challenges. Tennyson uses Ulysses to show the zeal that he had to continue living despite the loss of Hallam. There are several themes brought out in this poem. The author has used symbols, imagery and similes to bring out these themes. Ulysses goes through dissatisfaction; he was not comfortable with staying indoors with nothing constructive to do. He wanted to see and have more than that on the island. Lines 1-3 shows Ulysses’ discontent with the island; he refers to it as “barren”, meaning it has no life. He also mentions idleness and his aged wife. In the lines 22-23 he talks of an item made of steel that has not been used, and may soon rust and lose its luster. He brought out the unused energy in him that he needs to get rid of by engaging in some useful activities. In the lines 24-25 he shows his lack of content and insists that even if he was out of the Ithaca, he would still yearn for more as long as he has breath.
Perseverance was another theme in the poem. Ulysses never gives up; when he sets himself to do something, he has to do it. In the lines 6-7 he says that he cannot rest, he will keep moving on despite his challenges. He will keep drinking until there’s nothing more to drink. In the lines 58-61 he sacrifices every decent thing he has on the island for his dream of sailing far and wide.
Ulysses’ high ambitions in life are as a result of his death approaching. He wants to leave a legacy after his death. In the lines 19-21 he moves in order to lengthen the distance between him and his death. In the lines 22-24 he talks of one being figuratively dead if they have breath and they cannot do something to make themselves shine. In the lines 59-60 he wants to keep sailing until he dies; he will either die when he gets to the climax of his voyage or die before getting there. In the lines 62-64 he appreciates the fact that he will have to die and go to the heavens where happiness is abundant. Tennyson brings out the theme of mortality remarkably well.
Old age has caused Ulysses to smell his death and that is why he wants to enjoy himself before he finally passes away. In the line 3 he mentions his aged wife, who he considered as boring company; yet we expect them to be around the same age, but he makes his wife look older than him. In the lines 49-50 Ulysses knows that the elderly should be accorded respect and that elderly have things to attend to, but he choses traveling over the other activities. In the lines 55-56 he is in the twilight of his life because both darkness and light can be seen. This is similar to old age since one is neither dead nor a youth. In the lines 65-67 the change of might is associated with old age, where one’s strength is no longer the same as it was in his youthful days.
Exploration is another theme in this poem. Even after traveling for a long time, Ulysses wants to travel further and make new discoveries. In the lines 12-14 he likens himself to a predator that is always in the move in search of something new. In the lines 19-21 he wants to travel to the lands, where no one else has been before. In the lines 24-25 he says that one lifetime is not enough for him to travel to the places he wants to go to before his death. Lines’ 26-29 express the following idea: keep exploring if you have breath.
The setting of the poem is symbolic. It starts in the palace and then changes to the port. This shows that the pleasures in the palace were not enough to make the king happy and he had to look for that happiness somewhere else.
The title of the poem is relevant as Ulysses was a mythical Greek king, who fought in the Trojan War and conquered all his enemies despite the challenges. Tennyson’s poem brings out Ulysses as a man, who is ready to fight in order to attain his goals.
Tennyson’s tribulations have been illustrated in this poem. We should not let shortcomings deter us from achieving our goals. On the contrary, we need to be focused and only stop when there is nothing else that can be done. This poem is an encouragement to the readers to pursue their goals in life fearlessly.
Most popular orders | 1,243 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Netherlands is a country with a very rich and diverse history. Geographically, it acts as a cornerstone of Europe not least because it acted as a major port city in trade development. Not only did the foundation of the modern Netherlands have a geographical economic benefit but also a rapidly emerging political façade which quickly rose to prominent in early modern Europe. At that time, the Netherlands was known as the Dutch Republic.
The Dutch Republic ultimately was ravaged by every other major power of Europe at the time. Strategically, it occupied a very important space in Europe and states were willing to fight over it. During the turbulent war-torn centuries of early modern Europe, we can see how vigorous the Netherlands was in its defence of its country. This was partly due to the overwhelming Protestant nature of the state which refused to succumb to Catholic rulers elsewhere.
Independence of the Netherlands was a bloody affair but it came through successfully. This success was echoed in its cultural efforts which are now referred to as the Dutch Golden Age. The period post-independence ushered in a vast swathe of artistic development, some of the finest art appreciated today. Once the shackles of war were removed and a national identity began to emerge, the Dutch Republic became one of the most liberal and developed of all countries in the world.
This quiz aims to take a look at some of the major events which factored into the independence movement of the Netherlands. This invariably involves taking a look at its history as well as the aforementioned cultural benefits that independence brought. The independence of the Netherlands also brought great expansion and growth. This expansion is critical to understanding the effects of its independence. | <urn:uuid:b80d15d8-166c-4fa9-93ca-4f9f5b5abc8b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tenquestion.com/independence-netherlands-10-quizzes-test-knowledge/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00338.warc.gz | en | 0.985881 | 331 | 4 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | The Netherlands is a country with a very rich and diverse history. Geographically, it acts as a cornerstone of Europe not least because it acted as a major port city in trade development. Not only did the foundation of the modern Netherlands have a geographical economic benefit but also a rapidly emerging political façade which quickly rose to prominent in early modern Europe. At that time, the Netherlands was known as the Dutch Republic.
The Dutch Republic ultimately was ravaged by every other major power of Europe at the time. Strategically, it occupied a very important space in Europe and states were willing to fight over it. During the turbulent war-torn centuries of early modern Europe, we can see how vigorous the Netherlands was in its defence of its country. This was partly due to the overwhelming Protestant nature of the state which refused to succumb to Catholic rulers elsewhere.
Independence of the Netherlands was a bloody affair but it came through successfully. This success was echoed in its cultural efforts which are now referred to as the Dutch Golden Age. The period post-independence ushered in a vast swathe of artistic development, some of the finest art appreciated today. Once the shackles of war were removed and a national identity began to emerge, the Dutch Republic became one of the most liberal and developed of all countries in the world.
This quiz aims to take a look at some of the major events which factored into the independence movement of the Netherlands. This invariably involves taking a look at its history as well as the aforementioned cultural benefits that independence brought. The independence of the Netherlands also brought great expansion and growth. This expansion is critical to understanding the effects of its independence. | 331 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Unforgettable speeches: the Apology of Socrates
The Apology of Socrates is not about saying sorry but it is one of the great speeches in the history of philosophy. The Greek philosopher defends himself against his accusers and ultimately invites them to condemn him to death. Why does he do that? Find out this week on The Philosopher's Zone.
Dr Rick Benitez
Department of Philosophy
The University of Sydney
Alan Saunders: Hello, and welcome to The Philosopher's Zone; I'm Alan Saunders.
You might have noticed that right now Radio National is celebrating some of the great speeches of history. Now philosophers, I have to say, are not on the whole great speech makers. Some of them have been great teachers, of course, holding a lecture room in thrall, but I don't think that really counts as making a speech. And a lot of them have spent most of their time just sitting alone in a room, thinking and writing.
But there is at least one great speech in the history of philosophy, and it was delivered in Athens in the year 399 BC.
Reading: The Apology of Socrates
How you, O Athenians, have been affected by my accusers, I cannot tell; but I know that they almost made me forget who I was, so persuasively did they speak; and yet they have hardly uttered a word of truth. But of the many falsehoods told by them, there was one which quite amazed me; I mean when they said that you should be upon your guard and not allow yourselves to be deceived by the force of my eloquence. To say this, when they were certain to be detected as soon as I opened my lips and proved myself to be anything but a great speaker, did indeed appear to me most shameless, unless by the force of eloquence they mean the force of truth; for if such is their meaning, I admit that I am eloquent. But in how different a way from theirs! Well, as I was saying, they have scarcely spoken the truth at all; but from me you shall hear the whole truth: not, however, delivered after their manner in a set oration duly ornamented with words and phrases. No, by heaven! but I shall use the words and arguments which occur to me at the moment; for I am confident in the justice of my cause: at my time of life I ought not to be appearing before you, O men of Athens, in the character of a juvenile orator, let no one expect it of me. And I must beg of you to grant me a favour. If I defend myself in my accustomed manner, and you hear me using the words which I have been in the habit of using in the agora, at the tables of the money-changers, or anywhere else, I would ask you not to be surprised, and not to interrupt me on this account. For I am more than seventy years of age, and appearing now for the first time in a court of law, I am quite a stranger to the language of the place; and therefore I would have you regard me as if I were really a stranger, whom you would accuse if he spoke in his native tongue, and after the fashion of his country. Am I making an unfair request of you? Never mind the manner, which may or may not be good, but think only of the truth of my words, and give heed to that: let the speaker speak truly and the judge decide justly.
Alan Saunders: This is how the great philosopher Socrates began the speech that is known as his Apology. We know about it, thanks to his student Plato, but why is it called the Apology? To find out about this and much else, I spoke to Rick Benitez, Associate Professor of Philosophy at the University of Sydney, and I began by asking him: This might be called the Apology, but Socrates certainly isn't saying sorry, is he?
Rick Benitez: The word means 'defence'. Sometimes they used to have the old expression 'apologia pro sua vita', and so this is 'in defence of my life'. And Socrates is giving his defence in court; it's a legal term.
Alan Saunders: Now it's a fairly long speech; in the translation from which I've been working it's about 30 pages. Do we really know that that is what he said, because we have this from Plato, his pupil, but presumably Plato wasn't there taking shorthand.
Rick Benitez: Plato was there, so that's one of the important bits of evidence that we have. We know from ancient reports that there were a number of people who wrote versions of the Apology of Socrates, and we have two of them extant, one by Plato and one by Xenophon. Plato was there, and so that gives a certain preference to that version. But Xenophon's version backs up the Platonic version in a number of important respects: it backs up the charges against him, it backs up the dialogue with Meletus, the sort of interrogation of Meletus, or cross-examination; it backs up the views about visiting the Delphic Oracle and whether or not anyone was wiser than Socrates; and it backs up many things about Socrates' ordinary practice of questioning other people and his way of speaking at the trial.
So that gives us some reason in favour of treating the speech as at least faithful to what was said at the trial.
Alan Saunders: OK, we'll go into some of that detail later, but let's just start with the context. What is the political and the juridical situation in which Socrates finds himself? Why is he up before the court?
Rick Benitez: Socrates, in his earlier activity, was very critical of democracy, and he was critical of democracy at a time when Athenian democracy could stand it. But after the capitulation to Sparta, and after a ruthless and bloodthirsty oligarchy was emplaced in Athens—it was so ruthless it only lasted three years—any people who were enemies, or appeared to be enemies of the democracy were in a tricky situation. And when democracy was restored in Athens, Socrates was politically suspect as a critic of democracy, and some of the people that he had associated with were among the actual tyrants in this regime, the oligarchical machine.
Alan Saunders: And we shouldn't assume that he's up there in front of a judge and jury, it's a very different set-up, isn't it?
Rick Benitez: He's in front of a jury, but it's a jury of 500, so the way in which the jury responds to you... first of all also a lot of people by our standards would have been excluded from such a jury, because they know Socrates, they're acquainted with him, they're friends and enemies of him. They're chosen by lot, so it's not as if you can sort of get into the jury just because you dislike or like Socrates, but it's enough people to be swayed one way or another, more like the way the political electorate is swayed.
Alan Saunders: And what's the charge? What is the precise charge?
Rick Benitez: There's a general charge that is brought on which is impiety, and this charge has two specific counts: one of the counts is that he doesn't acknowledge the gods of the state, that is Athens, and he supplants them with other gods of his own devising. The second charge, separate from that, is that he corrupts the young. Both of these are impious activities and they go as counts under the general charge of impiety.
Alan Saunders: How was he corrupting the young? By his teachings, a philosopher?
Rick Benitez: That's the allegation against him. One of the ways it's usually put is that he made the worse argument defeat the better argument, and by that what's means is that he made young people question the received opinions of their fathers, their mothers, the statesmen, the reputable people of Athens, and questioned them in a way that seems to defeat them.
Alan Saunders: That's interesting, because making the worse argument appear the better argument, is what we today call sophistry, and of course there were philosophers called Sophists and he was very opposed to them.
Rick Benitez: Socrates may have been very opposed to them but he was very similar to them in his methods and his approach, in fact that the comic poet, Aristophanes, lampooned him as the lead Sophist in Clouds.
Alan Saunders: OK, so Socrates is up before this very large jury and he's delivering his speech, and he begins with rather elaborate professions of modesty about his lack of eloquence. What's going on there?
Rick Benitez: I think that's one of the really beautiful features of the speech itself. One of the things he wants to show is that he isn't like those people who buy speeches from very polished speechwriters, like Lyceus, to get themselves off in court. So he makes a big pretence of his modesty and his need to speak plainly. But in fact, rhetorically his speech is very powerful, and very styled. What's interesting is that it doesn't get him off. It's not actually designed to get him off the hook, so in one sense he beats the rhetoricians at their own game by showing that he can do what they do, but not merely for the sake of victory.
Alan Saunders: So is he really talking to the jury or is he talking to history?
Rick Benitez: That's a very interesting question. I've actually never thought of it quite that way; I think he must be talking to history in part, yes.
Alan Saunders: Now if we come to the rest of the speech, how does he represent himself in terms of his profession? What does he say he's doing?
Rick Benitez: He actually claims that he doesn't teach people at all, he's not an educator, and he doesn't teach people to make the worse argument appear better. If he does anything wrong, he pleads ignorance about it, and he says, 'Instruct me', or 'Educate me about that.' What he's doing in his activity is trying to understand, he says, a particular claim that was made by the Delphic Oracle about him. His friend Chaerephon visited Delphi and asked the question of the oracle, 'Is anyone wiser than Socrates?' And the oracle replied 'No one.'
Alan Saunders: Now we should explain the Delphic Oracle, explain to us the set-up. If I go to visit the oracle, it's not like dialling a fortune-teller on my mobile; what exactly do I do?
Rick Benitez: It's a very interesting kind of thing. What happens is that there is a priestess who's the priestess of the Pythian Apollo, who prophecies in Sibylline utterances, and then there's also an interpreter, or exegete, who represents what it is that the priestess is saying.
Alan Saunders: And when you say 'Sibylline,' you mean somewhat mysterious and difficult to understand.
Rick Benitez: That's right. The Delphic utterances are notoriously difficult to understand. And they're cryptic. Even when you get them from the exegete— that is, the person who explains what's meant by the priestess— they're hard to understand. And so when the oracle says that no-one is wiser than Socrates, it's not clear what's meant, and Socrates said it certainly wasn't clear to him, because he knew that he wasn't wise at all. And so he thought that what he must do if he was to be pious and to understand the oracle rightly, was to try to see in what sense it was the case that he was wiser.
Alan Saunders: I'm talking to Rick Benitez from the University of Sydney about the Apology: the great speech delivered in 399 BC by Socrates, when he was on trial for his life. So was Socrates the wisest man in Athens? To find out, he investigated all sorts of sectors of Athenian society, from the orators to the craftsmen.
Rick Benitez: He looks at all the kind of people who have a reputation for knowing something. Some of them have lots of knowledge in a very special area—these are the craftsmen particularly—and he admits that they know lots of things that he doesn't know. But he thinks the trouble there is that their wisdom in the smaller area leads them to think they're wise in all of the areas. And so they have a pretence of wisdom. And Socrates thinks, 'Which would I prefer? To be wise with their knowledge, and ignorant with their ignorance, or generally ignorant, as I am, not thinking that I know what I don't know?' And he prefers the latter.
Alan Saunders: So he emerges, does he, agreeing with the oracle?
Rick Benitez: Ultimately he does. But he thinks that the interesting interpretation is... he thinks that the wisdom is a human wisdom. It's the wisdom of modesty—like you said at the beginning of his speech—the wisdom to admit that you don't know.
Alan Saunders: Which is not a good way of making yourself popular, even today.
Rick Benitez: No, it's not.
Alan Saunders: Now there is a scene in the Apology where he, as it were, cross-examines one of his accusers, Meletus. Tell us what's going on there.
Rick Benitez: Well, Meletus is actually bringing the prosecution case in court, and Socrates wants to show, by cross-examination, that Meletus really doesn't understand the charges against Socrates, he really doesn't have a care for them; what's behind it is just a motivation that Athens be rid of this pest. And I think he shows that quite well.
Alan Saunders: And so does Meletus retire defeated?
Rick Benitez: Well, Meletus doesn't admit defeat, and I think that in the eyes of the jurors who don't perhaps understand the cross-examination so well, Socrates comes across as an arrogant questioner, he doesn't show due respect for Meletus' position. So in those ways, he sort of pays out the rope and lets Socrates show the kind of person he is, and hopes that that will be enough to convict him.
Alan Saunders: And in the end, he refuses to entreat the jury. He actually says, 'I'm not going to entreat you.' Why is this?
Rick Benitez: Well he thinks that one of the things that speech-givers generally did was to gratify audiences, and I actually think Socrates was an extremist in this way. I think he thinks that the best way to be a good friend to another person is to pick them up on the things that they do wrong, and to point out their faults and to criticise them when they haven't done enough, and not to gratify them or be polite to them. I think he's too extreme about that, but he simply refuses to gratify the Athenian jury.
Alan Saunders: And he also refuses, as it were, to cop a plea bargain, which he says, 'I don't want you to exile me.'
Rick Benitez: That's right. Well there's a couple of things that are interesting about that. If you read the biography of him in Diogenes Laertius, you see that one of the things that he was reputed to have said about the plea bargain and exile was that he said, 'Well can you exile me to any place where I can escape death?' So he really didn't think that death was necessarily... it's going to come one day or another, and he's already 70 years old when the court case comes against him.
Alan Saunders: So, I asked you earlier whether he was talking to the jury or talking to history, but should we see him as depicting himself as an actor in a vast and important historical drama, and he actually wants to die: that is the conclusion, that is the catastrophe of the drama?
Rick Benitez: I think it's an overstatement that he wants to die. He knows he's going to die; he thinks there are things more valuable than life or death. One of the most beautiful images in the speech that he gives, he says 'From the day that a person is born, he's pursued by two runners: Death and Evil, and no-one can outrun Death forever, but if he's lucky, a man can out-run Evil.' And this is his aim; he especially wants to be able to acquit himself—that is, in his whole life—without having done evil. So it doesn't matter to him so much that he's going to die. He doesn't want to die, but if death comes as a result of his choosing what he thinks is the right path, so be it.
Alan Saunders: He's found guilty. He is sentenced to death. Do we know anything about how the process would have proceeded from there?
Rick Benitez: Oh yes, he was taken to prison, and he was to be executed in a timely manner but we know from Plato's Dialogues, the Phaedo in particular, that there was a delay because the Athenians have an annual voyage to Crete, to Minos, that commemorates the voyage of Theseus. The Athenians used to pay tribute of maidens and young men to Crete, and Theseus rescued them and killed the Minotaur, so there was this commemorative and religious occasion. And no-one was allowed to be executed, and it happened to fall at the time of Socrates' imprisonment. So he could only be executed after those commemorative celebrations were over.
Alan Saunders: So he spends a little while on Death Row, as it were, and then he takes hemlock; was that the standard Athenian method of execution?
Rick Benitez: That was one method of execution, but if the accounts of the way in which Socrates died in Plato's Phaedo were anything like accurate, there must have been other things mixed into the brew as well, because hemlock poisoning is a very convulsive, violent way of dying, and in the story at any rate, Socrates dies quite peacefully.
Alan Saunders: With the final words I think, 'Tell Crito I owe a cock to Asclepius.'
Rick Benitez: That's right.
Alan Saunders: Asclepius being the god of healing, and he has now been healed of what, the disease of life?
Rick Benitez: That's the usual interpretation, indeed, that he thinks life is a bit like a disease, and to die is to go to a better place.
Alan Saunders: Just finally, is it just possible that after all that, Socrates was in fact guilty as charged; they got him bang to rights?
Rick Benitez: You know, it's a perspective issue. We always look at it ourselves from the outside, looking in, and not from the perspective of Athenian life in the 4th century BC. And if you look at what the charges actually were against him, and what Socrates' life was actually like—whether or not there should be a capital offence for this, right—but was he guilty of this, not acknowledging the gods of the state? Well, we have got pretty good evidence that he didn't think that— even where he gave them the same names—he didn't think the Zeus that he believed in was like the Zeus of the Athenians, or the Apollo that he believed in was like an Apollo. And he had a divine sign that visited him and would tell him not to do this or that. So there's some pretty good evidence that he didn't believe in the way in which Athenians believed in the gods, and he certainly did engage in discussions with the young in ways that made them question authority. So if we can look at it from within, it would be a tough call whether to call him guilty or innocent of those charges.
Alan Saunders: Do we have any idea of the effect that his death had on Athens? Because know of course, that a large number of people including most notably, Plato, were writing about it. So did this event cast a long shadow?
Rick Benitez: Well historically it cast a really long shadow. But in the early days there were people like Plato who left Athens for the time being, because the environment was very hostile to philosophers. On some accounts, Socrates was merely the first of many philosophers to be brought on charges of impiety. And there were others on other counts before him there were brought, Protagoras, Anaxagoras. So there was a very hostile mood to philosophers at the time.
Alan Saunders: Well, here on this show at least we're not usually hostile to philosophers.
Rick Benitez: That's good news.
Alan Saunders: Rick Benitez, thanks very much indeed for joining us.
Reading: The Apology of Socrates
Let us reflect in another way, and we shall see that there is great reason to hope that death is a good; for one of two things: either death is a state of nothingness and utter unconsciousness, or, as men say, there is a change and migration of the soul from this world to another. Now if you suppose that there is no consciousness, but a sleep like the sleep of him who is undisturbed even by dreams, death will be an unspeakable gain. For if a person were to select the night in which his sleep was undisturbed even by dreams, and were to compare with this the other days and nights of his life, and then were to tell us how many days and nights he had passed in the course of his life better and more pleasantly than this one, I think that any man, I will not say a private man, but the greatest king will not find many such days or nights, when compared to the others. Now if death be of such a nature, I say that to die is gain, for eternity is then only a single night. But if death is the journey to another place, and there, as men say, all the dead abide, what good, O my friends and judges, can be greater than this? If indeed when the pilgrim arrives in the world below, he is delivered from the professors of justice in this world, and finds the true judges who are said to give judgement there ... that pilgrimage will be worth taking. What would not a man give if he might converse with Orpheus and Musaeus, and Hesiod and Homer? Nay, if this be true, let me die again and again! Above all, I shall then be able to continue my search into true and false knowledge; as in this world, so also in the next; and I shall find out who is wise, and who pretends to be wise, and is not ... In another world they do not put a man to death for asking questions: assuredly not. For besides being happier than we are, they will also be immortal, if what is said is true.
Wherefore, O judges, be of good cheer about death, and know of a certainty, that no evil can happen to a good man, either in life or after death: he and his are not neglected by the gods; nor has my own approaching end happened by mere chance. But I see clearly that the time had arrived when it was better for me to die and be released from trouble.
The hour of departure has arrived, and we go our separate ways, I to die, and you to live. Which of these two is better only God knows.
Some of the final words of Socrates, addressing the jury in Athens; they were read for us by John Gregg. Thanks to him and to our producer, Polly Rickard, and technical producer, Luke Purse. I'm Alan Saunders, and I'll be back next week. | <urn:uuid:92adfa12-57a8-4862-bdf5-99b5c2802d72> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/philosopherszone/unforgettable-speeches-the-apology-of-socrates/3397910 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00111.warc.gz | en | 0.987372 | 5,026 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.388123512268... | 3 | Unforgettable speeches: the Apology of Socrates
The Apology of Socrates is not about saying sorry but it is one of the great speeches in the history of philosophy. The Greek philosopher defends himself against his accusers and ultimately invites them to condemn him to death. Why does he do that? Find out this week on The Philosopher's Zone.
Dr Rick Benitez
Department of Philosophy
The University of Sydney
Alan Saunders: Hello, and welcome to The Philosopher's Zone; I'm Alan Saunders.
You might have noticed that right now Radio National is celebrating some of the great speeches of history. Now philosophers, I have to say, are not on the whole great speech makers. Some of them have been great teachers, of course, holding a lecture room in thrall, but I don't think that really counts as making a speech. And a lot of them have spent most of their time just sitting alone in a room, thinking and writing.
But there is at least one great speech in the history of philosophy, and it was delivered in Athens in the year 399 BC.
Reading: The Apology of Socrates
How you, O Athenians, have been affected by my accusers, I cannot tell; but I know that they almost made me forget who I was, so persuasively did they speak; and yet they have hardly uttered a word of truth. But of the many falsehoods told by them, there was one which quite amazed me; I mean when they said that you should be upon your guard and not allow yourselves to be deceived by the force of my eloquence. To say this, when they were certain to be detected as soon as I opened my lips and proved myself to be anything but a great speaker, did indeed appear to me most shameless, unless by the force of eloquence they mean the force of truth; for if such is their meaning, I admit that I am eloquent. But in how different a way from theirs! Well, as I was saying, they have scarcely spoken the truth at all; but from me you shall hear the whole truth: not, however, delivered after their manner in a set oration duly ornamented with words and phrases. No, by heaven! but I shall use the words and arguments which occur to me at the moment; for I am confident in the justice of my cause: at my time of life I ought not to be appearing before you, O men of Athens, in the character of a juvenile orator, let no one expect it of me. And I must beg of you to grant me a favour. If I defend myself in my accustomed manner, and you hear me using the words which I have been in the habit of using in the agora, at the tables of the money-changers, or anywhere else, I would ask you not to be surprised, and not to interrupt me on this account. For I am more than seventy years of age, and appearing now for the first time in a court of law, I am quite a stranger to the language of the place; and therefore I would have you regard me as if I were really a stranger, whom you would accuse if he spoke in his native tongue, and after the fashion of his country. Am I making an unfair request of you? Never mind the manner, which may or may not be good, but think only of the truth of my words, and give heed to that: let the speaker speak truly and the judge decide justly.
Alan Saunders: This is how the great philosopher Socrates began the speech that is known as his Apology. We know about it, thanks to his student Plato, but why is it called the Apology? To find out about this and much else, I spoke to Rick Benitez, Associate Professor of Philosophy at the University of Sydney, and I began by asking him: This might be called the Apology, but Socrates certainly isn't saying sorry, is he?
Rick Benitez: The word means 'defence'. Sometimes they used to have the old expression 'apologia pro sua vita', and so this is 'in defence of my life'. And Socrates is giving his defence in court; it's a legal term.
Alan Saunders: Now it's a fairly long speech; in the translation from which I've been working it's about 30 pages. Do we really know that that is what he said, because we have this from Plato, his pupil, but presumably Plato wasn't there taking shorthand.
Rick Benitez: Plato was there, so that's one of the important bits of evidence that we have. We know from ancient reports that there were a number of people who wrote versions of the Apology of Socrates, and we have two of them extant, one by Plato and one by Xenophon. Plato was there, and so that gives a certain preference to that version. But Xenophon's version backs up the Platonic version in a number of important respects: it backs up the charges against him, it backs up the dialogue with Meletus, the sort of interrogation of Meletus, or cross-examination; it backs up the views about visiting the Delphic Oracle and whether or not anyone was wiser than Socrates; and it backs up many things about Socrates' ordinary practice of questioning other people and his way of speaking at the trial.
So that gives us some reason in favour of treating the speech as at least faithful to what was said at the trial.
Alan Saunders: OK, we'll go into some of that detail later, but let's just start with the context. What is the political and the juridical situation in which Socrates finds himself? Why is he up before the court?
Rick Benitez: Socrates, in his earlier activity, was very critical of democracy, and he was critical of democracy at a time when Athenian democracy could stand it. But after the capitulation to Sparta, and after a ruthless and bloodthirsty oligarchy was emplaced in Athens—it was so ruthless it only lasted three years—any people who were enemies, or appeared to be enemies of the democracy were in a tricky situation. And when democracy was restored in Athens, Socrates was politically suspect as a critic of democracy, and some of the people that he had associated with were among the actual tyrants in this regime, the oligarchical machine.
Alan Saunders: And we shouldn't assume that he's up there in front of a judge and jury, it's a very different set-up, isn't it?
Rick Benitez: He's in front of a jury, but it's a jury of 500, so the way in which the jury responds to you... first of all also a lot of people by our standards would have been excluded from such a jury, because they know Socrates, they're acquainted with him, they're friends and enemies of him. They're chosen by lot, so it's not as if you can sort of get into the jury just because you dislike or like Socrates, but it's enough people to be swayed one way or another, more like the way the political electorate is swayed.
Alan Saunders: And what's the charge? What is the precise charge?
Rick Benitez: There's a general charge that is brought on which is impiety, and this charge has two specific counts: one of the counts is that he doesn't acknowledge the gods of the state, that is Athens, and he supplants them with other gods of his own devising. The second charge, separate from that, is that he corrupts the young. Both of these are impious activities and they go as counts under the general charge of impiety.
Alan Saunders: How was he corrupting the young? By his teachings, a philosopher?
Rick Benitez: That's the allegation against him. One of the ways it's usually put is that he made the worse argument defeat the better argument, and by that what's means is that he made young people question the received opinions of their fathers, their mothers, the statesmen, the reputable people of Athens, and questioned them in a way that seems to defeat them.
Alan Saunders: That's interesting, because making the worse argument appear the better argument, is what we today call sophistry, and of course there were philosophers called Sophists and he was very opposed to them.
Rick Benitez: Socrates may have been very opposed to them but he was very similar to them in his methods and his approach, in fact that the comic poet, Aristophanes, lampooned him as the lead Sophist in Clouds.
Alan Saunders: OK, so Socrates is up before this very large jury and he's delivering his speech, and he begins with rather elaborate professions of modesty about his lack of eloquence. What's going on there?
Rick Benitez: I think that's one of the really beautiful features of the speech itself. One of the things he wants to show is that he isn't like those people who buy speeches from very polished speechwriters, like Lyceus, to get themselves off in court. So he makes a big pretence of his modesty and his need to speak plainly. But in fact, rhetorically his speech is very powerful, and very styled. What's interesting is that it doesn't get him off. It's not actually designed to get him off the hook, so in one sense he beats the rhetoricians at their own game by showing that he can do what they do, but not merely for the sake of victory.
Alan Saunders: So is he really talking to the jury or is he talking to history?
Rick Benitez: That's a very interesting question. I've actually never thought of it quite that way; I think he must be talking to history in part, yes.
Alan Saunders: Now if we come to the rest of the speech, how does he represent himself in terms of his profession? What does he say he's doing?
Rick Benitez: He actually claims that he doesn't teach people at all, he's not an educator, and he doesn't teach people to make the worse argument appear better. If he does anything wrong, he pleads ignorance about it, and he says, 'Instruct me', or 'Educate me about that.' What he's doing in his activity is trying to understand, he says, a particular claim that was made by the Delphic Oracle about him. His friend Chaerephon visited Delphi and asked the question of the oracle, 'Is anyone wiser than Socrates?' And the oracle replied 'No one.'
Alan Saunders: Now we should explain the Delphic Oracle, explain to us the set-up. If I go to visit the oracle, it's not like dialling a fortune-teller on my mobile; what exactly do I do?
Rick Benitez: It's a very interesting kind of thing. What happens is that there is a priestess who's the priestess of the Pythian Apollo, who prophecies in Sibylline utterances, and then there's also an interpreter, or exegete, who represents what it is that the priestess is saying.
Alan Saunders: And when you say 'Sibylline,' you mean somewhat mysterious and difficult to understand.
Rick Benitez: That's right. The Delphic utterances are notoriously difficult to understand. And they're cryptic. Even when you get them from the exegete— that is, the person who explains what's meant by the priestess— they're hard to understand. And so when the oracle says that no-one is wiser than Socrates, it's not clear what's meant, and Socrates said it certainly wasn't clear to him, because he knew that he wasn't wise at all. And so he thought that what he must do if he was to be pious and to understand the oracle rightly, was to try to see in what sense it was the case that he was wiser.
Alan Saunders: I'm talking to Rick Benitez from the University of Sydney about the Apology: the great speech delivered in 399 BC by Socrates, when he was on trial for his life. So was Socrates the wisest man in Athens? To find out, he investigated all sorts of sectors of Athenian society, from the orators to the craftsmen.
Rick Benitez: He looks at all the kind of people who have a reputation for knowing something. Some of them have lots of knowledge in a very special area—these are the craftsmen particularly—and he admits that they know lots of things that he doesn't know. But he thinks the trouble there is that their wisdom in the smaller area leads them to think they're wise in all of the areas. And so they have a pretence of wisdom. And Socrates thinks, 'Which would I prefer? To be wise with their knowledge, and ignorant with their ignorance, or generally ignorant, as I am, not thinking that I know what I don't know?' And he prefers the latter.
Alan Saunders: So he emerges, does he, agreeing with the oracle?
Rick Benitez: Ultimately he does. But he thinks that the interesting interpretation is... he thinks that the wisdom is a human wisdom. It's the wisdom of modesty—like you said at the beginning of his speech—the wisdom to admit that you don't know.
Alan Saunders: Which is not a good way of making yourself popular, even today.
Rick Benitez: No, it's not.
Alan Saunders: Now there is a scene in the Apology where he, as it were, cross-examines one of his accusers, Meletus. Tell us what's going on there.
Rick Benitez: Well, Meletus is actually bringing the prosecution case in court, and Socrates wants to show, by cross-examination, that Meletus really doesn't understand the charges against Socrates, he really doesn't have a care for them; what's behind it is just a motivation that Athens be rid of this pest. And I think he shows that quite well.
Alan Saunders: And so does Meletus retire defeated?
Rick Benitez: Well, Meletus doesn't admit defeat, and I think that in the eyes of the jurors who don't perhaps understand the cross-examination so well, Socrates comes across as an arrogant questioner, he doesn't show due respect for Meletus' position. So in those ways, he sort of pays out the rope and lets Socrates show the kind of person he is, and hopes that that will be enough to convict him.
Alan Saunders: And in the end, he refuses to entreat the jury. He actually says, 'I'm not going to entreat you.' Why is this?
Rick Benitez: Well he thinks that one of the things that speech-givers generally did was to gratify audiences, and I actually think Socrates was an extremist in this way. I think he thinks that the best way to be a good friend to another person is to pick them up on the things that they do wrong, and to point out their faults and to criticise them when they haven't done enough, and not to gratify them or be polite to them. I think he's too extreme about that, but he simply refuses to gratify the Athenian jury.
Alan Saunders: And he also refuses, as it were, to cop a plea bargain, which he says, 'I don't want you to exile me.'
Rick Benitez: That's right. Well there's a couple of things that are interesting about that. If you read the biography of him in Diogenes Laertius, you see that one of the things that he was reputed to have said about the plea bargain and exile was that he said, 'Well can you exile me to any place where I can escape death?' So he really didn't think that death was necessarily... it's going to come one day or another, and he's already 70 years old when the court case comes against him.
Alan Saunders: So, I asked you earlier whether he was talking to the jury or talking to history, but should we see him as depicting himself as an actor in a vast and important historical drama, and he actually wants to die: that is the conclusion, that is the catastrophe of the drama?
Rick Benitez: I think it's an overstatement that he wants to die. He knows he's going to die; he thinks there are things more valuable than life or death. One of the most beautiful images in the speech that he gives, he says 'From the day that a person is born, he's pursued by two runners: Death and Evil, and no-one can outrun Death forever, but if he's lucky, a man can out-run Evil.' And this is his aim; he especially wants to be able to acquit himself—that is, in his whole life—without having done evil. So it doesn't matter to him so much that he's going to die. He doesn't want to die, but if death comes as a result of his choosing what he thinks is the right path, so be it.
Alan Saunders: He's found guilty. He is sentenced to death. Do we know anything about how the process would have proceeded from there?
Rick Benitez: Oh yes, he was taken to prison, and he was to be executed in a timely manner but we know from Plato's Dialogues, the Phaedo in particular, that there was a delay because the Athenians have an annual voyage to Crete, to Minos, that commemorates the voyage of Theseus. The Athenians used to pay tribute of maidens and young men to Crete, and Theseus rescued them and killed the Minotaur, so there was this commemorative and religious occasion. And no-one was allowed to be executed, and it happened to fall at the time of Socrates' imprisonment. So he could only be executed after those commemorative celebrations were over.
Alan Saunders: So he spends a little while on Death Row, as it were, and then he takes hemlock; was that the standard Athenian method of execution?
Rick Benitez: That was one method of execution, but if the accounts of the way in which Socrates died in Plato's Phaedo were anything like accurate, there must have been other things mixed into the brew as well, because hemlock poisoning is a very convulsive, violent way of dying, and in the story at any rate, Socrates dies quite peacefully.
Alan Saunders: With the final words I think, 'Tell Crito I owe a cock to Asclepius.'
Rick Benitez: That's right.
Alan Saunders: Asclepius being the god of healing, and he has now been healed of what, the disease of life?
Rick Benitez: That's the usual interpretation, indeed, that he thinks life is a bit like a disease, and to die is to go to a better place.
Alan Saunders: Just finally, is it just possible that after all that, Socrates was in fact guilty as charged; they got him bang to rights?
Rick Benitez: You know, it's a perspective issue. We always look at it ourselves from the outside, looking in, and not from the perspective of Athenian life in the 4th century BC. And if you look at what the charges actually were against him, and what Socrates' life was actually like—whether or not there should be a capital offence for this, right—but was he guilty of this, not acknowledging the gods of the state? Well, we have got pretty good evidence that he didn't think that— even where he gave them the same names—he didn't think the Zeus that he believed in was like the Zeus of the Athenians, or the Apollo that he believed in was like an Apollo. And he had a divine sign that visited him and would tell him not to do this or that. So there's some pretty good evidence that he didn't believe in the way in which Athenians believed in the gods, and he certainly did engage in discussions with the young in ways that made them question authority. So if we can look at it from within, it would be a tough call whether to call him guilty or innocent of those charges.
Alan Saunders: Do we have any idea of the effect that his death had on Athens? Because know of course, that a large number of people including most notably, Plato, were writing about it. So did this event cast a long shadow?
Rick Benitez: Well historically it cast a really long shadow. But in the early days there were people like Plato who left Athens for the time being, because the environment was very hostile to philosophers. On some accounts, Socrates was merely the first of many philosophers to be brought on charges of impiety. And there were others on other counts before him there were brought, Protagoras, Anaxagoras. So there was a very hostile mood to philosophers at the time.
Alan Saunders: Well, here on this show at least we're not usually hostile to philosophers.
Rick Benitez: That's good news.
Alan Saunders: Rick Benitez, thanks very much indeed for joining us.
Reading: The Apology of Socrates
Let us reflect in another way, and we shall see that there is great reason to hope that death is a good; for one of two things: either death is a state of nothingness and utter unconsciousness, or, as men say, there is a change and migration of the soul from this world to another. Now if you suppose that there is no consciousness, but a sleep like the sleep of him who is undisturbed even by dreams, death will be an unspeakable gain. For if a person were to select the night in which his sleep was undisturbed even by dreams, and were to compare with this the other days and nights of his life, and then were to tell us how many days and nights he had passed in the course of his life better and more pleasantly than this one, I think that any man, I will not say a private man, but the greatest king will not find many such days or nights, when compared to the others. Now if death be of such a nature, I say that to die is gain, for eternity is then only a single night. But if death is the journey to another place, and there, as men say, all the dead abide, what good, O my friends and judges, can be greater than this? If indeed when the pilgrim arrives in the world below, he is delivered from the professors of justice in this world, and finds the true judges who are said to give judgement there ... that pilgrimage will be worth taking. What would not a man give if he might converse with Orpheus and Musaeus, and Hesiod and Homer? Nay, if this be true, let me die again and again! Above all, I shall then be able to continue my search into true and false knowledge; as in this world, so also in the next; and I shall find out who is wise, and who pretends to be wise, and is not ... In another world they do not put a man to death for asking questions: assuredly not. For besides being happier than we are, they will also be immortal, if what is said is true.
Wherefore, O judges, be of good cheer about death, and know of a certainty, that no evil can happen to a good man, either in life or after death: he and his are not neglected by the gods; nor has my own approaching end happened by mere chance. But I see clearly that the time had arrived when it was better for me to die and be released from trouble.
The hour of departure has arrived, and we go our separate ways, I to die, and you to live. Which of these two is better only God knows.
Some of the final words of Socrates, addressing the jury in Athens; they were read for us by John Gregg. Thanks to him and to our producer, Polly Rickard, and technical producer, Luke Purse. I'm Alan Saunders, and I'll be back next week. | 4,971 | ENGLISH | 1 |
December 19, 1974
The first television broadcast from the Senate Chamber occurred at 10:00 p.m. on December 19, 1974. That broadcast had nothing to do with C-SPAN, which did not yet exist, but it had everything to do with the scandals that rocked the Nixon administration and resulted in the resignations of both the vice president and the president. Federal prosecutors had investigated Vice President Spiro T. Agnew for accepting kickbacks while governor of Maryland. In October 1973 Agnew resigned as vice president after pleading no contest to a charge of failing to pay federal income taxes on the money he had received. Under the provisions of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment, President Nixon nominated Representative Gerald R. Ford to become vice president, and both houses of Congress quickly confirmed him. He took the oath on December 6, 1973.
Then on August 9, 1974, Nixon resigned as president to avoid impeachment and removal because of his role in the Watergate coverup. Now president, Gerald Ford nominated former New York governor Nelson Rockefeller as his vice president on August 20. Unlike Ford’s speedy confirmation, Governor Rockefeller’s hearings bogged down with questions over his presidential ambitions and his financial dealings. Rockefeller’s confirmation dragged on until the end of the year, and congressional leaders intimated that they might delay a vote until the new Congress convened in January. “You just can’t do that to the country,” President Ford complained to House Speaker Carl Albert and Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield. “You can’t do it to Nelson Rockefeller, and you can’t do it to me. It’s in the national interest that you confirm Rockefeller, and I’m asking you to move as soon as possible.” The Senate finally acted on December 10, and the House on December 19, 1974.
Two hours after the House voted, Rockefeller took the oath of office in the Senate Chamber before a live television audience. Why was that the first TV broadcast from the Senate Chamber? When President Nixon was under threat of impeachment, the Senate had quietly prepared to hold a trial. The leadership concluded that the American public needed to be able to view those proceedings and that the public galleries would be inadequate to meet the demand. The Senate approved a resolution authorizing television coverage of an impeachment trial, should it be held. Television cameras were being installed just as President Nixon voluntarily resigned. No trial was held, but the cameras remained and were turned on to record the swearing in of the new vice president on December 19. The public thus caught a fleeting glimpse of the Senate Chamber, but once that ceremony ended, the cameras were removed. Not until 1986 did the Senate permit regular television coverage of its daily proceedings. | <urn:uuid:189a951c-2e2b-4dad-98ef-ed9dfe0cdd2d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/First_Television_Broadcast_from_the_Senate.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00447.warc.gz | en | 0.981341 | 557 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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The first television broadcast from the Senate Chamber occurred at 10:00 p.m. on December 19, 1974. That broadcast had nothing to do with C-SPAN, which did not yet exist, but it had everything to do with the scandals that rocked the Nixon administration and resulted in the resignations of both the vice president and the president. Federal prosecutors had investigated Vice President Spiro T. Agnew for accepting kickbacks while governor of Maryland. In October 1973 Agnew resigned as vice president after pleading no contest to a charge of failing to pay federal income taxes on the money he had received. Under the provisions of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment, President Nixon nominated Representative Gerald R. Ford to become vice president, and both houses of Congress quickly confirmed him. He took the oath on December 6, 1973.
Then on August 9, 1974, Nixon resigned as president to avoid impeachment and removal because of his role in the Watergate coverup. Now president, Gerald Ford nominated former New York governor Nelson Rockefeller as his vice president on August 20. Unlike Ford’s speedy confirmation, Governor Rockefeller’s hearings bogged down with questions over his presidential ambitions and his financial dealings. Rockefeller’s confirmation dragged on until the end of the year, and congressional leaders intimated that they might delay a vote until the new Congress convened in January. “You just can’t do that to the country,” President Ford complained to House Speaker Carl Albert and Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield. “You can’t do it to Nelson Rockefeller, and you can’t do it to me. It’s in the national interest that you confirm Rockefeller, and I’m asking you to move as soon as possible.” The Senate finally acted on December 10, and the House on December 19, 1974.
Two hours after the House voted, Rockefeller took the oath of office in the Senate Chamber before a live television audience. Why was that the first TV broadcast from the Senate Chamber? When President Nixon was under threat of impeachment, the Senate had quietly prepared to hold a trial. The leadership concluded that the American public needed to be able to view those proceedings and that the public galleries would be inadequate to meet the demand. The Senate approved a resolution authorizing television coverage of an impeachment trial, should it be held. Television cameras were being installed just as President Nixon voluntarily resigned. No trial was held, but the cameras remained and were turned on to record the swearing in of the new vice president on December 19. The public thus caught a fleeting glimpse of the Senate Chamber, but once that ceremony ended, the cameras were removed. Not until 1986 did the Senate permit regular television coverage of its daily proceedings. | 577 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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Sir Philip Francis
Sir Philip Francis, (born Oct. 22, 1740, Dublin, Ire.—died Dec. 23, 1818, London, Eng.), English politician and pamphleteer, known as an antagonist of Warren Hastings, the first governor-general of British India.
The son of a clergyman, he was educated in Dublin and London and held a variety of clerical posts in the government from 1756 to 1773. Francis may have written the Letters of Junius, a series of bitter lampoons against the government of King George III published by a London newspaper from 1769 to 1772, when he was a clerk in the war office.
In June 1773 the prime minister, Lord Frederick North, appointed him a member of the newly created four-man council that was to rule British possessions in India with Governor-General Hastings. Francis led two of his colleagues in a struggle against Hastings; in part because he coveted Hastings’ job, but there were also differences between the two men on policy matters, including land-revenue collection. Although Hastings gained the upper hand by 1776—after two of the opposing councillors had died—Francis continued his attacks, and in 1780 the governor-general wounded him in a duel. Returning to England in 1781, Francis turned public opinion against Hastings with a series of anonymous pamphlets. He entered Parliament in 1784 and was the moving spirit behind Hastings’ impeachment, begun in 1788. The acquittal of Hastings in 1795 embittered Francis deeply and led to his defeat in a parliamentary election. He served again in Parliament from 1802 to 1807, when he retired from politics. He was knighted in 1806.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
India: The Company BahadurThe leading council member, Sir Philip Francis, hoped to succeed him, and, because Hastings had no power of veto, Francis was able with two supporters to overrule him. For two years Hastings was outvoted, until the death of one member enabled him to use his casting vote. But the…
Warren Hastings: Political rivalries…the immensely able and ambitious Philip Francis, immediately quarreled with Hastings. Hastings’s admirers have had little patience with Clavering and Francis; but it is possible to see that Francis had a genuine point of view in his opposition to Hastings and that there was still much in Bengal, even after…
ImpeachmentImpeachment, in common law, a proceeding instituted by a legislative body to address serious misconduct by a public official. In Great Britain the House of Commons serves as prosecutor and the House of Lords as judge in an impeachment proceeding. In the federal government of the United States, the… | <urn:uuid:2b048b38-c676-4809-8cda-19e428b86ba5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Philip-Francis | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.980747 | 598 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.4634386599063... | 1 | Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
Sir Philip Francis
Sir Philip Francis, (born Oct. 22, 1740, Dublin, Ire.—died Dec. 23, 1818, London, Eng.), English politician and pamphleteer, known as an antagonist of Warren Hastings, the first governor-general of British India.
The son of a clergyman, he was educated in Dublin and London and held a variety of clerical posts in the government from 1756 to 1773. Francis may have written the Letters of Junius, a series of bitter lampoons against the government of King George III published by a London newspaper from 1769 to 1772, when he was a clerk in the war office.
In June 1773 the prime minister, Lord Frederick North, appointed him a member of the newly created four-man council that was to rule British possessions in India with Governor-General Hastings. Francis led two of his colleagues in a struggle against Hastings; in part because he coveted Hastings’ job, but there were also differences between the two men on policy matters, including land-revenue collection. Although Hastings gained the upper hand by 1776—after two of the opposing councillors had died—Francis continued his attacks, and in 1780 the governor-general wounded him in a duel. Returning to England in 1781, Francis turned public opinion against Hastings with a series of anonymous pamphlets. He entered Parliament in 1784 and was the moving spirit behind Hastings’ impeachment, begun in 1788. The acquittal of Hastings in 1795 embittered Francis deeply and led to his defeat in a parliamentary election. He served again in Parliament from 1802 to 1807, when he retired from politics. He was knighted in 1806.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
India: The Company BahadurThe leading council member, Sir Philip Francis, hoped to succeed him, and, because Hastings had no power of veto, Francis was able with two supporters to overrule him. For two years Hastings was outvoted, until the death of one member enabled him to use his casting vote. But the…
Warren Hastings: Political rivalries…the immensely able and ambitious Philip Francis, immediately quarreled with Hastings. Hastings’s admirers have had little patience with Clavering and Francis; but it is possible to see that Francis had a genuine point of view in his opposition to Hastings and that there was still much in Bengal, even after…
ImpeachmentImpeachment, in common law, a proceeding instituted by a legislative body to address serious misconduct by a public official. In Great Britain the House of Commons serves as prosecutor and the House of Lords as judge in an impeachment proceeding. In the federal government of the United States, the… | 632 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The novella The Metamorphosis was written by Franz Kafka in 1912. It tells the story of the tragedy of a salesman, Gregor Samsa, who turned into a gigantic insect, but still possessed a human mind. He and his family lived in a rented apartment, which was possible due only to Gregor’s efforts—his father went bankrupt and mostly sat at home reading newspapers, and his mother was in poor health. Gregor also had a sister named Greta, who was learning to play a violin, and he dreamed that someday, when he had covered his father’s debts, he could pay for her to study at a conservatoire.
The novel begins with the description of how Gregor Samsa awoke in his bed and discovered he had turned into a beetle. The author emphasizes the most horrible fact for Gregor is not becoming an insect, but how he had missed the train and being late for work (Kaftka 8). Events begin to heat up when his mother, and then other members of the household, start to knock on his door, thinking he is still asleep. Finally, Gregor’s boss pays him a visit. Astonished, Gregor cries out he is just a little ill and he still can catch the train at 8 AM—but no one seems to understand what he is saying. His boss says Gregor’s voice sounds like it belonged to an animal. At last, Gregor himself manages to open the door, and everybody could see the creature he had become.
An important element is how Kafka writes in a manner that excludes himself from the story. Stated succinctly, he is not emotional about his characters’ destiny. He only describes what happens, without giving any evaluation of it, or taking someone’s side.
After Gregor appears in a doorway, in his new form, everyone becomes shocked. The boss runs away, Gregor’s mother panics, and his father suddenly grabs a stick and drives his son back into the room, inflicting an injury on him.
After these stressful events, events begin to settle down, turning into a succession of monotonous days. Little by little, Gregor starts to become acquainted with his new situation. He learns how to crawl over walls and even becomes fond of hanging on his ceiling. But, at the same time, Kafka notices that, despite his new horrible form, Gregor is still human. He can understand others, and he spends plenty of time standing near the door and listening to what the members of his family are saying. He feels they are disgusted by his appearance, and are afraid to come into his room, except Greta, who brings him food and does some cleaning up.
One day, Greta thinks Gregor could use a bit more space to crawl, so she decides to rid his room of furniture. Both women gather their courage and go in. It is the first time the mother entered her son’s room after his transformation; she is scared and Gregor hides under the bed, watching his belongings being carried out. It hurts him to see how he is being deprived of a normal living place, and finally it damages him so much that he comes out of his refuge to defend the last object he has: a portrait of a woman, which is hanging on the wall. When his mother sees him, in his new likeness, she loses consciousness. At this moment, father returns home, and when Greta tells him that mother is unconscious and Gregor “has unleashed,” he flares up, grabs a vase with fruits and starts to throw apples in his son’s direction. When Gregor tries to escape, one of these apples wounds him, and gets stuck in his shell.
After this accident, Gregor’s health deteriorates even more, his sister quits cleaning up his room, and his family members, more and more, often call him “it.” They start to rent rooms to three men, and one day, they also see Gregor. After another scandal, Greta says they cannot live like this anymore, and everyone agrees with her. And a couple of days later, a housemaid finds Gregor’s dead body. “Come and look. It’s kicked the bucket. It’s lying there. It’s completely snuffed it!” the cleaning woman cried out (Kaftka 237).
With Gregor’s death, the surroundings start to appear fairly normal to other households, and they feel great relief. Kafka finishes his novel with a description of how the family sits in a tram, and animatedly discuss their plans for the future.
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0.14475396275... | 5 | The novella The Metamorphosis was written by Franz Kafka in 1912. It tells the story of the tragedy of a salesman, Gregor Samsa, who turned into a gigantic insect, but still possessed a human mind. He and his family lived in a rented apartment, which was possible due only to Gregor’s efforts—his father went bankrupt and mostly sat at home reading newspapers, and his mother was in poor health. Gregor also had a sister named Greta, who was learning to play a violin, and he dreamed that someday, when he had covered his father’s debts, he could pay for her to study at a conservatoire.
The novel begins with the description of how Gregor Samsa awoke in his bed and discovered he had turned into a beetle. The author emphasizes the most horrible fact for Gregor is not becoming an insect, but how he had missed the train and being late for work (Kaftka 8). Events begin to heat up when his mother, and then other members of the household, start to knock on his door, thinking he is still asleep. Finally, Gregor’s boss pays him a visit. Astonished, Gregor cries out he is just a little ill and he still can catch the train at 8 AM—but no one seems to understand what he is saying. His boss says Gregor’s voice sounds like it belonged to an animal. At last, Gregor himself manages to open the door, and everybody could see the creature he had become.
An important element is how Kafka writes in a manner that excludes himself from the story. Stated succinctly, he is not emotional about his characters’ destiny. He only describes what happens, without giving any evaluation of it, or taking someone’s side.
After Gregor appears in a doorway, in his new form, everyone becomes shocked. The boss runs away, Gregor’s mother panics, and his father suddenly grabs a stick and drives his son back into the room, inflicting an injury on him.
After these stressful events, events begin to settle down, turning into a succession of monotonous days. Little by little, Gregor starts to become acquainted with his new situation. He learns how to crawl over walls and even becomes fond of hanging on his ceiling. But, at the same time, Kafka notices that, despite his new horrible form, Gregor is still human. He can understand others, and he spends plenty of time standing near the door and listening to what the members of his family are saying. He feels they are disgusted by his appearance, and are afraid to come into his room, except Greta, who brings him food and does some cleaning up.
One day, Greta thinks Gregor could use a bit more space to crawl, so she decides to rid his room of furniture. Both women gather their courage and go in. It is the first time the mother entered her son’s room after his transformation; she is scared and Gregor hides under the bed, watching his belongings being carried out. It hurts him to see how he is being deprived of a normal living place, and finally it damages him so much that he comes out of his refuge to defend the last object he has: a portrait of a woman, which is hanging on the wall. When his mother sees him, in his new likeness, she loses consciousness. At this moment, father returns home, and when Greta tells him that mother is unconscious and Gregor “has unleashed,” he flares up, grabs a vase with fruits and starts to throw apples in his son’s direction. When Gregor tries to escape, one of these apples wounds him, and gets stuck in his shell.
After this accident, Gregor’s health deteriorates even more, his sister quits cleaning up his room, and his family members, more and more, often call him “it.” They start to rent rooms to three men, and one day, they also see Gregor. After another scandal, Greta says they cannot live like this anymore, and everyone agrees with her. And a couple of days later, a housemaid finds Gregor’s dead body. “Come and look. It’s kicked the bucket. It’s lying there. It’s completely snuffed it!” the cleaning woman cried out (Kaftka 237).
With Gregor’s death, the surroundings start to appear fairly normal to other households, and they feel great relief. Kafka finishes his novel with a description of how the family sits in a tram, and animatedly discuss their plans for the future.
Kaftka, Franz. The Metamorphosis. New York. Opus Books, 2008. Print. | 958 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Butler Yeats was born on June 13, 1865, at Sandymount in Dublin, the capital city of Ireland. He was a brilliant and intelligent child of a legal practitioner and a famous painter, John Butler. His mother, Susan Mary Pollex, was the daughter of a wealthy merchant. He belonged to Anglo Irish Minority that had a say in the Irish elite class until the 17th century. He spent most of his early days in Silago with his family.
Since he belonged to a literate and highly artistic family, he attended the best institutions of his time. At first, he was homeschooled. His mother introduced him to Irish folktales while his father taught him geography, chemistry and history in their domestic settings. In 1877, he attended Godolphin School for four years, where he found difficulty in mathematics and languages. However, he was interested in science subjects. Later, in October 1881, he joined Dublin’s Erasmus Smith High School and studied literature and arts. It was in the same year he started writing poetry. His first poem appeared in a literary journal in 1885 in Dublin University Review, followed by his essay, ‘The Poetry of Sir Samuel Ferguson’. He demonstrated the influenced of P. B. Shelly, William Blake, and Edmund Spencer. In fact, his first significant poem, ‘The Island of Statues’ reflects the styles of these great writers.
Tragic Love and Marriage
B. Yeats was a brilliant writer and successful poet, yet he remained unfortunate in his love. In 1889, he met Maud Gonne, a lady who inspired him and left a significant influence on his poetry and life. She used to admire his literary work but rejected his marriage proposals. Instead, she married Major John MacBride. This traumatic love experience left him heartbroken. However, after the death of Maud’s husband, Yeats tried his luck once more, but again she turned him down in 1917. Later, in the same year, he proposed Miss George Hyde-Less and got married. Despite having age differences, the couple had a successful marital life and two beautiful children.
- B. Yeats, a great Irish poet, died on the 28th of January in a hotel in a popular resort of Menton, France. During his visit to France, his health deteriorated and the local doctor prescribed him morphine. He died peacefully at the age of seventy-three and was buried two days later by a private and discreet funeral at Roquebrune-Cap-Martin.
Some Important Facts of His Life
- His literary services earned him a lot of success that he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1923.
- He played a crucial role in Irish cultural revival and was actively involved in founding the Abbey Theatre and the Municipal Gallery of Modern Art.
- He began writing at the age of seventeen, and he published John Sherman and “Dhoya” in 1891.
William Butler Yeats started writing poetry at an early age. He became a published poet in 1885 when his first poem appeared in his school magazine. Later, he became a literary correspondent for two American newspapers. Among his correspondents at that time were William Morris, Oscar Wild, and G. B. Shaw. Also, he became a member of literary clubs in Dublin and England. He had had a unique literary taste and great poetic skills and his meetings with Ezra Pound and John Millington along with personal experiences, helped him shape his mature thoughts. However, his first book of poems, ‘The Wandering of Oisin and Other Poems’ appeared in 1889.
His collection ‘The Wind Among the Reeds’ published in 1899 and won the Royal Academy Prize. Besides poetry, his services for theatre are also praiseworthy. He was one of the founding fathers of the Irish National Theatre Society that was established in 1904. Thus, his successful writing career included a large number of masterpieces produced over the years.
After establishing his career first as a poet and then as a playwright, he added variety into the world of literature. He became prominent due to his artistic method of writing poetry and plays. He successfully devised Doctrine of the Mask to exhibit personal experiences and inner thoughts to the world without bothering about sentimentality. Marked by expressive style, allusive imagery, the complexity of thought, and symbolic structures, his poetry won global praise. However, his early works, ‘The Green Helmet’ and ‘Responsibility’ reflect the working of abstract thoughts with a blend of significant reasoning, direct approach and austere language. While his later masterpieces are written with the more personal touch and intense mediations. The recurring themes in most of his poems are loss, love, Relationship between arts and politics, modernism and role of fate in man’s life.
William Butler Yeats’s Works
- Best Poems: He was an outstanding poet, some of his best poems include: The Second Coming, Sailing to Byzantium, Adam’s Curse, The Stolen Child, Death, Long-Legged Fly, Easter 1916, The Lake Isle of Innisfree and Among School Children.
- Other Works: Besides poetry, he also wrote famous prose, plays and non-fiction pieces. Some of them include Mosada, The Land of Heart’s Desire, The Countless Cathleen, At the Hawk’s Well, The Resurrection and The Vision.
William Butler Yeats’s Impacts on Future Literature
William Butler Yeats has left deep imprints on the British as well as international literature. His indifferent style and way of expression won global acclaim. Also, he had a significant influence on poets and critics. T.S. Eliot also categorized him among those who are the part of an age which cannot be remembered without them. In fact, his uniqueness lies in amalgamating the past with the present and myths with the folks. He successfully presented his ideas in his writings that even today, writers try to imitate his unique style, considering him a beacon for writing plays and poetry.
- Turning and turning in the widening gyre
The falcon cannot hear the falconer;
Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold;
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world.” (The Second Coming)
- “An aged man is but a paltry thing,
A tattered coat upon a stick, unless
Soul clap its hands and sing.” (Sailing to Byzantium)
- It is love that I am seeking for,
But of a beautiful. Unheard-of kind
That is not in the world.” (The Shadowy Waters) | <urn:uuid:a191f98c-9fb2-42d3-9e89-2800aad94997> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://literarydevices.net/william-butler-yeats-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00490.warc.gz | en | 0.986294 | 1,388 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.2005912512540817... | 12 | William Butler Yeats was born on June 13, 1865, at Sandymount in Dublin, the capital city of Ireland. He was a brilliant and intelligent child of a legal practitioner and a famous painter, John Butler. His mother, Susan Mary Pollex, was the daughter of a wealthy merchant. He belonged to Anglo Irish Minority that had a say in the Irish elite class until the 17th century. He spent most of his early days in Silago with his family.
Since he belonged to a literate and highly artistic family, he attended the best institutions of his time. At first, he was homeschooled. His mother introduced him to Irish folktales while his father taught him geography, chemistry and history in their domestic settings. In 1877, he attended Godolphin School for four years, where he found difficulty in mathematics and languages. However, he was interested in science subjects. Later, in October 1881, he joined Dublin’s Erasmus Smith High School and studied literature and arts. It was in the same year he started writing poetry. His first poem appeared in a literary journal in 1885 in Dublin University Review, followed by his essay, ‘The Poetry of Sir Samuel Ferguson’. He demonstrated the influenced of P. B. Shelly, William Blake, and Edmund Spencer. In fact, his first significant poem, ‘The Island of Statues’ reflects the styles of these great writers.
Tragic Love and Marriage
B. Yeats was a brilliant writer and successful poet, yet he remained unfortunate in his love. In 1889, he met Maud Gonne, a lady who inspired him and left a significant influence on his poetry and life. She used to admire his literary work but rejected his marriage proposals. Instead, she married Major John MacBride. This traumatic love experience left him heartbroken. However, after the death of Maud’s husband, Yeats tried his luck once more, but again she turned him down in 1917. Later, in the same year, he proposed Miss George Hyde-Less and got married. Despite having age differences, the couple had a successful marital life and two beautiful children.
- B. Yeats, a great Irish poet, died on the 28th of January in a hotel in a popular resort of Menton, France. During his visit to France, his health deteriorated and the local doctor prescribed him morphine. He died peacefully at the age of seventy-three and was buried two days later by a private and discreet funeral at Roquebrune-Cap-Martin.
Some Important Facts of His Life
- His literary services earned him a lot of success that he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1923.
- He played a crucial role in Irish cultural revival and was actively involved in founding the Abbey Theatre and the Municipal Gallery of Modern Art.
- He began writing at the age of seventeen, and he published John Sherman and “Dhoya” in 1891.
William Butler Yeats started writing poetry at an early age. He became a published poet in 1885 when his first poem appeared in his school magazine. Later, he became a literary correspondent for two American newspapers. Among his correspondents at that time were William Morris, Oscar Wild, and G. B. Shaw. Also, he became a member of literary clubs in Dublin and England. He had had a unique literary taste and great poetic skills and his meetings with Ezra Pound and John Millington along with personal experiences, helped him shape his mature thoughts. However, his first book of poems, ‘The Wandering of Oisin and Other Poems’ appeared in 1889.
His collection ‘The Wind Among the Reeds’ published in 1899 and won the Royal Academy Prize. Besides poetry, his services for theatre are also praiseworthy. He was one of the founding fathers of the Irish National Theatre Society that was established in 1904. Thus, his successful writing career included a large number of masterpieces produced over the years.
After establishing his career first as a poet and then as a playwright, he added variety into the world of literature. He became prominent due to his artistic method of writing poetry and plays. He successfully devised Doctrine of the Mask to exhibit personal experiences and inner thoughts to the world without bothering about sentimentality. Marked by expressive style, allusive imagery, the complexity of thought, and symbolic structures, his poetry won global praise. However, his early works, ‘The Green Helmet’ and ‘Responsibility’ reflect the working of abstract thoughts with a blend of significant reasoning, direct approach and austere language. While his later masterpieces are written with the more personal touch and intense mediations. The recurring themes in most of his poems are loss, love, Relationship between arts and politics, modernism and role of fate in man’s life.
William Butler Yeats’s Works
- Best Poems: He was an outstanding poet, some of his best poems include: The Second Coming, Sailing to Byzantium, Adam’s Curse, The Stolen Child, Death, Long-Legged Fly, Easter 1916, The Lake Isle of Innisfree and Among School Children.
- Other Works: Besides poetry, he also wrote famous prose, plays and non-fiction pieces. Some of them include Mosada, The Land of Heart’s Desire, The Countless Cathleen, At the Hawk’s Well, The Resurrection and The Vision.
William Butler Yeats’s Impacts on Future Literature
William Butler Yeats has left deep imprints on the British as well as international literature. His indifferent style and way of expression won global acclaim. Also, he had a significant influence on poets and critics. T.S. Eliot also categorized him among those who are the part of an age which cannot be remembered without them. In fact, his uniqueness lies in amalgamating the past with the present and myths with the folks. He successfully presented his ideas in his writings that even today, writers try to imitate his unique style, considering him a beacon for writing plays and poetry.
- Turning and turning in the widening gyre
The falcon cannot hear the falconer;
Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold;
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world.” (The Second Coming)
- “An aged man is but a paltry thing,
A tattered coat upon a stick, unless
Soul clap its hands and sing.” (Sailing to Byzantium)
- It is love that I am seeking for,
But of a beautiful. Unheard-of kind
That is not in the world.” (The Shadowy Waters) | 1,380 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Aśoka was the third emperor of the Mauryan Dynasty and ruled India from 268 to 239 BCE. Shocked by the destruction he had caused by his war with Kāliṅga, Aśoka converted to Buddhism, and spent the remainder of his reign trying to govern his vast realm by spiritual principles. He renounced an aggressive foreign policy, promoted religious harmony, established hospitals, humanized the judicial system and sent Buddhist missionaries throughout India and abroad. It was primarily because of Aśoka’s patronage, that Buddhism became an India-wide religion as quickly as it did. To make known his various reforms, Aśoka issued a series of edicts, and had them inscribed on rocks and huge stone pillars, which were set up all over India. These edicts are the earliest decipherable written records from ancient India. | <urn:uuid:610fb4ed-7ccd-4a44-b76a-a3d63bfd483c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://chinabuddhismencyclopedia.com/en/index.php?title=A%C5%9Boka | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00499.warc.gz | en | 0.990464 | 175 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.3093222379684448... | 9 | Aśoka was the third emperor of the Mauryan Dynasty and ruled India from 268 to 239 BCE. Shocked by the destruction he had caused by his war with Kāliṅga, Aśoka converted to Buddhism, and spent the remainder of his reign trying to govern his vast realm by spiritual principles. He renounced an aggressive foreign policy, promoted religious harmony, established hospitals, humanized the judicial system and sent Buddhist missionaries throughout India and abroad. It was primarily because of Aśoka’s patronage, that Buddhism became an India-wide religion as quickly as it did. To make known his various reforms, Aśoka issued a series of edicts, and had them inscribed on rocks and huge stone pillars, which were set up all over India. These edicts are the earliest decipherable written records from ancient India. | 175 | ENGLISH | 1 |
MONEY OF THE REPUBLIC OF TEXAS
MONEY OF THE REPUBLIC OF TEXAS. To Texans of the period of the republic money meant coins and notes. The media of exchange did not include bank demand deposits, for neither an incorporated nor a private bank operated in Texas during the entire period of the republic. Imports exceeded exports, and the adverse trade balance drained out gold, silver, and other money that was acceptable abroad. Claims against outsiders such as exports, loans, or donations were converted into merchandise imports, because goods for personal, productive, and defense uses were more needed than gold or silver. Another factor of importance in an explanation of the money and credit trials of the republic was that business and financial conditions in the United States largely determined what those conditions would be in Texas. In the United States the bank panic of 1837 brought a period of business depression that lasted from 1837 until 1845, or a period practically coterminous with the life of the republic. The Constitution of the Republic of Texas gave Congress the "power to coin money, regulate the value thereof and of foreign coins" and provided that "nothing but gold and silver coins shall be made a lawful tender." Congress provided that the standard value of gold and silver coins should be the same as in the United States, but no coins were ever minted by, or for, the republic. Metallic money was scarce in the United States at that time, and it was even more scarce in Texas. The notes of state-chartered banks constituted in all the states the principal money, and those of Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Tennessee were the most commonly found in Texas. Up to the time of the issue of the promissory notes of the republic in the fall of 1837, there were in use as money not only the notes of the state banks but also "shinplasters," a name popularly given to notes issued in Texas by private firms and municipal corporations, in denominations usually of less than one dollar. In 1837 Congress prohibited the use of bank notes in payment of import duties or of any dues of the republic, and it also forbade the use or putting into circulation by any person of any promissory note intended to circulate as money. These restrictions had as their purpose the elimination of state bank and individual notes from competition with notes of the republic.
The currency that was unstinted in amount and most generally used was that issued by the republic itself. The act of June 12, 1837, which authorized an issue of $500,000 of promissory notes, started the republic on its paper money career. President Sam Houston said the issue was necessary in order "to avoid the absolute dissolution of the Government." The first notes appeared in the fall of 1837, were printed, bore 10 percent interest, and were payable twelve months from date. The name of the payee was written in on the face of the note, and the note was passed by endorsement. The denominations issued were $1 $2, $3, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100 and $500. These printed notes were generally called "Star Money" because of a small five-pointed star in the center of the upper part of the face of the note. In December 1837 an increase of $150,000 of the interest notes and an issue of $10,000 of noninterest bearing "change notes" of low denominations were authorized. Change notes were redeemable in notes of larger denominations. The printed series of interest notes was followed in January 1838 by an engraved series. A total of $1,165,139 in notes was issued in 1837 and 1838. Houston believed that the notes should not be issued to "a greater amount than would meet the actual necessities of a circulating medium." This condition appears to have been practically met in the case of the printed interest notes, for they, in an amount of $514,500, circulated at, or nearly at, par in specie. Their interest-bearing feature caused them to have an investment character and accounted for their readier acceptance in the states. The engraved interest notes, however, depreciated; their value in specie per dollar dropped from sixty-five cents in May 1838 to forty cents in January 1839.
In Mirabeau B. Lamar's administration, a new type of paper money was issued by an act of January 19, 1839. It provided for promissory notes payable to bearer and without interest. Called at the time "red backs," they were in denominations of $5, $10, $20, $100, and $500, with change notes of $1, $2, and $3. The amount of the change notes was limited to $150,000, but there was no limit set on the red backs other than the amount of appropriations to be met. From January 1839 to September 1840, after which time no further new issues but only reissues were made, the net amount of original issues of the red backs was $2,780,361. A frequently quoted total is $3,552,800, but this figure includes $772,439 of notes redeemed by giving new notes for old. Overissue of the government notes had already gone so far that when the red backs first made their appearance, they were valued at only thirty-seven and one-half cents in specie. They continued to sink in value until in the winter of 1841–42 they had in some sections a market value of only two cents on the dollar. In the fall of 1840 the government began to pay out the notes at their market value, and in February 1842 they lost their legal tender power in the payment of taxes. After the collapse of the red backs, recognized even by the government in 1840, the people of Texas were in such sore straits for a currency that the prohibitory laws of 1837 were ignored, and state bank notes and shinplasters again came into extensive use. The mercantile firm of McKinney, Williams and Company, of Galveston, was authorized in 1841 to issue $30,000 of its promissory notes as money. Best known of the bank notes circulated by a Texas firm were those of the defunct Northern Bank of Mississippi at Holly Springs. These were endorsed and reissued by R. and D. G. Mills (see MILLS, ROBERT) of Galveston and were called "Mills' Money." Counterfeits of state bank notes and notes of failed banks found their way into Texas and were, as Houston said in 1842, "no light evils."
Upon assuming the presidency for a second time, Houston advocated the issue of a new type of currency. Congress by an act of January 19, 1842, provided for the issue of "exchequer bills." Actually treasury notes under a new name, they were in denominations of $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100, with change notes in denominations of from twelve and one-half cents to $3. The exchequer bills were payable to a designated payee or to order. The first issues were printed, but the later ones were engraved. Although a limit of $200,000 was set on the amount of these bills when issued and only a small amount was in circulation at any time, they were at a discount when first put out. By the summer of 1842 they had sunk to as low as twenty-five cents on the dollar. There was virtually no use made of them by the public except for payment of taxes. In July 1842 they were made receivable for taxes and postage at their market value. Improving economic conditions, the economical administration of the government, and the annexation movement led to a gradual rise in the value of the bills in 1843 and 1844, and by 1845 they had reached par in many parts of the republic. The year 1845 saw the end of the state of monetary disorder. Specie was in such sufficiency by that time that it was possible to repeal the law that authorized the issue of the exchequer bills. The need of funds by the government, however, resulted later in the authorization of a reissue of the bills to an amount not to exceed $10,000. The total of the exchequer bills issued was $150,490; that of interest notes was $1,165,139, and that of red backs, $2,780,361. These make a grand total of $4,095,990 in paper money issued by the republic. These notes are entitled to a place among the classic historical examples of "fiat money." The inflation imposed a particularly great hardship upon officials and employees of the government who received salaries of fixed amounts in the paper money at its face value.
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For more information go to: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml
If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond fair use, you must obtain permission from the copyright owner.
The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Handbook of Texas Online, Edmund Thornton Miller, "MONEY OF THE REPUBLIC OF TEXAS," accessed January 17, 2020, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/mpmzv.
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-0.00747665390372... | 1 | MONEY OF THE REPUBLIC OF TEXAS
MONEY OF THE REPUBLIC OF TEXAS. To Texans of the period of the republic money meant coins and notes. The media of exchange did not include bank demand deposits, for neither an incorporated nor a private bank operated in Texas during the entire period of the republic. Imports exceeded exports, and the adverse trade balance drained out gold, silver, and other money that was acceptable abroad. Claims against outsiders such as exports, loans, or donations were converted into merchandise imports, because goods for personal, productive, and defense uses were more needed than gold or silver. Another factor of importance in an explanation of the money and credit trials of the republic was that business and financial conditions in the United States largely determined what those conditions would be in Texas. In the United States the bank panic of 1837 brought a period of business depression that lasted from 1837 until 1845, or a period practically coterminous with the life of the republic. The Constitution of the Republic of Texas gave Congress the "power to coin money, regulate the value thereof and of foreign coins" and provided that "nothing but gold and silver coins shall be made a lawful tender." Congress provided that the standard value of gold and silver coins should be the same as in the United States, but no coins were ever minted by, or for, the republic. Metallic money was scarce in the United States at that time, and it was even more scarce in Texas. The notes of state-chartered banks constituted in all the states the principal money, and those of Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Tennessee were the most commonly found in Texas. Up to the time of the issue of the promissory notes of the republic in the fall of 1837, there were in use as money not only the notes of the state banks but also "shinplasters," a name popularly given to notes issued in Texas by private firms and municipal corporations, in denominations usually of less than one dollar. In 1837 Congress prohibited the use of bank notes in payment of import duties or of any dues of the republic, and it also forbade the use or putting into circulation by any person of any promissory note intended to circulate as money. These restrictions had as their purpose the elimination of state bank and individual notes from competition with notes of the republic.
The currency that was unstinted in amount and most generally used was that issued by the republic itself. The act of June 12, 1837, which authorized an issue of $500,000 of promissory notes, started the republic on its paper money career. President Sam Houston said the issue was necessary in order "to avoid the absolute dissolution of the Government." The first notes appeared in the fall of 1837, were printed, bore 10 percent interest, and were payable twelve months from date. The name of the payee was written in on the face of the note, and the note was passed by endorsement. The denominations issued were $1 $2, $3, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100 and $500. These printed notes were generally called "Star Money" because of a small five-pointed star in the center of the upper part of the face of the note. In December 1837 an increase of $150,000 of the interest notes and an issue of $10,000 of noninterest bearing "change notes" of low denominations were authorized. Change notes were redeemable in notes of larger denominations. The printed series of interest notes was followed in January 1838 by an engraved series. A total of $1,165,139 in notes was issued in 1837 and 1838. Houston believed that the notes should not be issued to "a greater amount than would meet the actual necessities of a circulating medium." This condition appears to have been practically met in the case of the printed interest notes, for they, in an amount of $514,500, circulated at, or nearly at, par in specie. Their interest-bearing feature caused them to have an investment character and accounted for their readier acceptance in the states. The engraved interest notes, however, depreciated; their value in specie per dollar dropped from sixty-five cents in May 1838 to forty cents in January 1839.
In Mirabeau B. Lamar's administration, a new type of paper money was issued by an act of January 19, 1839. It provided for promissory notes payable to bearer and without interest. Called at the time "red backs," they were in denominations of $5, $10, $20, $100, and $500, with change notes of $1, $2, and $3. The amount of the change notes was limited to $150,000, but there was no limit set on the red backs other than the amount of appropriations to be met. From January 1839 to September 1840, after which time no further new issues but only reissues were made, the net amount of original issues of the red backs was $2,780,361. A frequently quoted total is $3,552,800, but this figure includes $772,439 of notes redeemed by giving new notes for old. Overissue of the government notes had already gone so far that when the red backs first made their appearance, they were valued at only thirty-seven and one-half cents in specie. They continued to sink in value until in the winter of 1841–42 they had in some sections a market value of only two cents on the dollar. In the fall of 1840 the government began to pay out the notes at their market value, and in February 1842 they lost their legal tender power in the payment of taxes. After the collapse of the red backs, recognized even by the government in 1840, the people of Texas were in such sore straits for a currency that the prohibitory laws of 1837 were ignored, and state bank notes and shinplasters again came into extensive use. The mercantile firm of McKinney, Williams and Company, of Galveston, was authorized in 1841 to issue $30,000 of its promissory notes as money. Best known of the bank notes circulated by a Texas firm were those of the defunct Northern Bank of Mississippi at Holly Springs. These were endorsed and reissued by R. and D. G. Mills (see MILLS, ROBERT) of Galveston and were called "Mills' Money." Counterfeits of state bank notes and notes of failed banks found their way into Texas and were, as Houston said in 1842, "no light evils."
Upon assuming the presidency for a second time, Houston advocated the issue of a new type of currency. Congress by an act of January 19, 1842, provided for the issue of "exchequer bills." Actually treasury notes under a new name, they were in denominations of $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100, with change notes in denominations of from twelve and one-half cents to $3. The exchequer bills were payable to a designated payee or to order. The first issues were printed, but the later ones were engraved. Although a limit of $200,000 was set on the amount of these bills when issued and only a small amount was in circulation at any time, they were at a discount when first put out. By the summer of 1842 they had sunk to as low as twenty-five cents on the dollar. There was virtually no use made of them by the public except for payment of taxes. In July 1842 they were made receivable for taxes and postage at their market value. Improving economic conditions, the economical administration of the government, and the annexation movement led to a gradual rise in the value of the bills in 1843 and 1844, and by 1845 they had reached par in many parts of the republic. The year 1845 saw the end of the state of monetary disorder. Specie was in such sufficiency by that time that it was possible to repeal the law that authorized the issue of the exchequer bills. The need of funds by the government, however, resulted later in the authorization of a reissue of the bills to an amount not to exceed $10,000. The total of the exchequer bills issued was $150,490; that of interest notes was $1,165,139, and that of red backs, $2,780,361. These make a grand total of $4,095,990 in paper money issued by the republic. These notes are entitled to a place among the classic historical examples of "fiat money." The inflation imposed a particularly great hardship upon officials and employees of the government who received salaries of fixed amounts in the paper money at its face value.
Image Use Disclaimer
All copyrighted materials included within the Handbook of Texas Online are in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 related to Copyright and “Fair Use” for Non-Profit educational institutions, which permits the Texas State Historical Association (TSHA), to utilize copyrighted materials to further scholarship, education, and inform the public. The TSHA makes every effort to conform to the principles of fair use and to comply with copyright law.
For more information go to: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml
If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond fair use, you must obtain permission from the copyright owner.
The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Handbook of Texas Online, Edmund Thornton Miller, "MONEY OF THE REPUBLIC OF TEXAS," accessed January 17, 2020, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/mpmzv.
Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association. | 2,224 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On January 11, 2010, Miep Gies, the last survivor of a small group of people who helped hide a Jewish girl, Anne Frank, and her family from the Nazis during World War II, dies at age 100 in the Netherlands. After the Franks were discovered in 1944 and sent to concentration camps, Gies rescued the notebooks that Anne Frank left behind describing her two years in hiding. These writings were later published as “Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl,” which became one of the most widely read accounts of the Holocaust.
Miep Gies was born into a working-class, Catholic family in Vienna, Austria, on February 15, 1909. At age 11, with food shortages in her native land following World War I, she was sent to the Netherlands to live with a foster family who nicknamed her Miep (her birth name was Hermine Santrouschitz). In 1933, she went to work as a secretary for Otto Frank, who ran a small Amsterdam company that produced a substance used to make jam. By the following year, Frank’s wife and two daughters, Margot and Anne, had left their native Germany to join him in the Dutch capital.
In May 1940, the Germans, who had entered World War II in September of the previous year, invaded the Netherlands and quickly made life increasingly restrictive and dangerous for the country’s Jewish population. In early July 1942, the Frank family went into hiding in an attic apartment behind Otto Frank’s business. They were eventually joined by Otto Frank’s business associate and his wife and son, as well as Miep Gies’ dentist, all of whom were Jewish. Gies, along with her husband Jan, a Dutch social worker, and several of Otto Frank’s other employees risked their own lives to smuggle food, supplies and news of the outside world into the secret apartment (which came to be known as the Secret Annex).
On August 4, 1944, after 25 months in hiding, the eight people in the Secret Annex were discovered by the Gestapo, the German secret state police, who had learned about the hiding place from an anonymous tipster who has never been definitively identified. Gies was working in the building at the time of the raid and avoided arrest because the officer was from her native Vienna and felt sympathy for her. She later went to police headquarters and tried, unsuccessfully, to pay a bribe to free the group.
The occupants of the Secret Annex were sent to concentration camps; only Otto Frank survived. After he was liberated from Auschwitz by Soviet troops in January 1945, he returned to Amsterdam, where Miep Gies gave him a collection of notebooks and several hundred loose papers containing observations the teenage Anne Frank had penned during her time in hiding. Gies recovered the materials from the Secret Annex shortly after the Franks’ arrest and hid them in her office desk. She avoided reading the papers during the war out of respect for Anne’s privacy.
Otto Frank, who lived with the Gies family after the war, compiled his daughter’s writings into a manuscript that was first published in the Netherlands in 1947 under the title “Het Achterhuis” (“Rear Annex”). Later published as “Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl,” the book went on to sell tens of millions of copies worldwide.
In 1987, Gies published a memoir, “Anne Frank Remembered,” in which she wrote: “I am not a hero. I stand at the end of the long, long line of good Dutch people who did what I did and more–much more–during those dark and terrible times years ago, but always like yesterday in the heart of those of us who bear witness. Never a day goes by that I do not think of what happened then.”
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0.15230119228363... | 9 | On January 11, 2010, Miep Gies, the last survivor of a small group of people who helped hide a Jewish girl, Anne Frank, and her family from the Nazis during World War II, dies at age 100 in the Netherlands. After the Franks were discovered in 1944 and sent to concentration camps, Gies rescued the notebooks that Anne Frank left behind describing her two years in hiding. These writings were later published as “Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl,” which became one of the most widely read accounts of the Holocaust.
Miep Gies was born into a working-class, Catholic family in Vienna, Austria, on February 15, 1909. At age 11, with food shortages in her native land following World War I, she was sent to the Netherlands to live with a foster family who nicknamed her Miep (her birth name was Hermine Santrouschitz). In 1933, she went to work as a secretary for Otto Frank, who ran a small Amsterdam company that produced a substance used to make jam. By the following year, Frank’s wife and two daughters, Margot and Anne, had left their native Germany to join him in the Dutch capital.
In May 1940, the Germans, who had entered World War II in September of the previous year, invaded the Netherlands and quickly made life increasingly restrictive and dangerous for the country’s Jewish population. In early July 1942, the Frank family went into hiding in an attic apartment behind Otto Frank’s business. They were eventually joined by Otto Frank’s business associate and his wife and son, as well as Miep Gies’ dentist, all of whom were Jewish. Gies, along with her husband Jan, a Dutch social worker, and several of Otto Frank’s other employees risked their own lives to smuggle food, supplies and news of the outside world into the secret apartment (which came to be known as the Secret Annex).
On August 4, 1944, after 25 months in hiding, the eight people in the Secret Annex were discovered by the Gestapo, the German secret state police, who had learned about the hiding place from an anonymous tipster who has never been definitively identified. Gies was working in the building at the time of the raid and avoided arrest because the officer was from her native Vienna and felt sympathy for her. She later went to police headquarters and tried, unsuccessfully, to pay a bribe to free the group.
The occupants of the Secret Annex were sent to concentration camps; only Otto Frank survived. After he was liberated from Auschwitz by Soviet troops in January 1945, he returned to Amsterdam, where Miep Gies gave him a collection of notebooks and several hundred loose papers containing observations the teenage Anne Frank had penned during her time in hiding. Gies recovered the materials from the Secret Annex shortly after the Franks’ arrest and hid them in her office desk. She avoided reading the papers during the war out of respect for Anne’s privacy.
Otto Frank, who lived with the Gies family after the war, compiled his daughter’s writings into a manuscript that was first published in the Netherlands in 1947 under the title “Het Achterhuis” (“Rear Annex”). Later published as “Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl,” the book went on to sell tens of millions of copies worldwide.
In 1987, Gies published a memoir, “Anne Frank Remembered,” in which she wrote: “I am not a hero. I stand at the end of the long, long line of good Dutch people who did what I did and more–much more–during those dark and terrible times years ago, but always like yesterday in the heart of those of us who bear witness. Never a day goes by that I do not think of what happened then.”
Gies died in 2010, at the age of 100. | 834 | ENGLISH | 1 |
« PreviousContinue »
BHlMA Name of the father of DamayantL A name of Rudra or of one of his personifications. See Rudra.
BHlMA SANKARA, BHIMESWARA Name of one of the twelve great Lingas. See Linga.
BHlMA-SENA A name of Bhima,
BHlSHMA 'The terrible.' Son of King Santanu by the holy river goddess Ganga, and hence called Santanava, Gangeya, and Nadi-ja, 'the river-born.' When King Santanu was very old he desired to marry a young and beautiful wife. His son Santanava or Bhishma found a suitable damsel, but her parents objected to the marriage because Bhishma was heir to the throne, and if she bore sons they could not succeed. To gratify his father's desires, he made a vow to the girl's parents that he would never accept the throne, nor marry a wife, nor become the father of children. iSantanu then married the damsel, whose name was SatyavatI, and she bore him two sons. At the death of his father, Bhishma placed the elder son upon the throne, but he was headstrong and was soon killed in battle. The other son, named Vichitra-vlryya, then succeeded, and Bhishma acted as his protector and adviser. By force of arms Bhishma obtained two daughters of the king of Kasi and married them to Vichitravlryya, and when that prince died young and childless, Bhishma acted as guardian of his widows. By Bhishma's arrangement, Krishna Dwaipayana, who was born of SatyavatI before her marriage, raised up seed to his half-brother. The two children were Pa?«/u and Dhnta-rashfra. Bhishma brought them up and acted for them as regent of Hastina-pura. He also directed the training of their respective children, the PaWavas and Kauravas. On the rupture taking place between the rival families, Bhishma counselled moderation and peace. When the war began he took the side of the Kauravas, the sons of Dlmta-rashfra, and he was made commander-in-chief of their army. He laid down some rules for mitigating the horrors of war, and he stipulated that he should not be called upon to fight against Arjuna, Goaded by the reproaches of Pur-yodhana, he attacked Arjuna on the tenth day of the battle. He was unfairly wounded by ASIkhandin, and was pierced with innumerable arrows from the hands of Arjuna, so that there was not a space of two fingers' breadth left unwounded in his whole body, and when he fell from his chariot he was upheld from the ground by the arrows and lay as on a couch of darts. He was mortally
wounded, but he had obtained the power of fixing the period of his death, so he survived fifty-eight days, and delivered several long didactic discourses. Bhishma exhibited throughout his life a self-denial, devotion and fidelity which remained unsullied to the last . He is also known by the appellation Tarpawechchhu, and as Tala-ketu, 'palm banner.' See Mahabhiirata.
BHlSHMAKA i. An appellation of Siva. 2. King of Vidarbha, father of Rukmin and of Rukmini, the chief wife of Krishna.
BHOGAVATl 'The voluptuous.' The subterranean capital of the Nagas in the Naga-loka portion of Patala. Another name is Put-kari.
BHOJA A name borne by many kings. Most conspicuous among them was Bhoja or Bhoja-deva, king of Dhar, who is said to have been a great patron of literature, and probably died before 1082 A.d. 2. A prince of the Yadava race who reigned at MrittikavatI on the Parana river in Malwa; he is called also Maha-bhoja. 3. A tribe living in the Vindhya mountains. 4. A country; the modern Bhojpur, Bhagalpur, &c.
BHOJA-PRABANDHA A collection of literary aneedotes relating to King Bhoja of Dhar, written by Ballala. The text has been lithographed by Pavie.
BHR/GU. A Vedic sage . He is one of the Prajapatis and great i?ishis, and is regarded as the founder of the race of the Bhngus or Bhargavas, in which was born Jamad-agni and Parasu Rama. Manu calls him son, and says that he confides to him his Institutes. According to the Maha-bharata he officiated at Daksha's celebrated sacrifice, and had his beard pulled out by Siva. The same authority also tells the following story :—It is related of Bhrigu that he rescued the sage Agastya from the tyranny of King Nahusha, who had obtained superhuman power. Bhrigu crept into Agastya's hair to avoid the potent glance of Nahusha, and when that tyrant attached Agastya to his chariot and kicked him on the head to make him move, Bhrigu cursed Nahusha, and he was turned into a serpent . Bhrigu, on Nahusha's supplication, limited the duration of his curse.
In the Padma Purana it is related that the ifrshis, assembled at a sacrifice, disputed as to which deity was best entitled to the
homage of a Brahman. Being unable to agree, they resolved to send Bhrigu to test the characters of the various gods, and he accordingly went. He could not obtain access to Siva because that deity was engaged with his wife; "finding him, therefore, to consist of the property of darkness, Bhrigu sentenced him to take the form of the Linga, and pronounced that he should have no offerings presented to him, nor receive the worship of the pious and respectable. His next visit was to Brahma, whom he beheld surrounded by sages, and so much inflated with his own importance as to treat Bhrigu with great inattention, betraying his being made up of foulness. The Muni therefore excluded him from the worship of the Brahmans. Repairing next to Vishnu, he found the deity asleep, and, indignant at his seeming sloth, Bhrigu stamped upon his breast with his left foot and awoke him; instead of being offended, Vishnu gently pressed the Brahman's foot and expressed himself honoured and made happy by its contact; and Bhrigu, highly pleased by his humility, and satisfied of his being impersonated goodness, proclaimed Vishnu as the only being to be worshipped by men or gods, in which decision the Munis, upon Bhrigu's report, concurred."— Wilson
BHR/GUS. 'Roasters, consumers.' "A class of mythical beings who belonged to the middle or aerial class of gods."— Both. They are connected with Agni, and are spoken of as producers and nourishers of fire, and as makers of chariots. They are associated with the Angirasas, the Atharvans, Rib. hus, &c .
BHTJ, BHTJML The earth. Set Pnthivt
BHtJRI-SRAVAS. A prince of the Balhlkas and an ally of the Kauravas, who was killed in the great battle of the Mahabharata.
BHUR-LOKA See Loka.
BHCTA A ghost, imp, goblin. Malignant spirits which haunt cemeteries, lurk in trees, animate dead bodies, and delude and devour human beings. According to the Vishnu Purana they are "fierce beings and eaters of flesh," who were created by the Creator when he was incensed. In the Vayu Purana their mother is said to have been Krodha, 'anger.' The Bhutas are attendants of Siva, and he is held to be their king.
BHUTESA, BH0TESWARA 'Lord of beings or of created things.' A name applied to Vishnu, Brahma, and Krishna; as 'lord of the Bhutas or goblins,' it is applied to Siva.
BHUVANESWARA A ruined city in Orissa, sacred to the worship of Siva, and containing the remains of several temples. It was formerly called Ekamra-kanana.
BHUVAR See Vyahriti.
BHUVAR-LOKA See Loka.
BIBHATSU. 'Loathing.' An appellation of Arjuna.
BINDUSARA The son and successor of Chandra-gupta.
BRAHMA, BRAHMAN (neuter). The supreme soul of the universe, self-existent, absolute, and eternal, from which all things emanate, and to which all return. This divine essence is incorporeal, immaterial, invisible, unborn, uncreated, without beginning and without end, illimitable, and inappreciable by the sense until the film of mortal blindness is removed It is all-pervading and infinite in its manifestations, in all nature, animate and inanimate, in the highest god and in the meanest creature. This supreme soul receives no worship, but it is the object of that abstract meditation which Hindu sages practise in order to obtain absorption into it . It is sometimes called Kala-hansa.
There is a passage in the Satapatha Brahmana which represents Brahma (neut.) as the active creator. See Brahma.
The Veda is sometimes called Brahma.
BRAHMA (masculine). The first member of the Hindu triad; the supreme spirit manifested as the active creator of the universe. He sprang from the mundane egg deposited by the supreme first cause, and is the Prajiipati, or lord and father of all creatures, and in the first place of the iftshis or Prajiipatis.
When Brahma has created the world it remains unaltered for one of his days, a period of 2,160,000,000 years. The world and all that is therein is then consumed by fire, but the sages, gods, and elements survive. When he awakes he again restores creation, and this process is repeated until his existence of a hundred years is brought to a close, a period which it requires fifteen figures to express. When this period is ended he himself expires, and he and all the gods and sages, and the whole universe are resolved into their constituent elements. His name is invoked
in religious services, but Pushkara (lwdk Pokhar), near Ajmir, is the only place where he receives worship, though Professor Williams states that he has heard of homage being paid to him at Idar.
Brahma is said to be of a red colour. He has four heads; originally he had five, but one was burnt off by the fire of Siva's central eye because he had spoken disrespectfully. Hence he is called Chatur-anana or Chatur-mukha, 'four-faced,' and Ash/aKama, 'eight-eared.' He has four arms; and in his hands he holds his sceptre, or a spoon, or a string of beads, or his bow Pari vita, or a water jug, and the Veda . His consort is Saras wati, goddess of learning, also called BrahmL His vehicle is a swan or goose, from which he is called Hansa-vahana. His residence is called Brahma-vrinda.
The name Brahma is not found in the Vedas and Brahmanas, in which the active creator is known as Hiranya-garbha, Prajapati, &C. ; but there is a curious passage in the Satapatha Brahmana which says: "He (Brahma, neuter) created the gods. Having created the gods, he placed them in these worlds: in this world Agni, Vayu in the atmosphere, and Surya in the sky." Two points connected with Brahma are remarkable. As the father of men he performs the work of procreation by incestuous intercourse with his own daughter, variously named Vach or SaraswatI (speech), Sandhyii (twilight), Sata-rupa (the hundredformed), &c. Secondly, that his powers as creator have been arrogated to the other gods Vishnu and Siva, while Brahma has been thrown into the shade. In the Aitareya Brahmana it is said that Prajapati was in the form of a buck and his daughter was Rohit, a deer. According to the Satapatha Brahmajia and Mann, the supreme soul, the self-existent lord, created the waters and deposited in them a seed, which seed became a golden egg, in which he himself was born as Brahma, the progenitor of all the worlds. As the waters (nam) were " the place of his movement, he (Brahma) was called Narayana." Here the name Nariiyana is referred distinctly to Brahma, but it afterwards became the name of Vishnu. The account of the Ramayana is that " all was water only, in which the earth was formed. Thence arose Brahma, the self-existent, with the deities. He then, becoming a boar, raised up the earth and created the whole world with the saints, his sons. Brahma, eternal and perpetually undecaying, sprang from | <urn:uuid:8291be70-7ac6-4642-a81b-e4ac6c3525bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.google.co.in/books?id=SYEoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA54&vq=i%3Fishis&dq=editions:UOM39015005504520&output=html_text&source=gbs_search_r&cad=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00412.warc.gz | en | 0.981057 | 2,968 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.224507391452789... | 1 | « PreviousContinue »
BHlMA Name of the father of DamayantL A name of Rudra or of one of his personifications. See Rudra.
BHlMA SANKARA, BHIMESWARA Name of one of the twelve great Lingas. See Linga.
BHlMA-SENA A name of Bhima,
BHlSHMA 'The terrible.' Son of King Santanu by the holy river goddess Ganga, and hence called Santanava, Gangeya, and Nadi-ja, 'the river-born.' When King Santanu was very old he desired to marry a young and beautiful wife. His son Santanava or Bhishma found a suitable damsel, but her parents objected to the marriage because Bhishma was heir to the throne, and if she bore sons they could not succeed. To gratify his father's desires, he made a vow to the girl's parents that he would never accept the throne, nor marry a wife, nor become the father of children. iSantanu then married the damsel, whose name was SatyavatI, and she bore him two sons. At the death of his father, Bhishma placed the elder son upon the throne, but he was headstrong and was soon killed in battle. The other son, named Vichitra-vlryya, then succeeded, and Bhishma acted as his protector and adviser. By force of arms Bhishma obtained two daughters of the king of Kasi and married them to Vichitravlryya, and when that prince died young and childless, Bhishma acted as guardian of his widows. By Bhishma's arrangement, Krishna Dwaipayana, who was born of SatyavatI before her marriage, raised up seed to his half-brother. The two children were Pa?«/u and Dhnta-rashfra. Bhishma brought them up and acted for them as regent of Hastina-pura. He also directed the training of their respective children, the PaWavas and Kauravas. On the rupture taking place between the rival families, Bhishma counselled moderation and peace. When the war began he took the side of the Kauravas, the sons of Dlmta-rashfra, and he was made commander-in-chief of their army. He laid down some rules for mitigating the horrors of war, and he stipulated that he should not be called upon to fight against Arjuna, Goaded by the reproaches of Pur-yodhana, he attacked Arjuna on the tenth day of the battle. He was unfairly wounded by ASIkhandin, and was pierced with innumerable arrows from the hands of Arjuna, so that there was not a space of two fingers' breadth left unwounded in his whole body, and when he fell from his chariot he was upheld from the ground by the arrows and lay as on a couch of darts. He was mortally
wounded, but he had obtained the power of fixing the period of his death, so he survived fifty-eight days, and delivered several long didactic discourses. Bhishma exhibited throughout his life a self-denial, devotion and fidelity which remained unsullied to the last . He is also known by the appellation Tarpawechchhu, and as Tala-ketu, 'palm banner.' See Mahabhiirata.
BHlSHMAKA i. An appellation of Siva. 2. King of Vidarbha, father of Rukmin and of Rukmini, the chief wife of Krishna.
BHOGAVATl 'The voluptuous.' The subterranean capital of the Nagas in the Naga-loka portion of Patala. Another name is Put-kari.
BHOJA A name borne by many kings. Most conspicuous among them was Bhoja or Bhoja-deva, king of Dhar, who is said to have been a great patron of literature, and probably died before 1082 A.d. 2. A prince of the Yadava race who reigned at MrittikavatI on the Parana river in Malwa; he is called also Maha-bhoja. 3. A tribe living in the Vindhya mountains. 4. A country; the modern Bhojpur, Bhagalpur, &c.
BHOJA-PRABANDHA A collection of literary aneedotes relating to King Bhoja of Dhar, written by Ballala. The text has been lithographed by Pavie.
BHR/GU. A Vedic sage . He is one of the Prajapatis and great i?ishis, and is regarded as the founder of the race of the Bhngus or Bhargavas, in which was born Jamad-agni and Parasu Rama. Manu calls him son, and says that he confides to him his Institutes. According to the Maha-bharata he officiated at Daksha's celebrated sacrifice, and had his beard pulled out by Siva. The same authority also tells the following story :—It is related of Bhrigu that he rescued the sage Agastya from the tyranny of King Nahusha, who had obtained superhuman power. Bhrigu crept into Agastya's hair to avoid the potent glance of Nahusha, and when that tyrant attached Agastya to his chariot and kicked him on the head to make him move, Bhrigu cursed Nahusha, and he was turned into a serpent . Bhrigu, on Nahusha's supplication, limited the duration of his curse.
In the Padma Purana it is related that the ifrshis, assembled at a sacrifice, disputed as to which deity was best entitled to the
homage of a Brahman. Being unable to agree, they resolved to send Bhrigu to test the characters of the various gods, and he accordingly went. He could not obtain access to Siva because that deity was engaged with his wife; "finding him, therefore, to consist of the property of darkness, Bhrigu sentenced him to take the form of the Linga, and pronounced that he should have no offerings presented to him, nor receive the worship of the pious and respectable. His next visit was to Brahma, whom he beheld surrounded by sages, and so much inflated with his own importance as to treat Bhrigu with great inattention, betraying his being made up of foulness. The Muni therefore excluded him from the worship of the Brahmans. Repairing next to Vishnu, he found the deity asleep, and, indignant at his seeming sloth, Bhrigu stamped upon his breast with his left foot and awoke him; instead of being offended, Vishnu gently pressed the Brahman's foot and expressed himself honoured and made happy by its contact; and Bhrigu, highly pleased by his humility, and satisfied of his being impersonated goodness, proclaimed Vishnu as the only being to be worshipped by men or gods, in which decision the Munis, upon Bhrigu's report, concurred."— Wilson
BHR/GUS. 'Roasters, consumers.' "A class of mythical beings who belonged to the middle or aerial class of gods."— Both. They are connected with Agni, and are spoken of as producers and nourishers of fire, and as makers of chariots. They are associated with the Angirasas, the Atharvans, Rib. hus, &c .
BHTJ, BHTJML The earth. Set Pnthivt
BHtJRI-SRAVAS. A prince of the Balhlkas and an ally of the Kauravas, who was killed in the great battle of the Mahabharata.
BHUR-LOKA See Loka.
BHCTA A ghost, imp, goblin. Malignant spirits which haunt cemeteries, lurk in trees, animate dead bodies, and delude and devour human beings. According to the Vishnu Purana they are "fierce beings and eaters of flesh," who were created by the Creator when he was incensed. In the Vayu Purana their mother is said to have been Krodha, 'anger.' The Bhutas are attendants of Siva, and he is held to be their king.
BHUTESA, BH0TESWARA 'Lord of beings or of created things.' A name applied to Vishnu, Brahma, and Krishna; as 'lord of the Bhutas or goblins,' it is applied to Siva.
BHUVANESWARA A ruined city in Orissa, sacred to the worship of Siva, and containing the remains of several temples. It was formerly called Ekamra-kanana.
BHUVAR See Vyahriti.
BHUVAR-LOKA See Loka.
BIBHATSU. 'Loathing.' An appellation of Arjuna.
BINDUSARA The son and successor of Chandra-gupta.
BRAHMA, BRAHMAN (neuter). The supreme soul of the universe, self-existent, absolute, and eternal, from which all things emanate, and to which all return. This divine essence is incorporeal, immaterial, invisible, unborn, uncreated, without beginning and without end, illimitable, and inappreciable by the sense until the film of mortal blindness is removed It is all-pervading and infinite in its manifestations, in all nature, animate and inanimate, in the highest god and in the meanest creature. This supreme soul receives no worship, but it is the object of that abstract meditation which Hindu sages practise in order to obtain absorption into it . It is sometimes called Kala-hansa.
There is a passage in the Satapatha Brahmana which represents Brahma (neut.) as the active creator. See Brahma.
The Veda is sometimes called Brahma.
BRAHMA (masculine). The first member of the Hindu triad; the supreme spirit manifested as the active creator of the universe. He sprang from the mundane egg deposited by the supreme first cause, and is the Prajiipati, or lord and father of all creatures, and in the first place of the iftshis or Prajiipatis.
When Brahma has created the world it remains unaltered for one of his days, a period of 2,160,000,000 years. The world and all that is therein is then consumed by fire, but the sages, gods, and elements survive. When he awakes he again restores creation, and this process is repeated until his existence of a hundred years is brought to a close, a period which it requires fifteen figures to express. When this period is ended he himself expires, and he and all the gods and sages, and the whole universe are resolved into their constituent elements. His name is invoked
in religious services, but Pushkara (lwdk Pokhar), near Ajmir, is the only place where he receives worship, though Professor Williams states that he has heard of homage being paid to him at Idar.
Brahma is said to be of a red colour. He has four heads; originally he had five, but one was burnt off by the fire of Siva's central eye because he had spoken disrespectfully. Hence he is called Chatur-anana or Chatur-mukha, 'four-faced,' and Ash/aKama, 'eight-eared.' He has four arms; and in his hands he holds his sceptre, or a spoon, or a string of beads, or his bow Pari vita, or a water jug, and the Veda . His consort is Saras wati, goddess of learning, also called BrahmL His vehicle is a swan or goose, from which he is called Hansa-vahana. His residence is called Brahma-vrinda.
The name Brahma is not found in the Vedas and Brahmanas, in which the active creator is known as Hiranya-garbha, Prajapati, &C. ; but there is a curious passage in the Satapatha Brahmana which says: "He (Brahma, neuter) created the gods. Having created the gods, he placed them in these worlds: in this world Agni, Vayu in the atmosphere, and Surya in the sky." Two points connected with Brahma are remarkable. As the father of men he performs the work of procreation by incestuous intercourse with his own daughter, variously named Vach or SaraswatI (speech), Sandhyii (twilight), Sata-rupa (the hundredformed), &c. Secondly, that his powers as creator have been arrogated to the other gods Vishnu and Siva, while Brahma has been thrown into the shade. In the Aitareya Brahmana it is said that Prajapati was in the form of a buck and his daughter was Rohit, a deer. According to the Satapatha Brahmajia and Mann, the supreme soul, the self-existent lord, created the waters and deposited in them a seed, which seed became a golden egg, in which he himself was born as Brahma, the progenitor of all the worlds. As the waters (nam) were " the place of his movement, he (Brahma) was called Narayana." Here the name Nariiyana is referred distinctly to Brahma, but it afterwards became the name of Vishnu. The account of the Ramayana is that " all was water only, in which the earth was formed. Thence arose Brahma, the self-existent, with the deities. He then, becoming a boar, raised up the earth and created the whole world with the saints, his sons. Brahma, eternal and perpetually undecaying, sprang from | 2,917 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of Roman Theatre
In Roman History, theatre was a huge part in the lives of Romans. The shows they put on were normally related to Greek theatre, and many of the writers for these live performances got their Ideas from the Greeks. Plays were not performed dally In Pompeii, usually only at festivals that were put on several times a year. There would be no business arouse that day, no stores were open the days of the plays and festivals. As well as the no business being done in the forum, everyone would focus mainly on the performed plays.
Members of the town council had reserved seating ND didn’t have to rush to get there like everyone else, upper class had a benefit with the seating when it came to those underneath them. Coins at the entrance indicated where the upper class would sit during the plays and those seats were given to them.
The seats they sat on during the show were stone, which you would think is pretty uncomfortable. When citizens of Pompeii went to the plays, they often had to get there much quicker than the upper class, but not only that: they also brought their slaves to the plays with them.
Roman theaters were designed for stage plays, and certain theaters were designed for different performances. Amphitheaters were designed for shows of gladiators and wild animals, the Circuses were famous and designed for chariot races, the Machine was the place for sea battles, and so on. Each theatre for the Romans meant a different type of play, and Romans loved to watch combat. The more realistic the violence, the more they enjoyed it. They especially liked to watch gladiator fights and blood sports, but there were more than Just combat shows.
There were more theaters In Roman times, like the Done where they played music, read poetry, and held lectures. Theatres in Roman times were buildings in the shape of half a circle and they were built on level ground with seats that were stadium-style like they still are today to bring the audience up. These buildings were large, and although they held about 5,000 people In the first few built, they eventually could hold 15,000. The theatre was split in half with the auditorium (where everyone sat) and the orchestra (along with the stage.
They also depended the seating on height and age. The stage in the Roman Theatre was about five feet high, and the stage was 20 – 40 feet deep and 100 – 300 feet long. There was a stage house behind the stage, a lot like what is called backstage nowadays, doors were placed in the center and on the sides, and right door was reserved for the second actor while the left door was for the person who was less Important. Dressing rooms were held In the side wings and the entrance the actors usually entered through was an opening that was curtained.
In the history of Roman performances on stage, only men could act in them. There couldn’t be any women actors. They were made to perform with masks and costumes on, and every mask and every costume identified what character you were. The first from the Greeks. They set up temporary stages closer to the temples where they would celebrate, and Roman theatre was associated with religious festivals for gods. Festivals that often held plays was Pollinates (honored the god Apollo), Romania (honored the god Jupiter), and Megacycles Cyber (honored Mother Goddess) | <urn:uuid:44556153-deff-4014-bab3-8e1c328a469a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://newyorkessays.com/essay-history-of-roman-theatre/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00350.warc.gz | en | 0.994864 | 692 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.374392688274383... | 1 | History of Roman Theatre
In Roman History, theatre was a huge part in the lives of Romans. The shows they put on were normally related to Greek theatre, and many of the writers for these live performances got their Ideas from the Greeks. Plays were not performed dally In Pompeii, usually only at festivals that were put on several times a year. There would be no business arouse that day, no stores were open the days of the plays and festivals. As well as the no business being done in the forum, everyone would focus mainly on the performed plays.
Members of the town council had reserved seating ND didn’t have to rush to get there like everyone else, upper class had a benefit with the seating when it came to those underneath them. Coins at the entrance indicated where the upper class would sit during the plays and those seats were given to them.
The seats they sat on during the show were stone, which you would think is pretty uncomfortable. When citizens of Pompeii went to the plays, they often had to get there much quicker than the upper class, but not only that: they also brought their slaves to the plays with them.
Roman theaters were designed for stage plays, and certain theaters were designed for different performances. Amphitheaters were designed for shows of gladiators and wild animals, the Circuses were famous and designed for chariot races, the Machine was the place for sea battles, and so on. Each theatre for the Romans meant a different type of play, and Romans loved to watch combat. The more realistic the violence, the more they enjoyed it. They especially liked to watch gladiator fights and blood sports, but there were more than Just combat shows.
There were more theaters In Roman times, like the Done where they played music, read poetry, and held lectures. Theatres in Roman times were buildings in the shape of half a circle and they were built on level ground with seats that were stadium-style like they still are today to bring the audience up. These buildings were large, and although they held about 5,000 people In the first few built, they eventually could hold 15,000. The theatre was split in half with the auditorium (where everyone sat) and the orchestra (along with the stage.
They also depended the seating on height and age. The stage in the Roman Theatre was about five feet high, and the stage was 20 – 40 feet deep and 100 – 300 feet long. There was a stage house behind the stage, a lot like what is called backstage nowadays, doors were placed in the center and on the sides, and right door was reserved for the second actor while the left door was for the person who was less Important. Dressing rooms were held In the side wings and the entrance the actors usually entered through was an opening that was curtained.
In the history of Roman performances on stage, only men could act in them. There couldn’t be any women actors. They were made to perform with masks and costumes on, and every mask and every costume identified what character you were. The first from the Greeks. They set up temporary stages closer to the temples where they would celebrate, and Roman theatre was associated with religious festivals for gods. Festivals that often held plays was Pollinates (honored the god Apollo), Romania (honored the god Jupiter), and Megacycles Cyber (honored Mother Goddess) | 699 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The McMahon-Hussein Agreement of October 1915 was accepted by Palestinians as a promise by the British that after World War One, land previously held by the Turks would be returned to the Arab nationals who lived in that land. The McMahon-Hussein Agreement was to greatly complicate Middle East history and seemed to directly clash with the Balfour Declaration of 1917.
In an effort to create a third front against the Central Powers (Germany, Austria and Turkey) the Allies encouraged the Arab people in the Ottoman Empire to rise up against their Turkish overlords thus splitting the Central Powers war effort three ways.
Sir Henry McMahon, acting on behalf of the British government, met with Sherif Hussein of Mecca in 1915 and made what were taken to be a series of promises to the Arab people. These ‘promises’ were later disputed by the British government and, as with many issues concerning recent Middle East history, were open to interpretation.
Hussein interpreted the correspondence given to him by McMahon as a clear indication that Palestine would be given to the Palestinians once the war had ended. The British government was later to dispute this interpretation. They claimed that any land definitions were only approximate and that a map drawn at the time (but not by McMahon or a member of the British delegation) excluded Palestine from land to be given back to the Arab people.
The confusion arose from one small phrase in the correspondence between McMahon and Hussein. Land that “cannot be said to be purely Arab” was excluded from the agreement – as far as the British were concerned. Hussein, and very many Arab people, considered Palestine to be “purely Arab”. The British saw Palestine differently as the Turks, while they had been masters over Palestine, had allowed other religious groups to exist in Jerusalem – hence their belief that Palestine “cannot be said to be purely Arab”.
By the time war ended in November 1918, two distinct schools of thought had developed regarding Palestine:
1) That the British had promised Palestine to the Arabs after the war had ended in return for their support to the Allies in the war.
2) That the British had agreed to give their support to the Jews for a homeland in Palestine as laid out in the Balfour Declaration of 1917.
In fact, neither was to emerge as the League of Nations had given Palestine to the British to govern as a mandate. This left many Palestinians feeling that they had been betrayed by the British government. At the same time many Jews started to enter Palestine as a result of what they believed the Balfour Declaration had offered them. The British were left to ensure law and order was guaranteed in Palestine – something they found increasingly difficult to do. | <urn:uuid:08315a04-60f3-4a58-9650-70dd44dc1dbc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/the-middle-east-1917-to-1973/the-mcmahon-agreement/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00169.warc.gz | en | 0.987641 | 551 | 4.34375 | 4 | [
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0.3389374911785126,
-0.8541941046714783,
0.13361170887947083,
-0.046679086... | 9 | The McMahon-Hussein Agreement of October 1915 was accepted by Palestinians as a promise by the British that after World War One, land previously held by the Turks would be returned to the Arab nationals who lived in that land. The McMahon-Hussein Agreement was to greatly complicate Middle East history and seemed to directly clash with the Balfour Declaration of 1917.
In an effort to create a third front against the Central Powers (Germany, Austria and Turkey) the Allies encouraged the Arab people in the Ottoman Empire to rise up against their Turkish overlords thus splitting the Central Powers war effort three ways.
Sir Henry McMahon, acting on behalf of the British government, met with Sherif Hussein of Mecca in 1915 and made what were taken to be a series of promises to the Arab people. These ‘promises’ were later disputed by the British government and, as with many issues concerning recent Middle East history, were open to interpretation.
Hussein interpreted the correspondence given to him by McMahon as a clear indication that Palestine would be given to the Palestinians once the war had ended. The British government was later to dispute this interpretation. They claimed that any land definitions were only approximate and that a map drawn at the time (but not by McMahon or a member of the British delegation) excluded Palestine from land to be given back to the Arab people.
The confusion arose from one small phrase in the correspondence between McMahon and Hussein. Land that “cannot be said to be purely Arab” was excluded from the agreement – as far as the British were concerned. Hussein, and very many Arab people, considered Palestine to be “purely Arab”. The British saw Palestine differently as the Turks, while they had been masters over Palestine, had allowed other religious groups to exist in Jerusalem – hence their belief that Palestine “cannot be said to be purely Arab”.
By the time war ended in November 1918, two distinct schools of thought had developed regarding Palestine:
1) That the British had promised Palestine to the Arabs after the war had ended in return for their support to the Allies in the war.
2) That the British had agreed to give their support to the Jews for a homeland in Palestine as laid out in the Balfour Declaration of 1917.
In fact, neither was to emerge as the League of Nations had given Palestine to the British to govern as a mandate. This left many Palestinians feeling that they had been betrayed by the British government. At the same time many Jews started to enter Palestine as a result of what they believed the Balfour Declaration had offered them. The British were left to ensure law and order was guaranteed in Palestine – something they found increasingly difficult to do. | 552 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Jun 15, 2018
If Titanic had blown the fog horn would Californian not have heard it? It was a dead calm night.
3rd officer Pitman was asked if the Titanic's whistle could be heard 5 miles away.
Yes.Ooh that’s a good question, I’d like to know this.
No there was not. The steam blown off was coming out of the steam escape pipes. For the whistles there was another pipe, they could not use both. (Also the whistles need dry steam.)With no steam there was no way to blow them? There was plenty of steam been blow away! Probably the question of not to alarm the passengers is a good answer.
More like if the ship was 19-20 miles away as stated by Lord they wouldn't of heard it!
The steam would come from the boiler room, it run the pipe for whistles which had a water separator. The water would run down back to the boilers. However as I said, they could not use both pipes at the same time. After the steam was vented off by the escape pipes there was nothing left to use the whistles.Were did the dry steam come from? As Titanic boilers did not use super heated dry steam for the engines.
David-A bit of a trick question here...but what is the physical difference between a "whistle" and a "fog horn?" And, why do we differentiate between them?
-- David G. Brown | <urn:uuid:79d1c5c8-e2ca-4e65-b201-f3c0a058e229> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/community/threads/titanics-fog-horn.39094/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00090.warc.gz | en | 0.988162 | 310 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
-0.058673419058322906,
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-0.02119273506104946,
-0.2817329466342926,
-0.2943972051143646,
-0.180471763... | 2 | - Jun 15, 2018
If Titanic had blown the fog horn would Californian not have heard it? It was a dead calm night.
3rd officer Pitman was asked if the Titanic's whistle could be heard 5 miles away.
Yes.Ooh that’s a good question, I’d like to know this.
No there was not. The steam blown off was coming out of the steam escape pipes. For the whistles there was another pipe, they could not use both. (Also the whistles need dry steam.)With no steam there was no way to blow them? There was plenty of steam been blow away! Probably the question of not to alarm the passengers is a good answer.
More like if the ship was 19-20 miles away as stated by Lord they wouldn't of heard it!
The steam would come from the boiler room, it run the pipe for whistles which had a water separator. The water would run down back to the boilers. However as I said, they could not use both pipes at the same time. After the steam was vented off by the escape pipes there was nothing left to use the whistles.Were did the dry steam come from? As Titanic boilers did not use super heated dry steam for the engines.
David-A bit of a trick question here...but what is the physical difference between a "whistle" and a "fog horn?" And, why do we differentiate between them?
-- David G. Brown | 304 | ENGLISH | 1 |
THUNDER BAY – 127 years ago today a man was hanged for treason in Regina Saskatchewan by the North West Mounted Police (NWMP). A man portrayed as treasonous man. This so called act of treason was actually him defending the rights of the Metis. Louis Riel was a politician, a scholar and a leader; who has encouraged and empowered a people to assert themselves. He helped established the Provisional Government of Red River Colony.
Thomas Scott was captured 17 February 1870 and was tried by a Métis tribunal on 3 March 1870 for insubordination and rebellion against the provisional government. He was condemmed to death and invoked a action from the MacDonald Government of Canada, who sent the Canadian Militia in 1884.
A battle ensued in Batoche, Saskatchewan. Unable to convince a multitude of First Nations to fight along side him the rebellion continued until May 12, 1885. Riel turned himself into the NWMP. He was tried and found guilty of treason and sentenced to death.
Today to mark the day of his sacrifice, it is Louis Riel Day in Ontario. Let us remember and honor the work and life of Louis Riel. | <urn:uuid:c90acca1-e953-4e10-a95d-deac15ae71b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.netnewsledger.com/2012/11/16/louis-riel-day-in-ontario/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00284.warc.gz | en | 0.980538 | 238 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.11135442554950714,
0.35958436131477356,
0.026164622977375984,
-0.0850284993648529,
0.2673552930355... | 4 | THUNDER BAY – 127 years ago today a man was hanged for treason in Regina Saskatchewan by the North West Mounted Police (NWMP). A man portrayed as treasonous man. This so called act of treason was actually him defending the rights of the Metis. Louis Riel was a politician, a scholar and a leader; who has encouraged and empowered a people to assert themselves. He helped established the Provisional Government of Red River Colony.
Thomas Scott was captured 17 February 1870 and was tried by a Métis tribunal on 3 March 1870 for insubordination and rebellion against the provisional government. He was condemmed to death and invoked a action from the MacDonald Government of Canada, who sent the Canadian Militia in 1884.
A battle ensued in Batoche, Saskatchewan. Unable to convince a multitude of First Nations to fight along side him the rebellion continued until May 12, 1885. Riel turned himself into the NWMP. He was tried and found guilty of treason and sentenced to death.
Today to mark the day of his sacrifice, it is Louis Riel Day in Ontario. Let us remember and honor the work and life of Louis Riel. | 256 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Greek that is translated as “sailor(s)” in English is translated in Kouya as “worker(s) in the big canoe.”
Philip Saunders (p. 231) explains:
Acts chapter 27 was a challenge! It describes Paul’s sea voyage to Italy, and finally Rome. There is a storm at sea and a shipwreck on Malta, and the chapter includes much detailed nautical vocabulary. How do you translate this for a landlocked people group, most of whom have never seen the ocean? All they know are small rivers and dugout canoes.
We knew that we could later insert some illustrations during the final paging process which would help the Kouya readers to picture what was happening, but meanwhile we struggled to find or invent meaningful terms. The ‘ship’ was a ‘big canoe’ and the ‘passengers’ were ‘the people in the big canoe’; the ‘crew’ were the ‘workers in the big canoe’; the ‘pilot’ was the ‘driver of the big canoe’; the ‘big canoe stopping place’ was the ‘harbour’, and the ‘big canoe stopping metal’ was the ‘anchor’!” | <urn:uuid:f375d45a-b78d-4cef-aa97-c54f23fd9b23> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tips.translation.bible/tip_term/sailor/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00042.warc.gz | en | 0.980344 | 278 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.2979949712753296,
0.1400243192911148,
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-0.15147711336612701,
0.2205740362405777,
-0.6085448265075684,
-0.3652644753456116,
0.371509790420... | 3 | The Greek that is translated as “sailor(s)” in English is translated in Kouya as “worker(s) in the big canoe.”
Philip Saunders (p. 231) explains:
Acts chapter 27 was a challenge! It describes Paul’s sea voyage to Italy, and finally Rome. There is a storm at sea and a shipwreck on Malta, and the chapter includes much detailed nautical vocabulary. How do you translate this for a landlocked people group, most of whom have never seen the ocean? All they know are small rivers and dugout canoes.
We knew that we could later insert some illustrations during the final paging process which would help the Kouya readers to picture what was happening, but meanwhile we struggled to find or invent meaningful terms. The ‘ship’ was a ‘big canoe’ and the ‘passengers’ were ‘the people in the big canoe’; the ‘crew’ were the ‘workers in the big canoe’; the ‘pilot’ was the ‘driver of the big canoe’; the ‘big canoe stopping place’ was the ‘harbour’, and the ‘big canoe stopping metal’ was the ‘anchor’!” | 240 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ghost is the term that is most commonly associated with the soul or spirit of a deceased person or animal. The ghosts can manifest themselves as an invisible presence, translucent appearance, or barely visible wispy shape.
Other encounters with ghosts have been said to have had realistic almost lifelike representations. One interesting fact about the history of ghosts is that they’ve been present in nearly every known culture in some form. They are certain differences between the different cultures, but many underlying factors are the same.
Like anomalien.com on Facebook
To stay in touch & get our latest news
The belief in manifestations of the spirits of the deceased predates even literate societies. Animism, a religious view that natural objects possess a spiritual essence (even inanimate objects), is an early case of the belief in a spirit and is associated with the belief in ghosts.
Another pre-literate concept is the practice of ancestor worship. The idea behind ancestor worship is that those deceased members of a lineage have some form of continued existence and are possibly able to affect the lives of the living.
Many of the religious practices of modern times were influenced by these concepts in attempts to appease the dead spirits. Funeral rites, exorcisms, ritual magic, and spiritualism have all been influenced by the idea that the soul exists after death and certain rituals must be performed to ensure peace.
The notion of ghosts seems to be universal throughout the world. The reasons for the soul remaining in some form are different, but the idea is basically the same: something is keeping the spirit in the plane.
Funeral rites, death rituals, and proper burials are all intended to resolve any issues the spirit has, but those alone may not be enough. Some ghosts are said to remain as product of a tragic event where the person died suddenly with unresolved issues.
Though there’s no scientific proof for this, it would explain the association of some ghosts with war times. “White ladies” were the product of this situation. A common theme for their death was said to be that they had lost or been betrayed by a husband or fiancé.
Other deaths weren’t the result of a tragic or sudden event, but the ghosts have unresolved business, perhaps with a family member or acquaintance. In many traditional accounts, ghosts were thought to be those looking for vengeance or imprisoned on earth for their own misdeeds during life.
The places where ghosts are known to be seen are often called haunted. Most often these spirits are deceased who were formerly associated with the property; whether they had family there, were former residents themselves, or some other form of attachment to the location.
Extremely tragic events such as murder, accidental death, or suicide may also be responsible for the spirits of the death being in a location. Ghosts have also been said to haunt locations such as ships, historical war sights, and especially graveyards. Many historical houses have garnered attention for supposedly being haunted.
They have become the attraction of “ghost hunters” and others interested in ghosts or spirits. This has also prompted false ghost stories in some places that have an interesting history that is easy to spin tales around. The stories are made to attract tourism, but many of them have prompted a serious inquiry into the possibility of ghosts.
References to ghosts and spirituality extend through nearly every known culture. Ancient Egyptians mentioned ghosts in many of the early religions of the regions. According to them, ghosts were created at the time of death.
The ghosts would inherit the memory and personality of the deceased person they spawned from. After this, they travel to the netherworld and exist in much the same way that the living do. To ease their transition into this new state, relatives were responsible for leaving food and drink offerings.
If a family decided not to make these offerings, the ghost could inflict illness or other forms of misfortune on them and ghosts were often blamed for instances of illness. Their system of beliefs changed over time with regards to the afterlife and what it entailed, but there was a constant belief in existence after death and, in some time periods, even the idea of a second life.
The modern concept of mummification and the possibility of a mummy waking if its rest is disturbed is part of the evolution of the ideas they held about ghosts. Many other ancient civilizations held a belief in ghosts as well.
The Greek poet Homer described ghost, “as a vapor, gibbering and whining into the earth.” But some were said to be more substantial even to the point of looking exactly as they had before death. This Greek interpretation of ghosts interacted very little with the living world, but they were periodically called upon for advice or to prophesy about future events.
The Greek vision of ghosts shifted with time and by the 5th century ghosts were frightening beings. They were also able to directly able to affect the living by performing works for either good or evil.
Their spirits were said to stay near the location their corpse, making cemeteries a place to avoid for living. Ceremonies were created to publicly mourn the dead and annual feast were held to honor those that had died.
During the annual feast, a family’s deceased members were were encouraged to join in the celebration, but after the celebration ended the ghosts asked to leave until the next celebration the following year.
Romans also believed in ghosts and thought that they could be influenced to attack an enemy by placing small tablet of lead or pottery, inscribed with a curse, into a tomb or grave. There are specific accounts of a ghost haunting a bath at Chaeronea. The ghost whose loud groans resulted in the town sealing up the building.
During the Medieval period ghosts fell either into the category of spirits departed souls that of demons. The spirits of departed souls lingered for a specific reason while demonic ghosts existed only create havoc for the living.
In more modern times ghosts have become the subject of literature and other popular forms of media. They are used as the theme of many horror movies and other works meant to create fear.
There is still significant belief in the existence of ghosts throughout the world. Many classic literary pieces revolve around ghostly figures in some way, making them a staple in horror and thriller writing.
Are ghost real? Despite what skeptics may say there is no definitive answer. Investigators have found that most cases can be explained by natural phenomena, but there are a small group of cases less that two per cent that defy rational explanation. It’s these cases that can’t be explained by poor lighting, infrasonic frequencies, and yes a hoax that will keep interest alive for years to come. | <urn:uuid:8dd3c4f2-9c9b-4639-823e-4c7a2f69ccd3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://anomalien.com/ghosts-what-do-we-know-about-them/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00270.warc.gz | en | 0.980559 | 1,362 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
-0.035297662019729614,
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-0.05968422442674637,
0.1421337127685547,
0.06169933080673218,
-0.3234618008136749,
0.2231369316... | 4 | Ghost is the term that is most commonly associated with the soul or spirit of a deceased person or animal. The ghosts can manifest themselves as an invisible presence, translucent appearance, or barely visible wispy shape.
Other encounters with ghosts have been said to have had realistic almost lifelike representations. One interesting fact about the history of ghosts is that they’ve been present in nearly every known culture in some form. They are certain differences between the different cultures, but many underlying factors are the same.
Like anomalien.com on Facebook
To stay in touch & get our latest news
The belief in manifestations of the spirits of the deceased predates even literate societies. Animism, a religious view that natural objects possess a spiritual essence (even inanimate objects), is an early case of the belief in a spirit and is associated with the belief in ghosts.
Another pre-literate concept is the practice of ancestor worship. The idea behind ancestor worship is that those deceased members of a lineage have some form of continued existence and are possibly able to affect the lives of the living.
Many of the religious practices of modern times were influenced by these concepts in attempts to appease the dead spirits. Funeral rites, exorcisms, ritual magic, and spiritualism have all been influenced by the idea that the soul exists after death and certain rituals must be performed to ensure peace.
The notion of ghosts seems to be universal throughout the world. The reasons for the soul remaining in some form are different, but the idea is basically the same: something is keeping the spirit in the plane.
Funeral rites, death rituals, and proper burials are all intended to resolve any issues the spirit has, but those alone may not be enough. Some ghosts are said to remain as product of a tragic event where the person died suddenly with unresolved issues.
Though there’s no scientific proof for this, it would explain the association of some ghosts with war times. “White ladies” were the product of this situation. A common theme for their death was said to be that they had lost or been betrayed by a husband or fiancé.
Other deaths weren’t the result of a tragic or sudden event, but the ghosts have unresolved business, perhaps with a family member or acquaintance. In many traditional accounts, ghosts were thought to be those looking for vengeance or imprisoned on earth for their own misdeeds during life.
The places where ghosts are known to be seen are often called haunted. Most often these spirits are deceased who were formerly associated with the property; whether they had family there, were former residents themselves, or some other form of attachment to the location.
Extremely tragic events such as murder, accidental death, or suicide may also be responsible for the spirits of the death being in a location. Ghosts have also been said to haunt locations such as ships, historical war sights, and especially graveyards. Many historical houses have garnered attention for supposedly being haunted.
They have become the attraction of “ghost hunters” and others interested in ghosts or spirits. This has also prompted false ghost stories in some places that have an interesting history that is easy to spin tales around. The stories are made to attract tourism, but many of them have prompted a serious inquiry into the possibility of ghosts.
References to ghosts and spirituality extend through nearly every known culture. Ancient Egyptians mentioned ghosts in many of the early religions of the regions. According to them, ghosts were created at the time of death.
The ghosts would inherit the memory and personality of the deceased person they spawned from. After this, they travel to the netherworld and exist in much the same way that the living do. To ease their transition into this new state, relatives were responsible for leaving food and drink offerings.
If a family decided not to make these offerings, the ghost could inflict illness or other forms of misfortune on them and ghosts were often blamed for instances of illness. Their system of beliefs changed over time with regards to the afterlife and what it entailed, but there was a constant belief in existence after death and, in some time periods, even the idea of a second life.
The modern concept of mummification and the possibility of a mummy waking if its rest is disturbed is part of the evolution of the ideas they held about ghosts. Many other ancient civilizations held a belief in ghosts as well.
The Greek poet Homer described ghost, “as a vapor, gibbering and whining into the earth.” But some were said to be more substantial even to the point of looking exactly as they had before death. This Greek interpretation of ghosts interacted very little with the living world, but they were periodically called upon for advice or to prophesy about future events.
The Greek vision of ghosts shifted with time and by the 5th century ghosts were frightening beings. They were also able to directly able to affect the living by performing works for either good or evil.
Their spirits were said to stay near the location their corpse, making cemeteries a place to avoid for living. Ceremonies were created to publicly mourn the dead and annual feast were held to honor those that had died.
During the annual feast, a family’s deceased members were were encouraged to join in the celebration, but after the celebration ended the ghosts asked to leave until the next celebration the following year.
Romans also believed in ghosts and thought that they could be influenced to attack an enemy by placing small tablet of lead or pottery, inscribed with a curse, into a tomb or grave. There are specific accounts of a ghost haunting a bath at Chaeronea. The ghost whose loud groans resulted in the town sealing up the building.
During the Medieval period ghosts fell either into the category of spirits departed souls that of demons. The spirits of departed souls lingered for a specific reason while demonic ghosts existed only create havoc for the living.
In more modern times ghosts have become the subject of literature and other popular forms of media. They are used as the theme of many horror movies and other works meant to create fear.
There is still significant belief in the existence of ghosts throughout the world. Many classic literary pieces revolve around ghostly figures in some way, making them a staple in horror and thriller writing.
Are ghost real? Despite what skeptics may say there is no definitive answer. Investigators have found that most cases can be explained by natural phenomena, but there are a small group of cases less that two per cent that defy rational explanation. It’s these cases that can’t be explained by poor lighting, infrasonic frequencies, and yes a hoax that will keep interest alive for years to come. | 1,323 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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